page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= Napoleon =
Napoléon Bonaparte ( / nəˈpoʊliən , -ˈpoʊljən / ; French : [ napɔleɔ ̃ bɔnapaʁt ] , born Napoleone di Buonaparte ; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 ) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars . As Napoleon I , he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814 , and again in 1815 . Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars . He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles , building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815 . One of the greatest commanders in history , his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide . He also remains one of the most celebrated and controversial political figures in human history .
Napoleon had an extensive and powerful influence on the modern world , bringing liberal reforms to the numerous territories that he conquered and controlled , especially the Low Countries , Switzerland , and large parts of modern Italy and Germany . He implemented fundamental liberal policies in France and throughout Western Europe . His lasting legal achievement , the Napoleonic Code , has influenced the legal systems of more than 70 nations around the world . British historian Andrew Roberts claimed , " The ideas that underpin our modern world — meritocracy , equality before the law , property rights , religious toleration , modern secular education , sound finances , and so on — were championed , consolidated , codified and geographically extended by Napoleon . To them he added a rational and efficient local administration , an end to rural banditry , the encouragement of science and the arts , the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire . "
Napoleon was born in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility . He supported the French Revolution from the outset while serving in the French army , and tried to spread its ideals to his native Corsica . He rose rapidly through the ranks during the Revolution , ending up as commander of the Army of Italy after saving the governing Directory by suppressing a revolt from royalist insurgents . At age 26 , he began his first military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies , scoring a series of decisive victories , conquering the Italian Peninsula in a year , and becoming a national hero . In 1798 , he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power . He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic . His rising ambition and popularity inspired him to go further , and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French . Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805 . Napoleon shattered this coalition with decisive victories in the Ulm Campaign and a historic triumph at the Battle of Austerlitz , which led to the elimination of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1806 , the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent . Napoleon quickly knocked out Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt , then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe , annihilating the Russians in June 1807 at Friedland and forcing the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to accept the Treaties of Tilsit . Although Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire , it did not bring a lasting peace to the continent . Two years later , the Austrians challenged the French again during the War of the Fifth Coalition , but Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after triumphing at the Battle of Wagram in July 1809 .
Hoping to extend the Continental System meant to choke off British goods from the European mainland , Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808 . The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support . The Peninsular War lasted six years , featured brutal guerrilla warfare , and culminated in victory by the allied powers of Portugal , Spain , and Britain . The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its allies , especially Russia . Unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade , the Russians violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into war . The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812 . The resulting campaign witnessed the catastrophic collapse of the Grand Army , the widespread destruction of Russian lands and cities , and inspired a renewed push against Napoleon by his enemies . In 1813 , Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France . A chaotic military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 . The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the Spring of 1814 , forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April . He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power . However , Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again . The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition , which ultimately defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June . The British later exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic , where he spent the remainder of his years . His death in 1821 at the age of 51 was received with shock and grief throughout Europe .
= = Origins and education = =
Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769 , to Carlo Maria di Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino , in his family 's ancestral home Casa Buonaparte in Ajaccio , the capital of the island of Corsica . He was their fourth child and third son . This was a year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa . He was christened Napoleone di Buonaparte , probably named after an uncle ( an older brother who did not survive infancy was the first of the sons to be called Napoleone ) . In his 20s , he adopted the more French @-@ sounding Napoléon Bonaparte .
The Corsican Buonapartes were descended from minor Italian nobility of Tuscan origin , who had come to Corsica from Liguria in the 16th century .
His father Nobile Carlo Buonaparte was an attorney , and was named Corsica 's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1777 . The dominant influence of Napoleon 's childhood was his mother , Letizia Ramolino , whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child . Napoleon 's maternal grandmother had married into the Swiss Fesch family in her second marriage , and Napoleon 's uncle , the later cardinal Joseph Fesch , would fulfill the role as protector of the Bonaparte family for some years .
He had an elder brother , Joseph , and younger siblings : Lucien , Elisa , Louis , Pauline , Caroline , and Jérôme . A boy and girl were born before Joseph but died in infancy . Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic .
Napoleon 's noble , moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time . In January 1779 , he was enrolled at a religious school in Autun . In May , he was admitted to a military academy at Brienne @-@ le @-@ Château . His first language was Corsican , and he always spoke French with a marked Corsican accent and never learned to spell French properly . He was teased by other students for his accent and applied himself to reading . An examiner observed that Napoleon " has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics . He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography ... This boy would make an excellent sailor . "
On completion of his studies at Brienne in 1784 , Napoleon was admitted to the elite École Militaire in Paris . He trained to become an artillery officer and , when his father 's death reduced his income , was forced to complete the two @-@ year course in one year . He was the first Corsican to graduate from the École Militaire . He was examined by the famed scientist Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace .
= = Early career = =
Upon graduating in September 1785 , Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment . He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 , and took nearly two years ' leave in Corsica and Paris during this period . At this time , he was a fervent Corsican nationalist , and wrote to Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli in May 1789 , " As the nation was perishing I was born . Thirty thousand Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores , drowning the throne of liberty in waves of blood . Such was the odious sight which was the first to strike me . "
He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica , fighting in a complex three @-@ way struggle among royalists , revolutionaries , and Corsican nationalists . He was a supporter of the republican Jacobin movement , organising clubs in Corsica , and was given command over a battalion of volunteers . He was promoted to captain in the regular army in July 1792 , despite exceeding his leave of absence and leading a riot against a French army in Corsica .
He returned to Corsica and came into conflict with Paoli , who had decided to split with France and sabotage the French assault on the Sardinian island of La Maddalena . Bonaparte and his family fled to the French mainland in June 1793 because of the split with Paoli .
= = = Siege of Toulon = = =
In July 1793 , Bonaparte published a pro @-@ republican pamphlet entitled Le souper de Beaucaire ( Supper at Beaucaire ) which gained him the support of Augustin Robespierre , younger brother of the Revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre . With the help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti , Bonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces at the Siege of Toulon .
He adopted a plan to capture a hill where republican guns could dominate the city 's harbour and force the British to evacuate . The assault on the position led to the capture of the city , but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh . He was promoted to brigadier general at the age of 24 . Catching the attention of the Committee of Public Safety , he was put in charge of the artillery of France 's Army of Italy .
Napoleon spent time as inspector of coastal fortifications on the Mediterranean coast near Marseille while he was waiting for confirmation of the Army of Italy post . He devised plans for attacking the Kingdom of Sardinia as part of France 's campaign against the First Coalition Augustin Robespierre and Saliceti were ready to listen to the freshly promoted artillery general .
The French army carried out Bonaparte 's plan in the Battle of Saorgio in April 1794 , and then advanced to seize Ormea in the mountains . From Ormea , they headed west to outflank the Austro @-@ Sardinian positions around Saorge . After this campaign , Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine that country 's intentions towards France .
= = = 13 Vendémiaire = = =
Some contemporaries alleged that Bonaparte was put under house arrest at Nice for his association with the Robespierres following their fall in the Thermidorian Reaction in July 1794 , but Napoleon 's secretary Bourrienne disputed the allegation in his memoirs . According to Bourrienne , jealousy was responsible , between the Army of the Alps and the Army of Italy ( with whom Napoleon was seconded at the time ) . Bonaparte dispatched an impassioned defense in a letter to the commissar Salicetti , and he was subsequently acquitted of any wrongdoing .
He was released within two weeks and , due to his technical skills , was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian positions in the context of France 's war with Austria . He also took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British , but the French were repulsed by the British Royal Navy .
By 1795 , Bonaparte had become engaged to Désirée Clary , daughter of François Clary . Désirée 's sister Julie Clary had married Bonaparte 's elder brother Joseph . In April 1795 , he was assigned to the Army of the West , which was engaged in the War in the Vendée — a civil war and royalist counter @-@ revolution in Vendée , a region in west central France on the Atlantic Ocean . As an infantry command , it was a demotion from artillery general — for which the army already had a full quota — and he pleaded poor health to avoid the posting .
He was moved to the Bureau of Topography of the Committee of Public Safety and sought unsuccessfully to be transferred to Constantinople in order to offer his services to the Sultan . During this period , he wrote the romantic novella Clisson et Eugénie , about a soldier and his lover , in a clear parallel to Bonaparte 's own relationship with Désirée . On 15 September , Bonaparte was removed from the list of generals in regular service for his refusal to serve in the Vendée campaign . He faced a difficult financial situation and reduced career prospects .
On 3 October , royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the National Convention . Paul Barras , a leader of the Thermidorian Reaction , knew of Bonaparte 's military exploits at Toulon and gave him command of the improvised forces in defence of the Convention in the Tuileries Palace . Napoleon had seen the massacre of the King 's Swiss Guard there three years earlier and realised that artillery would be the key to its defence .
He ordered a young cavalry officer named Joachim Murat to seize large cannons and used them to repel the attackers on 5 October 1795 — 13 Vendémiaire An IV in the French Republican Calendar . 1 @,@ 400 royalists died and the rest fled . He had cleared the streets with " a whiff of grapeshot " , according to 19th @-@ century historian Thomas Carlyle in The French Revolution : A History .
The defeat of the royalist insurrection extinguished the threat to the Convention and earned Bonaparte sudden fame , wealth , and the patronage of the new government , the Directory . Murat married one of Napoleon 's sisters and became his brother @-@ in @-@ law ; he also served under Napoleon as one of his generals . Bonaparte was promoted to Commander of the Interior and given command of the Army of Italy .
Within weeks , he was romantically attached to Joséphine de Beauharnais , the former mistress of Barras . The couple married on 9 March 1796 in a civil ceremony .
= = = First Italian campaign = = =
Two days after the marriage , Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy . He immediately went on the offensive , hoping to defeat the forces of Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene . In a series of rapid victories during the Montenotte Campaign , he knocked Piedmont out of the war in two weeks . The French then focused on the Austrians for the remainder of the war , the highlight of which became the protracted struggle for Mantua . The Austrians launched a series of offensives against the French to break the siege , but Napoleon defeated every relief effort , scoring notable victories at the battles of Castiglione , Bassano , Arcole , and Rivoli . The decisive French triumph at Rivoli in January 1797 led to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy . At Rivoli , the Austrians lost up to 14 @,@ 000 men while the French lost about 5 @,@ 000 .
The next phase of the campaign featured the French invasion of the Habsburg heartlands . French forces in Southern Germany had been defeated by the Archduke Charles in 1796 , but the Archduke withdrew his forces to protect Vienna after learning about Napoleon 's assault . In the first notable encounter between the two commanders , Napoleon pushed back his opponent and advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning at the Battle of Tarvis in March 1797 . The Austrians were alarmed by the French thrust that reached all the way to Leoben , about 100 km from Vienna , and finally decided to sue for peace . The Treaty of Leoben , followed by the more comprehensive Treaty of Campo Formio , gave France control of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries , and a secret clause promised the Republic of Venice to Austria . Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender , ending 1 @,@ 100 years of independence . He also authorized the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark .
His application of conventional military ideas to real @-@ world situations enabled his military triumphs , such as creative use of artillery as a mobile force to support his infantry . He remarked later in life : " I have fought sixty battles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning . Look at Caesar ; he fought the first like the last . "
Bonaparte could win battles by concealment of troop deployments and concentration of his forces on the ' hinge ' of an enemy 's weakened front . If he could not use his favourite envelopment strategy , he would take up the central position and attack two co @-@ operating forces at their hinge , swing round to fight one until it fled , then turn to face the other . In this Italian campaign , Bonaparte 's army captured 150 @,@ 000 prisoners , 540 cannons , and 170 standards . The French army fought 67 actions and won 18 pitched battles through superior artillery technology and Bonaparte 's tactics .
During the campaign , Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics . He founded two newspapers : one for the troops in his army and another for circulation in France . The royalists attacked Bonaparte for looting Italy and warned that he might become a dictator . All told , Napoleon 's forces extracted an estimated $ 45 million in funds from Italy during their campaign there , another $ 12 million in precious metals and jewels ; atop that , his forces confiscated more than three @-@ hundred priceless paintings and sculptures . Bonaparte sent General Pierre Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d 'état and purge the royalists on 4 September — Coup of 18 Fructidor . This left Barras and his Republican allies in control again but dependent on Bonaparte , who proceeded to peace negotiations with Austria . These negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Campo Formio , and Bonaparte returned to Paris in December as a hero . He met Talleyrand , France 's new Foreign Minister — who later served in the same capacity for Emperor Napoleon — and they began to prepare for an invasion of Britain .
= = = Egyptian expedition = = =
After two months of planning , Bonaparte decided that France 's naval power was not yet strong enough to confront the British Royal Navy . He decided on a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby undermine Britain 's access to its trade interests in India . Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East , with the ultimate dream of linking with Tipu Sultan , a Muslim enemy of the British in India .
Napoleon assured the Directory that " as soon as he had conquered Egypt , he will establish relations with the Indian princes and , together with them , attack the English in their possessions . " The Directory agreed in order to secure a trade route to India .
In May 1798 , Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences . His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists , with mathematicians , naturalists , chemists , and geodesists among them . Their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone , and their work was published in the Description de l 'Égypte in 1809 .
En route to Egypt , Bonaparte reached Malta on 9 June 1798 , then controlled by the Knights Hospitaller . Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim surrendered after token resistance , and Bonaparte captured an important naval base with the loss of only three men .
General Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by the Royal Navy and landed at Alexandria on 1 July . He fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks , Egypt 's ruling military caste . This helped the French practice their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyramids , fought on 21 July , about 24 km ( 15 mi ) from the pyramids . General Bonaparte 's forces of 25 @,@ 000 roughly equalled those of the Mamluks ' Egyptian cavalry . Twenty @-@ nine French and approximately 2 @,@ 000 Egyptians were killed . The victory boosted the morale of the French army .
On 1 August , the British fleet under Horatio Nelson captured or destroyed all but two French vessels in the Battle of the Nile , defeating Bonaparte 's goal to strengthen the French position in the Mediterranean . His army had succeeded in a temporary increase of French power in Egypt , though it faced repeated uprisings . In early 1799 , he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus ( Syria and Galilee ) . Bonaparte led these 13 @,@ 000 French soldiers in the conquest of the coastal towns of Arish , Gaza , Jaffa , and Haifa . The attack on Jaffa was particularly brutal . Bonaparte discovered that many of the defenders were former prisoners of war , ostensibly on parole , so he ordered the garrison and 1 @,@ 400 prisoners to be executed by bayonet or drowning to save bullets . Men , women , and children were robbed and murdered for three days .
Bonaparte began with an army of 13 @,@ 000 men ; 1 @,@ 500 were reported missing , 1 @,@ 200 died in combat , and thousands perished from disease — mostly bubonic plague . He failed to reduce the fortress of Acre , so he marched his army back to Egypt in May . To speed up the retreat , Bonaparte ordered plague @-@ stricken men to be poisoned with opium ; the number who died remains disputed , ranging from a low of 30 to a high of 580 . He also brought out 1 @,@ 000 wounded men . Back in Egypt on 25 July , Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir .
= = Ruler of France = =
While in Egypt , Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs . He learned that France had suffered a series of defeats in the War of the Second Coalition . On 24 August 1799 , he took advantage of the temporary departure of British ships from French coastal ports and set sail for France , despite the fact that he had received no explicit orders from Paris . The army was left in the charge of Jean Baptiste Kléber .
Unknown to Bonaparte , the Directory had sent him orders to return to ward off possible invasions of French soil , but poor lines of communication prevented the delivery of these messages . By the time that he reached Paris in October , France 's situation had been improved by a series of victories . The Republic , however , was bankrupt and the ineffective Directory was unpopular with the French population . The Directory discussed Bonaparte 's " desertion " but was too weak to punish him .
Despite the failures in Egypt , Napoleon returned to a hero 's welcome . He drew together an alliance with director Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès , his brother Lucien , speaker of the Council of Five Hundred Roger Ducos , director Joseph Fouché , and Talleyrand , and they overthrew the Directory by a coup d 'état on 9 November 1799 ( " the 18th Brumaire " according to the revolutionary calendar ) , closing down the council of five hundred . Napoleon became " first consul " for ten years , with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only . His power was confirmed by the new " Constitution of the Year VIII " , originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role , but rewritten by Napoleon , and accepted by direct popular vote ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in favor , 1 @,@ 567 opposed ) . The constitution preserved the appearance of a republic but in reality established a dictatorship .
= = = French Consulate = = =
Napoleon established a political system that historian Martyn Lyons called " dictatorship by plebiscite . " Worried by the democratic forces unleashed by the Revolution , but unwilling to ignore them entirely , Napoleon resorted to regular electoral consultations with the French people on his road to imperial power . He drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul , taking up residence at the Tuileries . The constitution was approved in a rigged plebiscite held the following January , with 99 @.@ 94 percent officially listed as voting " yes . " Napoleon 's brother , Lucien , had falsified the returns to show that 3 million people had participated in the plebiscite ; the real number was 1 @.@ 5 million . Political observers at the time assumed the eligible French voting public numbered about 5 million people , so the regime artificially doubled the participation rate to indicate popular enthusiasm for the Consulate . In the first few months of the Consulate , with war in Europe still raging and internal instability still plaguing the country , Napoleon 's grip on power remained very tenuous .
In the spring of 1800 , Napoleon and his troops crossed the Swiss Alps into Italy , aiming to surprise the Austrian armies that had reoccupied the peninsula when Napoleon was still in Egypt . After a difficult crossing over the Alps , the French army entered the plains of Northern Italy virtually unopposed . While one French army approached from the north , the Austrians were busy with another stationed in Genoa , which was besieged by a substantial force . The fierce resistance of this French army , under André Masséna , gave the northern striking force precious time to carry out their operations with little interference . After spending several days looking for each other , the two armies finally collided at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June . General Melas had a numerical advantage , fielding about 30 @,@ 000 Austrian soldiers while Napoleon commanded 24 @,@ 000 French troops . The battle began favorably for the Austrians as their initial attack surprised the French and gradually drove them back . Melas concluded that he 'd won the battle and retired to his headquarters around 3 pm , leaving his subordinates in charge of pursuing the French . However , the French lines never broke during their tactical retreat ; Napoleon constantly rode out among the troops urging them to stand and fight . Late in the afternoon , a full division under Desaix arrived on the field and dramatically reversed the tide of the battle . A series of artillery barrages and fortunate cavalry charges managed to decimate the Austrian army , which fled chaotically over the Bormida River back to Alessandria , leaving behind 14 @,@ 000 casualties . The following day , the Austrian army agreed to abandon Northern Italy once more with the Convention of Alessandria , which granted them safe passage to friendly soil in exchange for their fortresses throughout the region .
Although critics have blamed Napoleon for several tactical mistakes preceding the battle , they have also praised his audacity for selecting a risky campaign strategy , choosing to invade the Italian peninsula from the north when the vast majority of French invasions came from the west , near or along the coastline . As Chandler points out , Napoleon spent almost a year getting the Austrians out of Italy in his first campaign ; in 1800 , it took him only a month to achieve the same goal . German strategist and field marshal Alfred von Schlieffen concluded that " Bonaparte did not annihilate his enemy but eliminated him and rendered him harmless " while " [ attaining ] the object of the campaign : the conquest of North Italy . "
Napoleon 's triumph at Marengo secured his political authority and boosted his popularity back home , but it did not lead to an immediate peace . Bonaparte 's brother , Joseph , led the complex negotiations in Lunéville and reported that Austria , emboldened by British support , would not acknowledge the new territory that France had acquired . As negotiations became increasingly fractious , Bonaparte gave orders to his general Moreau to strike Austria once more . Moreau and the French swept through Bavaria and scored an overwhelming victory at Hohenlinden in December 1800 . As a result , the Austrians capitulated and signed the Treaty of Lunéville in February 1801 . The treaty reaffirmed and expanded earlier French gains at Campo Formio . Britain now remained the only nation that was still at war with France .
= = = = Temporary peace in Europe = = = =
After a decade of constant warfare , France and Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802 , bringing the Revolutionary Wars to an end . Amiens called for the withdrawal of British troops from recently conquered colonial territories as well as for assurances to curtail the expansionary goals of the French Republic . With Europe at peace and the economy recovering , Napoleon 's popularity soared to its highest levels under the Consulate , both domestically and abroad . In a new plebiscite during the spring of 1802 , the French public came out in huge numbers to approve a constitution that made the Consulate permanent , essentially elevating Napoleon to dictator for life . Whereas the plebiscite two years earlier had brought out 1 @.@ 5 million people to the polls , the new referendum enticed 3 @.@ 6 million to go and vote ( 72 % of all eligible voters ) . There was no secret ballot in 1802 and few people wanted to openly defy the regime ; the constitution gained approval with over 99 % of the vote . His broad powers were spelled out in the new constitution : Article 1 . The French people name , and the Senate proclaims Napoleon @-@ Bonaparte First Consul for Life . After 1802 , he was generally referred to as Napoleon rather than Bonaparte .
The brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on the French colonies abroad . Saint @-@ Domingue had managed to acquire a high level of political autonomy during the Revolutionary Wars , with Toussaint Louverture installing himself as de facto dictator by 1801 . Napoleon saw his chance to recuperate the formerly wealthy colony when he signed the Treaty of Amiens . During the Revolution , the National Convention voted to abolish slavery in February 1794 . Under the terms of Amiens , however , Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not abolishing slavery in any colonies where the 1794 decree had never been implemented . The resulting Law of 20 May never applied to colonies like Guadeloupe or Guyane , even though rogue generals and other officials used the pretext of peace as an opportunity to reinstate slavery in some of these places . The Law of 20 May officially restored the slave trade to the Caribbean colonies , not slavery itself . Napoleon sent an expedition under General Leclerc designed to reassert control over Sainte @-@ Domingue . Although the French managed to capture Toussaint Louverture , the expedition failed when high rates of disease crippled the French army . In May 1803 , the last 8000 French troops left the island and the slaves proclaimed an independent republic that they called Haïti in 1804 . Seeing the failure of his colonial efforts , Napoleon decided in 1803 to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States , instantly doubling the size of the U.S. The selling price in the Louisiana Purchase was less than three cents per acre , a total of $ 15 million .
The peace with Britain proved to be uneasy and controversial . Britain did not evacuate Malta as promised and protested against Bonaparte 's annexation of Piedmont and his Act of Mediation , which established a new Swiss Confederation . Neither of these territories were covered by Amiens , but they inflamed tensions significantly . The dispute culminated in a declaration of war by Britain in May 1803 ; Napoleon responded by reassembling the invasion camp at Boulogne .
= = = French Empire = = =
During the Consulate , Napoleon faced several royalist and Jacobin assassination plots , including the Conspiration des poignards ( Dagger plot ) in October 1800 and the Plot of the Rue Saint @-@ Nicaise ( also known as the Infernal Machine ) two months later . In January 1804 , his police uncovered an assassination plot against him that involved Moreau and which was ostensibly sponsored by the Bourbon family , the former rulers of France . On the advice of Talleyrand , Napoleon ordered the kidnapping of the Duke of Enghien , violating the sovereignty of Baden . The Duke was quickly executed after a secret military trial , even though he had not been involved in the plot . Enghien 's execution infuriated royal courts throughout Europe , becoming one of the contributing political factors for the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars .
To expand his power , Napoleon used these assassination plots to justify the creation of an imperial system based on the Roman model . He believed that a Bourbon restoration would be more difficult if his family 's succession was entrenched in the constitution . Launching yet another referendum , Napoleon was elected as Emperor of the French by a tally exceeding 99 % . As with the Life Consulate two years earlier , this referendum produced heavy participation , bringing out almost 3 @.@ 6 million voters to the polls .
Napoleon 's coronation took place on 2 December 1804 . Two separate crowns were brought for the ceremony : a golden laurel wreath recalling the Roman Empire and a replica of Charlemagne 's crown . Napoleon entered the ceremony wearing the laurel wreath and kept it on his head throughout the proceedings . For the official coronation , he raised the Charlemagne crown over his own head in a symbolic gesture , but never placed it on top because he was already wearing the golden wreath . Instead he placed the crown on Josephine 's head , the event commemorated in the officially sanctioned painting by Jacques @-@ Louis David . Napoleon was also crowned King of Italy , with the Iron Crown of Lombardy , at the Cathedral of Milan on 26 May 1805 . He created eighteen Marshals of the Empire from amongst his top generals to secure the allegiance of the army .
= = = = War of the Third Coalition = = = =
Great Britain had broken the Peace of Amiens by declaring war on France in May 1803 . In December 1804 , an Anglo @-@ Swedish agreement became the first step towards the creation of the Third Coalition . By April 1805 , Britain had also signed an alliance with Russia . Austria had been defeated by France twice in recent memory and wanted revenge , so it joined the coalition a few months later .
Before the formation of the Third Coalition , Napoleon had assembled an invasion force , the Armée d 'Angleterre , around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France . He intended to use this invasion force to strike at England . They never invaded , but Napoleon 's troops received careful and invaluable training for future military operations . The men at Boulogne formed the core for what Napoleon later called La Grande Armée . At the start , this French army had about 200 @,@ 000 men organized into seven corps , which were large field units that contained 36 to 40 cannons each and were capable of independent action until other corps could come to the rescue . A single corps properly situated in a strong defensive position could survive at least a day without support , giving the Grande Armée countless strategic and tactical options on every campaign . On top of these forces , Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22 @,@ 000 organized into two cuirassier divisions , four mounted dragoon divisions , one division of dismounted dragoons , and one of light cavalry , all supported by 24 artillery pieces . By 1805 , the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350 @,@ 000 men , who were well equipped , well trained , and led by competent officers .
Napoleon knew that the French fleet could not defeat the Royal Navy in a head @-@ to @-@ head battle , so he planned to lure it away from the English Channel through diversionary tactics . The main strategic idea involved the French Navy escaping from the British blockades of Toulon and Brest and threatening to attack the West Indies . In the face of this attack , it was hoped , the British would weaken their defense of the Western Approaches by sending ships to the Caribbean , allowing a combined Franco @-@ Spanish fleet to take control of the channel long enough for French armies to cross and invade . However , the plan unraveled after the British victory at the Battle of Cape Finisterre in July 1805 . French Admiral Villeneuve then retreated to Cádiz instead of linking up with French naval forces at Brest for an attack on the English Channel .
By August 1805 , Napoleon had realized that the strategic situation had changed fundamentally . Facing a potential invasion from his continental enemies , he decided to strike first and turned his army 's sights from the English Channel to the Rhine . His basic objective was to destroy the isolated Austrian armies in Southern Germany before their Russian allies could arrive . On 25 September , after great secrecy and feverish marching , 200 @,@ 000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 km ( 160 mi ) . Austrian commander Karl Mack had gathered the greater part of the Austrian army at the fortress of Ulm in Swabia . Napoleon swung his forces to the southeast and the Grande Armée performed an elaborate wheeling movement that outflanked the Austrian positions . The Ulm Maneuver completely surprised General Mack , who belatedly understood that his army had been cut off . After some minor engagements that culminated in the Battle of Ulm , Mack finally surrendered after realizing that there was no way to break out of the French encirclement . For just 2 @,@ 000 French casualties , Napoleon had managed to capture a total of 60 @,@ 000 Austrian soldiers through his army 's rapid marching . The Ulm Campaign is generally regarded as a strategic masterpiece and was influential in the development of the Schlieffen Plan in the late 19th century . For the French , this spectacular victory on land was soured by the decisive victory that the Royal Navy attained at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October . After Trafalgar , Britain had total domination of the seas for the duration of the Napoleonic Wars .
Following the Ulm Campaign , French forces managed to capture Vienna in November . The fall of Vienna provided the French a huge bounty as they captured 100 @,@ 000 muskets , 500 cannons , and the intact bridges across the Danube . At this critical juncture , both Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II decided to engage Napoleon in battle , despite reservations from some of their subordinates . Napoleon sent his army north in pursuit of the Allies , but then ordered his forces to retreat so that he could feign a grave weakness . Desperate to lure the Allies into battle , Napoleon gave every indication in the days preceding the engagement that the French army was in a pitiful state , even abandoning the dominant Pratzen Heights near the village of Austerlitz . At the Battle of Austerlitz , in Moravia on 2 December , he deployed the French army below the Pratzen Heights and deliberately weakened his right flank , enticing the Allies to launch a major assault there in the hopes of rolling up the whole French line . A forced march from Vienna by Marshal Davout and his III Corps plugged the gap left by Napoleon just in time . Meanwhile , the heavy Allied deployment against the French right weakened their center on the Pratzen Heights , which was viciously attacked by the IV Corps of Marshal Soult . With the Allied center demolished , the French swept through both enemy flanks and sent the Allies fleeing chaotically , capturing thousands of prisoners in the process . The battle is often seen as a tactical masterpiece because of the near @-@ perfect execution of a calibrated but dangerous plan — of the same stature as Cannae , the celebrated triumph by Hannibal some 2000 years before .
The Allied disaster at Austerlitz significantly shook the faith of Emperor Francis in the British @-@ led war effort . France and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately and the Treaty of Pressburg followed shortly after on 26 December . Pressburg took Austria out of both the war and the Coalition while reinforcing the earlier treaties of Campo Formio and of Lunéville between the two powers . The treaty confirmed the Austrian loss of lands to France in Italy and Bavaria , and lands in Germany to Napoleon 's German allies . It also imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the defeated Habsburgs and allowed the fleeing Russian troops free passage through hostile territories and back to their home soil . Napoleon went on to say , " The battle of Austerlitz is the finest of all I have fought . " Frank McLynn suggests that Napoleon was so successful at Austerlitz that he lost touch with reality , and what used to be French foreign policy became a " personal Napoleonic one " . Vincent Cronin disagrees , stating that Napoleon was not overly ambitious for himself , " he embodied the ambitions of thirty million Frenchmen " .
= = = = Middle @-@ Eastern alliances = = = =
Napoleon continued to entertain a grand scheme to establish a French presence in the Middle East in order to put pressure on Britain and Russia , and perhaps form an alliance with the Ottoman Empire . In February 1806 , Ottoman Emperor Selim III finally recognized Napoleon as Emperor . He also opted for an alliance with France , calling France " our sincere and natural ally . " That decision brought the Ottoman Empire into a losing war against Russia and Britain . A Franco @-@ Persian alliance was also formed between Napoleon and the Persian Empire of Fat ′ h @-@ Ali Shah Qajar . It collapsed in 1807 , when France and Russia themselves formed an unexpected alliance . In the end , Napoleon had made no effective alliances in the Middle East .
= = = = War of the Fourth Coalition and Tilsit = = = =
After Austerlitz , Napoleon established the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 . A collection of German states intended to serve as a buffer zone between France and Central Europe , the creation of the Confederation spelled the end of the Holy Roman Empire and significantly alarmed the Prussians . The brazen reorganization of German territory by the French risked threatening Prussian influence in the region , if not eliminating it outright . War fever in Berlin rose steadily throughout the summer of 1806 . At the insistence of his court , especially his wife Queen Louise , Frederick William III decided to challenge the French domination of Central Europe by going to war .
The initial military maneuvers began in September 1806 . In a notable letter to Marshal Soult detailing the plan for the campaign , Napoleon described the essential features of Napoleonic warfare and introduced the phrase le bataillon @-@ carré ( ' square battalion ' ) . In the bataillon @-@ carré system , the various corps of the Grande Armée would march uniformly together in close supporting distance . If any single corps was attacked , the others could quickly spring into action and arrive to help . Napoleon invaded Prussia with 180 @,@ 000 troops , rapidly marching on the right bank of the River Saale . As in previous campaigns , his fundamental objective was to destroy one opponent before reinforcements from another could tip the balance of the war . Upon learning the whereabouts of the Prussian army , the French swung westwards and crossed the Saale with overwhelming force . At the twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt , fought on 14 October , the French convincingly defeated the Prussians and inflicted heavy casualties . With several major commanders dead or incapacitated , the Prussian king proved incapable of effectively commanding the army , which began to quickly disintegrate . In a vaunted pursuit that epitomized the " peak of Napoleonic warfare , " according to historian Richard Brooks , the French managed to capture 140 @,@ 000 soldiers , over 2 @,@ 000 cannons and hundreds of ammunition wagons , all in a single month . Historian David Chandler wrote of the Prussian forces : " Never has the morale of any army been more completely shattered . " Despite their overwhelming defeat , the Prussians refused to negotiate with the French until the Russians had an opportunity to enter the fight .
Following his triumph , Napoleon imposed the first elements of the Continental System through the Berlin Decree issued in November 1806 . The Continental System , which prohibited European nations from trading with Britain , was widely violated throughout his reign . In the next few months , Napoleon marched against the advancing Russian armies through Poland and was involved in the bloody stalemate at the Battle of Eylau in February 1807 . After a period of rest and consolidation on both sides , the war restarted in June with an initial struggle at Heilsberg that proved indecisive . On 14 June , however , Napoleon finally obtained an overwhelming victory over the Russians at the Battle of Friedland , wiping out the majority of the Russian army in a very bloody struggle . The scale of their defeat convinced the Russians to make peace with the French . On 19 June , Czar Alexander sent an envoy to seek an armistice with Napoleon . The latter assured the envoy that the Vistula River represented the natural borders between French and Russian influence in Europe . On that basis , the two emperors began peace negotiations at the town of Tilsit after meeting on an iconic raft on the River Niemen . The very first thing Alexander said to Napoleon was probably well @-@ calibrated : " I hate the English as much as you do . "
Alexander faced pressure from his brother , Duke Constantine , to make peace with Napoleon . Given the victory he had just achieved , the French emperor offered the Russians relatively lenient terms – demanding that Russia join the Continental System , withdraw its forces from Wallachia and Moldavia , and hand over the Ionian Islands to France . By contrast , Napoleon dictated very harsh peace terms for Prussia , despite the ceaseless exhortations of Queen Louise . Wiping out half of Prussian territories from the map , Napoleon created a new kingdom of 1 @,@ 100 square miles called Westphalia . He then appointed his young brother Jérôme as the new monarch of this kingdom . Prussia 's humiliating treatment at Tilsit caused a deep and bitter antagonism which festered as the Napoleonic era progressed . Moreover , Alexander 's pretensions at friendship with Napoleon led the latter to seriously misjudge the true intentions of his Russian counterpart , who would violate numerous provisions of the treaty in the next few years . Despite these problems , the Treaties of Tilsit at last gave Napoleon a respite from war and allowed him to return to France , which he had not seen in over 300 days .
= = = = Peninsular War and Erfurt = = = =
The settlements at Tilsit gave Napoleon time to organize his empire . One of his major objectives became enforcing the Continental System against the British . He decided to focus his attention on the Kingdom of Portugal , which consistently violated his trade prohibitions . After defeat in the War of the Oranges in 1801 , Portugal adopted a double @-@ sided policy . At first , John VI agreed to close his ports to British trade . The situation changed dramatically after the Franco @-@ Spanish defeat at Trafalgar ; John grew bolder and officially resumed diplomatic and trade relations with Britain .
Unhappy with this change of policy by the Portuguese government , Napoleon sent an army to invade Portugal . On 17 October 1807 , 24 @,@ 000 French troops under General Junot crossed the Pyrenees with Spanish cooperation and headed towards Portugal to enforce Napoleon 's orders . This attack was the first step in what would eventually become the Peninsular War , a six @-@ year struggle that significantly sapped French strength . Throughout the winter of 1808 , French agents became increasingly involved in Spanish internal affairs , attempting to incite discord between members of the Spanish royal family . On 16 February 1808 , secret French machinations finally materialized when Napoleon announced that he would intervene to mediate between the rival political factions in the country . Marshal Murat led 120 @,@ 000 troops into Spain and the French arrived in Madrid on 24 March , where wild riots against the occupation erupted just a few weeks later . Napoleon appointed his brother , Joseph Bonaparte , as the new King of Spain in the summer of 1808 . The appointment enraged a heavily religious and conservative Spanish population . Resistance to French aggression soon spread throughout the country . The shocking French defeat at the Battle of Bailén in July gave hope to Napoleon 's enemies and partly persuaded the French emperor to intervene in person .
Before going to Iberia , Napoleon decided to address several lingering issues with the Russians . At the Congress of Erfurt in October 1808 , Napoleon hoped to keep Russia on his side during the upcoming struggle in Spain and during any potential conflict against Austria . The two sides reached an agreement , the Erfurt Convention , that called upon Britain to cease its war against France , that recognized the Russian conquest of Finland from Sweden , and that affirmed Russian support for France in a possible war against Austria " to the best of its ability . " Napoleon then returned to France and prepared for war . The Grande Armée , under the Emperor 's personal command , rapidly crossed the Ebro River in November 1808 and inflicted a series of crushing defeats against the Spanish forces . After clearing the last Spanish force guarding the capital at Somosierra , Napoleon entered Madrid on 4 December with 80 @,@ 000 troops . He then unleashed his soldiers against Moore and the British forces . The British were swiftly driven to the coast , and they withdrew from Spain entirely after a last stand at the Battle of Corunna in January 1809 .
Napoleon would end up leaving Iberia in order to deal with the Austrians in Central Europe , but the Peninsular War continued on long after his absence . He never returned to Spain after the 1808 campaign . Several months after Corunna , the British sent another army to the peninsula under the future Duke of Wellington . The war then settled into a complex and asymmetric strategic deadlock where all sides struggled to gain the upper hand . The highlight of the conflict became the brutal guerrilla warfare that engulfed much of the Spanish countryside . Both sides committed the worst atrocities of the Napoleonic Wars during this phase of the conflict . The vicious guerrilla fighting in Spain , largely absent from the French campaigns in Central Europe , severely disrupted the French lines of supply and communication . Although France maintained roughly 300 @,@ 000 troops in Iberia during the Peninsular War , the vast majority were tied down to garrison duty and to intelligence operations . The French were never able to concentrate all of their forces effectively , prolonging the war until events elsewhere in Europe finally turned the tide in favor of the Allies . After the invasion of Russia in 1812 , the number of French troops in Spain vastly declined as Napoleon needed reinforcements to conserve his strategic position in Europe . By 1814 , after scores of battles and sieges throughout Iberia , the Allies had managed to push the French out of the peninsula .
= = = = War of the Fifth Coalition and Marie Louise = = = =
After four years on the sidelines , Austria sought another war with France to avenge its recent defeats . Austria could not count on Russian support because the latter was at war with Britain , Sweden , and the Ottoman Empire in 1809 . Frederick William of Prussia initially promised to help the Austrians , but reneged before conflict began . A report from the Austrian finance minister suggested that the treasury would run out of money by the middle of 1809 if the large army that the Austrians had formed since the Third Coalition remained mobilized . Although Archduke Charles warned that the Austrians were not ready for another showdown with Napoleon , a stance that landed him in the so @-@ called " peace party , " he did not want to see the army demobilized either . On 8 February 1809 , the advocates for war finally succeeded when the Imperial Government secretly decided on another confrontation against the French .
In the early morning of 10 April , leading elements of the Austrian army crossed the Inn River and invaded Bavaria . The early Austrian attack surprised the French ; Napoleon himself was still in Paris when he heard about the invasion . He arrived at Donauwörth on the 17th to find the Grande Armée in a dangerous position , with its two wings separated by 75 miles ( 121 km ) and joined together by a thin cordon of Bavarian troops . Charles pressed the left wing of the French army and hurled his men towards the III Corps of Marshal Davout . In response , Napoleon came up with a plan to cut off the Austrians in the celebrated Landshut Maneuver . He realigned the axis of his army and marched his soldiers towards the town of Eckmühl . The French scored a convincing win in the resulting Battle of Eckmühl , forcing Charles to withdraw his forces over the Danube and into Bohemia . On 13 May , Vienna fell for the second time in four years , although the war continued since most of the Austrian army had survived the initial engagements in Southern Germany .
By 17 May , the main Austrian army under Charles had arrived on the Marchfeld . Charles kept the bulk of his troops several miles away from the river bank in hopes of concentrating them at the point where Napoleon decided to cross . On 21 May , the French made their first major effort to cross the Danube , precipitating the Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling . The Austrians enjoyed a comfortable numerical superiority over the French throughout the battle ; on the first day , Charles disposed of 110 @,@ 000 soldiers against only 31 @,@ 000 commanded by Napoleon . By the second day , reinforcements had boosted French numbers up to 70 @,@ 000 . The battle was characterized by a vicious back @-@ and @-@ forth struggle for the two villages of Aspern and Essling , the focal points of the French bridgehead . By the end of the fighting , the French had lost Aspern but still controlled Essling . A sustained Austrian artillery bombardment eventually convinced Napoleon to withdraw his forces back onto Lobau Island . Both sides inflicted about 23 @,@ 000 casualties on each other . It was the first defeat Napoleon suffered in a major set @-@ piece battle , and it caused excitement throughout many parts of Europe because it proved that he could be beaten on the battlefield .
After the setback at Aspern @-@ Essling , Napoleon took more than six weeks in planning and preparing for contingencies before he made another attempt at crossing the Danube . From 30 June to the early days of July , the French recrossed the Danube in strength , with more than 180 @,@ 000 troops marching across the Marchfeld towards the Austrians . Charles received the French with 150 @,@ 000 of his own men . In the ensuing Battle of Wagram , which also lasted two days , Napoleon commanded his forces in what was the largest battle of his career up until then . Neither side made much progress on 5 July , but the 6th produced a definitive outcome . Both sides launched major assaults on their flanks . Austrian attacks against the French left wing looked dangerous initially , but they were all beaten back . Meanwhile , a steady French attack against the Austrian left wing eventually compromised the entire position for Charles . Napoleon finished off the battle with a concentrated central thrust that punctured a hole in the Austrian army and forced Charles to retreat . Austrian losses were very heavy , reaching well over 40 @,@ 000 casualties . The French were too exhausted to pursue the Austrians immediately , but Napoleon eventually caught up with Charles at Znaim and the latter signed an armistice on 12 July .
In the Kingdom of Holland , the British launched the Walcheren Campaign to open up a second front in the war and to relieve the pressure on the Austrians . The British army only landed at Walcheren on 30 July , by which point the Austrians had already been defeated . The Walcheren Campaign was characterized by little fighting but heavy casualties thanks to the popularly dubbed " Walcheren Fever . " Over 4000 British troops were lost in a bungled campaign , and the rest withdrew in December 1809 . The main strategic result from the campaign became the delayed political settlement between the French and the Austrians . Emperor Francis wanted to wait and see how the British performed in their theater before entering into negotiations with Napoleon . Once it became apparent that the British were going nowhere , the Austrians agreed to peace talks .
The resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn in October 1809 was the harshest that France had imposed on Austria in recent memory . Metternich and Archduke Charles had the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as their fundamental goal , and to this end they succeeded by making Napoleon seek more modest goals in return for promises of friendship between the two powers . Nevertheless , while most of the hereditary lands remained a part of the Habsburg realm , France received Carinthia , Carniola , and the Adriatic ports , while Galicia was given to the Poles and the Salzburg area of the Tyrol went to the Bavarians . Austria lost over three million subjects , about one @-@ fifth of her total population , as a result of these territorial changes . Although fighting in Iberia continued , the War of the Fifth Coalition would be the last major conflict on the European continent for the next three years .
Napoleon turned his focus to domestic affairs after the war . Empress Joséphine had still not given birth to a child from Napoleon , who became worried about the future of his empire following his death . Desperate for a legitimate heir , Napoleon divorced Joséphine in January 1810 and started looking for a new wife . Hoping to cement the recent alliance with Austria through a family connection , Napoleon married the Archduchess Marie Louise , who was 18 years old at the time . On 20 March 1811 , Marie Louise gave birth to a baby boy , whom Napoleon made heir apparent and bestowed the title of King of Rome . His son never actually ruled the empire , but historians still refer to him as Napoleon II .
= = = = Invasion of Russia = = = =
In 1808 , Napoleon and Czar Alexander met at the Congress of Erfurt to preserve the Russo @-@ French alliance . The leaders had a friendly personal relationship after their first meeting at Tilsit in 1807 . By 1811 , however , tensions had increased and Alexander was under pressure from the Russian nobility to break off the alliance . A major strain on the relationship between the two nations became the regular violations of the Continental System by the Russians , which led Napoleon to threaten Alexander with serious consequences if he formed an alliance with Britain .
By 1812 , advisers to Alexander suggested the possibility of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture of Poland . On receipt of intelligence reports on Russia 's war preparations , Napoleon expanded his Grande Armée to more than 450 @,@ 000 men . He ignored repeated advice against an invasion of the Russian heartland and prepared for an offensive campaign ; on 24 June 1812 the invasion commenced .
In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots , Napoleon termed the war the Second Polish War — the First Polish War had been the Bar Confederation uprising by Polish nobles against Russia in 1768 . Polish patriots wanted the Russian part of Poland to be joined with the Duchy of Warsaw and an independent Poland created . This was rejected by Napoleon , who stated he had promised his ally Austria this would not happen . Napoleon refused to manumit the Russian serfs because of concerns this might provoke a reaction in his army 's rear . The serfs later committed atrocities against French soldiers during France 's retreat .
The Russians avoided Napoleon 's objective of a decisive engagement and instead retreated deeper into Russia . A brief attempt at resistance was made at Smolensk in August ; the Russians were defeated in a series of battles , and Napoleon resumed his advance . The Russians again avoided battle , although in a few cases this was only achieved because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated to attack when the opportunity arose . Owing to the Russian army 's scorched earth tactics , the French found it increasingly difficult to forage food for themselves and their horses .
The Russians eventually offered battle outside Moscow on 7 September : the Battle of Borodino resulted in approximately 44 @,@ 000 Russian and 35 @,@ 000 French dead , wounded or captured , and may have been the bloodiest day of battle in history up to that point in time . Although the French had won , the Russian army had accepted , and withstood , the major battle Napoleon had hoped would be decisive . Napoleon 's own account was : " The most terrible of all my battles was the one before Moscow . The French showed themselves to be worthy of victory , but the Russians showed themselves worthy of being invincible . "
The Russian army withdrew and retreated past Moscow . Napoleon entered the city , assuming its fall would end the war and Alexander would negotiate peace . However , on orders of the city 's governor Feodor Rostopchin , rather than capitulation , Moscow was burned . After five weeks , Napoleon and his army left . In early November Napoleon got concerned about loss of control back in France after the Malet coup of 1812 . His army walked through snow up to their knees and nearly 10 @,@ 000 men and horses froze to death on the night of 8 / 9 November alone . After Battle of Berezina Napoleon succeeded to escape but had to abandon much of the remaining artillery and baggage train . On 5 December , shortly before arriving in Vilnius , Napoleon left the army in a sledge .
The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat , including from the harshness of the Russian Winter . The Armée had begun as over 400 @,@ 000 frontline troops , but in the end fewer than 40 @,@ 000 crossed the Berezina River in November 1812 . The Russians had lost 150 @,@ 000 in battle and hundreds of thousands of civilians .
= = = = War of the Sixth Coalition = = = =
There was a lull in fighting over the winter of 1812 – 13 while both the Russians and the French rebuilt their forces ; Napoleon was then able to field 350 @,@ 000 troops . Heartened by France 's loss in Russia , Prussia joined with Austria , Sweden , Russia , Great Britain , Spain , and Portugal in a new coalition . Napoleon assumed command in Germany and inflicted a series of defeats on the Coalition culminating in the Battle of Dresden in August 1813 .
Despite these successes , the numbers continued to mount against Napoleon , and the French army was pinned down by a force twice its size and lost at the Battle of Leipzig . This was by far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars and cost more than 90 @,@ 000 casualties in total .
The Allies offered peace terms in the Frankfurt proposals in November 1813 . Napoleon would remain as Emperor of France , but it would be reduced to its " natural frontiers . " That meant that France could retain control of Belgium , Savoy and the Rhineland ( the west bank of the Rhine River ) , while giving up control of all the rest , including all of Spain and the Netherlands , and most of Italy and Germany . Metternich told Napoleon these were the best terms the Allies were likely to offer ; after further victories , the terms would be harsher and harsher . Metternich 's motivation was to maintain France as a balance against Russian threats , while ending the highly destabilizing series of wars .
Napoleon , expecting to win the war , delayed too long and lost this opportunity ; by December the Allies had withdrawn the offer . When his back was to the wall in 1814 he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals . The Allies now had new , harsher terms that included the retreat of France to its 1791 boundaries , which meant the loss of Belgium . Napoleon would remain Emperor , however he rejected the term . The British wanted Napoleon permanently removed ; they prevailed . Napoleon adamantly refused .
Napoleon withdrew back into France , his army reduced to 70 @,@ 000 soldiers , and little cavalry ; he faced more than three times as many Allied troops . The French were surrounded : British armies pressed from the south , and other Coalition forces positioned to attack from the German states . Napoleon won a series of victories in the Six Days ' Campaign , though these were not significant enough to turn the tide . The leaders of Paris surrendered to the Coalition in March 1814 .
On 1 April , Alexander addressed the Sénat conservateur . Long docile to Napoleon , under Talleyrand 's prodding it had turned against him . Alexander told the Sénat that the Allies were fighting against Napoleon , not France , and they were prepared to offer honorable peace terms if Napoleon were removed from power . The next day , the Sénat passed the Acte de déchéance de l 'Empereur ( " Emperor 's Demise Act " ) , which declared Napoleon deposed . Napoleon had advanced as far as Fontainebleau when he learned that Paris was lost . When Napoleon proposed the army march on the capital , his senior officers and marshals mutinied . On 4 April , led by Ney , they confronted Napoleon . Napoleon asserted the army would follow him , and Ney replied the army would follow its generals . While the ordinary soldiers and regimental officers wanted to fight on , without any senior officers or marshals any prospective invasion of Paris would have been impossible . Bowing to the inevitable , on 4 April Napoleon abdicated in favour of his son , with Marie @-@ Louise as regent . However , the Allies refused to accept this under prodding from Alexander , who feared that Napoleon might find an excuse to retake the throne . Napoleon was then forced to announce his unconditional abdication only two days later .
= = = = Exile to Elba = = = =
The Allied Powers having declared that Emperor Napoleon was the sole obstacle to the restoration of peace in Europe , Emperor Napoleon , faithful to his oath , declares that he renounces , for himself and his heirs , the thrones of France and Italy , and that there is no personal sacrifice , even that of his life , which he is not ready to do in the interests of France .
Done in the palace of Fontainebleau , 11 April 1814 .
In the Treaty of Fontainebleau , the Allies exiled him to Elba , an island of 12 @,@ 000 inhabitants in the Mediterranean , 20 km ( 12 mi ) off the Tuscan coast . They gave him sovereignty over the island and allowed him to retain the title of Emperor . Napoleon attempted suicide with a pill he had carried after nearly being captured by the Russians during the retreat from Moscow . Its potency had weakened with age , however , and he survived to be exiled while his wife and son took refuge in Austria . In the first few months on Elba he created a small navy and army , developed the iron mines , oversaw the construction of new roads , issued decrees on modern agricultural methods , and overhauled the island 's legal and educational system .
A few months into his exile , Napoleon learned that his ex @-@ wife Josephine had died in France . He was devastated by the news , locking himself in his room and refusing to leave for two days .
= = = = Hundred Days = = = =
Separated from his wife and son , who had returned to Austria , cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau , and aware of rumours he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic Ocean . Napoleon escaped from Elba , with 700 men over him , in the brig Inconstant on 26 February 1815 . Two days later , he landed on the French mainland at Golfe @-@ Juan and started heading north .
The 5th Regiment was sent to intercept him and made contact just south of Grenoble on 7 March 1815 . Napoleon approached the regiment alone , dismounted his horse and , when he was within gunshot range , shouted to the soldiers , " Here I am . Kill your Emperor , if you wish . " The soldiers quickly responded with , " Vive L 'Empereur ! " Ney , who had boasted to the restored Bourbon king , Louis XVIII , that he would bring Napoleon to Paris in an iron cage , affectionately kissed his former emperor and forgot his oath of allegiance to the Bourbon monarch . The two then marched together towards Paris with a growing army . The unpopular Louis XVIII fled to Belgium after realizing he had little political support . On 13 March , the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared Napoleon an outlaw . Four days later , Great Britain , Russia , Austria , and Prussia each pledged to put 150 @,@ 000 men into the field to end his rule .
Napoleon arrived in Paris on 20 March and governed for a period now called the Hundred Days . By the start of June the armed forces available to him had reached 200 @,@ 000 , and he decided to go on the offensive to attempt to drive a wedge between the oncoming British and Prussian armies . The French Army of the North crossed the frontier into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , in modern @-@ day Belgium .
Napoleon 's forces fought the Coalition armies , commanded by the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher , at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815 . Wellington 's army withstood repeated attacks by the French and drove them from the field while the Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleon 's right flank .
Napoleon returned to Paris and found that both the legislature and the people had turned against him . Realizing his position was untenable , he abdicated on 22 June in favour of his son . He left Paris three days later and settled at Josephine 's former palace in Malmaison ( on the western bank of the Seine about 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) west of Paris ) . Even as Napoleon travelled to Paris , the Coalition forces crossed the frontier swept through France ( arriving in the vicinity of Paris on 29 June ) , with the stated intent of restoring Louis XVIII to the French throne .
When Napoleon heard that Prussian troops had orders to capture him dead or alive , he fled to Rochefort , considering an escape to the United States . However , British ships were blocking every port . Finally , Napoleon demanded asylum from the British Captain Frederick Maitland on HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815 .
= = Exile on Saint Helena = =
Britain kept Napoleon on the island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean , 1 @,@ 870 km ( 1 @,@ 162 mi ) from the west coast of Africa . Napoleon was moved to Longwood House there in December 1815 ; it had fallen into disrepair , and the location was damp , windswept and unhealthy . The Times published articles insinuating the British government was trying to hasten his death , and he often complained of the living conditions in letters to the governor and his custodian , Hudson Lowe .
With a small cadre of followers , Napoleon dictated his memoirs and grumbled about conditions . Lowe cut Napoleon 's expenditure , ruled that no gifts were allowed if they mentioned his imperial status , and made his supporters sign a guarantee they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely .
There were rumors of plots and even of his escape , but in reality no serious attempts were made . For English poet Lord Byron , Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero , the persecuted , lonely , and flawed genius .
= = = Death = = =
His personal physician , Barry O 'Meara , warned London that his declining state of health was mainly caused by the harsh treatment . Napoleon confined himself for months on end in his damp and wretched habitation of Longwood .
In February 1821 , Napoleon 's health began to deteriorate rapidly . He reconciled with the Catholic Church . He died on 5 May 1821 , after confession , Extreme Unction and Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali . His last words were , " France , l 'armée , tête d 'armée , Joséphine " ( " France , army , head of the army , Joséphine " ) .
Napoleon 's original death mask was created around 6 May , although it is not clear which doctor created it . In his will , he had asked to be buried on the banks of the Seine , but the British governor said he should be buried on Saint Helena , in the Valley of the Willows .
In 1840 , Louis Philippe I obtained permission from the British to return Napoleon 's remains to France . On 15 December 1840 , a state funeral was held . The hearse proceeded from the Arc de Triomphe down the Champs @-@ Élysées , across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade des Invalides and then to the cupola in St Jérôme 's Chapel , where it remained until the tomb designed by Louis Visconti was completed . In 1861 , Napoleon 's remains were entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus in the crypt under the dome at Les Invalides .
= = = = Cause of death = = = =
The cause of his death has been debated . Napoleon 's physician , François Carlo Antommarchi , led the autopsy , which found the cause of death to be stomach cancer . Antommarchi did not , however , sign the official report . Napoleon 's father had died of stomach cancer , although this was seemingly unknown at the time of the autopsy . Antommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer ; this was the most convenient explanation for the British , who wanted to avoid criticism over their care of Napoleon .
In 1955 , the diaries of Napoleon 's valet , Louis Marchand , were published . His description of Napoleon in the months before his death led Sten Forshufvud in a 1961 paper in Nature to put forward other causes for his death , including deliberate arsenic poisoning . Arsenic was used as a poison during the era because it was undetectable when administered over a long period . Forshufvud , in a 1978 book with Ben Weider , noted that Napoleon 's body was found to be remarkably well preserved when moved in 1840 . Arsenic is a strong preservative , and therefore this supported the poisoning hypothesis . Forshufvud and Weider observed that Napoleon had attempted to quench abnormal thirst by drinking large amounts of orgeat syrup that contained cyanide compounds in the almonds used for flavouring .
They maintained that the potassium tartrate used in his treatment prevented his stomach from expelling these compounds and that his thirst was a symptom of the poison . Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to Napoleon became an overdose , which killed him and left extensive tissue damage behind . According to a 2007 article , the type of arsenic found in Napoleon 's hair shafts was mineral , the most toxic , and according to toxicologist Patrick Kintz , this supported the conclusion that he was murdered .
There have been modern studies that have supported the original autopsy finding . In a 2008 study , researchers analysed samples of Napoleon 's hair from throughout his life , as well as samples from his family and other contemporaries . All samples had high levels of arsenic , approximately 100 times higher than the current average . According to these researchers , Napoleon 's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy , and the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by intentional poisoning ; people were constantly exposed to arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives . Studies published in 2007 and 2008 dismissed evidence of arsenic poisoning , and confirmed evidence of peptic ulcer and gastric cancer as the cause of death .
= = Religion = =
Napoleon 's baptism took place in Ajaccio on 21 July 1771 ; he was piously raised as a Catholic but he never developed much faith . As an adult , Napoleon was a deist , and showed more interest in Muhammad than in Jesus . Napoleon 's deity was an absent and distant God . However he had a keen appreciation of the power of organized religion in social and political affairs , and paid a great deal of attention to bending it to his purposes . He noted the influence of Catholicism 's rituals and splendors . Napoleon had a civil marriage with Joséphine de Beauharnais , without religious ceremony . Napoleon was crowned Emperor on 2 December 1804 at Notre Dame de Paris by Pope Pius VII . On 1 April 1810 , Napoleon married the Austrian princess Marie Louise in a Catholic ceremony . During his brother 's rule in Spain , he abolished the Spanish Inquisition in 1813 .
= = = Concordat = = =
Seeking national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics , the Concordat of 1801 was signed on 15 July 1801 between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII . It solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France and brought back most of its civil status . The hostility of devout Catholics against the state had now largely been resolved . It did not restore the vast church lands and endowments that had been seized during the revolution and sold off . As a part of the Concordat , he presented another set of laws called the Organic Articles .
While the Concordat restored much power to the papacy , the balance of church @-@ state relations had tilted firmly in Napoleon 's favour . He selected the bishops and supervised church finances . Napoleon and the pope both found the Concordat useful . Similar arrangements were made with the Church in territories controlled by Napoleon , especially Italy and Germany . Now , Napoleon could win favor with the Catholics while also controlling Rome in a political sense . Napoleon said in April 1801 , " Skillful conquerors have not got entangled with priests . They can both contain them and use them . " French children were issued a catechism that taught them to love and respect Napoleon .
= = = Religious emancipation = = =
Napoleon emancipated Jews , as well as Protestants in Catholic countries and Catholics in Protestant countries , from laws which restricted them to ghettos , and he expanded their rights to property , worship , and careers . Despite the anti @-@ semitic reaction to Napoleon 's policies from foreign governments and within France , he believed emancipation would benefit France by attracting Jews to the country given the restrictions they faced elsewhere .
He stated , " I will never accept any proposals that will obligate the Jewish people to leave France , because to me the Jews are the same as any other citizen in our country . It takes weakness to chase them out of the country , but it takes strength to assimilate them . " He was seen as so favourable to the Jews that the Russian Orthodox Church formally condemned him as " Antichrist and the Enemy of God " .
= = Personality = =
Historians agree that Napoleon 's remarkable personality was one key to his influence . They emphasize the strength of his ambition that took him from an obscure village to command of most of Europe . George F. E. Rudé stresses his " rare combination of will , intellect and physical vigour . " At 5 ft 6 in ( 168 cm ) , he was not physically imposing but in one @-@ on @-@ one situations he typically had a hypnotic effect on people and seemingly bent the strongest leaders to his will . He understood military technology , but was not an innovator in that regard . He was an innovator in using the financial , bureaucratic , and diplomatic resources of France . He could rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to his subordinates , keeping in mind where major units were expected to be at each future point , and like a chess master , " seeing " the best plays moves ahead .
Napoleon maintained strict , efficient work habits , prioritizing what needed to be done . He cheated at cards , but repaid the losses ; he had to win at everything he attempted . He kept relays of staff and secretaries at work . Unlike many generals , Napoleon did not examine history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or anyone else did in a similar situation . Critics said he won many battles simply because of luck ; Napoleon responded , " Give me lucky generals , " aware that " luck " comes to leaders who recognize opportunity , and seize it . Dwyer argues that Napoleon 's victories at Austerlitz and Jena in 1805 @-@ 06 heightened his sense of self @-@ grandiosity , leaving him even more certain of his destiny and invincibility . By the Russian campaign in 1812 , however , Napoleon seems to have lost his verve . With crisis after crisis at hand , he rarely rose to the occasion . Some historians have suggested a physical deterioration , but others note that an impaired Napoleon was still a brilliant general .
In terms of influence on events , it was more than Napoleon 's personality that took effect . He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for great wars . Above all he inspired his men — Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40 @,@ 000 soldiers , for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals . He also unnerved the enemy . At the Battle of Auerstadt in 1806 , King Frederick William III of Prussia outnumbered the French by 63 @,@ 000 to 27 @,@ 000 ; however , when he mistakenly was told that Napoleon was in command , he ordered a hasty retreat that turned into a rout . The force of his personality neutralized material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely win .
= = Image = =
Napoleon has become a worldwide cultural icon who symbolises military genius and political power . Martin van Creveld described him as " the most competent human being who ever lived " . Since his death , many towns , streets , ships , and even cartoon characters have been named after him . He has been portrayed in hundreds of films and discussed in hundreds of thousands of books and articles .
During the Napoleonic Wars he was taken seriously by the British press as a dangerous tyrant , poised to invade . He was often referred to by the British as Boney . A nursery rhyme warned children that Bonaparte ravenously ate naughty people ; the " bogeyman " . The British Tory press sometimes depicted Napoleon as much smaller than average height , and this image persists . Confusion about his height also results from the difference between the French pouce and British inch — 2 @.@ 71 cm and 2 @.@ 54 cm , respectively . The myth of the " Napoleon Complex ” — named after him to describe men who have an inferiority complex — stems primarily from the fact that he was listed , incorrectly , as 5 feet 2 inches ( in French units ) at the time of his death . In fact , he was 1 @.@ 68 metres ( 5 ft 6 in ) tall , an average height for a man in that period .
In 1908 Alfred Adler , a psychologist , cited Napoleon to describe an inferiority complex in which short people adopt an over @-@ aggressive behaviour to compensate for lack of height ; this inspired the term Napoleon complex . The stock character of Napoleon is a comically short " petty tyrant " and this has become a cliché in popular culture . He is often portrayed wearing a large bicorne hat with a hand @-@ in @-@ waistcoat gesture — a reference to the painting produced in 1812 by Jacques @-@ Louis David .
When he became First Consul and later Emperor , Napoleon eschewed his general 's uniform and habitually wore the simple green colonel uniform ( non @-@ Hussar ) of a colonel of the Chasseur à Cheval of the Imperial Guard , the regiment that often served as his personal escort , with a large bicorne . He also habitually wore ( usually on Sundays ) the blue uniform of a colonel of the Imperial Guard Foot Grenadiers ( blue with white facings and red cuffs ) . He also wore his Légion d 'honneur star , medal and ribbon , and the Order of the Iron Crown decorations , white French @-@ style culottes and white stockings . This was in contrast to the gorgeous and complex uniforms with many decorations of his marshals and those around him .
= = Reforms = =
Napoleon instituted lasting reforms , including higher education , a tax code , road and sewer systems , and established the Banque de France , the first central bank in French history . He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church , which sought to reconcile the mostly Catholic population to his regime . It was presented alongside the Organic Articles , which regulated public worship in France . His dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire paved the way to German Unification later in the 19th century . The sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United States doubled the size of the country and was a major event in American history .
In May 1802 , he instituted the Legion of Honour , a substitute for the old royalist decorations and orders of chivalry , to encourage civilian and military achievements ; the order is still the highest decoration in France .
= = = Napoleonic Code = = =
Napoleon 's set of civil laws , the Code Civil — now often known as the Napoleonic Code — was prepared by committees of legal experts under the supervision of Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès , the Second Consul . Napoleon participated actively in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts . The development of the code was a fundamental change in the nature of the civil law legal system with its stress on clearly written and accessible law . Other codes ( " Les cinq codes " ) were commissioned by Napoleon to codify criminal and commerce law ; a Code of Criminal Instruction was published , which enacted rules of due process .
The Napoleonic code was adopted throughout much of Europe , though only in the lands he conquered , and remained in force after Napoleon 's defeat . Napoleon said : " My true glory is not to have won forty battles ... Waterloo will erase the memory of so many victories . ... But ... what will live forever , is my Civil Code . " The Code still has importance today in a quarter of the world 's jurisdictions including in Europe , the Americas and Africa .
Dieter Langewiesche described the code as a " revolutionary project " which spurred the development of bourgeois society in Germany by the extension of the right to own property and an acceleration towards the end of feudalism . Napoleon reorganised what had been the Holy Roman Empire , made up of more than a thousand entities , into a more streamlined forty @-@ state Confederation of the Rhine ; this provided the basis for the German Confederation and the unification of Germany in 1871 .
The movement toward national unification in Italy was similarly precipitated by Napoleonic rule . These changes contributed to the development of nationalism and the nation state .
Napoleon implemented a wide array of liberal reforms in France and across Europe , especially in Italy and Germany , as summarized by British historian Andrew Roberts :
The ideas that underpin our modern world – meritocracy , equality before the law , property rights , religious toleration , modern secular education , sound finances , and so on – were championed , consolidated , codified and geographically extended by Napoleon . To them he added a rational and efficient local administration , an end to rural banditry , the encouragement of science and the arts , the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire .
Napoleon directly overthrew feudal remains in much of western Europe . He liberalised property laws , ended seigneurial dues , abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship , legalised divorce , closed the Jewish ghettos and made Jews equal to everyone else . The Inquisition ended as did the Holy Roman Empire . The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and equality under the law was proclaimed for all men .
= = = Warfare = = =
In the field of military organisation , Napoleon borrowed from previous theorists such as Jacques Antoine Hippolyte , Comte de Guibert , and from the reforms of preceding French governments , and then developed much of what was already in place . He continued the policy , which emerged from the Revolution , of promotion based primarily on merit .
Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units , mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries , the staff system became more fluid and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine . These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare . Though he consolidated the practice of modern conscription introduced by the Directory , one of the restored monarchy 's first acts was to end it .
His opponents learned from Napoleon 's innovations . The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from his creation of a highly mobile artillery force , the growth in artillery numbers , and changes in artillery practices . As a result of these factors , Napoleon , rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy 's defenses , now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy 's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry . McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and , later , France 's inferiority in cavalry numbers . Weapons and other kinds of military technology remained largely static through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras , but 18th @-@ century operational mobility underwent significant change .
Napoleon 's biggest influence was in the conduct of warfare . Antoine @-@ Henri Jomini explained Napoleon 's methods in a widely used textbook that influenced all European and American armies . Napoleon was regarded by the influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz as a genius in the operational art of war , and historians rank him as a great military commander . Wellington , when asked who was the greatest general of the day , answered : " In this age , in past ages , in any age , Napoleon . "
Under Napoleon , a new emphasis towards the destruction , not just outmanoeuvring , of enemy armies emerged . Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts which made wars costlier and more decisive . The political effect of war increased significantly ; defeat for a European power meant more than the loss of isolated enclaves . Near @-@ Carthaginian peaces intertwined whole national efforts , intensifying the Revolutionary phenomenon of total war .
= = = Metric system = = =
The official introduction of the metric system in September 1799 was unpopular in large sections of French society . Napoleon 's rule greatly aided adoption of the new standard not only across France but also across the French sphere of influence . Napoleon ultimately took a retrograde step in 1812 when he passed legislation to introduce the mesures usuelles ( traditional units of measurement ) for retail trade — a system of measure that resembled the pre @-@ revolutionary units but were based on the kilogram and the metre ; for example the livre metrique ( metric pound ) was 500 g instead of 489 @.@ 5 g — the value of the livre du roi ( the king 's pound ) . Other units of measure were rounded in a similar manner . This however laid the foundations for the definitive introduction of the metric system across Europe in the middle of the 19th century .
= = = Education = = =
Napoleon 's educational reforms laid the foundation of a modern system of education in France and throughout much of Europe . Napoleon synthesized the best academic elements from the Ancien Régime , The Enlightenment , and the Revolution , with the aim of establishing a stable , well @-@ educated and prosperous society . He made French the only official language . He left some primary education in the hands of religious orders , but he offered public support to secondary education . Napoleon founded a number of state secondary schools ( lycées ) designed to produce a standardized education that was uniform across France . All students were taught the sciences along with modern and classical languages . Unlike the system during the Ancien Régime , religious topics did not dominate the curriculum , although they were present in addition to teachers from the clergy . Napoleon simply hoped to use religion to produce social stability . He gave special attention to the advanced centers , notably the École Polytechnique , that provided both military expertise and state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art research in science . Napoleon made some of the first major efforts at establishing a system of secular and public education . The system featured scholarships and strict discipline , with the result being a French educational system that outperformed its European counterparts , many of which borrowed from the French system .
= = Memory and evaluation = =
= = = Criticism = = =
In the political realm , historians debate whether Napoleon was " an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe or , instead , a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler . " Many historians have concluded that he had grandiose foreign policy ambitions . The Continental powers as late as 1808 were willing to give him nearly all of his remarkable gains and titles , but some scholars maintain he was overly aggressive and pushed for too much , until his empire collapsed .
Napoleon ended lawlessness and disorder in post @-@ Revolutionary France . He was , however , considered a tyrant and usurper by his opponents . His critics charge that he was not significantly troubled when faced with the prospect of war and death for thousands , turned his search for undisputed rule into a series of conflicts throughout Europe and ignored treaties and conventions alike . His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery in France 's oversea colonies are controversial and affect his reputation .
Napoleon institutionalised plunder of conquered territories : French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon 's forces from across Europe . Artefacts were brought to the Musée du Louvre for a grand central museum ; his example would later serve as inspiration for more notorious imitators . He was compared to Adolf Hitler most famously by the historian Pieter Geyl in 1947 and Claude Ribbe in 2005 . David G. Chandler , a foremost historian of Napoleonic warfare , wrote in 1973 that , " Nothing could be more degrading to the former [ Napoleon ] and more flattering to the latter [ Hitler ] . The comparison is odious . On the whole Napoleon was inspired by a noble dream , wholly dissimilar from Hitler 's ... Napoleon left great and lasting testimonies to his genius — in codes of law and national identities which survive to the present day . Adolf Hitler left nothing but destruction . "
Critics argue Napoleon 's true legacy must reflect the loss of status for France and needless deaths brought by his rule : historian Victor Davis Hanson writes , " After all , the military record is unquestioned — 17 years of wars , perhaps six million Europeans dead , France bankrupt , her overseas colonies lost . " McLynn notes that , " He can be viewed as the man who set back European economic life for a generation by the dislocating impact of his wars . " However , Vincent Cronin replies that such criticism relies on the flawed premise that Napoleon was responsible for the wars which bear his name , when in fact France was the victim of a series of coalitions which aimed to destroy the ideals of the Revolution .
= = = Propaganda and memory = = =
Napoleon 's use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power , legitimated his régime , and established his image for posterity . Strict censorship , controlling aspects of the press , books , theater , and art , was part of his propaganda scheme , aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France . The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and to the atmosphere of Napoleon 's reign , focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier , and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader . Specifically targeting his civilian audience , Napoleon fostered an important , though uneasy , relationship with the contemporary art community , taking an active role in commissioning and controlling different forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals .
Hazareesingh ( 2004 ) explores how Napoleon 's image and memory are best understood . They played a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815 – 1830 . People from different walks of life and areas of France , particularly Napoleonic veterans , drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution .
Widespread rumors of Napoleon 's return from St. Helena and Napoleon as an inspiration for patriotism , individual and collective liberties , and political mobilization manifested themselves in seditious materials , displaying the tricolor and rosettes . There were also subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon 's life and reign and disrupting royal celebrations — they demonstrated the prevailing and successful goal of the varied supporters of Napoleon to constantly destabilize the Bourbon regime .
Datta ( 2005 ) shows that , following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s , the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture . Concentrating on two plays and two novels from the period — Victorien Sardou 's Madame Sans @-@ Gêne ( 1893 ) , Maurice Barrès 's Les Déracinés ( 1897 ) , Edmond Rostand 's L 'Aiglon ( 1900 ) , and André de Lorde and Gyp 's Napoléonette ( 1913 ) Datta examines how writers and critics of the Belle Époque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends .
Reduced to a minor character , the new fictional Napoleon became not a world historical figure but an intimate one – fashioned by individuals ' needs and consumed as popular entertainment . In their attempts to represent the emperor as a figure of national unity , proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture .
International Napoleonic Congresses take place regularly , with participation by members of the French and American military , French politicians and scholars from different countries . In January 2012 , the mayor of Montereau @-@ Fault @-@ Yonne , near Paris — the site of a late victory of Napoleon — proposed development of Napoleon 's Bivouac , a commemorative theme park at a projected cost of 200 million euros .
= = = Long @-@ term influence outside France = = =
Napoleon was responsible for spreading the values of the French Revolution to other countries , especially in legal reform and the abolition of serfdom .
After the fall of Napoleon , not only was Napoleonic Code retained by conquered countries including the Netherlands , Belgium , parts of Italy and Germany , but has been used as the basis of certain parts of law outside Europe including the Dominican Republic , the US state of Louisiana and the Canadian province of Quebec . The memory of Napoleon in Poland is favorable , for his support for independence and opposition to Russia , his legal code , the abolition of serfdom , and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies .
Napoleon could be considered one of the founders of modern Germany . After dissolving the Holy Roman Empire , he reduced the number of German states from 300 to less than 50 , paving the way to German Unification . A byproduct of the French occupation was a strong development in German nationalism . Napoleon also significantly aided the United States when he agreed to sell the territory of Louisiana for 15 million dollars during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson . That territory almost doubled the size of the United States , adding the equivalent of 13 states to the Union .
= = Marriages and children = =
Napoleon married Joséphine de Beauharnais in 1796 , when he was 26 ; she was a 32 @-@ year @-@ old widow whose first husband had been executed during the Revolution . Until she met Bonaparte , she had been known as " Rose " , a name which he disliked . He called her " Joséphine " instead , and she went by this name henceforth . Bonaparte often sent her love letters while on his campaigns . He formally adopted her son Eugène and cousin Stéphanie and arranged dynastic marriages for them . Joséphine had her daughter Hortense marry Napoleon 's brother Louis .
Joséphine had lovers , including lieutenant Hippolyte Charles , during Napoleon 's Italian campaign . Napoleon learnt of that affair and a letter he wrote about it was intercepted by the British and published widely , to embarrass Napoleon . Napoleon had his own affairs too : during the Egyptian campaign he took Pauline Bellisle Foures , the wife of a junior officer , as his mistress . She became known as " Cleopatra . "
While Napoleon 's mistresses had children by him , Joséphine did not produce an heir , possibly because of either the stresses of her imprisonment during the Reign of Terror or an abortion she may have had in her twenties . Napoleon ultimately chose divorce so he could remarry in search of an heir . Despite his divorce from Josephine , Napoleon showed his dedication to her for the rest of his life . When he heard the news of her death while on exile in Elba , he locked himself in his room and would not come out for two full days . Her name would also be his final word on his deathbed in 1821 .
In March 1810 , he married the 19 @-@ year old Marie Louise , Archduchess of Austria , and a great niece of Marie Antoinette by proxy ; thus he had married into a German royal and imperial family . Louise was less than happy with the arrangement , at least at first , stating " Just to see the man would be the worst form of torture . " Her great @-@ aunt had been executed in France , while Napoleon had fought numerous campaigns against Austria all throughout his military career . However , she seemed to warm up to him over time . After her wedding , she wrote to her father " He loves me very much . I respond to his love sincerely . There is something very fetching and very eager about him that is impossible to resist . "
Napoleon and Marie Louis remained married until his death , though she did not join him in exile on Elba and thereafter never saw her husband again . The couple had one child , Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles ( 1811 – 1832 ) , known from birth as the King of Rome . He became Napoleon II in 1814 and reigned for only two weeks . He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1818 and died of tuberculosis aged 21 , with no children .
Napoleon acknowledged one illegitimate son : Charles Léon ( 1806 – 1881 ) by Eléonore Denuelle de La Plaigne . Alexandre Colonna @-@ Walewski ( 1810 – 1868 ) , the son of his mistress Maria Walewska , although acknowledged by Walewska 's husband , was also widely known to be his child , and the DNA of his direct male descendant has been used to help confirm Napoleon 's Y @-@ chromosome haplotype . He may have had further unacknowledged illegitimate offspring as well , such as Eugen Megerle von Mühlfeld by Emilie Victoria Kraus and Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte ( 1816 – 1907 ) by Albine de Montholon .
= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Historiography and memory = = =
Dwyer , Philip ( 2008 ) . " Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France : Napoleon , Slavery , and the French History Wars " . French Politics , Culture & Society 26 ( 3 ) : 110 – 122 .
Englund , Steven . " Napoleon and Hitler " Journal of the Historical Society ( 2006 ) 6 # 1 pp 151 – 169 .
Geyl , Pieter ( 1982 ) [ 1947 ] . Napoleon For and Against . Penguin Books .
Hanson , Victor Davis ( 2003 ) . " The Claremont Institute : The Little Tyrant , A review of Napoleon : A Penguin Life " . The Claremont Institute .
Hazareesingh , Sudhir ( 2005 ) . The Legend of Napoleon. excerpt and text search
Hazareesingh , Sudhir . " Memory and Political Imagination : The Legend of Napoleon Revisited , " French History ( 2004 ) 18 # 4 pp 463 – 483 .
Hazareesingh , Sudhir ( 2005 ) . " Napoleonic Memory in Nineteenth @-@ Century France : The Making of a Liberal Legend " . MLN 120 ( 4 ) : 747 – 773 .
|
= Lactarius fallax =
Lactarius fallax , commonly known as the velvety milk cap , is a species of fungus in the Russulaceae family . Found in both spruce and mixed conifer forests , it is a fairly common species in the Pacific Northwest region of North America , with a northerly range extending to Alaska . Its fruit bodies are medium @-@ sized , with velvety , brown to blackish caps up to 3 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter bearing a distinct pointed umbo . The caps are supported by velvety stems up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The mushroom oozes a whitish latex when it is cut , and injured tissue eventually turns a dull reddish color . The eastern North American and European species Lactarius lignyotus is closely similar in appearance , but can be distinguished by its differing range .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was originally described by American mycologists Alexander H. Smith and Lexemuel Ray Hesler in a 1962 publication . Smith made the initial collection in late October 1944 , in Rhododendron , Oregon . The publication also described the variety Lactarius fallax var. concolor based on specimens collected in Mount Hood . According to Smith and Hesler , this variety had been to that point generally identified as Lactarius lignyotus in the Pacific Northwest . They described the variety L. lignyotus var. americanus to account for differences such as " spore ornamentation , distant gills at maturity , and the typically slightly acrid taste " . However , in their 1979 monograph of North American Lactarius species , they considered L. lignyotus var. americanus to be equivalent ( and thus synonymous ) to L. fallax var. concolor . The specific epithet fallax is derived from the Latin word " deceptive " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " velvety milk cap " .
Lactarius fallax is classified in the section Plinthogalus of the subgenus Plinthogalus of the genus Lactarius . Species in this section have brown to blackish caps , and a cap cuticle that contains a dissolved brown pigment . The cuticle of most species is of the trichoderm type — where the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface .
= = Description = =
The cap of L. fallax is 3 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) wide , ranging in shape from convex to nearly flat with a small umbo , expanding to plane or becoming shallowly depressed , with or without the umbo . The margin ( cap edge ) is even or scalloped . The cap surface is dry and velvety , finely wrinkled over the center , azonate ( without concentric lines ) , and dark sooty brown to blackish . The gills are attached to subdecurrent ( running shortly down the length of the stem ) , narrow , crowded , not forked , white at first , and become creamy buff with age . The edges of the gills are brown like the cap , and slowly stain vinaceous ( redwine @-@ colored ) when bruised . There are several tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not reach the stem ) interspersed among the full @-@ length gills . The stem is 2 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , 8 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , nearly equal in width throughout , dry , solid , unpolished or velvety , and a paler brown than the cap . The flesh is thin , brittle , staining pale vinaceous . The odor is not distinctive , and the taste mild or faintly acrid . The latex is copious , white on exposure , unchanging , slowly staining flesh and gills vinaceous . The spore print is yellowish . The edibility of the mushroom has not been officially documented . The species is one of several brown to nearly black milkcaps that are , according to David Arora , " notable for their beauty , and therefore likely to attract the attention of even the casual collector . "
The variety Lactarius fallax var. concolor is nearly identical to the main species in appearance and distribution , but has gill edges that are colored like the gill face .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are spherical , and ornamented with warts and ridges that form a partial reticulum ( a net @-@ like pattern of lines ) with prominences up to 2 µm high . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , amyloid ( meaning they will absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , and measure 7 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 0 by 7 – 9 @.@ 5 µm . The cap cuticle is a trichoderm . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 38 – 56 by 10 – 13 µm , club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and hyaline when mounted in a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) . There are abundant cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the edge of gills ) , with contents ranging in color from dingy yellow to hyaline in KOH . They measure 32 – 50 by 3 @-@ 6 µm , and may be shaped somewhat like a spindle ( tapered on each end ) or a cylinder , or they may be flexuous ( winding from side to side ) . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the gill face ) are filamentous , 2 @.@ 5 – 5 µm in diameter , and rare to scattered .
= = = Similar species = = =
Lactarius lignyotellus and L. lignyotus are similar to L. fallax , and they are all associated with Picea and Abies ; examination of microscopic features cannot be used to distinguish between them . L. lignyotus is restricted in distribution to eastern North America and Europe . Lactarius pseudomucidus is another milk cap with a dark brown cap , but it has a smooth ( not velvety ) and slimy cap and stem . Another brown @-@ capped eastern North American species is L. gerardii ; it has distantly spaced white gills that run down the stem . L. fuliginellus , which prefers to grow near hardwoods , has close gills .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of L. fallax grow scattered to grouped together on the ground , or on very rotten conifer logs in alpine areas under standing conifers . They are fairly common , and typically found between August and October . L. fallax is distributed in the western United States and Canada , with the northern range extending to Alaska ; the eastern range is bounded on the east by the Great Plains . Field observations suggest that the fungus can form ectomycorrhizal associations with Tsuga heterophylla . Hesler and Smith noted that the variety concolor was prevalent under species of Fir .
|
= Magnificent Mile =
The Magnificent Mile , sometimes referred to as The Mag Mile , is an upscale section of Chicago 's Michigan Avenue , running from the Chicago River to Oak Street in the Near North Side . The district is located adjacent to downtown , and one block east of Rush Street . The Magnificent Mile serves as the main thoroughfare between Chicago 's Loop business district and its Gold Coast . It is generally the western boundary of the Streeterville neighborhood , to its east and River North to the west .
Real estate developer Arthur Rubloff of Rubloff Company gave the district its nickname in the 1940s . Currently Chicago 's largest shopping district , various mid @-@ range and high @-@ end shops line this section of the street ; approximately 3 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 290 @,@ 000 m2 ) are occupied by retail , restaurants , museums and hotels .
Several of the tallest buildings in the United States , such as the John Hancock Center and the Trump International Hotel and Tower , lie in the district . Landmarks along the Magnificent Mile include Wrigley Building , Tribune Tower , the Chicago Water Tower , and the Allerton Hotel .
= = History = =
After the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 , State Street ( anchored by Marshall Field 's ) in the downtown Loop , especially the Loop Retail Historic District , was the city 's retailing center . The convenience of mass transit including streetcars and elevated trains , supported a retail corridor along State Street from Lake Street to Van Buren Street .
By the 1920s , commuter suburbs began to have significant retail districts . Prior to the bascule bridge construction , swing bridges across the river were open for ship traffic during half the daylight hours . The Rush Street Bridge was the swing bridge for this area . The opening of the Michigan Avenue Bridge in 1920 created a new commercial district .
The concept for the Magnificent Mile was part of the 1909 Burnham Plan of Chicago . It was constructed during the 1920s to replace Pine Street , which had been lined with factories and warehouses near the river , and fine mansion and rowhouse residences farther north . The earliest building constructions varied in style , but challenged new heights in construction . The name the " Magnificent Mile " is a registered trademark of the Greater North Michigan Avenue Association ( GNMAA ) .
After the Great Depression and World War II , Arthur Rubloff and William Zeckendorf bought or controlled most of the property along this stretch of the avenue and supported a plan by Holabird & Root for construction of new buildings and renovation of old ones that took advantage of new zoning laws . Soon the property values driven by the luxury shopping districts were pricing out the nearby artists of Tower Town , just southwest of the Chicago Water Tower . Rubloff and Zeckendorf successfully developed and promoted the area until it became one of the most prestigious addresses of the city . That distinction holds today , and spurred new investment along the Magnificent Mile and throughout the Near North Side .
After 1950 , suburban development reduced the Loop 's daily significance to many Chicagoans as downtown retail sales slipped . However , the Magnificent Mile kept a luxury shopping district close to the central business district . The opening of the 74 @-@ story Water Tower Place in 1975 marked the return of Chicago to retailing prominence . By 1979 , the State Street commercial corridor had lost its commercial vitality and was closed to street traffic for renovation including sidewalk widening until 1996 .
= = Description = =
Today , The Magnificent Mile contains a mixture of upscale department stores , restaurants , luxury retailers , residential and commercial buildings , financial services companies , and hotels , catering primarily to tourists and the affluent . The area also has a high concentration of the city 's major media firms , such as the Chicago Tribune newspaper , and advertising agencies . The Magnificent Mile includes 3 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 290 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space , 460 stores , 275 restaurants , 51 hotels , and a host of sightseeing and entertainment attractions to more than 22 million visitors annually .
The American Planning Association selected The Magnificent Mile as one of the 10 Great Streets for 2007 through its Great Places in America program . In recent years , The Magnificent Mile has added trees and flower @-@ filled medians to reflect the changing seasons .
= = = Retail = = =
Many of the world 's leading retail stores populate The Magnificent Mile , including department stores Bloomingdale 's , Neiman Marcus , Saks Fifth Avenue , Nordstrom , and Barneys New York . In addition , some of the finest luxury boutiques are located along The Magnificent Mile ( many of which have only a few North American locations ) , including Cartier , Escada , Bottega Veneta , Marc Jacobs , Bulgari , Van Cleef & Arpels , Chanel , Georg Jensen , Gucci , Louis Vuitton , Max Mara , L.K.Bennett , Harry Winston , St. John , Aritzia , Omega , Kate Spade , Stuart Weitzman , Prada , Montblanc , Hugo Boss , Anne Fontaine , and Rolex .
Also present are Ralph Lauren ( Ralph Lauren 's largest store in the world ) , Eskandar , Barbour , Cole Haan , Charles David , Prada , Lanvin , Giorgio Armani , Henri Bendel , Brunello Cucinelli , Dolce & Gabbana , Salvatore Ferragamo , L 'Occitane en Provence , Diesel , Carolina Herrera , American Girl , Moncler , Furla , Harry Winston , Ermenegildo Zegna , Brooks Brothers , Zara , Burberry ( its U.S. flagship ) , Vera Wang , La Perla , Tumi , Agent Provocateur , Dennis Basso , lululemon athletica , Piazza Sempione , Graff Diamonds , Tom Ford , Fratelli Rosseti , Hickey Freeman , Kiehl 's , Jil Sander , Henry Beguelin , Topshop , Michael Kors , Bernadaud , Christofle , J. Crew , Arthur , Sermoneta , H & M , Manrico Cashmere , Marlowe , Paul Stuart , Graff Diamonds , David Yurman , Fogal , Christian Louboutin , Wolford , Saint Laurent , The Art of Shaving , BHLDN , Jimmy Choo , Buccellati , AllSaints , Frette , Pratesi , Culti , Tiffany & Co . , and many others .
The Magnificent Mile is also notable for its three urban shopping centers : Water Tower Place , The Shops at North Bridge , and 900 North Michigan Shops . Each spans multiple floors and city blocks and offers various tenants : mall mainstays and more upscale apparel shops , restaurants , and unique attractions , such as museums .
At present , rent on The Magnificent Mile is the third most expensive in the country , behind Fifth Avenue in New York and Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills . In 2013 alone , rent rose 46 % .
In its book The 10 Best of Everything : An Ultimate Guide for Travelers , the National Geographic named The Magnificent Mile along with Rodeo Drive and Fifth Avenue as one of the 10 best shopping avenues in the world .
= = = Hotels and dining = = =
Renowned and critically acclaimed restaurants such as The Signature Room at The 95th , Spiaggia , Tru , The Pump Room , Lawry 's , The Grand Lux , The Park Hyatt Room , The Prime Rib , and Spago provide a variety of dining options . Three 5 @-@ star hotels ( The Peninsula Chicago , Four Seasons Hotel Chicago , and Ritz @-@ Carlton Chicago ) and Illinois ' only 4 @-@ star hotel ( Park Hyatt ) are located within about five blocks along The Magnificent Mile .
Other hotels such as Intercontinental , Westin , Drake Hotel , and the Conrad Chicago offer convenient luxurious accommodations as well . Selected luxury @-@ class hotels are shown below :
= = = Banks = = =
The largest banks have branches along the strip including the three largest banks in the nation : Bank of America , Citibank , and JPMorgan Chase 's Chase Bank . Additionally , the largest banks in Chicago are present , such as LaSalle Bank and Harris Bank , which is technically across the street from The Magnificent Mile . American Express has a Magnificent Mile address for one of its two Chicago service offices . Fidelity Investments has an office at the foot of The Magnificent Mile .
= = = Chicago landmarks = = =
Historic and landmark presences are shown in the table below , which lists Chicago Landmarks , National Register of Historic Places locations , and National Historic Landmarks along The Magnificent Mile . At the northern edge of this district on the west , one finds the exclusive One Magnificent Mile building and Oak Street running to the west . Also , at the northern edge of the district one finds the Chicago Landmark East Lake Shore Drive District , an extremely expensive and exclusive one @-@ block area of real estate running east from N. Michigan Ave. and facing directly onto Lake Michigan .
At the southern edge of the district , the Michigan Avenue Bridge sits among four majestic 1920s skyscrapers , two of which are on The Magnificent Mile ( Tribune Tower and the Wrigley Building ) , and two of which are not ( 333 North Michigan and London Guarantee Building ) . These buildings are contributing properties to the Michigan – Wacker Historic District .
Five of the 85 tallest buildings in the world are located in The Magnificent Mile district . In fact , five of the 10 tallest buildings in Chicago , seven of the top 18 , and nine of the top 50 are located within a few blocks here . These buildings are :
= = = Malls = = =
= = Seasonal events = =
With each season , the ambiance of The Magnificent Mile changes . This change is signaled by several official events :
Median planters were constructed as part of a streetscape improvement project in 1994 . In the spring , hundreds of thousands of tulips bloom from mid April until the end of May . In 2008 , a public art installation of kinetic sculptures designed by local and international architects was placed in the garden beds .
During the summer , the " Gardens of The Magnificent Mile " festival event occurs . It is a self @-@ guided landscape display walking tour . In 2007 and 2008 , fashion dress forms graced the garden beds . The forms were designed by students from the Illinois Institute of Art – Chicago and the International Academy of Design and Technology , as well as prominent designers located on the Avenue .
In 2009 and 2010 the first ever Summer Concert Series presented by Walgreens brought top level musical talent to the Avenue for free lunchtime shows for guests , locals , and employees of the Avenue . Past artists include : Collective Soul , Better Than Ezra , Mat Kearney , Michael Franti , Kris Allen , and Guster .
The tradition of lighting the trees of The Magnificent Mile to start the Christmas season extends more than forty years . More than one million lights are lit and fireworks follow the event . The Magnificent Mile Lights Festival , presented by Harris , is the annual kick @-@ off to Chicago 's Christmas season .
The day of the event has special activities and offers across Magnificent Mile businesses , plus interactive holiday booths in Pioneer Court , and a free concert with free concerts featuring popular artists all afternoon on the Harris Stage ( past artists have included Jason Mraz , Mitchel Musso , and KT Tunstall ) . In the evening , Mickey Mouse leads a procession down Michigan Avenue from Oak Street to Wacker Drive , stopping at each block to light the trees . He brings along a lot of friends , including Minnie Mouse , Donald Duck , other Disney friends , marching bands , celebrities and more . It is considered the first annual Christmas procession of the year .
= = Transportation and infrastructure = =
North Michigan Avenue is a six @-@ lane two @-@ way street that is serviced by Chicago Transit Authority public buses along the Magnificent Mile that connect the area to the entire Chicago metropolitan area . It is also serviced by seasonal trolley service along the street , and the foot of the Magnificent Mile is serviced by seasonal water transit services . Two blocks west along State Street , the Chicago ' L ' rapid transit services the street via its Red Line . Pedestrian traffic abounds along the broad sidewalks that are shielded by extensive , mature greenery that provides much of the friendly atmosphere .
In autumn 2011 , North Michigan Avenue was completely repaved from the Chicago River to Oak Street with a durable stone @-@ matrix asphalt pavement mix that incorporated high levels of recycled materials , including waste shingles , ground tire rubber , and asphalt millings , diverting some 800 tons of material from landfills . The $ 1 million project was completed without ever completely halting traffic on the street . In July 2012 , the City of Chicago and CDOT were honored with the Environmental Leadership Award from the National Asphalt Pavement Association .
= = = Intersections = = =
|
= 1989 Northeastern United States tornado outbreak =
The 1989 Northeastern United States tornado outbreak was a series of tornadoes which caused more than $ 130 million ( 1989 USD ) in damage across the Northeastern United States on July 10 , 1989 . The storm system affected five states with severe weather , including hail up to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 cm ) across , thunderstorm winds up to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , and 17 tornadoes . Several towns in New York and Connecticut were particularly hard @-@ hit . Several homes were leveled in Schoharie , New York and extensive damage occurred in Bantam , Connecticut . A large section of Hamden , Connecticut , including an industrial park and hundreds of homes , was destroyed ; and in some places buildings were flattened to the ground .
More than 150 people were injured by the tornado outbreak , and one person was killed by straight @-@ line thunderstorm winds . While tornado outbreaks in this area are unusual , this storm was especially rare in that it produced six significant tornadoes , two of which were violent F4s , and featured many tornadoes with tracks of several miles .
= = List of official tornadoes = =
= = Storm details = =
Storms began causing damage early in the morning on July 10 , 1989 . A tornado briefly touched down in Ogdensburg , New York at 5AM , injuring one person . Hail up to 1 in ( 25 mm ) wide , wind gusts over 50 mph ( 60 km / h ) , and many reports of wind damage were reported in New York , Vermont , and Massachusetts before noon . Severe weather is an unusual occurrence in the morning , and the activity only increased in severity towards the middle of the afternoon .
= = = Schoharie County tornado = = =
The event which devastated areas from Montgomery to Greene County caused $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in damage and injured 20 people . While the Storm Prediction Center archives say that it was a single tornado , it was likely three or more tornadoes , each producing F3 to F4 damage . Only damage near Schoharie was at the F4 level , and some sources doubt it even reached that intensity at all .
The first tornado touched down three miles east of Ames at 1 : 27PM , moving southeast . It passed near or through the towns of Carlisle , Howe Caverns , Central Bridge , and Schoharie before lifting . Continuing southeast for 10 miles , the storm produced another tornado briefly near Rensselaerville . After another 10 miles , a third tornado touched down between Greenville and Surprise . This final section of the path is plotted as a skipping tornado , but may have been three or more separate tornadoes .
= = = Connecticut tornado family = = =
An hour after the previous event caused destruction in Upstate New York , a new tornado family began producing significant damage in the adjacent state of Connecticut . The first tornado , which may have been three separate tornadoes , started its path of destruction in Cornwall , leveling a virgin forest known as Cathedral Pines . At the nearby Mohawk Mountain Ski Area , every ski lift was destroyed , with some lift chairs found miles away . The tornado continued south @-@ southeast through Milton , leveling hundreds more trees , and destroyed the village of Bantam before dissipating . Strong downburst winds continued to cause damage and level trees after this tornado lifted : it was during this period between tornadoes that a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl was killed by falling trees in Black Rock State Park .
Soon afterwards , another tornado touched down in Watertown , passing through Oakville and northern Waterbury , damaging or destroying 150 homes .
The Hamden tornado was by far the most destructive tornado of this family , and possibly the most damaging of the entire outbreak . It touched down at 5 : 38 pm near the Wilbur Cross Parkway . Industrial cranes and cars were tossed through the air , and rows of houses , as well as an industrial park , were flattened . The tornado lifted just a few minutes later at 5 : 45 . The damage path was only five miles long , stopping just short of the city of New Haven , but it damaged or destroyed almost 400 structures in its path .
The storm was so intense at this point that an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) wind gust was measured in downtown New Haven after the tornado dissipated . About the same time , a tornado struck the area between Carmel and Brewster , New York , unroofing a condominium complex . Five people were injured .
= = = Long Island = = =
The storms continued to produce damage after crossing onto Long Island . An F2 tornado caused significant damage in the town of East Moriches . A man was thrown with his trailer across an airfield ; he escaped the destroyed trailer with only minor injuries . The tornado was accompanied by 2 @.@ 5 inch ( 6 @.@ 4 cm ) hail . Other areas further east also saw straight @-@ line wind damage and hail up to an inch across .
= = = Massachusetts storms = = =
While the destructive tornadoes were affecting Connecticut , this part of the storm produced four brief F1 tornadoes in quick succession north of Worcester , which occurred between 4PM and 4 : 15PM . These tornadoes each produced damage paths less than 150 feet ( 45 m ) wide , and less than 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) long .
Moving east @-@ southeast into southern Middlesex County , it continued producing severe winds ( gusting up to 90 mph ; 145 km / h ) and very heavy rain . Another tornado touched down very briefly in Norfolk County , followed by two more brief touchdowns in Plymouth County near 5 : 30PM . The storm then weakened , but still managed to produce 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds on Cape Cod , before finally moving out into the Atlantic and dissipating .
= = = New Jersey storms = = =
Around the same time , the last of the activity was affecting areas of northern New Jersey . Two F0s and an F1 tracked through parts of Passaic and Bergen counties , snapping and uprooting trees , and causing $ 4 million in damage . About 150 houses were damaged in Bergen county alone .
= = Aftermath = =
In Waterbury , Connecticut , mayor Joseph Santopietro declared a state of emergency due to extensive damage in the city .
In Hamden , Connecticut , the National Guard was called in to aid in cleanup and keep order , as some looting was reported in the devastated area . President George H. W. Bush declared the area a disaster area on July 18 . The damage was so intense that much of the area was without power for a week , and trees were still being cleared a year later .
There was some damage to homes and other structures from this storm , but most damage was confined to wooded areas . Several major roads , including Route 9 , Route 12 , and Interstate 190 , were closed due to flooding or downed trees . The main financial impact was from damage to utilities , which totalled over $ 2 million in Princeton alone .
Despite the extensive and widespread damage , only one death was reported from the entire severe weather outbreak , and this was due to straight @-@ line winds , not a tornado . Many people , including Connecticut Governor William O 'Neill , commented that it was " a miracle " that more people were not seriously injured or killed .
= = Historic outbreak = =
This storm event was one of the most extensive ever seen in the Northeastern United States . In all , 17 tornadoes touched down , possibly more . There were 14 instances of measured severe winds ( several over 80 mph , 129 km / h ) , along with 46 reports of straight @-@ line wind damage . There were 10 reports of hail 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) across or larger , and hail 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 cm ) wide fell from one storm , which was producing a tornado at the time . Hail this large is especially rare in this area of the world .
Remarkably , though hundreds of homes and other structures were leveled , no one was killed by tornadoes that day . Tornado damage caused about 140 injuries , mostly minor , and one death and 11 injuries were caused by wind damage . In just five hours , the storms produced more than 12 @,@ 500 lightning strikes . The airport in Oxford , Connecticut recorded 4 @.@ 4 inches ( 112 mm ) of rain in just 30 minutes . While the northeastern United States experiences occasional tornadoes , an event of this scale is especially rare . Typical tornadoes in this area are short @-@ lived and not particularly damaging . This outbreak featured several long @-@ lived tornadoes , produced by storms which also produced destructive non @-@ tornadic winds over a large area . Since 1950 , only six violent tornadoes have occurred in the Northeastern US , two of which were part of this outbreak . It was by far the worst tornado event in the area since May 2 , 1983 , when six significant tornadoes tore through New York , and maybe the worst since the Worcester Tornado .
|
= California State Route 244 =
State Route 244 ( SR 244 ) is a short unsigned freeway connection northeast of Sacramento , California , United States . It connects the junction of Interstate 80 and Interstate 80 Business ( State Route 51 ) with Auburn Boulevard ( the old Lincoln Highway - former U.S. Route 40 / U.S. Route 99E ) . SR 244 was first added to the state highway system in 1959 as Legislative Route 288 , and was renumbered as SR 244 in the 1964 renumbering . Portions of this route have been removed from the system as late as 1994 .
= = Route description = =
SR 244 starts just east of the westernmost ramps to the Watt Avenue exit off I @-@ 80 . Just east of this , there are several connector ramps to both I @-@ 80 and Business I @-@ 80 as SR 244 passes under the terminus of Business I @-@ 80 . SR 244 terminates at Auburn Boulevard , having just entered the Sacramento city limits near Renfree Park .
= = History = =
Legislative Route 288 was defined in 1959 as a proposed route from pre @-@ 1964 Legislative Route 3 and pre @-@ 1964 Legislative Route 242 ( now I @-@ 80 and SR 51 ) northeast of Sacramento east to pre @-@ 1964 Legislative Route 249 ( unbuilt State Route 65 - approximately Sunrise Boulevard ) near Fair Oaks . In the 1964 renumbering , this was assigned the number Route 244 .
In 1965 , an extension was defined from SR 65 east to U.S. Route 50 . In 1972 a series of " volatile " public hearings took place where local residents protested the construction of this route among others being proposed in the Sacramento area . This extension to U.S. Route 50 was removed in 1975 , and the route 's definition was truncated to end at Fair Oaks Boulevard near San Juan Avenue . The public forums ended in mid @-@ 1976 after the Board of Supervisors abandoned plans for all three routes . It was truncated further to Auburn Boulevard , its present terminus , in 1994 .
The bridges along the route date from 1971 , a year after the bridges on I @-@ 80 to the west ; that part of I @-@ 80 was Interstate 880 until 1981 .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Sacramento County .
|
= History of Georgia Tech =
The history of the Georgia Institute of Technology can be traced back to Reconstruction @-@ era plans to develop the industrial base of the Southern United States . Founded on October 13 , 1885 in Atlanta , Georgia as the Georgia School of Technology , the university opened in 1888 after the construction of Tech Tower and a shop building and only offered one degree in mechanical engineering . By 1901 , degrees in electrical , civil , textile , and chemical engineering were also offered . In 1948 , the name was changed to the Georgia Institute of Technology to reflect its evolution from an engineering school to a full technical institute and research university .
Georgia Tech is the birthplace of two other Georgia universities : Georgia State University and the former Southern Polytechnic State University . Georgia Tech 's Evening School of Commerce , established in 1912 and moved to the University of Georgia in 1931 , was independently established as Georgia State University in 1955 . Although Georgia Tech did not officially allow women to enroll until 1952 ( and did not fully integrate the curriculum until 1968 ) , the night school enrolled female students as early as the fall of 1917 . The Southern Technical Institute ( now Southern Polytechnic College of Engineering and Engineering Technology of Kennesaw State University and formerly known as Southern Polytechnic State University ) was created as an extension of Georgia Tech in 1948 as a technical trade school for World War II veterans and became an independent university in 1981 .
The Great Depression saw a consistent squeeze on Georgia Tech 's budget , but World War II @-@ inspired research activity combined with post @-@ World War II enrollment more than compensated for the school 's difficulties . Georgia Tech desegregated peacefully and without a court order in 1961 , in contrast to other southern universities . Similarly , it did not experience any protests due to the Vietnam War . The growth of the graduate and research programs combined with diminishing federal support for universities in the 1980s led President John Patrick Crecine to restructure the university in 1988 amid significant controversy . The 1990s were marked by continued expansion of the undergraduate programs and the satellite campuses in Savannah , Georgia and Metz , France . In 1996 , Georgia Tech was the site of the athletes ' village and a venue for a number of athletic events for the Summer Olympics . Recently , the school has gradually improved its academic rankings and has paid significant attention to modernizing the campus , increasing historically low retention rates , and establishing degree options emphasizing research and international perspectives .
= = Establishment = =
See also : Georgia during Reconstruction and Georgia 's postwar economic growth
As noted by a historical marker on the large hill in Central Campus , the site occupied by the school 's first buildings once held fortifications built to protect Atlanta during the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War . The surrender of the city took place on the southwestern boundary of the modern Georgia Tech campus in 1864 . The next twenty years were a time of rapid industrial expansion ; during this period , Georgia 's manufacturing capital , railroad track mileage , and property values would each increase by a factor of three to four .
The establishment of a school of technology was proposed in 1882 during the Reconstruction period . Major John Fletcher Hanson and Nathaniel Edwin Harris , two former Confederate officers who became prominent citizens in the town of Macon , Georgia after the war , strongly believed that the South needed to improve its technology to compete with the industrial revolution that was occurring throughout the North . Many Southerners at this time agreed with this idea , known as the " New South Creed " . Its strongest proponent was Henry W. Grady , editor of The Atlanta Constitution during the 1880s . A technology school was thought necessary because the American South of that era was mostly agrarian , and few technical developments were occurring . Georgians needed technical training to advance the state 's industry .
With authorization from the Georgia General Assembly , Harris and a committee of prominent Georgians visited renowned technology schools in the Northeast in 1883 ; these included the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , the Worcester Polytechnic Institute , Stevens Institute of Technology , and Cooper Union . Using these examples , the committee reported that the Worcester model , which stressed a combination of " theory and practice was the embodiment of the best conception of industrial education " . The " practice " component of the Worcester model included student employment and production of consumer items to generate revenue for the school .
When the committee returned , they submitted their findings to the Georgia General Assembly as House Bill 732 on July 24 , 1883 . The bill , written by Harris , met significant opposition from various sources and was defeated . Reasons for opposition included the general resistance to education , specifically technical education , concerns voiced by agricultural interests , and fiscal concerns relating to the limited treasury of the Georgia government ; the state 's 1877 constitution prohibited spending beyond its means as a reactionary measure to excessive spending by " carpetbaggers and Negro leaders " .
In February 1883 , Harris submitted a second version , this time with the support of contemporary political leaders Joseph M. Terrell and R. B. Russel as well as the popular support of the influential State Agricultural Society and the leaders of the University of Georgia , the latter of which would be the " parent college " of any state technical school . In 1885 , House Bill 732 was submitted and passed the House 94 – 62 . The bill was passed in the Senate with two amendments , and the amended bill was defeated in the House 65 – 53 . After back @-@ room work by Harris , the bill finally passed 69 – 44 . On October 13 , 1885 , Georgia Governor Henry D. McDaniel signed the bill to create and fund the new school . The legislature then established a committee to determine the location of the new school . The school was officially established , and subsequent efforts to repeal the law were suppressed by supporter and Speaker of the House W. A. Little .
Section I. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of this State , and it is hereby enacted by authority of the same , That there shall be established in connection with the State University , and forming one of the departments thereof , a technological School for the education and training of students in the industrial and mechanical arts . Said school shall be located , equipped and conducted as hereinafter provided .
Governor McDaniel appointed a commission in January 1886 to organize and run the school . This commission elected Harris chairman , a position he would hold until his death . Other members included Samuel M. Inman , Oliver S. Porter , Judge Columbus Heard , and Edward R. Hodgson ; each was known either for political or industrial experience . Their first task was to select a location for the new school . Letters were sent to communities throughout the state , and five bids were presented by the October 1 , 1886 deadline : Athens , Atlanta , Macon , Penfield , and Milledgeville . The commission inspected the proposed sites from October 7 to October 18 . Patrick Hues Mell , the president of the University of Georgia at that time , believed that it should be located in Athens with the University 's main campus , like the Agricultural and Mechanical Schools .
The committee members voted exclusively for their respective home cities until the 21st ballot when Porter switched to Atlanta ; on the 24th ballot , Atlanta finally emerged victorious . Students at the University of Georgia burned Judge Heard in effigy after the final vote was announced . Atlanta 's bid included $ 50 @,@ 000 from the city , $ 20 @,@ 000 from private citizens ( including $ 5 @,@ 000 from Samuel M. Inman ) , and $ 2 @,@ 500 in guaranteed yearly support , along with a gift of 4 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land from Atlanta pioneer Richard Peters instead of the initially proposed site in Atlanta 's bid , which was near land that Lemuel P. Grant was developing , including Grant Park .
The school 's new location was bounded on the south by North Avenue , and on the west by Cherry Street . Peters sold five adjoining acres of land to the state for $ 10 @,@ 000 . This land was situated on what was then Atlanta 's northern city limits . The act that created the school had also appropriated $ 65 @,@ 000 towards the construction of new buildings .
= = Early years = =
Includes the administration of Isaac S. Hopkins ( 1888 – 1896 )
The Georgia School of Technology opened its doors in the fall of 1888 with only two buildings , under the leadership of professor and pastor Isaac S. Hopkins . One building ( now Tech Tower , the main administrative complex ) had classrooms to teach students ; the other featured a workshop with a foundry , forge , boiler room , and engine room . It was designed specifically as a " contract shop " where students would work to produce goods to sell , creating revenue for the school while the students learned vocational skills in a " hands @-@ on " manner . Such a method was seen as appropriate given the Southern United States ' need for industrial development . The two buildings were equal in size and staffing ( five professors and five shop supervisors ) to show the importance of teaching both the mind and the hands . At the time , there was some disagreement as to whether the machine shop should have been used to turn a profit . The contract shop system ended in 1896 due to its lack of profitability , after which point the items produced were used to furnish the offices and dorms on the campus .
The first class of students at the Georgia School of Technology was small and homogeneous , and educational options were limited . 85 students signed up on the first registration day , October 7 , 1888 , and the enrollment for the first year climbed to a total of 129 by January 7 , 1889 . The first student to register was William H. Glenn . All but one or two of the students were from Georgia . Tuition was free for Georgia residents and $ 150 ( equivalent to $ 3 @,@ 950 in 2015 ) for out @-@ of @-@ state students . The only degree offered was a Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering , and no elective courses were available . All students were required to follow exactly the same program , which was so rigorous that nearly two thirds of the first class failed to complete it . The first graduating class consisted of two students in 1890 , Henry L. Smith and George G. Crawford , who decided their graduation order on the flip of a coin .
John Saylor Coon was appointed the first Mechanical Engineering and Drawing Professor at the Georgia School of Technology in 1889 . He was also the first chair of the Mechanical Engineering department . Coon assumed the role of superintendent of shops in 1896 . During his tenure at Georgia Tech , he moved the curriculum away from vocational training . Coon emphasized a balance between the shop and the classroom . Coon taught his students more modern quantification methods to solve engineering problems instead of outdated and more costly trial and error methods . He also played a significant role in developing mechanical engineering into a professional degree program , with a focus on ethics , design and testing , analysis and problem solving , and mathematics .
Tech began its football program with several students forming a loose @-@ knit troop of footballers called the Blacksmiths . The first season saw Tech play three games and lose all three . Discouraged by these results , the Blacksmiths sought a coach to improve their record . Leonard Wood , an army officer who had played football at Harvard and was then stationed in Atlanta and taking graduate courses at the school , volunteered to serve as the team 's player @-@ coach . In 1893 , Tech played its first game against the University of Georgia ( Georgia ) . Tech defeated Georgia 28 – 6 for the school 's first @-@ ever victory . The angry Georgia fans threw stones and other debris at the Tech players during and after the game . The poor treatment of the Blacksmiths by the Georgia faithful gave birth to the rivalry now known as Clean , Old @-@ Fashioned Hate .
The words to Georgia Tech 's famous fight song , " Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech " , are said to have come from an early baseball game against rival Georgia . Some sources credit Billy Walthall , a member of the first four @-@ year graduating class , with the lyrics . According to a 1954 article in Sports Illustrated , " Ramblin ' Wreck " was written around 1893 by a Tech football player on his way to an Auburn game . In 1905 , Georgia Tech adopted it in roughly the current form as its official fight song , although it had apparently been the unofficial fight song for several years . It was published for the first time in the school 's first yearbook , the 1908 Blue Print , under the heading " What causes Whitlock to Blush . " Words such as " hell " and " helluva " were censored in this first printing as " certain words [ are ] too hot to print . " After Michael A. Greenblatt , the first bandmaster of the Georgia Tech Marching Band , heard the band playing the song to the tune of Charles Ives 's " A Son of a Gambolier " , he wrote a modern musical version . In 1911 , Frank Roman succeeded Greenblatt as bandmaster ; Roman embellished the song with trumpet flourishes and publicized it . Roman copyrighted the song in 1919 .
Tech 's first student publication was the Technologian , which ran for a short time in 1891 . The next student publication was The Georgia Tech , established in 1894 . The Georgia Tech published a " Commencement Issue " that reviewed sporting events and gave information about each class . The Technique was founded in 1911 ; its first issue was published on November 17 , 1911 by editors Albert Blohm and E.A. Turner , and the content revolved around the upcoming rivalry football game against the University of Georgia . The Technique has been published weekly ever since , with the exception of a brief period during which the paper was published twice weekly . The Georgia Tech was merged into the Technique in 1916 .
= = Engineering school = =
Includes the administration of Lyman Hall ( 1896 – 1905 )
In 1888 , Captain Lyman Hall was appointed Georgia Tech 's first mathematics professor , a position he held until his appointment as the school 's second president in 1896 . Hall had a solid background in engineering due to his time at West Point and often incorporated surveying and other engineering applications into his coursework . He had an energetic personality and quickly assumed a leadership position among the faculty . As president , Hall was noted for his aggressive fundraising and improvements to the school , including his special project , the A. French Textile School . In February 1899 , Georgia Tech opened the first textile engineering school in the Southern United States , with $ 10 @,@ 000 from the Georgia General Assembly , $ 20 @,@ 000 of donated machinery , and $ 13 @,@ 500 from supporters . It named the A. French Textile School after its chief donor and supporter , Aaron S. French . The textile engineering program would move to the Harrison Hightower Textile Engineering Building in 1949 .
Hall 's other goals included enlarging Tech and attracting more students , so he expanded the school 's offerings beyond mechanical engineering ; new degrees introduced during Hall 's administration included electrical engineering and civil engineering in December 1896 , textile engineering in February 1899 , and engineering chemistry in January 1901 . Hall also became infamous as a disciplinarian , even suspending the entire senior class of 1901 for returning from Christmas vacation a day late .
Hall died on August 16 , 1905 during a vacation at a New York health resort . His death while still in office was attributed to stress from his strenuous fundraising activities ( this time , for a new chemistry building ) . Later that year , the school 's trustees named the new chemistry building the " Lyman Hall Laboratory of Chemistry " in his honor .
On October 20 , 1905 , U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Georgia Tech campus . On the steps of Tech Tower , Roosevelt presented a speech about the importance of technological education :
America can be the first nation only by the kind of training and effort which is developed and is symbolized in institutions of this kind ... Every triumph of engineering skill credited to an American is credited to America . It is incumbent upon you to do well , not only for your individual sakes , but for the sake of that collective American citizenship which dominates the American nation .
Roosevelt then shook hands with every student . Tech was later visited by president @-@ elect William H. Taft on January 16 , 1909 and president Franklin D. Roosevelt on November 29 , 1935 .
= = World War I = =
Includes the administration of Kenneth G. Matheson ( 1906 – 1922 )
Upon his hiring in 1904 , John Heisman ( for whom the Heisman Trophy is named ) insisted that the school acquire its own football field . Previously , the team had used area parks , especially the playing fields of Piedmont Park . Georgia Tech took out a seven @-@ year lease on what is now the southern end of Grant Field , although the land was not adequate for sports , due to its unleveled , rocky nature . In 1905 , Heisman had 300 convict laborers clear rocks , remove tree stumps , and level out the field for play ; Tech students then built a grandstand on the property . The land was purchased by 1913 , and John W. Grant donated $ 15 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 359 @,@ 100 in 2015 ) towards the construction of the field 's first permanent stands . The field was named Grant Field in honor of the donor 's deceased son , Hugh Inman Grant .
Attempts at forming an alumni association had been made since 1896 ; a charter was applied for by J. B. McCrary and William H. Glenn on June 28 , 1906 and was approved by Fulton County on June 20 , 1908 . The Georgia Tech Alumni Association published its first annual report in 1908 , but the group was largely dormant during World War I. The organization played an important role in the 1920s Greater Georgia Tech Campaign , which consolidated all existing alumni clubs and funded a significant expansion of Georgia Tech 's campus .
Georgia Tech 's Evening School of Commerce began holding classes in 1912 . The school admitted its first female student in 1917 , although the state legislature did not officially authorize attendance by women until 1920 . Anna Teitelbaum Wise became the first female graduate in 1919 and went on to become Georgia Tech 's first female faculty member the following year .
World War I caused several changes at the school . During the conflict and for some time afterwards , Georgia Tech hosted a school for cadet aviators , supply officers , and army technicians . Tech also started a Reserve Officer Training Corps unit ; the first in the Southern United States , it became a permanent addition to the school . World War I affected the school academically as well : the United States government asked for and financed an automotive school for army officers , a rehabilitation program for disabled soldiers , and a geology department . Federal aid also helped to establish Tech 's Industrial Education Department , courtesy of the Smith @-@ Hughes Act of 1917 . The war also placed on hold extensive fundraising efforts for a new power plant , and made it difficult to find engineers willing to teach at the school ; Matheson toured Harvard , Yale , Princeton , Columbia , and MIT in 1919 but failed to secure a single hire , as none of the students wished to work for such low wages .
The bitter rivalry between Georgia Tech and the University of Georgia flared up in 1919 , when UGA mocked Tech 's continuation of football during the United States ' involvement in World War I. Because Tech was a military training ground , it had a complete assembly of male students . Many schools , such as UGA , lost all of their able @-@ bodied male students to the war effort , forcing them to temporarily suspend football during the war . In fact , UGA did not play a game from 1917 to 1918 .
When UGA renewed its program in 1919 , their student body staged a parade which mocked Tech 's continuation of football during times of war . The parade featured a tank @-@ shaped float marked " Argonne " with a sign " Georgia in France 1917 " followed by an automobile with three people in Tech sweaters and caps bearing a sign " Tech in Atlanta " . A printed program was subsequently distributed in the stands with a similar point . While the Tech faculty was able to prevent a riot , no apology was made , and this act led directly to Tech cutting athletic ties with UGA and canceling several of UGA 's home football games at Grant Field ( UGA commonly used Grant Field as its home field ) . Tech and UGA did not compete in athletics until the 1921 Southern Conference basketball tournament . Despite intense pressure on Tech to make amends , Matheson stated that he would never change his mind unless " due apologies " were offered , and if he was overruled , he would resign . Regular season competition did not renew until after Matheson 's retirement , in a 1925 agreement between the two institutions negotiated by athletic directors J. B. Crenshaw and S. V. Sanford .
In 1916 Georgia Tech 's football team , still coached by John Heisman , defeated Cumberland 222 @-@ 0 , the largest margin of victory in college football history . Cumberland 's total net yardage was -28 ( minus 28 ) , and it had only one play for positive yards . Cumberland beat Georgia Tech 's baseball team 22 to 0 the previous year , reportedly with the help of professional players Cumberland had hired as " ringers " , an act which infuriated Heisman . Heisman amassed 104 wins over 16 seasons and led Tech to its first national title in 1917 . After divorcing from his wife , Heisman moved to Pennsylvania in 1919 , leaving Tech 's Yellow Jackets in the hands of William Alexander .
In its first decades , Georgia Tech slowly grew from a trade school into a university . The state and federal governments provided little initiative for the school to grow significantly until 1919 . That year , the Georgia General Assembly passed an act entitled " Establishing State Engineering Experiment Station at the Georgia School of Technology " . This change coincided with federal debate about the establishment of Engineering Experiment Stations in a move similar to the Hatch Act of 1887 's establishment of agricultural experiment stations ; each Engineering Experiment Station would be a consultant group dedicated to assisting a region 's industrial efforts . The EES at Georgia Tech was established with the goal of the " encouragement of industries and commerce " within the state . The coinciding federal effort failed , however , and the state did not finance Georgia Tech 's EES , so the new organization existed only on paper .
The latter years of Matheson 's presidency were troubled by a chronic shortage of funds . In 1919 – 1920 , facilities designed for 700 students had to serve 1 @,@ 365 students , and the school received the same $ 100 @,@ 000 appropriation ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 364 @,@ 900 in 2015 ) that it had received since 1915 , made worse by inflation which nearly halved its value in that time . Matheson was able to acquire a $ 25 @,@ 000 increase from the General Assembly that year . In 1920 – 1921 , though , an increase of $ 125 @,@ 000 ( to $ 250 @,@ 000 ) was passed but subsequently tabled due to differences between the House and Senate version of the bill unrelated to Tech . To continue running the school , a frantic scramble for funds was undertaken , resulting in $ 40 @,@ 000 from the General Education Board , $ 30 @,@ 000 from a loan fund organized by the Georgia Rotary Club , and a grant from the Atlanta City Council . The University of Georgia , in a similar financial condition , was forced to cut its faculty 's salary . After this drama , the situation still did not improve : in 1922 – 1923 , only $ 112 @,@ 500 of the requested $ 250 @,@ 000 had been appropriated , leading Matheson to reluctantly start charging in @-@ state students for tuition . The rates were $ 100 for in @-@ state students ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 400 in 2015 ) and $ 175 for out @-@ of @-@ state students ( equivalent to $ 2 @,@ 500 in 2015 ) . Georgia Tech still needed a $ 125 @,@ 000 line of credit against its first professional fund @-@ raising effort , the " Greater Georgia Tech Campaign " .
As Matheson was leaving for the presidency of Drexel Institute in late 1921 , he wrote in The Atlanta Constitution that while Georgia Tech was " my first love " he found it a " humiliating burden " to get enough money from the state legislature to run and enlarge the school . The Board of Trustees offered him a substantial pay increase , but his issue was with the politics of the time , and not with his financial situation .
It was our hope and belief that by developing an efficient technological school , the legislators would amply support it . In spite of many handicaps and discouragements , we gave to the state what competent critics declare to be the second engineering college of the nation – the first [ MIT ] , by the way , having recently spent $ 28 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in its development . Notwithstanding ... [ soaring ] enrollment , donated equipment totaling many thousands of dollars in value , $ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in subscriptions from friends and other evidences of growth , the legislatures of the past two summers have appropriated only half of the amount actually needed for the operation of the school . In 1920 , upon the failure to appropriate the additional $ 100 @,@ 000 necessary to keep Tech 's doors open , I again became a modern Lazarus and successfully begged from Atlanta to New York the crumbs from the rich men 's tables which a rich mother had denied ... Again [ in 1921 ] we have met the emergency at a disruptive and destructive cost which cannot be continued .
= = Technological university = =
Includes the administration of Marion L. Brittain ( 1922 – 1944 )
On August 1 , 1922 , Marion L. Brittain was elected as the school 's president . He noted in the 1923 annual report that " there are more students in Georgia Tech than in any other two colleges in Georgia , and we have the smallest appropriation of them all . " He was able to convince the state of Georgia to increase the school 's funding during his tenure . Additionally , a $ 300 @,@ 000 grant ( equivalent to $ 4 @,@ 249 @,@ 600 in 2015 ) from the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics allowed Brittain to establish the Daniel Guggenheim School of Aeronautics . In 1930 , Brittain 's decision to use the money for a new school of aeronautics , headed by Montgomery Knight , was controversial ; today , the Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering boasts the second largest faculty in the United States behind MIT . Other accomplishments during Brittain 's administration included a doubling of Georgia Tech 's enrollment , accreditation from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools , and the creation of a new ceramic engineering department , building , and major that attracted the American Ceramics Society 's national convention to Atlanta .
In 1929 , some Georgia Tech faculty members belonging to Sigma Xi started a research club that met once a month at Tech . One of the monthly subjects , proposed by ceramic engineering professor W. Harry Vaughan , was a collection of issues related to Tech , such as library development , and the development of a state engineering station . Such a station would theoretically assist local businesses with engineering problems via Georgia Tech 's established faculty and resources . This group investigated the forty existing engineering experiments at universities around the country , and the report was compiled by Harold Bunger , Montgomery Knight , and Vaughan in December 1929 .
The Great Depression threatened the already tentative nature of Georgia Tech 's funding . In a speech on April 27 , 1930 , Brittain proposed that the university system be reorganized under a central body , rather than having each university under its own board . As a result , the Georgia General Assembly and Governor Richard Russell , Jr. passed an act in 1931 that established the University System of Georgia and the corresponding Georgia Board of Regents ; unfortunately for Brittain and Georgia Tech , the board was composed almost entirely of graduates of the University of Georgia . In its final act on January 7 , 1932 , the Tech Board of Trustees sent a letter to the chairman of the Georgia Board of Regents outlining its priorities for the school . The Depression also affected enrollment , which dropped from 3 @,@ 271 in 1931 – 1932 to a low of 2 @,@ 482 in 1933 – 1934 , and only gradually increased afterwards . It also caused a decrease in funding from the State of Georgia , which in turn caused a decrease in faculty salaries , firing of graduate student assistants , and a postponing of building renovations .
As a cost @-@ saving move , effective on July 1 , 1934 , the Georgia Board of Regents transferred control of the relatively large Evening School of Commerce to the University of Georgia and moved the small civil engineering program at UGA to Tech . The move was controversial , and both students and faculty protested against it , fearing that the Board of Regents would remove other programs from Georgia Tech and reduce it to an engineering department of the University of Georgia . Brittain suggested that the lack of Georgia Tech alumni on the Board of Regents contributed to their decision . Despite the pressure , the Board of Regents held its ground . The Depression also had a significant impact on the athletic program , as most athletes were in the commerce school , and resulted in the elimination of athletic scholarships , which were replaced by a loan program . Plans for an industrial management department to replace and supersede the Evening School of Commerce were first made in fall 1934 . The department was established in 1935 , and evolved into Tech 's College of Management .
In 1933 , S. V. Sanford , president of the University of Georgia , proposed that a " technical research activity " be established at Tech . Brittain and Dean William Vernon Skiles examined the Research Club 's 1929 report , and moved to create such an organization . W. Harry Vaughan was selected as its acting director in April 1934 , and $ 5 @,@ 000 in funds were allocated directly from the Georgia Board of Regents . These funds went to the previously established Engineering Experiment Station ( EES ) ; its initial areas of focus were textiles , ceramics , and helicopter engineering . Georgia Tech 's EES later became the Georgia Tech Research Institute ( GTRI ) .
The EES 's early work was conducted in the basement of the Shop Building , and Vaughan 's office was in the Aeronautical Engineering Building . By 1938 , the EES was producing useful technology , and the station needed a method to conduct contract work outside of the state budget . Consequently , the Industrial Development Council ( IDC ) was formed . It was created by the Chancellor of the University System and the president of Georgia Power Company , and the EES 's director was a member of the council . The IDC later became the Georgia Tech Research Corporation , which currently serves as the sole contract organization for all Georgia Tech faculty and departments .
In 1939 , EES director Vaughan became the director of the School of Ceramic Engineering . He was the director of the station until 1940 , when he accepted a higher @-@ paying job at the Tennessee Valley Authority and was replaced by Harold Bunger ( the first chairman of Georgia Tech 's chemical engineering department ) . When the ceramics department was temporarily discontinued due to World War II , the current students found wartime employment . The department would be reincarnated after the war under the guidance of Lane Mitchell .
The Cocking affair occurred in 1941 and 1942 when Georgia governor Eugene Talmadge exerted direct control over the state 's educational system , particularly through the firing of University of Georgia professor Walter Cocking , who had been hired to raise the relatively low academic standards at UGA 's College of Education . Talmadge justified his actions by asserting that Cocking intended to integrate a part of the University of Georgia . Cocking 's removal and the subsequent removal of members of the Georgia Board of Regents ( including the vice chancellor ) who disagreed with the decision were particularly controversial . Talmadge attempted to place Tech football star Red Barron in a new position as vice president of Georgia Tech ; the move was widely criticized by Georgia Tech alumni , who marched on the capitol , and Barron subsequently declined to accept the position . In response to the actions of Governor Talmadge , the Southern Association of Independent Schools withdrew accreditation from all Georgia state @-@ supported colleges for whites , including Georgia Tech . The controversy was instrumental in Talmadge 's loss in the 1943 gubernatorial elections to Ellis Arnall .
World War II resulted in a dramatic increase of sponsored research , with the 1943 – 1944 budget being the first in which industry and government contracts exceeded the EES 's other income ( most notably , its state appropriation ) . Vaughan had initially prepared the faculty for fewer incoming contracts as the state had cut the station 's appropriation by 40 percent , but increased support from industry and government eventually counteracted low state support . The electronics and communications research that Directors Gerald Rosselot and James E. Boyd attracted is still a mainstay of GTRI research . Two of the larger projects were a study on the propagation of electromagnetic waves , and United States Navy @-@ sponsored radar research .
Until the mid @-@ 1940s , the school required students to be able to create a simple electric motor regardless of their major . During World War II , as an engineering school with strong military ties through its ROTC program , Georgia Tech was swiftly enlisted for the war effort . In early 1942 the traditional nine @-@ month semester system was replaced by a year @-@ round trimester year , enabling students to complete their degrees a year earlier . Under the plan , students were allowed to complete their engineering degrees while on active duty . During World War II , Georgia Tech was one of 131 colleges and universities that took part in the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission . The school was also one of only five U.S. colleges feeding into the United States Naval Academy .
= = Postwar changes and unrest = =
Includes the administration of Blake R. Van Leer ( 1944 – 1956 )
Founded as the " Georgia School of Technology , " the school assumed its present name on July 1 , 1948 to reflect a growing focus on advanced technological and scientific research . The name change was first proposed on June 12 , 1906 , but did not gain momentum until Blake R. Van Leer 's presidency . Unlike similarly named universities such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the California Institute of Technology , the Georgia Institute of Technology is a public university . Concurrent with the name change , President Emeritus Marion L. Brittain published The Story of Georgia Tech , the first comprehensive , book @-@ length history of the school .
The Southern Technical Institute ( STI ) was established in 1948 in barracks on the campus of Naval Air Station Atlanta ( now DeKalb Peachtree Airport ) in Chamblee , northeast of Atlanta . At that time , all colleges in Georgia were considered extensions of the state 's four research universities , and the Southern Technical Institute belonged to Georgia Tech . STI was established as an engineering technology school , to help military personnel returning from World War II gain hands @-@ on experience in technical fields . Around 1958 , the school moved to Marietta , to land donated by Dobbins Air Force Base . STI was split from Georgia Tech in 1981 , at a time when most other regional schools separated from the University of Georgia , Georgia State University , and Georgia Southern University .
The only women that had attended Georgia Tech did so through the School of Commerce . After it was removed in 1931 , women were not able to enroll at Tech until 1952 . In 1952 women could only enroll in programs not offered at other universities in Georgia . In 1968 the Board of Regents voted to allow women to enroll in all programs at Tech . Also in 1968 , Helen E. Grenga became Georgia Tech 's first full @-@ tenured female engineering professor . The first women 's dorm , Fulmer Hall , opened in 1969 . Women constituted 31 @.@ 1 % of the undergraduates and 25 @.@ 5 % of the graduate students enrolled in Fall 2010 .
Glen P. Robinson and six other Georgia Tech researchers ( including Robinson 's former professor and future EES director Jim Boyd and EES director Gerald Rosselot ) each contributed $ 100 to found Scientific Associates ( later known as Scientific Atlanta ) on October 31 , 1951 , with the initial goal of marketing antenna structures developed by the radar branch of the EES . Robinson worked as the general manager without pay for the first year ; after the fledgling company 's first contract resulted in a $ 4 @,@ 000 loss , Robinson ( upon request ) refunded five of the six other initial investors . Despite its rocky start , the company managed to succeed . In 1951 , there was a dispute over station finances and Rosselot 's hand in the foundation of Scientific Atlanta against Georgia Tech vice president Cherry Emerson . Initially , Rosselot was president and CEO of Scientific Atlanta , but later handed off responsibility to Glen P. Robinson ; at issue were potential conflicts of interest with his role at Georgia Tech and what , if any , role Georgia Tech should have in technology transfer to the marketplace . Rosselot eventually resigned his post at Georgia Tech , but his participation ensured the eventual success of Scientific Atlanta and made way for further technology transfer efforts by Georgia Tech 's VentureLab and the Advanced Technology Development Center .
This period also saw a significant expansion in Georgia Tech 's postgraduate education programs , driven largely by the Cold War and the launch of Sputnik ; this effort received substantial support from the EES . Despite its slow start , with the first Master of Science programs in the 1920s and the first Doctorate in 1946 , the program became firmly established . In 1952 alone , around 80 students earned graduate degrees while working at EES . Herschel H. Cudd , EES director from 1952 to 1954 , created a new promotion system for researchers that is still in use . Many EES researchers held the title of professor despite lacking a doctorate ( or a comparable qualification for promotion as determined by the Georgia Board of Regents ) , something that irritated members of the teaching faculty . The new system , approved in spring 1953 , used the Board of Regents ' qualifications for promotion and mirrored the academic tenure track .
= = = Sugar Bowl controversy = = =
After a successful ( 8 – 1 – 1 ) football season in 1955 , Tech was invited to play in the 1956 Sugar Bowl in New Orleans against the University of Pittsburgh . It would be the school 's fifth straight bowl appearance under renowned coach Bobby Dodd . Pittsburgh had a black starting player , fullback Bobby Grier , but as Tech had played a 1953 game against a desegregated Notre Dame team , and the University of Georgia had very recently played out @-@ of @-@ state games against desegregated opponents , president Van Leer and the Tech Athletic Association saw the game 's contract as acceptable . However , racial tension in the South was high following the recent Brown v. Board of Education decision . Georgia Governor Marvin Griffin had privately given Dodd his support , but he surprised the campus and the state on Friday , December 2 , 1955 by bowing to pressure from segregationists and sending a wire to the Georgia Board of Regents chairman , Robert O. Arnold , requesting not only that Tech not play the game , but that all University System of Georgia teams play only segregated games .
It is my request that athletic teams of units of the University System of Georgia not be permitted to engage in contests with other teams where the races are mixed on such teams or where segregation is not required among spectators at such events . The South stands at Armageddon . The battle is joined . We cannot make the slightest concession to the enemy in this dark and lamentable hour of struggle . There is no more difference in compromising integrity of race on the playing field than doing so in the classrooms . One break in the dike and the relentless seas will rush in and destroy us . We are in this fight 100 percent ; not 98 percent , nor 75 percent , not 64 percent – but a full 100 percent . An immediate called meeting of the State Board of Regents to act on my request is vitally necessary at this time .
Enraged , Tech students organized an impromptu protest rally on campus . At midnight , a large group of students hung the governor in effigy and ignited a bonfire . They then marched to Five Points , the Georgia State Capitol , and the Georgia Governor 's Mansion , hanging the governor in effigy at each location . The students did some minor damage to the Governor 's Mansion before the march was dispersed by state representative " Muggsy " Smith at 3 : 30 a.m.
At the State Capitol , the boys pulled fire hoses from their racks , adorned the sculpt head of Civil War Hero John Gordon with an ashcan . A dozen effigies of Governor Marvin Griffin were hanged and burned during the students ' march , which culminated in a 2 a.m. riot in front of the governor 's mansion .
Van Leer 's only comment to the media came on Saturday , December 3 , 1955 : " I am 60 years old and I have never broken a contract . I do not intend to start now " . At a tense meeting of the Board of Regents on Monday , it was decided that Georgia Tech would be allowed to play in the Sugar Bowl . The new policy was that " all laws , customs and traditions of host states would be respected but all games played in Georgia would be segregated " , a policy that would remain until 1963 . The regents , with the exception of Tech alum David Rice , condemned the " riotous " behavior of Tech students . Rice instead criticized Marvin Griffin , and was lauded by The Technique as the " only man with the moral conviction to stand up against Griffin , ... and co " . Ironically , Tech defeated Pittsburgh 7 – 0 because of a pass interference call on the black player . Van Leer died six weeks after this incident , on January 23 , 1956 ; the stress of the controversy was believed to have shortened his life .
= = Integration and expansion = =
Includes the administrations of Paul Weber ( interim , February 1956 – August 1957 ) and Edwin D. Harrison ( 1957 – 1969 )
After Van Leer 's death , Paul Weber served as acting president from January 1956 to August 1957 , while still holding the title of Dean of Faculties ; it was difficult to find a permanent replacement due to discriminatory state laws and the looming issue of integration , along with a salary gap between Georgia Tech and comparable institutions . Weber 's short tenure as acting president saw significantly increased enrollment standards , efforts by the Georgia Tech Foundation to increase faculty salaries , and further campus expansion including the Alexander Memorial Coliseum , which was completed and dedicated on October 27 , 1956 . Weber left larger organizational changes and integration for his eventual successor . After the selection of a replacement in the University of Toledo 's Dean of Engineering , Edwin D. Harrison , Weber remained a Georgia Tech administrator and was named Vice President for Planning in 1966 .
Around 1960 , state law mandated " an immediate cut @-@ off of state funds to any white institution that admitted a black student " . At a meeting in the Old Gym on January 17 , 1961 , an overwhelming majority of the 2 @,@ 741 students present voted to endorse integration of qualified applicants , regardless of race . Three years after the meeting , and one year after the University of Georgia 's violent integration , Georgia Tech became the first university in the Deep South to desegregate without a court order , with Ford Greene , Ralph A. Long , Jr . , and Lawrence Michael Williams becoming Georgia Tech 's first three African American students ; they registered for class on September 18 , 1963 and started class on September 20 . Members of the press were barred from the campus to discourage disruptive behavior , and plainclothes police officers were placed on the campus . The ANAK Society claims to have met with their families and discreetly kept an eye on the students once they enrolled to ensure peaceful integration .
There was little reaction to this by Tech students who , like the city of Atlanta described by former mayor William Hartsfield , were " too busy to hate " . On the first day , the Ku Klux Klan came to Georgia Tech , marched up North Avenue , and picketed Harrison 's house , staying just long enough to have their pictures taken . Lester Maddox chose to close his restaurant ( near Georgia Tech 's modern @-@ day Burger Bowl ) rather than desegregate , after losing a year @-@ long legal battle in which he challenged the constitutionality of the public accommodations section ( Title II ) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . In 1965 , John Gill became The Technique 's first black editor , and Tech 's first black professor , William Peace , joined the faculty of the Department of Social Sciences in 1968 .
The Ramblin ' Wreck , the iconic 1930 Ford Model A Sport coupe that serves as the official mascot of the student body , was acquired in this era . The Wreck is present at all major sporting events and student body functions , and leads the football team into Bobby Dodd Stadium at Historic Grant Field , a duty it has performed since 1961 . Dean of Student Affairs Jim Dull recognized a need for an official Ramblin ' Wreck when he observed the student body 's fascination with classic cars . Fraternities , in particular , would parade around their House Wrecks as displays of school spirit and enthusiasm . It was considered a rite of passage to own a broken @-@ down vehicle . In 1960 , Dull began a search for a new official symbol to represent the Institute . He specifically wanted a classic pre @-@ war Ford . Dull 's search employed newspaper ads , radio commercials , and other means to locate this vehicle . The search took him throughout the state and country , but no suitable vehicle was found until the autumn of 1960 when Dull spotted a polished 1930 Ford Model A outside of his apartment located in Towers Dormitory . The owner was Captain Ted J. Johnson , Atlanta 's chief Delta Air Lines pilot . When Johnson returned to his car , he found a note from Dull attached to his windshield . Dull 's note offered to purchase the car to serve as Georgia Tech 's official mascot . Johnson , after great deliberation , agreed to take $ 1 @,@ 000 ; he eventually returned the money in 1984 so that the car would be remembered as an official donation to Georgia Tech and the Alexander @-@ Tharpe Fund . The Ramblin ' Wreck was officially transferred to the Athletic Association on May 26 , 1961 .
James E. Boyd , Assistant Director of Research at the Engineering Experiment Station since 1954 , was appointed Director of the station from July 1 , 1957 , a post in which he served until 1961 . While at Tech , Boyd wrote an influential article about the role of research centers at institutes of technology , which argued that research should be integrated with education ; he correspondingly involved undergraduates in his research . Under Boyd 's purview , the EES gained many electronics @-@ related contracts , to the extent that an Electronics Division was created in 1959 ; it would focus on radar and communications . The establishment of research facilities was also championed by Boyd . In 1955 , Van Leer had appointed Boyd to Georgia Tech 's Nuclear Science Committee , which recommended the creation of a Radioisotopes Laboratory Facility and a large research reactor . The $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( $ 34 @.@ 8 million in 2015 ) Frank H. Neely Research Reactor would be completed in 1963 and would operate until 1996 .
Harrison 's administration also addressed the disparity between salaries at Georgia Tech and competing institutions . This was solved via the " Joint Tech @-@ Georgia Development Fund " developed by the Georgia Tech Alumni Association in 1967 , which supplemented salaries of faculty at both Georgia Tech and UGA and worked to attract high @-@ quality faculty members to both schools .
Students across the nation protested the Vietnam War , including at similar institutions such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , where students picketed and blocked access to the Draper Laboratory that was producing guidance systems for the Poseidon missile . While The Technique did publish editorials against the United States ' involvement , the Student Council easily defeated a bill endorsing the Vietnam Moratorium in the fall of 1969 . There were significant protests at other institutions that conducted military research , but there were no protests against the military electronics research at the Georgia Tech Research Institute .
There was similar nationwide concern over the United States ' involvement in the Cambodian Civil War , resulting in the Kent State shootings , which in turn caused about 450 colleges to suspend classes . In Georgia , the student response was largely restrained . Several hundred students at the University of Georgia marched on the home of president Frederick Corbet Davison demanding that the school be closed ; consequently , all schools in the University System of Georgia were closed on May 8 and 9 . While there were no protests at Tech , the students were still concerned over the events at Kent State ; on May 8 , four hundred students and faculty filled Bertha Square for a student @-@ organized memorial , after which the students left quietly .
A 1965 plan signaled the beginning of Tech 's expansion to include what is now West Campus . The area west of Hemphill Avenue , for decades the campus ' western border , was then a working @-@ class multiracial neighborhood , and Hemphill itself was a major city thoroughfare connecting Buckhead , the Atlantic Steel Mill , Techwood Homes and Downtown . In July 1968 , Harrison resigned to the surprise of many in the Georgia Tech community ; it was leaked to the press prior to his official announcement , and he subsequently released a public statement , saying that " ten years was long enough to be president of one university " . The true reasons stemmed from his reorganization of the campus administration , and difficulties between Harrison and the Georgia Board of Regents and its chancellor over long @-@ term goals and procedures .
= = Rapid turnover = =
Includes the administrations of Vernon D. Crawford ( interim , March 1969 @-@ August 1969 ) , Arthur G. Hansen ( 1969 – 1971 ) , and James E. Boyd ( interim , 1971 – 1972 )
On July 1 , 1968 , Vernon D. Crawford became dean of the institute 's General College . In March 1969 , Harrison announced that he would take a leave of absence until his resignation was effective ; Chancellor George L. Simpson subsequently announced that Crawford would be the interim president . One notable development during Crawford 's term was the advancement of the School of Industrial Management to a college . In 1966 , Arthur G. Hansen , then a chairman of the University of Michigan 's mechanical engineering department , was named Georgia Tech 's Dean of Engineering . On August 1 , 1969 , Hansen became the institute 's next president , a post he held until his resignation on July 1 , 1971 , to become president of his alma mater , Purdue University .
James E. Boyd , who had assumed the vice chancellorship of the University System of Georgia the previous month , was appointed Acting President of Georgia Tech by Chancellor George L. Simpson in May 1971 . Simpson 's selection of Boyd as interim president was influenced by Boyd 's previous experience as an academic administrator , his experience as director of the Engineering Experiment Station , and his ongoing position on the station 's board of directors . The chancellor hoped this combination would help resolve a brewing controversy over whether the EES should be integrated into Georgia Tech 's academic units to improve both entities ' competitiveness for federal money .
The EES had sizable and growing support from the state of Georgia and its Industrial Development Council , which developed products and methods and provided technical assistance for Georgia industry . However , due in part to efforts made by Boyd and previous station director Gerald Rosselot , the station increasingly relied on electronics research funding from the federal government . In 1971 , funding to both Georgia Tech 's academic units and the EES began to suffer due to a sharp decline in state funds combined with cuts to federal science , research , and education funding after the end of the Space Race funding boom . Similar institutions , such as the Battelle Memorial Institute , Stanford Research Institute , and the Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute had weathered this storm by becoming exceedingly good at obtaining research contracts .
Boyd 's predecessor Arthur G. Hansen 's " bold and controversial " solution to both entities ' problems was to completely integrate the station into Georgia Tech 's academic units . On paper , this would dramatically increase Georgia Tech 's stated research funding ( as all of it would be performed through the academic units ) , and it would increase options and financial aid for graduate students . Another , less publicized , reason was that Georgia Tech would gain access to the contract organization 's reserve fund , which was said to be over $ 1 million ( $ 6 @.@ 1 million in 2015 ) . Thomas E. Stelson , Dean of the College of Engineering at Georgia Tech , was named to " reorganize " the station . Publicly , Stelson 's task was simply to recommend a plan for reorganization , but the administration clearly intended for Georgia Tech and the EES to be closely integrated . Maurice W. Long , who was director of the station at the time , viewed the move as a violation of the EES 's charter as legislatively established by the Georgia General Assembly in 1919 , and asserted that Georgia Tech did not have the authority to merge the two institutions . EES employees and business executives involved with the station appealed to the Georgia Board of Regents and to Governor of Georgia Jimmy Carter ( himself a Georgia Tech alumnus ) ; the controversy received coverage in both The Technique and The Atlanta Constitution .
This was the climate into which Boyd entered as interim institute president after Hansen had announced , on April 27 , 1971 , that he would be departing Georgia Tech to become president of Purdue University on July 1 of that year . Boyd stopped the plan for absolute absorption of the station , but did allow plans for closer control and more aggressive contract solicitation to proceed . Among these measures were increased resource @-@ sharing , including increased sharing of physical assets and research staff . The latter was evidenced by the increase in joint faculty appointments between the EES and Georgia Tech . The move paid off , and the fiscal year 1970 – 1971 saw EES win new contracts and grants , totaling a record $ 5 @.@ 2 million ( $ 30 @.@ 4 million 2015 ) .
Boyd had to deal with intense public pressure to fire Yellow Jackets football coach Bud Carson . Georgia Tech alumni – accustomed to success under football legends John Heisman ( whose career wins – losses – draws statistics were 185 – 70 – 17 ) , William A. Alexander ( 134 – 95 – 15 ) and Bobby Dodd ( 165 – 64 – 8 ) – made repeated calls for Carson 's dismissal . The complaints were based on a long list of infractions , including " mistreating and humiliating students " and " unsportsmanlike conduct " , but the most important issue was his 27 – 27 record . The last straw was his 6 – 6 season in 1971 , which included both a loss to Georgia Tech 's longtime rival , the Georgia Bulldogs , and to the 1971 Ole Miss Rebels football team in the 1971 Peach Bowl . As institute president , Boyd chaired the Board of Directors of the Georgia Tech Athletic Association , which had been suffering both in win percentage and in finances .
Traditional sources of Athletic Association income , primarily ticket sales , had declined as a result of both the Yellow Jackets ' poor record and the relatively recent establishment of professional football in Atlanta , namely the Atlanta Falcons . Bobby Dodd , then athletic director , had warned for years that Georgia Tech 's rising academic standards and its limited curriculum would affect the athletic program . At a meeting on January 8 , 1972 , the Athletic Association board , led by Boyd , ignored a 42 @-@ page list of " charges " drafted by an alumnus , but nevertheless voted to not renew Carson 's contract , making him the first Georgia Tech coach to be fired . The board also voted to not accept Bobby Dodd 's resignation , which had been offered at the meeting . Carson went on to have a successful career , particularly with the Pittsburgh Steelers . On January 21 , 1972 , Boyd announced that Bill Fulcher had been selected as the new football head coach . This would not change the Georgia Tech Athletic Association 's fortunes , however ; after Carson 's departure , the on @-@ field and financial problems remained .
Georgia Tech 's mascot Buzz got his start in the 1970s . The original Georgia Tech Yellow Jacket mascot was Judi McNair who donned a homemade yellowjacket costume in 1972 and performed at home football games . She rode on the Ramblin ' Wreck and appears in the 1972 Georgia Tech Blueprint yearbook . McNair 's mascot was considered a great idea , as it was a big hit with the fans . In 1979 , McNair 's idea for a Yellow Jacket was reintroduced by another Georgia Tech student , Richie Bland . Bland , who was apparently unaware of McNair 's prior initiative , paid $ 1 @,@ 400 to have a local theme park costume designer make a yellowjacket costume that he first wore at a pep rally prior to the Tennessee football game . Rather than obtain permission from Georgia Tech as Judi had done in 1972 , this student simply sneaked onto the field in costume during a football game and ran across the field . The fans believed that this costumed character was acting as an official member of the cheerleading squad and responded accordingly . By 1980 , this new incarnation of the yellow jacket mascot was given the name Buzz Bee and was adopted as an official mascot by Georgia Tech . This new Buzz character would be the model for a new Georgia Tech emblem , designed in 1985 by Mike Lester .
= = Research expansion = =
Includes the administrations of Joseph M. Pettit ( 1972 – 1986 ) and Henry C. Bourne , Jr . ( interim , 1986 – 1987 )
Joseph M. Pettit became president of the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1972 . During his 14 @-@ year tenure as president , Pettit was credited with turning Georgia Tech into a top @-@ flight research institution . Pettit has also received credit for shifting Georgia Tech back to its roots with regards to providing assistance with economic development within the state of Georgia . In the decades known for the Vietnam War and the launch of Sputnik , research at Georgia Tech and the Georgia Tech Research Institute had become so tied with NASA and the Department of Defense that local industrial development had been largely forgotten .
During Pettit 's tenure , the Institute progressed into the top tier of technological education institutions . Under his leadership , Tech 's research budget surpassed the $ 100 million mark for the first time in its history . Thomas E. Stelson was Georgia Tech 's Vice President for Research from 1974 to 1988 . Faced with a longstanding cultural war over the relative merits of basic research versus applied research , Stelson emphasized the importance of both . An increased focus on research activities allowed more funding for academics , which allowed the school 's ranking to start a long and continuing rise from that of the 20s . Stelson simultaneously served as the interim director of the Georgia Tech Research Institute from 1975 to 1976 , during which time he reorganized the station into eight semi @-@ autonomous laboratories in order to allow each to develop a specialization and clientele — a model that GTRI retains ( with slight modifications ) to this day .
In the aftermath of the launch of Scientific Atlanta and the subsequent disputes , Georgia Tech 's culture encouraged hard work , but did not encourage start @-@ ups . This changed during Pettit 's administration ; Pettit was at Stanford during the development of the Silicon Valley and worked to change the culture to inspire something similar in Atlanta . " That was when Tech began actively encouraging faculty , staff and students to be entrepreneurial ... In some ways it was a shift back to our roots , with Tech beginning to reconnect with the state through the Advanced Technology Development Center , the Economic Development Institute and the Georgia Research Alliance " , according to Bob McMath .
Pettit also oversaw Georgia Tech 's application and admittance into the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) , an athletic league founded in 1953 which included seven charter members . Georgia Tech had withdrawn from the Southeastern Conference in January 1964 and had operated as an Independent until 1975 when Georgia Tech joined the Metro Conference . Georgia Tech was admitted to the ACC on April 3 , 1978 . The ACC has expanded from 8 to 12 members since that time .
The Institute celebrated its centennial in 1985 . Pettit and J. Erskine Love , Jr. spearheaded Tech 's $ 100 million Centennial Campaign . A total of $ 202 @.@ 7 million was raised during the Centennial Campaign , which was Georgia Tech 's largest single fundraising effort to that date . Among other centennial observances , a time capsule was placed in the Student Center , and a team of historians wrote a comprehensive guide to Georgia Tech 's history , Engineering the New South : Georgia Tech 1885 – 1985 . In 1986 , Pettit died of cancer , and Henry C. Bourne , Jr. served as interim president .
= = Restructuring controversy = =
Includes the administration of John Patrick Crecine ( 1987 – 1994 ) and Michael E. Thomas ( interim , 1994 )
President John Patrick Crecine proposed a controversial restructuring in 1988 . The Institute at that point had three colleges : the College of Engineering , the College of Management , and the catch @-@ all COSALS , the College of Sciences and Liberal arts . Crecine reorganized the latter two into the College of Computing , the College of Sciences , and the Ivan Allen College of Management , Policy , and International Affairs . Crecine announced the changes without asking for input , and consequently many faculty members disliked him for his top @-@ down management style . The administration sent out ballots in 1989 , and the proposed changes passed with very slim margins . The restructuring took effect in January 1990 . While Crecine was seen in a poor light at the time , the changes he made are considered visionary . In January 1994 , Crecine resigned .
In October 1990 , Tech opened its first overseas campus , Georgia Tech Lorraine ( GTL ) . A non @-@ profit corporation operating under French law , GTL primarily focuses on graduate education , sponsored research , and an undergraduate summer program . In 1997 GTL was sued on the grounds that the course descriptions on its internet site did not comply with the Toubon Law , which requires that advertisements must be provided in French . The case was dismissed on a technicality ; the GTL site subsequently offers course descriptions in English , French and German .
Crecine was instrumental in securing the 1996 Summer Olympics for Atlanta . In September 1989 he imagined a grand multimedia presentation for the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . The resulting 3 @-@ D presentation , developed by the institute 's Multimedia Laboratory , provided a " 1996 " view of Atlanta , complete with digitized graphic models of non @-@ existent facilities overlaid on their proposed sites . More than 40 Georgia Tech computer scientists were recruited to assemble the virtual reality , three @-@ dimensional tour through Olympic venues that had not yet even been designed . The term " virtual reality " was almost unknown in 1989 when Tech 's seven @-@ foot tall , three @-@ screen , 3 @-@ D interactive video and laser disc projection system debuted during a meeting of the IOC at San Juan , Puerto Rico . Members of the committee used a trackball and a touch screen to view a dazzling montage of animation , computer graphics , aerial photography , video , and satellite topographical photographs created to depict Atlanta during the Centennial Olympic Games . Many believe the presentation showed the IOC that Atlanta was a major player in its Olympics bid and served to create the foundation for the city 's high @-@ tech theme for the Centennial Games .
After Atlanta won the Olympics bid , a dramatic amount of construction occurred , creating most of what is now considered " West Campus " in order for Tech to serve as the Olympic Village . The Undergraduate Living Center , Fourth Street Apartments , Sixth Street Apartments , Eighth Street Apartments , Hemphill Apartments , and Center Street Apartments housed athletes and journalists . The Georgia Tech Aquatic Center was built for swimming events , and the Alexander Memorial Coliseum was renovated .
= = Modern history = =
Includes the administrations of G. Wayne Clough ( 1994 – 2008 ) , Gary Schuster ( interim , 2008 – 2009 ) , and George P. " Bud " Peterson ( 2009 – present )
In 1994 , G. Wayne Clough became the first Tech alumnus to serve as the President of the Institute . The 1996 Summer Olympics took place in Atlanta early in Clough 's tenure . In 1998 , he split the Ivan Allen College of Management , Policy , and International Affairs , creating the Ivan Allen College of Liberal Arts and returning the College of Management to " College " status . During his tenure , research expenditures increased from $ 212 million to $ 425 million , enrollment increased from 13 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 , Tech received the Hesburgh Award , and Tech 's U.S. News & World Report rankings steadily improved .
Clough 's tenure especially focused on a dramatic expansion and modernization of the institute . Coinciding with the rise of personal computers , computer ownership became mandatory for all students in 1997 . In 1998 , Georgia Tech was the first university in the Southeastern United States to provide its fraternity and sorority houses with internet access . A campus wireless network , the Local Area Wireless / Walkup Network ( LAWN ) , was established in 1999 ; it now covers most of the campus .
In 1999 , Georgia Tech began offering local degree programs to engineering students in Southeast Georgia . In 2003 Tech established a physical campus in Savannah , Georgia , called Georgia Tech Savannah . Clough 's administration also focused on improved undergraduate research opportunities and the creation of an " International Plan " degree option that requires students to spend two terms abroad and take internationally focused courses . In addition , Clough spearheaded the creation of a fund to make Georgia Tech more affordable for low @-@ income students ( the G. Wayne Clough Georgia Tech Promise Program ) .
The master plan for the school 's physical growth and development — created in 1912 and significantly revised in 1952 , 1965 , and 1991 — saw two further revisions under Clough 's guidance in 1997 and 2002 . While Clough was in office , around $ 1 billion was spent on expanding and improving the campus . These projects include the construction of the Manufacturing Related Disciplines Complex , 10th and Home , Tech Square , The Biomedical Complex , the completion and subsequent renovations of several west campus dorms , the Student Center renovation , the expanded 5th Street Bridge , the Georgia Tech Aquatic Center 's renovation into the CRC , the new Health Center , the Klaus Advanced Computing Building , the Molecular Science and Engineering Building , and the Nanotechnology Research Center .
The school has also taken care to maintain its Historic District , with several projects dedicated to the preservation or improvement of Tech Tower , the school 's first and oldest building and its primary administrative center . As part of Phase I of the Georgia Tech Master Plan of 1997 , the area was made more pedestrian @-@ friendly by the removal of access roads and the addition of landscaping improvements , benches , and other facilities . The National Register of Historic Places has listed the Georgia Tech Historic District since 1978 . In the 2007 " Best of Tech " issue of The Technique , students voted " construction " as Georgia Tech 's worst tradition .
On March 15 , 2008 , Clough was appointed to lead the Smithsonian Institution , effective July 1 , 2008 . Dr. Gary Schuster , Tech 's Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs , was named Interim President , effective July 1 , 2008 . On February 9 , 2009 , George P. " Bud " Peterson , chancellor of the University of Colorado at Boulder , was named the finalist in the presidential search ; he took office on September 3 , 2009 . On April 20 , 2010 , Georgia Tech was invited to join the Association of American Universities , as the first new member institution in nine years .
In 2011 , Georgia Tech opened the G. Wayne Clough Undergraduate Learning Commons building named in honor of his commitment to undergraduate students ; it was dedicated on his birthday , September 24 , 2011 . In 2012 , Ernest Scheller Jr. gave a $ 50 million gift that led to the renaming of the Georgia Tech College of Management to the Scheller College of Business .
|
= Genelia D 'Souza =
Genelia D 'Souza ( born 5 August 1987 ) is an Indian film actress and model . She has appeared in South Indian cinema and Bollywood films . After gaining wide attention in a Parker Pen commercial with Amitabh Bachchan , Genelia began her acting career with the box @-@ office hit Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003 . She was recognized for her role in Boys the same year , and later established herself in Telugu cinema by acting in several Telugu films during 2003 – 2005 .
Genelia received her first Filmfare Award in 2006 for her performance in the Telugu romantic film , Bommarillu , which earned her critical acclaim . In 2008 , she gave critically acclaimed performances in Santosh Subramaniam , a Tamil remake of Bommarillu , and the Bollywood movie Jaane Tu ... Ya Jaane Na . Having acted in several commercially successful movies in Telugu and Tamil , Genelia has established herself as one of the leading actresses of the South Indian film industry . In addition to mainstream acting , Genelia has hosted the television show Big Switch , and is the brand ambassador of Fanta , Virgin Mobile India , Fastrack , LG Mobiles , Garnier Light , Margo , and Perk in India .
= = Early life = =
Born in Mumbai into a Mangalorean Catholic family , Genelia was raised as a Roman Catholic in the Bandra suburb of Mumbai . Her mother tongue is Konkani . Her mother Jeanette D 'Souza was formerly a managing director of the Pharma Multinational corporation ( MNC ) , who left her job in 2004 to help Genelia with her career . Her father Neil D 'Souza , is a senior official with Tata Consultancy Services ( TCS ) . She also has a younger brother , Nigel D 'Souza , who works with the Bombay Stock Exchange . According to Genelia , her name means " rare " or " unique " , and is a portmanteau of Jeanette and Neil , her mother and father 's names . She is also often informally referred to as Geenu , her nickname . Genelia studied at the Apostolic Carmel High School in Bandra and later joined St. Andrew 's College in Bandra to pursue her bachelor 's degree of Management Studies . She completed her degree while shooting for her first film , Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003 and initially thought that an MNC job would suit her . She liked sports and studies in college , and was a state level athlete , sprinter , and a national level football player .
Genelia did her first modeling assignment at the age of 15 , the result of being spotted as the bridesmaid at a wedding . She was selected for the Parker Pen commercial with Amitabh Bachchan , just two days before her exams , and had to shoot the next day . Initially she refused , because of her exam the next day , but the director persuaded Genelia to shoot for the commercial . She gained wide attention from the Parker Pen commercial with Amitabh Bachchan , who said " she was good , and her expressions were spontaneous " . She further did a Fair and Lovely 2003 Cricket World Cup advertisement with cricketer Krishnamachari Srikkanth .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Debut and recognition ( 2003 – 05 ) = = =
When Genelia was offered a role in Tujhe Meri Kasam , initially she turned it down , as she was not keen to pursue a career in acting . But the crew insisted and kept contacting her for two months , and she agreed when she saw the Telugu version of the movie . Tamil director , S. Shankar , was impressed with her performance in the Parker Pen commercial and decided to cast her in a leading role in his 2003 Tamil film Boys . Genelia was selected among 300 girls , who had auditioned for the movie . She signed three movies simultaneously in three different languages , Tujhe Meri Kasam ( Hindi ) , Boys ( Tamil ) , and Satyam ( Telugu ) .
Genelia 's professional movie career began , with her Bollywood debut Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003 . Film critic Taran Adarsh noted , " Genelia is a wonderful performer . She catches you unaware with a performance that 's natural to the core . " The film was a box @-@ office success . However , it could not do much to propel her career in Bollywood . Later , she decided to act in South Indian films . The same year , she made her Tamil debut as the teenage girl Harini in Boys , a story about five teenagers having stereotypical teen @-@ boy fantasies . The movie , though noted for its vulgar sexual content , was a box @-@ office success , and subsequently she started receiving Telugu film offers . She left Tamil cinema for a while to concentrate on the Telugu film industry . She made her Telugu debut in 2003 as a medical student in Satyam . Sify noted in their review that , " Genelia is excellent as her body language is her major asset . " The movie was well received , and it raised her profile in the Telugu film industry .
In 2004 , Genelia appeared in her second Bollywood movie , Masti . The comedy focuses on three close friends who reunite after three years , but are now married and are being harassed by their wives . Genelia portrayed the character of one of the wives . Taran Adarsh was complimentary of Genelia 's role , saying , " Amongst the wives , Genelia is the best , [ ... ] Genelia looks the stern and demanding wife and is sure to be noticed . " The film was a box @-@ office success . The same year , she appeared in two Telugu movies Samba , and Sye , both succeeding at the box @-@ office .
After appearing in her first Telugu movie in 2005 , Naa Alludu , she starred in the Tamil romantic entertainer Sachein . A review in The Hindu noted , " Genelia , who hardly made an impression in Boys , makes much impact in Sachein . " The movie evoked mixed response from audiences , but was well received with the younger generation . She later appeared in the Telugu patriotic movie Subhash Chandra Bose .
= = = Turning point in South Indian films ( 2006 – 08 ) = = =
The year 2006 marked a significant turning point in Genelia 's career . She completed two Telugu movies in early 2006 , one was the romantic comedy Happy , and the other was Raam . She then portrayed the role of Haasini , a vibrant , effervescent and a happy @-@ go @-@ lucky young girl , in the 2006 Telugu romantic film Bommarillu . The movie , a blockbuster at the box @-@ office , grossed ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) in India , and also won the 2006 Golden Nandi award . Her character was well received , and garnered her the Telugu Filmfare Award for Best Actress , besides Nandi Special Jury Award and Santosham Award for Best Actress . Sify concluded about her acting in their review that , " The scene stealer is Genelia with her innocent looks and cute mannerisms . She does not overact and we just fall in love with her character . Genelia looks like a dream in chic skirts and is the life of the party and raises the bar of the film . "
Following the success of Bommarillu , Genelia played the role of the daughter of a local don , in the Tamil gangster film Chennai Kadhal alongside Boys co @-@ star Bharath . Rediff.com criticized her commenting , " Genelia stands up yet again to prove the point that if you are pretty and well dressed , you can get away with anything , without acting . " Shortly afterwards in 2007 , Genelia played the role of sister of a notorious gangster in the blockbuster Telugu movie Dhee , set against a gang war backdrop .
The following year , Genelia appeared in the 2008 Telugu romantic thriller Mr. Medhavi , in which she portrayed the role of a student from Canada . The movie was successful , with Rediff.com complimenting her performance saying , " Genelia is her effervescent self – full of joie @-@ de @-@ vivre and lights up the screen . " She made her Kannada debut in Satya in Love the same year . Later , she was cast in a leading role in Santhosh Subramaniam , a Tamil remake of Bommarillu . The film also turned out to be rather successful as its predecessor . Sify described Genelia 's portrayal as " the soul of the film " and the film 's " biggest strength " , however Rediff.com described her character as " appears a little too good to be true . "
= = = Return to Bollywood and recent work ( June 2008 – present ) = = =
In June 2008 , following a nearly five @-@ year hiatus in Bollywood , she appeared in Mere Baap Pehle Aap , which failed to make profit at the box @-@ office . A Rediff review noted , " besides her apparent cuteness , brings in tons of freshness and traits to the youthful characters she chooses to play " , while a Sify review criticized her stating , " Genelia is sprightly but has a standard two @-@ three expressions bank in this film . " She later appeared in the Telugu love story Ready alongside Ram , which was well received . Her breakthrough performance in 2008 was through the portrayal of the role of Aditi Mahant in the blockbuster Jaane Tu ... Ya Jaane Na , which was an economic success across India and overseas , grossing ₹ 564 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 4 million ) . Her role was widely admired for her sweetness and freshness , and new style of acting , with Rediff describing her acting as a " spark that has been missing in Hindi cinema for well over a decade now " . In that same year , Genelia acted in the Telugu romantic comedy Sasirekha Parinayam . The movie received favorable reviews , and Sify noted in their review that , " The life of the film is definitely Genelia and she has shown the varied emotions from innocence , sadness , romance and anger in equal proportions without a hitch . "
In 2009 , Genelia was cast in the Hindi film Life Partner , in which she was criticized for her performance . Indian film critic Rajeev Masand commented , " The adorable little imp from Jaane Tu … Ya Jaane Na has turned into a nagging harridan in this film , and how you wish she 'd immediately enroll for acting lessons . " Her next appearance in 2009 was in the Telugu thriller Katha , which was well received , and for which she won the 2009 Nandi Special Jury Award . In 2010 , Genelia appeared in Chance Pe Dance and Orange , both receiving poor reviews from critics , but her Uthama Puthiran was a moderate success in Tamil .
D 'Souza had a major role in 2011 , starring as the Muslim warrior princess Arackal Ayesha , in her debut Malayalam film Urumi . The film is about a fictional story happening in Calicut , Kerala during the 15th century , about a boy who plots to assassinate the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama . She learned horse riding , and spent two weeks of training to use the sword , the short stick , and movements of the Dravidian martial art Kalarippayattu . The movie portrayed her image makeover from typically girl @-@ next @-@ door roles to more serious roles . Her next appearance was in the Bollywood action thriller Force , which received mixed reception from critics , with Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama noting that D 'Souza is strikingly sweet and subdued . She played the role of a journalist alongside leading actor Vijay in Velayudham , which was also commercially successful . She appeared in Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya and Naa Ishtam in 2012 and in cameo appearances in Jai Ho and Lai Bhaari in 2014 .
Future films of D 'Souza include Hook Ya Crook and It 's My Life ( a remake of Bommarillu in Hindi ) .
= = Other work and events = =
D 'Souza was a part of Tamil director Mani Ratnam 's stage show , Netru , Indru , Naalai , an event which seeks to raise funds for The Banyan , a voluntary organisation which rehabilitates homeless women with mental illness in Chennai . She was one of the judges at the grand finale of Gladrags Mega Model and Manhunt 2009 contest on 28 March 2009 . She also walked the ramp alongside Tushar Kapoor for fashion designer Manish Malhotra at the Lakme Fashion Week 2009 on 28 March 2009 . On 5 April 2009 , D 'Souza was among several Bollywood celebrities to perform at the Pantaloons Femina Miss India 2009 finale in Mumbai . In October 2009 , she appeared as a showstopper for jewellery designer Farah Khan Ali on the second season of Housing Development and Infrastructure Limited ( HDIL ) India Couture Week , a platform created to celebrate India 's fashion heritage by showcasing the country 's leading couture designers . On 24 October 2009 , D 'Souza began hosting Big Switch , a television show based on slum kids on UTV Bindass channel to reach a bigger audience .
She has unveiled Spinz Black Magic deodorant on 7 October 2009 in Mumbai , and the Ceres Store retail outlet . At the Chennai International Fashion Week ( CIFW ) in December 2009 , she appeared as a showstopper for designer Ishita Singh 's spring @-@ summer indigenous collection of 2010 , showcasing the best of Indian and Western dresses . She also holds a Limca world record of delivering four different super hit films in four different languages , Ready ( Telugu ) , Satya in Love ( Kannada ) , Santosh Subramaniam ( Tamil ) , and Jaane Tu ... Ya Jaane Na ( Hindi ) in a span of one calendar year .
She was a part of online market portal eBay 's 2010 " Dream House " challenge , where she transformed an empty three @-@ room apartment in Bandra into an attractive home with online shopping . She had been provided a budget of ₹ 450 @,@ 000 ( US $ 6 @,@ 700 ) and two weeks to create a look she wants with items on sale on the website . On the occasion of Children 's Day ( 14 November ) , D 'Souza auctioned a few items from the apartment . All proceeds received from the auction was given to Aseema , a Non @-@ governmental organization ( NGO ) , which aims to provide education to underprivileged children .
= = Reception = =
D 'Souza has been often tagged in the media as the " bubbly girl " , after portraying the role of a young energetic girl in several movies , especially Jaane Tu ... Ya Jaane Na ( 2008 ) . She appeared alongside Shahid Kapoor on the fourth episode of Tere Mere Beach Mein , a celebrity chat show , hosted by Farah Khan . The theme of the show was " Second Innings " , since both D 'Souza and Kapoor had the same history of failures initially and success later in their acting careers . In June 2010 , D 'Souza was crowned as the " Brand Ambassador of the Year " at the CNBC Awaaz consumer awards , for endorsing nine brands . She is now the brand ambassador of the soft drink Fanta ( replacing Rani Mukherjee ) , the chocolate Perk ( replacing Preity Zinta ) , Virgin Mobile India ( along with Ranbir Kapoor ) , Fastrack watches and accessories , LG mobiles ( along with John Abraham and Abhay Deol ) , Garnier Light fairness cream , Dabur Vatika hair oil , Margo soap , and Spinz deodorant .
= = Controversies = =
In June 2010 , she was the subject of a controversy , when a Tamil daily reported that she had attended the controversial 2010 IIFA Awards in Colombo . Several Bollywood actors and the South Indian film industry had boycotted the event , over the alleged killing of Tamilian civilians at the height of the conflict between the Sri Lanka Army and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam ( LTTE ) in 2009 . The rumours of her visit to Colombo started after her friend Ritesh Deshmukh was seen at the festival in Colombo . Immediately , various Tamil groups and Kollywood associations demanded her films to be banned .
In 2011 , a controversy broke out for her film Force , in a wedding sequence scene of herself and John Abraham . Sources claim that the wedding ceremony and rituals conducted were so authentic that they would have actually been husband and wife in real life . Instead of a junior artiste , a real priest was called for the scene . Again , following the reports of Ritesh Deshmukh and D 'Souza 's marriage plans , the priest landed up at producer Vipul Amrutlal Shah 's office to register a complaint . He insisted that the couple couldn 't get married , as D 'Souza has been already married to John Abraham , as all marriage rituals were observed , from wearing a mangalsutra ( a sacred thread worn by Indian women as a symbol of their marriage ) , to exchanging garlands , and taking the seven steps around the holy fire . Shah dismissed the claims as a publicity stunt .
= = Personal life = =
D 'Souza is deeply religious and says that , she regularly attends Sunday Mass at St. Anne 's Parish ( Bandra ) , and whenever the family is home , a part of their evening is reserved for saying the rosary together . In an interview with The Times of India , she comments , " I keep a Novena every Wednesday at St. Michael 's Church in Mahim . " In an interview with Daily News and Analysis , she said that " My communication with God is conversational , [ ... ] I 'm God 's favourite child ; I believe that God has always been kind to me . " Her mother tongue is Konkani . Tabloids repeatedly linked D 'Souza romantically with Ritesh Deshmukh , ever since they starred together in their debut film Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003 . They were reportedly ready to get engaged , but Ritesh 's father , the then @-@ Maharashtra Chief Minister , Vilasrao Deshmukh did not agree . D 'Souza later denied any rumors of a relationship with Deshmukh , and responds that she had just friendly relations with him . However , the couple eventually got married on 3 February 2012 , according to Marathi marriage traditions in a Hindu wedding ceremony . She got married in a Roman Catholic ceremony in Bandra , the following day . The couple 's first child , a son named Riaan , was born on 25 November 2014 . Their second son was born on 1 June 2016 .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
|
= U.S. Route 9 in Delaware =
U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) is a U.S. highway in the northeast United States , running from Laurel , Delaware north to Champlain , New York . In Delaware , the route runs an east – west path through Sussex County . Even though US 9 is signed north – south for the remainder of its route , the segment in Delaware is signed east – west . The highway runs from its western terminus at US 13 in Laurel to the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry across the Delaware Bay in Lewes , which carries the route to Cape May , New Jersey . US 9 passes through rural areas and serves the communities of Laurel , Georgetown and Lewes . US 9 intersects Delaware Route 20 ( DE 20 ) in Hardscrabble , US 113 and DE 18 / DE 404 in Georgetown , DE 30 in Gravel Hill , DE 5 in Harbeson , and DE 1 in Five Points . Between Georgetown and Five Points , US 9 runs concurrent with DE 404 .
What is now US 9 in Delaware was originally built as a state highway during the 1920s and designated by 1936 as DE 28 between Laurel and Georgetown and a part of DE 18 between Georgetown and Lewes . US 9 was extended to Delaware from New Jersey by way of the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry in 1974 , replacing all of DE 28 and the portion of DE 18 between Georgetown and Five Points , with the route aligned to bypass Lewes . DE 404 was designated along the portion of US 9 between Georgetown and Five Points by 1987 .
= = Route description = =
US 9 starts out at an intersection with US 13 in the commercial northern part of Laurel , heading to the northeast on two @-@ lane undivided County Seat Highway . The road leaves Laurel and runs through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes . The route intersects DE 20 in Hardscrabble , at which point it briefly becomes a divided highway . Past this intersection , US 9 becomes undivided again and continues through rural land , passing to the southeast of the University of Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station and Sussex Technical High School . Farther northeast , the road reaches Georgetown and intersects US 113 / DE 404 Truck in a commercial area . At this point , US 9 Truck heads south along US 113 / DE 404 Truck to bypass Georgetown to the south . Following US 113 , the route continues northeast on West Market Street through residential areas . US 9 enters downtown Georgetown and intersects DE 18 / DE 404 at The Circle , where the Sussex County Courthouse is located .
At this point , US 9 continues northeast concurrent with DE 404 on East Market Street through the downtown area . The road crosses Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line and runs through residential areas with a few businesses . US 9 / DE 404 heads east @-@ northeast out of Georgetown and becomes Lewes Georgetown Highway , passing through farmland and woodland with some development . The two routes intersect the eastern terminus of US 9 Truck / DE 404 Truck a short distance east of Georgetown . In Gravel Hill , the road intersects DE 30 . Following this intersection , US 9 / DE 404 passes through more rural land , reaching a junction with DE 5 in Harbeson . Past here , the two routes cross a Delaware Coast Line Railroad line . Farther east , residential development near the road begins to increase . Upon reaching the area of the Five Points intersection in Nassau , US 9 / DE 404 runs past homes and businesses , widening into a divided highway and coming to an intersection with DE 1D / DE 23 . DE 23 joins US 9 / DE 404 for a concurrency on a four @-@ lane divided highway before the road comes to a junction with DE 1 . Here , DE 23 / DE 404 ends , US 9 Bus. continues northeast , and US 9 heads east for a concurrency with DE 1 .
Past the Five Points intersection , US 9 follows DE 1 on the six @-@ lane divided Coastal Highway , running through commercial areas . The road curves southeast into wooded areas . In Carpenters Corner , US 9 splits from DE 1 by turning northeast onto Dartmouth Drive , a three @-@ lane undivided road with two westbound lanes and one eastbound lane . A short distance later , the route turns north @-@ northeast onto two @-@ lane undivided Kings Highway , passing through farmland with some residential subdivisions and heading to the east of Cape Henlopen High School . US 9 splits from Kings Highway and continues northeast on Theodore C. Freeman Memorial Highway , bypassing Lewes to the southeast . The route runs through rural areas , crossing the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal on a high @-@ level bridge . The road bends north and crosses the Delaware Coast Line Railroad . After the railroad tracks , US 9 intersects US 9 Bus. again and turns east onto Cape Henlopen Drive , passing between residential development along the Delaware Bay to the north and the railroad tracks to the south . US 9 comes to the terminal of the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry , which carries the route across the Delaware Bay to Cape May , New Jersey . Cape Henlopen Drive continues east toward Cape Henlopen State Park .
The portion of the route between Gills Neck Road and the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry terminal in Lewes is designated as part of the Lewes , Gateway to the Nation Byway , a Delaware Byway . US 9 in Delaware has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 53 @,@ 789 vehicles along the DE 1 concurrency to a low of 895 vehicles at the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry terminal . The portion of US 9 in Delaware east of DE 18 / DE 404 in Georgetown is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is currently US 9 in Delaware existed as a state highway between Whaleys Corners and Georgetown by 1920 , with the remainder as an unimproved county road . At the time , the road was a state aid highway between Laurel and Whaleys Corners and under contract as a state aid highway between Georgetown and Harbeson . By 1924 , the state highway along the present alignment of US 9 was completed , running from Laurel through Georgetown to Lewes . A year later , what is now US 9 along the DE 1 concurrency was built as a state highway . The Kings Highway portion of the current route was paved by 1931 . When Delaware assigned numbers to its state highways by 1936 , DE 28 was designated to run from US 13 ( Central Avenue ) in Laurel to DE 18 in Georgetown while the road between Georgetown and Lewes became a part of DE 18 . By 1954 , US 13 was moved to a new alignment to the east of Laurel , and the western terminus of DE 28 was truncated from Central Avenue to the new location of US 13 . The Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry was started in 1964 ; at this time , the ferry did not carry a route number . By this time , the Theodore C. Freeman Highway portion of US 9 had been built .
In 1974 , US 9 was extended across the ferry from New Jersey to Delaware , replacing DE 28 between Laurel and Georgetown and DE 18 between Georgetown and Five Points . Between Five Points and the terminal of the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry , US 9 followed DE 14 ( now DE 1 ) , Kings Highway , and Theodore C. Freeman Highway before coming to Cape Henlopen Drive . At the same time , US 9 Business was designated onto the former alignment of DE 18 between Five Points and Lewes as well as a portion of Cape Henlopen Drive connecting to US 9 . US 9 Truck was created as a truck bypass of the portion of US 9 through Georgetown in 1983 . DE 404 was extended to follow US 9 between Georgetown and Five Points by 1987 .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Conversation poems =
The conversation poems are a group of eight poems composed by Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( 1772 – 1834 ) between 1795 and 1807 . Each details a particular life experience which led to the poet 's examination of nature and the role of poetry . They describe virtuous conduct and man 's obligation to God , nature and society , and ask as if there is a place for simple appreciation of nature without having to actively dedicate one 's life to altruism .
The Conversation poems were grouped in the 20th @-@ century by literary critics who found similarity in focus , style and content . The series title was devised to describe verse where Coleridge incorporates conversational language while examining higher ideas of nature and morality . The works are held together by common themes , in particular they share meditations on nature and man 's place in the universe . In each , Coleridge explores his idea of " One Life " , a belief that people are spiritually connected through a universal relationship with God that joins all natural beings .
Critics have disagreed on which poem in the group is strongest . Frost at Midnight is usually held in high esteem , while Fears in Solitude is generally less well regarded .
= = Grouping = =
20th @-@ century literary critics often categorise eight of Coleridge 's poems ( The Eolian Harp , Reflections on having left a Place of Retirement , This Lime @-@ Tree Bower my Prison , Frost at Midnight , Fears in Solitude , The Nightingale : A Conversation Poem , Dejection : An Ode , To William Wordsworth ) as a group , usually as his " conversation poems " . The term was coined in 1928 by George McLean Harper , who used the subtitle of The Nightingale : A Conversation Poem ( 1798 ) to describe all eight . Harper considered these poems as a form of blank verse that is " ... more fluent and easy than Milton 's , or any that had been written since Milton " . In 2006 , Robert Koelzer wrote about another aspect of this apparent " easiness " , noting that " The Eolian Harp and The Nightingale maintain a middle register of speech , employing an idiomatic language that is capable of being construed as un @-@ symbolic and un @-@ musical : language that lets itself be taken as ' merely talk ' rather than rapturous ' song ' . "
M. H. Abrams wrote a broad description of the works in 1965 . He observed that in each , the speaker " begins with a description of the landscape ; an aspect or change of aspect in the landscape evokes a varied by integral process of memory , thought , anticipation , and feeling which remains closely intervolved with the outer scene . In the course of this meditation the lyric speaker achieves an insight , faces up to a tragic loss , comes to a moral decision , or resolves an emotional problem . Often the poem rounds itself to end where it began , at the outer scene , but with an altered mood and deepened understanding which is the result of the intervening meditation . " In fact , Abrams was describing both the conversation poems and later works influenced by them . Abrams ' essay has been describes as a " touchstone of literary criticism " . As Paul Magnuson wrote in 2002 , " Abrams credited Coleridge with originating what Abrams called the ' greater Romantic lyric ' , a genre that began with Coleridge 's ' Conversation ' poems , and included William Wordsworth 's Tintern Abbey , Percy Bysshe Shelley 's Stanzas Written in Dejection and John Keats 's Ode to a Nightingale , and was a major influence on more modern lyrics by Matthew Arnold , Walt Whitman , Wallace Stevens , and W. H. Auden . "
In 1966 , George Watson devoted a chapter to the poems in his literary analysis Coleridge the Poet . Although stressing that the form was the only type of poetry Coleridge created , he admitted that " the name is both convenient and misleading . A conversation is an exchange ; and these poems , a dozen or fewer , stretching from ' The Eolian Harp ' [ ... ] to ' To William Wordsworth ] [ ... ] and perhaps further , are plainly monologues . Those who met Coleridge in his later life , it is true , were inclined to find his conversation arrestingly one @-@ sided , but this will hardly serve as an explanation of what is happening here . "
= = Poems = =
= = = The Eolian Harp = = =
Coleridge began work on The Eolian Harp in August 1795 during his engagement to Sara Fricker . It details their future union and was inspired by his visit to the house in Clevedon that would serve as their home after their wedding . The poem is infused by the fact that Coleridge took an idealised view of his life with Fricker .
The Eolian Harp was published in the 1796 edition of Coleridge 's poems and in all subsequent collections . Coleridge did not stop working on the poem after it was published . He expanded and reworked up until 1817 . It deals with themes of love , sex and marriage , but is not formed in the usual manner of a love poem . In contrast to the second poem in the series , Reflections , which hints at problems with the relationship , The Eolian Harp focuses on innocence and the poet 's anticipation of his conjugal union .
The poem creates a series of oppositional themes with aspects of nature representing each : seduction and innocence , order and chaos . These oppositions establish tension before the poem asks as to how they can be reconciled . These images and their being reconciled are described as analogous to the effects of an Aeolian harp and Coleridge 's pantheistic feelings towards nature . In terms of religion , The Eolian Harp describes the mind 's desire to seek after the divine . His approach is similar to Ralph Cudworth 's in The True Intellectual System of the Universe . However , Coleridge 's pantheistic feelings on nature are said to receive reproof from Fricker , and Coleridge returns to a more traditional view of God that deals more with faith than finding the divine within nature .
= = = Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement = = =
Soon after his autumn 1795 marriage to Sarah Fricker , Coleridge left their home in Clevedon , North Somerset . However , he felt guilt at his absence from his wife , and eventually went to live with her family at Redcliffe Hill , Bristol . As he completed The Eolian Harp — composed to commemorate his return to Clevedon — Coleridge composed Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement on his absence from Clevedon and later return to be with his wife at Bristol . The poem was published in the October 1796 Monthly Magazine , under the title Reflections on Entering into Active Life . A poem Which Affects Not to be Poetry . Reflections was included in Coleridge 's 28 October 1797 collection of poems and the anthologies that followed .
The themes of Reflections are similar to those of The Eolian Harp . They are set in the same location , and both describe Coleridge 's relationship with his wife and sexual desire . The reflection on his life within the poem represent an unwillingness to accept his current idyllic life and a rejection of the conclusion drawn in The Eolian Harp . Although the land of Clevedon can bring one closer to God in Coleridge 's view , he reflects on how one cannot simply exist in such an area but must actively seek out truth in order to fulfill God 's will . The poem details how men feel a need to seek truth like a philosopher while also desiring to simply live in an idyllic natural state . The poem reconciles these desires by claiming that the pursuer of truth can still reflect back on his time when he was simply enjoying nature and God 's presence .
Reflections further differs from The Eolian Harp by looking at problems within Coleridge 's marriage , especially when the union distracts him from the world outside of his home . The poem expresses desire for solitude and confinement and emphasises the difference between the worlds within and outside of the cottage . Overall , there is focus on the relationship of the private to the public spheres . When engaged with the outside world the narrator is separate from mankind , yet his focus is devoted to helping mankind , which contains religious and political components . The image of " One Life " compels him to abandon the sensual pleasures of the cottage , to pursue a path of altruism .
= = = This Lime @-@ Tree Bower My Prison = = =
During summer 1797 , Coleridge spent time with many of his friends , including John Thelwall , William and Dorothy Wordsworth , Charles Lamb , Thomas Poole , and his wife Sara Fricker . During this time , he suffered an accident in which his foot was burned . As a result , he was left alone at Poole 's property underneath a lime tree , while Lamb , the Wordsworths and his wife went on a journey across the Quantocks .
The first version of the poem was sent in a letter to Southey and was only 56 lines . The first published edition , in 1800 , was 76 lines long . The poem was revised and published under another name in Southey 's Annual Anthology . A later revised edition was included in Sibylline Leaves , Coleridge 's 1817 collection of poems .
Within the verse , Coleridge seeks to discover the environment that his friends are exploring because he is unable to join them . The poem links the lime @-@ tree bower to the Quantocks where the Wordsworths , Lamb and Fricker were out walking . Although he is separated from them , the poet connects to his distant friends and they are able to share in a common view on life . The poem describes Coleridge 's loneliness and solitude throughout , yet he is glad that his friends are able to experience nature . Because of this , he is able to tolerate his prison , which he views as merely physical rather than intellectual .
= = = Frost at Midnight = = =
Frost at Midnight was written in February 1798 . It is based on Coleridge 's childhood as well as his friendship with Wordsworth , who first exposed Coleridge to the wild beauty of the Lake District . The poem was published in a small work containing his France : An Ode and Fears in Solitude . It was rewritten many times ; seven versions have been printed . Of these , the 1798 edition contains six concluding lines that were removed from later editions .
The narrator comes to an understanding of nature while isolated with his thoughts . Nature becomes a comfort , however , the poet remembers the loneliness of childhood when he felt isolated from nature and other people , as if living in a world of strangers . His hope is that his own child , David Hartley , will experience an easier and more harmonious life .
Although Wordsworth places a similar emphasis on living in harmony with nature in his poetry , Coleridge 's view is different from that of Wordsworth 's in that he believed that nature represents a physical presence of God 's word ; this is combined with a Neoplatonic understanding of God that emphasises the need to understand the divine in order to embrace it .
= = = Fears in Solitude = = =
Fears in Solitude was written after rumors of a French invasion spread across England . Although Coleridge was opposed to Prime Minister William Pitt 's control over the British government , he sided with his homeland . He began work on the poem during April 1798 and it was first published in a small pamphlet along with Frost at Midnight and France : An Ode . It was eventually printed seven times with a later printing removing any anti @-@ Pitt sentiment .
The poem is critical of the corruption Coleridge sees within his own government , but it still displays his loyalty and devotion to England . The poem operates in a circular pattern with its beginning and ending at the Stowey dell . By introducing the historically real possibility of an invasion of England , the narrator announces his determination to protect his family and the dell , along with his fellow Britons . Throughout the poem , there is also an emphasis on the simple life and the narrator desires to return to his previous idyllic lifestyle .
= = = The Nightingale : A Conversation Poem = = =
The Nightingale was written in April 1798 , during the same time Coleridge wrote Fears in Solitude . The poem was included in the Lyrical Ballads , a joint publication with Wordsworth . The nightingale is part of a discussion directed to Wordsworths in which Coleridge refutes the traditional association between nightingales and melancholic feelings because of the bird 's appearance in the myth of Philomela .
In a break from tradition , the nightingales in Coleridge 's poem represented an experience he had with the Wordsworths . The narrative is interrupted by a mysterious female character . In this case , the female is not Coleridge 's wife , Sara , a fact which separates The Nightingale from the other poems in the series . The work mentions Hartley , the child they had together , as well as a resonant night in which Coleridge viewed and contemplated the moon . John Keats would later follow Coleridge 's depiction and use of nightingale in " Ode to a Nightingale " .
= = = Dejection : An Ode = = =
Coleridge was living apart from his family in 1802 During this period he intended to write a poem for Sara Hutchinson , with whom he had fallen in love . He sent her the verse on 4 April 1802 . The original draft was titled " Letter to Sara Hutchinson " , but renamed as Dejection when published . There are many differences between the versions . The original consisted of 340 lines ; when published , 139 lines were cut to emphasise two moments in Coleridge 's emotional struggle , while many personal elements were removed . The poem was published in The Morning Post on 4 October 1802 . The date corresponds with Wordsworth 's marriage to Mary Hutchinson .
Dejection was a response to Wordsworth 's Immortality Ode . It conveys feelings of dejection , expressed through an inability to write or appreciate nature . Wordsworth is introduced in the poem as a counterbalance to Coleridge ; Wordsworth is able to turn his darkness to benefit and accept comfort . However , Coleridge cannot find any positive aspect to his despair , and is paralyzed by his emotions . The poem captures many of the feelings expressed in his earlier works , including his exploration of a problematic childhood and thoughts on his religious beliefs .
= = = To William Wordsworth = = =
To William Wordsworth commemorates the time when Coleridge stayed with the Wordsworths during the winter of 1806 – 1807 , and recalls when William Wordsworth read his newly completed The Prelude . Coleridge wrote his poem in response during January 1807 , to capture his feelings about his friend 's poem . Portions of the verse were printed in the 1809 Friend , however Wordsworth did not wish it to be made public due to the private nature of Coleridge 's thoughts . Eventually , it was published in Coleridge 's 1817 collection Sibylline Leaves .
The poem begins by summarising the themes of The Prelude , and develops into a discussion of Wordsworth 's understanding of his beliefs and their relationship with nature . In the poem , Coleridge is self @-@ critical in a near masochistic manner , holding his poetry and thoughts as inferior to Wordsworth . This is partly because Coleridge believed that Wordsworth was able to find bliss from solitude while he was unable to find anything but pain . Coleridge discusses his youthful hopes to become a great poet and how his ability to write has diminished over time . The poem 's admiration of Wordsworth 's ability is rendered without jealousy , though he is scornful of his own .
= = Themes = =
The Eolian Harp examines Coleridge 's understanding of nature within the concept of his " One Life " , an idea that came from reflection on his experiences at Clevedon . The conversation poems as a whole are connected to the ideas within The Eolian Harp that deal with the nature and mans ' understanding of the universe . In particular , The Eolian Harp express an unease with David Hartley 's ideas about necessity . Within Reflections , the idea of " One Life " compels the narrator to abandon the sensual pleasures of the cottage and of nature in order to pursue a path of helping mankind . This Lime @-@ Tree Bower continues the conversation poems theme of " One Life " by linking Coleridge 's surroundings with the walk his friends went on . Although they are all separated , Coleridge connects to his distant friends by their mutual experience and appreciation of nature .
Frost at Midnight uses the idea of " One Life " as the poem describes the idea life that Coleridge 's child will experience in the countryside . Coleridge hoped that the boy would become a " child of nature " and raised free of the constraints that come from a disconnection from nature . Fears in Solitudedescribes the unity of mankind and nature , which manifests in the form of fearing for his fellow countrymen in times of invasion . This idea of " One Life " , according to Abrams , " best epitomize the Romantic constellation of joy , love , and the shared life " .
Both The Eolian Harp and Reflections deal with similar understandings of nature but differ in approach . By Reflections , Coleridge questions his right to simply enjoy nature . The image of nature and other themes reappears in Fear in Solitude , and the later poem even recreates the " Valley of Seclusion " image . Similarly , the compulsion to enter into the world and help mankind is included , but it is altered from being motivated by guilt to a warning message against a possible invasion from outside forces . As such , Fear in Solitude does not seek to leave the location to help mankind , but to stay as a protector over his family .
This Lime @-@ Tree Bower and Frost at Midnight also deal with a similar understanding of nature , and the ideas within This Lime @-@ Tree Bower form the basis for a natural education . Coleridge hoped that his son Hartley would be able to learn through nature in an innocent way . Unlike Wordsworth 's nature , Coleridge 's has a strong Christian presence and nature is a physical presence of God 's word . There is also a connection between Dejection and Frost at Midnight with its emphasis on Coleridge 's private life .
= = Critical response = =
The poems are considered by many critics to be among Coleridge 's finest . The final ten lines of Frost at Midnight were chosen by Harper in 1928 as the " best example of the peculiar kind of blank verse Coleridge had evolved , as natural @-@ seeming as prose , but as exquisitely artistic as the most complicated sonnet . " In 1966 , Virginia Radley argued , " Although no conversation poem can rightly be said to stand equally with the poems of high imagination [ ... ] certainly " Frost at Midnight " and " This Lime @-@ tree Bower ... " both have within them that quality of heart so essential to these latter poems . Because of this quality , and because of the striking effectiveness of their imagery , these poems can be said to be the true harbingers of Coleridge 's greatest poems " .
Others agree on the strength of Frost at Midnight . Richard Holmes wrote in 1989 that the poem " is one of the most intricately structured of all the Conversation Poems " . Rosemary Ashton argued in 1997 that the poem is " one of [ Coleridge 's ] most delightful conversation poems " . Agreeing with this view in 2006 , Adam Sisman believes that Frost at Midnight is " perhaps the most beautiful of Coleridge 's ' conversation poems ' " . Other poems in the series received praise , with George Watson , in 1966 , claiming that To William Wordsworth " is the last pure example that Coleridge 's poetry affords of the conversation poem [ ... ] the poem is extravagant in its very being . " Also , Holmes describes The Eolian Harp as a " beautiful Conversation Poem " .
Not all of the poems have been well received . Watson believes that Fears in Solitude " shows how precarious Coleridge 's new achievement was . It is a shameless return to the older , effusive manner , evidently written in a white heat of patriotic indignation against the degradation of English public opinion during the French wars , and it is only by stretching charity that it can be considered a conversation poem at all . " Holmes simply claims Fears in Solitude as " one of the most difficult of [ Coleridge 's ] Conversation Poems " . In discussing The Nightingale , Ashton writes that , " Bantering though this is , and , however , beautiful the final lines about Hartley are , ' The Nightingale ' is as a whole a less successful poem than the other conversation poems . It has rather a blank at the centre , just where the others pivot on a significant controlling idea . "
|
= Michael Hordern =
Sir Michael Murray Hordern , CBE ( 3 October 1911 – 2 May 1995 ) was an English stage and film actor whose career spanned nearly 60 years . He is best known for his Shakespearean roles , especially that of King Lear , which he played to much acclaim on stage in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon in 1969 and London in 1970 . He then successfully assumed the role on television five years later . He often appeared in film , rising from a bit part actor in the late 1930s to a member of the main cast ; by the time of his death he had appeared in nearly 140 cinema roles . His later work was predominantly in television and radio .
Born in Hertfordshire into a family with no theatrical connections , Hordern was educated at Windlesham House School where he became interested in drama . He went on to Brighton College where his interest in the theatre developed . After leaving the college he joined an amateur dramatics company , and came to the notice of several influential Shakespearean directors who cast him in minor roles in Othello and Macbeth . During the Second World War he served on HMS Illustrious where he reached the rank of lieutenant commander . Upon his demobilisation he resumed his acting career and made his television debut , becoming a reliable bit @-@ part actor in many films , particularly in the war film genre .
Hordern came to prominence in the early 1950s when he took part in a theatrical competition at the Arts Theatre in London . There , he impressed Glen Byam Shaw who secured the actor a season @-@ long contract at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre where he played major parts , including Caliban in The Tempest , Jaques in As You Like It , and Sir Politick Would @-@ Be in Ben Jonson 's comedy Volpone . The following season Hordern joined Michael Benthall 's company at the Old Vic where , among other parts , he played Polonius in Hamlet , and the title role in King John . In 1958 he won a best actor award at that year 's British Academy Television Awards for his role as the barrister in John Mortimer 's courtroom drama The Dock Brief . Along with his theatrical responsibilities Hordern had regular minor roles in various films including Cleopatra ( 1963 ) , and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum ( 1966 ) .
In the late 1960s Hordern met the British theatre director Jonathan Miller , who cast him in Whistle and I 'll Come to You , which was recorded for television and received wide praise . Hordern 's next major play was Jumpers which appeared at the Royal National Theatre at the start of 1972 . His performance was praised by critics and he reprised the role four years later . His television commitments increased towards the end of his life . His credits include Paradise Postponed , the BAFTA award @-@ winning Memento Mori , and the BBC adaptation of Middlemarch . He was appointed a CBE in 1972 and was knighted eleven years later . Hordern suffered from kidney disease during the 1990s and died from it in 1995 at the age of 83 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Family background = = =
Hordern 's mother , Margaret Murray , was descended from James Murray , an Irish physician whose research into digestion led to his discovery of the stomach aid milk of magnesia in 1829 . The invention earned him a knighthood and brought the family great wealth . Margaret grew up in England , and attended St Audries School for Girls in Somerset .
Hordern 's father , Edward , was the son of a Lancastrian priest who was the rector at the Holy Trinity Church in Bury . As a young man Edward joined the Royal Indian Marines and gained the rank of lieutenant . During a short break on home @-@ leave he fell in love with Margaret , after they were introduced by one of his brothers . The courtship was brief and the young couple married in Burma on 28 November 1903 . They had their first child , a son , Geoffrey , in 1905 , followed by another , Peter , in 1907 .
= = = Early years = = =
Four years after the birth of Peter , a pregnant Margaret returned to England where Michael Hordern , her third son , was born on 3 October 1911 in Berkhamsted , Hertfordshire . Still stationed abroad , Edward was promoted to the rank of captain for which he received a good salary . The family lived in comfort and Margaret employed a scullery maid , nanny , groundsman , and full @-@ time cook . Margaret left for India to visit her husband in 1916 . The trip , although only planned as a short term stay , lasted two years because of the ferocity of the First World War . In her absence , Hordern was sent to Windlesham House School in Sussex at the age of five . His young age exempted him from full @-@ time studies but he was allowed to partake in extracurricular activities , including swimming , football , rugby and fishing . After a few years , and along with a fellow enthusiast , he set up the " A Acting Association " ( AAA ) , a small theatrical committee , which organised productions on behalf of the school . As well as the organisation of plays , Hordern arranged a regular group of players , himself included , to perform various plays which they wrote , directed , and choreographed themselves . He stayed at Windlesham House for nine years , later describing his time there as " enormous fun " .
Hordern was 14 when he left Windlesham House to continue his schooling as a member of Chichester House at Brighton College . By the time he joined the college , his interest in acting had matured . In his 1993 autobiography , A World Elsewhere , he admitted : " I didn 't excel in any area apart from singing ; I couldn 't read music but I sang quite well . " There he helped organise amateur performances of various Gilbert and Sullivan operas . The first of these was The Gondoliers , in which he played the role of the Duchess . The tutors called his performance a great success , and he was given a position within the men 's chorus in the next piece , Iolanthe . Over the next few years , he took part in The Mikado as a member of the chorus , and then appeared as the Major @-@ General in The Pirates of Penzance . It was a period which he later acknowledged as being the start of his career . When the war ended in 1918 , Edward , who was by now a port officer in Calcutta , arranged for Margaret to return to England . With her , she brought home an orphaned baby girl named Jocelyn , whom she adopted . The following year , Edward retired from active service and returned to England where he relocated his family to Haywards Heath in Sussex . There , Michael developed a love for fishing , a hobby about which he remained passionate for the rest of his life .
In his autobiography Hordern admitted that his family showed no interest in the theatre and that he had not seen his first professional play , Ever Green , until he was 19 . It was at around this time that he met Christopher Hassall , a fellow student at Brighton College . Hassall , who also went on to have a successful stage career , was , as Hordern noted , instrumental in his decision to become an actor . In 1925 Hordern moved to Dartmoor with his family where they converted a disused barn into a farm house . For Hordern the move was ideal ; his love of fishing had become stronger and he was able to explore the remote landscape and its isolated rivers .
= = = Early acting career ( 1930 – 39 ) = = =
= = = = Theatrical beginnings = = = =
Hordern left Brighton College in the early 1930s and secured a job as a teaching assistant in a prep school in Beaconsfield . He joined an amateur dramatics company and in his spare time , rehearsed for the company 's only play , Ritzio 's Boots , which was entered into a British Drama League competition , with Hordern in the title role . The play did well but conceded the prize , a professional production at a leading London theatre , to Not This Man , a drama written by Sydney Box . So envious was he of the rival show 's success that Hordern supplied a scathing review to The Welwyn Times calling Box 's show a " blasphemous bunk and cheap theatrical claptrap " . The comment infuriated Box , who issued the actor with a writ to attend court on a count of slander . Hordern won the case and left Box liable for the proceeding 's expenses . Years later the two men met on a film set where Box , much to Hordern 's surprise , thanked him for helping to kick @-@ start his career in film making , as he had received a lot of publicity as a result of the court case .
With the death of his mother in January 1933 , Hordern decided to pursue a professional acting career . He briefly took a job at a prep school but fell ill with poliomyelitis and had to leave . Upon his recuperation , he was offered a job as a travelling salesman for the British Educational Suppliers Association , a family @-@ run business belonging to a former school friend at Windlesham House . As part of his job he spent some time in Stevenage where he joined an amateur dramatics company and appeared in two plays ; Journey 's End , in which he played Raleigh , and Diplomacy , a piece which the actor disliked as he considered it to be " too old @-@ fashioned " . Both productions provided him with the chance to work with a cue @-@ script , something which he found to be helpful for the rest of his career . That summer he joined a Shakespearian theatre company which toured stately homes throughout the United Kingdom . His first performance was Orlando in As You Like It , followed by Love 's Labour 's Lost , in which he co @-@ starred with Osmond Daltry . Hordern admired Daltry 's acting ability and later admitted to him being a constant influence on his Shakespearean career .
In addition to his Shakespearean commitments , Hordern joined the St Pancras People 's Theatre , a London @-@ based company partly funded by the theatrical manager Lilian Baylis . Hordern enjoyed his time there , despite the tiresome commute between Sussex and London , and stayed with the company for five years . By the end of 1936 he had left his sales job in Beaconsfield to pursue a full @-@ time acting career . He moved into a small flat at Marble Arch and became one of the many jobbing actors eager to make a name for themselves on the London stage .
= = = = London debut = = = =
Hordern 's London debut came in January 1937 , as an understudy to Bernard Lee in the play Night Sky at the Savoy Theatre . On nights when he was not required , Hordern would be called upon to undertake the duties of assistant stage manager , for which he was paid £ 2.10s a week . In March , Daltry , who had since formed his own company , Westminster Productions , cast Hordern as Ludovico in Othello . The part became Hordern 's first paid role as an actor for a theatre company . The play was an instant hit and ran at the People 's Theatre in Mile End for two weeks . It also starred the English actor Stephen Murray in the title role , but he became contractually obliged elsewhere towards the end of the run . This allowed Hordern to take his place for which Daltry paid Hordern an extra £ 1 a week .
After Othello 's closure , Daltry undertook a tour of Scandinavia and the Baltic with two plays , Outward Bound , and Arms and the Man . He employed Hordern in both with the first being the more successful . It was a time that the actor recognised as being a turning point in his professional acting career . On his return to London , and after spending a few weeks in unemployment , he was offered a part in the ill @-@ fated Ninety Sail . The play , about Sir Christopher Wren 's time in the Royal Navy , was cancelled on the day Hordern was due to start work , with " unforeseen problems " cited as the reason by its producers .
= = = = Bristol repertory theatre = = = =
In mid @-@ 1937 the theatre proprietor Ronald Russell offered Hordern a part in his repertory company , the Rapier Players , who were then based at Colston Hall in Bristol . Hordern 's first acting role within the company was as Uncle Harry in the play Someone at the Door . Because of the play 's success , Russell employed him in the same type of role , the monotony of which frustrated the actor who longed to play the leading man . It was whilst with the Rapier Players that Hordern fell in love with Eve Mortimer , a juvenile actress who appeared in minor roles in many of Russell 's productions . Hordern considered his experience with the Rapier Players to be invaluable ; it taught him how a professional theatre company worked under a strict time frame and how it operated with an even stricter budget . He was allowed two minutes to study each page of the script , but because of the frequent mistakes and many stalled lines , rehearsals became long and laborious . Hordern described the company 's props as being made to a very high standard , despite being bought on a shoe @-@ string budget .
After a brief holiday with Eve in Scotland in 1938 , Hordern returned to London where he appeared in Quinneys , a radio play broadcast by the BBC in June of that year . The main part went to Henry Ainley whom Hordern described as " a great actor , who , sadly , was past his best " . Hordern then made a return to Bristol to prepare for the following season with the Rapier Players . One production singled out in the Western Daily Press as particularly good was Love in Idleness , in which Hordern played the lead character . A reporter for the paper thought that the play " had been noticed " among theatrical critics and that the players " filled their respective roles excellently " .
By the end of 1938 Hordern 's father had sold the family home and had bought a cottage in Holt , near Bath , Somerset . The arrangement was convenient for the young actor , who used the premises as a base while he appeared in shows with the Rapier Players . One such piece was an adaption of Stella Gibbons 's Cold Comfort Farm , which starred Mabel Constanduros , who had adapted the book with Gibbons ' permission . Hordern was cast in the supporting role of Seth , a part he described as being fun to perform . The modernised script was " adored " by the cast , according to Hordern , but loathed by the audience who expected it to be exactly like the book .
= = = Second World War and film debut = = =
Hordern and Eve left Bristol in 1939 for Harrogate , where Eve joined a small repertory company called the White Rose Players . After a brief spell of unemployment , and with the outbreak of war , Hordern volunteered for a post within the Air Raid Precautions ( ARP ) . He was accepted but soon grew frustrated at not being able to conduct any rescues because of the lack of enemy action . He decided that it was " not a very good way to fight the war " and enlisted instead as a gunner with the Royal Navy . While he waiting to be accepted he and Eve responded to an advertisement in The Stage for actors in a repertory company in Bath . They were appointed as the company 's leading man and lady . Their first and only engagement was in a play entitled Bats in the Belfry which opened at the city 's Assembly Rooms on 16 October . Hordern 's elation at finally becoming a leading man was short @-@ lived when he received his call @-@ up that December . In the interest of helping to boost public morale , Hordern sought permission from the navy to allow him to complete his theatrical commitment in Bath and to appear in his first film , a thriller called Girl in the News , directed by Carol Reed ; his request was accepted , and he was told to report for duty at Plymouth Barracks in the early months of 1940 when the show had finished and he was free from filming responsibilities .
In 1940 , after a minor role in Without the Prince at the Whitehall Theatre , Hordern played the small , uncredited part of a BBC official alongside James Hayter in Arthur Askey 's comedy film Band Waggon . Soon after , he began his naval gunnery training on board City of Florence , a defensively equipped merchant ship ( DEMS ) which delivered ammunition to the city of Alexandria on behalf of the British fleet . He found that although his middle class upbringing hindered his ability to make friends on board the ship , it helped in his appeal to his commanding officers .
By 1941 radar was slowly being introduced within the Navy and Hordern was appointed as one of the first operatives who communicated enemy movements to the RAF . He later said that the post was owed to his clear diction and deep vocal range . His commentary impressed his superior officers so much that by early 1942 he had been given the job as a Fighter Direction Officer , and then first lieutenant on board HMS Illustrious . Shortly after the departure of his immediate superior , he was promoted to lieutenant commander , a post which he occupied for two years . Alongside his naval responsibilities , he was also appointed as the ship 's entertainment officer , and was responsible for organising shows featuring various members of Illustrious 's crew as the show 's cast .
= = = Marriage and post @-@ war years = = =
During a short visit to Liverpool in 1943 , Hordern proposed to Eve ; they married on 27 April of that year with the actor Cyril Luckham as best man . After the honeymoon , Hordern resumed his duties on Illustrious while Eve returned to repertory theatre in Southport . In the months after the end of the war in 1945 , he was transferred to the Admiralty where he worked briefly as a ship dispatcher . The Horderns rented a flat in Elvaston Place in Kensington , London , and he began to seek work as an actor . After a short while , he was approached by André Obey who cast him in his first television role , Noah , in a play adapted from the book of the same name . Hordern was apprehensive about performing in the new medium and found the rehearsal and live performance to be exhausting ; but he was generously paid , earning £ 45 for the entire engagement .
Hordern 's first role in 1946 came as Torvald Helmar in A Doll 's House at the Intimate Theatre in Palmers Green . This was followed by the part of Richard Fenton , a murder victim , in Dear Murderer which premiered at the Aldwych Theatre on 31 July . The play was a success and ran for 85 performances until its closure on 12 October . Dear Murderer thrilled the critics and Hordern was singled out by one reporter for the Hull Daily Mail who thought that the actor brought " sincerity to a difficult role " . The following month Eve gave birth to the couple 's only child , a daughter , Joanna , who was born at Queen Charlotte 's Hospital in Chelsea . That Christmas he took the role of Nick Bottom in a festive reworking of Henry Purcell 's The Fairy @-@ Queen . The play was the first performance by the Covent Garden Opera Company , who latter became known as The Royal Opera .
Towards the end of April 1947 , Hordern accepted the small part of Captain Hoyle in Richard Llewellyn 's comic drama film Noose . Two other roles occurred that year : as Maxim de Winter in a television adaption of Daphne du Maurier 's novel Rebecca , followed by the part of a detective in Good @-@ Time Girl , alongside Dennis Price and Jean Kent . The following year he took part in three plays : Peter Ustinov 's The Indifferent Shepherd , which appeared at the newly opened Q Theatre in Brentford , West London ; Ibsen 's Ghosts ; and an adaptation of The Wind in the Willows at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon in which he portrayed the part of the blustery , eccentric Mr Toad .
In early 1949 Hordern appeared as Pascal in the Michael Redgrave @-@ directed comedy A Woman in Love , but disliked the experience because of the hostile relationship between Redgrave and the show 's star , Margaret Rawlings . Next , he was engaged in the minor role of Bashford in the critically acclaimed Ealing comedy Passport to Pimlico , a performance which he described as " tense and hyperactive " .
= = = 1950 – 70 = = =
= = = = Ivanov and Saint 's Day = = = =
By the 1950s Hordern had come to the notice of many influential directors . In his autobiography , the actor recognised the decade as being an important era of his career . It started with a major role in Anton Chekhov 's Ivanov in 1950 . The production took place at the Arts Theatre in Cambridge and excited audiences because of its 25 @-@ year absence from the English stage . The writer T. C. Worsley was impressed by Hordern 's performance and wrote : " Perhaps an actor with star quality might have imposed on us more successfully than Mr Michael Hordern , and won our sympathy for Ivanov by his own personality . But such a performance would have raised the level of expectation all round . As it is , Mr Hordern is rich in intelligence , sensitivity and grasp , and with very few expectations , the company give his impressive playing the right kind of support . " The title character in Macbeth , directed by Alec Clunes , was Hordern 's next engagement . Critics wrote of their dislike of Clunes 's version , but the theatre reviewer Audrey Williamson singled out Hordern 's performance as being " deeply moving " .
The dramatist John Whiting , trying to make a name for himself in the theatre after the war , was called by Clunes to take part in a theatrical competition at the Arts Theatre in London in 1951 , for which he entered his play Saints Day . Several other amateur directors also competed for the prize , which was to have their play funded and professionally displayed at the Arts . Having seen him perform the previous year , Whiting hired Hordern for the lead role of Paul Southman , a cantankerous old poet who fights off three rebellious army deserters who threaten the tranquillity of his sleepy country village . The play proved popular with audiences , but not so with theatrical commentators . Hordern liked the piece , calling it " bitter and interesting " , but the press , who extensively reported on the competition throughout each stage , thought differently and condemned it for winning . This infuriated the actors Laurence Olivier and John Gielgud , who wrote letters of complaint to the press .
= = = = Shakespeare Memorial Theatre = = = =
Hordern cited Saint 's Day 's negative publicity as having done his career " the power of good " as it brought him to the attention of the director Glen Byam Shaw , who cast him in a series of plays at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in 1951 . Among the roles were Caliban in The Tempest , Jaques in As You Like It , and Sir Politick Would @-@ Be in Ben Jonson 's comedy Volpone . Hordern claimed to know very little about the bard 's works and sought advice from friends about how best to prepare for the roles . The same year , he travelled down to Nettlefold Studios , Walton @-@ on @-@ Thames , to film Scrooge , an adaptation of Charles Dickens 's A Christmas Carol , in which he played Marley 's ghost . Reviews were mixed with The New York Times giving it a favourable write @-@ up , while Time magazine remained ambivalent . The Aberdeen Evening Express echoed the comments made by an American reviewer by calling Scrooge a " trenchant and inspiring Christmas show " . The author Fred Guida , writing in his book Christmas Carol and Its Adaptations : A Critical Examination in 2000 , thought that Marley 's ghost , though a " small but pivotal role " , was " brilliantly played " by Hordern .
With the first play of the season imminent , the Horderns moved to Stratford and took temporary accommodation at Goldicote House , a large country property situated on the River Avon . The first of his two plays , The Tempest , caused Hordern to doubt his own acting ability when he compared his interpretation of Caliban to that of Alec Guinness , who had played the same role four years earlier . Reassured by Byam Shaw , Hordern remained in the role for the entire run . A few days later , the actor was thrilled to receive a letter of appreciation from Michael Redgrave , who thought Hordern 's Caliban was " immensely fine , with all the pity and pathos ... but with real terror and humour as well " . More praise was received as the season continued ; an anonymous theatre reviewer , quoted in Hordern 's autobiography , called the actor 's portrayal of Menenius Aggripa " a dryly acute study of the ' humorous patrician ' and one moreover that can move our compassion in the Volscian cameo " , before going on to say " we had felt that it would be long before Alec Guinness 's Menenius could be matched . The fact that Michael Hordern 's different reading can now stand beside the other does credit to a player who will be a Stratford prize . "
= = = = The Old Vic = = = =
Hordern 's contract at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre lasted until mid @-@ 1952 , and on its expiration , he secured a position within Michael Benthall 's theatrical company at the Old Vic in London . The company 's first play , Hamlet , starred Richard Burton , Claire Bloom , and Fay Compton , and opened on 14 September 1953 . Hordern called it " the perfect play with which to open the season " as it featured " fine strong parts for everyone and [ was ] a good showpiece for an actor 's latent vanity " . Shortly after opening , it was transferred to Edinburgh , where it took part at the Fringe before returning to London . For his role of Polonius , Hordern received mixed reviews , with one critic saying : " He was at his best in his early scenes with Ophelia ... but towards the end of the performance he began to obscure less matter with more art " . After Edinburgh , Benthall took Hamlet on a provincial tour and the play had a successful run of 101 performances .
In mid @-@ 1953 the Danish government invited Benthall and his company to Helsingør ( Elsinore ) to perform Hamlet for the Norwegian Royal Family . The play was well received by the royals . On the whole , the actor enjoyed his time in Hamlet but behind the scenes , relations between him and Burton were strained . Hordern noted his colleague 's " likeability , charm and charisma " but thought that Burton had a tendency to get easily " ratty " with him in social situations . Hordern described their working relationship as " love @-@ hate " and admitted that they were envious of each other 's success ; Burton of Hordern because of the latter 's good reviews , and Hordern of Burton who received more attention from fans . When Burton left for Hollywood years later , he recommended Hordern to various casting directors ; Hordern was subsequently engaged in six of Burton 's films .
King John was next for Benthall 's company and opened on 26 October 1953 . The lead character initially went to an unknown and inexperienced young actor , but the part was re @-@ cast with Hordern in the role . Hordern described King John as being " a difficult play in the sense that it has no common purpose or apparent theme " . Simultaneously to this , he was commuting back to Pinewood Studios where he was filming Forbidden Cargo . The hectic schedule brought on a bout of exhaustion for which he received medical advice to reduce his workload .
= = = = Theatre Royal , Brighton = = = =
In early 1955 Hordern was asked by the British theatre manager and producer Binkie Beaumont to take the lead in André Roussin 's comedy Nina , directed by Rex Harrison . The play , which starred Edith Evans , Lockwood West , and James Hayter , transferred from Oxford to the Theatre Royal in Brighton . Beaumont 's request came at short notice because Hordern 's predecessor had proved inadequate . The play was cursed with bad luck : Evans fell ill and was replaced midway by an understudy who neglected to learn her lines ; Harrison frequently upset the cast , which resulted in reduced morale . When Evans did return , she walked off stage and left after seeing empty seats in the front row .
Hordern regretted his decision to take part in Roussin 's Nina , but admitted that the allure of appearing alongside Evans had got the better of him . Harrison held auditions to replace his leading lady and settled on the Australian @-@ American actress Coral Browne . Hordern and Browne grew close , aided by their mutual dislike of their disciplinarian director . They fell in love and they had an affair which lasted for the duration of the run . Years later Hordern confessed : " I kept falling in love . It is a common complaint among actors . You cannot be at such close quarters , mind and body , without being sorely tempted . "
Hordern and Harrison 's dislike for one another was evident to the rest of the cast . One night , after a performance of Nina in Eastbourne , and having felt that he had " acted [ his ] socks off " , Hordern , along with the rest of the cast , were berated by Harrison who accused them of producing a piece " not fit for the end of a pier " . Nina transferred to the Haymarket Theatre , London , not long after the incident but it was unsuccessful and closed after five weeks . " The play was fine " , opined Hordern , " it was a disaster because of Rex Harrison . " Hordern and Browne 's relationship ended shortly after the play closed and Hordern set about rebuilding his marriage with Eve , who had long known of the affair .
= = = = Films and 1950s theatre = = = =
Hordern viewed the 1950s as a good decade to appear in film , although he did not then particularly care for the medium . Writing in 1993 he said : " With cinema one has to leap into battle fully armed . From the start of the film the character has to be pinned down like a butterfly on a board . One does not always get this right , of course , sometimes starting at the beginning of shooting a film on a comedic level that cannot be sustained . " He disliked his physical appearance , which he found to be " repulsive " , and as a result loathed watching back his performances . He preferred radio because the audience only heard his voice , which he then considered his best attribute . Another reason was his recognition of the differences between his sense of personal achievement within a theatre compared to that on a film set : " You get a certain sort of satisfaction in delivering what the director wants of you , but the chances of being emotionally involved are slim . " He acknowledged his good ability at learning lines , something which he found to be especially helpful for learning film scripts which frequently changed . He enjoyed the challenge of earning as much value as possible out of a scene and revelled in being able to hit " the right mark for the camera " . With the experience of Nina still fresh in his mind , Hordern took a break from the stage and decided to concentrate on his film career .
Hordern was appearing in three to four films a year by 1953 , a count that increased as the decade progressed . In 1956 he took a leading part in The Spanish Gardener for which he spent many months filming in southern Spain alongside Dirk Bogarde , Cyril Cusack , and Bernard Lee . The New York Times called Hordern 's role of the strict and pompous Harrington Brande " an unsympathetic assignment " , but thought the actor did " quite well " in his portrayal . By the mid @-@ 1950s Hordern 's name was becoming one of reliability and good value ; as a result , he was offered a clutch of roles . In 1956 he appeared as Demosthenes in Alexander the Great , and Commander Lindsay in The Night My Number Came Up . He appeared in two other films the following year ; the medical drama No Time for Tears , and the thriller Windom 's Way . The Second World War was a popular genre for filmmakers during the 1950s . Hordern said the conflict took up a large part of people 's lives ; " whether it be one of love , loss , nostalgia or tragedy " , everybody , according to the actor , had a story to tell and could relate to the situations that were being depicted before them on screen . He found his earlier naval experience to be an asset when cast in many war films , including The Man Who Never Was , Pacific Destiny , The Baby and the Battleship , all in 1956 , and I Was Monty 's Double two years later .
Hordern was cast in John Mortimer 's 1957 play The Dock Brief in which Hordern played the barrister . The story centres on a failed lawyer who is hired at the last minute to defend a man on a charge of murder . Hordern played the barrister opposite David Kossoff 's murder suspect . After some positive comments from the theatrical press , the play transferred to television in May the same year and earned Hordern a Best Actor Award at the 1958 British Academy Television Awards . The Horderns moved to Donnington , Berkshire in 1958 where they renovated three cottages into one ; the property became the family home and is where Hordern and Eve remained until their deaths .
The year 1959 was professionally disastrous for Hordern . He made a return to stage at the Old Vic in Arthur Wing Pinero 's The Magistrate in which he played Mr. Posket . The play was not particularly successful and received mixed reviews : According to the author and theatre critic J. P. Wearing , Hordern was miscast , while a reporter for The Stage , thought he gave a " convincing portrayal " . Wearing believed that overall the play was not " played briskly enough " , while a critic for The Times thought that it had " durable theatrical quality " . The role was followed with a part of Pastor Manders in Ghosts opposite Flora Robson . The Sunday Times published an unenthusiastic notice , and thought Hordern 's character had " an anxious air " about him . He received equally critical notices when he took to the stage to play the title character in Macbeth , opposite Beatrix Lehmann . The press wrote of Hordern 's " unintended comic interpretation " when characterising the evil king : " Half his time on stage he cringed like an American carpet seller in an ankle @-@ length black dressing gown of fuzzy candlewick " thought one reviewer , who went on to say " he would make a sinister Shylock , a frightening Fagin . But this Thane of Cawdor would be unnerved by Banquo 's valet , never mind Banquo 's ghost . "
On 9 October 1959 , Hordern made his debut on Broadway at the Cort Theatre in Marcel Aymé 's comedy Moonbirds , alongside the comedian Wally Cox . The play was a disaster and closed after only two nights and three performances . Little was offered in the way of praise , although critics singled out Hordern 's performance in particular as being good . He was unsure why the play failed , and attributed it to clashes of personality between cast and management .
= = = = Cleopatra and the 1960s = = = =
In 1960 Hordern played Admiral Sir John Tovey in the British war film Sink the Bismarck ! , based on the book Last Nine Days of the Bismarck by C. S. Forester and with a plot reminiscent of his naval days . With a few smaller roles in between , Hordern started work on the American epic historical drama film Cleopatra . It was made in 1962 and according to the actor , was " the most extraordinary piece of film @-@ making in which I had the pleasure to take part " . He played the Roman orator Cicero and was hired on an eight @-@ week contract which due to various setbacks , including cast sickness and adverse weather conditions , was extended to nine months . Much to Hordern 's annoyance , the film would require him to once again work with Rex Harrison , who was cast as Caesar . Despite the animosity between them , they agreed to endure each other 's company for the sake of the film . The agreement was short @-@ lived ; Harrison made a drunken quip at a cast dinner about Nina which prompted Hordern to assault him . The incident almost resulted in Hordern 's dismissal , but the matter was quickly resolved by producers and the two were kept separate in between filming . In 1993 Hordern claimed the incident had " cleared the air " between them and they eventually became friends . After Cleopatra 's release , Hordern made a return to films , appearing in The Spy Who Came in from the Cold ( 1965 ) , How I Won the War ( 1967 ) , and Where Eagles Dare in 1968 . He also featured in the Roman farce A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum in 1966 .
Hordern first met the British theatre director Jonathan Miller in 1968 . Miller , who had long been an admirer of Hordern , offered him the part of the agonistic Professor Parkin in his forthcoming television drama Whistle and I 'll Come to You . Hordern , who had heard positive things of Miller from theatrical friends , likewise thought highly of the director , and was quick to take up location filming in Norfolk that year . He came to like Miller 's way of working , such as having the freedom to improvise instead of adhering to the strict rules of a script ; the actor wrote in his autobiography that he had never experienced that degree of professional freedom . The programme was released towards the end of 1968 and was a hit with audiences and critics . Mark Duguid of the British Film Institute called it " a masterpiece of economical horror that remains every bit as chilling as the day it was first broadcast " , while a journalist for The Telegraph , writing in 2010 about that year 's remake starring John Hurt , reminded readers of the " brilliant Sixties production by Jonathan Miller [ in which ] Michael Hordern made a fine , crusty Parkin " . The year ended with a role in Peter Hall 's production of Edward Albee 's A Delicate Balance at the Aldwych Theatre . The piece received lukewarm reviews , with Hilary Spurling of The Spectator thinking Hordern was " ill @-@ served " as the principal character , Tobias .
= = = Later career : 1970 – 90 = = =
= = = = King Lear = = = =
Miller and Hordern 's collaboration continued into 1969 with King Lear at the Nottingham Playhouse . Hordern immediately accepted the title role but later said that it was a character he never much cared to play . Writing about Miller in his autobiography , Hordern stated : " It was one of the most exhilarating and funny experiences I have had in the theatre . " Miller recruited Frank Middlemass to play the fool , but contrary to tradition , Miller made the character an intimate of Lear 's as opposed to a servant , something which Shakespearean purists found difficult to accept . Miller decided to further defy convention by concentrating on the relationships between the characters rather than adding detail to scenery and costume ; he was eager not to use lavish sets and lighting for the fear of detracting from the characterisations and the sentimentality of the storyline . As such , the sets were bleak and the costumes more so ; it was a style that was also used when the play was televised by the BBC later that decade .
When King Lear played at the Old Vic in 1970 , reviews were mixed ; J.W. Lambert thought that the " grey sets " and Hordern 's " grizzled " costume were how Shakespeare would have intended them to be , while Eric Shorter thought otherwise , stating " I still do not understand those costumes . " Of the performance , the dramatist and critic Martin Esslin called Hordern 's portrayal " a magnificent creation " before going on to say : " Hordern 's timing of the silences from which snatches of demented wisdom emerge is masterly and illuminates the subterranean processes of his derangement . " Writing for The Times later that year , the theatre critic Irving Wardle described Hordern 's Lear as a " sharp , peremptory pedant ; more a law @-@ giver than a soldier , and ( as justice is an old man 's profession ) still in the prime of his life " . Hordern played Lear once more that decade , in 1975 , which was televised by the BBC for their series Play of the Month .
= = = = Jumpers = = = =
The playwright Tom Stoppard approached Hordern in 1971 with a view to him playing a leading part in the playwright 's new play Jumpers , a comic satire based around the field of academic philosophy . Hordern was to play George Moore , a bumbling old philosophy professor , who is employed at a modern university and who , throughout the play , is in constant debate with himself over his moral values . Hordern , though thinking the play was brilliant , disliked the script on the initial read @-@ through as he did not understand its complex situations and strange dialogue . His co @-@ star would be Diana Rigg , who played Moore 's wife Dotty , and the entire piece was to be directed by Peter Wood .
Jumpers was scheduled to appear at the National Theatre at the start of 1972 , but encountered problems when the theatre 's director , Laurence Olivier , called the play " unintelligible " before walking out during the first read @-@ through in disgust . Despite this , rehearsals went ahead , which the cast found difficult ; the play featured many scenes , a complicated script , and relied heavily on the opening scene , a sceptical speech about the existence of God which lasted 13 minutes . In his autobiography , Hordern commented : " Each day my fists would sink into my cardigan pockets as I tried to make sense of it all . " In a meeting shortly before the opening night , Olivier complained to Stoppard that the play was overlong and , in some parts , laborious . Stoppard agreed to reduce the epilogue by half . The decision angered Hordern as it meant the extra stress of learning a new script at short notice . He vented his frustrations on Wood who agreed to leave his character alone and instead to cut many of the other scenes . The final dress rehearsal also experienced disruption when the revolving stage broke down and had to be fixed half @-@ way through . The problems had ceased by the opening performance the following evening ; it was a night which Hordern called " unbelievable , one of the highlights of my career " . The actress Maureen Lipman , who was in the audience on the opening night , said that her husband , the playwright Jack Rosenthal , had " laughed so hard he thought he was going to be seriously ill " .
The critic Michael Billington , writing in The Guardian , gave a mixed review : " Once or twice one of Stoppard 's brightly coloured balls falls to the ground , partly because Michael Hordern 's moral philosopher substitutes academic mannerism for apprehension of the argument . But this is not to deny that Hordern 's simian habit of scratching his left earlobe with right hand or leaning over his desk as if he is doing intellectual press @-@ ups is very funny to watch or that he is brilliant at displaying cuckolded curiosity . " Harold Hobson , the drama critic , thought that failing to enjoy the play was " not actually a criminal offence but it is a sad evidence of illiteracy " . Jumpers won the Evening Standard ' s Best Play Award which , much to Hordern 's amusement , was presented by the philosopher A. J. Ayer .
= = = = Stripwell , and voice work = = = =
In June 1973 Hordern appeared on radio for the BBC as Jeeves in an adaption of P.G. Wodehouse 's " Jeeves " stories . The following year , Hordern narrated several other , one @-@ off programmes for the broadcaster , including The Honest Broker , The Last Tsar , and Tell the King the Sky Is Falling . In 1975 Hordern played the judge in Howard Barker 's play Stripwell at the Royal Court Theatre . Hordern described the character as " a man wracked by guilt , full of self @-@ doubt and pessimism " . It was a role which the actor found to be too close to his own personality for comfort . His time in the play was marred by personal problems ; he and Eve had briefly separated and the actor was forced to rent a small flat in Sloane Square from the actor Michael Wilding after being banished from the family home . Hordern and Eve soon reconciled , but it was a time which he was keen to forget , including the play . Critics were complimentary of his performance , with one writing : " Stripwell 's ambiguities are therefore viewed half affectionately and half contemptuously and this comes over well in Michael Hordern 's portrayal of bumbling , sometimes endearing ineffectiveness , as skilful and accomplished a performance as one would expect from this actor . "
Later , in 1975 , Hordern narrated Barry Lyndon , Stanley Kubrick 's filmed adaptation of William Makepeace Thackeray 's novel The Luck of Barry Lyndon . The critic John Riley , writing for the British Film Institute , thought that the actor provided " a witty and ironic foil to the characters ' helplessness " . The same year Hordern was asked to narrate 30 episodes of the children 's animation series Paddington , which was based on the Paddington Bear book series by Michael Bond . In his 1993 autobiography , Hordern wrote of his enjoyment at working on Paddington and that he could not differentiate between his enjoyment in comedy and drama : " it 's a bit like difference between roast beef and meringue , both delicious in their way , but there is nothing more satisfying than a thousand people sharing their laughter with you " .
= = = = Return to Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon and Jumpers revival = = = =
In 1976 Hordern joined the RSC in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , where he appeared as Prospero for Trevor Nunn in The Tempest , an engagement which the actor found to be unpleasant because of his poor relationship with the show 's director , Clifford Williams . After that came a short run of Love 's Labour 's Lost in which he played Don Adriano de Armado opposite Alan Rickman and Zoë Wanamaker . Hordern was the oldest member of the company and found it difficult to adjust to the behaviour and attitudes of some of the younger and less experienced actors . He found it different from the 1950s : non @-@ intimate , characterless , and lacking in morale because management preferred discipline rather than offering guidance and assistance to their young actors . Writing in his 1993 biography , Hordern wrote : " Being at Stratford again after all these years was rather like being on a battleship or an aircraft carrier that doesn 't often come into harbour . You are at sea for long periods and away from the rest of your service and if the captain of your ship is a good one then the ship is happy ; if not , then the commission you serve is very unhappy because you are a long way from land . At Stratford that season I was a long way from land . " Later , in 1976 , Hordern portrayed the kingly father of the Prince ( played by Richard Chamberlain ) in the musical film adaptation of Cinderella , The Slipper and the Rose , and returned to the role of George in Stoppard 's Jumpers at the Lyttelton Theatre . The theatre critic Kenneth Hurren " enjoyed it immoderately " and thought the revival revealed a " tidier play than it look [ ed ] " . Hordern compared it to the 1972 version by saying : " It is unquestionably a busy little number , and my first impression of the piece , back in 1972 , was that it had more decoration than substance , and that the decoration was more chaotic than coherent . "
= = = = Television and radio : 1980 – 83 = = = =
In 1981 Hordern played the role of Gandalf in the BBC radio adaptation of Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . The BBC 's budget was generous , and attracted well @-@ known actors from stage and television . The series ran for 26 episodes and was a hit with audiences and critics . The author Ernest Mathijs singled out Hordern in particular as being one of the more powerful characters of the series and his personal favourite , while co @-@ star Ian Holm , writing years later in his autobiography Acting My Life , said he thought Hordern interpreted the role " in a grand , rather old fashioned way " . Writing in his autobiography in 1993 , Hordern said he found the part of Gandalf to be " a bit of a slog " .
Hordern and Jonathan Miller reprised their collaboration in 1982 with a final performance of King Lear , again televised by the BBC . The actor considered this version to be his best and attributed its success to the fact he was getting older and therefore able to better understand the character . The author Joseph Pearce , writing in 2008 , claimed that Hordern played the king " straight up with no gloss " and made a " reliable and workmanlike Lear " who is " forceful when he should be forceful , compassionate when he should be compassionate , [ and ] sorrowful when he should be sorrowful " . Despite the praise , Pearce thought that Hordern 's performance in Act 3 " lack [ ed ] the required fierceness and miss [ ed ] the mythic quality when compared to some of the bigger names " .
In January 1983 Hordern was knighted , an honour which the actor called " a great thrill and [ a ] surprise to us all " . That year he became popular among children as the voice of Badger in the ITV film The Wind in the Willows . He then spent the rest of 1983 appearing as Sir Anthony Absolute in The Rivals for Peter Wood at the Royal National Theatre and received excellent notices . He was nominated for an award at that year 's Olivier Awards for best comedy performance of the year , but lost out to Griff Rhys Jones . His success on the stage was tinged with private turmoil ; Eve was taken ill after she suffered a brain haemorrhage , a condition from which she never fully recuperated . She required constant care but recovered enough to become partially self @-@ sufficient . However , in 1986 she had a fatal heart attack at the couple 's London flat . Hordern was devastated and became consumed in self @-@ pity , in part because of his guilt at the extramarital affairs he had had with many of his leading ladies during the marriage .
= = = = Paradise Postponed and You Never Can Tell = = = =
In 1986 , John Mortimer , a writer whom Hordern respected greatly , engaged the actor in Paradise Postponed , an eleven @-@ part drama which took a year to make and cost in excess of £ 6 million . Set in rural England , the saga depicts the struggles within British middle @-@ class society during the post @-@ war years . In his biography , Hordern described himself as " a man of prejudice rather than principle " and as such , had very little in common with his character , the left @-@ wing , Marxist @-@ loving vicar , Simeon Simcox . Despite the political differences , Hordern felt great empathy towards his character , and admired his " plain , straightforward attitude to life , his dottiness , and the way he hung to his faith in a wicked world with a saintliness verging on the simple " .
Hordern made a return to the London stage in 1987 after a four @-@ year absence . The play in which he starred , You Never Can Tell , transferred to the Haymarket Theatre that December having made its debut at the Theatr Clwyd in Wales earlier that year . It was the second time the actor had appeared in the play , the first being back in Bristol fifty years previously when he starred as the youthful lead , Valentine . This time he was cast as William , the elderly waiter , a part which he considered to be " a real hell to play " , partly because of the many meals he had to serve up on stage , whilst at the same time trying to remember the complex script . He enjoyed the play immensely and was thrilled at its successful run . His engagement also gave him a chance to reunite with some old friends , including Irene Worth , Michael Denison and Frank Middlemass , all of whom were in the cast . Hordern admitted that , on the whole , the experience made him feel " a little happier " about life .
= = = Final years and death = = =
By the early 1990s Hordern was concentrating more on television . His roles were mostly those of ageing teachers , bank managers , politicians and clergymen . In 1989 he appeared alongside John Mills in an adaption of Kingsley Amis 's Ending Up , a tale about a group of pensioners growing old together in a residential home . After that he took the part of Godfrey Colston in Memento Mori , a television film about a group of elderly friends succumbing to old age , which was adapted for television from the Muriel Spark novel of the same name . The film received excellent notices and Hordern 's performance was described as outstanding by the critic Neil Sinyard . All that was required of Hordern in his next role , the wealthy but terminally ill landowner Peter Featherstone in the BBC adaptation Middlemarch , was for him simply to lie in bed and pretend to die . It was the kind of role which he found to be most fitting for someone of his advanced years and confirmed to him that as the older he got , the more he became typecast . It was a situation that did not altogether bother him as he felt grateful at still being employable at the age of 81 .
In January 1995 Hordern was invited back to his old college in Brighton , where a room was named in his honour . Inside , the college had commissioned the sculptor Peter Webster to create a bronze bust of the actor which is displayed with a plaque . Hordern 's last physical acting role came shortly afterwards as Lord Langland in the comedy film A Very Open Prison . This was followed by two narration performances , firstly in Spode A History of Excellence , and then in the five @-@ part film Dinosaurs and Their Living Relatives .
Hordern died of kidney disease at the Churchill Hospital , Oxford , on 2 May 1995 , at the age of 83 . Medical staff confirmed that he had been suffering from " a long illness and had been receiving dialysis treatment " .
= = Approach to acting = =
Hordern was a self @-@ confessed " lazy bugger " when it came to role preparation . He did not regret his lack of formal acting training , and attributed his abilities to watching and learning from other actors and directors . He said : " I am bored of the intellectual view of the theatre . Actually , it scares the shit out of me , my view being that an actor should learn the lines without too much cerebral interference . " In 1951 , he asked Byam Shaw how best to rehearse unfamiliar roles . The director advised him to " never read up on them " before going on to say " read the plays as much as [ you like ] but never read the commentators or critics " . It was advice which Hordern adopted for the role of King Lear , and for the rest of his career . The critic Brian McFarlane , writing for the British Film Institute , said that Hordern , despite his relaxed attitude , " had one of the most productive careers of any 20th century British actor " .
After all the great parts I have played in my career , Prospero , Lear , Sir Anthony Absolute , George in Jumpers , after all the accolades , the CBE , knighthood , honorary degrees , mixing with the great and the good , I was brought down to earth recently by a small boy whom I had noticed having an intense argument with two other small boys outside my phone box . I seemed to be the centre of discussion . When I stepped out of the box , one of the boys came up to me , looked up earnestly , and very politely asked , ' Excuse me , aren 't you Paddington ? ' I felt gratified .
Throughout his 1993 autobiography A World Elsewhere , Hordern exhibited his pride on being able to play a wide range of parts , something which made him a frequent subject among theatrical critics . The author Martin Banham thought that many of Hordern 's characters shared a general identity of " an absent @-@ minded , good @-@ hearted English eccentric " . The American journalist Mel Gussow , writing in Hordern 's obituary in The New York Times in 1995 , described the actor as being " a classical actor with the soul of a clown " , while the actors John Hurt and Michael Bryant described Hordern as being " the Austin Princess among British actors " , which implied to the author Sheridan Morley that Hordern possessed an element of " reliability but [ with ] a faint lack of charisma " . Morley , who wrote Hordern 's biography for the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , went on to describe the actor as being " one of the great eccentrics of his profession , perched perilously somewhere half way between Alistair Sim and Alec Guinness " .
= = Stage roles and filmography = =
|
= New Jersey Route 45 =
Route 45 is a state highway in the southern part of New Jersey , United States . It runs 28 @.@ 51 mi ( 45 @.@ 88 km ) from Route 49 in Salem , Salem County , northeast to U.S. Route 130 ( US 130 ) in Westville , Gloucester County . Much of the southern part of the route runs through rural areas of Salem and Gloucester counties , passing through the communities of Woodstown and Mullica Hill . North of Mullica Hill , Route 45 runs through suburban areas , with the portion of the route between the northern border of Mantua Township and the southern border of Woodbury a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route intersects many highways , including US 40 in Woodstown , Route 77 and US 322 in Mullica Hill , and Interstate 295 ( I @-@ 295 ) in West Deptford Township .
The current route was originally a segment of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 that was created in 1917 , running from Salem to Camden . Route 45 was designated in 1927 to replace the Salem @-@ Camden branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 and was eventually realigned to follow US 130 ( Crescent Boulevard ) to the Airport Circle in Pennsauken Township . The northern terminus of Route 45 was moved to its current location in 1953 in order to avoid the concurrency with US 130 . A freeway for Route 45 between I @-@ 295 in Woodbury and US 322 in Mullica Hill was recommended by the Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission in the 1960s . It was never built , and the New Jersey Department of Transportation proposed widening all of Route 45 into a four @-@ lane divided highway ; only a small portion in northern Gloucester County was widened .
= = Route description = =
= = = Salem County = = =
Route 45 begins at an intersection with Route 49 in Salem , Salem County , heading to the north on Market Street , a two @-@ lane undivided road . It passes downtown businesses and both the Salem County Courthouse and the Old Salem County Courthouse , the second oldest active courthouse in the United States , which currently serves as the Salem City Court . Upon crossing County Route 657 ( CR 657 ) , the road heads into residential areas before crossing a Southern Railroad of New Jersey railroad line and the Fenwick Creek . At the crossing of the latter , Route 45 enters Mannington Township and becomes an unnamed road that passes marshland with some development . The route passes by the Memorial Hospital of Salem County just prior to an intersection with CR 540 in Pointers .
Here , Route 45 turns to the east and forms a concurrency with CR 540 , passing through farmland with some woods and homes . CR 540 splits from Route 45 by heading southeast on Welchville Road and Route 45 continues , intersecting CR 653 before crossing the Mannington Creek . It intersects CR 669 and CR 631 within a short distance of each other before crossing Majors Run into Pilesgrove Township .
Here , the route intersects CR 679 near the Salem County Veterans Cemetery before heading through more agricultural areas . The route reaches an intersection with US 40 ( Harding Highway ) and CR 616 in a business area , where US 40 forms a concurrency with Route 45 . The two routes head northeast into Woodstown as the Harding Highway into residential areas .
At the intersection with Main Street in downtown , Route 45 splits from US 40 by heading north on Main Street while CR 672 heads south on Main Street and US 40 continues to the east on East Avenue . Route 45 continues north , intersecting CR 636 before turning northeast again and meeting CR 602 . The road passes over a Southern Railroad of New Jersey line before coming to an intersection with CR 668 / CR 617 . A short distance later , the route enters Pilesgrove Township again and heads back into farmland with some residences and forested areas as an unnamed road , crossing CR 660 .
= = = Gloucester County = = =
Route 45 crosses Oldmans Creek into South Harrison Township , Gloucester County within woodland and continues through rural areas with some residential developments as Woodstown @-@ Mullica Hill Road . The route crosses CR 668 before crossing CR 694 and CR 607 within a close distance of each other . Past this intersection , it continues to CR 617 , where the name changes to Woodstown Road , before crossing CR 538 . A short distance later , the route enters Harrison Township and continues north . It enters the community of Mullica Hill , where it intersects the northern terminus of Route 77 . Here , Route 45 turns north and becomes Main Street , passing homes and some businesses and turning into a county @-@ maintained road . The route intersects Mullica Road , at which point it becomes concurrent with unsigned US 322 Bus . / CR 536 .
In Mullica Hill , the road crosses US 322 and CR 536A , where US 322 Bus. ends and CR 536 turns west along US 322 , and Route 45 continues northeast along Main Street , passing residential and commercial development as a state @-@ maintained road . The route intersects CR 664 , CR 603 , CR 667 , and CR 624 before crossing into Mantua Township , where it becomes Bridgeton Pike . The road heads through a mix of woods and farms with occasional homes , intersecting CR 626 . The route passes more rural land before heading into suburban development .
Here , Route 45 intersects CR 627 and CR 678 as it passes a mix of homes and businesses . The route intersects CR 632 , where the name changes to Mantua Pike , and CR 553 Alt. before widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway and crossing the Mantua Creek . At this point , Route 45 turns to the north and forms the border between Deptford Township to the east and West Deptford Township to the west , intersecting CR 648 and CR 656 . At the intersection with College Boulevard , the route forms the border between Woodbury Heights to the east and West Deptford Township to the west , crossing over the New Jersey Turnpike without an interchange . From here , Route 45 continues north , intersecting CR 652 and CR 650 .
After the intersection with the latter , the route becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road , entering Woodbury and immediately crossing a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line . The road crosses another railroad line before coming to an intersection with CR 551 . Here , Route 45 forms a concurrency with CR 551 and heads north @-@ northeast on Broad Street through the downtown of Woodbury , where it intersects CR 663 . Route 45 and CR 551 cross the Woodbury Creek out of the downtown area and intersect CR 644 near Inspira Medical Center Woodbury . From here , the route continues past a mix of residences and businesses as a two @-@ lane undivided road . CR 551 splits from Route 45 by heading east on Park Avenue then north on Broadway .
Meanwhile , Route 45 continues north along the border between Deptford Township to the east and Woodbury to the west , with a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line closely paralleling the route on its east side . At the intersection with CR 642 , the road forms the border between Deptford Township and West Deptford Township again . The route widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it comes to a partial interchange with I @-@ 295 , with some of the movements provided by nearby CR 551 to the east . Past this interchange , Route 45 becomes a four @-@ lane undivided highway and enters Westville . Here , it continues parallel to the railroad line to the east with businesses lining the west side of the road . Route 45 passes residential areas before it comes to its northern terminus at a directional Y @-@ intersection with US 130 .
= = History = =
What is now Route 45 was originally designated as a segment of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 in 1917 . This route was to head south from Camden and follow Route 45 to Mullica Hill , where it split into two branches , with one going to Salem on current Route 45 and another going to Bridgeton on current Route 77 . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 between Camden and Salem became Route 45 . A bypass around Camden was created as the southern half of Crescent Boulevard , a part of US 130 , and Route 45 was rerouted to use the bypass up to the Airport Circle in Pennsauken Township . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the northern terminus of Route 45 was cut back to its current location in Westville to avoid the concurrency with US 130 .
In the late 1960s , the Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission ( DVRPC ) proposed construction of a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long , $ 20 million freeway along the Route 45 corridor in Gloucester County which would have extended from Exit 24 of I @-@ 295 in Woodbury to a planned US 322 freeway in Mullica Hill . The New Jersey Department of Transportation never followed through on this proposal . A portion of Route 45 was widened to four lanes from the border of Woodbury to the border of Mantua Township by the 1980s . In 2012 , the Mullica Hill Bypass was completed , and US 322 was removed from its concurrency with Route 45 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Future = =
The New Jersey Department of Transportation is planning on rebuilding Route 45 in Woodbury to make it more friendly to pedestrians and bicyclists . The project calls for reducing the road from four lanes to three lanes while adding bike lanes , curb extensions to improve safety for pedestrians , and improvements to curb ramps and crosswalks . It is currently in the design stage .
|
= Fallout 3 =
Fallout 3 is an action role @-@ playing open world video game developed by Bethesda Game Studios , and is the third major installment in the Fallout series . It was released worldwide in October 2008 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 .
Fallout 3 takes place in the year 2277 , 116 years after the setting of Fallout , 36 years after the setting of Fallout 2 and 200 years after the nuclear apocalypse that devastated the game 's world , in a future where international conflicts between the United States and China culminated in a Sino @-@ American war in 2077 , due to the scarcity of petroleum reserves that ran the economies of both countries . The player character is an inhabitant of Vault 101 , a survival shelter designed to protect up to 1 @,@ 000 humans from the nuclear fallout . When the player character 's father disappears under mysterious circumstances , the player is forced to escape from the Vault and journey into the ruins of Washington , D.C. , now known as the " Capital Wasteland " , to track their father down . Along the way the player is assisted by a number of human survivors and settlements , and must battle a myriad of enemies that inhabit the area .
Fallout 3 was critically acclaimed and received a number of Game of the Year awards , praising the game 's open @-@ ended gameplay and flexible character @-@ leveling system , and is considered one of the greatest video games of all time . The NPD Group estimated that Fallout 3 sold over 610 @,@ 000 units during its initial month of release in October 2008 , performing better than Bethesda 's previous game , The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , which sold nearly 500 @,@ 000 units in its first month . The game received post @-@ launch support with Bethesda releasing five downloadable add @-@ ons . The game also received controversy upon release . In Australia , for the use of and the ability to be addicted to alcohol and drugs , in India , for cultural and religious sentiments over the cattle in the game being called " Brahmin " , and in Japan , due to having a weapon called the " Fat Man " , which releases mini nuclear bombs .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Attributes = = =
The game starts with the main character as a newborn , whereupon the player determines the race , gender , and the general appearance of their character . As a one @-@ year @-@ old baby , the infant reads a child 's book titled You 're SPECIAL , where the player can set the character 's starting S.P.E.C.I.A.L. primary attributes : Strength , Perception , Endurance , Charisma , Intelligence , Agility , and Luck . The character gains a set of Skills with base levels determined by these attributes . At age 10 , the character obtains a Pip @-@ Boy , a computerized wristwatch which allows the player to access a menu with statistics , maps , data , radio , and other items . The character also obtains their first weapon , a BB gun , which he or she then uses to kill a radroach , a type of irradiated giant cockroach . At age 16 , the character takes the Generalized Occupational Aptitude Test ( G.O.A.T. ) to determine the three Skills they wish the character to focus on .
As the character progresses through the game , experience points are earned that are used to achieve levels of accomplishment . Upon achieving a new level , the player receives a set of skill points that can be assigned to improve any of the Skill percentages . For instance , increasing the lock pick skill grants the player the ability to pick harder locks to unlock doors and supply crates . A Perk is granted at each level , which offers advantages of varying quality and form . Many Perks have a set of prerequisites that must be satisfied , and new Perks are unlocked every two levels .
An important statistic tracked in the game is karma . Each character has an aggregate amount of karma that can be affected by the decisions and actions made in the game . Positive karmic actions include freeing captives and helping others . Negative karmic actions include killing good characters and stealing . Beyond acting as flavor for the game 's events , karma can have tangible effects to the player , primarily affecting the game 's ending . Other effects include altered dialogue with non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) , or unique reactions from other characters . Actions vary in the level of karma change they cause ; thus , pickpocketing produces less negative karma than the killing of a good character . However , the player 's relationships with the game 's factions are distinct , so any two groups or settlements may view the player in contrasting ways , depending on the player 's conduct . Some Perks require specific karma levels .
= = = Health and weapons = = =
Health is separated into two types : general and limb . General health is the primary damage bar , and the player will die if it is depleted . Limb health is specific to each portion of the body , namely the arms , legs , head , and torso . Non @-@ human enemies will sometimes have additional appendages . When a limb 's health bar is depleted , that limb is rendered " crippled " and induces a negative status effect , such as blurred vision from a crippled head or reduced movement speed from a crippled leg . Health is diminished when damage is taken from being attacked , falling from great distances , or accidental self injury . General health can be replenished by sleeping , using medical equipment ( stimpaks ) , eating food , or drinking water . Limbs can be healed directly by injecting them with stimpaks , by sleeping , or by being healed by a doctor . Along with the health , there are 20 bobbleheads that can be found throughout the game that will give the player bonuses to attributes and skills . Each bobblehead is an iconic Vault Boy figurine in a different pose . Three of them have to be found in different time periods in the gameplay ; otherwise they will be lost .
There are secondary health factors that can affect performance . Chief among these is radiation poisoning : most food is irradiated to a small degree , and parts of the world have varying levels of background radiation . As the player is exposed to radiation , it builds up , causing negative effects and eventually death if left untreated . Radiation sickness must be healed by special medicine named Rad Away or by visiting one of the Wasteland 's doctors . Radiation can be prevented by the use of Rad @-@ X which increases radiation resistance . The player can become addicted to drugs and alcohol , and then go through withdrawal symptoms if denied those substances . Both afflictions can blur the player 's vision for a few seconds and have a negative effect on SPECIAL attributes until the problem is corrected .
Items can become degraded and become less effective . Firearms do less damage and may jam during reloading , and apparel becomes gradually less protective . This will eventually result in the item breaking altogether . Items can be repaired for a price from special vendors , or , when the player has two of the same item ( or a comparable item ) , one can be repaired using salvage parts from the other . Players have the option to create their own weaponry using various scavenged items found in the wasteland . These items can only be created at workbenches , and only if the player possesses the necessary schematics or Perk . These weapons usually possess significant advantages over other weapons of their type . Each schematic has three copies that can be found . Each copy improves the condition ( or number ) of items produced at the workbench . A higher repair skill will result in a better starting condition for the related weapon . Weapon schematics can be found lying in certain locations , bought from vendors , or received as quest rewards .
= = = V.A.T.S. = = =
The Vault @-@ Tec Assisted Targeting System , or V.A.T.S. , plays an important part in combat . While using V.A.T.S. , real @-@ time combat is paused , and action is played out from varying camera angles in a computer graphics version of " bullet time " , creating a combat system that the Bethesda developers have described as a hybrid between timeturn @-@ based and real @-@ time combat . Various actions cost action points , limiting the actions of each combatant during a turn , and the player can target specific body areas for attacks to inflict specific injuries ; head shots can be used for quick kills or blinding , legs can be targeted to slow enemies ' movements , opponents can be disarmed by shooting at their weapons , and players can drive certain enemies into a berserker rage by shooting out things like antennae on various overgrown insects and combat inhibitors on armored robots . However , the use of V.A.T.S. also eliminates most of the first @-@ person shooter elements of the game ; aiming is taken over by the computer , and the player is unable to move as a means of avoiding attacks . Each body part has a percentage of hit chance , and generally the closer the player character is to an enemy the higher that percentage . The higher level the character using V.A.T.S is , the more likely that character will hit their enemy .
= = = Companions = = =
The player can have a maximum party of three consisting of the player 's character , a dog named Dogmeat , and a single non @-@ player character ( NPC ) . Dogmeat can be killed during the game if the player misuses him or places him in a severely dangerous situationa ; it is possible to not encounter Dogmeat at all depending on how the game is played . One other NPC can travel with the player at any time , and in order to get another NPC to travel , the first one must be dismissed ( either voluntarily by the player or as a consequence of other events ) or die in combat.a In the " Broken Steel " DLC , the level 22 perk " Puppies ! " allows the player to gain a puppy if Dogmeat dies .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Fallout 3 takes place in the year 2277 , 200 years after a war over resources that ended in nuclear holocaust in 2077 . The setting is a post @-@ apocalyptic retro @-@ future , covering a region that includes Washington , D.C. , Northern Virginia and parts of Maryland . The game 's landscape includes war @-@ ravaged variants of numerous real @-@ life landmarks such as the White House , the Jefferson and Lincoln Memorials , Arlington National Cemetery and the Washington Monument . The area that the game is set in , known in @-@ game as the Capital Wasteland , holds a number of small settlements of the descendants of survivors from the Great War . Many inhabitants were killed during the nuclear holocaust and the Wasteland is now little more than a barren land nearly devoid of healthy water , food , plant and animal life due to the extreme radiation levels . However , there is a small settlement in the north part of the Capital Wasteland where plant life is abundant .
The player ( known as the Lone Wanderer ) begins the game inside Vault 101 , where they were raised , before escaping out into the Capital Wasteland and facing its many dangers . The Capital Wasteland is home to a number of mutated species of creatures such as two @-@ headed cattle called Brahmin , radscorpions , molerats , and mirelurks . Many of these creatures are generally hostile to the player and will attack on sight . The Wasteland and the city proper is home to several hostile groups , including super mutants , feral ghouls , raiders , slavers , mercenaries , and robots . Of note are the various Vaults — underground structures designed as shelters to protect inhabitants from the dangers of nuclear war ( and also for more sinister purposes ) . In the Washington , D.C. area , many of the roads are blocked off with giant piles of rubble . The player can navigate around the city using a system of underground metro tunnels that connect with other locations ( loosely based on the real @-@ life Washington Metro ) .
The game takes place in an alternate version of history that sees the 1940s ' and 1950s ' aesthetics , design and technology advance in the directions imagined at the time . The resulting universe is thus a retro @-@ futuristic one , where the technology has evolved enough to produce laser weapons , manipulate genes and create nearly @-@ autonomous artificial intelligence , but all within the confines of 1950s ' solutions like the widespread use of atomic power and vacuum tubes , as well as having the integrated circuitry of the digital age . The architecture , advertisements and general living styles are also depicted to be largely unchanged since the 1950s , while including contemporary products , such as a robotic rocking horse for children in one advertisement , or posters for the underground vaults that play a central role in the storyline of the game .
= = = Story = = =
The introductory sequence introduces the player to their character 's father , James , a doctor and scientist in Vault 101 . James frequently makes comments about the player character 's deceased mother Catherine , and her favorite Bible passage , Revelation 21 : 6 , which speaks of " the waters of life " .
The main quest begins 19 years later , after the player is forced to flee Vault 101 when James leaves the vault , throwing it into anarchy and causing the paranoid Overseer , the leader of the Vault , to send his security force after the player . The search for James takes the character on a journey through the Wasteland , first to the nearby town of Megaton , named for the undetonated atomic bomb at the center of town , then the Galaxy News Radio station , whose enthusiastic DJ Three Dog gives the player the moniker of " The Lone Wanderer " . The Wanderer travels to Rivet City , a derelict aircraft carrier now serving as a fortified human settlement . Here the Lone Wanderer meets Doctor Li , a scientist who worked alongside the player 's father . Doctor Li informs the Wanderer of Project Purity , a plan conceived by Catherine and James to purify all the water in the Tidal Basin and eventually the entire Potomac River with a giant water purifier built in the Jefferson Memorial . However , continued delays and Catherine 's death during childbirth put an end to the project , and James took the Lone Wanderer as a newborn to raise them in the safety of Vault 101 .
After investigating the Jefferson Memorial , the Lone Wanderer tracks James to Vault 112 , and frees him from a virtual reality program being run by the Vault 's sadistic Overseer , Dr. Braun . James and the Wanderer return to Rivet City , and James reveals he sought out Braun for information on the Garden of Eden Creation Kit ( G.E.C.K. ) , a device that contains the components needed to finally activate Project Purity . James and Doctor Li lead a team of Rivet City scientists to the memorial with intent to restart the project , but the memorial is invaded by the Enclave , a powerful military organization formed from the remnants of the pre @-@ War United States government . James floods the project 's control room with radiation to stop the Enclave military leader , Colonel Augustus Autumn , from taking control of it , killing himself ( but Autumn survives ) , his last words urging his child to run . The Lone Wanderer and Dr. Li flee to the ruins of the Pentagon , now a base for the Brotherhood of Steel and now known as the Citadel . With Project Purity still inoperational even with the Enclave occupying the site , the player travels to Vault 87 to find a G.E.C.K. and finish James 's work . The Wanderer finds the Vault to be a testing site for the FEV ( Forced Evolutionary Virus ) , and the source of the Super Mutants in the Capital Wasteland . After the player acquires the G.E.C.K. , the Wanderer is ambushed by the Enclave and captured .
At the Enclave base at Raven Rock , the Lone Wanderer is freed from their cell by the Enclave leader , President John Henry Eden , who requests a private audience with them . En route to his office however , Colonel Autumn defies Eden 's orders and takes command of the Enclave military , ordering them to kill the Wanderer . Fighting their way to Eden 's office , the Lone Wanderer discovers that Eden is actually a sentient ZAX series supercomputer who took control of the Enclave after their defeat in Fallout 2 on the West Coast thirty years previously . Eden wishes to repeat the plan of then @-@ President Dick Richardson using Project Purity , infecting the water with a modified strain of FEV that will make it toxic to any mutated life . This plan will kill most life in the wasteland including humans , but the Enclave , due to their genetic " purity " as a result of their isolation , will be immune and free to take control of the area . The Wanderer , provided with a sample of the new F.E.V. , is given a choice to either leave peacefully or convince Eden to self @-@ destruct the entire base . The Lone Wanderer escapes Raven Rock and returns to the Citadel .
With the knowledge they possess , the G.E.C.K. and the means to activate Project Purity , the Brotherhood assault the Jefferson Memorial , spearheaded by a giant robot named Liberty Prime . In the control room of Project Purity , the Lone Wanderer confronts Colonel Autumn , and has the choice to persuade him to give up or kill him . Dr. Li informs the Wanderer that the purifier is ready to be activated , but the activation code must be input manually , and also that the control room is flooded with lethal amounts of radiation . To make matters worse , the purifier has been damaged and will self @-@ destruct if not activated . The Lone Wanderer is forced to choose between sending Sarah Lyons of the Brotherhood inside the extremely irradiated purifier or entering themselves . Whoever enters into the chamber inputs the code hinted at throughout the game , 21 : 6 , and dies from a radiation spike . The Lone Wanderer can also choose to simply do nothing and allow the purifier to explode , destroying the Jefferson Memorial and killing everyone inside in the process .
If the " Broken Steel " DLC is installed , the Lone Wanderer survives if they activate it themselves , but they also have the option of sending one of their radiation @-@ immune companions to enter the code and start the purifier with no casualties . The player also has the possibility to enter the F.E.V. sample into the water prior to activation , having adverse post @-@ ending effects on the game 's side quests .
= = Development = =
= = = Interplay Entertainment = = =
Fallout 3 was initially under development by Black Isle Studios , a studio owned by Interplay Entertainment , under the working title Van Buren . Black Isle Studios was the developer of the original Fallout and Fallout 2 . When Interplay Entertainment went bankrupt and closed down Black Isle Studios before the game could be completed , the license to develop Fallout 3 was sold for a $ 1 @,@ 175 @,@ 000 minimum guaranteed advance against royalties to Bethesda Softworks , a studio primarily known as the developer of The Elder Scrolls series . Bethesda 's Fallout 3 , however , was developed from scratch , using neither Van Buren code nor any other materials created by Black Isle Studios . In May 2007 , a playable technology demo of the canceled project was released to the public .
Leonard Boyarsky , art director of the original Fallout , when asked about Interplay Entertainment 's sale of the rights to Bethesda Softworks , said " To be perfectly honest , I was extremely disappointed that we did not get the chance to make the next Fallout game . This has nothing to do with Bethesda , it 's just that we 've always felt that Fallout was ours and it was just a technicality that Interplay happened to own it . It sort of felt as if our child had been sold to the highest bidder , and we had to just sit by and watch . Since I have absolutely no idea what their plans are , I can 't comment on whether I think they 're going in the right direction with it or not . " .
= = = Bethesda Softworks = = =
Bethesda Softworks started working on Fallout 3 in July 2004 , but principal development did not begin until after The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion and its related extras and plug ins were completed . Bethesda Softworks decided to make Fallout 3 similar to the previous two games , focusing upon non @-@ linear gameplay , story , and black comedy . Bethesda also chose to pursue an ESRB rating of M ( for mature ) by including the adult themes , violence , and depravity characteristic of the Fallout series . They also decided to shy away from the self @-@ referential gags of the game 's predecessors that broke the illusion that the world of Fallout is real . Fallout 3 uses a version of the same Gamebryo engine as Oblivion , and was developed by the team responsible for that game . Liam Neeson was cast as the voice of the player 's father .
In February 2007 , Bethesda stated that the game was " a fairly good ways away " from release but that detailed information and previews would be available later in the year . Following a statement made by Pete Hines that the team wanted to make the game a " multiple platform title " , the game was announced by Game Informer to be in development for Windows , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 .
During a March 21 , 2008 , Official Xbox Magazine podcast interview , Todd Howard revealed that the game had expanded to nearly the same scope as Oblivion . There were originally at least 12 versions of the final cutscene , but , with further development , this expanded to over 200 possible permutations in the final release , all of which are determined by the actions taken by the player . Bethesda Softworks attended E3 2008 to showcase Fallout 3 . The first live demo of the Xbox 360 version of the game was shown and demonstrated by Todd Howard , taking place in downtown Washington , D.C. The demo showcased various weapons such as the Fat Man nuclear catapult , the V.A.T.S. system and the functions of the Pip @-@ Boy 3000 as well as combat with several enemies . The demo concluded as the player neared the Brotherhood of Steel @-@ controlled Pentagon and was attacked by an Enclave patrol .
= = = = Audio = = = =
Several actors of film and video games lent their voices to Fallout 3 , including Liam Neeson as James , Ron Perlman as the game 's narrator , Malcolm McDowell as President John Henry Eden , Craig Sechler as Butch DeLoria , Erik Todd Dellums as Three Dog , and Odette Yustman as Amata Almodovar . Veteran voice actors Dee Bradley Baker , Wes Johnson , Paul Eiding , and Stephen Russell also provided voice overs for the game . The Fallout 3 soundtrack continued the series ' convention of featuring sentimental 1940s big band American popular music , the main theme , and few other side songs recorded by The Ink Spots and The Andrews Sisters ; in addition to a score written by composer Inon Zur . The soundtrack of the game included artists such as Roy Brown , Billie Holiday , Billy Munn , Cole Porter , and Bob Crosby .
= = Marketing and release = =
= = = Trailers = = =
A teaser site for the game appeared on May 2 , 2007 , and featured music from the game and concept art , along with a timer that counted down to June 5 , 2007 . The artists and developers involved later confirmed that the concept art , commissioned before Oblivion had been released , did not reveal anything from the actual game . When the countdown finished , the site hosted the first teaser trailer for the game , and unveiled a release date of " Fall 2008 " .
On June 5 , 2007 , Bethesda released the Fallout 3 teaser trailer . The press kit released with the trailer indicated that Ron Perlman would be on board with the project , and cited a release date of Fall 2008 . The trailer featured The Ink Spots song " I Don 't Want to Set the World on Fire " , which the previous Fallout developer Black Isle Studios originally intended to license for use in the first Fallout game . The trailer , which was completely done with in @-@ engine assets , closed with Ron Perlman saying his trademark line which he also spoke in the original Fallout : " War . War never changes " . The trailer showed a devastated Washington , D.C. , evidenced by the partially damaged Washington Monument in the background as well as the crumbling buildings that surrounded a rubble @-@ choked city thoroughfare .
A second trailer was first shown during a GameTrailers TV E3 special on July 12 , 2008 . The trailer zoomed out from a ruined house in the Washington , D.C. suburbs , and provided a wider view of the capital 's skyline including the Capitol Building and Washington Monument in the distance . On July 14 , 2008 , an extended version of this trailer was made available , which besides the original content , included a Vault @-@ Tec advertisement and actual gameplay . Both versions of the trailer featured the song " Dear Hearts and Gentle People " as recorded by Bob Crosby and the Bobcats .
= = = Film festival = = =
On July 11 , 2008 , as a part of promoting Fallout 3 , Bethesda Softworks partnered with American Cinematheque and Geek Monthly to sponsor " A Post @-@ Apocalyptic Film Festival Presented by Fallout 3 " . The festival took place on August 22 – 23 at Santa Monica 's Aero Theater . Six post @-@ apocalyptic movies were shown which depict life and events that could occur after a world @-@ changing disaster , including Wizards , Damnation Alley , A Boy and His Dog , The Last Man on Earth , The Omega Man , and Twelve Monkeys .
= = = Retail versions = = =
Fallout 3 was released in five separate versions , only three of which were made available worldwide :
The Standard Edition includes the game disc and instruction manual with no extras .
The Collector 's Edition includes the game disc , manual , a bonus " making of " disc , a concept artbook , and a 5 " Vault Boy Bobblehead , all of which is contained in a Vault @-@ Tec lunchbox . In Australia , the Collector 's Edition is exclusive to Gametraders and EB Games .
The Limited Edition includes the game disc and manual , as well as a Brotherhood of Steel Power Armor figurine . This edition is available only in the UK through the retailer Game .
The Survival Edition includes everything from the Collector 's Edition , as well as a model of the PIP @-@ Boy 3000 from the game which functions as a digital clock . The Survival Edition is available exclusively from Amazon.com to U.S. customers only .
The Game of the Year Edition , which includes the original Fallout 3 game as well as all 5 of the downloadable content packs , was released on October 13 , 2009 in North America and October 16 , 2009 in Europe . It was released in Australia on October 22 , 2009 , and in Japan on December 3 , 2009 . It was made available on Steam on December 17 , 2009 .
An Xbox 360 version of Fallout 3 and Oblivion double pack was announced for release in North America on April 3 .
= = Downloadable content = =
Bethesda 's Todd Howard first confirmed during E3 2008 that downloadable content ( DLC ) would be prepared for the Xbox 360 and Windows versions of Fallout 3 . There are five DLCs : Operation : Anchorage , The Pitt , Broken Steel , Point Lookout , and Mothership Zeta , released in that order . Of the five , Broken Steel has the largest effect on the game , altering the ending and allowing the player to continue playing past the end of the main quest line .
Originally , there was no downloadable content announced for the PlayStation 3 version of the game . Although Bethesda had not offered an official explanation as to why the content was not released for PlayStation 3 , Lazard Capital Markets analyst Colin Sebastian speculated that it may have been the result of a money deal with Bethesda by Sony 's competitor , Microsoft . When asked if the PlayStation 3 version would receive an update that would enable gameplay beyond the main quest 's completion , Todd Howard responded , " Not at this time , no . " However , in May 2009 , Bethesda announced that the existing DLC packs ( Operation : Anchorage , The Pitt and Broken Steel ) would be made available for the PlayStation 3 ; the later two ( Point Lookout and Mothership Zeta ) were released for all platforms .
On October 1 , 2009 , a New Xbox Experience premium theme for the game was released for the Xbox 360 . Consumers could pay 240 Microsoft Points , or by having downloaded all other downloadable content . The PlayStation 3 received a free theme , featuring a Brotherhood of Steel Knight in the background , and includes symbols from the game as icons on the PS3 home menu . In December 2008 the official editor , known as the G.E.C.K. ( Garden of Eden Creation Kit ) was made available for the Windows version of the game as a free download from the Fallout 3 website .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Fallout 3 received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . 1UP.com 's Demian Linn praised its open @-@ ended gameplay and flexible character @-@ leveling system . While the V.A.T.S. system was called " fun " , enemy encounters were said to suffer from a lack of precision in real @-@ time combat and little variety in enemy types . The review concluded , Fallout 3 is a " hugely ambitious game that doesn 't come around very often " . IGN editor Erik Brudvig praised the game 's " minimalist " sound design , observing , " you might find yourself with nothing but the sound of wind rustling through decaying trees and blowing dust across the barren plains ... Fallout 3 proves that less can be more " . The review noted that the " unusual amount of realism " combined with the " endless conversation permutations " produces " one of the most truly interactive experiences of the generation " . In a review of the game for Kotaku , Mike Fahey commented that " While Inon Zur 's score is filled with epic goodness , the real stars of Fallout 3 's music are the vintage songs from the 1940s " . Will Tuttle of GameSpy commended the game for its " engaging storyline , impeccable presentation , and hundreds of hours of addictive gameplay " . Although Edge awarded the game 7 out of 10 , in a later anniversary issue it placed the game 37th in a " 100 best games to play today " list , saying " Fallout 3 empowers , engages and rewards to extents that few games have ever achieved " .
Some criticisms were the bugs in regards to the physics and crashes — some of which broke quests and even prevented progression . The AI and stiff character animations are another common point of criticism , as is the ending . Edge stated that " the game is cumbersome in design and frequently incompetent in the details of execution " , taking particular issue with the nakedness of the HUD , the clarity of the menu interface , and that the smaller problems are carried over from Oblivion . Edge liked the central story but said " the writing isn 't quite as consistent as the ideas that underpin " and that the " voice @-@ acting is even less reliable " .
= = = Sales = = =
From its release in October to the end of 2008 , Fallout 3 shipped over 4 @.@ 7 million units . According to NPD Group , as of January 2009 , the Xbox 360 version had sold 1 @.@ 14 million units , and the PlayStation 3 version had sold 552 @,@ 000 units . The Xbox 360 version was the 14th best @-@ selling game of December 2008 in the United States , while the PlayStation 3 version was the 8th best @-@ selling PlayStation 3 game in that region and month . Electronic Entertainment Design and Research , a market research firm , estimated that the game had sold 12 @.@ 4 million copies worldwide .
Fallout 3 was one of the most played titles in Xbox Live in 2009 and Games for Windows – Live in 2009 , 2011 , and 2012 .
= = = Awards = = =
Fallout 3 won several awards following its showcasing at E3 2007 . IGN gave it the " Game of E3 2007 " award , and GameSpot gave it the " Best Role @-@ Playing Game of E3 2007 " award . Following the game 's demonstration at E3 2008 , IGN also gave it " Best Overall RPG " , " Best Overall Console Game " , and " Overall Game of the Show " for E3 2008 . Game Critics Awards gave the game " Best Role @-@ Playing Game " and " Best of Show " for E3 2008 .
After its release , Fallout 3 won numerous awards from gaming journalists and websites . At the 2009 Game Developer 's Choice Awards , it won overall " Game of the Year " along with " Best Writing . " It was also awarded " Game of the Year " by IGN , GamesRadar , GameSpy , UGO Networks , Gamasutra and the Golden Joystick Awards . The game also won " Xbox 360 Game of the Year " from Official Xbox Magazine , GameSpy and IGN , while winning " PC Game of the Year " from GamePro , GameSpy , GameTrailers and GameSpot , with the latter two also awarding it " Best RPG . "
At the end of 2009 , Fallout 3 was featured in IGN 's " Best Video and Computer Games of the Decade " ( 2000 – 2009 ) , with the game being placed top game of 2008 and seventh overall game of the decade . In 2012 , Fallout 3 was also exhibited at the Smithsonian American Art Museum . Fallout 3 was voted for and won the " Adventure " section for the platform " Modern Windows . " That same year , G4tv ranked it as the 75th top video game of all time .
= = = Technical issues = = =
Shortly before the game 's release , IGN posted a review of the game , citing numerous bugs and crashes in the PlayStation 3 release . The game also contained a bug , causing the game to freeze and the screen to blur when friends signed out of and into the PlayStation Network . The IGN review was edited shortly thereafter , removing all references to the PS3 version 's bugs , causing controversy in the PlayStation communities . Reviewing PlayStation 3 Game of the Year edition , Digital Chumps and Spawn Kill confirmed that most bugs remained , citing occasional freezes , several animation , and scripting issues along with other bugs , requiring a restart of the game . Even IGN retroactively cited bugs with the original release as well as the Game of the Year edition , calling it " a fantastic game " , but warned players to " be aware that you might have to deal with some crashes and bugs " .
= = = Controversy and fandom = = =
Not all fans are happy with the direction the Fallout series has taken since its acquisition by Bethesda Softworks . Notorious for their support of the series ' first two games , Fallout and Fallout 2 , members centered around one of the oldest Fallout fansites , No Mutants Allowed , have criticized departures from the original games ' stories , gameplay mechanics and setting . Criticisms include the prevalence of unspoiled food after 200 years , the survival of wood @-@ framed dwellings following a nuclear blast , and the ubiquity of Super Mutants at early levels in the game . Also criticized are the quality of the game 's writing , its level of verisimilitude , the switch to a first @-@ person action game format , and the level of reactiveness of the surrounding game world to player actions . In response , Jim Sterling of Destructoid has called fan groups like No Mutants Allowed " selfish " and " arrogant " ; stating that a new audience deserves a chance to play a Fallout game ; and that if the series had stayed the way it was back in 1997 , new titles would never have been made and brought to market . Luke Winkie of Kotaku tempers these sentiments , saying that it is a matter of ownership ; and that in the case of Fallout 3 , hardcore fans of the original series witnessed their favorite games become transformed into something else .
= = Regional variations = =
= = = Drug references = = =
On July 4 , 2008 , Fallout 3 was refused classification by the ACB in Australia , thus making it illegal to distribute or purchase the game in the country . In order for the game to be reclassified , the offending content in the Australian version of the game would have had to be removed by Bethesda Softworks and the game resubmitted to the ACB . According to the ACB board report , the game was refused classification due to the " realistic visual representations of drugs and their delivery method [ bringing ] the ' science @-@ fiction ' drugs in line with ' real @-@ world ' drugs " .
A revised version of the game was resubmitted to the ACB and reclassified as MA 15 + on August 7 , 2008 , or not suitable for people under the age of 15 unless accompanied by a parent or adult guardian ; this new rating ensured that the game could retail legally in Australia . According to the ACB board report , the drug content was not removed entirely from the revised version of the game , but the animation showing the actual usage of the drugs was removed ; the minority view on the decision stated that the drug content was still enough to warrant a refused classification rating .
In a later interview with UK gaming magazine Edge , Bethesda Softworks revealed that there would be only one version of Fallout 3 released worldwide , and that this version would have all real @-@ world drug references removed . It was later clarified that the only change made would be that morphine , a real @-@ world drug that would have appeared in the game , would instead be renamed to the more generic " Med @-@ X " .
= = = Release in India = = =
On October 22 , 2008 , Microsoft announced that the game would not be released in India on the Xbox 360 platform . Religious and cultural sentiments were cited as the reason . Microsoft stated , " Microsoft constantly endeavors to bring the best games to Indian consumers in sync with their international release . However , in light of cultural sensitivities in India , we have made the business decision to not bring Fallout 3 into the country . " Although the specific reason was not revealed in public , it is possible that it is because the game contains two @-@ headed mutated cows called Brahmin , or that Brahmin is also the name of an ancient , powerful hereditary caste of Hindu priests and religious scholars in India , or its similarity to the spelling of brahman , a type of cow that originated in India . Brahman , a breed of Zebu , are revered by Hindus .
= = = Sensitivity in Japan = = =
Bethesda Softworks changed the side quest " The Power of the Atom " in the Japanese version of Fallout 3 to relieve concerns about depictions of atomic detonation in inhabited areas , as the memory of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki remain strong in the country . In non @-@ Japanese versions , players are given the option of either defusing , ignoring , or detonating the dormant atomic bomb in the town of Megaton ; in the Japanese version , the character of Mr. Burke is absent , making it impossible to choose the detonation option . Also in the Japanese release , the " Fat Man " nuclear catapult weapon was renamed " Nuka Launcher " , as the original name was a reference to the bomb used on Nagasaki . According to Tetsu Takahashi , responsible for localizing Fallout 3 to Japan under his company Zenimax Asia , the available actions prior to localizing " The Power of the Atom " and the ability to kill civilians almost got the game banned by CERO before it received an Adult Only Rating .
|
= Jamaal Westerman =
Jamaal Akeem Westerman ( born February 21 , 1985 ) is an American football defensive lineman for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) . He was signed by the New York Jets as an undrafted free agent in 2009 . He played college football at Rutgers and was named to the Second – team All – Big East team two times . Westerman played high school football in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , at St. Thomas Aquinas High School before moving to Brampton , Ontario and attending Notre Dame Secondary School .
He has also been a member of the Miami Dolphins , Arizona Cardinals , Indianapolis Colts , Buffalo Bills , Pittsburgh Steelers and Cleveland Browns .
= = Early years = =
Westerman was born in Brooklyn , New York , on February 21 , 1985 . He and his family moved to Fort Lauderdale , Florida , where Westerman began his high school career at St. Thomas Aquinas High School . Following his freshman season , he moved , this time to Brampton , Ontario , and enrolled at Notre Dame Secondary School . Westerman started every year he was there and led both the team and league in tackles and sacks . After graduating from Notre Dame in 2004 he was considered a two @-@ star prospect by Rivals.com. Rutgers , Boise State and Central Michigan all recruited him and all offered him scholarships . He eventually accepted Rutgers ' scholarship offer .
= = College career = =
Westerman received three scholarship offers from National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) colleges before accepting one from Rutgers .
After redshirting in 2004 , Westerman made a quick impression on the Rutgers coaching staff after recording six tackles in two games to begin 2005 . In the Cincinnati game , Westerman recorded a sack on quarterback Dustin Grutza which forced a fumble .
Before the 2006 season , Westerman was involved in a car accident with teammates Willie Foster and Corey Hyman . Westerman and Foster were uninjured while Hyman required two stitches in his forehead . On September 29 , against South Florida , Westerman sacked quarterback Matt Grothe for a five yard loss . After the month of September , Westerman had eight tackles and two and a half sacks . Through eight games , Westerman was the team leader in sacks with six . Against Connecticut , Westerman blocked a punt and recovered a fumble by Connecticut quarterback D. J. Hernandez . Both the punt and fumble recovery were returned for a touchdown . Westerman also recorded two and a half sacks in the game . By the final game in the season , Westerman and defensive end William Blackford had a combined 59 tackles , 16 tackles for a loss with 10 sacks . In the Texas Bowl against the Kansas State Wildcats , Westerman sacked quarterback Josh Freeman twice and recovered a Freeman fumble . Westerman was named second – team All – Big East following the season along with teammates Brian Leonard , Cameron Stephenson , Pedro Sosa , Jeremy Ito , Ramel Meekins , Devraun Thompson , Ron Girault and Courtney Greene .
During spring practice , Westerman and two other starter defensive linemen missed the annual intersquad scrimmage due to injuries . In Rutgers ' 59 – 0 win over Norfolk State , Westerman recorded one sack on quarterback Casey Hansen . Against Syracuse and South Florida , Westerman recorded two sacks which gave him six for the season . Following the season , Westerman and Rutgers earned a bid to play in the International Bowl against Ball State . The game was played in his hometown of Toronto . According to Westerman he received numerous questions from teammates about Toronto , including " What 's the weather like ? "
Beginning in March 2008 , Rutgers attempted to convert Westerman to defensive tackle , so he could replace the departed Eric Foster . However , Westerman ended up playing defensive end during the season . Against Morgan State , Westerman blocked a punt and recovered the loose ball . Westerman suffered a torn biceps against Louisville and was forced to sit out the rest of the season which included a bowl game . Despite his injury , he led Rutgers with six sacks on the season .
Westerman ended his collegiate career with 26 sacks , 141 tackles and 45 tackles for a loss . His career sack total ranked him third highest in Rutgers school history .
= = Professional career = =
= = = New York Jets = = =
Westerman was signed by the New York Jets as an undrafted free agent on April 27 , 2009 . On June 9 , 2009 , Jets head coach Rex Ryan said that he expected Westerman to make the team 's final roster . He ended up making the final roster as an outside linebacker and recorded two tackles and a sack in his debut against the Houston Texans on September 13 . On October 9 , 2011 , Westerman recorded 5 tackles along with 2 sacks against the New England Patriots but in a losing effort while the Jets lost 30 – 21 .
= = = Miami Dolphins = = =
Westerman signed with the Miami Dolphins on March 15 , 2012 . He was waived during the final cuts before ever playing a regular season game for the Miami Dolphins .
= = = Arizona Cardinals = = =
On September 1 , Westerman was claimed off waivers by the Arizona Cardinals . After making just one tackle in five games for the team , he was waived on November 20 .
= = = Indianapolis Colts = = =
On December 4 , Westerman signed with the Indianapolis Colts .
= = = Buffalo Bills = = =
On August 14 , 2013 , Westerman was signed by the Buffalo Bills . After appearing in 12 games with the Bills in 2013 , Westerman was waived on December 10 , 2013 .
= = = Pittsburgh Steelers = = =
Westerman signed with the Pittsburgh Steelers on December 17 , 2013 , after a season @-@ ending injury to linebacker LaMarr Woodley . He appeared in one game for the Steelers during the 2013 NFL season .
= = = Cleveland Browns = = =
On July 24 , 2014 Westerman signed with the Browns . He was released by the Browns on August 30 , 2014 , as they trimmed their roster down to 53 players .
= = = Winnipeg Blue Bombers = = =
On May 7 , 2015 the Westerman signed with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the Canadian Football League . He appeared in 17 games in 2015 , registering 17 sacks and receiving the Western nomination for Most Outstanding Canadian . Unfortunately for Westerman , Ottawa receiver Brad Sinopoli would end up winning the award for Most Outstanding Canadian .
= = Personal = =
Westerman 's brother , Jawann , walked onto the Rutgers football team as a wide receiver after Westerman encouraged him to do so . His other brother , Jabar Westerman , was a first round draft pick of the BC Lions in the 2012 Canadian Football League college draft and is currently a starter at defensive end for the team .
|
= M @-@ 38 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 38 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the U.S. state of Michigan . Its west end starts in Ontonagon and runs east to Baraga , some 42 @.@ 225 miles ( 67 @.@ 955 km ) apart . The highway crosses streams and rivers in forest lands and provides access to a casino . The east end is located by the Keweenaw Bay of Lake Superior in the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community .
There have been two highways in the state to carry the designation . The first was located in the southeastern Lower Peninsula . The current version of M @-@ 38 was created from a section of M @-@ 35 in the 1960s . This section was orphaned from the rest of M @-@ 35 when the highway was cancelled through the Huron Mountains .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 38 begins at a four @-@ way intersection in Ontonagon . US Highway 45 ( US 45 ) runs north – south through this intersection while M @-@ 64 runs west and M @-@ 38 runs east on Steel Street . This intersection is both the eastern terminus of M @-@ 64 and the western terminus of M @-@ 38 . From here , M @-@ 38 forms a segment of the Lake Superior Circle Tour along Ontonagon – Greenland Road to a junction with M @-@ 26 near Greenland . The roadway runs through forest land and crosses several small streams while traveling southeasterly . Outside of Greenland , M @-@ 38 curves to the north around town after intersecting Plank Road . On the east side of town , M @-@ 26 and M @-@ 38 meet and join in a concurrency after Ontonagon – Greenland Road meets Plank Road a second time . The two highways run together for just over a mile to the unincorporated community of Lake Mine . There , M @-@ 38 turns south through the community while M @-@ 26 turns off to the northeast .
The highway crosses a set of railroad tracks before turning east . At Post Office Road , M @-@ 38 meets a road named Old M @-@ 35 Road , a vestige of a highway straightening project during the time the highway was M @-@ 35 . M @-@ 38 crosses the West Branch of the Firesteel River in hilly terrain through this area . The highway continues east and provides access to the Courtney Lake National Forest Campground west of the Houghton County line . East of Federal Forest Highway 16 ( FFH @-@ 16 ) near Nisula , M @-@ 38 crosses the West Branch of the Otter River . It is along this section of roadway in Houghton County that the lowest annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) counts were measured by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in 2007 . An average of 680 vehicles traveled on the roadway , according to MDOT surveys . Of those vehicles , only 40 trucks on average were included in the traffic counts . East of Nisula , the roadway runs parallel to Mill Creek . Mill Creek flows into the West Branch of the Sturgeon River near the Baraga County line .
East of the county line is the crossing over the Sturgeon River south of Pelkie , home of the Baraga County Fairgrounds . The trunkline crosses more hilly terrain while veering to the northeast . Continuing to the east , M @-@ 38 had its highest traffic usage in 2007 . The AADT for the Baraga County segment of the highway was measured at 3 @,@ 000 vehicles a day . The roadway continues east through Baraga County and runs downhill approaching Baraga and the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community , home of the first Native American casino in the United States . After passing through downtown Baraga on Michigan Avenue , M @-@ 38 ends at an intersection with US 41 ; on the western shore of Keweenaw Bay .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
The first version of M @-@ 38 was designated in 1919 in the Lower Peninsula . It was located on Junction Road from M @-@ 10 ( later US 10 / US 23 ) southeast of Bridgeport to Frankenmuth , and then ran east to M @-@ 19 in the Peck area in 1919 . The highway was transferred to county jurisdiction in late 1961 when the I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 freeway was completed in the area .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1968 , the Michigan Department of Transportation redesignated the western section of M @-@ 35 as M @-@ 38 . M @-@ 35 was originally planned to start in Menominee and run north to Big Bay , turn west through the Huron Mountains in northern Marquette County and run west from Baraga to Ontonagon . The Huron Mountains portion of M @-@ 35 was never built due to opposition from Henry Ford and the Huron Mountain Club . This left M @-@ 35 discontinuous . It was later routed along US 41 from Negaunee to Baraga , connecting the two sections until the western section was given the M @-@ 38 designation .
The original routing of M @-@ 38 in the Upper Peninsula ran from M @-@ 26 at Greenland to Baraga . US 45 was rerouted in 1971 along M @-@ 26 from Rockland to Greenland and Ontonagon – Greenland Road between those two towns . M @-@ 26 was shortened to end at the new US 45 in Greenland . This change to US 45 was reversed in 1973 . M @-@ 26 was reextended to Rockland , and M @-@ 38 was extended along M @-@ 26 to Ontonagon – Greenland Road to meet US 45 in Ontonagon .
On October 11 , 2006 , the western terminus of M @-@ 38 was relocated about .25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) south to end at a junction with US 45 and the newly realigned M @-@ 64 .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Mark Tonelli =
Mark Lyndon Tonelli ( born 13 April 1957 ) , whose birth name was Mark Lyndon Leembruggen , is an Australian former backstroke , butterfly , and freestyle swimmer of the 1970s and 1980s , who won a gold in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley relay at the 1980 Moscow Olympics as a makeshift butterfly swimmer in the self @-@ named Quietly Confident Quartet . Tonelli unofficially led the relay team and was an athletes ' spokesperson who fought for the right of Australian Olympians to compete in the face of a government call for a boycott to protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan .
Tonelli took up swimming due to his asthma , and quickly came to prominence . Selected to represent Australia at the 1973 World Championships , he came sixth in the 200 m backstroke at the age of 16 . He won his first Australian titles in 1974 in the 100 m backstroke and 200 m butterfly and went on to the 1974 Commonwealth Games in Christchurch , where he won his first major international race , the 100 m backstroke , and took silver in the 200 m backstroke . In 1975 , Tonelli won his only individual medal at global level , a silver in the 200 m backstroke at the World Championships in Cali , Colombia . In 1975 , Tonelli enrolled at the University of Alabama in the United States , studying and competing in the collegiate sport system . He was selected in both backstroke events for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , but struggled and missed the medals in both events . During his stay in America , Tonelli set times that would have placed him among the world 's leading swimmers , but he was expelled from the 1978 Commonwealth Games team for breaches of discipline .
After finishing his American university career , Tonelli returned to Australia and gained selection for his second Olympics . Having cleared the political obstacles , Tonelli was given a heavy schedule of six events : both backstroke races , the 100 m freestyle and butterfly , and two relays . He made little impact in the individual events , only reaching one final . Australia lacked butterfly swimmers and Tonelli was versatile , so he swum the stroke in the medley relay . He performed above his previous record , posting a time fast enough to win silver in the corresponding individual event and helping Australia to an unexpected win . Upon returning to Australia , Tonelli retired with eleven individual Australian championships in three different strokes .
= = Early years = =
Tonelli was born Mark Lyndon Leembruggen into a working @-@ class family in Ipswich , a city 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) southwest of Brisbane , the capital of Queensland . His father Lyndon was a blue @-@ collar worker of Dutch origin and his Irish mother Muriel worked in the Queensland Department of Industrial Relations . Muriel was pregnant with twins , but miscarried one of the babies and gave birth only to Mark . The family moved to the northern outback mining town of Mount Isa , where Lyndon worked as a miner . There , Muriel left her husband and married Renato " Ray " Tonelli , an Italian immigrant labourer . Still a toddler , Tonelli and his stepfather left the town and returned to Brisbane . He adopted his stepfather 's surname , but did not officially change his name until he was 18 .
Tonelli was effectively an only child ; his half @-@ sister was not born until he was 14 . A decade later , he discovered two half @-@ sisters from his biological father 's remarriage . His family moved around frequently due to his stepfather 's work , before settling permanently in Brisbane . Tonelli 's family had no history of athletic success , and had little knowledge of swimming , but his mother encouraged him to take up the sport to ease his asthma . In his first year , Tonelli came third in his age group at Western Districts Club , prompting his mother to send him at age nine to John Keating — a swimming coach who had guided several swimmers to national selection – at the Centenary Pool in the hope that he could improve to Olympic standards . Tonelli said the reality was that he could hardly swim at all . By the age of 10 , Tonelli was regularly winning at school carnivals and at 11 , came seventh in the 100 m freestyle in his division at the Queensland Championships , before winning the event the following year . Tonelli rates his win over Stephen Holland , the future 1500 m freestyle world champion and world record holder , in a 200 m freestyle race at a schoolboys ' carnival as his favourite race . Holland was to break his first world record just a few months later .
Keating motivated Tonelli by showing him the best times recorded by American boys of the same age , as documented in Swimming World Magazine . Unaware that the Americans were swimming in 50 yd pools , roughly 10 % shorter than those in Australia , Tonelli could not understand his inability to match and better their times . He said that his greatest motivation was the desire to impress his parents .
= = National and international debut = =
In 1973 , at the age of 15 , Tonelli competed in his first Australian Age Championships in Hobart , winning the 100 m and 200 m freestyle , and the 200 m backstroke . These results allowed him to swim at the preliminary qualifying trials for the 1973 World Aquatics Championships , where he managed four fourth placings . However , the selectors held another set of trials just before the World Championships , which offered swimmers a final chance to gain selection . Tonelli said " Everyone , except me , knew it was a ploy simply to keep the team on its toes " .
Upon returning to Brisbane after the first round of trials , Tonelli tore rib cartilage while participating in judo at high school . The pain of the injury restricted him to swimming backstroke for four months , and his times steadily improved during this period under the guidance of John Rigby at the Valley Pool . At the final selection event , he came second in both the 100 m and 200 m backstroke behind Olympic gold medallist Brad Cooper to earn his international debut . At the World Championships in Belgrade , Yugoslavia , he came sixth in the 200 m backstroke behind East Germany 's Roland Matthes , who set a world record . Tonelli self @-@ deprecatingly noted that " I didn 't get to see him [ Matthes ] swim in the final , because I was in the same race five sets of speedos behind " .
Tonelli won his first Australian titles in 1974 , claiming both the 100 m backstroke and 200 m butterfly ; it was his first race in the latter stroke at senior national level . He completed the victories in times of 59 @.@ 55 s and 2 m 7 @.@ 30 s respectively . Tonelli also claimed victory as part of the Queensland teams in the 4 × 200 m freestyle and the 4 × 100 m medley relays — it was the first time that Queensland had won the former race . In total , Tonelli had claimed gold medals in three different strokes at his first Australian Championships .
= = Commonwealth gold = =
Tonelli was selected for the 1974 Commonwealth Games in Christchurch , New Zealand , where he had his first medal success at international level . He won gold in the 100 m backstroke , where he won his heat comfortably before setting a Games record of 59 @.@ 65 s in the final . Tonelli was second behind Cooper in the 200 m backstroke , finishing in a time of 2 m 9 @.@ 47 s , more than three seconds in arrears . He claimed a silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay as Australia were thwarted by Canada despite setting a national record , and was eliminated in the heats of the 200 m butterfly .
In 1975 , Tonelli won the 100 m backstroke , 200 m backstroke and 200 m butterfly events at the Australian Championships . Although he won more individual titles than in the previous year , his times were slower ; he completed the distances in 59 @.@ 70 s , 2 m 10 @.@ 50 s and 2 m 10 @.@ 00 s respectively . Tonelli was also part of the Queensland team that successfully defended their medley relay title . Tonelli was thus selected for the 1975 World Championships in Cali , Colombia . He qualified fastest for the 200 m backstroke final and had planned to pursue an aggressive strategy to attack from the start . However , he was advised to swim conservatively in the first half of the race by Australian coach Terry Gathercole so that his main rivals Matthes and John Naber would not be able to draft behind him in the early stages . The tactic backfired and Tonelli ended with the silver medal . He had swum faster in the second half of the race — something exceedingly rare in top @-@ level swimming and an indication of strategic error — and felt that he had too much unused energy left at the end of the race . Tonelli vowed that from then on , he would always back his judgment and race strategy .
= = 1976 Olympics and move to US college system = =
After the World Championships , Tonelli accepted a swimming scholarship from the University of Alabama to train under John Gambril , having rejected offers from Stanford and Harvard . Tonelli was almost killed before ever swimming for the university , suffering a mid @-@ air parachute malfunction during an activity with the campus skydiving club . Tonelli eventually completed a BA in Communications and Film .
After enrolling at Alabama , Tonelli 's parents paid for him to return home for the 1976 Australian Championships , which were the selection trials for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , Canada . Tonelli won the 100 m backstroke in a time of 58 @.@ 35 s but was relegated to silver in the 200 m event by Mark Kerry . Along with Kerry , Tonelli was selected for both backstroke events and the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay .
In Montreal , Tonelli came eighth fastest in every round of the 100 m backstroke . He came second in his heat in a time of 58 @.@ 53 s , making him the eighth of sixteen qualifiers for the semifinals . He then scraped into the 100 m final as the slowest qualifier — 0 @.@ 01 s ahead of fellow Australian Glenn Patching — after finishing fourth in his semifinal in a time of 58 @.@ 14 s . He came eighth in the final in a time of 58 @.@ 42 s and did not threaten the medals ; Naber of the United States won in a time of 55 @.@ 49 s . As Kerry outpaced Tonelli to finish seventh in the event , he was selected ahead of Tonelli for the backstroke leg in the 4 × 100 m medley relay .
In the 200 m event , Tonelli came second in his heat to qualify sixth fastest for the final . There he came fourth and missed the medals — which were swept by the Americans — by 1 @.@ 82 s . He was 3 @.@ 98 s behind Naber , who broke the world record and became the first person to break two minutes for the event . Australia struggled in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay , eliminated in the preliminary round after finishing third in their heat , and ninth overall . Tonelli swam the second leg in a time of 1 m 55 @.@ 94 s .
Tonelli returned to Alabama after the Olympics and intensified his training regimen , He recalled that " The coach really supplied me with the environment to improve . I got used to pressure . You had to stand up and race in dual meets almost every other weekend , no matter how you felt . In Australia you are lucky if you get two top meets a year . " In 1977 , he won the 100 m backstroke at the US Open Championships at Mission Viejo , becoming one of the few Australians to win a US title .
= = Expelled from Australian team = =
Tonelli continued in the United States in 1978 , recollecting " I really hit my straps " , reporting that he had swum world records in time trials at training . Because he was in the United States , he was allowed to qualify for the 1978 Commonwealth Games in Edmonton , Canada by swimming fast times in events in North America . Tonelli raced in five events at the Canada Cup held in Edmonton , winning four . During a drunken party after the competition , Tonelli and some fellow swimmers decided to steal three giant flags from poles in the city centre : those of Canada , the City of Edmonton , and Alberta . In the process , Tonelli fell off the staff and was hospitalised , his arm put in plaster .
He returned to Mission Viejo and continued his build @-@ up despite his arm injury , before flying to the Australian training camp in Hawaii , where he was made team captain . However , his international career appeared to be in disarray when along with teammates Kerry and Joe Dixon , he was expelled from the team for breaking a curfew on the American Independence Day holiday . Tonelli also admitted to the officials that he had smoked marijuana and been drinking on the night . In the aftermath of the incident , Tonelli appeared on Australian television , strongly denying rumours that he had been involved in a drug @-@ fuelled orgy with teammates . He admitted to smoking marijuana , but defended his actions as being legal under Hawaii law . Supporters in Australia — including future Prime Minister Bob Hawke — launched a petition for the reinstatement of the trio . They gathered thousands of signatures to no avail .
Tonelli returned to the United States , while his compatriots competed for Australia . In the meantime , Tonelli again won the 100 m backstroke title at the US Nationals in a time two seconds faster than Patching 's Commonwealth gold @-@ winning effort . He said that his career was " never the same again " after his expulsion by a " kangaroo court " , feeling that the punishment had weakened his will . Tonelli predicted that he could have won eight Commonwealth Games gold medals and possibly set a world record in the 200 m backstroke if he had not been expelled .
= = 1980 Summer Olympics = =
In 1979 Tonelli failed to defend his US title in the 100 m backstroke , but managed third in the event at the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Championships in his final year of university . In his four years at Alabama , he was an eight @-@ time All @-@ American in the 100 m and 200 m backstroke . His triumph at the NCAA Championships came amid the backdrop of a teammate 's death in a waterskiing accident during a social event with a group of fellow swimmers . Tonelli was driving the powerboat when he did a U @-@ turn that resulted in his teammate being thrown off his skis and into the water . The boat 's propellor then struck the man , who died due to severe cuts and blood loss .
Tonelli graduated , returned to Australia , and won the 100 m freestyle , butterfly and backstroke events at the 1979 Australian Championships . The following year , he repeated the freestyle and butterfly victories in times of 51 @.@ 80 s and 56 @.@ 64 s to gain selection for the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow ; he was also chosen for the 100 m and 200 m backstroke after finishing second to Kerry . However , another obstacle arose with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , which resulted in a boycott of the Games by a large part of the Western world , led by the United States . The Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser was also the patron of the Australian Olympic Committee , and significant political pressure came to bear on the athletes to boycott the Games . Tonelli however , knew that only the sportspeople would suffer from a boycott and that trade relations would continue unabated . He took a leadership role among the Australian athletes to fight for their right to compete . According to women 's captain Lisa Forrest , Tonelli adopted populist tactics in championing the athletes ' cause . He said that Fraser was sending " wheat to feed the Russian army , wool to clothe the army and Australian metal to make Russian guns " , saying that this contradicted the proposed boycott in protest against Soviet military policy . Tonelli 's anti @-@ authoritarian and individualistic style manifested itself during media appearances , including a news interview in which he debated with Reverend Lance Shilton , who had referred to the athletes as traitors . Shilton expressed sympathy to the athletes , which Tonelli interpreted as condescension . Unaware that the camera was broadcasting images of him , Tonelli responded by rolling his eyes and twirling his finger , a gaffe that was shown on national television . Forrest said that " the damage was done — one of our most prominent anti @-@ boycott lobbyists ... looked like a smart alec " .
Tonelli arrived in Moscow facing a heavy schedule : he was nominated in the 100 m freestyle , backstroke and butterfly , the 200 m backstroke and the 4 × 100 m medley and the 4 × 200 m freestyle relays . Tonelli came third in his heat of the 100 m freestyle to qualify fourth with a time of 52 @.@ 04 s . However , he swam slower in coming fifth in his semifinal in a time of 52 @.@ 17 s to miss the final by 0 @.@ 26 s . Overall , he was ranked 10th , but if he repeated his Australian record of 51 @.@ 80 set at the selection trials , he would have come sixth .
Tonelli had another let @-@ down in the 100 m backstroke . He won his heat — which was relatively slow — in a time of 58 @.@ 66 s , and scraped into the semifinals as the second slowest of 16 qualifiers . He then came second in his semifinal in a time of 57 @.@ 89 s to qualify third fastest , before again swimming slower in the final and finishing seventh in a time of 57 @.@ 98 s . However , the event was closely contested ; only 0 @.@ 18 s separated third and ninth places in the semifinal and there was only 0 @.@ 35 s between bronze and seventh in the final .
Tonelli rued his individual performances in Moscow : " I fell apart . I had swum only one big race in the past twelve months and lacked the competitive edge . " He came third in his heat of the 200 m backstroke in a time of 2 m 7 @.@ 04 s , four seconds slower than his effort in the previous Olympics . This placed him in fifteenth position , more than two seconds from qualification for the final . Tonelli then withdrew from the 100 m butterfly to concentrate on the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay . He combined with Kerry , Graeme Brewer and Ron McKeon as Australia qualified fourth before coming seventh . Tonelli swam the second leg in the final after leading off in the heats . The Australians were third after the first leg , which was swum by Brewer , the bronze medallist in the corresponding individual event . However , Tonelli split 1 m 53 @.@ 47 s , the fifth slowest time among the 32 swimmers , resulting in Australia falling back to seventh place by the end of his leg . Kerry and McKeon could not overtake any swimmers in the last two legs and Australia ended the race in seventh place , 1 @.@ 52 s outside the medals . Tonelli was disappointed with the relay result , feeling that the Australians — who came into the race ranked second in the world in the event — were too casual before the race , incorrectly believing that four fast legs from four fast swimmers would yield the desired result .
= = = Relay gold = = =
The 4 × 100 m medley relay was the focal point of Tonelli 's Moscow campaign . The event had always been won by the United States since its inception at the Olympics at the 1960 Games , and their boycott had opened up the field . Australia 's best result had come in the inaugural race , when it out @-@ touched Japan to claim silver . The only other time that it had won a medal was in 1964 , taking bronze , and the previous outing in 1976 had seen Australia eliminated in the heats . Australia was regarded as a chance of a medal , but were not seen as the main threats , with Sweden , Great Britain and the Soviet Union the most heavily fancied teams . The hosts ' team included the silver medallists in the 100 m backstroke and breaststroke , and their butterflyer had come fifth ; their freestyler would come fourth in his event . The British boasted Duncan Goodhew , the breaststroke gold medallist , while Sweden 's butterflyer and backstroker had won their respective events and their freestyle swimmer would come second in the 100 m . On paper , Australia 's team paled in comparison . Neil Brooks , the freestyler , would come fourteenth in the corresponding individual event after having an asthma attack , while Peter Evans was the only individual medallist in the distance , claiming bronze in the 100 m breaststroke . Kerry had been eliminated in the backstroke semifinals , while Tonelli was swimming as a makeshift butterflyer . Adding to the pressure was the fact that Australia won no gold medals at the 1976 Olympics in any sport , so the public were still awaiting their first victory since the 1972 Games in Munich . Coming into the Olympics , Australia were ranked seventh out of the thirteen competing countries .
Australia 's prospects improved after Sweden was disqualified in the morning heats . Tonelli , the eldest swimmer in the quartet at the age of 23 , convened the team as its de facto leader . He asked his teammates to commit to swimming their legs in a certain time ; Kerry vowed to complete the backstroke in 57 s , Evans the breaststroke in 63 s flat , Tonelli the butterfly in 54 s and Brooks promised to anchor the team in 49 @.@ 8 s , even though he had never gone faster than 51 s . Tonelli named the foursome the Quietly Confident Quartet , and they exhibited a calm self @-@ belief as they lined up for the race .
Kerry led off in a faster time than he had clocked in the individual event , but it was still two seconds slower than his personal best time of 57 @.@ 87 s . This left Australia in fourth place at the end of the first leg . Evans then swam a personal best of 63 @.@ 01 s , leaving Australia almost level with the host nation at the halfway mark . Tonelli then swam the butterfly leg in 54 @.@ 94 s , almost two seconds faster his previous best over the distance . He did so with an uneven arm technique due to the unequal strength in his arms . Tonelli 's butterfly leg would have been good enough for a silver medal if he had replicated it in the individual event . He began to lose ground in the last 50 m and was a bodylength behind until a late surge brought him to within a metre of his Soviet opponent by the end of his leg . Brooks then executed a powerful , well @-@ timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart . By the 50 m mark , he had drawn level and made a superior turn to take the lead . The Soviet freestyler pulled level at the 25 m mark before Brooks sprinted away again to seal an Australian victory by 0 @.@ 22 s . He had finished his leg in 49 @.@ 86 s as he had vowed to his teammates . The time of 3 m 45 @.@ 70 s sealed Australia 's first ever win in a medley relay at the Olympics , for men or women . After the win , Tonelli said " I was totally stunned . After all the hassle , and my being the athletes ' mouthpiece , we 'd come through and done it . " In 2000 , Tonelli and the other members of the quartet were each awarded the Australian Sports Medal for their victory in Moscow .
Relations between the Olympians and the Australian Government remained tense after months of political struggle regarding the boycott . The quartet did not receive the customary congratulations from Fraser , who initially resisted complaints the next day from the media and government members at his failure to applaud the Australian victory . In a radio interview , he said " I hope that circumstances do not arise over the next few years which will cause them to have very great regrets about the fact that they 've gone " . Fraser relented and late in the night , his office sent a telegram indirectly , through the Australian Embassy in Moscow . Fraser had ordered the Australian diplomatic mission to shun the Olympians , so the embassy staff had to pass the envelopes containing the message through the Olympic Village fence . Fraser 's telegram said : " You know I did not and do not approve of Australia being represented at these Olympic Games . I do want to say however that your performance in the relay was a truly great sporting achievement . My personal congratulations . " The swimmers tore up the message .
Tonelli retired after the Games . His aquatic success was not derived from any physical advantage , as he was relatively small for a swimmer . He was only 185 cm tall and weighed 70 kg , with relatively small hands and feet . Tonelli felt that his success was based around his ability to make fast starts from the blocks , and attributed his success to his mental approach and his ability to convert his energy into a fast swim in under one minute . He had a deliberate strategy of making himself nervous before the race , feeling that he thrived on pressure .
= = After the 1980 Olympics = =
After retiring from competition , Tonelli did television commentary for the 1984 and 1988 Olympics in Los Angeles and Seoul respectively . Since 2004 , he has been a swimming commentator on Sky News Australia . Outside swimming , he worked at a spastic centre for children in Brisbane in the 1980s before opening his own swimming school . He also completed a series for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation on their Lifestyle TV program and produced movies on swimming and child development . Tonelli later set up his own computing business , which he ran for three years . He also served as a sports administrator , completing a term on the Australian Sports Commission in its early years in the 1980s . One policy that he proposed was the creation of an athletes ' appeal tribunal similar to the Court of Arbitration for Sport so that " officials are now held accountable for their actions " . He cited his expulsion from the Australian team as his motivation for having an appeals mechanism . As of 2007 , Tonelli was working as a real estate agent and corporate speaker . He married his wife Lee in the late 1990s .
|
= The Secret Service =
The Secret Service is a British children 's espionage television series , filmed by Century 21 for ITC Entertainment and broadcast on Associated Television , Granada Television and Southern Television in 1969 . Created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , and produced by David Lane and Reg Hill , it was the eighth and last Century 21 production to feature – in a manner similar to Thunderbirds and other earlier series – marionette puppet characters as part of a filming technique known as " Supermarionation " . Under the direction of Gerry Anderson , who wanted to increase the realism of the Supermarionation format , The Secret Service incorporates footage of live actors for long @-@ distance shots . Following The Secret Service , Anderson would not work with puppets again until the 1980s , when he produced Terrahawks in " Supermacromation " .
The series follows the adventures of Father Stanley Unwin , a character both voiced by and resembling the real @-@ life comedian of the same name . Outwardly the parish priest of a rural English village , Unwin is in fact a secret agent for BISHOP , a covert branch of British Intelligence that counters criminal and terrorist threats from abroad . Aided by junior operative Matthew Harding , the Father answers to his London @-@ based superior , " The Bishop " . Whenever they must gather intelligence in a hostile situation , Unwin and Matthew deploy the " Minimiser " – a gadget capable of shrinking people and objects to a fraction of their normal size – to carry out secret reconnaissance . A form of gobbledegook of Unwin 's devising is used to confuse and distract enemies when required .
Filming commenced at Century 21 Studios in Slough and on location in August 1968 . Production was cancelled in December when Lew Grade , the Andersons ' financial backer , responded poorly to a test screening of the pilot episode , fearing that successful distribution in the United States would be impossible with the inclusion of the nonsensical " Unwinese " dialogue . Filming concluded in January 1969 with the completion of the thirteenth episode . Critical reception to The Secret Service remains mixed : when compared to the Andersons ' previous series , verdicts range from " the forgotten gem " to " the one flop " . Commentators have questioned the wisdom of hiring Unwin as a voice actor , suggesting that the potential for comedy provided by his Unwinese is too weak to sustain interest ; however , the writing of the supporting characters has been praised .
= = Plot = =
The Secret Service follows the adventures of Father Stanley Unwin , the parish priest of a rural English village . Affecting the appearance of an eccentric middle @-@ aged vicar , Unwin moonlights as a secret agent for BISHOP ( an acronym of " British Intelligence Service Headquarters , Operation Priest " ) , a top @-@ secret division of British Intelligence based in Whitehall . Answering to his superior , " The Bishop " , Unwin is stationed at his vicarage with Matthew Harding – another agent who , when not assisting the Father on missions , adopts the manner of a simple gardener . Supporting characters include Blake , a junior BISHOP operative , and Mrs Appleby , the Father 's ageing housekeeper , who is unaware of Unwin and Harding 's involvement with British Intelligence .
Prior to the events of the series , the pioneering scientist Professor Humbert invented the Minimiser , a device capable of shrinking people or objects to one third of their original size . After Humbert 's death , it was passed down to Father Unwin , who conceals his deceased parishioner 's parting gift inside a copy of Milner 's Gallery of Nature . The regular focus of the Minimiser is Harding , whom Unwin reduces to a height of two feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) to enable him to infiltrate situations to which no ordinary @-@ sized person could make a discreet entry . In this manner , the Harding puppet interacts with life @-@ sized sets and live actors whose faces are excluded from shots . The Minimiser is also used to shrink enemy agents , literally bringing them down to Harding 's size .
While miniaturised , Harding is transported in Unwin 's specially @-@ adapted briefcase , which is fitted with equipment such as a periscope , stores other gadgets as and when required , and can open from the inside . Unwin 's hearing aid is in fact a transceiver that enables him to communicate covertly with Harding , who wears a corresponding unit . The Father 's preferred means of transport is Gabriel , a repainted and revamped 1917 @-@ issue Ford Model T that can travel at speeds in excess of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . When enemies , police or other authorities challenge Unwin , the Father spouts a form of nonsensical gobbledegook as a smokescreen to confuse the opposition and cover for Matthew .
The Secret Service represents a departure from most earlier Supermarionation television series on account of its contemporary , late @-@ 1960s setting . The events of the episodes " Errand of Mercy " and " The Deadly Whisper " are set on 3 February and 24 May 1969 , respectively . The earlier series Supercar is set between 1960 and 1962 . However , Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn , writers of The Complete Gerry Anderson : the Authorised Episode Guide , argue that the setting is ambiguous : although they suggest it to be " sometime in the near future " , they also observe that " Morris Minors negotiate leafy country roads while space @-@ age helijets patrol the skies " and conclude that the series is so fantastic that it " isn 't set in the real world at all . "
= = = Episodes = = =
= = Production = =
With the completion of Joe 90 , which commenced transmission on ATV in September 1968 , Gerry Anderson decided to produce another espionage television series . This would incorporate the plot device of a rural English village as the base of operations for the star secret agent , the local parish priest . Anderson selected Stanley Unwin to voice the lead character , which would be named after him , after encountering the comedian at Pinewood Studios as he completed dubbing work for the 1968 film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang .
In the 1940s and 50s , Unwin had developed " Unwinese " , a nonsense language that distorted words and phrases into a form of gibberish that sounded unintelligible but which in fact retained some fragments of meaning . Recalling Unwin 's radio and television performances , Anderson thought that the self @-@ made language would suit the character of an eccentric undercover operative , and could produce humour if demonstrated to have a confusing effect on enemies . He elaborated , " As far as I was concerned , Stanley came first and then the idea had to accommodate him . It wasn 't that the story called for someone who could speak gobbledegook , it was a question of how we could fit him into the storyline . "
Due to the strange nature of the language , the Century 21 writers would brief Unwin on episode plots and then leave space in their scripts for the actor to draft all the Unwinese dialogue himself . Shane Rimmer , who scripted the episode " Hole in One " , remarked that " A lot of [ the Unwinese ] you had to leave to [ Unwin ] . You gave him a line of patter that 's going to work with what he does . Because he was such a bizarre character , you felt you could really go all the way with him : you could practically do anything . "
The premise of The Secret Service drew part of its inspiration from the Joe 90 episode " The Unorthodox Shepherd " , which features the character of an aged , deaf vicar who covers up a money counterfeiting operation on his church grounds . Archer and Hearn comment on the wider influence of Joe 90 on its successor series , stating that The Secret Service " continues the espionage theme of Joe 90 in a range of adventures that depict a Britain under siege from despicable foreign agents intent on stealing its secrets . "
= = = Puppets = = =
Following Joe 90 , Anderson had originally intended to discontinue the use of Supermarionation puppets altogether . However , due to the higher prospective production costs of filming a new series completely in live action , he decided to compromise between the advantages of both options and mix the two formats . On the nature of the puppets , which had incorporated natural human anatomical proportions since Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , Anderson stated that a progression in sculpting techniques had resulted in " imitations of human beings " that rendered his series " like live @-@ action shows but with unconvincing actors " .
Recording live actors for long shots solved a problem that all previous Supermarionation productions had entailed : that of inducing realistic movement from puppet characters . Century 21 had experimented with filming special effects in live settings for its 1968 film , Thunderbird 6 . " The Unorthodox Shepherd " had incorporated similar filming techniques : a church at Harefield in Buckinghamshire had doubled as the principal setting , the villain represented on location footage by a full @-@ size mannequin based on a Supermarionation puppet . La Rivière notes the contrast between the mixing of formats for The Secret Service and the procedure adopted for earlier Supermarionation series , which had only used live @-@ action shots for situations such as the operation of machines ( for which a brief shot of a living hand would often be inserted ) .
New puppets created for The Secret Service were limited to the characters of Father Unwin ( which sculptor Mary Turner based on the likeness of Stanley Unwin ) , his ageing housekeeper Mrs Appleby ( which Christine Glanville based on the appearance of her mother ) and The Bishop . Other characters were portrayed by " revamp puppets " that appeared in the earlier Anderson series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons and Joe 90 . For example , the Harding puppet made its first appearance in the Captain Scarlet episode " Treble Cross " , while the Captain Scarlet marionette itself starred as Blake . La Rivière refers to the Unwin puppet in particular as " one of the most impressive artistic feats " produced at the Century 21 puppet workshop , describing the accuracy of the likeness as " uncanny " .
= = = Voice cast = = =
With the exception of Unwin , all voice actors cast for The Secret Service had contributed to earlier Supermarionation series . The Secret Service featured the voices of :
Stanley Unwin as Father Stanley Unwin ( aged 57 ) , a parish priest based in rural England who carries out top @-@ secret missions for BISHOP ( British Intelligence Service Headquarters , Operation Priest ) . Due to the realism of the costume that he wore for live @-@ action location filming , members of the public would often confuse Unwin for a real vicar during production on The Secret Service . While driving home from one shooting session in costume , he once found himself " held up because the driver in front had stalled his caravan . Seeing my clerical garb he said : ' So sorry , Father . I 'm in trouble . ' "
Gary Files as Matthew Harding ( aged 28 ) , a BISHOP agent paired with Unwin , who serves as his accomplice on assignment and as gardener of the vicarage in public life . Files retained fond memories of his time on The Secret Service , stating that he enjoyed voicing the character of Harding more than the character of Captain Magenta on Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons . He made significant contributions to Harding 's characterisation , conceiving the rural accent of Unwin 's assistant himself : " It just seemed so right for the character . Then once I had the voice , the rest of Matthew followed . "
Sylvia Anderson as Mrs Appleby ( aged 55 ) , the housekeeper of Unwin 's vicarage , who remains ignorant of Unwin and Harding 's secret double life .
Jeremy Wilkin as The Bishop ( aged 52 ) , a high @-@ ranking figure in British Intelligence , director of BISHOP and superior to Unwin , based in Whitehall .
Keith Alexander as Agent Blake , a cautious junior agent of BISHOP , who has speaking roles in three episodes ( " A Question of Miracles " , " Last Train to Bufflers Halt " and " The Cure " ) .
Supporting character voices were provided by all the regular cast ( with the exception of Unwin ) in addition to David Healy and ( for the final two episodes , " May @-@ Day , May @-@ Day ! " and " More Haste Less Speed " ) David Graham .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming commenced on 20 August 1968 after a summer of pre @-@ production . Director Ken Turner , who headed the location unit , recalled that The Secret Service became a complex series to shoot because it incorporated three design elements ( studio puppet filming , studio special effects filming and live @-@ action location filming ) . In a reversal to the practice used on earlier Supermarionation productions , location filming needed to be completed first before work could start at the Century 21 Studios . Turner elaborated , " We felt that somebody had to take the location stuff by the balls , get it shot and then hand it over to the director to fit his puppet stuff in . I suppose that seemed a bit back to front but with that programme it was what worked out best . "
On the complications that emerged from filming , producer David Lane remembered his experience on the series as " an absolute nightmare " due to the various scales used : " You can imagine the problems . You 're shrinking [ the Matthew Harding puppet ] to puppet size on a puppet set and then you 're having to build it in live @-@ action size for the puppet because he 's supposed to be a small man in a full @-@ sized environment . And then you 're using the ' shrunken ' puppet in a full set . "
Locations used in filming included a manor house at Burnham in Buckinghamshire , which doubled as Unwin 's residence . Centre Point , a tower building located on Oxford Street in London , appeared as British Intelligence Headquarters , while Horse Guards Parade in Whitehall represented the base of BISHOP . The hospital at which Unwin visits Brother Gregory in the episode " School for Spies " was in fact Wexham Park Hospital in Slough . The exterior of Century 21 Studios themselves , located on the Slough Trading Estate , appeared as the Healey Automation plant in the pilot episode , " A Case for the Bishop " .
Due to the 1960s setting of The Secret Service , Derek Meddings and the technicians of the special effects department received few commissions for scale models of vehicles that appeared futuristic . This left Unwin 's vintage Ford Model T , Gabriel , as their main project , in addition to rendering vehicles and settings common to the decade in miniature and producing the optical enlargement and miniaturisation effects for the character of Harding . Wag Evans manufactured a full @-@ size and two miniature versions ( the last of differing scales ) of Gabriel , fitting the larger car with belt @-@ driven electric motors , a folding roof , upholstered interior , and a remote control mechanism .
Evans remembered that the location filming involving Gabriel , conducted in and around Burnham Beeches in Buckinghamshire in the autumn of 1968 , proved to be arduous due to the low levels of light . On occasion , just two minutes of new footage would be recorded at each session . On the subject of the remote @-@ control steering , he stated , " I remember standing out of shot and having to ' drive ' [ Gabriel ] down the road while it was out of view . Often I didn 't know where it was , or where and when it had stopped . " A location unit member would be on hand to stop the car with a large cushion if it went out of control .
Shooting locations included Horse Guards Parade and Centre Point in London ( left and centre ) and at Burnham Beeches in Buckinghamshire ( right ) .
= = = Music = = =
Composer Barry Gray 's opening theme music , his first Supermarionation contribution since Stingray to include vocal cues , is a chant incorporating church organ and percussion accompaniment . Imitating the nuances of Bach , Gray developed his initial concept into a three @-@ part fugue . He initially approached the Swingle Singers to provide the chant , but the fee demanded would have placed considerable strain on the music budget . Seeking out an alternative , Gray hired the Mike Sammes Singers , who had provided vocals for the Supercar theme and produced an impression of the Swingle Singers ' tones under his direction . Archer and Hearn cite the opening and closing theme music , recorded in a four @-@ hour studio session on 16 October 1968 , as " a glorious piece of choral lunacy " .
Both the opening and ending credits sequences incorporate shots of St Michael and All Angels Church in Hughenden Valley , Buckinghamshire , which doubles as the parish church of Father Unwin . In the opening sequence , a zoom shot establishes a backdrop of fields while the series title slowly fills the screen in a motion that draws inspiration from traditional images of angels descending from Heaven .
Further to the titles , Gray recorded incidental music for individual episodes in three additional four @-@ hour sessions . < ref. name = " TVCentury21Music " / > For the first , held at the Olympic Studios in London on 12 November 1968 , an orchestra of 29 musicians played tracks to feature in the pilot episode , " A Case for the Bishop " . Recording for " A Question of Miracles " ran on 11 December , at Gray 's private studios and with eight musicians . The only other episodes to have original scores are " The Feathered Spies " and " Last Train To Bufflers Halt , " with the remaining episodes tracked with the four original scores and previously recorded music for other Anderson series , particularly Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons and Joe 90 ( " A Question of Miracles , " although having an original score , also used cues recorded for " A Case for the Bishop " and " The Feathered Spies " ) . The final session wrapped up the soundtrack on 10 January 1969 .
Due to the series ' cancellation , the soundtrack has received no commercial releases , although since 2007 it has been available on CD exclusively for members of Fanderson , the official Gerry Anderson appreciation society .
= = = Cancellation = = =
Lew Grade , the ITC Entertainment financier , ordered Anderson to cancel production on The Secret Service during a test screening of the pilot episode , " A Case for the Bishop " , in December 1968 . Objecting to the concept on the grounds that audiences in the United States would be confused by the Unwinese , Grade capped the production at the thirteen episodes that either had been completed or were in production at the time of the screening . Anderson countered that a nonsense language such as Unwinese is inherently incomprehensible , and questioned Grade 's reasoning for the cancellation , responding that " I chose Stanley Unwin because you are not supposed to understand Stanley Unwin , even if you 're British . I thought if the Americans don 't understand him either , what 's the difference ? "
However , Anderson conceded that Grade " was not a man you could argue with . If he said " No " , you had to accept that he wouldn 't change his mind . " Of Grade 's decision , La Rivière conjectures , " No one knows what was running through [ his ] mind ... but given the ease with which the ' Unwinese ' element could have been removed the series , it seems probable that he simply didn 't like a lot of what he was seeing . " In a move that would lead to the discontinuation of the Supermarionation format , Anderson and Grade coordinated to transfer most of the production staff from the Century 21 base at the Slough Trading Estate in Berkshire to Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire for the commencement of filming on UFO , the Andersons ' first full live @-@ action series .
Having wanted to abandon puppet work and move into live @-@ action , Anderson greeted the cancellation of The Secret Service with optimism , remarking of live actors , " I started to think : ' It 's amazing ! They speak ! Their mouths are in synch with their words ! And they can walk ! And they can pick up things ! ' " After the Century 21 Studios closed down on 24 January 1969 on completion of the final episode of The Secret Service , " More Haste Less Speed " , the special effects department expanded its workshops into the disused rooms in anticipation of new projects for UFO .
= = Broadcast = =
In the UK , The Secret Service aired only in the ATV , Granada and Southern broadcasting regions on its original run , appearing on Sunday afternoons on ATV at the regular time of 5 @.@ 30 pm . In most other ITV regions , The Flaxton Boys was broadcast in this time slot . Although repeats ran until 1972 on ATV and Southern , and until 1975 on Granada , the series has not been transmitted since and remains unsold to new broadcasters , although ATN Channel 7 purchased and broadcast the series in Australia on Saturday mornings in 1972 .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of The Secret Service has been mostly negative . Gerry Anderson , however , has said that it is his favourite of all the series that he has produced . Leo Eaton , who directed four episodes , has referred to The Secret Service as " just a bit weird " and questioned the effectiveness of Unwin 's humour . Production manager Desmond Saunders ' verdict was " strange . I suppose it was the gobbledegook and the mixture of live action with puppets . It never seemed to me to be a very good idea . " Simon Wickes , in discussing the production of the series on the website TVCentury21.com , judges the premise " very strange " and suggests that The Secret Service was made first and foremost to bridge the Andersons ' Supermarionation series and their subsequent efforts in live action . Kif Bowden @-@ Smith of the Transdiffusion website concurs with this latter point , describing the mix of puppetry and live action as " an experimental format for the following live @-@ action series " .
Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn , authors of What Made Thunderbirds Go ! The Authorised Biography of Gerry Anderson ( 2002 ) register a divergence from earlier Supermarionation productions stemming from The Secret Service being less " American @-@ orientated " and comprising fewer action sequences . They consider it the " most eccentric " of all the Supermarionation series up to 1969 , and the fusion of puppets and live actors the " natural conclusion " to the filming technique . The writers bestow particular praise on the characterisation of Mrs Appleby , whose ignorance of Unwin and Harding 's involvement with British Intelligence adds to the comedy : for example , when Father Unwin speaks into his communications device that is disguised as a hearing aid , the housekeeper thinks that the apparently senile vicar is muttering to himself . The episodes " A Question of Miracles " , in which the miniaturised Matthew is dwarfed by articles of food and drink from a picnic basket , and " Last Train to Bufflers Halt " , whose plot concerns an unstoppable runaway train , are also well received . Stephen La Rivière , author of Filmed in Supermarionation : A History of the Future , favours " More Haste Less Speed " : describing the series finale as " wonderfully quirky " and " glorious " , he sees the counterfeiting plot as being reminiscent of the " gentler , earlier days of Supercar " , also praising Keith Alexander for his voice acting of the part of the elderly Lady Hazlewell .
However , in his evaluation of The Secret Service as a whole , La Rivière argues that the premise of a secret agent masquerading as a priest while driving an antiquated car could not have appealed much to children , and that older viewers would have been disappointed with the series ' unoriginal " traditional espionage format " . Ian Fryer concurs , writing in FAB magazine that " very little about The Secret Service has obvious appeal to the traditionally young Supermarionation audience . " Discussing the opening theme music , he remarks that " the younger me would have run a mile from any series which sounded like that . " He also notes that the opening credits " broke with the tradition of having a thrilling or suspenseful promise of what was to come , and made the series look suspiciously like it might be about the life and work of an elderly vicar . " For La Rivière , the blending of puppetry and live action " simply doesn 't work . It requires more than the audience can give in terms of acceptance . " In the case of " More Haste Less Speed " , he points out that the character of Lady Hazlewell is portrayed in live @-@ action distance shots by a stunt actor dressed in drag – an " unintentionally hilarious moment that illustrates beautifully why the live @-@ action inserts didn 't work . " He further argues that the contrasting light levels of shots that alternate between one format and the other shatter the illusion of " artificiality " that previous series had been able to sustain in the absence of live action .
La Rivière also cites external influences that , in his view , did not work in favour of The Secret Service . He expounds the continuing popularity of earlier Supermarionation productions as far back as The Adventures of Twizzle ( 1959 ) and the frequent repeat runs that they had on ATV throughout the 1960s : " ... as with anything that is phenomenally popular , the time must come when the audience is satiated and drifts away to something else . " Fryer suggests that the espionage theme may not have been attractive to potential foreign buyers , noting that the American spy series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. had been cancelled in 1968 and that the last episode of The Avengers had aired in the UK the following year . Fryer considers the " making a spy series just when the fad for the genre was waning " the biggest problem that faced The Secret Service in finding an audience . On the other hand , it is argued that , in light of the release of Century 21 's Doppelgänger ( 1969 ) , a live @-@ action film that preceded UFO , the Supermarionation format had become outdated . Archer and Hearn express similar concerns about expectations for a new Supermarionation series in 1969 , writing that Anderson and his colleagues had become " a bit too successful " in producing a winning format .
Science @-@ fiction author John Peel , in his episode guide to the Supermarionation productions , labels The Secret Service " dismal " , describing the combination of puppetry and live action as " completely pointless " and Unwin 's recruitment not only " bizarre in the extreme " but also ill @-@ considered , in his opinion that Unwinese " was hardly funny to most people ( let alone children ) . " Addressing Lew Grade 's concerns that American audiences would have been left baffled by Unwin 's mannerisms , he argues that the character was equally incomprehensible to UK viewers . As with La Rivière , Peel considers the central premise uninspired , writing that the Minimiser was the " single gimmick " of the series , which as a whole " marked the death knell of Supermarionation . " It is his opinion that every Supermarionation series after Thunderbirds " had made one mistake after another " , such that " From the heights of Thunderbirds , the Anderson team had slipped to the depths with The Secret Service .
Writers Chris Drake and Graeme Bassett put it that " On paper , at least , the premise seemed irresistible " , yet view the blending of puppetry and live action as " uneasy " . Prior to his death in 2002 , Unwin himself praised the off @-@ beat nature of The Secret Service , defending the inclusion of elements such as Unwinese dialogue as " an attempt to add a new dimension to the puppet field ... It was a bit bizarre , but then aren 't many new ideas a little odd at first ? " On the subject of the cancellation , he commented that the series was possibly " a little bit before its time " . Contrary to Peel and La Rivière , John Walsh of The Guardian challenges the idea that the gobbledegook devalued the series , arguing that " British audiences quite like not understanding things . "
In an episode review published in the Andersonic fanzine , Paul O 'Brien writes that the AquaTank plot of " Recall to Service " is " an obvious allegory about the hazards of complete automation " , suggesting that the depiction of a military super @-@ weapon gone rogue imitates episodes of previous Supermarionation series in its subtext , which warns of the dangers of over @-@ reliance on technology . The vital plot development of the episode occurs , according to O 'Brien , when the character of Matthew returns the AquaTank to manual control : " in other words , the machinery is now subordinate to its creator once again , as it should stay . " O 'Brien is critical of the limitations of the puppet cast , arguing that the recurring absence of female characters makes Unwin and Harding members of an " all @-@ male club " and that the one regular character of the opposite sex , Mrs Appleby , " contributes precisely nil to the plot . "
Exploring cultural influences , historian Nicholas J. Cull describes The Secret Service as an " idiosyncratically British product " and , in reference to BISHOP , writes that the series honours " the 1960s vogue for stories set in secret organisations with extravagant acronyms . " He points out inferences to the Cold War , noting that the spy Sakov in " The Cure " is Russian and concluding that The Secret Service is one of several Century 21 series that " unashamedly capitalised on the Cold War cult of the secret agent whose skills defend the home from enemies unknown . " He labels The Secret Service overall as the Andersons ' " one flop " .
= = Other media = =
In 1969 , author John William Jennison wrote two original novels based on the series – The Destroyer and The VIP – under the pseudonym " John Theydon " .
A & E Home Video released the series as a two @-@ disc Region 1 DVD box set on 30 December 2003 with digitally remastered picture and sound quality . Special features include an audio commentary by producer David Lane for the pilot episode , " A Case for the Bishop " .
Network DVD followed with a Region 2 release on 20 June 2005 . Bonus material includes audio commentaries from creator Gerry Anderson and PDF transfers of original script documents . The AllMovie website awards a feature rating of three and a half stars out of five .
|
= Superb fairywren =
The superb fairy @-@ wren ( Malurus cyaneus ) , also known as the superb blue @-@ wren or colloquially as the blue wren , is a passerine bird of the family Maluridae , common and familiar across southeastern Australia . The species is sedentary and territorial , also exhibiting a high degree of sexual dimorphism ; the male in breeding plumage has a striking bright blue forehead , ear coverts , mantle , and tail , with a black mask and black or dark blue throat . Non @-@ breeding males , females and juveniles are predominantly grey @-@ brown in colour ; this gave the early impression that males were polygamous , as all dull @-@ coloured birds were taken for females . Six subspecies groups are recognized : three larger and darker forms from Tasmania , Flinders and King Island respectively , and three smaller and paler forms from mainland Australia and Kangaroo Island .
Like other fairy @-@ wrens , the superb fairy @-@ wren is notable for several peculiar behavioural characteristics ; the birds are socially monogamous and sexually promiscuous , meaning that although they form pairs between one male and one female , each partner will mate with other individuals and even assist in raising the young from such pairings . Male wrens pluck yellow petals and display them to females as part of a courtship display .
The superb fairy @-@ wren can be found in almost any area that has at least a little dense undergrowth for shelter , including grasslands with scattered shrubs , moderately thick forest , woodland , heaths , and domestic gardens . It has adapted well to the urban environment and is common in suburban Sydney , Canberra and Melbourne . The superb fairy @-@ wren eats mostly insects and supplements its diet with seeds .
= = Taxonomy = =
The superb fairy @-@ wren is one of 12 species of the genus Malurus , commonly known as fairy @-@ wrens , found in Australia and lowland New Guinea . Within the genus , the superb fairy @-@ wren 's closest relative is the splendid fairywren ; these two " blue wrens " are also related to the purple @-@ crowned fairywren of northwestern Australia .
William Anderson , surgeon and naturalist on Captain James Cook 's third voyage , collected the first superb fairywren specimen in 1777 while traveling off the coast of eastern Tasmania , in Bruny Island 's Adventure Bay . He named it Motacilla cyanea because its tail reminded him of the European wagtails of the genus Motacilla . Anderson did not live to publish his findings , although his assistant William Ellis described the bird in 1782 . The genus Malurus was later described by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816 , giving the bird its current scientific name .
Shortly after the First Fleet 's arrival at Port Jackson , Sydney , the bird gained the common name superb warbler . In the 1920s came common names wren and wren @-@ warbler — both from its similarity to the European wren — and fairywren . The bird has also been called Mormon wren , a reference to observations of one blue @-@ plumaged bird accompanied by many brown @-@ plumaged birds , which were incorrectly assumed to be all female . The Ngarrindjeri people of the Murray River and Coorong regions called it waatji pulyeri , meaning " little one of the waatji ( lignum ) bush " , and the Gunai called it deeydgun , meaning " little bird with long tail " . Both it and the variegated fairywren were known as muruduwin to the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin .
Like other fairywrens , the superb fairywren is unrelated to the true wren . It was previously classified as a member of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae and later as a member of the warbler family Sylviidae before being placed in the newly recognised Maluridae in 1975 . More recently , DNA analysis has shown the Maluridae family to be related to the Meliphagidae ( honeyeaters ) , and the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes , scrubwrens , thornbills , gerygones and allies ) in the large superfamily Meliphagoidea .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Ornithologist Richard Schodde has reported that the subspecific classification of the superb fairy @-@ wren requires further review . In 1982 , he lumped all forms into two subspecies , the smaller and paler @-@ plumaged M. c. cyanochlamys of the mainland and larger and daker M. c. cyaneus of Tasmania and adjoining islands . However , zones of abrupt change led him to split these into more subspecies , and to note that the differences between New South Wales and Queensland populations needed investigation . Six subspecies are recognized :
M. c. cyaneus , the nominate subspecies described in 1782 , is found throughout Tasmania . Birds are larger and darker than the mainland subspecies , with males having a deeper azure blue coloration . Schodde in his 1982 review reclassified elizabethae and samueli under cyaneus .
M. c. elizabethae , endemic to King Island was described as a separate species elizabethae by Archibald James Campbell in 1901 . Males have a deeper blue colour than Tasmanian birds . King Island birds also have longer tarsi ( lower legs ) .
M. c. samueli , endemic to Flinders Island , has males that are of intermediate colour between the King Island and Tasmanian subspecies .
M. c. cyanochlamys , described by Richard Sharpe in 1881 , is found on mainland Australia ; in general , birds are smaller and paler than those of Tasmania , with Queensland male birds bearing a pale silvery blue crown , ear tufts and mantle .
M. c. leggei , described by Gregory Mathews in 1912 , is found in eastern South Australia . Males in breeding plumage differ from those of subspecies cyanochlamys by having blue tinges on their belly below the chest band and on their wing remiges .
M. c. ashbyi , described by Mathews in 1912 , is found on Kangaroo Island , and has been separated from the mainland subspecies for around 9000 years . Birds of this subspecies are larger , have narrower bills and darker plumage than birds on nearby mainland South Australia . Females from Kangaroo Island are more uniformly grey in plumage than mainland birds .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
In his 1982 monograph , Schodde proposed a southern origin for the common ancestor of the superb and splendid fairywrens . At some time in the past it was split into southwestern ( splendid ) and southeastern ( superb ) enclaves . As the southwest was dryer than the southeast , once conditions were more favourable , the splendid forms were more able to spread into inland areas . In the east , the superb fairywren spread into Tasmania during a glacial period when the sea level was low and the island was connected with the rest of the continent via a land bridge . What gave rise to subspecies cyaneus became isolated as the sea levels rose . The Bass Strait forms were isolated from Tasmania but more recently and so their subspecific status was not maintained . Further molecular studies may result in this hypothesis being modified .
= = Description = =
The superb fairywren is 14 cm ( 5 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and weighs 8 – 13 g ( 0 @.@ 28 – 0 @.@ 46 oz ) , with males on average slightly larger than females . The average tail length is 5 @.@ 9 cm ( 2 1 ⁄ 3 in ) , among the shortest in the genus . Averaging 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in subspecies cyaneus and 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in subspecies cyanochlamys , the bill is relatively long , narrow and pointed and wider at the base . Wider than it is deep , the bill is similar in shape to those of other birds that feed by probing for or picking insects off their environs .
Like other fairywrens , the superb fairywren is notable for its marked sexual dimorphism , males adopting a highly visible breeding plumage of brilliant iridescent blue contrasting with black and grey @-@ brown . The brightly coloured crown and ear tufts are prominently featured in breeding displays . The breeding male has a bright @-@ blue forehead , ear coverts , mantle and tail , brown wings , and black throat , eye band , breast and bill . Females , immatures , and non @-@ breeding males are a plain fawn colour with a lighter underbelly and a fawn ( females and immatures ) or dull greyish blue ( males ) tail . The bill is brown in females and juveniles and black in males after their first winter . Immature males moult into breeding plumage the first breeding season after hatching , though incomplete moulting sometimes leaves residual brownish plumage that takes another year or two to perfect . Both sexes moult in autumn after breeding , with males assuming an eclipse non @-@ breeding plumage . They moult again into nuptial plumage in winter or spring . Breeding males ' blue plumage , particularly the ear @-@ coverts , is highly iridescent because of the flattened and twisted surface of the barbules . The blue plumage also reflects ultraviolet light strongly , and so may be even more prominent to other fairywrens , whose colour vision extends into this part of the spectrum .
Vocal communication among superb fairywrens is used primarily for communication between birds in a social group and for advertising and mobbing , or defending a territory . The basic , or Type I , song is a 1 – 4 second high @-@ pitched reel consisting of 10 – 20 short elements per second ; it is sung by both males and females . Males also possess a peculiar song @-@ like Type II vocalization , which is given in response to the calls of predatory birds , commonly grey butcherbirds ( Cracticus torquatus ) . The purpose of this behaviour , which does not elicit a response from other nearby wrens , remains unknown . It is not a warning call , but in fact gives away the location of the vocalizing male to the predator . It may serve to announce male fitness , but this is far from certain . Superb fairywrens ' alarm call is a series of brief sharp chits , universally given and understood by small birds in response to predators . Females also emit a purr while incubating . Strangely , the bird appears to also use song as a password for its chicks to give it a chance to avoid cuckoo parasites .
= = Various views and plumages = =
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The superb fairywren is common throughout most of the relatively wet and fertile south @-@ eastern corner of the continent , from the south @-@ east of South Australia ( including Kangaroo Island and Adelaide ) and the tip of the Eyre Peninsula , through all of Victoria , Tasmania , coastal and sub @-@ coastal New South Wales and Queensland , through the Brisbane area and extending inland – north to the Dawson River and west to Blackall ; it is a common bird in the suburbs of Sydney , Melbourne and Canberra . It is found in wooded areas , generally with plenty of undergrowth , and has also adapted to urban existence and can be found in gardens and urban parks as long as there is an undergrowth of native plants nearby . Lantana ( Lantana camara ) , a prolific weed in Australia , has also been beneficial in providing shelter in disturbed areas , as has the introduced and invasive blackberry ( Rubus spp . ) Unlike other fairywrens , it appears to benefit from the urban environment and has out @-@ competed the introduced house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) in one study on the grounds of the Australian National University in Canberra . Colonies of wrens can be found in Hyde Park and the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney 's urbanized centre . It is not found in dense forest nor in alpine environments . Forestry plantations of pine ( Pinus spp . ) and eucalypts are also unsuitable as they lack undergrowth .
= = Behaviour = =
Like all fairywrens , the superb fairywren is an active and restless feeder , particularly on open ground near shelter , but also through the lower foliage . Movement is a series of jaunty hops and bounces , with its balance assisted by a proportionally large tail , which is usually held upright , and rarely still . The short , rounded wings provide good initial lift and are useful for short flights , though not for extended jaunts . During spring and summer , birds are active in bursts through the day and accompany their foraging with song . Insects are numerous and easy to catch , which allows the birds to rest between forays . The group often shelters and rests together during the heat of the day . Food is harder to find during winter and they are required to spend the day foraging continuously .
The superb fairywren is a cooperative breeding species , with pairs or groups of 3 – 5 birds maintaining and defending small territories year @-@ round . The group consists of a social pair with one or more male or female helper birds that were hatched in the territory , though they may not necessarily be the offspring of the main pair . These birds assist in defending the territory and feeding and rearing the young . Birds in a group roost side @-@ by @-@ side in dense cover as well as engaging in mutual preening .
Major nest predators include Australian magpies ( Gymnorhina tibicen ) , butcherbirds ( Cracticus spp . ) , laughing kookaburra ( Dacelo novaeguineae ) , currawongs ( Strepera spp . ) , crows and ravens ( Corvus spp . ) , shrike @-@ thrushes ( Colluricincla spp . ) as well as introduced mammals such as the red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) , cat and black rat ( Rattus rattus ) . Superb fairywrens may utilise a ' rodent @-@ run display to distract predators from nests with young birds . The head , neck and tail are lowered , wings held out and feathers fluffed as the bird runs rapidly and voices a continuous alarm call . A field study in Canberra found that superb fairywrens that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners ( Manorina melanocephala ) recognised miner alarm calls and took flight , and had learnt to ignore their non @-@ alarm calls , while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls . This suggests the species has adapted and learned to discriminate and respond to another species ' vocalisations .
= = = Diet = = =
Superb fairywrens are predominantly insectivorous . They eat a wide range of small creatures ( mostly insects such as ants , grasshoppers , shield bugs , flies , weevils and various larvae ) as well as small quantities of seeds , flowers , and fruit . Their foraging , termed ' hop @-@ searching ' , occurs on the ground or in shrubs that are less than two metres high . Because this foraging practice renders them vulnerable to predators , birds tend to stick fairly close to cover and forage in groups . During winter , when food may be scarce , ants are an important ' last resort ' food , constituting a much higher proportion of the diet . Nestlings , in contrast to adult birds , are fed a diet of larger items such as caterpillars and grasshoppers .
= = = Courtship = = =
Several courtship displays by superb fairywren males have been recorded . The ' sea horse flight ' , named for its seahorse @-@ like undulations , is one such display . During this exaggerated flight , the male — with his neck extended and his head feathers erect — tilts his body from horizontal to vertical , and descends slowly and springs upwards by rapidly beating his wings after alighting on the ground . The ' face fan ' display may be seen as a part of aggressive or sexual display behaviours ; it involves the flaring of the blue ear tufts by erecting the feathers .
During the reproductive season , males of this and other fairywren species pluck yellow petals , which contrast with their plumage , and show them to female fairywrens . The petals often form part of a courtship display and are presented to a female in the male fairywren 's own or another territory . Males sometimes show petals to females in other territories even outside the breeding season , presumably to promote themselves . Fairywrens are socially monogamous and sexually promiscuous : pairs will bond for life , though both males and females will regularly mate with other individuals ; a proportion of young will have been fathered by males from outside the group . Young are often raised not by the pair alone , but with other males who also mated with the pair 's female assisting .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding occurs from spring through to late summer ; the nest is a round or domed structure made of loosely woven grasses and spider webs , with an entrance in one side generally close to the ground , under 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) , and in thick vegetation . Two or more broods may be laid in an extended breeding season . A clutch of three or four matte white eggs with reddish @-@ brown splotches and spots , measuring 12 mm × 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in × 0 @.@ 63 in ) . The eggs are incubated for 14 days , after which they hatch within 24 hours . Newborn chicks are blind , red and featherless , though quickly darken as feathers grow . Their eyes open by day five or six and are fully feathered by day 10 . All group members feed and remove fecal sacs for 10 – 14 days . Fledglings are able to feed themselves by day 40 but remain in the family group as helpers for a year or more before moving to another group or assuming a dominant position in the original group . In this role they feed and care for subsequent broods and repel cuckoos or predators . Superb fairywrens also commonly play host to the brood parasite Horsfield 's bronze cuckoo ( Chrysococcyx basalis ) and , less commonly , the shining bronze cuckoo ( C. lucidus ) and fan @-@ tailed cuckoo ( Cacomantis flabelliformis ) .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The superb fairy @-@ wren breeding male is used as an emblem by the Bird Observation & Conservation Australia . On 12 August 1999 , a superb fairywren was mistakenly illustrated for an Australia Post 45c pre @-@ stamped envelope meant to depict a splendid fairywren . Called the blue wren as it was then known , it had previously featured on a 2s.5d. stamp , released in 1964 , which was discontinued with the advent of decimal currency .
|
= This England ( album ) =
This England is a classical music album by the Oregon Symphony under the artistic direction of Carlos Kalmar , released by Dutch record label PentaTone Classics in November 2012 . The album was recorded at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland , Oregon at five performances in February and May 2012 . It contains works by three English 20th @-@ century composers : Edward Elgar 's Cockaigne ( In London Town ) , Ralph Vaughan Williams ' Symphony No. 5 , and " Four Sea Interludes " and " Passacaglia " from Benjamin Britten 's opera Peter Grimes . The recording was the orchestra 's second under Kalmar 's leadership , following the highly successful Music for a Time of War ( 2011 ) , which also included works by Britten and Vaughan Williams and received Grammy Award nominations for Best Orchestral Performance and Best Engineered Album , Classical . This England received positive critical reception but failed to chart .
= = Background and composition = =
This England , released by the Dutch record label PentaTone Classics on November 13 , 2012 , contains compositions by three English 20th @-@ century composers : Cockaigne ( In London Town ) by Edward Elgar , Symphony No. 5 by Ralph Vaughan Williams , and " Four Sea Interludes " and " Passacaglia " from the opera Peter Grimes ( 1945 ) by Benjamin Britten . The album contains ten tracks , with works divided into separate tracks for each movement and interlude . The works were recorded live at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland , Oregon , at five performances in February and May 2012 . Symphony No. 5 and Cockaigne were performed February 18 and 19 as part of the program " Kahane Plays Mozart " ; the works by Britten were performed May 12 – 14 as part of the program " Arnaldo Cohen Plays Tchaikovsky " . In his review of the February 18th live performance , The Oregonian 's James McQuillen noted disturbances from the audience , including coughing and the ringing of one attendant 's cell phone . McQuillen suggested the disturbances could be removed from the audio by engineers if the February 19th recording was not preferable .
The album was the second recorded during Kalmar 's tenure , following the highly successful Music for a Time of War ( 2011 ) , which also included works by Britten and Vaughan Williams and which received Grammy Award nominations for Best Orchestral Performance and Best Engineered Album , Classical . The recording is the second of four albums expected to be produced by the Symphony and PentaTone before the end of the 2014 – 2015 season , all under Kalmar 's artistic leadership . Like Music for a Time of War , This England was recorded in hybrid multichannel ( surround sound ) Super Audio CD format . Blanton Alspaugh served as producer . Alspaugh and John Newton were the recording engineers , and mixing and mastering was conducted by Mark Donahue . In addition to recording the performances , the Boston @-@ based company Soundmirror edited , mixed and mastered the audio . Program notes for the recording were written by Steven Kruger . The album 's cover art was designed by David McLaughlin , art director for the Symphony .
The Symphony celebrated the recording by hosting a CD release party in late October .
= = = Works = = =
Elgar conducted the world premiere of Cockaigne ( In London Town ) at a Royal Philharmonic Society concert at Queen 's Hall in London in June 1901 . The work has been described as an " unashamedly populist portrait of ' old London town ' " and a musical description of the city at the turn of the century , with references to whistling boys , strolling lovers and marching bands . The Oregon Symphony last performed the overture in January 1990 , under Norman Leyden . The work , which is approximately 15 minutes in length , employs two flutes , piccolo , two oboes , two clarinets , two bassoons , one contrabassoon , four horns , two trumpets , two cornets , three trombones , tuba , timpani , five percussionists , strings .
Symphony No. 5 was composed during the period 1936 – 1943 and premiered in June 1943 , with Vaughan Williams conducting the London Philharmonic Orchestra at Royal Albert Hall in London . The widely performed work evokes serenity and pastoral settings ; despite being completed during World War II , Vaughan Williams originally intended the work to be an opera when he began writing it before the war . The symphony , which is approximately 41 minutes in length , contains four movements ( " Preludio " , " Scherzo " , " Romanza " and " Passacaglia " ) and includes two flutes ( second doubling piccolo ) , oboe , English horn , two clarinets , two bassoons , two horns , two trumpets , three trombones , timpani and strings . The Oregon Symphony 's February 2012 performances were its first performances of Symphony No. 5 .
The recording continues with Britten 's " Four Sea Interludes " and " Passacaglia " . The four interludes ( " Dawn " , " Sunday morning " , " Moonlight " and " Storm " ) have been published separately as Opus 33a ; " Passacaglia " has also been published separately as Opus 33b . Peter Grimes premiered on June 7 , 1945 , at the Sadler 's Wells Theatre in London , conducted by Reginald Goodall . On June 13 , Britten conducted the four interludes with the London Philharmonic in Cheltenham ; Adrian Boult conducted " Passacaglia " with the BBC Symphony Orchestra on August 29 . Prior to 2012 , the Oregon Symphony 's most recent performance of " Four Sea Interludes " had been in 1993 under James DePreist ; the orchestra had never presented " Passacaglia " . The interludes and " Passacaglia " are approximately 16 minutes and 7 minutes , respectively , and include two flutes ( both doubling piccolo ) , two oboes , two clarinets , two bassoons , contrabassoon , four horns , three trumpets , three trombones , tuba , timpani , bass drum , bells , cymbals , gong , snare drum , tam tam , tambourine , tenor drum , xylophone , celeste , harp and strings . The percussion section added a 14 @-@ foot chime to produce bell sounds , which had to be stationed horizontally on stage .
= = Reception = =
This England received positive critical reception . David Patrick Stearns of Philadelphia Daily News awarded the album 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars and , also referring to the success of Music for a Time of War , wrote that the repertoire has " perfectly wide appeal , especially in vital , muscular performances such as these " . Stearns , who appreciated Kalmar 's balance of technicality and the music 's " exterior atmosphere " , called the performances " thoughtful " and " incisive " . He also noted the originality of the interludes and " Passacaglia " from Peter Grimes , claiming they " won 't be mistaken for anybody else 's . " In his review for The Huffington Post , Brian Horay wrote that the orchestra delivered " knockout " and " beefy @-@ yet @-@ restrained " performances of the Peter Grimes compositions . Referring to This England and its preceding album , which featured Sinfonia da Requiem , Horay said the recordings " showcase Kalmar and his band as supreme interpreters of Benjamin Britten 's amazingly colorful brand of orchestral anxiety , inviting the listener to delve ever deeper into painful , yet rewarding , symphonic ambivalence . " Classical CD Review 's Robert Benson called the Elgar performance " brilliant " and appreciated that " Passacaglia " was programmed before " The Storm " . Benson complimented Kalmar ( calling him a " conductor to watch " ) as well as the sound of the recording , describing it as " well @-@ balanced orchestral sound , with a wide dynamic range " . He noted the lack of audience interference with the sound and assured audiophiles that they would appreciate the quality . Steven Ritter of Audiophile Audition wrote that the Symphony performed " with a brilliance and verve equal to any on record " and were " entirely attuned to the ' English ' idiom " . Ritter complimented Kalmar and the orchestra for the performances , saying " Who knew Oregon could sound like this ? PentaTone should hold on to this bunch as long as they can , and explore as much repertory as they can handle . Great sound , performances , and production ! "
Several Oregon publications included This England on their lists highlighting local products . Portland Monthly included the album on their list of " November 's Best PDX Stuff " , which showcases Portland 's " coolest products and ideas " . The Oregonian included the album on their list of " 25 local gifts under $ 25 " . Oregon ArtsWatch contributor Brett Campbell recommended the album on his list of Oregon classical music " stocking stuffers " . Campbell wrote that , despite the acoustic limitations of the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall , the live recordings " achieve admirable depth and clarity that bring out unexpected elements in both major 20th century English compositions " . He also complimented Kalmar and the orchestra for their " tightly wound expressiveness " and " sharp " performances , and said their recording of Cockaigne can " proudly stand alongside other top versions by the likes of the London Symphony Orchestra " .
The Portland Mercury invited local music industry professionals to list " Portland 's Top Five Records of 2012 " ; the reviewer known as " Angry Symphony Guy " ( Brian Horay ) included This England at the top of his list . The CBC Radio 2 program " In Concert " designated the album as the Disc of the Week for the week of January 7 , 2013 . In her review , the CBC 's Denise Ball said of the recording , " the sound is vivid and fresh , and the orchestra plays with remarkable depth of colour and rhythmic drive . "
Portland classical music radio station KQAC offered the album as a thank you gift to donors during a 2012 fundraising campaign .
= = Track listing = =
" Cockaigne ( In London Town ) , Opus 40 " ( Edward Elgar ) – 15 : 02
Symphony No. 5 in D major ( Ralph Vaughan Williams )
" Preludio : Moderato " – 11 : 57
" Scherzo : Presto misterioso " – 5 : 12
" Romanza : Lento " – 10 : 56
" Passacaglia : Moderato " – 10 : 15
" Four Sea Interludes " and " Passacaglia " from Peter Grimes , Opus 33a and b ( Benjamin Britten )
" Dawn : Lento e tranquillo " – 3 : 50
" Sunday morning : Allegro spiritoso " – 3 : 53
" Moonlight : Andante comodo e rubato " – 4 : 54
" Passacaglia " – 6 : 53
" Storm : Presto con fuoco " – 4 : 30
Track listing adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic and the album 's liner notes .
= = = Orchestra roster = = =
Orchestra roster adapted from the album 's liner notes .
" * " designates acting orchestra members ; " * * " designates musicians on a leave of absence ; " * * * " designates guest musicians .
|
= Ghosttown ( Madonna song ) =
" Ghosttown " is a song recorded by American singer Madonna for her thirteenth studio album , Rebel Heart ( 2015 ) . It was released to radio stations on March 13 , 2015 , as the album 's second single . The song was written by Madonna , Jason Evigan , Evan Bogart , and Sean Douglas , and produced by Madonna , Billboard and Evigan . Madonna had listened to Douglas 's previous works and had requested studio time with him . Together with the other songwriters , they wrote " Ghosttown " in three days . A pop ballad , the song was inspired by the imagery of a destructed city after armageddon , and how the survivors carry on with their lives , with love being the only thing they can hold onto . Composed as an uplifting track , " Ghosttown " features instrumentation from organ and drums , with minor vocoder effects on Madonna 's vocals .
" Ghosttown " was released to iTunes Store as part of the album 's pre @-@ order in December 2014 , in response to hackers leaking songs from Rebel Heart . The song received positive response from critics , who commended Madonna 's vocal delivery , the lyrics , Billboard 's production work , as well as compared it to the singer 's early ballads . In the United States , the song became Madonna 's 36th entry on the Adult Contemporary chart , as well as her 45th number @-@ one song on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , surpassing country singer George Strait as the artist with most number @-@ one songs on an active Billboard chart . Internationally , " Ghosttown " reached the top twenty position in Hungary and Italy , and the digital charts of Finland and Sweden , and was certified platinum by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) .
Madonna performed the song during her promotional schedules across Europe — Le Grand Journal in France , Che tempo che fa in Italy and The Jonathan Ross Show in the United Kingdom . She also performed it at the 2nd iHeartRadio Music Awards , where she was joined by singer Taylor Swift who played guitar . An accompanying music video for " Ghosttown " was directed by Jonas Åkerlund , and starred actor Terrence Howard . The main theme behind the video was " an apocalyptic situation mimicking the end of the world " , showing the singer and Howard as sole survivors in a destroyed city .
= = Background and release = =
" Ghosttown " was written by Madonna , Jason Evigan , Evan Bogart , and Sean Douglas . The song was composed in three days , after Madonna had personally requested some studio time with them . Madonna liked Jason Derulo 's 2014 single " Talk Dirty " which was co @-@ written by Evigan and Douglas , and hence she decided to collaborate with them . Douglas recalled that they ended up having a " great session " , saying " I was incredibly nervous for obvious reasons , but she showed up , was super personable and was ready to work . I basically checked it off my life bucket list . " Of their writing session , Madonna explained :
We all get into a room together . They start playing their chords and then we just start thinking about ... When I write with people , we always try to come up with a theme . What do we want to write about ? So this one is about the city after armageddon . The burnt out city , the crumbling buildings , the smoke that 's still lingering after the fire . You know what I mean ? There 's only a few people left . How do we pick up the pieces and go on from here ? Kind of dramatic . But not entirely impossible at this stage of the game ... And we 'll all be in our version of a ' Ghosttown ' or in a version of a ' Ghosttown ' , and at the end of the day , all we 're going to have left is each other . So that 's really what that song is about .
While discussing the song 's theme with French radio Europe 1 , Madonna spoke about the intolerance going around the world , especially in France whom she believed to have lost its ability to accept people of all race and color . Adding that the level of intolerance and antisemitism was increasing all @-@ throughout Europe , Madonna said that " Ghosttown " ' s apocalyptic theme was a foreshadow of the destruction of humanity , should the intolerance continue . " The way we behave , to treat one another the way we 're treating one another , to maintain this level of intolerance and discriminatory prejudice ... hateful behavior towards other human beings who are different than you are , " Madonna concluded .
On December 17 , 2014 , a total of 13 songs from the recording sessions were leaked . An aggravated Madonna took to Instagram and clarified that the songs were demo versions from earlier recordings . Madonna told Billboard that after the leak , she and her team tried to trace it back to the source . Ultimately they decided to release the finished songs . On December 20 , 2014 , the album became available for pre @-@ order on iTunes Store . When ordered , six tracks were automatically downloaded , including " Ghosttown " . Madonna added that she " would prefer [ her ] fans to hear completed versions of some of the songs instead of the incomplete tracks that are circulating . " During Madonna 's appearance on Italian television show Che tempo che fa , " Ghosttown " was confirmed as the second single from Rebel Heart and was sent to Italian radio on March 13 , 2015 . A week later it was added to Australian radio , while in the United Kingdom , it would be released on April 20 , 2015 .
= = Composition and remixes = =
Thematically , introspection was also listed as one of the foundational themes prevalent in Rebel Heart , with genuine statements of careerist and personal reflections of Madonna and her " obsessive self @-@ regard " . " Ghosttown " was one of the songs carrying on the subtle messages while talking about unity and religious consciousness . Madonna reverses the concept of " loss of love " with her romantic idealization , according to Matthew Harden from Samesame.com.au , as the lyrics go " When it all falls down , when it all falls down . We 'll be two souls in a ' Ghosttown ' . " Jim Farber from New York Daily News said that the song brings out " the warmest elements of [ Madonna 's ] voice " and " at times , her alto [ range ] sounds like Karen Carpenter 's , while the melody has the enveloping calm of hits like ' Live to Tell ' " .
The song 's composition is " uplifting and euphoric " in nature , far @-@ reaching with a number of melodic effects generated by electronic music . A cinematic visualization with the track is accomplished by different chord progressions , making the whole song sound compact . " Ghosttown " begins with sounds of single organ chords and a dusty drum beat . Instead of being a straight @-@ up pop ballad , the composition sounds a little " edgy " , due to the usage of synth percussion and vocoder effects . Chris Rosa from VH1 stated that the song " features tight production and an ear @-@ crashing chorus that is pure pop bliss " , while Elysa Gardner from USA Today described the song as a mixture of " disarmingly earnest sweetness with a stark , chilly arrangement " . The chorus appears after 40 seconds in the song , with a distortion filled pause , a thumping beat and a repetitive chord progression . " Ghosttown " is set in the time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 79 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D minor , with Madonna 's vocals spanning from F3 to B ♭ 4 . The song has a basic sequence of Dm – F – C – Gm during the verses and B ♭ – F – C – Dm during the chorus as its chord progression . Demacio " Demo " Castellon engineered and mixed the track , while Ron Taylor did additional Pro Tools editing of Madonna 's vocals and Evignan provided background vocals on the song .
On March 31 , 2015 , Billboard premiered a remix of the song by Dutch DJ Don Diablo , who changed the ballad into an EDM track . Another set of remixes were released later as a Remix EP . Two of the remixes were released on Madonna 's Tidal streaming account , including one by DJ RedTop as well as Armand Van Helden , Offer Nissim and Roger Sanchez . According to Idolator , " RedTop completely deconstructs ' Ghosttown ' and turns it into something you might hear in a post @-@ apocalyptic piano bar . It 's sad and depressing yet defiantly groovy . " Another remix , by Paul Andrews , gave emphasis on Madonna 's vocals while adding piano and orchestra in the production . Andrews explained that the music video of " Ghosttown " was how he had imagined it , " two people in a dark place with destruction all around them , but they have each other " . Hence he wanted the verse to represent the reality of the situation and the chorus would represent their view of the world because of their love . The non @-@ dance remix was approved by Madonna and was another exclusive release to her Tidal account .
= = Critical response = =
Hugh McIntyre from Forbes considered " Ghosttown " as a favorite from the album . Dean Piper from The Daily Telegraph considered the song as Madonna 's best chance at achieving a radio hit from the album , comparing the composition to the singer 's previous studio album , Ray of Light ( 1998 ) . This view was shared by Gregory Ellwood of HitFix who considered it to be Madonna 's " most commercially friendly ballad " of the 2010s , while Jon Lisi from PopMatters called it " arguably the most haunting love song of [ Madonna 's ] career . The Dallas Morning News ' Hunter Hauk complimented Madonna 's " natural " vocal delivery in spite of the vocal effects added , also considering it to be a probable radio hit for Madonna . Daryl Deino from The Inquisitr also praised Madonna 's vocals in " Ghosttown " , along with " Devil Pray " and " Living for Love " . Bernard Zuel from The Sydney Morning Herald found Madonna to be reliving her older ballads like " Live to Tell " , and found the electronic arrangements to be complimenting her vocals . Amy Pettifer from The Quietus observed that the chorus could have been sung by any other singer , but Madonna , " despite being a weaker singer , licks it in the emotional truth stakes , particularly on this more melancholy end of the spectrum . Singing with a tremulous tonality , her voice hangs in uncluttered space , the lyrics positioning her as the dark @-@ glowing , guiding light . A brilliant , desperate and rousing anthem . " Along with comparing Madonna 's vocals in Ghosttown to that of Karen Carpenter , Farber also observed that it was her most " rich sounding " voice since her Evita soundtrack , comparable to " Live to Tell " and also " Crazy for You " . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner rated it four out of five stars , noting that Madonna sounded " significantly more subdued and reflective compared to her handbag bangers of recent years , but by doing so it makes the biggest possible impact . "
Bradley Stern from MuuMuse felt that since " Ghosttown " was a previous unheard track not present among the leaks , it was the most surprising . With the ample presence of melodies , Stern reminisced that one of the major complaints about Madonna 's past few studio albums was a lack of memorable lyrics , which was dissipated with " Ghosttown " . Quoting a part of the lyrics — " When the world gets cold I 'll be your cover / Let 's just hold onto each other . " — Stern added that the song " is a gorgeously earnest , us @-@ against @-@ the @-@ world anthem tailored for two souls wandering alone in this mad , mad world . " Giving the song a rating of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , Hardeep Phull from New York Post described it as musically and emotionally " hectic " , but found it to be tender and simple while being a " big synth @-@ ballad of solidarity " . Writing for i @-@ D , Nick Levine felt that " Ghosttown " was enhanced as a song by the " glorious stealth bomb of a chorus " . Jed Gottlieb from Boston Herald commended Billboard 's production techniques , and the blend of EDM and lyrical introspection , while focusing on the " catchy " chorus . Jon Pareles from The New York Times found the song to be a mixture of " affection and post @-@ apocalyptic gloom " , adding that " it begs for a dystopian @-@ romance video " . Michael Jose Gonzalez from Danish music magazine , Gaffa , praised Madonna 's decision to give emphasis on her singing , with " trouble embossed and melodic " tracks like " Ghosttown " .
For a writer from Q , " Ghosttown " displayed a " wonderful finality " , while striking a tentative note . Zel McCarthy from Vice relegated the song to being an " album filler " but believed that it displayed Madonna 's " vocal chops and rarely @-@ deployed emotional sincerity " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine had initially considered it as the least memorable song among the six tracks released for pre @-@ order , however in another review for the album he explained , " A decade of disco @-@ Madonna makes it easy to forget that she 's a skilled balladeer , and the post @-@ apocalyptic ' Ghosttown ' takes a generic , contemporary @-@ pop template ( think ' Halo ' ) and stamps it with her singular style a la 1994 's Babyface @-@ penned ' Take a Bow ' . " Saeed Saeed of The National described the song as a " streamlined power ballad " , and complimented Madonna 's pop music instincts . Rolling Stone ranked " Ghosttown " at number 16 on its year @-@ end list to find the 50 best songs of 2015 . It was also number one on their list of 10 Best Songs of 2015 through the reader 's poll .
= = Chart performance = =
Following the release of the song as a pre @-@ order , " Ghosttown " charted in a number of nations . In France , the song debuted at number 70 on the French SNEP Singles Chart , but fell down to number 105 the next week . Following the album 's release , the song again entered the chart at number 60 . After the release of the physical CD single , " Ghosttown " reached a new peak of number 34 , while topping the SNEP Physical Singles Chart . It debuted and peaked at number 41 in Spain , staying there for two weeks . The song debuted within the top @-@ forty in Switzerland at number 39 , but was present on the chart for one week . " Ghosttown " charted outside the top @-@ 100 on the UK Singles Chart at number 117 , and debuted at number 86 on the Scottish Singles Chart . In Italy , " Ghosttown " reached a peak of number 20 on the Italian FIMI Singles Chart spending 19 weeks in the top 100 , while reaching a peak of number 34 on the German Media Control Charts .
In the United States , " Ghosttown " was promoted to the adult contemporary radio formats by regular radio plays on iHeartMedia owned stations . It debuted at number 21 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart making it her 36th entry , starting from her 1984 single " Borderline " . Madonna ranks fourth on the list of artists with the most entries on the chart , preceded by Elton John ( 43 ) , Celine Dion ( 41 ) and Rod Stewart ( 40 ) . " Ghosttown " was Madonna 's first entry on the chart since her 2006 single , " Jump " . According to Billboard , the song also bubbled under the main Adult Pop Songs chart , aided by iHeart radio play . For the week ending April 25 , 2015 , " Ghosttown " debuted at number 41 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . The following four weeks it was the greatest gainer in position , reaching to a peak of number one .
On the week ending May 30 , 2015 , " Ghosttown " reached the top of the chart , becoming Madonna 's 45th number @-@ one there . She became the artist with the most number @-@ one singles ever on a Billboard chart , breaking her tie with country singer George Strait who earned 44 number @-@ ones on the Hot Country Singles chart . She pulled further ahead of runners @-@ ups Beyonce and Rihanna , who had 22 number @-@ one songs each at that time . Along with the Dance Club Songs record , " Ghosttown " debuted at number 38 on the Adult Pop Songs chart , becoming the singer 's 19th entry on the list .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
Madonna confirmed on The Howard Stern Show that she would be filming a music video for the song in Los Angeles . Directed by Jonas Åkerlund , who had previously helmed Madonna 's music videos for " Ray of Light " , " Music " , " American Life " , " Jump " and " Celebration " , the music video also starred actor Terrence Howard . The main theme behind the video was " an apocalyptic situation mimicking the end of the world " , as described by Kim Peiffer from InStyle . The director came up with the concept of a dystopian future and shot it at an old steel mill . Madonna 's look in the video was styled by B. Åkerlund , wife of Jonas , who blended contemporary fashion trends like military @-@ bandleader @-@ Victorian and gave it her signature characteristics . She created a leather greatcoat with a billowing cape , from designer label Chrome Hearts , considering the rock @-@ n @-@ roll silhouette of the video .
Laurie Lynn Stark , co @-@ owner of Chrome Hearts spoke about working with Madonna on the video , with whom they had previously collaborated on photoshoots . Chrome Hearts were given a week 's notice to work with Åkerlund and after a few telephone exchanges , the group met Åkerlund at their factory . The latter told them about her inspiration and concepts for the designs , and Stark 's team put together the leather pieces and jacket structures , and finalized on buttons and cross patches . The task was easy for them , since both Åkerlund and Chrome Hearts had the same vision of the design in their mind , " so the challenge was how to bring it to life in the most dramatic and beautiful way . " The whole costume took about a week and a total of 30 people to finish it , to achieve the " Apocalyptic meets Rock & Roll with a bit of a ship wrecked mood " vibe that Åkerlund had wanted .
Rest of the ensemble included leather , metallic combinations , green silk vest from A.F. Vandevorst , and cotton clothing from Greg Lauren . The lace shorts Madonna wore was vintage , and Åkerlund burnt up the singer 's Agent Provocateur bra and applied dirt on it for giving special effects . The whole inspiration for Åkerlund behind the look was Jonas , as well as the couple 's interest in rock @-@ n @-@ roll . Madonna approved the design , saying that " It was magical ... It perfectly represented the vibe that we wanted to bring to the video . " She also asked for a golf club and pocket knife to make the look more edgy . With Swedish broadcasting channel Sveriges Television , Åkerlund explained that for the opening shot , where Madonna is shown laying on the bed , she wanted boots which looked like leg braces . She contacted a designer in New York who said that he developed such pieces for fetish fashion . Åkerlund wanted him to provide the designs for arms also .
= = = Release and synopsis = = =
Following the completion of the shooting , Madonna posted blurry images from the video set , and on April 3 , 2015 , she announced that the video would be released the next week . She then uploaded a 16 @-@ second preview of the video on her Tidal streaming account . The clip showed Madonna in a black , leather outfit , running through a bleak , destroyed area , the scene interspersed with religious symbols like an immaculate heart as well as animal carcasses . The release date was initially confirmed as April 7 , 2015 , on live video broadcasting app , Meerkat , at 10 am PST , but was rescheduled to the next day . Stuart Dredge from The Guardian felt that since " [ Madonna ] is now one of the 16 co @-@ owners of streaming music service Tidal , which is planning to use similarly @-@ exclusive video premieres to promote itself , " the release of the " Ghosttown " music video on Meerkat was perplexing .
The video starts with an announcement on television that nuclear activities has destroyed cities like London , Paris , New York City , and Los Angeles . It then cuts to a room where Madonna lies in her bed watching the news about the nuclear explosion . As the song starts , a visibly distressed Madonna walks to her dressing table . She sits down and kisses a framed photograph of her mother , while looking at herself . She drapes a cape around her , picks up a rod and a hat , and goes out of her house as the chorus of " Ghosttown " starts . Madonna is seen in what appears to be a post @-@ apocalyptic destroyed city , where there are no signs of life and posters of the Rebel Heart album are shown burning . She looks around and walks carefully among the destruction , while twirling around the cape .
Outside , Madonna rummages debris , tries to make a phone @-@ call from a payphone , gets frustrated , and starts smashing objects in front of her with the rod . Her actions catches the attention of a man , played by Howard . He picks up his sniper rifle to shoot at the object of disturbance , but seeing Madonna through the lens , runs after her . They meet each other at a destroyed building where both of them notice each other and circle around with weapons in their hand . They come close and instead of attacking they throw away the weapons , embrace each other and engage in a dance @-@ routine . After they complete their dance , and the song ends , the couple notice a little boy watching them from the destroyed building . The video ends with the couple leaving the city with the little boy hand @-@ in @-@ hand together with a large dog , and a panorama of the destruction .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
Jason Lipshutz from Billboard described the video as a " fitting soundtrack " to the choreographed dance between Madonna and Howard , and complimented the last scene . Eliana Dockterman from Time believed that since Howard had been acting and dancing on Empire , he was signed for the video . Brett Mallec from E ! shared this view but added that the duos " dancing skills aren 't half bad " . Louis Virtel from HitFix made 10 observations about the video , but concluded that there should have been more dance sequences to liven up the visuals , and hence could not live up to other " all @-@ time great " Madonna releases . Kory Grow from Rolling Stone complimented the visual , saying that the " better part of the video is a mostly harrowing scene for the pop star " and compared it to the TV series , The Last Man on Earth . James Elliot from Complex found the video to be " captivating " and keeping one " surprised " in spite of feeling it to be long .
The video was reviewed by four critics from Idolator website . Robbie Daw from the website gave it 9 out of 10 saying that " this is actually Madge ’ s best music video since ' Hung Up ' , not to mention her greatest single choice since that time period . " They complimented her onscreen Stevie Nicks like look , and described her as " a gorgeous vampire pirate witchy @-@ wench " . However , Mike Wass from Idolator negative critiqued the video , calling it a " ham @-@ fisted embarrassment complete with lame special effects , an unnecessary celebrity appearance and the most awkward dance scene of all time . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine called the video " campy " , while describing it as a " cautionery tale " comparable with the singer 's cancelled video for 2003 single , " American Life " . He criticized the overall execution of the clip , saying that " In another director 's hands ( like , say , M 's friend and frequent collaborator Steven Klein ) , ' Ghosttown ' might have been more than just ridiculous , glorified ruin porn , but at least there are no zombies . "
= = Live performances = =
On February 26 , 2015 , Madonna appeared on The Jonathan Ross Show in England , which aired on March 14 . She performed an edited version of " Living for Love " , as well as " Ghostown " for the first time . She a wore a black Marc Jacobs dress and boots while performing the songs . On March 1 , Madonna was a guest on Italian TV show , Che tempo che fa ( aired on March 8 ) . While talking with host Fabio Fazio , she performed " Devil Pray " and " Ghosttown " . A writer for Yahoo ! noticed that both performances were warmly received by the audience , while Lionel Nicaise from MCM appreciated that Madonna put more emphasis on the melodies and her vocals during the performance , rather than costumes and stage props . A day later , Madonna appeared on France 's Le Grand Journal show . She performed an edited version of " Living for Love " and " Ghosttown " . Nicaise described the performance as " an intimate interpretation of the already known ballad " . Writing for Idolator , Bradley Stern described it as a " deeply emotional performance " , where Madonna stood against a piano and sang the song . He added that " While [ Madonna ] is at her best man @-@ handling Minotaurs , flipping mid @-@ air and dry @-@ humping boomboxes , it 's refreshing to see Balladonna [ ballad Madonna ] in action for a change . And for a first performance of the song , she sounded great , especially once it took off with that final glorious chorus . " In the giant screens located on either side of the platform , burning cities of images were broadcast , as well as those of the World Trade Center collapses during the attack of September 11 , 2001 . The next performance happened at The Ellen DeGeneres Show in the United States , where Madonna sang " Ghosttown " wearing a black leather dress . She knelt down at one point during the song , and arose to sing the final chorus . Stern gave a positive feedback in MuuMuse , saying that " Madonna delivered yet another stirring performance of the post @-@ apocalyptic tune . In fact , it was likely her best to date , from the outfit choice to the raw , emotional vocal delivery . "
Madonna performed an acoustic version of " Ghosttown " at the 2nd iHeartRadio Music Awards on March 29 , 2015 . She was accompanied by singer Taylor Swift onstage , who played guitar . Elizabeth Vanmetre from New York Daily News noted that it was a " subdued " performance for Madonna , who only walked towards the front of the stage near the end of the song . Mikael Wood from Los Angeles Times called it an " appealingly breezy version of the song " , while Cathy Applefeld Olson from Billboard declared it as the " award show 's best performance " , describing the duo as " kindred spirits " . Matthew Jacobs from The Huffington Post called it " an intimate , light @-@ some @-@ candles @-@ and @-@ sway ballad [ that ] turned into an electrifying meeting of the souls " . For Daniel D 'Addario from Time , the performance was " the very best sort of collaboration " , adding that Swift seemed excited to be on stage with Madonna . Ellen DeGeneres uploaded a parody video of the performance on her website . The video showed DeGeneres added by computer graphics beside Madonna and Swift , playing violin . She accidentally rips out Madonna 's hair with her violin , and at the end Madonna smashes the instrument by taking it from DeGeneres , and moves away with Swift .
" Ghosttown " had been initially absent from the 2015 – 16 Rebel Heart Tour . However , on the September 19 , 2015 , stop at New York City 's Barclays Center , Madonna announced that she would perform the song , but it was unrehearsed . " That is the truth . So , if I make mistakes , will you forgive me ? " the singer added . She then sang an acoustic version of the song . According to Robbie Daw from Idolator , " Madonna 's fans went nuts over the performance of the ballad , and the singer was so touched that she began reaching into the crowd " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani was complimentary of the performance , calling it a " stirring , if pitchy , rendition of [ the ] shoulda @-@ been @-@ a @-@ sleeper @-@ hit ... which brought seemingly genuine tears to [ Madonna 's ] eyes , a development that seemed to surprise even her " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) / BMG Platinum Songs o / b / o itself and Bad Robot ( BMI )
Warner @-@ Tamerlane Publishing Corp. and East Pond Publishing ( BMI ) / Seven Summits Music o / b / o itself and Casbah Kid ( BMI )
Personnel
Madonna – vocals , songwriter , producer
Billboard – producer
Evan Bogart – songwriter
Sean Douglas – songwriter
Jason Evigan – songwriter , producer , background vocals
Demacio " Demo " Castellon – engineer , mixer
Ron Taylor – additional Pro Tools editing
Personnel adapted from Madonna official website .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= It Is the Law =
It Is the Law is a 1924 American silent mystery film directed by J. Gordon Edwards and starring Arthur Hohl , Herbert Hayes , and Mona Palma . It is a film adaptation of the eponymous 1922 Broadway play by Elmer Rice , itself based on a novel by Hayden Talbot . The film depicts the story of Ruth Allen ( Palma ) , who marries Justin Victor ( Heyes ) over competing suitor Albert Woodruff ( Hohl ) . Seeking revenge for this slight , Woodruff fakes his death by killing a drifter who resembles him , and frames Victor for the murder . When Woodruff returns to court Allen under a new identity , she sees through his disguise . Once Victor is freed from prison , he kills Woodruff , and goes free because a conviction would constitute double jeopardy .
This was the final film for director Edwards , who died the following year , and was one of the last produced at Fox Film 's New York studio . Contemporary reviews were generally positive . Like many of Fox 's early works , it was likely lost in the 1937 Fox vault fire .
= = Plot = =
Albert Woodruff and Justin Victor are friends who are both in love with the same woman , Ruth Allen . Allen chooses to wed Victor , and Woodruff storms off in a jealous rage . Woodruff locates his look @-@ alike , " Sniffer " Evans , a drifter and drug addict . On the evening following Allen and Victor 's wedding , Woodruff calls Allen and threatens to blackmail her . He also convinces Evans to come to his apartment .
Victor also travels to Woodruff 's apartment , intending to confront his former friend about the threatening phone call . When Woodruff sees Victor outside the apartment building , he feigns a cry for help and shoots Evans to death . Victor is blamed for the murder of the man presumed to be Woodruff , and is sentenced to life imprisonment .
Five years later , Woodruff disguises himself with a beard and monocle and assumes a new identity in an attempt to court Allen . She is able to recognize him as Woodruff because of his fear of fire tongs . Because she is friends with the governor , she is able to arrange her husband 's release from prison . Victor locates Woodruff in a casino and kills him . At trial , he declares that the prohibition against double jeopardy prevents his prosecution for the murder ; he is set free to live happily with his wife .
= = Cast = =
Arthur Hohl as Albert Woodruff and " Sniffer " Evans
Herbert Heyes as Justin Victor
Mona Palma as Ruth Allen ( credited as Mimi Palmeri )
Arthur Hohl reprised the role of Woodruff from Broadway ; in addition to Woodruff and Evans , he played a third role as the casino 's proprietor . The cast also includes Dorothy Kingdon , Helena D 'Algy , Patricia O 'Connor , and Nancy Newman as casino regulars . This was Herbert Heyes final silent film ; he returned to acting in the 1940s .
= = Production = =
In 1922 , theatrical agent Walter Jordan encouraged Elmer Rice to dramatize an unpublished novel by Hayden Talbot . At the time , Rice was best known for his 1914 Broadway play On Trial , which featured the first use of flashback , a narrative technique he adapted from film , in a Broadway production . Rice 's adaptation of Talbot 's work , It Is the Law , again featured a story told in flashback . It ran for 125 performances at the Ritz Theatre , and was a modest success .
Curtis Benson wrote the film adaptation for It Is the Law ; unlike the theatrical version , his screenplay presents the story entirely in chronological order . J. Gordon Edwards directed , the only time he did so in 1924 , as he was primarily serving as Fox Film 's director @-@ general at the time . It was also his last time to direct ; he retired from Fox after the film 's completion , and although he expressed an interest to returning to the role , he died of pneumonia the following year . Filming took place at Fox 's New York studio , although most production had by then moved to Hollywood . It Is the Law was one of only four films Fox made at its East Coast facility in 1924 . Except for four Allan Dwan films in 1926 , they were the last Fox produced in New York . The Film Daily reported that a trailer was produced to advertise the film .
The copyright registration for It Is the Law stated its length as eight reels , but the released version was a shorter , seven @-@ reel film . When Twentieth Century @-@ Fox Film renewed the copyright in 1951 , they again referred to the longer run time ; the title was also restyled with an exclamation point , as It Is the Law !
= = Reception and legacy = =
It Is the Law received generally positive reviews . George T. Pardy , writing for Exhibitors Trade Review , noted that the audience was aware of the nature of the mystery while the characters were not , a welcome departure from the conventions of most melodramas . Motion Picture Magazine called the film " tense , suspensive , ... and new in its idea . " The Film Daily 's reviewer believed it would appeal to fans of the genre despite " some hokum and implausible twists " . Edwards 's direction was praised , including his pacing of the story , although the reviewer for Variety felt the film was unnecessarily long . Hohl , in his dual role performance , was considered the strongest of the cast , despite some exaggerated expressions .
It Is the Law is believed to be lost . The 1937 Fox vault fire destroyed most of Fox 's silent films , and the Library of Congress is not aware of any extant copies . Because little of Edwards 's work survives , few of his films have drawn attention from modern authors , but film historian Larry Langman included It Is the Law as an example of the evolution of avenging @-@ spouse films to " emphasize the inner strengths of their women " in the 1920s .
|
= Oryzomys gorgasi =
Oryzomys gorgasi , also known as Gorgas 's oryzomys or Gorgas 's rice rat , is a rodent in the genus Oryzomys of family Cricetidae . First collected as a living animal in 1967 , it is known from only a few localities , including a freshwater swamp in the lowlands of northwestern Colombia and a mangrove islet in northwestern Venezuela . It formerly occurred on the island of Curaçao off northwestern Venezuela ; this extinct population has been described as a separate species , Oryzomys curasoae , but does not differ morphologically from mainland populations .
Oryzomys gorgasi is a medium @-@ sized , brownish species with large , semiaquatically specialized feet . It differs from other Oryzomys species in several features of its skull . Its diet includes crustaceans , insects , and plant material , and parasitic nematodes infect it . The species is listed as " Endangered " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to destruction of its habitat and competition with the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys gorgasi was first found in Antioquia Department of northwestern Colombia in 1967 during an expedition by the U.S. Army Medical Department and the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory . In 1971 , Field Museum zoologist Philip Hershkovitz described a new species , Oryzomys gorgasi , on the basis of the single known specimen , an old male . He named the animal after physician William Crawford Gorgas , the namesake of the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory . Hershkovitz considered the new species most closely related to Oryzomys palustris , which at the time included North and Central American populations now divided into several species , including the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) and O. couesi . The species was not recorded again until 2001 , when Venezuelan zoologist J. Sánchez H. and coworkers reported on 11 specimens collected in coastal northwestern Venezuela in 1992 , 700 km ( 430 mi ) from the Colombian locality . They confirmed that O. gorgasi is a distinct species related to the O. palustris group .
In 2001 , Donald McFarlane and Adolphe Debrot described a new Oryzomys species from the Dutch island of Curaçao off northwestern Venezuela . For their description , they used subfossil material from owl pellets , including two partial skulls and several hemimandibles . They referred the species to Oecomys , a group of arboreal ( tree @-@ living ) , mainly South American rodents related to Oryzomys . O. curasoae has also been known as the " Curaçao Rice Rat " and the " Curaçao Oryzomys " .
Marcelo Weksler and colleagues removed most of the species then placed in Oryzomys from the genus in 2006 , retaining only the marsh rice rat and related species , including O. gorgasi . They also kept O. curasoae in the genus and suggested that it may not be distinct from O. gorgasi . In a 2009 paper , R.S. Voss and Weksler examined the two and concluded that they represented the same species on the basis of direct comparisons and a phylogenetic analysis . The resultant tree placed O. curasoae and O. gorgasi sister to each other and closer to O. couesi than to the marsh rice rat . Accordingly , they placed O. curasoae as a junior synonym of the earlier described O. gorgasi .
Oryzomys gorgasi is the southeasternmost representative of the genus Oryzomys , which extends north into the eastern United States ( marsh rice rat , O. palustris ) . O. gorgasi is further part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes six other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . Many aspects of the systematics of the O. couesi section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the true diversity of the group . Oryzomys is classified in the tribe Oryzomyini , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys gorgasi is a medium @-@ sized oryzomyine with small ears and large feet , and is similar to the marsh rice rat in general appearance . The long and coarse fur is brownish above and ochraceous below . At the base of the tail , the upper and lower sides differ in color and at the end is a short tuft of hairs . The scales on the tail are well @-@ developed . As in other Oryzomys , the hindfeet exhibit specializations for life in the water . The plantar ( lower ) surface of the metatarsus is naked . Two of the pads are very small . Ungual tufts , tufts of hair at the bases of the claws , are poorly developed . Interdigital webbing is present , but extends along less than half of the first phalanges .
In specimens from El Caimito , total length is 220 to 290 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 to 11 @.@ 4 in ) , averaging 259 mm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) ( measured in 6 specimens ) ; tail length is 116 to 138 mm ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 in ) , averaging 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) ( measured in 8 specimens ) ; hindfoot length is 30 to 32 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) , averaging 31 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) ( measured in 10 specimens ) ; ear length is 15 to 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 67 in ) , averaging 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) ( measured in 7 specimens ) ; and condylo @-@ incisive length ( a measure of total skull size ) is 26 @.@ 9 to 31 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 @.@ 06 to 1 @.@ 24 in ) , averaging 29 @.@ 6 mm ( 1 @.@ 17 in ) ( measured in 5 specimens ) . In the holotype from Colombia , an old male , total length is 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) ; tail length is 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) ; ear length is 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) ; and condylo @-@ incisive length is 32 @.@ 1 mm ( 1 @.@ 26 in ) . The collector recorded the holotype 's hindfoot as being 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) long , but Sánchez and colleagues remeasured it as 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) .
The rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is short . The broad zygomatic plate develops a prominent notch , but not a spine , on its front end , and its back margin is in front of the first molars . The interorbital region , located between the eyes , is narrowest towards the front and is flanked by beadings along its margins . The interparietal bone is relatively long . The incisive foramina , perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars , are narrow and long and taper towards the end . The palate itself is also long , extending beyond the molars , and includes prominent posterolateral palatal pits near the third molars , which are excavated into deep fossae . The roof of the mesopterygoid fossa , the opening behind the palate , is not perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities . O. gorgasi lacks an alisphenoid strut ; in some other oryzomyines , this extension of the alisphenoid bone separates two openings in the skull , the masticatory – buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium . The squamosal bone lacks a suspensory process that contacts the tegmen tympani , the roof of the tympanic cavity , a defining character of oryzomyines . The subsquamosal fenestra , an opening at the back of the skull determined by the shape of the squamosal , is almost absent .
In the mandible ( lower jaw ) , the upper and lower masseteric ridges come close together below the first molars , but do not fuse . The back end of the lower incisor root is in a capsular process , a raising of the mandibular bone behind the molars . The upper incisors have yellowish enamel and are opisthodont , with the cutting edge inclined backwards . The molars are relatively small and are brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) and bunodont ( with the cusps higher than the connecting crests ) . They are similar to those of the marsh rice rat in structural details . The upper and lower first molars have small accessory roots , as in many other oryzomyines , and the second and third lower molar each have two roots only .
Oryzomys gorgasi is distinguished from other Oryzomys species by its short rostrum , the form of its incisive foramina , the absence of sphenopalatine vacuities , and the near absence of a subsquamosal fenestra . Within the species , the Colombian specimen differs from the Venezuelan animals in being larger in some measurements , but having smaller teeth , and in having oddly shaped wear facets of the incisors . The Colombian animal was probably kept in captivity for some time after it was caught , which would explain its large size and odd wear facets . There are no substantial differences between mainland O. gorgasi and material from Curaçao .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
As far as known , Oryzomys gorgasi has a disjunct distribution in northwestern South America , including Colombia , Venezuela , and Curaçao . In a 2009 paper , Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales speculated that its distribution may extend into Central America . The Colombian population is known from the holotype only , caught at Loma Teguerre ( 7 ° 54'N , 77 ° W ) in Antioquia Department , northwestern Colombia , near the Río Atrato , at about 1 m above sea level . The location is apparently a freshwater swamp , and Hershkovitz suggested that O. gorgasi probably occurred throughout the swamp forests in the Río Atrato basin . On Curaçao , it is known from cave faunas at Tafelberg Santa Barbara , Noordkant , Ser 'i Kura , and Hermanus . At Tafelberg Santa Barbara , it was found in association with introduced black rats ( Rattus rattus ) , indicating that the population persisted at least until the first European contact in 1499 .
In Venezuela , it was found on El Caimito , a small ( 57 ha , 140 acres ) islet just east of the outlet of Lake Maracaibo in the state of Zulia , where the only other native non @-@ flying mammal is the opossum Marmosa robinsoni . El Caimito is separated from the mainland by a narrow , brackish channel and contains sand banks with xerophytic vegetation surrounded by marshy lagoons with Rhizospora mangle mangroves . Oryzomys gorgasi was caught in all habitats on the islet , but has not been found in other similar sites in northwestern Venezuela , where the introduced black rat is the only rodent collected . Analysis of stomach contents of El Caimito specimens indicates that the species is an omnivore , with a diet including crustaceans , insects , plant seeds , and other plant material . The crustaceans may include fiddler crabs ( Uca ) and a mangrove tree crab of the genus Aratus ; the insects include flies ( Diptera ) ; and the plants include grass seeds . Two parasitic nematodes , Litomosoides sigmodontis ( family Onchocercidae ) and an undetermined species of Pterygodermatites ( family Rictulariidae ) , are known to infect O. gorgasi . The 2009 IUCN Red List tersely indicates that the species has been found in second Venezuelan locality .
= = Conservation status = =
On the 2009 IUCN Red List , O. gorgasi is currently listed as " endangered " and O. curasoae as " data deficient " . The species may be threatened by competition with introduced black rats and destruction of its habitat , but does occur in at least one protected area . Displacement by the black rat has caused the species to become locally extinct in parts of its Venezuelan range . Suitable habitats for O. gorgasi exist in inland Venezuela , and further study is needed to determine whether it is present there . The extinction of the Curaçao population may also have been caused by competition with the black rat , which has been found together with Oryzomys in subfossil deposits .
|
= Japanese battleship Mutsu =
Mutsu ( 陸奥 ) , named after the eponymous province , was the second and last Nagato @-@ class dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) at the end of World War I. In 1923 , a year after commissioning , she carried supplies for the survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake . The ship was modernized in 1934 – 36 with improvements to her armor and machinery , and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style .
Other than participating in the Battle of Midway and the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in 1942 , where she did not see any significant combat , Mutsu spent most of the first year of the Pacific War in training . She returned to Japan in early 1943 . That June , one of her aft magazines detonated while she was at anchor , sinking the ship with the loss of 1 @,@ 121 crew and visitors . The IJN conducted a perfunctory investigation into the cause of her loss and concluded that it was the work of a disgruntled crewmember . The navy dispersed the survivors in an attempt to conceal the sinking in the interest of morale in Japan . Much of the wreck was salvaged after the war and many artifacts and relics are on display in Japan .
= = Description = =
Mutsu had a length of 201 @.@ 17 meters ( 660 ft 0 in ) between perpendiculars and 215 @.@ 8 meters ( 708 ft 0 in ) overall . She had a beam of 28 @.@ 96 meters ( 95 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 meters ( 29 ft 6 in ) . The ship displaced 32 @,@ 720 metric tons ( 32 @,@ 200 long tons ) at standard load and 39 @,@ 116 metric tons ( 38 @,@ 498 long tons ) at full load . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 333 officers and enlisted men as built and 1 @,@ 368 in 1935 . The crew totaled around 1 @,@ 475 men in 1942 .
In 1927 , Mutsu 's bow was remodeled to reduce the amount of spray produced when steaming into a head sea . This increased her overall length by 1 @.@ 59 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) to 217 @.@ 39 meters ( 713 ft 3 in ) . During her 1934 – 36 reconstruction , the ship 's stern was lengthened by 7 @.@ 55 meters ( 24 ft 9 in ) to improve her speed , and her forward superstructure was rebuilt into a pagoda mast . She was given torpedo bulges to improve her underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor and equipment . These changes increased her overall length to 224 @.@ 94 m ( 738 ft 0 in ) , her beam to 34 @.@ 6 m ( 113 ft 6 in ) and her draft to 9 @.@ 49 meters ( 31 ft 2 in ) . Her displacement increased over 7 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 900 long tons ) to 46 @,@ 690 metric tons ( 45 @,@ 950 long tons ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Mutsu was equipped with four Gihon geared steam turbines , each of which drove one propeller shaft . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 21 Kampon water @-@ tube boilers ; 15 of these were oil @-@ fired while the remaining half @-@ dozen consumed a mixture of coal and oil . The ship had a stowage capacity of 1 @,@ 600 t ( 1 @,@ 600 long tons ) of coal and 3 @,@ 400 t ( 3 @,@ 300 long tons ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The ship exceeded her designed speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) during her sea trials , reaching 26 @.@ 7 knots ( 49 @.@ 4 km / h ; 30 @.@ 7 mph ) at 85 @,@ 500 shp ( 63 @,@ 800 kW ) .
During a refit in 1924 the fore funnel was rebuilt in a serpentine shape in an unsuccessful effort to prevent smoke interference with the bridge and fire @-@ control systems . That funnel was eliminated during the ship 's 1930s reconstruction when all of her existing boilers were replaced by ten lighter and more powerful oil @-@ fired Kampon boilers , which had a working pressure of 22 kg / cm2 ( 2 @,@ 157 kPa ; 313 psi ) and temperature of 300 ° C ( 572 ° F ) . In addition her turbines were replaced by lighter , more modern , units . When Mutsu conducted her post @-@ reconstruction trials , she reached a speed of 24 @.@ 98 knots ( 46 @.@ 26 km / h ; 28 @.@ 75 mph ) with 82 @,@ 300 shp ( 61 @,@ 400 kW ) . Additional fuel oil was stored in the bottoms of the newly added torpedo bulges , which increased her capacity to 5 @,@ 560 t ( 5 @,@ 470 long tons ) and thus her range to 8 @,@ 560 nmi ( 15 @,@ 850 km ; 9 @,@ 850 mi ) at 16 knots .
= = = Armament = = =
Mutsu 's eight 45 @-@ caliber 41 @-@ centimeter guns were mounted in two pairs of twin @-@ gun , superfiring turrets fore and aft . Numbered one through four from front to rear , the hydraulically powered turrets gave the guns an elevation range of − 2 to + 35 degrees . The rate of fire for the guns was around two rounds per minute . A special Type 3 Sankaidan incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti @-@ aircraft use . The turrets aboard the Nagato @-@ class ships were replaced in the mid @-@ 1930s using those stored from the unfinished Tosa @-@ class battleships . While in storage the turrets were modified to increase their range of elevation to − 3 degrees to + 43 degrees , which increased the guns ' maximum range from 30 @,@ 200 to 37 @,@ 900 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 to 41 @,@ 400 yd ) .
The ship 's secondary armament of twenty 50 @-@ caliber 14 @-@ centimeter guns was mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull and in the superstructure . The manually operated guns had a maximum range of 20 @,@ 500 metres ( 22 @,@ 400 yd ) and fired at a rate of six to ten rounds per minute . Anti @-@ aircraft defense was provided by four 40 @-@ caliber 8 @-@ centimeter 3rd Year Type AA guns in single mounts . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) high @-@ angle guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and had a rate of 13 to 20 rounds per minute . The ship was also fitted with eight 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , four on each broadside , two above water and two submerged .
Around 1926 , the four above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed and the ship received three additional 76 mm AA guns that were situated around the base of the foremast . The 76 mm AA guns were replaced by eight 40 @-@ caliber 127 @-@ millimeter dual @-@ purpose guns in 1932 , fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . Two twin @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Vickers two @-@ pounder light AA guns were also added to the ship in 1932 . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 80 degrees , which gave them a ceiling of 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . They had a maximum rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute .
The two @-@ pounders were replaced by 1941 by 20 license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns in five twin @-@ gun mounts . This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark Stille , the twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . These 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines .
= = = Armor = = =
The ship 's waterline armor belt was 305 mm ( 12 in ) thick and tapered to a thickness of 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) at its bottom edge ; above it was a strake of 229 mm ( 9 in ) armor . The main deck armor was 69 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) while the lower deck was 75 mm ( 3 in ) thick . The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 305 mm on the face , 230 – 190 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) on the sides , and 152 – 127 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 0 in ) on the roof . The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armor 305 mm thick , while the casemates of the 140 mm guns were protected by 25 mm armor plates . The sides of the conning tower were 369 mm ( 14 @.@ 5 in ) thick .
The new 41 cm turrets installed during Mutsu 's reconstruction were more heavily armored than the original ones . Face armor was increased to 460 mm ( 18 in ) , the sides to 280 mm ( 11 in ) , and the roof to 250 – 230 mm ( 10 – 9 in ) . The armor over the machinery and magazines was increased by 38 mm on the upper deck and 25 mm on the upper armored deck . These additions increased the weight of the ship 's armor to 13 @,@ 032 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 826 long tons ) , 32 @.@ 6 percent of her displacement . In early 1941 , in preparation for war , Mutsu 's barbette armor was reinforced with 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) armor plates above the main deck and 215 mm ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) plates below it .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Mutsu had an additional boom added to the mainmast in 1926 to handle the Yokosuka E1Y floatplane recently assigned to the ship . In 1933 a catapult was fitted between the mainmast and Turret No. 3 , and a collapsible crane was installed in a portside sponson the following year ; the ship was equipped to operate two or three floatplanes , although no hangar was provided . The ship was operating Nakajima E4N2 biplanes until they were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938 . A more powerful catapult was installed in November 1938 to handle heavier aircraft like the single Kawanishi E7K , added in 1939 – 40 . Mitsubishi F1M biplanes replaced the E8Ns on 11 February 1943 .
= = = Fire control and sensors = = =
The ship was fitted with a 10 @-@ meter ( 32 ft 10 in ) rangefinder in the forward superstructure . Additional six @-@ meter ( 19 ft 8 in ) and three @-@ meter ( 9 ft 10 in ) anti @-@ aircraft rangefinders were also fitted , although the date is unknown . The rangefinders in No. 2 and 3 Turrets were replaced by 10 @-@ meter units in 1932 – 33 .
Mutsu was initially fitted with a Type 13 fire @-@ control system derived from Vickers equipment received during World War I , but this was replaced by an improved Type 14 system around 1925 . It controlled the main and secondary guns ; no provision was made for anti @-@ aircraft fire until the Type 31 fire @-@ control director was introduced in 1932 . A modified Type 14 fire @-@ control system was tested aboard her sister ship Nagato in 1935 and later approved for service as the Type 94 . A new anti @-@ aircraft director , also called the Type 94 , used to control the 127 mm AA guns , was introduced in 1937 , although when Mutsu received hers is unknown . The 25 mm AA guns were controlled by a Type 95 director that was also introduced in 1937 .
= = Construction and service = =
Mutsu , named for Mutsu Province , was laid down at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 1 June 1918 and launched on 31 May 1920 . Funding for the ship had partly come from donations from schoolchildren . While Mutsu was still fitting out , the American government called a conference in Washington , D.C. late in 1921 to forestall the massively expensive naval arms race that was developing between the United States , the United Kingdom and the Empire of Japan . The Washington Naval Conference convened on 12 November and the Americans proposed to scrap virtually every capital ship under construction or being fitting out by the participating nations . Mutsu was specifically listed among those to be scrapped even though she had been commissioned a few weeks earlier . This was unacceptable to the Japanese delegates ; they agreed to a compromise that allowed them to keep Mutsu in exchange for scrapping the obsolete dreadnought Settsu , with a similar arrangement for several American Colorado @-@ class dreadnoughts that were fitting out . Mutsu was commissioned on 24 October 1921 with Captain Shizen Komaki in command . Captain Seiichi Kurose assumed command on 18 November and the ship was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division on 1 December . Mutsu hosted Edward , Prince of Wales , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Lieutenant Louis Mountbatten , on 12 April 1922 during the prince 's visit to Japan .
On 4 September 1923 , Mutsu loaded supplies at Uchinoura Bay , Kyushu , for the victims of the Great Kantō earthquake . With her sister Nagato , she sank the hulk of the obsolete battleship Satsuma on 7 September 1924 during gunnery practice in Tokyo Bay , in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty . Captain Mitsumasa Yonai , later Prime Minister of Japan , assumed command on 10 November . The ship was transferred to the reserve on 1 December 1925 . Mutsu served as flagship of Emperor Hirohito during the 1927 naval maneuvers and fleet review . Captain Zengo Yoshida relieved Captain Teikichi Hori on 10 December 1928 . On 29 March 1929 , the ship was assigned to Battleship Division 3 , together with three light cruisers .
Mutsu 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was upgraded during 1932 . Upon completion , she was assigned to Battleship Division 1 of the 1st Fleet , and again served as the Emperor 's flagship during the annual maneuvers and fleet review in 1933 . The ship was placed in reserve on 15 November and began her lengthy reconstruction . This was completed on 30 September 1936 and Mutsu rejoined the 1st Battleship Division on 1 December 1936 . In August 1937 , she transported 2 @,@ 000 men of the 11th Infantry Division to Shanghai during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . Her floatplanes bombed targets in Shanghai on 24 August before she returned to Sasebo the following day . On 15 November 1938 , Captain Aritomo Gotō assumed command of the ship . Mutsu was placed in reserve from 15 December 1938 to 15 November 1939 . She was refitted in early 1941 in preparation for war ; as part of this work , she was fitted with external degaussing coils and additional armor for her barbettes .
= = = World War II = = =
During the war Mutsu saw limited action , spending much of her time in home waters . On 8 December 1941 , she sortied for the Bonin Islands , along with Nagato , the battleships Hyūga , Yamashiro , Fusō , Ise of Battleship Division 2 , and the light carrier Hōshō as distant support for the fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . On 18 January 1942 , Mutsu towed the obsolete armored cruiser Nisshin as a target for the new battleship Yamato , which promptly sank her .
In June 1942 Mutsu , commanded by Rear Admiral Gunji Kogure , was assigned to the Main Body of the 1st Fleet during the Battle of Midway , together with Yamato , Nagato , Hosho , the light cruiser Sendai , nine destroyers and four auxiliary ships . Following the loss of all four carriers on 4 June , Yamamoto attempted to lure the American forces west to within range of the Japanese air groups at Wake Island , and into a night engagement with his surface forces , but the American forces withdrew and Mutsu saw no action . After rendezvousing with the remnants of the Striking Force on 6 June , about half of the survivors from the sunken aircraft carriers of the 1st Air Fleet were transferred to Mutsu . She arrived at Hashirajima on 14 June .
On 14 July , Mutsu was transferred to Battleship Division 2 and then to the Advance Force of the 2nd Fleet on 9 August . Two days later , the ship departed Yokosuka accompanied by the cruisers Atago , Takao , Maya , Haguro , Yura , Myōkō , the seaplane tender Chitose and escorting destroyers to support operations during the Guadalcanal Campaign . They arrived at Truk on 17 August . On 20 August , while sailing from Truk to rendezvous with the main body of Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's 3rd Fleet , Mutsu , the heavy cruiser Atago , and escorting destroyers unsuccessfully attempted to locate the escort carrier USS Long Island in response to a flying boat detecting the American ship .
During the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 27 August , Mutsu , assigned to the Support Force , fired four shells at enemy reconnaissance aircraft during what was her first and only action of the war . Following her return to Truk on 2 September , a group of skilled AA gunnery officers and men were detached to serve as instructors to ground @-@ based naval anti @-@ aircraft gunners stationed in Rabaul . During October Mutsu off @-@ loaded surplus fuel oil to the fleet oil tanker Kenyo Maru , allowing the tanker to refuel other ships involved in Guadalcanal operations . On 7 January 1943 , Mutsu steamed from Truk via Saipan to return to Japan together with the carrier Zuikaku , the heavy cruiser Suzuya and four destroyers . Mutsu left Hashirajima for Kure on 13 April , where she prepared to sortie to reinforce the Japanese garrisons in the Aleutian Islands in response to the Battle of the Komandorski Islands . The operation was cancelled the next day and the ship resumed training .
= = = Loss = = =
On 8 June 1943 , Mutsu was moored in the Hashirajima fleet anchorage , with 113 flying cadets and 40 instructors from the Tsuchiura Naval Air Group aboard for familiarization . At 12 : 13 the magazine of her No. 3 turret exploded , destroying the adjacent structure of the ship and cutting her in half . A massive influx of water into the machinery spaces caused the 150 @-@ meter ( 490 ft ) forward section of the ship to capsize to starboard and sink almost immediately . The 45 @-@ meter ( 148 ft ) stern section upended and remained floating until about 02 : 00 hours on 9 June before sinking , coming to rest a few hundred feet south of the main wreck at coordinates 33 ° 58 ′ N 132 ° 24 ′ E.
The nearby Fusō immediately launched two boats which , together with the destroyers Tamanami and Wakatsuki and the cruisers Tatsuta and Mogami , were able to rescue 353 survivors from the 1 @,@ 474 crew members and visitors aboard Mutsu ; 1 @,@ 121 men were killed in the explosion . Only 13 of the visiting aviators were among the survivors .
After the explosion , as the rescue operations commenced , the fleet was alerted and the area was searched for Allied submarines , but no traces were found . To avert the potential damage to morale from the loss of a battleship coming so soon after the string of recent setbacks in the war effort , Mutsu 's destruction was declared a state secret . Mass cremations of recovered bodies began almost immediately after the sinking . Captain Teruhiko Miyoshi 's body was recovered by divers on 17 June , but his wife was not officially notified until 6 January 1944 . Both he and his second in command , Captain Ono Koro , were posthumously promoted to Rear Admiral , as was normal practice . To further prevent rumors from spreading , healthy and recovered survivors were reassigned to various garrisons in the Pacific Ocean . Some of the survivors were sent to Truk in the Caroline Islands and assigned to the 41st Guard Force . Another 150 were sent to Saipan in the Mariana Islands , where most were killed in 1944 during the battle for the island .
At the time of the explosion , Mutsu 's magazine contained a number of 16 @-@ inch Type 3 " Sanshikidan " incendiary shrapnel shells , which had caused a fire at the Sagami arsenal several years earlier due to improper storage . Because they might have been the cause of the explosion , the Minister of the Navy , Admiral Shimada Shigetaro , immediately ordered the removal of Type 3 shells from all IJN ships carrying them , until the conclusion of the investigation into the loss .
= = Investigation into the loss = =
A commission led by Admiral Kōichi Shiozawa was convened three days after the sinking to investigate the loss . The commission considered a number of possible causes :
Sabotage by enemy secret agents . Given the heavy security at the anchorage and lack of claims of responsibility by the Allies , this could be discounted .
Sabotage by a disgruntled crewman . While no individual was named in the commission 's final report , its conclusion was that the cause of the explosion was most likely a crewman in No. 3 turret who had recently been accused of theft and was believed to be suicidal .
A midget or fleet submarine attack . Extensive searches immediately following the sinking had failed to detect any enemy submarine and the Allies had made no attempt at claiming the enormous propaganda value of sinking a capital ship in her home anchorage ; consequently , this possibility was quickly discounted . Eyewitnesses also spoke of a reddish @-@ brown fireball , which indicated a magazine explosion ; this was confirmed during exploration of the wreck by divers .
Accidental explosion within a magazine . While the Mutsu carried many projectiles , immediate suspicion focused on the Type 3 anti @-@ aircraft shell as it was believed to have caused a fire before the war at the Sagami arsenal . Known as a " sanshiki @-@ dan " or " sankaidan " , these were fired by the main armament and contained 900 to 1 @,@ 200 25 mm diameter steel tubes ( depending upon sources ) , each containing an incendiary charge . Tests were conducted at Kamegakubi Naval Proving Ground on several shells salvaged from No. 3 turret and on shells from the previous and succeeding manufacturing batches . Using a specially built model of the Mutsu 's No. 3 turret , the experiments were unable to induce the shells to explode under normal conditions .
The commission issued its preliminary conclusions on 25 June , well before the divers had completed their investigation of the wreck , and concluded that the explosion was the result of a disgruntled seaman . Historian Mike Williams put forward an alternative theory of fire :
" A number of observers noted smoke coming from the vicinity of No. 3 turret and the aircraft area just forward of it , just before the explosion . Compared with other nations ' warships in wartime service , Japanese battleships contained a large amount of flammable materials including wooden decking , furniture , and insulation , as well as cotton and wool bedding . Although she had been modernized in the 1930s , some of the Mutsu 's original electrical wiring may have remained in use . While fire in the secure magazines was a very remote possibility , a fire in an area adjacent to the No. 3 magazine could have raised the temperature to a level sufficient to ignite the highly sensitive black @-@ powder primers stored in the magazine and thus cause the explosion . "
= = Salvage operations = =
Divers were brought into the area to retrieve bodies and to assess the damage to the ship . Prior to diving on the wreck they were allowed to familiarize themselves on board Mutsu 's sister ship , Nagato . The Navy leadership initially gave serious consideration to raising the wreck and rebuilding her , although these plans were dropped after the divers completed their survey of the ship on 22 July . Thus Mutsu was struck from the Navy List on 1 September . As part of the investigation , Dive @-@ boat No. 3746 , a small Nishimura @-@ class search and rescue submarine , explored the wreck on 17 June with a crew of seven officers . While crawling on the harbor bottom , it became snagged on the wreckage and its crew nearly suffocated before they managed to free themselves and surface . In July 1944 , the oil @-@ starved IJN recovered 580 metric tons ( 570 long tons ; 640 short tons ) of fuel from the wreck .
The 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 11 in ) diameter chrysanthemum crest , symbol of the Imperial Throne , was raised in 1953 , and one of the 140 mm casemate guns was raised in 1963 and donated to the Yasukuni Shrine . In 1970 , the Fukada Salvage Company began recovery operations that lasted until 1978 and recovered about 75 % of the ship . The two aft turrets were raised in 1970 and 1971 . The salvagers retrieved 849 bodies of crewmen lost during the explosion . In 1995 , the Mutsu Memorial Museum declared that no further salvage operations were planned .
The only significant portion of the ship that remains is a 35 @-@ meter ( 114 ft 10 in ) long section running from the bridge structure forward to the vicinity of No. 1 turret . The highest portion of the ship is 12 meters ( 39 ft 4 in ) below the surface .
= = = Surviving artifacts = = =
In addition to the 140 mm gun donated to the Yasukuni Shrine , now on display at the Yasukuni Museum , the following items recovered over the years can be viewed at various museums and memorials in Japan :
Many artifacts are displayed at the Mutsu Memorial Museum in Tōwa @-@ Cho . This is a successor to a local museum funded by the town of Suō @-@ Ōshima which opened in July 1970 . To make room for a new road , this museum was moved in April 1994 to a new building . Since 1963 , a memorial service has been held here every year on 8 June in honor of the crew .
The fully restored No. 4 turret is on display on the grounds of the former Imperial Japanese Naval Academy at Etajima . This is the ship 's original turret , removed during her refit in the 1930s .
The left @-@ side 410 mm gun from No. 3 turret is displayed outside the Yamato Museum in Daiwa Park , Kure . This park also contains one of Mutsu 's 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft 6 in ) diameter propellers , a rudder and an anchor .
One 410 mm gun from No. 3 turret is on display at the Museum of Maritime Science , Shinagawa , in Tokyo .
A rudder and a section of propeller shaft were on display at the Arashiyama Art Museum until it closed circa 1991 . Their current whereabouts are now unknown .
|
= This Is Not Happening =
" This Is Not Happening " is the fourteenth episode of the eighth season and the 175th episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on February 25 , 2001 on the Fox Network , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom . It was written by executive producers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Kim Manners . The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 7 and was watched by 16 @.@ 9 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated episode of the season . " This Is Not Happening " was received positively by television critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Scully , Doggett , and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) discover several returned alien abductees . Doggett calls on another agent , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , to assist the case . Scully ’ s fears about finding Mulder come to a head with the sudden recovery of one of the abductees seized at the same time .
" This Is Not Happening " was a story milestone for the season , returning Mulder from his alien abduction which started with " Requiem " . In addition , the episode introduced the character Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , who would become a main character in season nine . Gish 's character was introduced as a possible replacement for Anderson , who was considering leaving the series after the end of the season .
= = Plot = =
In Helena , Montana , Richie Szalay is chasing a spaceship . As the spaceship stops , it dumps a naked female and cloaks itself . The woman is later revealed to be Theresa Hoese , who was abducted the same time as Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) visit Hoese in the hospital to get information about Mulder 's whereabouts .
Later in a motel , they interrogate Szalay , whose friend Gary had been abducted just before Mulder ; Szalay was investigating the UFO reports in Montana in an attempt to find him . Doggett reports that fresh footprints from Nike shoes were noted in the area Hoese was found , making Doggett skeptical about Szalay 's claims to alien sightings . Meanwhile , Jeremiah Smith has assumed the form of a doctor and arranges for Hoese to be transferred . Having learned of Hoese 's disappearance , Doggett calls Agent Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) . Reyes assists in the investigation , believing that Mulder may have joined a UFO cult . In a derelict compound , Smith cures Hoese of her injuries , as observed by a man called Absalom .
Reyes ' car stalls just before she sees a UFO . Stopping , she sees Smith and Absalom taking a body . She also finds Gary 's body . Reyes is able to retrieve the license plate number on the truck used to kidnap the abductee . It is later revealed that it belongs to Travis Clayton Moberly , better known as Absalom , the leader of a doomsday cult . The FBI storms the cult 's compound , and arrests Absalom , but Smith is not found . Absalom tells Scully and Doggett that he has been saving abductees that had been left for dead by the aliens . Examining video of the compound raid , Scully , Reyes and Doggett watch Smith step through a doorway and transform into Agent Doggett . Doggett is stunned , and the agents realize that Smith is still in the compound .
Scully runs into the cult compound and , identifying Smith by his Nike shoes , tells him she knows who he is and what he 's doing . She is distracted when Skinner tells her they 've found Mulder 's body in the woods . Scully sees Mulder 's lifeless body and races back to the compound hoping that Smith can heal him , but a UFO directs a beam of light into the room where he is being held ; when she enters the room , he is gone . Distraught , Scully yells , " This is not happening ! " , and weeps .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and effects = = =
" This Is Not Happening " marked the return of David Duchovny as Fox Mulder . After settling his contract dispute with Fox , Duchovny had quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . In order to explain Mulder 's absence , Duchovny 's character was abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem . " After several rounds of contractual discussions , Duchovny agreed to return for a total of 11 season eight episodes . " This Is Not Happening " marked the fifth appearance of Duchovny in the eighth season : his character had appeared in cameos in " Within " and " Without " , as well as in flashbacks in " The Gift " and " Per Manum . "
The opening scene required the crew of The X @-@ Files to create a UFO chase . In order to do this , the scene was filmed entirely in a mountainous area that was lit up to give the shot a more alien @-@ like feel . The UFO that seen flying at the opening of the scene was actually a helicopter , disguised using various techniques . A so @-@ called " cloaking @-@ effect " , created on a computer and consisting mostly of digital fog and " wiggled lights " , was used to make the " spaceship " appear and then suddenly disappear .
= = = Casting = = =
This episode marked the first appearance of Monica Reyes , played by Annabeth Gish , who would become a main character in season nine . The character was developed and introduced due to Gillian Anderson 's possible departure at the end of the eighth season . Although Anderson would remain on until the end , Gish later became a series regular . When creating the character , series creator Chris Carter wanted to give the character a personality who had much in common with both Fox Mulder and Dana Scully . At the same time , however , Carter wanted the character to be different from Scully 's character in a way that Doggett was different from Mulder , saying , " as much as Robert Patrick was unlike Mulder , we needed someone who was equally unlike Scully . " Gish later noted that , " Chris really wanted Monica to be a sunny force , which is hard to play sometimes . But it 's a natural instinct for me ; I can find happiness in the midst of darkness . "
The casting process for Monica Reyes was unconventional . Gish received a call from her agent , who informed her that The X @-@ Files were looking for a new female character . Gish applied for the part , but instead of having to a do a reading , she only had to meet with Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz . After receiving the part , Gish 's first shot was scheduled four in the morning ; her first scene in the episode was to run down a hill to discover a former abductee .
= = Reception = =
" This Is Not Happening " premiered on February 25 , 2001 on American television on Fox . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 7 , meaning that it was seen by 9 @.@ 7 % of the nation 's estimated households . It was watched by 9 @.@ 91 million households and 16 @.@ 9 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated episode of the season , as well as the highest @-@ rated episode of the series since the seventh season episode " The Sixth Extinction " . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Tonight , the search for Mulder ends . " The episode was nominated for an Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
Critical reception to " This Is Not Happening " was mostly positive . Todd VanDerWerff of The A. V. Club awarded the episode a " A – " and called it " one of the strongest episodes of the season , give or take a Monica Reyes . " He applauded the reintroduction of Jeremiah Smith — a character he felt " the show had mostly forgotten about " — and wrote highly of Scott as Absalom , calling him a " one of the episode 's highlights . " VanDerWerff also wrote that the episode , along with the previous episode " Per Manum " was a showcase for Anderson 's acting ability . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five . The two noted , and praised , that the true tragedy of the episode is the fact that , despite her increased role as the reluctant believer , the way Scully deals with Absalom and Jeremiah Smith " in a strictly scientific way " , instead of taking the " leap of faith " , prevents her from finding and saving Mulder in time .
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She called the episode " unexciting " and concluded that the final scene was " anti @-@ climactic " . In addition , Vitaris noted that the introduction of Monica Reyes was not satisfactorily explained .
|
= Push the Button ( Sugababes song ) =
" Push the Button " is a song by English girl group the Sugababes , released as the lead single from their fourth studio album Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . Composed by Dallas Austin and the Sugababes , it was inspired by an infatuation that group member Keisha Buchanan developed with another artist . Musically , " Push the Button " is an electropop and R & B song with various computer effects .
The song received positive reviews from critics , who praised its conception and production . Some critics named it one of the best pop singles of the 2000s . " Push the Button " became one of the group 's most commercially successful releases . The single peaked at number one in Austria , Ireland , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom , and reached the top five across Europe and in Australia . It was nominated for Best British Single at the 2006 Brit Awards .
Matthew Rolston directed the song 's music video , which was filmed in Shepherd 's Bush , London . It features the Sugababes flirting with three men in a lift . The Sugababes performed the single at festivals and events such as Oxegen 2008 and the V Festival 2008 . " Push the Button " appears on the soundtrack to It 's a Boy Girl Thing ( 2006 ) .
= = Development and concept = =
Development of " Push the Button " began while the Sugababes travelled to the United States to work on their fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . American producer and songwriter Dallas Austin collaborated with the group during the album 's initial stages of development . He visited London to work with them , although the group later travelled to the US and stayed with him at his mansion in Atlanta , Georgia . Austin wrote five tracks for the album , including " Push the Button " , which he composed in collaboration with the Sugababes . According to group member Heidi Range , the song was " the very last thing " completed for the album .
" Push the Button " was conceptualised after group member Keisha Buchanan developed an infatuation with another artist who was collaborating with Austin . Buchanan told Jess Cartner @-@ Morley of The Guardian that she made advances towards the man , but he was unaware of her intentions : " I really liked this guy , so I 'd be like , there 's this good movie coming out , you know , dropping hints . And he 'd be like , that movie sounds great , let me know what it 's like if you go see it . I knew he liked me too but he just wasn 't getting what I was trying to say . " Austin advised Buchanan to tell the man to " push that button " or she would eventually move on .
Mutya Buena , another member of the Sugababes , clarified Buchanan 's encounter with the artist to Hot Press magazine 's Jackie Hayden , saying : " We all knew there was something going on between them at the time , but we try to give each other space . " She described " Push the Button " as a song " with meaning and real life references " , and characterised it as having a " street vibe " . Austin produced the song , which was recorded at DARP Studios in Atlanta & Home Recordings , London . " Push the Button " was mixed by Jeremy Wheatley at TwentyOne Studios , London , in collaboration with Richard Edgeler . Rick Shepphard engineered the song .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Push the Button " is an uptempo electropop and R & B song . AllMusic 's K. Ross Hoffman called it an " electropop club ditty " , while Joe Muggs of The Daily Telegraph noted that Austin 's production combines " raucous " electropop with " slick " American R & B. According to the digital sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation , " Push the Button " was composed in the key of A @-@ flat major using common time , with a fast @-@ paced tempo of 126 beats per minute . The song 's instrumentation is composed of drums , keys , a guitar and a bass guitar .
The production consists of various computer beats and electronic effects . The song contains an ascending bridge incorporated into the chorus , which consists of the lines : " If you 're ready for me boy / You 'd better push the button and let me know / Before I get the wrong idea and go . " Lyrically , the song is about a woman 's sexual frustration of being unnoticed by a man . Joe Macare of Stylus Magazine described Buena 's delivery of the lyric " my sexy ass " as " carefree " , and noted that the lyrics adapt an " idiosyncratic approach " to the English language . Musically , " Push the Button " received comparisons to the sound of pop group Abba .
= = Release and reception = =
" Push the Button " was announced as the lead single from Taller in More Ways in August 2005 . Island Records released it as a CD single and digital download on 26 September 2005 with an accompanying B @-@ side titled " Favourite Song " , composed by the Sugababes , Cameron McVey , and Jony Lipsey . An extended play was released , featuring a DJ Prom remix of the song , and the B @-@ side " Like the Weather " , which was written by the Sugababes , Cathy Dennis , and Guy Sigsworth . " Push the Button " is included on the Sugababes ' greatest hits album , Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
" Push the Button " received positive reviews from many critics . Linda McGee from RTÉ.ie commended the song 's beat and melody , and named it the album 's best track . The song received a similar response from K. Ross Hoffman of AllMusic , who noted it as one of the album 's highlights , and praised its simplicity and effectiveness . The Guardian 's Alexis Petridis considered the melody as " sweet and addictive as Smarties " , while Kitty Empire of the same publication wrote that the track 's " surface simplicity masks a hook that won 't let go " . Writing for Daily Record , reporter John Dingwall regarded the song as " enormously catchy and retro sounding " .
A journalist from the Liverpool Daily Post characterised " Push the Button " as " another edgy stomper " and said that it capitalises on the Sugababes ' " streetwise credentials and individual vocal strengths " . Observer Music Monthly described the song 's lyrics as " perfect pop " and recognised it as one of 2005 's best singles . The song is a " ray of melodic sunshine " according to Rafael Behr of The Observer , who lauded its catchiness . Jerusalem Post critic Harry Rubenstein described " Push the Button " as an " infectious Abba @-@ esque soundscape " . Paul Taylor from the Manchester Evening News called it one the album 's best moments and highlighted Austin 's contribution . A writer for Virgin Media praised his production of the song , in addition to its chorus , but criticised the Sugababes ' performance as " lacklustre " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Push the Button " debuted on the Irish Singles Chart on 29 September 2005 at number two . The song topped the chart for the next three weeks , and was the group 's first number @-@ one single in Ireland . " Push the Button " entered the UK Singles Chart on 2 October 2005 at number one , a position it held for three consecutive weeks . It became the Sugababes ' fourth single to reach number one in the UK . During the song 's third week on the chart , the Sugababes were simultaneously number one on the UK 's singles , albums , and download chart . " Push the Button " has sold 471 @,@ 000 copies in the UK and is the Sugababes ' second highest @-@ selling single there , behind " About You Now " .
" Push the Button " entered the Austrian Singles Chart at number one , and remained in the position for five weeks . The song peaked at number two on the German Singles Chart , and was the third most @-@ played British track on German radio in 2005 . It was the country 's 86th most successful single of the 2000s . The single peaked at number two in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Hungary , Norway , and Romania , and reached number three in the Czech Republic , Denmark , and Switzerland . The song peaked at number three on the Dutch Top 40 chart for six consecutive weeks , and spent two weeks at number four on the Swedish Singles Chart .
" Push the Button " debuted at number 24 on the Australian Singles Chart in the issue dated 30 October 2005 . After weeks of fluctuating on the chart , the song peaked at number three on 15 January 2006 . It became the Sugababes ' most successful single in Australia . The single was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . " Push the Button " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart on 14 November 2005 at number five , and peaked at number one on 23 January 2006 for three consecutive weeks . It was the group 's first number @-@ one single on the chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand , indicating sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Push the Button " was directed by American director Matthew Rolston , who collaborated with the Sugababes on the videos for their singles " Hole in the Head " and " In the Middle " . It was filmed in Shepherd 's Bush , London , during July 2005 . The men who appear in the video are models and dancers , and were selected based on their dancing ability . Buena described the video as " really cheeky " and stated that it " turned out really great in the end " . Some clips were removed from the final product because of their sexual content , although Buchanan admitted that she wanted it to be more suggestive .
The video features Range , Buchanan and Buena emerging from a lift onto separate floors of a tall building , the lift having been called by unsuspecting men . Range arrives on the floor of the first man , described by Buena as ' Mr Shy Guy ' , and the two begin flirting with each other . Buchanan opens the lift door to see , the second man , ' Mr Too Cool ' and Buchanan is shown flirting and dancing with him . Buena emerges from the lift to find ' Mr Perfect ' , the third man . Buena takes his folded umbrella and throws it away , and soon begins flirting with him .
Towards the end of the video , Range bends over ' Mr Shy Guy ' in a seductive manner , Buchanan pushes ' Mr Too Cool ' to the floor , and Buena gives ' Mr Perfect ' a lap dance . The Sugababes are shown dancing in the lift throughout the video . Daily Mirror 's Gavin Martin wrote that they " throw caution aside and present themselves as voracious maneaters " in the video . He compared Buchanan 's dancing to that of American girl group Destiny 's Child in the video for their single " Bootylicious " . Madeline Crisp of the same publication described the Sugababes as having a " 60s look " . The video peaked at number one on the UK TV Airplay chart for two consecutive weeks . In Australia , the clip reached number three on Rage 's top 50 video countdown .
= = Live performances = =
The Sugababes travelled to Turin , Italy , in February 2006 and performed " Push the Button " for Top of the Pops at the Winter Olympics . The song was included in the set list of the group 's 2006 tour in support of Taller in More Ways . The single was performed on 3 October 2006 at the 100 Club on Oxford Street , London , as part of the album launch for Overloaded : The Singles Collection . It was the gig 's closing performance , and , according to a critic from MTV UK , " got everyone bopping to its bonkers , techno beat " . The group performed " Push the Button " at London 's G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub in November 2006 , wearing PVC clothing and rubber gear . The single appeared in the set list of the group 's 2008 Change Tour . They performed the song on 1 June 2008 at Princes Street Gardens , Edinburgh as part of the Vodafone Live Music tour ; David Pollock of The Scotsman suggested that it was one of the show 's standouts .
The Sugababes performed " Push the Button " on 27 June 2008 in Hyde Park , London as part of Nelson Mandela 's 90th birthday concert . They performed the single in July 2008 at the Oxegen Festival . A journalist from NME magazine wrote that it drew " one of the biggest crowds " at the event . A rock version was performed at the 2008 V Festival in Essex , England . The group played the song on 28 August 2008 at the Bridlington Spa as part of a gig , and in November 2008 to promote the release of the New Xbox Experience . The Sugababes performed the song at the 2008 Q Awards at The Forum , London , incorporating the synthesizer from " Won 't Get Fooled Again " by English band The Who . " Push the Button " was one of the singles they performed at St Osyth 's entertainment centre , The Venue , on 7 March 2009 . The group performed it on 10 July 2009 at the Riverside Ground in County Durham , England , as part of a set list . Buchanan performed the song on 19 July 2011 at the Jacques Townhouse , as part of a set list that included the group 's debut single " Overload " , in addition to her solo tracks . Range and her dancing partner Andrei Lipanov skated to " Push the Button " during their appearance on the seventh series of Dancing on Ice .
= = Recognition and popular culture = =
Andy Kellman of AllMusic described " Push the Button " as one of the most " clever and suggestive " pop singles of the 2000s , while Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun similarly highlighted it as one of the decade 's best pop releases . In October 2008 Nick Levine of Digital Spy called the song one of the best pop singles of the 21st century . Buchanan named it among her favourites from the group 's career , citing its representation of pop music " in a different light " . " Push the Button " ranked 42nd on Stylus Magazine 's list of ' Top 50 Singles of 2005 ' , and 70th on The Daily Telegraph 's list of ' 100 songs that defined the Noughties ' . The song earned the Sugababes a BRIT Award nomination at the 2006 BRIT Awards for Best British Single , but lost to Coldplay 's " Speed of Sound " . It was one of the most played songs on British radio in 2005 , and became the UK 's 68th most popular song on radio of the 2000s .
" Push the Button " has been referenced several times in popular culture . The song serves as the opening track to the soundtrack of the 2006 film It 's a Boy Girl Thing . It was featured in a commercial for Tassimo coffee machines , which led to an increase in the product 's sales , as well as airings of the commercial across Europe and in the United States . English band Starsailor performed a live cover version of the song as the B @-@ side to their 2006 single " This Time " . It was also covered by English hip hop duo Dan le sac vs Scroobius Pip , who performed it at the 2008 Bestival . Lynsey Haire of eFestivals wrote that the performance " went down especially well with the audience " . " Push the Button " was included in the playlist for the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Summer Olympics . Firefighters in Staffordshire , England , performed a cover version , although the lyrics were modified to encourage the public to regularly test the alarms in their homes . The video was promoted through YouTube , and was viewed more than 44 @,@ 000 times . Peter Dartford , the chief fire officer for Staffordshire Fire and Rescue Service said :
We 're continually trying new and innovative ways to get the message out there , about the importance of having smoke alarms and checking them on a regular basis , but a lot of people still aren 't listening . Hopefully they will now after hearing this song and watching the video – you just can 't help but listen to the words and laugh at the video .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at DARP Studios , Atlanta & Home Recordings , London
Personnel
Songwriting – Dallas Austin , Mutya Buena , Keisha Buchanan , Heidi Range
Production – Dallas Austin
Engineering – Rick Sheppard
Recording engineering ( assistant ) – Graham Marsh , Ian Rossiter , Owen Clark
Mixing – Jeremy Wheatley
Mixing ( assistant ) – Richard Edgeler
Drums – Dallas Austin
Keys – Dallas Austin
Guitar – Tony Reyes
Bass guitar – Tony Reyes
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Taller in More Ways , Universal Island Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
|
= Sarawak =
Sarawak ( / səˈrɑːwɒk / ; Malay : [ saˈrawaʔ ] ) , nicknamed Bumi Kenyalang ( " Land of the hornbills " ) , is one of the two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo ( Sabah being the other state ) . This territory has a certain level of autonomy in administration , immigration , and judiciary which differentiates it from the Malaysian Peninsula states . Sarawak is situated in northwest Borneo , bordering the state of Sabah to the northeast , Kalimantan , the Indonesian portion of Borneo , to the south , and surrounding the independent state of Brunei . The capital city , Kuching , is the economic centre of the state and the seat of the Sarawak state government . Other cities and towns in Sarawak include Miri , Sibu , and Bintulu . As of the 2015 census in Malaysia , the state 's population is 2 @,@ 636 @,@ 000 . Sarawak has an equatorial climate with tropical rainforests and abundant animal and plant species . The state has several prominent cave systems at Gunung Mulu National Park . Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia ; Bakun Dam , one of the largest dams in Southeast Asia , is located on one of its tributaries . Mount Murud is the highest point in Sarawak .
Earliest human settlements in Sarawak date back to 40 @,@ 000 years ago at the Niah Caves . The state had a trading relationship with China during the 8th to 13th century AD . It came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 16th century . The state was governed by the Brooke family in the 19th and 20th centuries . During World War II , the state was occupied by the Japanese for three years before being ceded as a British Crown Colony in 1946 . On 22 July 1963 , Sarawak was granted self @-@ government by the British . Following this , Sarawak became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia ( established on 16 September 1963 ) alongside North Borneo ( now Sabah ) , Singapore ( expelled in 1965 ) , and the Federation of Malaya ( Peninsular Malaysia or West Malaysia ) . However , the federation was opposed by Indonesia , and this led to the three @-@ year Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation . The state also experienced a communist insurgency from 1960 to 1990 .
The state exhibits notable diversity in ethnicity , culture , and language . The head of state is the Governor , also known as Yang di @-@ Pertua Negeri , while the head of government is the Chief Minister . The government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and has the earliest state legislature system in Malaysia . The state is divided into administrative divisions and districts . English and Malay are the only two official languages of the state ; there is no official religion . Sarawak State Museum is the oldest museum in Borneo . The state is known for its traditional musical instrument , the sapeh . The Rainforest World Music Festival ( RWMF ) is one of the premier music events in Malaysia . Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia to celebrate the Gawai Dayak festival .
Sarawak has abundant natural resources , and its economy is strongly export @-@ oriented , mainly in oil and gas , timber , and oil palm . Other industries are manufacturing , energy , and tourism .
= = Etymology = =
The official explanation of the word " Sarawak " is that it is derived from the Sarawak Malay word serawak , which means antimony . Another popular but unofficial explanation is that it is an acronym from the four Malay words purportedly uttered by Pangeran Muda Hashim ( uncle to the Sultan of Brunei ) , Saya serah pada awak ( I surrender it to you ) when he gave Sarawak to James Brooke in 1841 . However , such an explanation has several flaws because the territory had already been named Sarawak even before the arrival of Brooke , and the word awak never existed in the vocabulary of Sarawak Malay before the formation of Malaysia .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
The first foragers visited the West Mouth of Niah Caves ( located 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) southwest of Miri ) 40 @,@ 000 years ago when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia . The landscape around the Niah Caves was drier and more exposed than it is now . Prehistorically , the Niah Caves were surrounded by a combination of closed forests with bush , parkland , swamps , and rivers . The foragers were able to survive in the rainforest through hunting , fishing , and gathering molluscs and edible plants . This is evidenced by the discovery of a modern human skull , nicknamed " Deep Skull " , in a deep trench uncovered by Tom Harrisson in 1958 ; this is also the oldest modern human skull in Southeast Asia . The skull probably belongs to a 16- to 17 @-@ year @-@ old adolescent girl . A Manis paleojavanica ( Asian giant pangolin ) bone that had not developed into a fossil , dated to 30 @,@ 000 BC , was found nearby as well as in the Mesolithic and Neolithic burial sites inside the Niah Caves . The area around the Niah Caves has been designated the Niah National Park .
Other archaeological sites have since been discovered in the central and southern regions of Sarawak . Another excavation by Tom Harrisson in 1949 unearthed a series of Chinese ceramics at Santubong ( near Kuching ) that date to the Tang and the Song dynasties in the 8th to 13th century AD . It is possible that Santubong was an important seaport in Sarawak during the period , but its importance declined during the Yuan dynasty , and the port was deserted during Ming dynasty . Other archaeological sites in Sarawak include the Kapit , Song , Serian , and Bau districts .
= = = Bruneian empire = = =
During the 16th century , the area of Sarawak now known as Kuching was known to Portuguese cartographers as Cerava , one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo . It was under the influence of the Bruneian Empire and was self @-@ governed under Sultan Tengah . By the early 19th century , Sarawak had become a loosely governed territory under the control of the Brunei Sultanate . The Bruneian empire had authority only along the coastal regions of Sarawak held by semi @-@ independent Malay leaders . Meanwhile , the interior hinterland of Sarawak was mainly dominated by tribal wars fought by Iban , Kayan , and Kenyah people who were aggressive in their territorial expansions . Following the discovery of antimony ore in the region now known as Kuching , Pangeran Indera Mahkota ( a representative of the Sultan of Brunei ) began to develop the area between 1824 and 1830 . When antimony production increased , the Brunei Sultanate demanded higher taxes from Sarawak ; this led to civil unrest and chaos . In 1839 Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II ( 1827 – 1852 ) , the Sultan of Brunei , ordered Pangeran Muda Hashim ( uncle to the Sultan of Brunei ) to restore order ; it was around this time that James Brooke ( a British explorer ) arrived in Sarawak . Pangeran Muda Hashim initially requested assistance in the matter , but Brooke refused . However , he agreed to the request in his next visit to Sarawak in 1841 . Pangeran Muda Hashim signed a treaty in 1841 surrendering Sarawak to Brooke . On 24 September 1841 , Pangeran Muda Hashim bestowed the title of governor on James Brooke . In 1846 Brooke effectively became the Rajah of Sarawak and founded the White Rajah Dynasty of Sarawak after the death of Pangeran Muda Hashim .
= = = Brooke dynasty = = =
Brooke ruled the area and expanded the territory northwards until his death in 1868 . He was succeeded by his nephew Charles Anthoni Johnson Brooke , who in turn was succeeded by his son , Charles Vyner Brooke , on the condition that Charles should rule in consultation with Vyner Brooke 's brother Bertram Brooke . Both James and Charles Brooke signed treaties with Brunei as a strategy to expand the territorial boundaries of Sarawak . In 1861 the Bintulu region was ceded to James Brooke . In 1883 Sarawak was extended to the Baram River ( near Miri ) . Limbang was acquired in 1885 and later added to Sarawak in 1890 . The expansion of Sarawak was completed in 1905 when Lawas was ceded to the Brooke government . Sarawak was divided into five divisions , corresponding to territorial boundaries of the areas acquired by the Brookes through the years . Each division was headed by a Resident . Sarawak was recognised as an independent state by the United States in 1850 and the United Kingdom in 1864 . The state issued its first currency as the Sarawak dollar in 1858 . However , in the Malaysian context , the Brooke is viewed as a colonialist .
The Brooke dynasty ruled Sarawak for a hundred years as " White Rajahs " . The dynasty adopted the policy of paternalism to protect the interests of the indigenous population and their overall welfare . The Brooke government established a Supreme Council consisting of Malay chiefs who advised the Rajahs on all aspects of governance . The first General Council meeting took place at Bintulu in 1867 . The Supreme Council is the oldest state legislative assembly in Malaysia . Meanwhile , the Ibans and other Dayak people were hired as militia . The Brooke dynasty also encouraged the immigration of Chinese merchants for economic development in the state , especially in the mining and agricultural sectors . Western capitalists were restricted from entering the state while Christian missionaries were tolerated . Piracy , slavery , and headhunting were also banned . Borneo Company Limited was formed in 1856 . It was involved in a wide range of businesses in Sarawak such as trade , banking , agriculture , mineral exploration , and development .
The original residence of James Brooke was a Malay house built in Kuching . In 1857 Hakka Chinese gold miners from Bau , under the leadership of Liu Shan Bang , destroyed Brooke 's residence . James Brooke escaped and organised a bigger army together with Charles Brooke and his Malayo @-@ Iban supporters . A few days later , Brooke 's army was able to cut off the escape route of the Chinese rebels . The Chinese rebels were annihilated after two months of fighting . The Brookes subsequently built a new government house by the Sarawak River at Kuching which is presently known as the Astana . An anti @-@ Brooke faction at the Brunei Court was defeated in 1860 at Mukah . Other notable rebellions that were successfully quashed by the Brookes include those led by an Iban leader Rentap ( 1853 – 1863 ) , and a Malay leader named Syarif Masahor ( 1860 – 1862 ) . As a result , a series of forts were built around Kuching to consolidate the Rajah 's power . These include Fort Margherita , which was completed in 1879 . In 1891 Charles Anthoni Brooke established the Sarawak Museum , the oldest museum in Borneo .
In 1941 , during the centenary celebration of the Brooke rule in Sarawak , a new constitution was introduced to limit the power of the Rajah and to allow the Sarawak people to play a greater role in the functioning of the government . However , the draft constitution contained irregularities , including a secret agreement drawn up between Charles Vyner Brooke and British government officials , in which Vyner Brooke ceded Sarawak as a British Crown Colony in return for a financial compensation to him and his family .
= = = Japanese occupation and Allied liberation = = =
The Brooke government , under the leadership of Charles Vyner Brooke , established several airstrips in Kuching , Oya , Mukah , Bintulu , and Miri for preparations in the event of war . By 1941 , the British had withdrawn its defending forces from Sarawak and returned to Singapore . With Sarawak now unguarded , the Brooke regime decided to adopt a scorched earth policy where oil installations in Miri would be destroyed and Kuching airfield held as long as possible before being eventually destroyed . Meanwhile , Japanese forces decided to seize British Borneo to guard their eastern flank in the Malayan Campaign and to facilitate their invasion of Sumatra and West Java . A Japanese invasion force led by Kiyotake Kawaguchi landed in Miri on 16 December 1941 ( eight days into the Malayan Campaign ) and conquered Kuching on 24 December 1941 . British forces led by Lieutenant Colonel C. M. Lane decided to retreat to Singkawang in Dutch Borneo bordering Sarawak . After ten weeks of fighting in Dutch Borneo , the Allied forces surrendered on 1 April 1942 . When the Japanese invaded Sarawak , Charles Vyner Brooke had already left for Sydney ( Australia ) while his officers were captured by the Japanese and interned at the Batu Lintang camp .
Sarawak remained part of the Empire of Japan for three years and eight months . Sarawak , together with North Borneo and Brunei , formed a single administrative unit named Kita Boruneo ( Northern Borneo ) under the Japanese 37th Army headquartered in Kuching . Sarawak was divided into three provinces , namely : Kuching @-@ shu , Sibu @-@ shu , and Miri @-@ shu , each under their respective Japanese Provincial Governor . Basically , the Japanese retained pre @-@ war administrative machinery and assigned Japanese for government positions . The administration of Sarawak 's interior was left to the native police and village headmen , under Japanese supervision . Though the Malays were typically receptive toward the Japanese , other indigenous tribes such as the Iban , Kayan , Kenyah , Kelabit and Lun Bawang maintained a hostile attitude toward them because of policies such as compulsory labour , forced deliveries of foodstuffs , and confiscation of firearms . The Japanese did not resort to strong measures in clamping down on the Chinese population because the Chinese in the state were generally apolitical . However , a considerable number of Chinese moved from urban areas into the less accessible interior to lessen contact with the Japanese .
Allied forces later formed the Z Special Unit to sabotage Japanese operations in Southeast Asia . Beginning in March 1945 , Allied commanders were parachuted into Borneo jungles and established several bases in Sarawak under an operation codenamed " Semut " . Hundreds of indigenous people were trained to launch offensives against the Japanese . Intelligence gathered from the operations helped Allied forces ( headed by Australia ) to reconquer Borneo in May 1945 through Operation Oboe Six . This led to the surrender of the Japanese to the Australian forces on 10 September 1945 at Labuan , followed by the official surrender ceremony at Kuching aboard the Australian Corvette HMAS Kapunda on the next day . Sarawak was immediately placed under British Military Administration until April 1946 .
= = = British crown colony = = =
After the war , the Brooke government did not have enough resources to rebuild Sarawak . Charles Vyner Brooke was also not willing to hand over his power to his heir apparent , Anthony Brooke ( his nephew , the only son of Bertram Brooke ) because of serious differences between them . Besides , Vyner Brooke 's wife , Sylvia Brett , also tried to discredit Anthony Brooke while trying to install her own daughter to the throne . Therefore , Vyner Brooke decided to cede the sovereignty of Sarawak to the British Crown . A Cession Bill was put forth in the Council Negri ( now Sarawak State Legislative Assembly ) and was debated for three days . The bill was passed on 17 May 1946 with a narrow majority ( 19 versus 16 votes ) . Supporters of the bill were mostly European officers , while the Malays opposed the bill . This caused hundreds of Malay civil servants to resign in protest , sparking an anti @-@ cession movement and the assassination of the second colonial governor of Sarawak Sir Duncan Stewart by Rosli Dhobi .
Anthony Brooke opposed the cession of the Rajah 's territory to the British Crown . However , he was linked to anti @-@ cessionist groups in Sarawak , especially after the assassination of Sir Duncan Stewart . Anthony Brooke continued to claim sovereignty as Rajah of Sarawak even after Sarawak became a British Crown colony on 1 July 1946 . For this he was banished from Sarawak by the colonial government and was allowed to return only 17 years later for a nostalgic visit , when Sarawak became part of Malaysia . In 1950 all anti @-@ cession movements in Sarawak ceased after a clamp @-@ down by the colonial government . In 1951 Anthony relinquished all his claims to the Sarawak throne after he used up his last legal avenues at the Privy Council .
= = = Self @-@ government and the Federation of Malaysia = = =
On 27 May 1961 , Tunku Abdul Rahman , the prime minister of the Federation of Malaya , announced a plan to form a greater federation together with Singapore , Sarawak , Sabah and Brunei , to be called Malaysia . This plan caused the local leaders in Sarawak to be wary of Tunku 's intentions in view of the great disparity in socioeconomic development between Malaya and the Borneo states . There was a general fear that without a strong political institution , the Borneo states would be subjected to Malaya 's colonisation . Therefore , various political parties in Sarawak emerged to protect the interests of the communities they represented . On 17 January 1962 , the Cobbold Commission was formed to gauge the support of Sarawak and Sabah towards the federation . Between February and April 1962 , the commission met more than 4 @,@ 000 people and received 2 @,@ 200 memoranda from various groups . The Commission reported divided support among the Borneo population . However , Tunku interpreted the figures as 80 percent support for the federation . Sarawak drafted an 18 @-@ point agreement to safeguard its interests in the federation . On 26 September 1962 , Sarawak Council Negri passed a resolution that supported the federation with a condition that the interests of the Sarawak people would not be compromised . On 23 October 1962 , five political parties in Sarawak formed a united front that supported the formation of Malaysia . Sarawak was officially granted self @-@ government on 22 July 1963 , and later formed the federation of Malaysia with Malaya , North Borneo , and Singapore on 16 September 1963 .
The Malaysian federation had drawn opposition from the Philippines , Indonesia , Brunei People 's Party , and Clandestine Communist Organisation ( CCO ) . The Philippines and Indonesia claimed that the British would be " neocolonising " the Borneo states through the federation . Meanwhile , A. M. Azahari , leader of the Brunei People 's Party , instigated the Brunei Revolt in December 1962 to prevent Brunei from joining the Malaysian federation . Azahari seized Limbang and Bekenu before being defeated by British military forces sent from Singapore . Claiming that the Brunei revolt was solid evidence of opposition to the Malaysian federation , Indonesian President Sukarno ordered a military confrontation with Malaysia , sending armed volunteers and later military forces into Sarawak . Sarawak became a flashpoint during the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation between 1962 and 1966 . Such confrontation gained little support from Sarawakians except for CCO . Thousands of CCO members went into Kalimantan and underwent training with Communist Party of Indonesia . During the confrontation period , around 10 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 British troops were stationed in Sarawak , together with Australian and New Zealand troops . When Suharto replaced Sukarno as the president of Indonesia , negotiations was restarted between Malaysia and Indonesia which led to the end of the confrontation on 11 August 1966 . In 1967 a new agreement was signed which required anyone who wished to cross the Sarawak – Kalimantan border to have a border pass endorsed at border control posts .
After the formation of the Peoples ' Republic of China in 1949 , the ideology of Maoism started to penetrate Chinese schools in Sarawak . The first communist group in Sarawak was formed in 1951 , with its origins in the Chung Hua Middle School ( Kuching ) . The group was succeeded by the Sarawak Liberation League ( SLL ) in 1954 and later by the CCO . Its activities spread from schools to trade unions and farmers . The activities of the CCO were mainly concentrated in the southern and central regions of Sarawak . It also successfully penetrated a political party named the Sarawak United Peoples ' Party ( SUPP ) . The CCO tried to realise a communist state in Sarawak through constitutional means but during the confrontation period , it resorted to armed struggle against the government . Weng Min Chyuan and Bong Kee Chok were the two notable leaders of the CCO . Following this , the Sarawak government started to establish New Villages along the Kuching – Serian road to prevent the community from helping the communists . The CCO formally set up the North Kalimantan Communist Party ( NKCP ) in 1970 . In 1973 , Bong surrendered to chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya 'kub ; this significantly reduced the strength of the communist party . However , Weng , who had directed the CCO from China since the mid @-@ 1960s , called for armed struggle against the government , which after 1974 continued in the Rajang Delta . In 1989 the Malayan Communist Party ( MCP ) signed a peace agreement with the government of Malaysia . This caused the NKCP to reopen negotiations with the Sarawak government , which led to a peace agreement on 17 October 1990 . Peace was restored in Sarawak after the final group of 50 communist guerrillas laid down their arms .
= = Politics = =
= = = Government = = =
The head of the Sarawak state is the Yang di @-@ Pertua Negeri ( also known as TYT or State Governor ) , a position largely symbolic in nature , appointed by the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong ( king ) of Malaysia . The TYT appoints the chief minister as the head of government . Generally , the leader of the party that commands the majority of the Legislative Assembly of the state is appointed as the chief minister . Elected representatives are known as state assemblymen . The state assembly passes laws on subjects that are not under the jurisdiction of the Parliament of Malaysia such as land administration , employment , forests , immigration , merchant shipping and fisheries . The state government is constituted by the chief minister and his cabinet ministers and assistant ministers .
To protect the interests of the Sarawakians in the Malaysian federation , special safeguards have been included in the Constitution of Malaysia . Sarawak has the power to control the entry and residence of non @-@ Sarawakians and non @-@ Sabahans . Only those lawyers who reside in Sarawak can practice law there . The High Court in Sarawak is independent of the High Court in Peninsular Malaysia . The chief minister of Sarawak must be consulted before the appointment of the chief judge of the Sarawak High Court . There are also Native Courts in Sarawak . Sarawak receives special grants from the federal government and charges its own sales tax . Natives in Sarawak enjoy special privileges such as quotas and employment in public service , scholarships , university placements , and business permits . Local governments in Sarawak are independent of the local authority laws enacted by the Malaysian parliament .
Major political parties in Sarawak can be divided into three categories : native non @-@ Muslim , native Muslim , and non @-@ native ; parties , however , may also include members from more than one group . The first political party , the Sarawak United Peoples ' Party ( SUPP ) , was established in 1959 , followed by the Parti Negara Sarawak ( PANAS ) ( in 1960 ) and the Sarawak National Party ( SNAP ) ( in 1961 ) . Other major political parties such as Parti Pesaka Sarawak ( PESAKA ) appeared by 1962 . Sarawak has been the political stronghold of the ruling Alliance Party and , later , its successor the Barisan Nasional ( BN ) coalition since the formation of Malaysia in 1963 . Stephen Kalong Ningkan ( of the SNAP ) was the first Chief Minister of Sarawak from 1963 to 1966 following his landslide victory in local council elections . However , he was ousted in 1966 by Tawi Sli ( of the PESAKA ) with the help of the Malaysian federal government , causing the 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis . The political climate in the state was stable until the 1987 Ming Court Affair , a political coup initiated by Abdul Taib Mahmud 's uncle to topple the Taib @-@ led BN coalition . However , the coup was unsuccessful and Taib was able to retain his chief ministerial status .
In 1970 the first Sarawak state election was held , with members of the Council Negri ( now Sarawak State Legislative Assembly ) being directly elected by the voters . This election also marked the beginning of ethnic Melanau domination in Sarawak politics by Abdul Rahman Ya 'kub and Abdul Taib Mahmud . In the same year , the North Kalimantan Communist Party ( NKCP ) was formed , which mounted guerilla warfare against the newly elected Sarawak state government . The party was dissolved after the signing of a peace agreement in 1990 . 1973 saw the birth of Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu ( PBB ) following a merger of several parties . This party would later become the backbone of the Sarawak BN coalition . Since 1983 a Dayak @-@ based party , the SNAP , has fragmented into several splinter parties due to recurrent leadership crises . Sarawak originally held state elections together with national parliamentary elections . However , the then chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya 'kub delayed the dissolution of the state assembly by a year to prepare for the challenges posed by opposition parties and to solve the seat allocations for the newly admitted SNAP party into the Sarawak BN . This made Sarawak the only state in Malaysia to hold state elections separate from the national parliamentary elections since 1979 .
In 1978 , the Democratic Action Party ( DAP ) was the first West Malaysia @-@ based party to open its branches in Sarawak . This party derived the majority of its support from urban centres since the 2006 state election and became the largest opposition party in Sarawak . In 2010 , it formed the Pakatan Rakyat coalition with the Parti Keadilan Rakyat ( PKR ) and the Parti Islam Se @-@ Malaysia ( PAS ) ; the latter two parties had become active in Sarawak between 1996 and 2001 . Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia where Peninsular @-@ based component parties in the BN coalition , especially the UMNO , have not been active in Sarawak politics .
= = = Administrative division = = =
= = = = Divisions = = = =
Unlike other states in West Malaysia , Sarawak is divided into divisions rather than districts . Each division is headed by one resident . Currently , the state is divided into 12 divisions :
= = = = Districts = = = =
The divisions are further divided into districts , each of which is headed by a district officer ; each district is divided into subdistricts , each headed by a Sarawak Administrative Officer ( SAO ) . Currently , there are around 39 districts in the state . There is also one Development Officer for each Division and District to implement development projects . For each district , the state government appoints a village headman ( known as ketua kampung or penghulu ) for each village . The 39 local governments in Sarawak are under the jurisdiction of the Sarawak Ministry of Local Government and Community Development . The list of divisions , districts , and subdistricts is shown in the table below :
= = Security = =
The first paramilitary armed forces in Sarawak , a regiment formed by the Brooke regime in 1862 , were known as the Sarawak Rangers . The regiment had helped the Brookes to pacify the state , and taken part in guerilla warfare against the Japanese , in the Malayan Emergency and the Sarawak Communist Insurgency against the communists . The regiment is famed for its jungle tracking skills . Following the formation of Malaysia , the regiment was absorbed into the Malaysian military forces and is now known as the Royal Ranger Regiment . In 1888 Sarawak , together with neighbouring North Borneo , and Brunei , became British protectorates , whereby the responsibility for foreign policy was handed over to the British in exchange for military protection . Sarawak security was also the responsibility of Australia and New Zealand . After the formation of Malaysia , the Malaysian federal government is solely responsible for foreign policy and military forces in the country .
= = = Territorial disputes = = =
Sarawak has seen several territorial disputes , including with Malaysia 's neighbours Brunei and Indonesia , as well as with China over the ownership of islands in the South China Sea . In 2009 a dispute over Limbang District was settled with Brunei , which dropped its claim over the territory . Sarawak claimed the James Shoal ( Beting Serupai ) and Luconia Shoals ( Beting Raja Jarum / Patinggi Ali ) as part of its exclusive economic zone ( EEZ ) . Meanwhile , there are several Sarawak – Kalimantan border issues yet to be settled with Indonesia .
= = Environment = =
= = = Geography = = =
The total land area of Sarawak is nearly 124 @,@ 450 square kilometres ( 48 @,@ 050 sq mi ) , and lies between the northern latitudes 0 ° 50 ′ and 5 ° and eastern longitudes 109 ° 36 ′ and 115 ° 40 ′ E. Sarawak makes up 37 @.@ 5 percent of the total area of Malaysia . It contains large tracts of tropical rainforest with abundant plant and animal species .
The state of Sarawak has 750 kilometres ( 470 mi ) of coastline , interrupted in the north by about 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) of Bruneian coast . Sarawak is separated from Kalimantan Borneo by ranges of high hills and mountains that are part of the central mountain range of Borneo . These become loftier to the north , and are highest near the source of the Baram River at the steep Mount Batu Lawi and Mount Mulu . Mount Murud is the highest point in Sarawak . Lambir Hills National Park is known for its various waterfalls . The world 's largest underground chamber , the Sarawak Chamber , is located inside the Gunung Mulu National Park . Other attractions in the park include the Deer Cave ( the largest cave passage in the world ) and the Clearwater Cave ( the longest cave system in Southeast Asia ) . The national park is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Sarawak is generally divided into three ecoregions . The coastal region is rather low @-@ lying and flat with large areas of swamp and other wet environments . Beaches in Sarawak include : Pasir Panjang and Damai beaches in Kuching , Tanjung Batu beach in Bintulu , and Tanjung Lobang and Hawaii beaches in Miri . The hill region accounts for most of the inhabited land and are where most of the cities and towns are found . The ports of Kuching and Sibu are built some distance from the coast on rivers . Bintulu and Miri are close to the coastline where the hills stretch right to the South China Sea . The third region is the mountainous region along the Kalimantan – Borneo border and with the Kelabit ( Bario ) , Murut ( Ba 'kelalan ) and Kenyah ( Usun Apau Plieran ) highlands in the north .
The major rivers in Sarawak are : the Sarawak River , Lupar River , Saribas River , and Rajang River . The Sarawak River is the main river flowing through Kuching . The Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia , measuring 563 kilometres ( 350 mi ) including Balleh River , its tributary . To the north , the Baram River , Limbang River , and Trusan River drain into the Brunei Bay .
Sarawak has a tropical geography with an equatorial climate . It experiences two monsoon seasons : a northeast monsoon and a southwest monsoon . The northeast monsoon occurs between November and February , causing heavy rainfall ; the southwest monsoon sees less rainfall . The climate is stable throughout the year except for the two monsoons . The average daily temperature varies from 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) in the morning to 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) in the afternoon , with Miri having the lowest average temperatures in comparison to other major towns in Sarawak . Miri additionally has the most hours of sunshine ( more than six hours a day ) , while other areas receive sunshine for five to six hours a day . Humidity is usually high , exceeding 68 percent . The annual rainfall varies between 330 centimetres ( 130 in ) and 460 centimetres ( 180 in ) , spanning 220 days a year . Lothosols and lithosols make up 60 percent of the land , while podsols accounts for 12 percent of the Sarawak land area . Alluvium is found in the coastal and riverine regions while 12 percent of the Sarawak land area is covered with peat swamp forest .
Sarawak can be divided into two geological regions : the Sunda Shield , which extends southwest from the Batang Lupar River ( near Sri Aman ) and forms the southern tip of Sarawak , and the geosyncline region , which extends northeast to the Batang Lupar River , forming the central and northern regions of Sarawak . The oldest rock in southern Sarawak is schist , which was formed during the Carboniferous and Lower Permian times . While the youngest igneous rock in this region is andesite , found at Sematan . Geological formation of the central and northern regions started during the late Cretaceous period . Several types of stone that can be found in central and northern Sarawak are shale , sandstone , and chert .
Landscapes of Sarawak
= = = Biodiversity = = =
The Sarawak coastline is covered with mangrove and nipah forests . It forms two percent of the total forested area in Sarawak , most commonly found in the estuarine areas of Kuching , Sarikei , and Limbang . The major trees found here include : bako ( Rhizophora ) , nipah palm ( Nypa fruticans ) , and nibong ( Oncosperma tigillarium ) . Peat swamp forests that cover 16 percent of the forested land are concentrated in southern Miri and the lower Baram Valley . The main trees in the peat swamp forests are : ramin ( Gonystylus bancanus ) , meranti ( Shorea species ) , and medang jongkong ( Dactylocladus stenostachys ) . Kerangas forest occupies five percent of the total forest area , while Dipterocarpaceae forests occupy mountainous areas . Several plant species have been studied for their medicinal properties .
The Sarawak rainforest has one of the highest concentrations of species per unit area in the world . The state has about 185 species of mammals , 530 species of birds , 166 species of snakes , 104 species of lizards , and 113 species of amphibians . The state also accounts for 19 percent of the mammals , 6 percent of the birds , 20 percent of the snakes and 32 percent of the lizards as endemic species . These species are largely found in Totally Protected Areas . There are 2 @,@ 000 tree species , 1 @,@ 000 species of orchids , 757 species of ferns , and 260 species of palm . The state is also the habitat of endangered animals , including the borneo pygmy elephant , proboscis monkey , orangutans and rhinoceroses . Matang Wildlife Centre , Semenggoh Nature Reserve , and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary are noted for their orangutan protection programmes . Talang – Satang National Park is notable for its turtle conservation initiatives . Birdwatching is a common activity in various national parks such as Gunung Mulu National Park , Lambir Hills National Park , and Similajau National Park . Miri – Sibuti National Park is known for its coral reefs and Gunung Gading National Park for its Rafflesia flowers . Bako National Park , the oldest national park in Sarawak , is known for its 275 species of proboscis monkeys , and Padawan Pitcher Garden for its various carnivorous pitcher plants . The Rhinoceros hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak .
The Sarawak state government has enacted several laws to protect its forests and endangered wildlife species , including the Forests Ordinance 1958 , Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998 , and Sarawak Natural Parks and Nature Reserves Ordinance . Some of the protected species are the orangutan , green turtle , flying lemur , and piping hornbill . Under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998 , Sarawak natives are given permissions to hunt for a restricted range of wild animals in the jungles but should not possess more than 5 kilograms ( 11 lb ) of meat . The Sarawak Forest Department was established in 1919 to conserve forest resources in the state . Following international criticism of the logging industry in Sarawak , the state government decided to downsize the Sarawak Forest Department and created the Sarawak Forestry Corporation in 1995 . The Sarawak Biodiversity Centre was set up in 1997 for the conservation , protection , and sustainable development of biodiversity in the state .
= = = = Conservation issues = = = =
The percentage of current forest cover in Sarawak has been controversial . The then chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud claimed that the state has 70 percent forest cover in 2011 and 48 percent in 2012 . However , in 2012 his cabinet minister claimed that the forest cover was 80 percent . The Sarawak government also planned to preserve 60 percent forest cover in the coming years . The Sarawak Forest Department held that the forest cover was 80 percent in 2012 . In contrast , foreign media asserted that Sarawak has lost 90 percent of its forest cover with a mere 3 percent to 5 percent cover left . According to Wetlands International , 10 percent of all Sarawak forests and 33 percent of peat swamp forests were cleared between 2005 and 2010 , which is 3 @.@ 5 times higher than the total rate of deforestation in Asia and 11 @.@ 7 times more than peat swamp deforestation in Asia .
Sarawak 's rainforests have been gradually depleted by the demand driven by the logging industry and the introduction of palm oil plantations . The issue of human rights of the Penan and deforestation in Sarawak became an international environmental issue when Swiss activist Bruno Manser entered Sarawak from 1984 until 2000 . Deforestation has affected the life of indigenous tribes , especially the Penan , whose livelihood is heavily dependent on forest produce . This led to several blockades by indigenous tribes during the 1980s and 1990s against logging companies encroaching on their lands . There have also been cases where Native Customary Rights ( NCR ) lands have been given to timber and plantation companies without the permission of the locals . The indigenous people have resorted to legal means to reinstate their NCR rights . In 2001 the High Court of Sarawak fully reinstated the NCR land claimed by the Rumah Nor people , but this was overturned partially in 2005 . However , this case has served as a precedent , leading to more NCR rights being upheld by the high court in the following years . Sarawak 's mega @-@ dams policy such as the Bakun Dam and Murum Dam projects has submerged thousands of hectares of forest and displaced thousands of indigenous people . Since 2013 , the proposed Baram Dam project has been delayed due to ongoing protests from local indigenous tribes . Since 2014 , the Sarawak government under new chief minister Adenan Satem has started to take action against illegal logging in the state and to diversify the economy of the state .
= = Economy = =
Sarawak has abundant natural resources . Primary sectors such as mining , agriculture , and forestry accounted for 32 @.@ 8 percent of the state economy in 2013 . The main contributors in the manufacturing industry are food and beverages , wood @-@ based and rattan products , basic metal products , and petrochemical products . Meanwhile , the services sector includes cargo transportation services , air transport , and tourism . From 2000 to 2009 Sarawak had an average annual Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) growth rate of 5 @.@ 0 percent . Annual GDP growth was volatile from 2006 to 2013 , ranging from -2.0 percent ( 2009 ) to 7 @.@ 0 percent ( 2010 ) with a standard deviation of 3 @.@ 3 percent . Sarawak contributed 10 @.@ 1 percent of the GDP of Malaysia for the nine years leading up to 2013 , becoming the third largest contributor after Selangor ( 22 @.@ 2 percent ) and Kuala Lumpur ( 13 @.@ 9 percent ) The GDP of Sarawak has grown from RM 527 million ( US $ 171 @.@ 3 million ) in 1963 to RM 58 billion ( US $ 17 @.@ 4 billion ) in 2013 , rising by 110 times . At the same time , GDP per capita has jumped from RM 688 ( US $ 223 @.@ 6 ) to RM 46 @,@ 000 ( US $ 13 @,@ 800 ) , soaring by 60 times . Sarawak has the third highest GDP per capita [ RM 44 @,@ 437 ( US $ 1331 @.@ 1 ) ] in Malaysia ; after Kuala Lumpur and Labuan . Sarawak state government was able to maintain fiscal surpluses over seven years until 2013 , supported by oil and gas industry which accounted for 34 @.@ 8 percent of the state 's revenue . Sarawak also attracted RM 9 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 88 billion ) in foreign investments where 90 percent of the investments went to Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy ( SCORE ) . SCORE is the second largest economic corridor in Malaysia .
Strongly export @-@ oriented , the Sarawakian economy is susceptible to global commodity prices . Total exports as a percentage of GDP was more than 100 percent in 2013 while total trade exceeds 130 percent . Liquefied Natural Gas ( LNG ) exports accounted for more than half of the state 's total exports while crude petroleum exports accounted for 20 @.@ 8 percent . Meanwhile , palm oil , sawlogs , and sawn timber accounted for 9 @.@ 0 percent of the total exports . Sarawak currently receives 5 percent oil royalty ( percentage of oil production paid by the mining company to the lease owner ) from Petronas over oil explorations in Sarawak territorial waters . Majority of the oil and gas deposits are located offshore next to Bintulu and Miri at Balingian basin , Baram basin , and around Luconia Shoals . Sarawak is also one of the world 's largest exporters of tropical hardwood timber , constituted 65 percent of total Malaysian log exports in 2000 . The last United Nations ( UN ) statistics in 2001 estimated Sarawak 's sawlog exports at an average of 14 @,@ 109 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 498 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 cu ft ) per year between 1996 and 2000 . Oversea @-@ Chinese Banking Corporation ( OCBC Bank ) was the first foreign bank to open its branches in Sarawak in 1955 . Apart from domestic banks , 18 European , 10 Middle Eastern , 11 Asian , and five North American banks have local branches in Sarawak . There are also several Sarawak @-@ based companies involved in various economic sectors such as Cahya Mata Sarawak Berhad ( CMSB ) , Naim Holdings , Rimbunan Hijau , Ta Ann Holdings , Shin Yang , Samling , WTK ( Wong Tuong Kwang ) Holdings and KTS ( 启德行 ) Group .
Sarawak consumer price index ( CPI ) is highly correlated with Malaysian CPI , with inflation averaging between 2 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 0 percent from 2009 until 2013 with a high in 2008 ( 10 @.@ 0 percent ) and a low in 2009 ( -4.0 percent ) . Income inequality in Sarawak has not shown any significant changes from 1980 to 2009 , with the Gini coefficient fluctuating between 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 5 . Sarawak saw a reduction in poverty rate from 56 @.@ 5 percent ( 1975 ) to less than 1 percent ( 2015 ) . Unemployment rate also slipped from 4 @.@ 6 percent ( 2010 ) to 3 @.@ 1 percent ( 2014 ) .
= = = Energy = = =
Sarawak Energy Berhad ( SEB ) is responsible for generation , transmission , and distribution of electrical power throughout Sarawak . There are three operational dams in Sarawak as of 2015 : Batang Ai Dam , Bakun Dam , and Murum Dam with several others under feasibility study and planning . Sarawak also derive its electrical energy from coal fired power plant and thermal power station using Liquefied Natural Gas ( LNG ) . The total capacity of the state power generation is expected to reach 7 @,@ 000 MW by 2025 . Beside empowering the state , Sarawak Energy also exports electric to neighbouring West Kalimantan in Indonesia . Alternative energy sources such as biomass , tidal , solar , wind , and Micro hydro dams are also being explored for their potential to generate power .
The Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy ( SCORE ) was established in 2008 and is planning for further development as far out as 2030 to exploit the abundant energy resources in the state ( Murum Dam , Baram Dam , Baleh Dam , and coal @-@ based power plants ) and to develop 10 high priority industries such as aluminium , glass , steel , oil , fisheries , livestock , timber , and tourism . The Regional Corridor Development Authority ( RECODA ) is the government agency responsible for managing SCORE . The entire central region of Sarawak is covered under SCORE and is to include major areas such as Samalaju ( near Bintulu ) , Tanjung Manis , and Mukah . In 2008 , plans are for Samalaju to be developed as an industrial park , with Tanjung Manis as a halal food hub , and Mukah as the administrative centre for SCORE with a focus on resource @-@ based research and development .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism plays a major role in the economy of the state contributing 9 @.@ 3 percent of the state 's GDP in 2015 . The Sarawak Tourism Board is responsible for tourism promotion in the state under the purview of the Sarawak Ministry of Tourism . Meanwhile , private tourism sectors are united under the Sarawak Tourism Federation . The Sarawak Convention Bureau is responsible for attracting conventions , conferences , and corporate events to be held in the Borneo Convention Centre Kuching . Most of the foreign visitors come from Brunei , Indonesia , the Philippines , Singapore , and China . The Sarawak Hornbill Tourism Award is held every two years to recognise the best in the tourism sector of the state . The Rainforest World Music Festival ( RWMF ) is the region 's premier " world music " event , attracting more than 20 @,@ 000 people yearly . Other events that are held regularly in Sarawak are the ASEAN International Film Festival , Asia Music Festival , Borneo Jazz Festival , Borneo Cultural Festival , and Borneo International Kite Festival . Major shopping complexes in Sarawak include The Spring , Boulevard , Hock Lee Centre , City One shopping malls in Kuching , and Bintang Megamall , Boulevard , Imperial Mall , and Miri Plaza shopping malls in Miri . The Sarawak capital of Kuching has been mentioned as one of the retirement destinations in Malaysia .
= = Infrastructure = =
The overall level of infrastructure development in Sarawak is relatively low compared to that in Peninsular Malaysia . The Sarawak Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Communications ( MIDCom ) is responsible for infrastructure and telecommunication development in Sarawak . Sarawak has 21 industrial estates , with four main agencies responsible for their implementation and development . In 2009 , 94 percent of urban areas were supplied with electricity ; the percentage of rural areas supplied with electricity increased from 67 percent in 2009 to 91 percent in 2014 . In terms of telecommunication , in 2013 the coverage of fixed telephone line in Sarawak was 25 @.@ 7 percent , and the percentage of people using mobile phones was 93 @.@ 3 percent . Computer usage was 45 @.@ 9 percent in the same year ; the percentage of people using the internet was 58 @.@ 5 percent in urban areas and 29 @.@ 9 percent in rural areas . The state @-@ owned Sacofa Sdn Bhd ( Sacofa Private Limited ) is responsible for constructing telecommunication towers in Sarawak . Sarawak Information Systems Sdn Bhd ( SAINS ) is responsible for the implementation and development of information technology ( IT ) in Sarawak . In 2012 Sarawak had 63 post offices , 40 mini @-@ post offices , and five mobile post services . Mail delivery coverage in rural areas was 60 percent in 2015 .
The Kuching Water Board ( KWB ) and the Sibu Water Board ( SWB ) are responsible for management of the water supply in their respective areas . The state @-@ owned LAKU Management Sdn Bhd manages the water supply for Miri , Bintulu , and Limbang . The Rural Water Supply Department manages the water supply for the remaining areas . As of 2014 , 82 percent of the rural areas have a fresh water supply .
= = = Transportation = = =
Sarawak has a total of 32 @,@ 091 kilometres ( 19 @,@ 940 mi ) of connected roadways in 2013 , with half of these ( 18 @,@ 003 kilometres ( 11 @,@ 187 mi ) ) being paved state routes , 8 @,@ 313 kilometres ( 5 @,@ 165 mi ) of dirt tracks ( built by timber and plantation companies ) , 4 @,@ 352 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 704 mi ) of gravel roads , and 1 @,@ 424 kilometres ( 885 mi ) of paved federal highway . The primary route in Sarawak is the Pan Borneo Highway , which runs from Sematan , Sarawak , through Brunei to Tawau , Sabah . However , in that the road condition is presently unsatisfactory , due to danger spots , sharp bends , blind spots , potholes , and erosion found along the road , funds from the federal budget have been allocated to upgrade the roads in Sarawak . Under the SCORE economic corridor , more roads were built to the major hydroelectric dams , Bintulu , and Kapit . Major cities and towns in Sarawak provide public transportation services such as buses , taxis , and limousines . Bus service is also available for travel to the neighbouring areas of Sabah , Brunei , and Pontianak ( Indonesia ) . Sarawak uses a dual carriageway with the left @-@ hand traffic rule . It also allows motorists to " turn left when the exit is clear " .
Kuching International Airport is the main gateway to Sarawak . Miri Airport serves a limited number of international flights . Other smaller airports such as Sibu Airport , Bintulu Airport , Mukah Airport , Marudi Airport , Mulu Airport , and Limbang Airport provide services to Kuala Lumpur and other domestic destinations in Sarawak . There are also a number of remote airstrips serving rural communities in the state . There are three airlines serving flight routes in Sarawak : Malaysia Airlines , Air Asia , and MASwings . Hornbill Skyways is an aviation company owned by the Sarawak state government . It provides private chartered flights and flight services for state government servants .
Sarawak has four primary ports at Kuching , Sibu , Bintulu , and Miri . The Bintulu seaport is under the jurisdiction of the Malaysian federal government . It is also the busiest port in Sarawak , mainly handling LNG products and standard cargo shipping . The remaining ports are under the respective state port authorities . Other ports in Sarawak include Samalaju Industrial Port and Tanjung Manis Industrial Port ( TIMP ) . The combined throughput of the four primary ports was 61 @.@ 04 million freight weight tonnes ( FWT ) in 2013 . Sarawak has 55 navigable river networks with a combined length of 3 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 100 mi ) . For centuries , the rivers of Sarawak have been a primary means of transport as well as a route for timber and other agricultural goods moving downriver for export at the country 's major ports . Sibu port is the main hub along the Rajang River , located 113 kilometres ( 70 mi ) from the river 's mouth , handling mainly timber products . However , since the initiation of Tanjung Manis Industrial Port ( TIMP ) further downriver , the total throughput of Sibu port has declined . Express boats are an important means of transport along the rivers of Sarawak .
No rail lines have been laid down in Sarawak because of logistical challenges and dispersed population in the state .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Sarawak has three major government hospitals : Sarawak General Hospital , Sibu Hospital , and Miri Hospital . There are also district hospitals , public health clinics , 1Malaysia clinics , and rural clinics . Besides government @-@ owned hospitals and clinics , there are several private hospitals in Sarawak such as the Normah Medical Specialists Centre , Timberland Medical Specialists Centre , and Sibu Specialist Medical Centre . Sarawak is also a medical tourism destination for Brunei and Indonesian visitors . Universiti Malaysia Sarawak ( UNIMAS ) is the only government university that produces medical graduates in the state . The Sarawak Hospice Society was set up in 1998 to promote hospice care in home settings . Hospital Sentosa is the only mental hospital in Sarawak .
Access to good quality healthcare is still a challenge in the rural communities . For villages located outside the operational areas of health clinics , a flying doctor service ( FDS ) is available once a month . Village health promoters are stationed in remote villages after being provided with three weeks of first aid and basic health care training . A variety of traditional medicine practices are still being used by the various communities in Sarawak .
In 2015 the doctor @-@ patient ratio in the state was 1 : 1 @,@ 104 – lower than the World Health Organisation ( WHO ) recommendation of 1 doctor to 600 patients . In the same year , there were 2 @,@ 237 doctors in Sarawak , with 1 @,@ 759 serving in public sector and 478 in the private sector . Moreover , there are 248 specialists , 942 medical officers , and 499 house officers in the state .
= = = Education = = =
Sarawak overall literacy rate was 25 percent in 1960 . Today , the state has a 90 percent literacy rate . The Malaysian Ministry of Education is responsible for primary and secondary education in Sarawak . The oldest schools that are established in Sarawak are : St. Thomas 's School Kuching ( 1848 ) , St Mary 's School Kuching ( 1848 ) , and St Joseph 's School Kuching ( 1882 ) . In 2012 Sarawak had 185 government secondary schools , four international schools , and 14 Chinese independent schools . Sarawak has a considerable number of indigenous students enrolled in Chinese schools . The Sarawak government also emphasises pre @-@ school education in the state . Sarawak has three public universities : Universiti Malaysia Sarawak ( UNIMAS ) , Universiti Teknologi Mara ( UiTM ) Kota Samarahan campus , and Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus . Universiti Utara Malaysia ( UUM ) also set up several off @-@ campus study centres in Kuching and Sibu . Sarawak also has two private universities : Curtin University Sarawak and Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus . Vocational training is also given priority to supply a skilled workforce for the SCORE economic corridor . There are also several community colleges and four teacher training colleges in Sarawak . Batu Lintang Teachers ' Training College is the third oldest of its kind in Malaysia . In 2015 the total teaching workforce in Sarawak was 40 @,@ 593 .
Sarawak State Library ( also known as PUSTAKA ) is the largest library in the state . Public and village libraries are found in various towns and cities .
= = Demography = =
As of the 2015 Malaysian census , the population of Sarawak was 2 @,@ 636 @,@ 000 , making it the fourth most populous state in Malaysia . However , due to the large area of Sarawak , it has the lowest population density in Malaysia , which stands at 20 people per km2 . The average population growth rate per year from 2000 to 2010 was 1 @.@ 8 percent . As of 2014 , 58 percent of the population is urban while 42 percent of the population reside in rural areas . As of 2011 , the crude birth rate in Sarawak was 16 @.@ 3 per 1000 individuals , the crude death rate was 4 @.@ 3 per 1000 population , and the infant mortality rate was 6 @.@ 5 per 1000 live births .
People from Sarawak are called Sarawakians . Sarawak has more than 40 sub @-@ ethnic groups , each with its own distinct language , culture and lifestyle . Cities and larger towns are populated predominantly by Malays , Melanaus , Chinese , and a smaller percentage of Ibans and Bidayuhs who have migrated from their home villages for employment opportunities . Generally , Sarawak has six major ethnic groups : Iban , Chinese , Malay , Bidayuh , Melanau , and Orang Ulu . Several minor ethnic groups include : Kedayan , Javanese , Bugis , Murut , and Indian . Sarawak has 150 @,@ 000 registered migrant workers working as domestic workers or in plantation , manufacturing , construction , services and agriculture . However , the total number of illegal immigrants may be as high as 320 @,@ 000 to 350 @,@ 000 people .
The term Dayak is commonly used to refer to the Iban people and the Bidayuh . The term is often used in a nationalistic context . In 2015 the Malaysian federal government recognised the use of the term on official forms . Bumiputera ( son of the soil ) refers to the Malays and other indigenous groups in Peninsular Malaysia , Sarawak and Sabah . This group of people generally enjoy special privileges in education , jobs , finance , and political positions . Orang Asal refers to all the indigenous groups in Malaysia excluding Malays .
= = = Iban = = =
Sarawak has the highest number of Ibans in Borneo , numbering 745 @,@ 400 people . They are also known as Sea Dayaks . The large majority of Ibans practise Christianity . The Ibans originally inhabited the areas around the Rajang basin , but following Brooke 's military expeditions , they gradually moved into northern regions of Sarawak . Iban settlements are usually in the form of a longhouse . The longhouse was a defensive unit in the past , when headhunting was prevalent . Today it remains a ritual symbol among its households . In the past , the Ibans recognised status hierarchy such as raja berani ( the rich and the brave ) , orang mayuh ( ordinary people ) , and ulun ( slaves ) . However , during the Brooke era , Iban society was restructured into formal offices such as tuai rumah ( headman ) , penghulu ( regional chief ) , and temenggong ( paramount chief ) . They still observe many of their traditional rituals and beliefs such as Gawai Antu ( festival of the dead ) and the Gawai Dayak ( Harvest Festival ) .
= = = Chinese = = =
Chinese traders first came to Sarawak in the 6th century AD . The Chinese population today consists of communities originated from immigrants during the Brooke era . These migrants first worked as labourers inside gold mines at Bau , Sarawak . A variety of dialect groups is found among Sarawak Chinese ; Cantonese , Foochow , Hakka , Hokkien , Teochew , and Henghua ( Putian people ) . They celebrate major cultural festivals such as Hungry Ghost Festival and the Chinese New Year . The majority of Sarawak Chinese are made up from Buddhists and Christians . In Kuching , most of the Chinese settled near the Sarawak River , an area which would later form Chinatown . In 1901 Wong Nai Siong brought his clansmen to settle in Sibu , near the Rajang River . The Chinese later went to work at coal mines and oil fields in Miri · The Sarawak Chinese were influenced by the Kuomintang and later the Communist Party of China before adopting the ideology of Sarawak nationalism after 1963 .
= = = Malay = = =
The Malays are traditionally fishermen . They chose to build settlements ( Malay villages ) along the river banks . Today , they migrate to urban areas and work in public and private sectors . They are known for their silver and brass crafts , wood carvings , and textiles . Some typical Malay villages are located along the riverside near Fort Margherita , behind the Kuching Mosque , and at the foot of Mount Santubong . Several theories about the origins of the Malays in Sarawak have been proposed . James Brooke purportedly applied the term for the first time on the coast @-@ dwelling indigenous Muslims in Sarawak . However , not all Muslims in Sarawak are Malays . Most of the Melanau tribe also practise Islam . Other theories claim that the Malays came from the Malay Archipelago ( for instance , from Java or Sumatra ) , Arabs from the Middle East , or through cultural and religious conversions of indigenous people of Sarawak .
= = = Melanau = = =
The Melanaus are native to Sarawak . Most of them come from the coastal town of Mukah . They traditionally live in tall houses , but after adopting a Malay lifestyle , they dwell in villages . They worked as fishermen , boat @-@ builders , and craftsmen . They originally practised paganism and celebrate Kaul festival but today most of them are Muslims .
= = = Bidayuh = = =
The Bidayuh mainly stayed in the southern part of Sarawak such as Lundu , Bau , Serian , and the Padawan municipality . They are known as Land Dayaks because they traditionally live on steep limestone mountains . They consist of several sub @-@ ethnic groups such as the Jagoi , Biatah , and Selakau , and speak mutually unintelligible dialects . Therefore , they accepted English and Malay languages as their common language . They are known for several musical instruments such as gigantic drums and a bamboo percussion instrument known as the pratuakng . Like the Ibans , their traditional settlements are longhouses , but they also construct baruk roundhouses for community meetings . The majority of the Bidayuh practice the Christian faith .
= = = Orang Ulu = = =
The name Orang Ulu means " upriver people " in the Iban language . It includes numerous tribes who live upstream in Sarawak 's interior such as the Kenyah , Kayan , Lun Bawang , Kelabit , Penan , Bisaya , and Berawan tribes . Formerly headhunters , most of them stay in Bario , Ba 'kelalan , Belaga , and near the drainage basin of the Baram River . They decorate their longhouses with murals and woodcarvings . They are also known for boat building , beadwork and tattooing . Well @-@ known musical instruments from the Orang Ulu are the Kayans ' sapeh and Kenyah 's sampe ' and Lun Bawang 's bamboo band . The Kelabit and Lun Bawang people are known for their production of fragrant rice . The majority of Orang Ulu are Christians .
= = = Religion = = =
Although Islam is the official religion of the federation , Sarawak has no official state religion . However , during the chieftainship of Abdul Rahman Ya 'kub , the Constitution of Sarawak was amended to make Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong as the head of Islam in Sarawak and empower the state assembly to pass laws regarding Islamic affairs . With such provisions , Islamic policies can be formulated in Sarawak and the establishment of Islamic state agencies is also possible . The 1978 Majlis Islam Bill enabled the setting up of Syariah Courts in Sarawak with jurisdictions over matrimonial , child custody , betrothal , inheritance , and criminal cases in the state . An appeals court and Courts of Kadi were also formed .
Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia where Christians outnumber Muslims . The earliest Christian missionaries in Sarawak were propagated by Church of England ( Anglicans ) in 1848 , followed by Roman Catholics a few years later , and Methodists in 1903 . Such missionaries first took place among the Chinese immigrants before spreading to indigenous animists . Other Christian denominations in Sarawak are Borneo Evangelical Mission ( BEM or Sidang Injil Borneo , SIB . ) , and Baptists . Indigenous people such as the Iban , Bidayuh , and Orang Ulu have adopted Christianity although they do retain some of their traditional religious rites . Many Muslims come from the Malay , Melanau , and Kayan ethnic groups . Buddhism , Taoism , and Chinese folk religion are predominantly practised by Chinese Malaysians . Other minor religions in Sarawak are Baha 'i , Hinduism , Sikhism , and animism .
Religious sites in Sarawak
= = = Languages = = =
English was the sole official language of Sarawak from 1963 to 1974 because the first chief minister of Sarawak Stephen Kalong Ningkan opposed the use of the Malay language in Sarawak . In 1974 the new chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya 'kub adopted the Malay language and English as the two official languages of Sarawak . He also changed the medium of instruction in schools from English to Malay . Today , English is used in the courts , state legislative assembly , and certain government agencies in Sarawak . On 18 November 2015 , the Sarawak Chief Minister Adenan Satem announced the state 's adoption of English as the official language of Sarawak , along with Malay .
The Malay language , known as Bahasa Sarawak ( or Sarawak Malay ) , is the main language among the Sarawak Malays and other indigenous tribes . Bahasa Sarawak is a different dialect from that spoken on the peninsula . The Iban language is also widely spoken among 34 percent of the Sarawak population while the Bidayuh language , with six major dialects , is spoken by 10 percent of the population . The Orang Ulu have about 30 different language dialects . The Chinese generally use Standard Chinese although they also use many different dialects such as Hokkien , Hakka , Foochow , and Teochew .
= = Culture = =
Sarawak exhibits notable diversity in ethnicity , culture , and language . The Sarawakian culture has been influenced by Bruneian Malays of the coastal areas . Substantial cultural influences also came from the Chinese and British cultures . Headhunting was once an important tradition for the Ibans ; the custom is no longer observed . Christianity plays an important role in the daily lives of the Kelabit and Lun Bawang and has changed their ethnic identities . The Penan people were the last indigenous group to abandon their nomadic way of life in the jungle . Interracial marriages are common in the state .
Sarawak Cultural Village is located at the foot of Mount Santubong , Kuching . Known as the " living museum " , it showcases the various ethnic groups carrying out traditional activities in their respective traditional houses . Cultural performances are also presented here . The Sarawak State Museum houses a collection of artefacts such as pottery , textiles , and woodcarving tools from various ethnic tribes in Sarawak , and also ethnographic materials of local cultures . The museum building preserves its French architecture . Other museums include the Islamic Heritage Museum , Chinese History Museum , Kuching Cat Museum , Sarawak Textile Museum , Art Museum , Lau King Howe Medical Museum , and Baram Regional Museum . There is also a series of well @-@ preserved forts in Sarawak built during the Brooke regime such as Fort Margherita , Fort Emma , Fort Sylvia , and Fort Alice .
The Batang Ai Resort and Bawang Assan Iban longhouses allow the visiting guests to have an overnight stay and to participate in traditional Iban daily activities . Other longhouses include : Iban longhouses in Kapit , Bidayuh longhouses in Kuching , Kelabit longhouses in Bario , Lun Bawang longhouses in Ba 'kelalan , and Melanau wooden houses in Sibu . Main Bazaar and Carpenter Street are the two notable streets in Chinatown , Kuching . India Street in Kuching is notable for its textile products . An Indian – Muslim mosque can be found in the vicinity .
= = = Fine arts and crafts = = =
The Sarawak Craft Council popularises local ethnic crafts . The Sarakraf Pavilion houses a workshop which demonstrates a wide range of craft @-@ making skills . Well @-@ known handicrafts in Sarawak include Orang Ulu beadwork , Iban Pua Kumbu , Bidayuh Kesah mats and Tambok baskets , Malay Kain Songket , ethnic headgear , and Chinese pottery . Sarawak Artists Society was established in 1985 to promote local cultures and arts in the form of paintings . Most artists in the post @-@ war Sarawak prefers scenery and nature , traditional dances , and traditional daily activities as their drawing themes .
Orang Ulu 's Sapeh ( a dug @-@ out guitar ) is the best known traditional musical instrument in Sarawak . It was played for Queen Elizabeth during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972 . It was first introduced to the world during Asian Traditional Performing Arts ( ATPA ) in Japan in 1976 . Other traditional musical instruments are various types of gongs and Kulintang ( Tawak , Ketupung , and Engkeromong ) , idiophones , bamboo flutes and zithers .
The oral tradition has been part of the culture of the various indigenous groups in Sarawak for generations . It is used for passing on life lessons , traditions , and values to the younger generation . The stories are told repeatedly by the elders to the younger ones , such as in storytelling sessions on special occasions and through traditional performances . Some of these traditional practices are the Iban 's Ngajat dances , Renong ( Iban vocal repertory ) , Ensera ( Iban oral narratives ) , and epic storytelling by the Kayan and Kenyah . The Borneo Literature Bureau existed from 1958 until 1977 ; it encouraged the documentation of local cultures , local authors , and publications in English , Chinese , Malay , Iban and other native languages . The Bureau was replaced by the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka ( DBP ) in 1977 , which advocated publication only in the Malay language . Documentation of oral traditions has also been done by the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak ( UNIMAS ) and the Sarawak Customs Council . The Sarawak Gazette was first published by the Brooke government in 1870 . It recorded a variety of news in Sarawak related to economics , agriculture , anthropology , and archaeology . The Gazette is still being published today . Hikayat Panglima Nikosa ( Story of Nikosa the Warrior ) , printed in 1876 at Kuching , is one of the earliest text publications in Borneo . Written by Ahmad Syawal Abdul Hamid , it is also the first novel of Malaysia . The indigenous traditions have also become a source of writing for Sarawak Chinese authors .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Notable dishes in the state include Sarawak laksa , kolo mee , and ayam pansuh . The state is also known for its Sarawak layer cake dessert . Each ethnic group has its own delicacies with different styles of preparing , cooking , and eating food . However , modern technology has altered the way of cooking for native dishes . Examples of ethnic foods are the Iban tuak ( rice wine ) , Melanau tebaloi ( sago palm crackers ) and umai ( raw fish mixed with lime juice ) , and Orang Ulu urum giruq ( pudding ) . The traditional food of Sarawak has also been marketed as a culinary tourism product . Examples of locally grown franchise stores in Sarawak are Sugar Bun , Singapore Chicken Rice , and Bing Coffee . Other international foods such as Western food , Indonesian food , Indian food , and Middle Eastern food can also be found here .
= = = Media = = =
The Sarawak government is popularly believed to exert its influence over the media . Examples of newspapers based in Sarawak are Sin Chew Daily , See Hua Daily News , Borneo Post , and Utusan Borneo . In the 1990s , major newspapers negatively portrayed the timber blockades in Sarawak as detrimental to the state 's growth and development . The Sarawak Tribune was indefinitely suspended in 2006 for publishing a caricature of the Prophet Muhammad . The daily was rebooted as the New Sarawak Tribune in 2010 . In 2010 Clare Rewcastle Brown , sister @-@ in @-@ law of former British prime minister Gordon Brown , set up a Sarawak Report website and a London @-@ based short @-@ wave radio station named Radio Free Sarawak to provide alternative news and views free from the influence of the Sarawak government .
Radio Sarawak existed from 1954 to 1976 . It was broadcast in Malay , Iban , Chinese , and English . Some Sarawak @-@ based radio stations are Sarawak FM , cats FM and TEA FM .
= = = Holidays and festivals = = =
Sarawakians observe a number of holidays and festivals throughout the year . Apart from national Hari Merdeka and Malaysia Day celebrations , the state also celebrates Sarawak Self @-@ government Day on 22 July and the State Governor 's birthday . Ethnic groups also celebrate their own festivals . The open house tradition allows other ethnic groups to join in the celebrations . Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia to declare the Gawai Dayak celebration a public holiday . It is also the only state in Malaysia that does not gazette the Deepavali celebration as a public holiday . Religious groups are free to hold processions in major towns and cities during festivals . Sarawak and Sabah are the only two states in Malaysia that declare Good Friday a public holiday . The Kuching Festival is a month @-@ long celebration that is held every August to commemorate its elevation to city status in 1988 . Miri City Day is also held in conjunction with Miri May Fest every year .
= = = Sports = = =
Sarawak sent its own teams to participate in the 1958 and 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games , and 1962 Asian Games before its athletes started representing Malaysia after 1963 . The Sarawak State Sports Council was formed in 1985 to raise the standard of sports in Sarawak . Sarawak was the host of the Malaysian SUKMA Games in 1990 and for the second time in the 2016 Sukma Games . The state was the overall champion in the 1990 , 1992 , and 1994 SUKMA games . Sarawak also sent teams representing Malaysia at the Southeast Asian Games . Sarawak also contributed one Olympic medal to the total of six medals won by Malaysia from 1992 to 2012 . Sarawak also emerged as the overall champion for 11 consecutive years at the Malaysia Para Games since 1994 . The state also sent athletes to participate in the Special Olympics World Games .
There are several stadiums in Sarawak : Sarawak Stadium , Sarawak State Stadium , Stadium Perpaduan ( Unity Stadium ) , and Sarawak State Hockey Stadium . The Sarawak FA football association was founded in 1974 . It won the Malaysia FA Cup in 1992 and the Malaysia Premier League in 1997 and 2013 .
|
= California State Route 133 =
State Route 133 ( SR 133 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California . It connects SR 1 in Laguna Beach through the San Joaquin Hills with several freeways in Irvine , ending at the SR 241 toll road in the latter city . The portion north of SR 73 in Laguna Beach is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , and it is built as an expressway from SR 73 to Laguna Canyon Road ( just south of I @-@ 405 in Irvine ) . SR 133 is a freeway ( the Laguna Freeway ) to I @-@ 5 , and a tollway ( part of the Eastern Toll Road ) to SR 241 near the Santa Ana Mountains .
SR 133 was constructed as a county road by the 1910s ; the portion from I @-@ 405 to I @-@ 5 was upgraded to a freeway four decades later . Plans to extend the freeway south were canceled by the state , and the southern part of the road remains an undivided highway . In 1998 , the majority of the Eastern Transportation Corridor opened , and the connector between I @-@ 5 and SR 241 was designated as a toll extension of SR 133 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 133 begins at the Pacific Coast Highway ( SR 1 ) as Broadway in Laguna Beach , a block from the Pacific Ocean . The name changes to Laguna Canyon Road as the highway leaves downtown Laguna Beach and enters Laguna Canyon , soon narrowing to one lane in each direction . After entering the canyon , which lies between Laguna Coast Wilderness Park ( west side of SR 133 ) and Aliso and Wood Canyons Wilderness Park ( east side of SR 133 ) , the first major intersection is with El Toro Road ( County Route S18 ) . SR 133 widens to four lanes and becomes a highway after its interchange with the San Joaquin Hills Toll Road ( SR 73 ) .
As it continues through the Laguna Coast Wilderness Park , SR 133 follows a four @-@ lane alignment on the west side of the canyon , moved from the old two @-@ lane road in the center of the canyon in late 2006 . Laguna Canyon Road splits to the northwest where the canyon ends in Irvine . North of the park , the highway becomes the Laguna Freeway after crossing an at @-@ grade intersection with Laguna Canyon Road , followed by an interchange at exit 8 , San Diego Freeway ( I @-@ 405 ) . SR 133 then continues as a freeway and serves Barranca Parkway and the Santa Ana Freeway ( I @-@ 5 ) . After crossing I @-@ 5 , SR 133 becomes part of the Eastern Toll Road along the northwest side of Marine Corps Air Station El Toro , crossing an interchange with Irvine Boulevard at exit 12 before ending at SR 241 .
= = History = =
As part of its construction of concrete roads , started by a 1913 bond issue , Orange County paved the county road through Laguna Canyon , connecting State Highway Route 2 ( the forerunner of U.S. Hwy . 101 and I @-@ 5 ) at Irvine with Laguna Beach , by 1917 . The road was added to the state highway system in 1933 as Route 185 , an unsigned designation . The entire route was added to the new California Freeway and Expressway System in 1959 ; the planned upgrade had already been named the Laguna Freeway by the California Highway Commission on November 26 , 1957 . The highway received a sign route number — State Route 133 — in the 1964 renumbering .
Opening of the first — and only — piece of the Laguna Freeway was celebrated in Laguna Beach on October 1 , 1952 , connecting the north end of Laguna Canyon with a planned extension of the Santa Ana Freeway at a trumpet interchange and bypassing the old route on Sand Canyon Avenue . There were initially no other interchanges along the route . The state decided not to build the remainder of the freeway in late 1975 , and in 1996 the portion south of SR 73 was removed from the Freeway and Expressway System . Widening of the part north of SR 73 to a four @-@ lane expressway was completed in late 2006 , moving the road out of the canyon bottom and allowing better access to areas in Laguna Coast Wilderness Park .
A new State Route 231 was added to the state highway system in 1988 , connecting I @-@ 5 northwest of Irvine with SR 91 , and in 1991 the south end was shifted southeast to the north end of SR 133 , with the old route becoming SR 261 . To prevent the route from changing numbers as it crossed I @-@ 5 , the southern portion was renumbered SR 133 in 1996 , with the remainder becoming an extended SR 241 . The Eastern Transportation Corridor , which includes SR 133 north of I @-@ 5 , was completed on October 15 , 1998 , opening a new shortcut from Orange County to the northeast .
= = Tolls = =
The toll portion of SR 133 employs a barrier toll system , where drivers are charged flat @-@ rate tolls based on what particular toll booths they pass through . Tolls are collected at selected on- and off @-@ ramps ; and at the Orange Grove Toll Plaza , which spans the on @-@ and off @-@ ramps to Northbound SR 241 ( traffic to and from Southbound SR 241 instead pay at the Tomato Springs Toll Plaza located on SR 241 immediately south of the 133 / 241 interchange ) .
Since May 13 , 2014 , the road has been using an all @-@ electronic , open road tolling system ; cash is no longer being accepted . Drivers may pay using the FasTrak electronic toll collection system , license plate tolling ( under Transportation Corridor Agencies 's brand name " ExpressAccount " ) , or via a one time payment online . Those using Fastrak are charged a lower toll than those using the other two methods . Drivers must pay within 5 days after their trip on the toll road or they will accessed a toll violation .
The following table lists the tolls at each of the tolled exits for passenger cars and other two @-@ axle vehicles ( as of July 1 , 2015 ) . Vehicles with more than two axles pay a higher toll at the Orange Grove Toll Plaza .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Orange County .
|
= Subtropical ridge =
The subtropical ridge , also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes , is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30 ° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 ° S in the Southern Hemisphere . It is characterized by mostly calm winds , which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight , and haze during daylight hours caused by the stable atmosphere found near its location . Air flows out from its center toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere , creating both the trade winds and the westerlies . The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer , reaching its most northern latitude in early fall , before moving equatorward during the cold season . The ENSO climate cycle can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge , with La Niñas allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge , while El Niños show flatter , more southerly ridges . The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries . As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength , it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low @-@ latitude periphery . The term " horse latitudes " refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high .
= = Formation = =
Heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of upward motion and convection along the monsoon trough or Intertropical convergence zone . These rising air currents diverge in the upper troposphere and move away from the equator at high altitude in both northerly and southerly directions . As it moves towards the mid @-@ latitudes on both sides of the equator , the air cools and sinks . The resulting air mass subsidence creates a subtropical ridge near the 30th parallel of latitude in both hemispheres where the formation of cloud is minimal except on the anticyclone ’ s western edge ( eastern coast of continents ) where warm and moist low @-@ level air is driven poleward and cooled to create thunderstorms – producing the humid subtropical climates of the American South , South China , southern Japan. central @-@ eastern South America , southern Queensland and KwaZulu Natal province in South Africa . At surface level , the sinking air diverges again with some moving back to the equator and completing the vertical cycle . This circulation on each side of the equator is known as the Hadley cell and leads to the formation of the subtropical ridge . Many of the world 's deserts are caused by these climatological high @-@ pressure areas .
= = Migration = =
The subtropical ridge starts migrating poleward in late spring reaching its zenith in early autumn before retreating equatorward during the late fall , winter , and early spring . The equatorward migration of the subtropical ridge during the cold season is due to increasing north @-@ south temperature differences between the poles and tropics . The latitudinal movement of the subtropical ridge is strongly correlated with the progression of the monsoon trough or Intertropical Convergence Zone .
Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator , then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge shifts due to ENSO , so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks . Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience many fewer September – November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years , while mainland China experiences much greater landfall frequency during La Niña years . During El Niño years , the break in the subtropical ridge tends to lie near 130 ° E , which would favor the Japanese archipelago , while in La Niña years the formation of tropical cyclones , along with the subtropical ridge position , shift west , which increases the threat to China . In the Atlantic basin , the subtropical ridge position tends to lie about 5 degrees farther south during El Niño years , which leads to a more southerly recurvature for tropical cyclones during those years .
When the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation 's mode is favorable to tropical cyclone development ( 1995 – present ) , it amplifies the subtropical ridge across the central and eastern Atlantic .
= = Importance to global monsoon regimes = =
When the subtropical ridge in the northwest Pacific is stronger than normal , it leads to a wet monsoon season for Asia . The subtropical ridge position is linked to how far northward monsoon moisture and thunderstorms extend into the United States . The subtropical ridge across North America typically migrates far enough northward to begin monsoon conditions across the Desert Southwest from July to September . When the subtropical ridge is farther north than normal towards the Four Corners , monsoon thunderstorms can spread northward into Arizona . When suppressed to the south , the atmosphere dries out across the Desert Southwest , causing a break in the monsoon regime .
= = Role in haze and fog formation = =
When surface winds become light , the subsidence produced directly under the subtropical ridge can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge , leading to widespread haze . If the low level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight , fog can form .
|
= Swift Bus Rapid Transit =
Swift Bus Rapid Transit is a bus rapid transit system operated by Community Transit in Snohomish County , Washington , part of the Seattle metropolitan area . As of 2016 , Swift has a single , 16 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 @.@ 9 km ) line that runs on the State Route 99 corridor , serving the cities of Everett , Lynnwood , Edmonds , and Shoreline , with 33 stations organized into roughly 16 pairs . The line terminates at Everett Station to the north , connecting with Sound Transit 's commuter rail and express bus services , and at the Aurora Village Transit Center in Shoreline to the south , connecting with King County Metro and the RapidRide E Line .
Swift has the highest ridership of any Community Transit route , carrying over 1 @.@ 6 million total passengers in 2014 . The service also has the highest frequency out of all Community Transit routes , running at 12 @-@ minute headways on weekdays from 6 : 00 a.m. to 7 : 00 p.m. , and 20 @-@ minute headways during early mornings , late nights , and weekends .
Swift and its original 28 stations were opened on November 29 , 2009 at a cost of $ 29 million . Four infill stations in Everett were opened in 2011 , and a southbound infill station serving Edmonds Community College opened in 2016 . A second line , from the Boeing Everett Factory to Mill Creek and Bothell via State Route 527 , is in development , and is expected to open sometime after 2018 . Long @-@ range plans adopted by Community Transit include Swift trunk lines replacing its most popular corridors by 2030 , feeding into future Link Light Rail stations at Lynnwood Transit Center and Everett Station .
= = Route = =
Swift , designated internally as Community Transit Route 701 , begins at Bays G and H at the south end of Everett Station . Buses travel north on Smith Avenue , passing the station building and parking lots , and turn west onto Pacific Avenue towards Downtown Everett . The line continues west on Pacific , stopping at a station split between Wetmore and Colby avenues near the Snohomish County Government Campus , before turning south onto Rucker Avenue . The next station pair , split between 40th and 41st streets , serves The Everett Clinic and the Everett Memorial Stadium complex , as well as the northern terminus of the Interurban Trail . Buses travel south in general purpose lanes on Evergreen Way , passing over State Route 526 north of Casino Road Station . The road continues southwest as State Route 99 into the unincorporated community of Lake Stickney , where Swift stops at Airport Road Station , a future transfer station with the proposed Swift II line to the Boeing Everett Factory and Mill Creek , and Lincoln Way Station north of an interchange with State Route 525 . The line enters the city of Lynnwood and moves into business access and transit ( BAT ) lanes at 148th Street Station , where a queue jump signal for northbound buses was installed in 2012 . Swift continues south on State Route 99 through Lynnwood , serving the Lynnwood Crossroads area at 196th and 200th streets and the Edmonds Community College with a southbound @-@ only stop at 204th Street , and continues into Edmonds to stop at the Edmonds Swedish Medical Center . The line crosses over State Route 104 and enters the city of Shoreline in King County , before it turns east onto North 200th Street and reaches its southern terminus at Aurora Village Transit Center Bay 9 .
= = Stations = =
Swift serves 33 stations , grouped into 16 pairs , on its 16 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 27 km ) route , spaced approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) apart from each other . Swift stations consist of a 40 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 12 m ) , 10 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) covered shelter on a 60 @-@ to @-@ 70 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 18 to 21 m ) , 10 @-@ inch @-@ high ( 25 cm ) platform that allows for level boarding onto buses . The platform and shelter also include a roadside beacon that is lit at night , graffiti @-@ resistant weather barriers , two Parkeon ticket vending machines , two ORCA card readers , and a next bus arrival sign . Buses stop at all stations , are allowed a dwell time of 10 seconds , and use curb bumpers to guide them closer to the platform .
Transfers from Swift to other bus routes are possible at every station , served by shadow service running on the State Route 99 and Evergreen Way corridor between Swift stations and frequently @-@ spaced stops . Community Transit route 101 runs from Aurora Village Transit Center to the Everett city limits at Airport Road Station , and Everett Transit routes 7 and 8 run on the Swift corridor within Everett . There are several intersecting routes that connect Swift to Sound Transit Express service on Interstate 5 in Lynnwood : three routes on 200th Street near Crossroads and Heron stations travel east to Lynnwood Transit Center ; and two routes on 148th Street travel to Ash Way Park and Ride . Swift 's termini also connect to regional services that run south to Seattle : Everett Station has Sounder commuter rail and Sound Transit Express bus routes to Seattle , and Aurora Village Transit Center is the terminus for the RapidRide E Line , a bus rapid transit route on Aurora Avenue that runs through Shoreline to Downtown Seattle .
= = = List of stations = = =
Notes
= = Service = =
Swift runs at a headway of 12 minutes from 6 : 00 a.m. to 7 : 00 pm on weekdays , its highest level of service with five buses per hour per direction . Weekday service begins with a headway of 20 minutes from 5 : 00 a.m. to 6 : 00 am , and ends with the same frequency during the evening from 7 : 00 p.m. to 10 : 00 pm . During Saturdays , buses run every 20 minutes from 6 : 00 a.m. to 10 : 00 pm . Sunday service , which was suspended from 2010 until 2015 , runs from 7 : 00 a.m. to 8 : 20 pm every 20 minutes . Swift initially ran at a 10 @-@ minute headway , and had evening service end at midnight , until a major system @-@ wide service reduction in February 2012 reduced its weekday headway to the current 12 minutes .
Swift carried a total of 1 @,@ 621 @,@ 838 riders in 2015 , making it the most popular route operated by Community Transit , and accounting for 16 @.@ 2 % of the agency 's total ridership .
= = = Fares and enforcement = = =
Fares on Swift are equivalent to Community Transit 's local service fares , divided into three groups : adult at $ 2 @.@ 25 , youth at $ 1 @.@ 50 , and reduced at $ 1 @.@ 00 . Adult fare is charged for passengers between the ages of 19 and 64 , youth fare is charged for passengers between the ages of 6 and 18 , and the reduced fare is charged for passengers over the age of 65 , or those with disabilities or Medicare card holders . At the time of Swift 's launch in 2009 , adult fares were set at $ 1 @.@ 50 ; since then , fares have since increased to the present $ 2 @.@ 25 for adults effective July 1 , 2015 .
Swift uses off @-@ board payment at its stations , made possible by the placement of two ORCA card readers and two ticket vending machines at each shelter . The ticket vending machines only accept $ 1 bills ( without giving change ) and credit cards from Visa and MasterCard , printing out a paper ticket . The system uses proof @-@ of @-@ payment to verify fares , enforced by " Swift Ambassadors " , who conduct random checks and can issue a $ 124 citation to riders who fail to pay .
= = Fleet = =
Swift uses a fleet of 15 specially @-@ branded New Flyer DE60LFA articulated hybrid buses , measuring 62 feet ( 19 m ) long and carrying 43 seated passengers and up to 80 standing passengers . The buses , ordered in 2007 with the option of purchasing 34 additional coaches , have three doors ( of which two are plug doors ) that allow for all @-@ door boarding at all stations ; the front door has a wheelchair ramp , and is located closest to the two wheelchair bays secured by a passive restraint system , which doesn 't require assistance from the driver ; bicyclists are directed to the rear door of the coach , where three interior bike racks are located . The coaches deadhead to and from their overnight storage space at the Merrill Creek bus base in Everett , where a mock station used for driver training was unveiled in May 2009 .
= = History = =
= = = Former services = = =
Swift bus rapid transit service on the State Route 99 corridor was preceded by decades of transit services traveling through southwestern Snohomish County , which ranged from an interurban railway to local buses . The Seattle – Everett Interurban Railway ran interurban service from 1910 to 1939 along the Pacific Highway , later U.S. Route 99 and State Route 99 . During its heyday , the interurban ran at 30 @-@ minute headways throughout the day , and only made automatic stops at its terminals in Everett and Seattle . The railway was dismantled and later used as right of way for overhead power lines , until it was converted into a rail trail in the 1990s and 2000s , named the Interurban Trail .
Community Transit was founded in 1976 as the public transit agency for Snohomish County , and introduced local service from Everett to Aurora Village via State Route 99 on route 750 . Route 750 was later renumbered to route 610 , which was later upgraded to 15 @-@ minute headways in the 1990s , and itself split into two routes , 100 and 101 , in 2003 . Community Transit route 100 ran during peak hours along the full length of the corridor from Aurora Village to Everett , while route 101 only ran the southern portion of the route to South Everett , with all @-@ day service that required a transfer to Everett Transit to complete trips to downtown Everett .
= = = BAT lanes and BRT studies = = =
Planning for limited @-@ stop bus service , which later evolved into bus rapid transit , began in the 1990s , with proposals to build bus lanes on State Route 99 between 145th Street NE in Shoreline and Casino Road ( near State Route 526 ) in Everett . Sound Transit was established in 1996 as a regional transit authority , and selected the State Route 99 corridor as a route for its express bus system , but later replaced it , before service began , with an express route on Interstate 5 from Everett to Northgate , while leaving SR 99 to Community Transit . Sound Transit funded the construction of business access and transit lanes on State Route 99 through Lynnwood from 244th Street to 148th Street in 2002 , converting former parking lanes , and widening the highway in some areas , improving existing bus service , and laying the ground for a future bus rapid transit line .
Community Transit 's Strategic Planning Group published a recommendation in 2004 , calling for bus rapid transit service on the State Route 99 corridor between Everett Station and Aurora Village Transit Center , featuring off @-@ board fare collection , limited stops , and transit signal priority . The route alternatives proposed included express service from Aurora Village to Downtown Seattle via Aurora Avenue North or Interstate 5 , as well as express service on Interstate 5 in Everett , if a partnership to share costs with Everett Transit for the Evergreen Way segment was not viable . In December 2005 , the CT Board of Directors approved an accelerated planning schedule for a bus rapid transit project , to cost an estimated $ 15 – 20 million , and to begin service as the first such system in the Puget Sound region in 2008 .
= = = Planning , design and construction = = =
Community Transit unveiled detailed plans for its bus rapid transit system , including the " Swift " name and logo , on July 26 , 2006 . The first line , located on State Route 99 between Everett and Aurora Village , would begin operating in 2008 , with 10 @-@ minute headways and limited stops . The agency envisioned real @-@ time arrival signs at stations , and transit signal priority , among other improvements over existing bus service .
The following year , CT purchased its fleet of 15 hybrid diesel @-@ electric buses from New Flyer , at a cost of $ 879 @,@ 028 per vehicle , to be paid for with state and federal subsidies .
Community Transit signed an agreement on December 5 , 2007 with Everett Transit , which allowed for Swift to operate within Everett city limits with sales tax revenue from Everett funding stations , and transit signal priority within Everett . In exchange , Everett Transit would be allowed to expand its services into neighboring unincorporated areas that do not have CT service .
A groundbreaking ceremony for the first Swift station , located at Airport Road in south Everett , was held on December 3 , 2008 , and was attended by Community Transit CEO Joyce Eleanor , U.S. Senator Patty Murray , and the mayors of Everett and Marysville . Stations were constructed in two phases : the first consisting of utility relocation and pouring of the concrete shelter pad ; the second being the installation of the shelters , beacons , and other amenities beginning in June 2009 . The first station to be completed , a training facility at the Merrill Creek bus base , was opened during a media event on May 5 , 2009 ; in September 2009 , the first station on the line was completed at 196th Street in Lynnwood .
The project cost a total of $ 29 million ( equivalent to $ 32 million in 2016 ) , of which $ 15 million was paid for by grants from the Federal Transit Administration , Washington State Department of Transportation , as well as the partnership with Everett Transit . The grants also paid for the majority of the cost to operate Swift for its first three years of service , estimated at $ 5 million annually , allowing it to maintain 10 @-@ minute headways , while the rest of Community Transit service was reduced in 2010 .
= = = Launch and additional stations = = =
Swift launched on November 29 , 2009 with a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony at Crossroads Station , and a day of free rides from 4 : 00 p.m. to midnight . The following day marked the beginning of regular service , with the first runs departing their termini at 5 : 00 am , and the new service attracted more than 1 @,@ 500 riders , with end @-@ to @-@ end trips taking 20 minutes less compared to local buses on the same corridor . Swift debuted as the first bus rapid transit line in the state of Washington , ahead of King County 's RapidRide , opening a year later in 2010 , and one of the longest lines in the country when it opened .
Existing local service on the State Route 99 was reduced on November 29 to accommodate the introduction of Swift . Community Transit eliminated route 100 , a peak only service on the corridor , and reduced weekday headways on route 101 from 15 minutes to 20 minutes . Everett Transit reduced weekday headways on route 9 , running from Airport Road Station to the Everett Community College , from 20 minutes to 30 minutes .
The successful launch of Swift , which saw ridership grow to 3 @,@ 000 daily boardings in its first five months of service , earned Community Transit a Vision 2040 Award from the Puget Sound Regional Council in May 2010 . The agency also received two bronze Summit Creative Awards for the launch of Swift , as well as instructional videos on riding Swift that were published on YouTube .
Four infill stations located in Everett were added to Swift in December 2010 and January 2011 : a split pair at Madison Street and Pecks Drive , filling a nearly 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) gap between Casino Road and 50th Street , and a pair at 112th Street . The stations were paid for by $ 1 @.@ 6 million in regional mobility grants from the Washington State Department of Transportation to Everett Transit , awarded in May 2009 .
The final Swift station , College Station at 204th Street SW in Lynnwood , was opened on February 3 , 2016 . The southbound @-@ only station is without a matching northbound one , serves the Edmonds Community College . It was originally proposed with the rest of the Lynnwood stations , but was delayed while waiting for the City of Lynnwood to extend 204th Street and build a traffic signal at its intersection with State Route 99 .
= = = Later developments = = =
Swift stations were given a number of small improvements after the line opened . Curb bumpers were installed in June 2010 to help guide buses closer to the raised platform , and reduce the gap at the door . In 2012 , a queue jump signal was installed northbound at the north end of the BAT lanes at 148th Street , allow Swift buses to merge into traffic . Real @-@ time arrival signs debuted at Swift stations in 2013 , featuring a countdown to the arrival of the next bus that is estimated using GPS units on coaches . In June 2015 , the Washington State Department of Transportation removed part of the refuge island at the intersection of State Route 99 and Airport Road to create a through lane exclusively for Swift buses .
Bus service on Aurora Avenue North , the continuation of State Route 99 in Shoreline and Seattle , was upgraded to bus rapid transit with the introduction of the RapidRide E Line in February 2014 . The line terminates at Aurora Village Transit Center , allowing for transfers to Swift .
= = = Future plans = = =
In its transit development plan published in 2016 , Community Transit proposed the restoration of 10 @-@ minute weekday frequencies on Swift by March 2018 .
Community Transit has also proposed extending the current line on State Route 99 through Shoreline to Link Light Rail at NE 185th Street Station when it opens as part of the Lynnwood Link Extension in 2023 .
= = Future lines = =
In 2005 , Community Transit approved a long range plan , which extended Swift into a full network , and which comprised the core of Community Transit service on " Transit Emphasis Corridors " . The corridors identified served the cities of Everett , Lynnwood , Edmonds , Mill Creek , Bothell , Marysville , and Arlington , using existing arterial streets that already have bus service .
Community Transit announced plans for a second Swift line in November 2013 . The 12 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) line , tentatively named " Swift II " , was created out of two Transit Emphasis Corridors , and would travel from the Boeing Everett Factory to Mill Creek via Airport Road and State Route 527 . A study , prepared by Parsons Brinckerhoff , and partially funded by the state legislature in 2012 , estimated that the project would cost $ 42 – 48 million to construct , and attract 3 @,@ 300 riders when it opened . The Federal Transit Administration approved project development in December 2014 , a prerequisite to federal grants for capital construction and vehicle acquisition . During the 2015 session of the Washington State Legislature , Community Transit was granted the authority to increase sales taxes to fund operation of Swift II , pending voter approval via a ballot measure ; the Washington State Department of Transportation also gave $ 6 @.@ 8 million in funding to build the line 's northern terminus at Seaway Transit Center . The ballot measure was approved by voters in November 2015 , and CT expects the line to open as early as 2018 .
|
= Narcissus ( plant ) =
Narcissus / nɑːrˈsɪsəs / is a genus of predominantly spring perennial plants in the Amaryllidaceae ( amaryllis ) family . Various common names including daffodil , daffadowndilly , narcissus , and jonquil are used to describe all or some members of the genus . Narcissus has conspicuous flowers with six petal @-@ like tepals surmounted by a cup- or trumpet @-@ shaped corona . The flowers are generally white or yellow ( orange or pink in garden varieties ) , with either uniform or contrasting coloured tepals and corona .
Narcissus were well known in ancient civilisation , both medicinally and botanically , but formally described by Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum ( 1753 ) . The genus is generally considered to have about ten sections with approximately 50 species . The number of species has varied , depending on how they are classified , due to similarity between species and hybridization . The genus arose some time in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene epochs , in the Iberian peninsula and adjacent areas of southwest Europe . The exact origin of the name Narcissus is unknown , but it is often linked to a Greek word for intoxicated ( narcotic ) and the myth of the youth of that name who fell in love with his own reflection . The English word ' daffodil ' appears to be derived from " asphodel " , with which it was commonly compared .
The species are native to meadows and woods in southern Europe and North Africa with a center of diversity in the Western Mediterranean , particularly the Iberian peninsula . Both wild and cultivated plants have naturalised widely , and were introduced into the Far East prior to the tenth century . Narcissi tend to be long @-@ lived bulbs , which propagate by division , but are also insect @-@ pollinated . Known pests , diseases and disorders include viruses , fungi , the larvae of flies , mites and nematodes . Some Narcissus species have become extinct , while others are threatened by increasing urbanisation and tourism .
Historical accounts suggest narcissi have been cultivated from the earliest times , but became increasingly popular in Europe after the 16th century and by the late 19th century were an important commercial crop centred primarily on the Netherlands . Today narcissi are popular as cut flowers and as ornamental plants in private and public gardens . The long history of breeding has resulted in thousands of different cultivars . For horticultural purposes , narcissi are classified into divisions , covering a wide range of shapes and colours . Like other members of their family , narcissi produce a number of different alkaloids , which provide some protection for the plant , but may be poisonous if accidentally ingested . This property has been exploited for medicinal use in traditional healing and has resulted in the production of galantamine for the treatment of Alzheimer 's dementia . Long celebrated in art and literature , narcissi are associated with a number of themes in different cultures , ranging from death to good fortune , and as symbols of spring . The daffodil is the national flower of Wales and the symbol of cancer charities in many countries . The appearance of the wild flowers in spring is associated with festivals in many places .
= = Description = =
= = = General = = =
Narcissus is a genus of perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes , dying back after flowering to an underground storage bulb . They regrow in the following year from brown @-@ skinned ovoid bulbs with pronounced necks , and reach heights of 5 – 80 cm depending on the species . Dwarf species such as N. asturiensis have a maximum height of 5 – 8 cm , while Narcissus tazetta may grow as tall as 80 cm .
The plants are scapose , having a single central leafless hollow flower stem ( scape ) . Several green or blue @-@ green , narrow , strap @-@ shaped leaves arise from the bulb . The plant stem usually bears a solitary flower , but occasionally a cluster of flowers ( umbel ) . The flowers , which are usually conspicuous and white or yellow , sometimes both or rarely green , consist of a perianth of three parts . Closest to the stem ( proximal ) is a floral tube above the ovary , then an outer ring composed of six tepals ( undifferentiated sepals and petals ) , and a central disc to conical shaped corona . The flowers may hang down ( pendent ) , or be erect . There are six pollen bearing stamens surrounding a central style . The ovary is inferior ( below the floral parts ) consisting of three chambers ( trilocular ) . The fruit consists of a dry capsule that splits ( dehisces ) releasing numerous black seeds .
The bulb lies dormant after the leaves and flower stem die back and has contractile roots that pull it down further into the soil . The flower stem and leaves form in the bulb , to emerge the following season . Most species are dormant from summer to late winter , flowering in the spring , though a few species are autumn flowering .
= = = Specific = = =
= = = = Vegetative = = = =
Bulbs
The pale brown @-@ skinned ovoid tunicate bulbs have a membranous tunic and a corky stem ( base or basal ) plate from which arise the adventitious root hairs in a ring around the edge , which grow up to 40 mm in length . Above the stem plate is the storage organ consisting of bulb scales , surrounding the previous flower stalk and the terminal bud . The scales are of two types , true storage organs and the bases of the foliage leaves . These have a thicker tip and a scar from where the leaf lamina became detached . The innermost leaf scale is semicircular only partly enveloping the flower stalk ( semisheathed ) . ( see Hanks Fig 1 @.@ 3 ) . The bulb may contain a number of branched bulb units , each with two to three true scales and two to three leaf bases . Each bulb unit has a life of about four years .
Once the leaves die back in summer , the roots also wither . After some years , the roots shorten pulling the bulbs deeper into the ground ( contractile roots ) . The bulbs develop from the inside , pushing the older layers outwards which become brown and dry , forming an outer shell , the tunic or skin . Up to 60 layers have been counted in some wild species . While the plant appears dormant above the ground the flower stalk which will start to grow in the following spring , develops within the bulb surrounded by two to three deciduous leaves and their sheaths . The flower stem lies in the axil of the second true leaf .
Stems
The single leafless stem or scape , appearing from early to late spring depending on the species , bears from 1 to 20 blooms . Stem shape depends on the species , some are highly compressed with a visible seam , while others are rounded . The stems are upright and located at the centre of the leaves . In a few species such as N. hedraeanthus the stem is oblique ( asymmetrical ) . The stem is hollow in the upper portion but towards the bulb is more solid and filled with a spongy material .
Leaves
Narcissus plants have one to several basal leaves which are linear , ligulate or strap shaped ( long and narrow ) , sometimes channelled adaxially to semiterete , and may ( pedicellate ) or may not ( sessile ) have a petiole stalk . The leaves are flat and broad to cylindrical at the base and arise from the bulb . The emerging plant generally has two leaves , but the mature plant usually three , rarely four , and they are covered with a cutin containing cuticle , giving them a waxy appearance . Leaf colour is light green to blue @-@ green . In the mature plant the leaves extend higher than the flower stem , but in some species the leaves are low hanging . The leaf base is encased in a colourless sheath . After flowering the leaves turn yellow and die back once the seed pod ( fruit ) is ripe .
Jonquils usually have dark green , round , rush @-@ like leaves .
= = = = Reproductive = = = =
Inflorescence
The inflorescence is scapose , the single stem or scape bearing either a solitary flower or forming an umbel with up to 20 blooms . Species bearing a solitary flower include section Bulbocodium and most of section Pseudonarcissus . Umbellate species have a fleshy racemose inflorescence ( unbranched , with short floral stalks ) with 2 to 15 or 20 flowers , such as N. papyraceus ( see illustration , left ) and N. tazetta ( see Table I ) . The flower arrangement on the inflorescence may be either with ( pedicellate ) or without ( sessile ) floral stalks .
Prior to opening , the flower buds are enveloped and protected in a thin dry papery or membranous ( scarious ) spathe . The spathe consists of a singular bract that is ribbed , and which remains wrapped around the base of the open flower . As the bud grows , the spathe splits longitudinally . Bracteoles are small or absent .
Flowers
The flowers of Narcissus are hermaphroditic ( bisexual ) , have three parts ( tripartite ) , and are sometimes fragrant ( see Fragrances ) . The flower symmetry is actinomorphic ( radial ) to slightly zygomorphic ( bilateral ) due to declinate @-@ ascending stamens ( curving downwards , then bent up at the tip ) . Narcissus flowers are characterised by their , usually conspicuous , corona ( trumpet ) .
The three major floral parts ( in all species except N. cavanillesii in which the corona is virtually absent - Table I : Section Tapeinanthus ) are ;
( i ) the proximal floral tube ( hypanthium ) ,
( ii ) the surrounding free tepals , and
( iii ) the more distal corona ( paraperigon , paraperigonium ) .
All three parts may be considered to be components of the perianth ( perigon , perigonium ) . The perianth arises above the apex of the inferior ovary , its base forming the hypanthial floral tube .
The floral tube is formed by fusion of the basal segments of the tepals ( proximally connate ) . Its shape is from an inverted cone ( obconic ) to funnel @-@ shaped ( funneliform ) or cylindrical , and is surmounted by the more distal corona . Floral tubes can range from long and narrow in sections Apodanthi and Jonquilla to rudimentary ( N. cavanillesii ) .
Surrounding the floral tube and corona and reflexed ( bent back ) from the rest of the perianth are the six spreading tepals or floral leaves , in two whorls which may be distally ascending , reflexed ( folded back ) , or lanceolate . Like many monocotyledons , the perianth is homochlamydeous , that is undifferentiated into separate calyx ( sepals ) and corolla ( petals ) , but rather has six tepals . The three outer tepal segments may be considered sepals , and the three inner segments petals . The transition point between the floral tube and the corona is marked by the insertion of the free tepals on the fused perianth .
The corona , or paracorolla , is variously described as bell @-@ shaped ( funneliform , trumpet ) , bowl @-@ shaped ( cupular , crateriform , cup shaped ) or disc @-@ shaped with margins that are often frilled , and is free from the stamens . Rarely the corona is a simple callose ( hardened , thickened ) ring . The corona is formed during floral development as a tubular outgrowth from stamens which fuse into a tubular structure , the anthers becoming reduced . At its base the fragrances which attract pollinators are formed . All species produce nectar at the top of the ovary . Coronal morphology varies from the tiny pigmented disk of N. serotinus ( see Table I ) or the rudimentary structure in N. cavanillesii to the elongated trumpets of section Pseudonarcissus ( trumpet daffodils , Table I ) .
While the perianth may point forwards , in some species such as N. cyclamineus it is folded back ( reflexed , see illustration , left ) , while in some other species such as N. bulbocodium ( Table I ) , it is reduced to a few barely visible pointed segments with a prominent corona .
The colour of the perianth is white , yellow or bicoloured , with the exception of the night flowering N. viridiflorus which is green . In addition the corona of N. poeticus has a red crenulate margin ( see Table I ) . Flower diameter varies from 12 mm ( N. bulbocodium ) to over 125 mm ( N. nobilis = N. pseudonarcissus supsp. nobilis ) .
Flower orientation varies from pendent or deflexed ( hanging down ) as in N. triandrus ( see illustration , left ) , through declinate @-@ ascendant as in N. alpestris = N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus , horizontal ( patent , spreading ) such as N. gaditanus or N. poeticus , erect as in N. cavanillesii , N. serotinus and N. rupicola ( Table I ) , or intermediate between these positions ( erecto @-@ patent ) .
The flowers of Narcissus demonstrate exceptional floral diversity and sexual polymorphism , primarily by corona size and floral tube length , associated with pollinator groups ( see for instance Figs . 1 and 2 in Graham and Barrett ) . Barrett and Harder ( 2005 ) describe three separate floral patterns ;
'Daffodil ' form
'Paperwhite ' form
'Triandrus ' form .
The predominant patterns are the ' daffodil ' and ' paperwhite ' forms , while the ' triandrus ' form is less common . Each corresponds to a different group of pollinators ( See Pollination ) .
The ' daffodil ' form , which includes sections Pseudonarcissus and Bulbocodium , has a relatively short , broad or highly funnelform tube ( funnel @-@ like ) , which grades into an elongated corona , which is large and funnelform , forming a broad , cylindrical or trumpet @-@ shaped perianth . Section Pseudonarcissus consists of relatively large flowers with a corolla length of around 50mm , generally solitary but rarely in inflorescences of 2 @-@ 4 flowers . They have wide greenish floral tubes with funnel shaped bright yellow coronas . The six tepals sometimes differ in colour from the corona and may be cream coloured to pale yellow .
The ' paperwhite ' form , including sections Jonquilla , Apodanthi and Narcissus , has a relatively long , narrow tube and a short , shallow , flaring corona . The flower is horizontal and fragrant .
The ' triandrus ' form is seen in only two species , N. albimarginatus ( a Moroccan endemic ) and N. triandrus . It combines features of both the ' daffodil ' and ' paperwhite ' forms , with a well @-@ developed , long , narrow tube and an extended bell @-@ shaped corona of almost equal length . The flowers are pendent .
Androecium
There are six stamens in one to two rows ( whorls ) , with the filaments separate from the corona , attached at the throat or base of the tube ( epipetalous ) , often of two separate lengths , straight or declinate @-@ ascending ( curving downwards , then upwards ) . The anthers are basifixed ( attached at their base ) .
Gynoecium
The ovary is inferior ( below the floral parts ) and trilocular ( three chambered ) and there is a pistil with a minutely three lobed stigma and filiform ( thread like ) style , which is often exserted ( extending beyond the tube ) .
Fruit
The fruit consists of dehiscent loculicidal capsules ( splitting between the locules ) that are ellipsoid to subglobose ( almost spherical ) in shape and are papery to leathery in texture .
Seeds
The fruit contains numerous subglobose seeds which are round and swollen with a hard coat , sometimes with an attached elaiosome . The testa is black and the pericarp dry .
Most species have 12 ovules and 36 seeds , although some species such as N. bulbocodium have more , up to a maximum of 60 . Seeds take five to six weeks to mature . The seeds of sections Jonquilla and Bulbocodium are wedge @-@ shaped and matte black , while those of other sections are ovate and glossy black . A gust of wind or contact with a passing animal is sufficient to disperse the mature seeds .
= = = Chromosomes = = =
Chromosome numbers : 2n = 14 , 22 , 26 , with numerous aneuploid and polyploid derivatives . The basic chromosome number being 7 , with the exception of N. tazetta , N. elegans and N. broussonetii in which it is 10 or 11 , chromosome number being the way that this subgenus ( Hermione ) was characterised . Polyploid species include N. papyraceus ( 4x = 22 ) and N. dubius ( 6x = 50 ) .
= = = Phytochemistry = = =
= = = = Alkaloids = = = =
As with all Amarylidaceae genera , Narcissus contains unique isoquinoline alkaloids . The first alkaloid to be identified was lycorine , from N. pseudonarcissus in 1877 . These are considered a protective adaptation , and are utilised in the classification of species . Nearly 100 alkaloids have been identified in the genus , about a third of all known Amaryllidaceae alkaloids , although not all species have been tested . Of the nine alkaloid ring types identified in the family , Narcissus species most commonly demonstrate the presence of alkaloids from within the Lycorine ( lycorine , galanthine , pluviine ) and Homolycorine ( homolycorine , lycorenine ) groups . Hemanthamine , Tazettine , Narciclasine , Montanine and Galantamine alkaloids are also represented . The alkaloid profile of any plant varies with time , location , and developmental stage . Narcissus also contain fructans and low molecular weight glucomannan in the leaves and plant stems .
= = = = Fragrances = = = =
Fragrances are predominantly monoterpene isoprenoids , with a small amount of benzenoids , although N. jonquilla has both equally represented . Another exception is N. cuatrecasasii which produces mainly fatty acid derivatives . The basic monoterpene precursor is geranyl pyrophosphate , and the commonest monoterpenes are limonene , myrcene , and trans @-@ β @-@ ocimene . Most benzenoids are non @-@ methoxylated , while a few species contain methoxylated forms ( ethers ) , e.g. N. bugei . Other ingredient include indole , isopentenoids and very small amounts of sesquiterpenes . Fragrance patterns can be correlated with pollinators , and fall into three main groups ( see Pollination ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = History = = =
Genus valde intricatum et numerosissimis dubiis oppressum
A genus that is very complex and burdened with numerous uncertainties
= = = = Early = = = =
The genus Narcissus was well known to the ancients . In Greek literature Theophrastus and Dioscorides. described νάρκισσος , probably referring to N. poeticus , although the exact species mentioned in classical literature cannot be accurately established . Pliny the Elder later introduced the Latin form narcissus . These early writers were as much interested in the plant 's possible medicinal properties as they were its botanical features and their accounts remained influential until at least the Renaissance ( see also Antiquity ) . Mediaeval and Renaissance writers include Albert Magnus and William Turner , but it remained to Linnaeus to formally describe and name Narcissus as a genus in his Species Plantarum ( 1753 ) at which time there were six known species .
= = = = Modern = = = =
De Jussieu ( 1789 ) grouped Narcissus into a ' family ' which he called Narcissi . This was renamed Amaryllideae by Jaume Saint @-@ Hilaire in 1805 , corresponding to the modern Amaryllidaceae . For a while Narcissus was considered part of Liliaceae ( as in the illustration seen here of Narcissus candidissimus ) , but then the Amaryllidaceae were split off from it .
Various authors have adopted either narrow ( e.g. Haworth , Salisbury ) or wide ( e.g.Herbert , Spach ) interpretations of the genus . The narrow view treated many of the species as separate genera . Over time the wider view prevailed with a major monograph on the genus being published by Baker ( 1875 ) . One of the more controversial genera was Tapeinanthus , but today it is included in Narcissus .
The eventual position of Narcissus within the Amaryllidaceae family only became settled in this century with the advent of phylogenetic analysis and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system . Within Amaryllidaceae the genus Narcissus belongs to the Narcisseae tribe , one of 13 within the Amaryllidoideae subfamily . It is one of two sister clades corresponding to genera in the Narcisseae , being distinguished from Sternbergia by the presence of a paraperigonium , and is monophyletic .
= = = Subdivision = = =
The infrageneric phylogeny of Narcissus still remains relatively unsettled , the taxonomy having proved complex and difficult to resolve , due to the diversity of the wild species , the ease with which natural hybridization occurs , and extensive cultivation and breeding accompanied by escape and naturalisation . Consequently , the number of accepted species has varied widely .
De Candolle , in the first systematic taxonomy of Narcissus , arranged the species into named groups , and those names have largely endured for the various subdivisions since and bear his name as their authority . The situation was confused by the inclusion of many unknown or garden varieties , and it was not till the work of Baker that the wild species were all grouped as sections under one genus , Narcissus .
A common classification system has been that of Fernandes based on cytology , as modified by Blanchard ( 1990 ) and Mathew ( 2002 ) . Another is that of Meyer ( 1966 ) . Fernandes proposed two subgenera based on basal chromosome number , and then subdivided these into ten sections as did Blanchard .
Other authors ( e.g. Webb ) prioritised morphology over genetics , abandoning subgenera , although Blanchard 's system has been one of the most influential . While infrageneric groupings within Narcissus have been relatively constant , their status ( genera , subgenera , sections , subsections , series , species ) has not . The most cited system is that of the Royal Horticultural Society ( RHS ) which simply lists ten sections . Three of these are monotypic ( contain only one species ) , while two others contain only two species . Most species are placed in section Pseudonarcissus . Many of these subdivisions correspond roughly to the popular names for daffodil types , e.g. Trumpet Daffodils , Tazettas , Pheasant 's Eyes , Hoop Petticoats , Jonquils .
The most hierarchical system is that of Mathew , illustrated here -
= = = = Phylogenetics = = = =
The phylogenetic analysis of Graham and Barrett ( 2004 ) supported the infrageneric division of Narcissus into two clades corresponding to Fernandes ' subgenera , but did not support monophyly of all sections . A later extended analysis by Rønsted et. al . ( 2008 ) with additional taxa confirmed this pattern .
A large molecular analysis by Zonneveld ( 2008 ) sought to reduce some of the paraphyly identified by Graham and Barrett . This led to a revision of the sectional structure . While Graham and Barrett ( 2004 ) had determined that subgenus Hermione was monophyletic , Santos @-@ Gally et. al . ( 2011 ) did not . If two species excluded in the former study are removed from the analysis , the studies are in agreement , the species in question instead forming a clade with subgenus Narcissus . Some so @-@ called nothosections have been proposed , to accommodate natural ( ' ancient ' ) hybrids ( nothospecies ) .
= = = = Species = = = =
Estimates of the number of species in Narcissus have varied widely , from anywhere between 16 and almost 160 , even in the modern era . Linnaeus originally included six species in 1753 , by 1784 there were fourteen by 1819 sixteen , and by 1831 Adrian Haworth had described 150 species .
Much of the variation lies in the definition of species . Thus , a very wide view of each species , such as Webb 's results in few species , while a very narrow view such as that of Fernandes results in a larger number . Another factor is the status of hybrids , with a distinction between ' ancient hybrids ' and ' recent hybrids ' . The term ' ancient hybrid ' refers to hybrids found growing over a large area , and therefore now considered as separate species , while ' recent hybrid ' refers to solitary plants found amongst their parents , with a more restricted range .
Fernandes ( 1951 ) originally accepted 22 species , Webb ( 1980 ) 27 . By 1968 , Fernandes had 63 species , Blanchard ( 1990 ) 65 species , and Erhardt ( 1993 ) 66 . In 2006 the Royal Horticultural Society 's ( RHS ) International Daffodil Register and Classified List listed 87 species , while Zonneveld 's genetic study ( 2008 ) resulted in only 36 . As of September 2014 , the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepts 52 species , along with at least 60 hybrids , while the RHS has 81 accepted names in its October 2014 list .
= = = Evolution = = =
Within the Narcisseae , Narcissus ( western Mediterranean ) diverged from Sternbergia ( Eurasia ) some time in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene eras , around 29 @.@ 3 – 18 @.@ 1 Ma . Later the genus divided into the two subgenera ( Hermione and Narcissus ) between 27 @.@ 4 – 16 @.@ 1 Ma . The divisions between the sections of Hermione then took place during the Miocene period 19 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 8 Ma . Narcissus appears to have arisen in the area of the Iberian peninsula , southern France and north @-@ western Italy . Subgenus Hermione in turn arose in the southwestern mediterranean and north west Africa .
= = = Etymology = = =
= = = = Narcissus = = = =
The derivation of the Latin narcissus ( Greek : νάρκισσος ) is unknown , but may be connected with hell . It is frequently linked to the myth of Narcissus who became so obsessed with his own reflection in water that he drowned and the narcissus plant sprang from where he died . There is no evidence for the flower being named for the youth . Narcissus poeticus which grows in Greece , has a fragrance that has been described as intoxicating . Pliny wrote that the plant was named for its fragrance ( ναρκάω narkao , " I grow numb " ) not the youth . Furthermore , there were accounts of narcissi growing long before the story of Narcissus appeared ( see Greek culture ) . It has also been suggested that daffodils bending over streams represent the youth admiring his reflection . Linnaeus used the Latin name ' narcissus ' for the plant but was preceded by others such as Matthias de l 'Obel ( 1591 ) and Clusius ( 1576 ) . The name Narcissus was not uncommon for men in Roman times .
The plural form of the common name " narcissus " has caused some confusion . Dictionaries list " narcissi " , " narcissuses " and " narcissus " However , texts on usage such as Garner and Fowler state that " narcissi " is the preferred form . The common name narcissus should not be capitalised .
= = = = Daffodil = = = =
The name " daffodil " is derived from " affodell " , a variant of asphodel . The narcissus was frequently , referred to as the asphodel , ( see Antiquity ) . Asphodel in turn appears to come from the Greek " asphodelos " ( Greek : ἀσφόδελος ) . The reason for the introduction of the initial " d " is not known . From at least the 16th century , " Daffadown Dilly " , " daffadown dilly " , and " daffydowndilly " have appeared as alternative names .
Other names include " Lent lily " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Although the Amaryllidaceae family are predominantly tropical or subtropical as a whole , Narcissus occurs primarily in Mediterranean region , with a centre of diversity in the Iberian Peninsula ( Spain and Portugal ) . A few species extend the range into southern France , Italy , and the Balkans ( N. poeticus , N. serotinus , N. tazetta ) and the Eastern Mediterranean ( N. serotinus ) including Israel ( N. tazetta ) . The occurrence of N. tazetta in western and central Asia , China and Japan are considered introductions , albeit ancient ( see Eastern cultures ) . While the exact northern limit of the range is unknown , the occurrences of wild N. pseudonarcissus in Great Britain , middle and northern Europe are similarly considered ancient introductions .
While Amaryllidaceae is not native to North America , it grows well in USDA hardiness zones 3B through 10 , encompassing most of the country .
N. elegans occurs on the North West African Coast ( Morocco and Libya ) , as well as the coastline of Corsica , Sardinia and Italy , and N. bulbocodium between Tangier and Algiers and Tangier to Marrakech , but also on the Iberian Peninsula . N. serotinus is found along the entire Mediterranean coast . N. tazetta occurs as far east as Iran and Kashmir . Since this is one of the oldest species found in cultivation , it is likely to have been introduced into Kashmir . N. poeticus and N. pseudonarcissus have the largest distribution ranges . N. poeticus ranges from the Pyrenees along the Romanian Carpathians to the Black Sea and along the Dalmatian coast to Greece . N. pseudonarcissus ranges from the Iberian Peninsula , via the Vosges Mountains to northern France and Belgium , and the United Kingdom where there are still wild stocks in Southern Scotland . The only occurrence in Luxembourg is located near Lellingen , in the municipality of Kiischpelt . In Germany it is found mainly in the nature reserve at Perlenbach @-@ Fuhrtsbachtal and the Eifel National Park , where in the spring at Monschau the meadows are teeming with yellow blooms . One of the most easterly occurrences can be found at Misselberg near Nassau on the Lahn .
However unlike the above examples most species have very restricted endemic ranges which may overlap resulting in natural hybrids . For instance in the vicinity of the Portuguese city of Porto where both N. pseudonarcissus and N. triandrus occur there are found various intersections of the two species while in a small area along part of the Portuguese Montego river are found intersectional hybrids between N. scaberulus and N. triandrus .
The biogeography demonstrates a phylogenetic association , for instance subgenus Hermione having a lowland distribution , but subgenus Narcissus section Apodanthi being montane and restricted to Morocco , Spain and Portugal . The remaining sections within subgenus Narcissus include both lowland and mountain habitats . Section Pseudonarcissus , although widely naturalised is endemic to the Baetic Ranges of the south eastern Iberian peninsula .
= = = Habitats = = =
Their native habitats are very varied , with different elevations , bioclimatic areas and substrates , being found predominantly in open spaces ranging from low marshes to rocky hillsides and montane pastures , and including grassland , scrub , woods , river banks and rocky crevices . Although requirements vary , overall there is a preference for acidic soils , although some species will grow on limestone . Narcissus scaberulus will grow on granite soils where it is moist in the growing season but dry in the summer , while Narcissus dubius thrives best in regions with hot and dry summers .
The Pseudonarcissus group in their natural habitat prefer humid situations such as stream margins , springs , wet pastures , clearings of forests or shrublands with humid soils , and moist hillsides . These habitats tend to be discontinuous in the Mediterranean mountains , producing discrete isolated populations . In Germany , which has relatively little limestone , Narcissus pseudonarcissus grows in small groups on open mountain meadows or in mixed forests of fir , beech , oak , alder , ash and birch trees with well @-@ drained soil .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Life cycle = = =
Narcissus are long @-@ lived perennial geophytes with winter @-@ growing and summer @-@ dormant bulbs that are mainly synanthous ( leaves and flowers appearing at the same time ) . While most species flower in late winter to spring , five species are autumn flowering ( N. broussonetii , N. cavanillesii , N. elegans , N. serotinus , N. viridiflorus ) . By contrast these species are hysteranthous ( leaves appear after flowering ) .
Flower longevity varies by species and conditions , ranging from 5 – 20 days . After flowering leaf and root senescence sets in , and the plant appears to be ' dormant ' till the next spring , conserving moisture . However the dormant period is also one of considerable activity within the bulb primordia . It is also a period during which the plant bulb may be susceptible to predators ( see Pests and diseases below ) . Like many bulb plants from temperate regions , a period of exposure to cold is necessary before spring growth can begin . This protects the plant from growth during winter when intense cold may damage it . Warmer spring temperatures then initiate growth from the bulb . Early spring growth confers a number of advantages , including relative lack of competition for pollinators , and lack of deciduous shading . The exception to requiring cold temperatures to initiate flowering is N. tazetta .
Plants may spread clonally through the production of daughter bulbs and division producing clumps . Narcissus species hybridise readily , although the fertility of the offspring will depend on the parental relationship .
= = = Pollination = = =
The flowers are insect pollinated , the major pollinators being bees , butterflies , flies , and hawkmoths , while the highly scented night flowering N. viridiflorus is pollinated by crepuscular moths . Pollination mechanism fall into three groups corresponding to floral morphology ( see Description - Flowers ) .
'Daffodil ' form . Pollinated by bees seeking pollen from anthers within the corona . The broad perianth allows bees ( Bombus , Anthophora , Andrena ) to completely enter the flower in their search for nectar and / or pollen . In this type the stigma lies in the mouth of the corona , extending beyond the six anthers , whose single whorl lies well within the corona . The bees come into contact with the stigma before their legs , thorax and abdomen contact the anthers , and this approach herkogamy causes cross pollination .
'Paperwhite ' form . These are adapted to long @-@ tongued Lepidoptera , particularly sphingid moths such as Macroglossum , Pieridae and Nymphalidae but also some long @-@ tongued bees , and flies , all of which are primarily seeking nectar . The narrow tube admits only the insect 's proboscis , while the short corona serves as a funnel guiding the tip of the proboscis into the mouth of the perianth tube . The stigma is placed either in the mouth of the tube , just above two whorls of three anthers , or hidden well below the anthers . The pollinators then carry pollen on their probosci or faces . The long tongued bees cannot reach the nectar at the tube base and so collect just pollen .
'Triandrus ' form . Pollinated by long @-@ tongued solitary bees ( Anthophora , Bombus ) which forage for both pollen and nectar . The large corona allows the bees to crawl into the perianth but then the narrow tube prevents further progres , causing them to probe deeply for nectar . The pendant flowers prevent pollination by lepidoptera . In N. albimarginatus there may be either a long stigma with short and mid length anthers or a short stigma and long anthers ( dimorphism ) . In N. triandrus there are three patterns of sexual organs ( trimophism ) but all have long upper anthers but vary in stigma position and the length of the lower anthers .
Allogamy ( outcrossing ) on the whole is enforced through a late @-@ acting ( ovarian ) self @-@ incompatibility system , but some species such as N. dubius and N. longispathus are self @-@ compatible producing mixtures of selfed and outcrossed seeds .
= = = Pests and diseases = = =
Diseases of Narcissus are of concern because of the economic consequences of losses in commercial cultivation . Pests include viruses , bacteria , and fungi as well as arthropods and gastropods . For control of pests , see Commercial uses .
Viruses
Aphids such as Macrosiphum euphorbiae can transmit viral diseases which affect the colour and shape of the leaves , as can Nematodes . Up to twenty five viruses have been described as being able to infect narcissi . These include the Narcissus common latent virus ( NCLV , Narcissus mottling @-@ associated virus ) , Narcissus latent virus ( NLV , Narcissus mild mottle virus ) which causes green mottling near leaf tips , Narcissus degeneration virus ( NDV ) , Narcissus late season yellows virus ( NLSYV ) which occurs after flowering , streaking the leaves and stems , Narcissus mosaic virus , Narcissus yellow stripe virus ( NYSV , Narcissus yellow streak virus ) , Narcissus tip necrosis virus ( NTNV ) which produces necrosis of leaf tips after flowering and Narcissus white streak virus ( NWSV ) .
Less host specific viruses include Raspberry ringspot virus , Nerine latent virus ( NeLV ) = Narcissus symptomless virus , Arabis mosaic virus ( ArMV ) , Broad Bean Wilt Viruses ( BBWV ) Cucumber mosaic virus ( CMV ) , Tomato black ring virus ( TBRV ) , Tomato ringspot virus ( TomRSV ) and Tobacco rattle virus ( TRV ) .
Of these viruses the most serious and prevalent are NDV , NYSV and NWSV . NDV is associated with chlorotic leaf striping in N. tazetta . Infection with NYSV produces light or grayish green , or yellow stripes or mottles on the upper two @-@ thirds of the leaf , which may be roughened or twisted . The flowers which may be smaller than usual may also be streaked or blotched . NWSV produces greenish purple streaking on the leaves and stem turning white to yellow , and premature senescence reducing bulb size and yield . These viruses are primarily diseases of commercial nurseries . The growth inhibition caused by viral infection can cause substantial economic damage .
Bacteria
Bacterial disease is uncommon in Narcissus but includes Pseudomonas ( bacterial streak ) and Pectobacterium carotovorum sp. carotovorum ( bacterial soft rot ) .
Fungi
More problematic for non @-@ commercial plants is the fungus , Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. narcissi , which causes basal rot ( rotting of the bulbs and yellowing of the leaves ) . This is the most serious disease of Narcissus . Since the fungus can remain in the soil for many years it is necessary to remove infected plants immediately , and to avoid planting further narcissi at that spot for a further five years . Not all species and cultivars are equally susceptible . Relatively resistant forms include N. triandrus , N. tazetta and N. jonquilla .
Another fungus which attacks the bulbs , causing narcissus smoulder , is Botrytis narcissicola ( Sclerotinia narcissicola ) and other species of Botrytis , including Botrytis cinerea , particularly if improperly stored . Copper sulfate is used to combat the disease , and infected bulbs are burned . Blue mould rot of bulbs may be caused by infection with species of Penicillium , if they have become damaged either through mechanical injury or infestation by mites ( see below ) . Species of Rhizopus ( e.g. Rhizopus stolonifer , Rhizopus nigricans ) cause bulb soft rot and Sclerotinia bulborum , black slime disease . A combination of both Peyronellaea curtisii ( Stagonosporopsis curtisii ) and Botrytis narcissicola causes neck rot in the bulbs .
Fungi affecting the roots include Nectria radicicola ( Cylindrocarpon destructans ) , a cause of root rot and Rosellinia necatrix causing white root rot , while others affect root and bulb , such as Aspergillus niger ( black mold ) , and species of Trichoderma , including T. viride and T. harzianum ( = T. narcissi ) responsible for green mold .
Other fungi affect the remainder of the plant . Another Botrytis fungus , Botrytis polyblastis ( Sclerotinia polyblastis ) causes brown spots on the flower buds and stems ( narcissus fire ) , especially in damp weather and is a threat to the cut flower industry . Ramularia vallisumbrosae is a leaf spot fungus found in warmer climates , causing narcissus white mould disease . Peyronellaea curtisii , the Narcissus leaf scorch , also affects the leaves as does its synanamorph , Phoma narcissi ( leaf tip blight ) . Aecidium narcissi causes rust lesions on leaves and stems .
Animals
Arthropods that are Narcissus pests include insects such as three species of fly that have larvae that attack the plants , narcissus bulb fly Merodon equestris , and two species of hoverflies , the lesser bulb flies Eumerus tuberculatus and Eumerus strigatus . The flies lay their eggs at the end of June in the ground around the narcissi , a single female fly being able to lay up to fifty eggs . The hatching larvae then burrow through the soil towards the bulbs and consume their interiors . They then overwinter in the empty bulb shell , emerging in April to pupate in the soil , from which the adult fly emerges in May . The larvae of some moths such as Korscheltellus lupulina ( the common swift moth ) attack Narcissus bulbs .
Other arthropods include Mites such as Steneotarsonemus laticeps ( Bulb scale mite ) , Rhizoglyphus and Histiostoma infest mainly stored bulbs and multiply particularly at high ambient temperature , but do not attack planted bulbs .
Planted bulbs are susceptible to nematodes , the most serious of which is Ditylenchus dipsaci ( Narcissus eelworm ) , the main cause of basal plate disease in which the leaves turn yellow and become misshapen . Infested bulbs have to be destroyed ; where infestation is heavy avoiding planting further narcissi for another five years . Other nematodes include Aphelenchoides subtenuis which penetrates the roots causing basal plate disease and Pratylenchus penetrans ( lesion nematode ) the main cause of root rot in narcissi . Other nematodes such as the longodorids ( Longidorus spp. or needle nematodes and Xiphinema spp. or dagger nematodes ) and the stubby @-@ root nematodes or trichodorids ( Paratrichodorus spp. and Trichodorus spp . ) can also act as vectors of virus diseases , such as TBRV and TomRSV , in addition to causing stunting of the roots .
Gastropods such as snails and slugs also cause damage to growth .
= = Conservation = =
Many of the smallest species have become extinct , requiring vigilance in the conservation of the wild species . Narcissi are increasingly under threat by over @-@ collection and threats to their natural habitats by urban development and tourism . N. cyclamineus has been considered to be either extinct or exceedingly rare but is not currently considered endangered , and is protected . The IUCN Red List describes five species as ' Endangered ' ( Narcissus alcaracensis , Narcissus bujei , Narcissus longispathus , Narcissus nevadensis , Narcissus radinganorum ) . In 1999 three species were considered endangered , five as vulnerable and six as rare .
In response a number of species have been granted protected species status and protected areas ( meadows ) have been established such as the Negraşi Daffodil Meadow in Romania , or Kempley Daffodil Meadow in the UK . These areas often host daffodil festivals in the spring .
= = Cultivation = =
= = = History = = =
Magna cura non indigent Narcissi
Most easy of cultivation is the Narcissus
Of all the flowering plants , the bulbous have been the most popular for cultivation . Of these , narcissi are one of the most important spring flowering bulb plants in the world . Indigenous in Europe , the wild populations of the parent species had been known since antiquity . Narcissi have been cultivated from at least as early as the sixteenth century in the Netherlands , when large numbers of bulbs where imported from the field , particularly Narcissus hispanicus which soon became nearly extinct in its native habitat of France and Spain , though still found in the southern part of that country . The only large scale production at that time related to the double narcissus ' Van Sion ' and cultivars of N. tazetta imported in 1557 .
Cultivation is also documented in Britain at this time , although contemporary accounts show it was well known as a favourite garden and wild flower long before that and was used in making garlands . This was a period when the development of exotic formal gardens and parks was becoming popular , particularly in what is known as the ' Oriental Period ' ( 1560 – 1620 ) . In his Hortus Medicus ( 1588 ) , the first catalogue of a German garden 's plants , Joachim Camerarius the Younger states that nine different types of daffodils were represented in his garden in Nuremberg . After his death in 1598 , his plants were moved by Basilius Besler to the gardens they had designed at Willibaldsburg , the bishop 's palace at Eichstätt , Upper Bavaria . That garden is described in Besler 's Hortus Eystettensis ( 1613 ) by which time there were 43 different types present . Another German source at this time was Peter Lauremberg who gives an account of the species known to him and their cultivation in his Apparatus plantarius : de plantis bulbosis et de plantis tuberosis ( 1632 ) .
While Shakespeare 's daffodil is the wild or true English daffodil ( N. pseudonarcissus ) , many other species were introduced , some of which escaped and naturalised , particularly N. biflorus ( a hybrid ) in Devon and the west of England . Gerard , in his extensive discussion of daffodils , both wild and cultivated ( " bastard daffodils " ) described twenty four species in London gardens ( 1597 ) , ( " we have them all and every one of them in our London gardens , in great abundance " , p . 114 ) .
In the early seventeenth century , Parkinson helped to ensure the popularity of the daffodil as a cultivated plant by describing a hundred different varieties in his Paradisus Terrestris ( 1629 ) , and introducing the great double yellow Spanish daffodil ( Pseudonarcissus aureus Hispanicus flore pleno or Parkinson 's Daffodil , see illustration ) to England .
I thinke none ever had this kind before myselfe nor did I myself ever see it before the year 1618 for it is of mine own raising and flowering first in my own garden
Although not achieving the sensationalism of tulips , daffodils and narcissi have been much celebrated in art and literature ( see The Arts ) . The largest demand for narcissi bulbs were large trumpet daffodils , N. poeticus and N. bulbocodium , and Istanbul became important in the shipping of bulbs to western Europe . By the early baroque period both tulips and narcissi were an important component of the spring garden . By 1739 a Dutch nursery catalogue listed 50 different varieties . A catalog of a Dutch nursery from 1739 already counted 50 varieties . In 1757 Hill gave an account of the history and cultivation of the daffodil in his edited version of the works of Thomas Hale , writing " The garden does not afford , in its Kind , a prettier plant than this ; nor do we know one that has been so early , or so honorably mention 'd by all Kinds of Writers " ( see illustration ) . Interest grew further when varieties that could be grown indoors became available , primarily the bunch flowered ( multiple flower heads ) N. tazetta ( Polyanthus Narcissus ) . However interest varied by country . Maddock ( 1792 ) does not include narcissi in his list of the eight most important cultivated flowering plants in England , whereas in the Netherlands van Kampen ( 1760 ) stated that N. tazetta ( Narcisse à bouquet ) is the fifth most important – " Le Narcisse à bouquet est la premiere fleur , après les Jacinthes , les Tulipes les Renoncules , et les Anemones , ( dont nous avons déja parlé , ) qui merite nôtre attention " . Similarly Philip Miller , in his Gardeners Dictionary ( 1731 – 1768 ) refers to cultivation in Holland , Flanders and France , but not England , because it was too difficult , a similar observation was made by Sir James Justice at this time . However , for most species of Narcissus Lauremberg 's dictum Magna cura non indigent Narcissi was much cited .
Narcissi became an important horticultural crop in Western Europe in the latter part of the nineteenth century , beginning in England between 1835 and 1855 and the end of the century in the Netherlands . By the beginning of the twentieth century 50 million bulbs of N. Tazetta ' Paperwhite ' were being exported annually from the Netherlands to the United States . With the production of triploids such as ' Golden Spur ' , in the late nineteenth century , and in the beginning of the twentieth century , tetraploids like ' King Alfred ' ( 1899 ) , the industry was well established , with trumpet daffodils dominating the market . The Royal Horticultural Society has been an important factor in promoting narcissi , holding the first Daffodil Conference in 1884 , while the Daffodil Society , the first organisation dedicated to the cultivation of narcissi was founded in Birmingham in 1898 . Other countries followed and the American Daffodil Society which was founded in 1954 publishes The Daffodil Journal quarterly , a leading trade publication .
Narcissi are now popular as ornamental plants for gardens , parks and as cut flowers , providing colour from the end of winter to the beginning of summer in temperate regions . They are one of the most popular spring flowers and one of the major ornamental spring flowering bulb crops , being produced both for their bulbs and cut flowers , though cultivation of private and public spaces is greater than the area of commercial production . Over a century of breeding has resulted in thousands of varieties and cultivars being available from both general and specialist suppliers . They are normally sold as dry bulbs to be planted in late summer and autumn . They are one of the most economically important ornamental plants . Plant breeders have developed some daffodils with double , triple , or ambiguously multiple rows and layers of segments . Many of the breeding programs have concentrated on the corona ( trumpet or cup ) , in terms of its length , shape , and colour , and the surrounding perianth or even as in varieties derived from N. poeticus a very reduced form .
= = = Narcissi as garden plants = = =
While some wild narcissi are specific in terms of their ecological requirements , most garden varieties are relatively tolerant of soil conditions , however very wet soils and clay soils may benefit from the addition of sand to improve drainage . The optimum soil is a neutral to slightly acid pH of 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 0 .
Bulbs offered for sale are referred to as either ' round ' or ' double nose ' . Round bulbs are circular in cross section and produce a single flower stem , while double nose bulbs have more than one bulb stem attached at the base and produce two or more flower stems , but bulbs with more than two stems are unusual . Planted narcissi bulbs produce daughter bulbs in the axil of the bulb scales , leading to the dying off of the exterior scales . To prevent planted bulbs forming more and more small bulbs , they can be dug up every 5 – 7 years , and the daughters separated and replanted separately , provided that a piece of the basal plate , where the rootlets are formed , is preserved . For daffodils to flower at the end of the winter or early spring , bulbs are planted in autumn ( September – November ) . This plant does well in ordinary soil but flourishes best in rich soil . Daffodils like the sun but also accepts partial shade exposure .
Narcissi are well suited for planting under small thickets of trees , where they can be grouped as 6 – 12 bulbs . They also grow well in perennial borders , especially in association with day lilies which begin to form their leaves as the narcissi flowers are fading . A number of wild species and hybrids such as ' Dutch Master ' , ' Golden Harvest ' , ' Carlton ' , ' Kings Court ' and ' Yellow Sun ' naturalise well in lawns , but it is important not to mow the lawn till the leaves start to fade , since they are essential for nourishing the bulb for the next flowering season . Blue Scilla and Muscari which also naturalise well in lawns and flower at the same time as narcissus , make an attractive contrast to the yellow flowers of the latter . Unlike Tulips , narcissi bulbs are not attractive to rodents and are sometimes planted near tree roots in orchards to protect them .
When flower heads have died , removing ( deadheading ) them will allow more energy to build up the bulbs and strengthen the following years ' display .
= = = Propagation = = =
The commonest form of commercial propagation is by twin @-@ scaling , in which the bulbs are cut into many small pieces but with two scales still connected by a small fragment of the basal plate . The fragments are disinfected and placed on nutrient media . Some 25 – 35 new plants can be produced from a single bulb after four years . Micropropagation methods are not used for commercial production but is used for establishing commercial stock .
= = = Breeding = = =
For commercial use , varieties with a minimum stem length of 30 cm are sought , making them ideal for cut flowers . Florists require blooms that only open when they reach the retail outlet . For garden plants the objectives are to continually expand the colour palette and to produce hardy forms , and there is a particular demand for miniature varieties . The cultivars so produced tend to be larger and more robust than the wild types . The main species used in breeding are N. bulbocodium , N. cyclamineus , N. jonquilla , N. poeticus , N. pseudonarcissus , N. serotinus and N. tazetta .
N. pseudonarcissus gave rise to trumpet cultivars with coloured tepals and corona , while its subspecies N. pseudonarcissus subsp. bicolor was used for white tepaled varieties . To produce large cupped varieties , N. pseudonarcissus was crossed with N. poeticus , and to produce small cupped varieties back crossed with N. poeticus . Multiheaded varieties , often called ' Poetaz ' are mainly hybrids of N. poeticus and N. tazetta .
= = = Classification = = =
For horticultural purposes , all Narcissus cultivars are split into 13 divisions as first described by Kington ( 1998 ) , for the Royal Horticultural Society ( RHS ) , based partly upon flower form ( shape and length of corona ) , number of flowers per stem , flowering period and partly upon genetic background . The classification is a useful tool for planning planting . Most commercially available narcissi come from Divisions 1 ( Trumpet ) , 2 ( Large cupped ) and 8 ( Tazetta ) . Division 13 which includes the wild daffodil is the exception to this scheme .
Growers register new daffodil cultivars by name and color with the Royal Horticultural Society , which is the international registration authority for the genus . Their International Daffodil Register is regularly updated with supplements available online and is searchable . The most recent supplement ( 2014 ) is the sixth ( the fifth was published in 2012 ) . More than 27 @,@ 000 names were registered as of 2008 , and the number has continued to grow . Registered daffodils are given a division number and colour code such as 5 W @-@ W ( ' Thalia ' ) . In horticultural usage it is common to also find an unofficial Division 14 : Miniatures , which although drawn from the other 13 divisions , have their miniature size in common . Over 140 varieties have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit ( See List of Award of Garden Merit narcissus ) .
= = = = Colour code = = = =
Daffodil breeding has introduced a wide range of colours , in both the outer perianth tepal segment and the inner corona . In the registry , daffodils are coded by the colours of each of these two parts . Thus ' Geranium ' , Tazetta ( Division 8 ) as illustrated here with a white outer perianth and orange corona is classified as 8 W @-@ O.
= = Toxicity = =
= = = Pharmacology = = =
All Narcissus species contain the alkaloid poison lycorine , mostly in the bulb but also in the leaves . Members of the monocot subfamily Amaryllidoideae present a unique type of alkaloids , the norbelladine alkaloids , which are 4 @-@ methylcatechol derivatives combined with tyrosine . They are responsible for the poisonous properties of a number of the species . Over 200 different chemical structures of these compounds are known , of which 79 or more are known from Narcissus alone .
The toxic effects of ingesting Narcissus products for both man and animals ( such as cattle , goats , pigs and cats ) have long been recognised and they have been used in suicide attempts . Ingestion of N. pseudonarcissus or N. jonquilla is followed by salivation , acute abdominal pains , nausea , vomiting , and diarrhea , then neurological and cardiac events , including trembling , convulsions , and paralysis . Death may result if large quantities are consumed .
The toxicity of Narcissus varies with species , N. poeticus being more toxic than N. pseudonarcissus , for instance . The distribution of toxins within the plant also varies , for instance there is a five times higher concentration of alkaloid in the stem of N. papyraceus than in the bulb , making it dangerous to herbivores more likely to consume the stem than the bulb , and is part of the plant 's defence mechanisms . The distribution of alkaloids within tissues may also reflect defence against parasites . The bulbs can also be toxic to other nearby plants , including roses , rice , and cabbages , inhibiting growth . For instance placing cut flowers in a vase alongside other flowers shortens the life of the latter .
= = = Poisoning = = =
Many cases of poisoning or death have occurred when narcissi bulbs have been mistaken for leeks or onions and cooked and eaten . Recovery is usually complete in a few hours without any specific intervention . In more severe cases involving ingestion of large quantities of bulbs activated charcoal , salts , and laxatives may be required , and for severe symptoms intravenous atropine and emetics or stomach pumping may be indicated . However , ingestion of large quantities accidentally is unusual because of a strong unpleasant taste . When narcissi were compared with a number of other plants not normally consumed by animals , narcissi were the most repellant , specifically N. pseudonarcissus Consequently , narcissus alkaloids have been used as repellents and may also discourage fungi , molds , and bacteria .
On 1 May 2009 a number of schoolchildren fell ill at Gorseland Primary School in Martlesham Heath , Suffolk , England , after a daffodil bulb was added to soup during a cookery class .
= = = Topical effects = = =
One of the most common dermatitis problems for flower pickers , packers , florists and gardeners , " daffodil itch " , involves dryness , fissures , scaling , and erythema in the hands , often accompanied by subungual hyperkeratosis ( thickening of the skin beneath the nails ) . It is blamed on exposure to calcium oxalate , chelidonic acid or alkaloids such as lycorine in the sap , either due to a direct irritant effect or an allergic reaction . It has long been recognised that some cultivars provoke dermatitis more readily than others . N. pseudonarcissus and the cultivars ' Actaea ' , ' Camparelle ' , ' Gloriosa ' , ' Grande Monarque ' , ' Ornatus ' , ' Princeps ' and ' Scilly White ' are known to do so .
If bulb extracts come into contact with wounds , both central nervous system and cardiac symptoms may result . The scent can also cause toxic reactions such as headaches and vomiting from N. bulbocodium .
= = Uses = =
= = = Traditional medicine = = =
Despite the lethal potential of Narcissus alkaloids , they have been used for centuries as traditional medicines for a variety of complaints , including cancer . Plants thought to be N. poeticus and N. tazetta are described in the Bible in the treatment for what is thought to be cancer . In the Classical Greek world Hippocrates ( ca . B.C. 460 – 370 ) recommended a pessary prepared from narcissus oil for uterine tumors , a practice continued by Pedanius Dioscorides ( ca . A.D. 40 – 90 ) and Soranus of Ephesus ( A.D. 98 – 138 ) in the first and second centuries A.D. , while the Roman Pliny the Elder ( A.D. 23 – 79 ) , advocated topical use . The bulbs of N. poeticus contain the antineoplastic agent narciclasine . This usage is also found in later Arabian , North African , Central American and Chinese medicine during the Middle Ages . In China N. tazetta var. chinensis was grown as an ornamental plant but the bulbs were applied topically to tumors in traditional folk medicine . These bulbs contain pretazettine , an active antitumor compound .
Narcissus products have received a variety of other uses . The Roman physician Aulus Cornelius Celsus listed narcissus root in De Medicina among medical herbs , described as emollient , erodent , and " powerful to disperse whatever has collected in any part of the body " . N. tazetta bulbs were used in Turkey as a remedy for abscesses in the belief they were antiphlogistic and analgesic . Other uses include the application to wounds , strains , painful joints and various local ailments as an ointment called ‘ Narcissimum ’ . Powdered flowers have also been used medically , as an emetic , a decongestant and for the relief of dysentery , in the form of a syrup or infusion . The French used the flowers as an antispasmodic , the Arabs the oil for baldness and also an aphrodisiac . In the eighteenth century the Irish herbal of John K ’ Eogh recommended pounding the roots in honey for use on burns , bruises , dislocations and freckles , and for drawing out thorns and splinters . N. tazetta bulbs have also been used for contraception , while the flowers have been recommended for hysteria and epilepsy . A homeopathic medicine made from bulbs was prescribed for bronchitis and whooping cough . In the traditional Japanese medicine of kampo , wounds were treated with narcissus root and wheat flour paste ; the plant , however , does not appear in the modern kampo herb list .
There is also a long history of the use of Narcissus as a stimulant and to induce trance like states and hallucinations . Sophocles referred to the narcissus as the ‘ Chaplet of the infernal Gods ’ , a statement frequently wrongly attributed to Socrates ( see Antiquity ) .
= = = Biological properties = = =
Extracts of Narcissus have demonstrated a number of potentially useful biological properties including antiviral , prophage induction , antibacterial , antifungal , antimalarial , insecticidal , cytotoxic , antitumor , antimitotic , antiplatelet , hypotensive , emetic , acetylcholine esterase inhibitory , antifertility , antinociceptive , chronotropic , pheromone , plant growth inhibitor , and allelopathic . An ethanol extract of Narcissus bulbs was found effective in one mouse model of nociception , para @-@ benzoquinone induced abdominal constriction , but not in another , the hot plate test . Most of these properties are due to alkaloids , but some are also due to mannosa @-@ binding lectins . The most @-@ studied alkaloids in this group are galantamine ( galanthamine ) , lycorine , narciclasine , and pretazettine .
It is likely that the traditional use of narcissi for the treatment of cancer was due to the presence of isocarbostyril constituents such as narciclasine , pancratistatin and their congeners . N. poeticus contains about 0.12g of narciclasine per kg of fresh bulbs .
Acetylcholine esterase inhibition has attracted the most interest as a possible therapeutic intervention , with activity varying by a thousandfold between species , and the greatest activity seen in those that contain galantamine or epinorgalanthamine .
The rodent repellant properties of Narcissus alkaloids have been utilised in horticulture to protect more vulnerable bulbs .
= = = Therapeutics = = =
Of all the alkaloids , only galantamine has made it to therapeutic use in man , as the drug galantamine for Alzheimer 's disease . Galantamine is an acetylcholine esterase inhibitor which crosses the blood brain barrier and is active within the central nervous system . Daffodils are grown commercially near Brecon in Powys , Wales , to produce galantamine , a drug used to combat Alzheimer 's disease .
= = = Commercial uses = = =
Throughout history the scent of narcissi has been an important ingredient of perfumes , a quality that comes from essential oils rather than alkaloids . Narcissi are also an important horticultural crop , and source of cut flowers ( floriculture ) .
The Netherlands , which is the most important source of flower bulbs worldwide is also a major centre of narcissus production . Of 16 @,@ 700 hectares ( ha ) under cultivation for flower bulbs , narcissi account for about 1 @,@ 800 hectares . In the 1990s narcissus bulb production was at 260 million , sixth in size after tulips , gladioli , irises , crocuses and lilies and in 2012 it was ranked third . About two thirds of the area under cultivation is dedicated to about 20 of the most popular varieties . In the 2009 / 2010 season 470 cultivars were produced on 1578 ha . By far the largest area cultivated is for the miniature ' Tête @-@ à @-@ Tête ' , followed at some distance by ' Carlton ' . The largest production cultivars are shown in Table II ;
'Carlton ' and ' Ice Follies ' ( Division 2 : Large cup ) have a long history of cultivation , together with ' Dutch Master ' and ' Golden Harvest ' ( 1 : yellow ) . ' Carlton ' and ' Golden Harvest ' were introduced in 1927 , and ' Ice Follies ' in 1953 . ' Carlton ' , with over 9000 million bulbs ( 350 000 tons ) , is one of the larger individual plants produced in the world . The other major areas of production are the United States , Israel which exported 25 million N. tazetta cultivar bulbs in 2003 , and the United Kingdom .
In the United Kingdom a total of 4100 ha were planted with bulbs , of which 3800 ha were Narcissi , the UK 's most important bulb crop , much of which is for export , making this the largest global production centre , about half of the total production area . While some of the production is for forcing , most is for dry bulb production . Bulb production and forcing occurs in the East , while production in the south west is mainly for outdoor flower production . The farm gate value was estimated at £ 10m in 2007 .
Production of both bulbs and cut flowers takes place in open fields in beds or ridges , often in the same field , allowing adaptation to changing market conditions . Narcissi grow best in mild maritime climates . Compared to the United Kingdom , the harsher winters in the Netherlands require covering the fields with straw for protection . Areas with higher rainfall and temperatures are more susceptible to diseases that attack the crops. production is based on a 1 ( UK ) or 2 ( Netherlands ) year cycle . Optimal soil pH is 6 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 5 . Prior to planting disinfection by hot water takes place , such as immersion at 44 @.@ 4 ° C for three hours .
Bulbs are harvested for market in the summer , sorted , stored for 2 – 3 weeks , and then further disinfected by a hot ( 43 @.@ 5 ° C ) bath . This eliminates infestations by narcissus fly and nematodes . The bulbs are then dried at a high temperature , and then stored at 15 @.@ 5 ° C. The initiation of new flower development in the bulb takes place in late spring before the bulbs are lifted , and is completed by mid summer while the bulbs are in storage . The optimal temperature for initiation is 20 ° C followed by cooling to 13 ° C.
Traditionally , sales took place in the daffodil fields prior to harvesting the bulbs , but today sales are handled by Marketing Boards although still before harvesting . In the Netherlands there are special exhibition gardens for major buyers to view flowers and order bulbs , some larger ones may have more than a thousand narcissus varieties on display . While individuals can visit these gardens they cannot buy bulbs at retail , which are only available at wholesale , usually at a minimum of several hundredweight . The most famous display is at Keukenhof , although only about 100 narcissus varieties are on display there .
= = = = Forcing = = = =
There is also a market for forced blooms , both as cut flowers and potted flowers through the winter from Christmas to Easter , the long season requiring special preparation by growers .
Cut flowers
For cut flowers , bulbs larger than 12 cm in size are preferred . To bloom in December , bulbs are harvested in June to July , dried , stored for four days at 34 ° C , two weeks at 30 and two weeks at 17 – 20 ° C and then placed in cold storage for precooling at 9 degrees for about 15 – 16 weeks . The bulbs are then planted in light compost in crates in a greenhouse for forcing at 13 ° C – 15 ° C and the blooms appear in 19 – 30 days .
Potted flowers
For potted flowers a lower temperature is used for precooling ( 5 ° C for 15 weeks ) , followed by 16 ° C – 18 ° C in a greenhouse . For later blooming ( mid- and late @-@ forcing ) , bulbs are harvested in July to August and the higher temperatures are omitted , being stored a 17 – 20 ° C after harvesting and placed in cold storage at 9 ° C in September for 17 – 18 ( cut flowers ) or 14 – 16 ( potted flowers ) weeks . The bulbs can then be planted in cold frames , and then forced in a greenhouse according to requirements .
Narcissus tazetta
N. tazetta and its cultivars are an exception to this rule , requiring no cold period . Often harvested in October , bulbs are lifted in May and dried and heated to 30 ° C for three weeks , then stored at 25 ° C for 12 weeks and planted . Flowering can be delayed by storing at 5 ° C – 10 ° C.
= = Culture = =
= = = Symbols = = =
The daffodil is the national flower of Wales , associated with Saint David 's Day ( March 1 ) . The narcissus is also a national flower symbolising the new year or Newroz in the Iranian culture .
In the West the narcissus is perceived as a symbol of vanity , in the East as a symbol of wealth and good fortune ( see Eastern cultures ) , while in Persian literature , the narcissus is a symbol of beautiful eyes .
In western countries the daffodil is also associated with spring festivals such as Lent and its successor Easter . In Germany the wild narcissus , N. pseudonarcissus , is known as the Osterglocke or " Easter bell . " In the United Kingdom the daffodil is sometimes referred to as the Lenten lily .
Although prized as an ornamental flower , some people consider narcissi unlucky , because they hang their heads implying misfortune . White narcissi are especially associated with death , such as N triandrus ' Thalia ' , and have been called grave flowers . In Ancient Greece narcissi were planted near tombs and Robert Herrick , describes them as portents of death , an association which also appears in the myth of Persephone and the underworld ( see The Arts , below ) .
= = = The Arts = = =
= = = = Antiquity = = = =
The decorative use of narcissi dates as far back as ancient Egyptian tombs , and frescoes at Pompeii . They are mentioned in the King James Version of the Bible as the Rose of Sharon and make frequent appearances in classical literature .
= = = = = Greek culture = = = = =
The narcissus appears in two Graeco @-@ Roman myths , that of the youth Narcissus who was turned into the flower of that name , and of the Goddess Persephone snatched into the Underworld by the god Hades while picking the flowers . The narcissus is considered sacred to both Hades and Persephone , and to grow along the banks of the river Styx in the underworld .
The Greek poet Stasinos mentioned them in the Cypria amongst the flowers of Cyprus . The legend of Persephone comes to us mainly in the seventh century BC Homeric Hymn To Demeter , where the author describes the narcissus , and its role as a lure to trap the young Persephone . The flower , she recounts to her mother was the last flower she reached for before being seized .
Other Greek authors making reference to the narcissus include Sophocles and Plutarch . Sophocles , in Oedipus at Colonus utilises narcissus in a symbolic manner , implying fertility , allying it with the cults of Demeter and her daughter Kore ( Persephone ) , and by extension , a symbol of death . Jebb comments that it is the flower of imminent death with its fragrance being narcotic , emphasised by its pale white colour . Just as Persephone reaching for the flower heralded her doom , the youth Narcissus gazing at his own reflection portended his own death . Plutarch refers to this in his Symposiacs as numbing the nerves causing a heaviness in the limbs . He refers to Sophocles ' " crown of the great Goddesses " , which is the source of the English phrase " Chaplet of the infernal Gods " incorrectly attributed to Socrates .
A passage by Moschus , describes fragrant narcissi . Homer in his Odyssey described the underworld as having Elysian meadows carpeted with flowers , thought to be narcissus , as described by Theophrastus . A similar account is provided by Lucian describing the flowers in the underworld . The myth of the youth Narcissus is also taken up by Pausanias . He believed that the myth of Persephone long antedated that of Narcissus , and hence discounts the idea the flower was named after the youth .
= = = = = Roman culture = = = = =
Virgil , the first known Roman writer to refer to the narcissus , does so in several places , for instance twice in the Georgics . Virgil refers to the cup shaped corona of the narcissus flower , allegedly containing the tears of the self @-@ loving youth Narcissus . Milton makes a similar analogy " And Daffodillies fill their Cups with Tears " . Virgil also mentions narcissi three times in the Eclogues .
The poet Ovid also dealt with the mythology of the narcissus . In his Metamorphoses , he recounts the story of the youth Narcissus who , after his death , is turned into the flower , and it is also mentioned in Book 5 of his poem Fasti . This theme of metamorphosis was broader than just Narcissus ; for instance see crocus , laurel and hyacinth .
= = = = Western culture = = = =
Although there is no clear evidence that the flower 's name derives directly from the Greek myth , this link between the flower and the myth became firmly part of western culture . The narcissus or daffodil is the most loved of all English plants , and appears frequently in English literature . Many English writers have referred to the cultural and symbolic importance of Narcissus ) . No flower has received more poetic description except the rose and the lily , with poems by authors from John Gower , Shakespeare , Milton ( see Roman culture , above ) , Wordsworth , Shelley and Keats . Frequently the poems deal with self @-@ love derived from Ovid 's account . Gower 's reference to the yellow flower of the legend has been assumed to be the daffodil or Narcissus , though as with all references in the older literature to the flower that sprang from the youth 's death , there is room for some debate as to the exact species of flower indicated , some preferring Crocus . Spenser announces the coming of the Daffodil in Aprill of his Shepheardes Calender ( 1579 ) .
Shakespeare , who frequently uses flower imagery , refers to daffodils twice in The Winter 's Tale and also The Two Noble Kinsmen . Robert Herrick alludes to their association with death in a number of poems . Amongst the English romantic movement writers none is better known than William Wordsworth 's short 1804 poem I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud which has become linked in the popular mind with the daffodils that form its main image . Wordsworth also included the daffodil in other poems . Yet the description given of daffodils by his sister , Dorothy is just as poetic , if not more so , just that her poetry was prose and appears almost an unconscious imitation of the first section of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter ( see Greek culture , above ) . Amongst their contemporaries , Keats refers to daffodils amongst those things capable of bringing ' joy for ever ' .
More recently A. E. Housman , using one of the daffodil 's more symbolic names ( see Symbols ) , wrote The Lent Lily in A Shropshire Lad , describing the traditional Easter death of the daffodil .
In Black Narcissus , Rumer Godden describes the disorientation of English nuns in the Indian Himalayas , and gives the plant name an unexpected twist , alluding both to narcissism and the effect of the perfume Narcisse Noir ( Caron ) on others . The novel was later adapted into the 1947 British film of the same name . The narcissus also appears in German literature such as that of Paul Gerhardt .
In the visual arts , narcissi are depicted in three different contexts , mythological ( Narcissus , Persephone ) , floral art , or landscapes . The Narcissus story has been popular with painters and the youth is frequently depicted with flowers to indicate this association . The Persephone theme is also typified by Waterhouse in his Narcissus , the floral motif by van Scorel and the landscape by Van Gogh 's Undergrowth .
Narcissi first started to appear in western art in the late middle ages , in panel paintings , particularly those depicting crucifixion . For instance that of the Westfälischer Meister in Köln in the Wallraf @-@ Richartz @-@ Museum , Cologne , where daffodils symbolise not only death but also hope in the resurrection , because they are perennial and bloom at Easter .
= = = = Eastern cultures = = = =
In Chinese culture Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis ( Chinese sacred lilies ) , which can be grown indoors , is widely used as an ornamental plant . It was probably introduced to China by Arab traders travelling the Silk Road prior to the Song Dynasty for medicinal use . Spring @-@ flowering , they became associated with Chinese New Year , signifying good fortune , prosperity and good luck and there are many legends in Chinese culture associated with Narcissus . In contrast to the West , narcissi have not played a significant part in Chinese Garden art , however , Zhao Mengjian in the Southern Song Dynasty was noted for his portrayal of narcissi . Narcissus bulb carving and cultivation has become an art akin to Japanese bonsai The Japanese novel Narcissu contains many references to the narcissus , where the main characters set out for the famed narcissus fields on Awaji Island .
= = = = Islamic culture = = = =
Narcissi are one of the most popular garden plants in Islamic culture . Prior to the Arab conquest of Persia , the Persian ruler Khosrau I is said to have not been able to tolerate them at feasts because they reminded him of eyes , an association that persists to this day , as described by the poet Ghalib . The eye imagery is also found in a number of poems by Abu Nuwas . Another poet who refers to narcissi , is Rumi . Even the prophet Mohammed is said to have praised the narcissus .
= = = Popular culture = = =
The word " daffodil " has been used widely in popular culture , from Dutch cars ( DAF Daffodil ) to Swedish rock bands ( The Daffodils ) to slurs against homosexuals and cross @-@ dressers ( as in the film J. Edgar , when Hoover 's mother explains why real @-@ life cross @-@ dresser Barton Pinkus was called " Daffy " ( short for " Daffodil " and the equivalent of a pansy ) , and admonishes , " I 'd rather have a dead son than a daffodil for a son " .
= = = Festivals = = =
In some areas where narcissi are prevalent , their blooming in spring is celebrated in festivals . For instance , the slopes around Montreux , Switzerland and its associated riviera come alive with blooms each May ( May Snow ) at the annual Narcissi Festival . Festivals are also held in many other countries .
= = = Cancer = = =
Various cancer charities around the world , such as the American Cancer Society , and Marie Curie in the UK use the daffodil as a fundraising symbol on " Daffodil Days " .
= = Wikimedia links = =
The dictionary definition of Narcissus at Wiktionary
Media related to Narcissus at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Narcissus cultivars at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Narcissus in art at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Narcissus at Wikispecies
|
= Operation Crimp =
Operation Crimp ( 8 – 14 January 1966 ) , also known as the Battle of the Ho Bo Woods , was a joint US @-@ Australian military operation during the Vietnam War , which took place 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of Cu Chi in Binh Duong Province , South Vietnam . The operation targeted a key Viet Cong headquarters that was believed to be concealed underground , and involved two brigades under the command of the US 1st Infantry Division , including the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 1 RAR ) which was attached to the US 173rd Airborne Brigade . Heavy fighting resulted in significant casualties on both sides , but the combined American and Australian force was able to uncover an extensive tunnel network covering more than 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) .
The operation was the largest allied military action mounted during the war in South Vietnam to that point , and the first fought at division level . Despite some success , the allied force was only able to partially clear the area and it remained a key communist transit and supply base throughout the war . The tunnels were later used as a staging area for the attack on Saigon during the 1968 Tet offensive before they were largely destroyed by heavy bombing from American B @-@ 52 bombers in 1970 , ending their utility .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Although the initial American commitment to the war in Vietnam had been limited to advice and materiel support , by 1964 there were 21 @,@ 000 US advisors in South Vietnam . However , with the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) weakened by successive defeats at the hands of the communists , the South Vietnamese government faltering , and Saigon threatened with a major offensive , the worsening situation led to a significant escalation of the war in 1965 , with a large @-@ scale commitment of US ground troops under the command of General William Westmoreland . At first the Americans had adopted a cautious strategy , applied to the strictly limited role of base defence by US Marine units . This was abandoned in April 1965 , and replaced by a new " enclave strategy " of defending key coastal population centres and installations . This strategy required the introduction of nine additional US battalions , or 14 @,@ 000 troops , to bring the total in Vietnam to 13 . Allied nations of the Free World Military Forces were expected to contribute another four battalions .
Westmoreland planned to develop a series of defensive positions around Saigon before expanding operations to pacify the South Vietnamese country @-@ side and as a result a number of sites close to Viet Cong dominated areas were subsequently chosen to be developed into semi @-@ permanent divisional @-@ level bases . Such areas included Di An which was intended to become the headquarters of the US 1st Infantry Division , while the US 25th Infantry Division would be based in the vicinity of Cu Chi . However , large @-@ scale military operations to clear the intended base areas had to wait until the dry season . Yet the allied enclave strategy proved only transitory and further setbacks led to additional troop increases to halt the losing trend . With the situation reaching crisis point during the Viet Cong wet season offensive in June 1965 , Westmoreland requested further reinforcement and US and allied forces increased to 44 battalions which would be used to directly bolster the ARVN .
Australia 's growing involvement in Vietnam reflected the American build up . In 1963 , the Australian government had committed a small advisory team , known as the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ( AATTV ) , to help train the South Vietnamese forces . However , in June 1965 the decision to commit ground troops was made , and the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment — originally commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Ivan ' Lou ' Brumfield — was dispatched . Supporting 1 RAR was 1 Troop , A Squadron , 4th / 19th Prince of Wales 's Light Horse equipped with M @-@ 113 Armoured Personnel Carriers , artillery from 105th Field Battery , Royal Australian Artillery and 161st Field Battery , Royal New Zealand Artillery , and 161st Reconnaissance Flight operating Cessna 180s and Bell H @-@ 13 Sioux light observation helicopters ; in total 1 @,@ 400 personnel . The Australian and New Zealand units were attached to the US 173rd Airborne Brigade under the command of Brigadier General Ellis W. Williamson in Bien Hoa and operated throughout the III Corps Tactical Zone to help establish the Bien Hoa @-@ Vung Tau enclave . Although logistics and resupply were primarily provided by the Americans , a small logistic unit — 1st Australian Logistics Company — was situated at Bien Hoa airbase . Unlike later Australian units that served in Vietnam , which included conscripts , 1 RAR was manned by regular personnel only .
Attached to US forces , 1 RAR would primarily be employed in search and destroy operations using the newly developed doctrine of airmobile operations , utilising helicopters to insert light infantry and artillery into an area of operations , and to support them with aerial mobility , fire support , casualty evacuation , and resupply . The battalion commenced operations in late June 1965 and initially focussed on defeating the Viet Cong 's wet season offensive . During this time US 173rd Brigade , including 1 RAR , conducted a number of operations into War Zone D — a major communist base area at the junction of Phuoc Long , Long Khanh , Bien Hoa and Binh Duong provinces — as well as in the Iron Triangle , formed by the confluence of the Saigon and Thi Tinh rivers and Route 7 , where they fought a number of significant actions including the Battle of Gang Toi on 8 November . Meanwhile , Brumfield was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Alex Preece , after an old football injury forced his evacuation to Australia in mid @-@ November . During the period 21 November to 16 December 1 RAR was involved in Operation New Life in the La Nga Valley , 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) north @-@ east of Bien Hoa in an attempt to deny the Viet Cong access to the rice harvest . On 24 November D Company , 1 RAR carried out a deliberate attack on the fortified village of Duc Hanh which had been occupied by the Viet Cong , killing 10 and wounding four without loss . Operation Marauder on the Plain of Reeds in the Mekong Delta was subsequently launched on New Years Day 1966 .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
Located 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) west of the Iron Triangle , the Ho Bo Woods were believed to contain the political @-@ military headquarters of the communist 4th Military Region , which controlled all Viet Cong activity around the South Vietnamese capital , Saigon . Although its precise position was unknown , it was believed to be concealed in an extensive underground bunker system . Agents ' reports , the interrogation of prisoners , and aerial surveillance all pointed to the presence of this vital communist facility . The headquarters itself was believed to be located in a 31 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 12 sq mi ) area of jungle and marshland , and to have four entrances guarded by a Viet Cong Regional Force company , while two Main Force battalions were also thought to be in the vicinity to afford additional security . Communist units detected in the Ho Bo Woods by allied intelligence included the C306 Local Force Company , 3rd Quyet Thang Battalion and 7th Cu Chi Battalion . The commander of the Cu Chi Battalion was later identified after the war as Captain Nguyen Thanh Linh . In total , local communist defensive strength was believed to include 1 @,@ 000 men .
In response , a large American ' search @-@ and @-@ destroy ' operation was launched in January 1966 , involving more the 8 @,@ 000 troops commanded by the US 1st Infantry Division under Major General Jonathan O. Seaman , including the US 3rd Infantry Brigade , 1st Infantry Division and the US 173rd Airborne Brigade , which was attached to the division for the operation ; in total six battalions plus supporting arms . Still attached to the US 173rd Airborne Brigade was the Australian battalion , 1 RAR — now commanded by Preece — with 105 Field Battery in direct support , as well as engineers from 3rd Field Troop , Royal Australian Engineers and the M113s from the Prince of Wales Light Horse . At the time it was the largest military operation mounted in South Vietnam , being the first divisional offensive to date . Preceded by a heavy aerial bombardment , the scheme of manoeuvre envisioned an airmobile assault by the US 173rd Brigade in the north and west , while the US 3rd Infantry Brigade would seal off the area to the south , in preparation for a sweep designed to push trapped communist forces eastwards against the Saigon River . 1 RAR 's role was to establish a blocking position in a village beside the river on the northern flank of the brigade 's area of operations .
In order to achieve tactical surprise , the operation was launched immediately following Operation Marauder , with the Australians and Americans redeployed by air . Prior to the assault , the 1 RAR Operations Officer , Major John Essex @-@ Clarke , conducted an aerial reconnaissance of the proposed Landing Zone — known as LZ June — on 7 January . Observing a lack of ground foliage , he was concerned about the possibility of extensive Viet Cong defensive works close to the LZ , and with the support of Williamson the landing zone was subsequently switched to a less @-@ exposed location . The original plan would have seen 1 RAR inserted directly on top of a heavily defended bunker system , and would have likely resulted in heavy casualties . Captain Sandy MacGregor , the commander of the 3rd Field Troop , was of the opinion that the " decision almost certainly saved hundreds of Australian lives . "
= = Battle = =
= = = Insertion , 8 January 1966 = = =
The battle began at 09 : 30 on 8 January with heavy American preparatory fire from artillery , as well as napalm and airstrikes from B @-@ 52 bombers which resulted in significant defoliation . Soon after the airmobile operation commenced with the first American units being inserted by helicopter to the north , west and south . The US 3rd Infantry Brigade — under the command of Colonel William Brodbeck — was subsequently inserted by helicopter and by road . The brigade headquarters and command element departed Di An in convoy and reached Trung Lap on the western boundary of the brigade 's area of operations by midday . Concurrently , two battalions were inserted by helicopter to the south @-@ west , one blocking the south side of the Ho Bo Woods while the other conducted a sweep . The Americans were in contact almost immediately , although the engagements were generally small scale , or involving snipers . Meanwhile , the brigade 's third battalion moved by road to Trung Lap and then moved on foot to its assigned search area .
In the north , 1 RAR was inserted into its new landing zone — LZ March — 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the south @-@ west . With B Company securing the site , the battalion moved on foot to the line of departure but not before they were mistakenly engaged by US helicopter gunships and artillery fire . However , after the Australians established communications , the shelling was halted and they began their advance . No sooner had the lead elements — D Company under the command of Major Ian Fisher — emerged into the cleared area that was originally to have been used as the battalion 's LZ , when the forward platoon came under fire from Viet Cong positions in the tree @-@ line on the north @-@ east corner . In the action which followed , six Australians from 12 Platoon were wounded , including platoon commander Lieutenant Jim Bourke , who was shot through the jaw but remained in command until he passed out from loss of blood . Meanwhile , two medics who attempted to move forward to treat the casualties were themselves shot and killed .
Preece moved to push his other companies around each flank of D Company , and towards the battalion 's original blocking position . Soon they were also in contact with small groups of Viet Cong from positions behind trees and in bunkers , while others popped up from spider holes and tunnel entrances ; it became apparent to the Australians that they had stumbled across a significant Viet Cong force in extensive fortifications , sufficient to hold a battalion . B Company , under the command of Major Ian McFarlane , also uncovered a small dug @-@ in hospital with simple transfusion equipment , documents and bandages . Meanwhile , the remaining battalions of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade had also been inserted . The 1st Battalion , US 503rd Infantry Regiment flew into LZ April at 12 : 00 , while US 2 / 503rd Battalion arrived at LZ May at 14 : 30 . With the insertion going largely according to plan , the brigades began their advance eastwards . Converging on the suspected location of the communist headquarters , a thorough search of the area yielded little , and it was believed that the Viet Cong had withdrawn earlier in response to the initial Australian advance .
Amid strong resistance , the Australians were made to fight their way through the maze of bunkers , punji stakes and booby traps but they were eventually able to force a Viet Cong regional force company to withdraw as they continued their advance . The area was heavily seeded with trip wires connected to shells and grenades dangling from branches , one of which blew McFarlane and several of his men off their feet . The defenders subsequently withdrew , with 7th Cu Chi Battalion forced north and 3rd Quyet Thang Battalion to the east . Suspecting they were being drawn into a trap — as one of the American battalions of the brigade had been previously during Operation Hump — the Australians moved into a tightly defended perimeter before dark and waited for the communists to counter @-@ attack . As night fell , movement was detected along a trench on the C Company perimeter when a squad of Viet Cong attempted to infiltrate the Australian position . Initially believing the movement to be another Australian patrol that had just departed on a clearing patrol , the machine @-@ gunner on sentry duty finally opened fire at the last safe moment , killing one of the infiltrators at point @-@ blank range and wounding a number of others before they withdrew .
Minor actions continued into the night , with small groups of Viet Cong able to pop up undetected and then disappear at will from within the Australian defensive position . The searching units were unable to locate Viet Cong in large numbers but experienced a significant number of sudden engagements and ambushes throughout the day , and it became clear that the communists were using tunnels for movement and concealment . Preece suspected that the area was honeycombed with tunnels and that the communist headquarters that he had been tasked to destroy was in fact located beneath the feet of the battalion . The Australians were the only battalion in the US 173rd Brigade to strike significant resistance , and by the end of the first day 1 RAR had suffered a total of three killed and 15 wounded , while the artillery Forward Observer from 105 Field Battery had also been killed . The battalion spent a sleepless night and in the early hours of the morning there were a number of short exchanges of fire as small groups of Viet Cong returned to the area . Not wanting to fire the machine @-@ guns for fear of giving their positions away or hitting friendly troops , the Australians resorted to using grenades forward of the perimeter . Meanwhile , in the US 3rd Infantry Brigade area of operations contact had been light , with only six Viet Cong killed .
= = = Tunnels of Cu Chi , 9 January 1966 = = =
The process of breaking into and exploring the communist tunnels began on 9 January , with the objective now switching to the location , clearance and destruction of the tunnel complexes . Whereas standard US Army practice was to seal , blow up or otherwise attempt to render tunnel systems unusable with smoke , tear gas and explosives before quickly moving on , the Australians spent the next few days laboriously searching and mapping the complexes they found using military engineers . Led by MacGregor , the Australian sappers from 3 Field Troop systematically tackled the tunnels , using telephone line and compasses to plot the subterranean passages . Small @-@ scale contacts between the communists and the Australians continued and MacGregor was later awarded the Military Cross for his leadership .
Originally constructed in 1945 by the Viet Minh during the fighting with the French in the First Indochina War , the tunnels at Cu Chi had taken decades to build but later had lain dormant after the war until 1960 , when they were reactivated . Since then they had endured constant bombing , all the while being expanded . By 1965 they formed an underground maze of passages , fighting tunnels , meeting rooms and food caches , stretching from Saigon to the Cambodian border . Given their headquarters function , the tunnels were equipped with an array of communications and medical facilities and were defended by interlocking arcs of fire and connecting fire tunnels . Dug into hard clay which had largely protected them from American bombing , some trenches were reported as being more 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) deep , and some tunnels as long as 460 metres ( 500 yd ) , while numerous side tunnels led from the main tunnels . In places the system was between one , two and even three levels deep . The network was so extensive that they were rumoured to be able to hold 5 @,@ 000 men , many of whom lived underground for up to six months at a time . On seeing the tunnels one American soldier described them at the time as " the New York subway " .
In the southern area of operations , the US 3rd Infantry Brigade was making slow progress , with the Viet Cong using hit @-@ and @-@ run and ambush tactics to inflict casualties on the Americans , before withdrawing into the sanctuary of their underground tunnels . On 9 January , the Americans located and destroyed a cache of medical supplies , as well as a large amount of rice and a small hospital , as well as capturing 30 Viet Cong during a series of skirmishes . To the north , while 1 RAR searched the tunnel complex the American battalions of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade continued to sweep their area of operations , with a number of friendly fire incidents complicating their task . Both the US 1 / 503rd and YS 2 / 503rd Battalions searched eastward toward the Saigon River and , although they continued to find supply caches and abandoned positions , they were involved in only minor skirmishes with the Viet Cong . Concealed in well @-@ camouflaged ambush positions however , the communists inflicted a number of casualties on the Americans . Only one Viet Cong was killed during the fighting , bringing the total for the operation to just 22 . Despite the large number of US troops involved they had experienced only limited contact to that point , and criticism of the operation consequently began to mount in the American media .
= = = Fighting intensifies , 10 – 11 January 1966 = = =
The Australians continued to explore the tunnels , finding a large quantity of documents and equipment , and by 10 January they had recovered 59 weapons , 20 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition , 100 fragmentation grenades , one 57 mm recoilless rifle , explosives , clothing and medical supplies . At least 11 Viet Cong had also been killed in the fighting . Contact also continued , and overnight the Australians killed another five Viet Cong outside their perimeter , while numerous actions occurred during the day as the US 173rd Brigade maintained its sweep . On 10 January at 09 : 00 the American cavalry from Troop E , US 17th Cavalry Regiment and the Australians from the Prince of Wales Light Horse commenced a combined search operation and fought communist snipers and small groups throughout most of the day . At 14 : 00 a number of Viet Cong dug @-@ in in trenches were encountered , and following a series of air @-@ strikes and artillery barrages , the cavalry and the Australian M113s swept the area during which several Australians were slightly injured by a misdirected US Navy air @-@ strike . Sixteen Viet Cong bodies were subsequently recovered , and another 60 were believed to have been killed but had been removed from the battlefield .
Williamson subsequently ordered the US 1 / 503rd Battalion — under the command of Lieutenant Colonel John Tyler — to change the direction of its advance . During the morning the battalion had conducted platoon @-@ sized patrols south , south @-@ west and west , locating a well @-@ constructed defensive position , including bunkers and trenches connected by tunnels . With no contact as yet made with the Viet Cong , the battalion prepared to move to a new AO in the north by 13 : 30 . During this move the battalion , and armour from Troop D , US 16th Cavalry Regiment , engaged a dug @-@ in Viet Cong Main Force company less than 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) west of the Australians . Following air @-@ strikes and heavy artillery bombardment the communists withdrew , leaving 29 dead during a sharp engagement . The US 2 / 503rd Battalion had also sent out a number of squad @-@ sized patrols during the day , but no recent signs of Viet Cong activity were found , and only minor sniper fire encountered . However , like the Australians , the American paratroopers also uncovered a large number of tunnels and other fortifications .
Meanwhile , the US 3rd Brigade continued to make slow progress and , despite reaching the banks of the Saigon River by 10 January , only a few brief glimpses of the Viet Cong had been made . A small base camp was discovered and destroyed however , while another battalion captured more than 10 tons of rice and 15 bales of cotton . The following day the Americans found and destroyed more bunkers and a number of houses and sampans , as well as quantities of supplies and food . They also uncovered a tunnel complex and a quantity of maps , charts and documents , although still little resistance was met . During these actions the Americans lost more men to booby traps than enemy fire . Advancing on a 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) front , troops from the 1st Battalion , US 28th Infantry Regiment — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Haldane — took a number of casualties from snipers , although the source of the fire was not immediately obvious . The Viet Cong attempted to avoid a set piece battle , opting instead to disperse into small groups to fight from their spider @-@ holes and tunnels and only choosing to engage the Americans at close range with small arms , which included old Russian K @-@ 44 rifles . Despite suffering a number of casualties the Americans continued to advance , calling in artillery fire . Such tactics proved largely ineffectively though and the Commanding Officer of US 2 / 28th Battalion , Lieutenant Colonel George Eyster , was himself shot and killed by a sniper during the fighting . Regardless , after receiving word of the discovery of the tunnels by US 173rd Airborne Brigade to their north , the brigade began another sweep .
The US 3rd Brigade subsequently also uncovered a significant tunnel complex , after Sergeant Stewart Green from US 1 / 28th Battalion accidentally sat down on a nail and uncovered a trap door on 11 January . Volunteering to enter the tunnel , Green then located an underground dispensary occupied by more than 30 Viet Cong who subsequently escaped . Later a smoke machine was used to pump smoke into the tunnel system , and this was successful in locating numerous tunnel entrances and bunkers as the smoke rose above the jungle canopy . They were the first American troops to enter the tunnels , and they proceeded to attack them with CS gas , and later explosives . However , such tactics met with limited success with the tear gas flushing out large numbers of women and children , but few Viet Cong . Led by Green , a squad of Americans equipped with flashlights , pistols and a field telephone penetrated over 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) of the tunnel system before becoming involved in a fire @-@ fight with the Viet Cong . Wearing gas @-@ masks the Americans threw gas grenades and fought their way back to the tunnel entrance , but one soldier became lost in the darkness and Green re @-@ entered the tunnel to find him . The Viet Cong subsequently withdrew .
Yet even as the Americans were attempting to clear the tunnels , heavy hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting broke out above ground and Haldane was later awarded the Silver Star for his actions when he rushed a bunker while under fire armed only with a pistol , in order to give first aid to a number of wounded soldiers . His courage inspired his men to complete the assault , and ultimately helped ensure the successful evacuation of the casualties and the capture of their objective . That evening the battalions of US 3rd Infantry Brigade had completed searching their assigned area of operation , and the following morning they were withdrawn from the operation . The brigade 's involvement in Crimp had been limited , losing six killed and 45 wounded , while 22 Viet Cong had been killed . It was subsequently redeployed on Operation Buckskin .
= = = Crimp continues , 12 – 13 January 1966 = = =
As they had done previously , the communists continued to attempt to infiltrate the 1 RAR perimeter during the night , and a minor clash with an Australian standing patrol occurred at dawn . Over the next two days , operations to exploit the tunnels continued , with the US 173rd Brigade and the Australians involved in a number of contacts , as well as suffering from sporadic sniper and mortar fire . Significant quantities of documents , equipment and rice were captured however , and large numbers of civilians detained for questioning . On 12 January , 1 RAR continued its patrolling program and one patrol subsequently located 15 tons of rice and destroyed it after killing six Viet Cong during a 20 @-@ minute battle . The task was complicated by the presence of a large number of civilians however , and many were found hiding in shelters and tunnels and they had to be coaxed out of hiding by the Australians and transported to a refugee camp which had been established nearby . Another patrol from 11 Platoon later uncovered a tunnel system just 50 metres ( 55 yd ) from their position , and found it to be occupied by a large Viet Cong force after a dog and its handler were sent into the tunnel to investigate . Eight Viet Cong were subsequently killed after the tunnel was destroyed by Australian engineers .
The same day , however , the Australian efforts to clear the tunnels had suffered a setback after an engineer became stuck in a trap door between one underground gallery and another , more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) below the surface . Despite the efforts of his comrades , he could not be recovered and died from asphyxiation after being overcome by a combination of tear gas , carbon monoxide , and lack of oxygen when he dislodged his respirator during the struggle to free himself . After days of living in close proximity to the enemy , the constant strain of sniper fire and the pressure of searching the tunnels was also beginning to take its toll , and a number of Australians were killed and wounded in otherwise avoidable friendly fire incidents on the evenings of 10 and 12 January . During the early afternoon of 12 January the Australians encountered a large group of armed Viet Cong during a tunnel clearance and called on them to surrender . However they failed to emerge and the tunnel was subsequently demolished , probably killing eight Viet Cong who were believed to have been entombed as it collapsed .
Meanwhile , the same day Haldane ordered US 1 / 28th Battalion to closely explore the tunnels in their area of operations , uncovering a number chambers and trapdoors defended by grenades and booby traps . A Company subsequently located another tunnel system after an American was killed by a Viet Cong soldier who suddenly appeared out of a large anthill . Later , as the 1 / 503rd continued to search its area with platoon @-@ size patrols during the afternoon of 13 January , a clash between Company C and a Viet Cong platoon developed into a heavy contact . An air @-@ strike was successfully called in by the Americans however , and a search of the area recovered 10 dead Viet Cong , while blood trails and human remains indicated that perhaps another 20 were also killed .
= = = Action concludes , 14 January 1966 = = =
Ultimately , more than 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) of tunnels had been uncovered and searched by the Australians . A large quantity of documents had been recovered , including more than 100 @,@ 000 pages detailing operational structure as well as the names of agents operating in Saigon . Ninety weapons were also captured , as well as thousands of rounds of ammunition and enough equipment , food and other supplies to fill eight 2 ½ -tonne trucks . Although the US battalions had played a large part in the operation and had also uncovered numerous tunnel systems and been involved in heavy contact , by the fortunes of war 1 RAR had been allocated the area of operations that was ultimately found to contain the Viet Cong headquarters . The Australians had even partially searched the tunnel leading to the headquarters that was their objective , but did not learn how close they had come to succeeding until decades after the war had ended . During the course of these activities the searchers had suffered a number of additional fatalities from Viet Cong snipers .
Fully exploring and destroying the tunnels was well beyond the allied resources available , and the decision was eventually made to call a halt to operations . Six days after it began , Operation Crimp ended , with 1 RAR returning to Bien Hoa on 14 January . By the time the operation was concluded only a fraction of the known tunnel network had been destroyed and it was not until after the war that it was learnt that the system at Cu Chi actually included more than 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) of tunnels . Although further American ground operations as well a number of heavy B52 bombing raids resulted in further damage to the tunnel complexes , the Ho Bo Woods were never occupied on a permanent basis and the Viet Cong were successful in restoring their transit and supply functions . As such , despite significant disruption , the military and political apparatus in Cu Chi remained largely intact , allowing the communists freedom of action for later operations against Saigon .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
During the fighting the Australians had faced stiff resistance and had suffered eight killed and 29 wounded , while claiming 27 Viet Cong killed and a further 30 probably killed . The Americans had also been involved in heavy fighting and their casualties included 14 killed and 76 wounded . Total communist casualties included 128 confirmed killed , and another 190 probably killed , as well as 92 captured and another 509 suspects detained . In addition many more Viet Cong were thought likely to have perished in the tunnels as they were collapsed by charges laid by the Australian engineers . The Americans later claimed that the headquarters of the communist 4th Military Region had also been destroyed . Due to the quantity of information recovered from the thousands of captured documents alone , the battle was later described as the first allied strategic intelligence victory of the war . So significant was the find that both Westmoreland and General Joseph McChristian , the head of Intelligence at MACV , visited 1 RAR during Operation Crimp . Allied operations against the communist tunnels had been largely ad hoc , and the Australians began to develop the earliest techniques for exploring and destroying them . Later , at least partially as a result of the success of the Australians in clearing some of the shorter tunnels , American units adopted similar tactics and created a number of tunnel @-@ clearance teams , known popularly as Tunnel Rats .
= = = Assessment = = =
Despite the losses suffered by the communists , the combined American and Australian force had only succeeded in partially clearing the area and the tunnel network it concealed , and consequently the Ho Bo Woods would remain a key communist transit and supply base throughout the war . Indeed , the bulk of the communist force had successfully withdrawn intact , leaving only rear guard elements in defence , prompting the communists to also declare the operation a victory , claiming almost 2 @,@ 000 American troops killed or wounded , 100 vehicles destroyed , and 50 aircraft shot down . Yet , such claims were based on estimates of casualties caused by command @-@ detonated mines , punji sticks and other booby traps , and proved to be wildly inaccurate . In fact Operation Crimp had rattled the communists , and they subsequently ordered their units in the south to prevent the Americans from concentrating their forces in the future . Regardless , it also highlighted the inherent weakness of the search @-@ and @-@ clear operations that would later become standard operating procedure for the US Army in Vietnam . The Ho Bo Woods were again targeted by the Americans in January 1967 , during a much larger operation known as Operation Cedar Falls . However , despite heavy casualties again being inflicted on the Viet Cong , the tunnels continued to remain a problem for the Americans and they were later used as a communist staging area for the attack on Saigon during the 1968 Tet offensive . Finally in 1970 , American B @-@ 52 bombers carried out a number of heavy air @-@ strikes on the area , dropping thousands of delayed @-@ fuse bombs that buried deep into the ground before exploding , ending the tunnels ' utility . Operation Crimp was 1 RAR 's third and last foray into the communist heartland and following the fighting they had more than two weeks rest in Bien Hoa — their longest break from operations during the battalion 's tour . Further operations followed in the months afterwards , including the Battle of Suoi Bong Trang on the night of 23 – 24 February 1966 .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
At the strategic level the ARVN and the South Vietnamese government had both rallied after appearing on the verge of collapse and the communist threat against Saigon had subsided , yet additional troop increases were required if Westmoreland was to adopt a more offensive strategy , with US troop levels planned to rise from 210 @,@ 000 in January 1966 to 327 @,@ 000 by December 1966 . The Australian government increased its own commitment to the ground war in March 1966 , announcing the deployment of a two battalion brigade — the 1st Australian Task Force — with armour , aviation , engineer and artillery support ; in total 4 @,@ 500 men . Additional Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) force elements would also be deployed and with all three services total Australian strength in Vietnam was planned to increase to 6 @,@ 300 personnel . 1 RAR was subsequently replaced by 1 ATF which was allocated its own area of operations in Phuoc Tuy Province , thereby allowing the Australians to pursue operations more independently using their own counter @-@ insurgency tactics and techniques . The task force arrived between April and June 1966 , constructing a base at Nui Dat , while logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistics Support Group which was subsequently established at the port of Vung Tau .
|
= William J. Fields =
William Jason Fields ( December 29 , 1874 – October 21 , 1954 ) was a politician from the U.S. state of Kentucky . Known as " Honest Bill from Olive Hill " , he represented Kentucky 's Ninth District in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1911 to 1923 , resigning to become the state 's 41st governor .
Discouraged by an early defeat for a seat in the state legislature , Fields took a job at a grocery store in Ashland , Kentucky that allowed him to travel the state and meet many people in his congressional district . In 1911 , he became the first Democrat elected to Congress from the Ninth District in two decades . Elected to seven consecutive terms , he rose to become the ranking member of the House Committee on Military Affairs during World War I. When Democratic gubernatorial nominee J. Campbell Cantrill died unexpectedly two months before the general election , the Democratic Central Committee chose Fields to replace Cantrill as the nominee . In a campaign that featured more name @-@ calling than substantial debate , Fields secured the backing of the powerful Jockey Club political alliance and won a landslide victory over Republican Attorney General Charles I. Dawson .
The first legislative session of Fields ' term was marked by infighting within his own party . His agenda was opposed by a Democratic faction led by former governor J. C. W. Beckham , Louisville Courier @-@ Journal publisher Robert Worth Bingham , and political boss Percy Haly . Fields ' signature issue , a $ 75 million bond issue to construct a state highway system , passed the legislature in 1924 , but the electorate refused to approve it in November of that year . Among Fields ' accomplishments as governor were an increase in the gasoline tax to help fund his highway program , a reorganization of the state 's government bureaucracy , and the preservation of Cumberland Falls from industrial development . He never united the factions of his party , however . His political enemies charged him with nepotism and abusing his pardon power , and the Democrats lost the governorship in 1927 to Republican Flem D. Sampson . Following his service as governor , Fields failed in an attempt to return to his former congressional seat . He was appointed to the State Workman 's Compensation Board by Governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler , and after his retirement from public service , he practiced law and worked as a real estate agent until his death on October 21 , 1954 .
= = Early life = =
William J. Fields was born December 29 , 1874 in Willard , Carter County , Kentucky . He was the fourth of twelve children born to Christopher C. and Alice ( Rucker ) Fields . He was educated in the local public schools , then matriculated to the University of Kentucky . After graduation , he started a real estate business in Olive Hill , Kentucky and engaged in farming . He also studied law on his own .
On October 10 , 1893 , Fields married Dora McDavid ; the couple had six children . At age 21 , he was elected constable of Carter County , but three years later , he fell short in his bid to capture a seat in state legislature . Following the loss , he took a job at a grocery store in Ashland , Kentucky that would allow him to travel the state more freely , make acquaintances , and better position himself for a run for higher office .
= = House of Representatives = =
Campaigning under the moniker " Honest Bill from Olive Hill " , Fields won a narrow victory as a Democrat to represent Kentucky 's Ninth District in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1910 . The first Democrat to hold the seat in twenty years , he was re @-@ elected for another six consecutive terms . A member of the Committee on Military Affairs , he eventually became the ranking Democrat on the committee and the ranking member of the subcommittee that controlled appropriations for U.S. operations during World War I.
In September 1923 , Democratic gubernatorial nominee J. Campbell Cantrill died , leaving the party without a candidate . Alben Barkley , who Cantrill had defeated for the nomination , refused to be the Democratic candidate , perhaps because he had already decided to run for the U.S. Senate in 1926 . The Democratic Central Committee chose Fields as a replacement for Cantrill .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
The general election campaign generated little interest and quickly degenerated into name calling . Fields ' opponent , Republican Attorney General Charles I. Dawson , mocked Fields ' traditional election slogan , calling him " Dodging Bill from Olive Hill , who answers no questions and never will " . Fields countered by referring to Dawson as " Changing Charlie " , a reference to Dawson 's one @-@ time affiliation with the Democratic Party prior to becoming a Republican . Fields secured the backing of a group of powerful political bosses , including Louisville banker James B. Brown , U.S. Senator Augustus Owsley Stanley , and Lexington power broker Billy Klair . These three were the leaders of the Jockey Club , a group dedicated to the preservation of parimutuel betting in the state , especially at racetracks . Discontent with incumbent Republican Governor Edwin P. Morrow further aided Fields ' campaign , and he defeated Dawson by a vote of 356 @,@ 035 to 306 @,@ 277 . It was one of the largest Democratic gubernatorial landslides in state history . He resigned from the House to accept the governorship .
Already lightly regarded because he was selected by the Democratic Central Committee instead of a party primary , Fields further weakened his position due to some of his personal preferences . A devout Methodist and prohibitionist , Fields prohibited both dancing and drinking at the Executive Mansion . He moved the inaugural ball from the mansion to the capitol rotunda , where dancing would be allowed , but he and his wife did not attend . Fields ' frugality also led him to keep dairy cows on the mansion 's lawn , drawing derision from urban citizens .
Fields ' 1924 address to the General Assembly included several ambitious proposals , including the founding of a trade school for blacks at Paducah , planning and developing normal schools at Murray and Morehead , raising the gasoline tax to three cents per gallon , and the issuance of $ 75 million in state bonds to finance a state highway system . A dissenting faction of the Democratic party , led by former governor J. C. W. Beckham , political boss Percy Haly , and Louisville Courier @-@ Journal publisher Robert Worth Bingham , voiced strong opposition to Fields ' proposals , especially the bond issue . They charged that Fields had the support of a dangerous " bipartisan combine " , with the Republican element of the combine led by Maurice Galvin .
Tensions between the factions were inflamed almost as soon as the 1924 legislature convened . A bill to outlaw parimutuel betting in the state passed the House of Representatives , but failed in the Senate . The next legislative battle centered on removing the head of the Board of Charities and Corrections and give the governor greater control over the board 's makeup ; this attempt also narrowly failed . When Senator Stanley , an opponent of prohibition , sought re @-@ election to the Senate in 1924 , Fields and his allies did not support him , leading to the election of Republican Frederick M. Sackett and giving the Republicans both of the state 's senate seats for the first time in history .
The signature issue of the session , however , was Fields ' request for the bond issue . He engaged in a debate with opponents of the issue that was published in Bingham 's Courier @-@ Journal as well as the Louisville Herald and Louisville Post , two papers owned by James B. Brown . Ultimately , the issue was approved by the General Assembly , which was considered a major victory for Fields . Still , the bond issue had to be approved by the state 's electorate . The Courier @-@ Journal continued the fight against the issue , while Desha Breckinridge 's Lexington Herald came out in favor of it . Fields spent ten weeks criss @-@ crossing the state speaking in favor of the bond issue , but on election day , it was rejected by a margin of 90 @,@ 000 votes .
Undaunted by the failure of the bond issue , Fields returned to the 1926 General Assembly with more proposals , including another increase in the gasoline tax to provide the funds needed to construct the state highway system . The 1926 Assembly passed more legislation than any previous legislature , including the increased gas tax and several bills to reorganize state government . The state purchasing commission and the Department of Bus Transportation were among the entities created in the reorganization . Under Fields , the state implemented the first phase of desegregation busing .
Fields opposed a plan to develop hydroelectric power generation capabilities on the Cumberland Falls . In order to prevent development , he accepted an offer from T. Coleman du Pont to purchase the property around the falls and donate it to the state . He also suggested the creation of Carter Caves State Resort Park in his home county .
Fields ' political enemies charged him with corruption and chastised him for issuing too many pardons . He also drew criticism for appointing his eldest son as state examiner , political supporter James Brown as tax commissioner , and other relatives and political supporters to low @-@ ranking positions in the state government . Although the party strongly supported Alben Barkley 's senatorial bid in 1926 , Fields and his allies refused to support 1927 gubernatorial candidate J. C. W. Beckham , and the governorship went to Republican Flem D. Sampson .
= = Later life and death = =
Following his service as governor , Fields returned to Olive Hill and was admitted to the bar in 1927 . Sensing an opportunity for a political comeback in 1930 , Fields launched a bid to regain his former seat in the U.S. House , which was now occupied by Republican Elva R. Kendall . Kendall had beaten Fields 's successor , Fred M. Vinson in the 1928 Hoover landslide , which saw nine out of eleven ( all but the two ancestrally Democratic western Kentucky ) U.S. House seats go to the Republicans .
Vinson instead chose not to stand aside for his former ally and decisively beat Fields in the August Democratic primary by a margin of 63 % to 21 % ( with a third candidate , W.C. Hamilton taking the remaining 16 % ) . Vinson successfully reclaimed his seat in the general election from Kendall .
In 1932 , Fields was elected Commonwealth 's Attorney for Kentucky 's thirty @-@ seventh judicial district ; he served until 1935 . In 1934 , Fields again challenged Congressman Vinson in the Democratic primary in the renumbered 8th district , but he lost again by a decisive margin of 68 % to 32 % . In 1936 , Governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler appointed him to the State Workmen 's Compensation Board . He served in this capacity until the election of Republican Simeon S. Willis .
Fields retired from public service on August 8 , 1944 . From 1940 to 1945 , he co @-@ owned an insurance agency . He briefly moved to Florida before returning to Olive Hill , where he continued practicing law , and farming . He died in Grayson , Kentucky on October 21 , 1954 and was buried in Olive Hill Cemetery in Olive Hill .
|
= Washington State Route 17 =
State Route 17 ( SR 17 ) is a 136 @.@ 67 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 219 @.@ 95 km ) state highway serving the Columbia Plateau in the central region of the U.S. state of Washington . The highway travels through mostly rural areas of Franklin . Adams , Grant , Douglas , and Okanogan counties and is designated as part of the National Highway System between Mesa and Moses Lake and as the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway between Othello and Coulee City for passing through the Grand Coulee . SR 17 begins in Mesa at an interchange with U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) and travels north and intersects SR 26 near Othello before entering Moses Lake , where the highway intersects Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) and travels as a partial expressway . SR 17 continues north , intersecting SR 28 in Soap Lake , through the Grand Coulee to a short concurrency with US 2 west of Coulee City . The highway turns northwest and crosses the Columbia River on the Columbia River Bridge at Bridgeport before ending at US 97 in Brewster at the southwestern edge of the Colville Indian Reservation .
SR 17 was established during the merger of three highways during the 1964 highway renumbering : Secondary State Highway 11G ( SSH 11G ) between Eltopia and Soap Lake , a branch of Primary State Highway 7 ( PSH 7 ) between Soap Lake and Coulee City , and a branch of PSH 10 between Coulee City and Brewster . The PSH 10 branch was codified in 1931 as a branch of State Road 10 and was followed by the PSH 7 branch during the creation of the primary state highway system in 1937 . The Columbia River Bridge at Bridgeport was completed in 1950 and the PSH 10 branch was re @-@ aligned onto the north side of the Columbia River the following year . SSH 11G was created in 1951 and was moved to a wider , straighter route between Moses Lake and Soap Lake in the 1960s . The highway was replaced by a limited @-@ access highway north of Moses Lake in 2007 . SR 17 between Eltopia and Mesa was replaced by US 395 in 1979 as part of a larger series of projects in the area to improve the highway in Franklin County .
= = Route description = =
SR 17 begins at a diamond interchange with US 395 southeast of Mesa in Franklin County . The highway travels northwest through Mesa , where it crosses over a BNSF rail line and runs through Esquatzel Coulee before intersecting the terminus of SR 260 west of Connell in the Paradise Flats . SR 17 travels east of Scooteney Reservoir and northwest into Adams County before interesecting SR 26 in a diamond interchange east of Othello . The highway continues north into Grant County as the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway and travels over the Columbia Basin Railroad into rural Adams County . The roadway serves as the western terminus of SR 170 and the eastern terminus of SR 262 west of Warden before continuing northwest towards Moses Lake .
SR 17 travels into the city of Moses Lake and intersects I @-@ 90 in a partial cloverleaf interchange , serving as the eastern terminus of I @-@ 90 Business and its concurrency with SR 17 . The roadway expands to four lanes and turns north at Pioneer Way , where I @-@ 90 Business leaves the concurrency and travels into Downtown Moses Lake . SR 17 heads around Moses Lake and turn northwest onto a limited @-@ access highway after an intersection with Broadway Avenue , signed as the northern terminus of SR 171 . The limited @-@ access highway intersects Stratford Road in a diamond interchange north of the city and heads northwest along Moses Lake through Moses Lake North , passing south of Grant County International Airport . SR 17 crosses Rocky Ford Creek and intersects SR 282 east of Ephrata in rural Grant County . The highway continues north and passes Ephrata Municipal Airport before it intersects SR 28 in Soap Lake .
SR 17 and the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway continue northwest through the Grand Coulee and passing several lakes , including Soap Lake , Lake Lenore and Alkali Lake . The highway turns northeast onto the west shores of Blue Lake and Park Lake , and passes the Blue Lake rest area . The roadway enters Sun Lakes State Park and passes Dry Falls at the north end of the Grand Coulee . SR 17 intersects US 2 , the continuation of the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway , west of Coulee City at the southern end of Banks Lake and begins a concurrency into Douglas County . SR 17 briefly travels west with US 2 and turns north to intersect the eastern terminus of SR 172 at Sims Corner . From Sims Corner , the roadway follows East Foster Creek northward to the western terminus of SR 174 and its spur route in Leahy .
The highway continues northwest to Bridgeport at the southern terminus of SR 173 and crossing the Columbia River on the 1 @,@ 108 @.@ 80 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 337 @.@ 96 m ) Columbia River Bridge ( also named the Bridgeport Bridge ) downstream from the Chief Joseph Dam . The steel continuous riveted deck truss bridge , listed on the National Register of Historic Places , carries SR 17 into Okanogan County and the Colville Indian Reservation , west of Bridgeport State Park . The highway continues north along the east bank of the Columbia River before passing through Fort Okanogan and ending at an intersection with US 97 east of Brewster near the confluence of the Columbia and Okanogan rivers .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of the highway was the expressway between SR 171 and Stratford Road in Moses Lake , serving an average of 19 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section of the highway was between SR 172 in Sims Corner and SR 174 in Leahy , serving an average of 570 vehicles . SR 17 between Mesa and the Moses Lake area is designated as part of the National Highway System , which includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility ; and as part of WSDOT 's Highways of Statewide Significance , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
SR 17 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering as the successor to three highways that were designated under the primary and secondary state highway system : SSH 11G from US 395 and PSH 11 in Eltopia to PSH 7 in Soap Lake , a branch of PSH 7 from Soap Lake to US 2 and PSH 2 west of Coulee City , and a branch of PSH 10 from Coulee City to US 97 and PSH 10 east of Brewster . The Coulee City – Brewster branch of PSH 10 was codified in 1931 as a branch of State Road 10 and re @-@ codified in 1937 , during the creation of the primary and secondary state highways ; however , the highway was not built between Sims Corner and Bridgeport until the 1950s . The Soap Lake – Coulee City branch of PSH 7 was established in 1937 to serve as an alternate route to SSH 2F , avoiding the Grand Coulee Dam . In 1951 , the PSH 10 branch between Bridgeport and Brewster was moved north of the Columbia River via the newly built Columbia River Bridge on the present route of SR 17 , as the old route through Bridgeport and over the Brewster Bridge became a new branch that was later signed in 1964 as SR 173 . SSH 11G was also created in 1951 , traveling north from US 395 in Eltopia through Mesa and Moses Lake to Soap Lake along existing gravel roads from the late 1930s , later straightened and widened in the 1970s .
SR 17 was originally a 144 @.@ 27 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 232 @.@ 18 km ) highway , extending south from Mesa to Eltopia when it was created in 1964 and codified in 1970 , but was shortened by 7 @.@ 60 miles ( 12 @.@ 23 km ) to its current route after US 395 was re @-@ aligned between Eltopia and Connell . The new alignment , part of improvements to SR 17 in the Mesa area in the late 1960s , was approved in 1968 and opened in late 1979 . No major revisions to the route of SR 17 have occurred since 1979 , as WSDOT has improved the sections of the highway through widening and barriers . Within Moses Lake , the two @-@ lane highway was designated to be widened to a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access highway between Pioneer Way and Stratford Road in 1997 and completed a decade later on October 8 , 2007 . The highway between SR 26 in Othello to US 2 west of Coulee City was designated as the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway under the Washington State Scenic and Recreational Highways program in 1967 and under the National Scenic Byway program on September 22 , 2005 .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Design 1047 battlecruiser =
Design 1047 , also known as Project 1047 , was a series of plans for a class of Dutch battlecruisers prior to the Second World War . The ships were intended to counter a perceived threat posed by Imperial Japanese aggression to the Dutch colonies in the East Indies . Dutch intelligence believed that the Imperial Japanese Navy would deploy its capital ships ( aircraft carriers and battleships ) against their counterparts of the United States Navy and the British Royal Navy , leaving heavy and light cruisers , along with seaplane carriers , as the largest ships available for an advance into the East Indies . As such , the 1047s were shaped by the need to be able to fight their way through a fleet composed of these ships and smaller destroyers . It was hoped that this capability would allow the battlecruisers to act as a fleet in being .
After a recommendation from high @-@ ranking Dutch naval officers that the Koninklijke Marine ( Royal Netherlands Navy ) be bolstered so any attacker would have to " use such a large part of his military potential that there would be an unacceptable weakening of his capabilities in other theaters " , the Minister of Defense ordered the Navy to prepare designs for a two or three @-@ member class of battlecruisers . As they had not previously designed a modern capital ship , and the only information available on modern designs came from public literature and editions of Jane 's Fighting Ships , the Dutch turned to Germany . This initially bore no results , as the two sides were unable to come to terms . During this time , a preliminary plan was drawn up without foreign assistance ; completed on 11 July 1939 , it was missing many of the post @-@ First World War advances in warship technology . In particular , the armor protection was totally outmoded .
Germany and the Netherlands were eventually able to reach an agreement where Germany would release plans and drawings based upon their ideas for a battlecruiser , in return for a guarantee that all needed equipment would be ordered from German firms . With their assistance ( mainly through NV Ingenieurskantoor voor Scheepsbouw ) , a rough design was formulated by February 1940 . A visit to Italy prompted a rethink of the internal layout , which led to a set of drawings dated 19 April 1940 . This is the last known design produced prior to Germany 's invasion and occupation of the Netherlands . Final plans for the ships were never completed , and the ships were never constructed .
= = Background = =
The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 marked a period of increasing belligerence from the Japanese Empire , and as the decade progressed the Dutch grew concerned about the security of their East Indies colonies . The islands , which included Java , Sumatra , Borneo and part of New Guinea , were enormously important both politically and strategically to the Dutch , who had lived and traded there for more than three centuries . Over 500 @,@ 000 settlers had moved from the Netherlands to this " second homeland " , and the East Indies possessed abundant valuable resources , the most important of which were the rubber plantations and oilfields ; the islands were the fourth @-@ largest exporters of oil in the world , behind the United States , Iran , and Romania .
The Koninklijke Marine had only one seagoing armored ship stationed in the East Indies , the coastal @-@ defense ship HNLMS Soerabaja ( ex @-@ De Zeven Provinciën ) . As this ship was considered to be " of little remaining combat value " , three light cruisers ( Java , Sumatra and De Ruyter ) , a few destroyers , and a large submarine fleet were charged with the main naval defense of the islands .
The Dutch believed that if war broke out , Japan 's capital ships would be preoccupied with the battleships of the United States Navy and the British Royal Navy , meaning that the defenses of the East Indies would need to cope only with Japan 's cruisers . However , the ships were more powerful than their Dutch equivalents and Japan would also have the advantage of numbers . It was estimated that by 1944 , should no new vessels be ordered , the five light cruisers of the Koninklijke Marine ( two of the Java class , which were laid down prior to the First World War , De Ruyter , and two of the Tromp class ) could be facing 18 heavy and 27 light Japanese cruisers .
These factors forced the Koninklijke Marine to bolster this force , and so the construction of three " super cruisers " capable of overpowering cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy was contemplated . The Washington Naval Treaty and London Naval Treaty limited new cruisers of their signatory nations to not more than a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ ton displacement and 8 @-@ inch ( 20 cm ) guns , but as a relatively minor naval power the Netherlands had not been party to the treaties and was not bound by their restrictions . According to Dutch naval intelligence , the Japanese cruisers did not participate in exercises with the main fleet of battleships and fleet carriers , instead operating with seaplane carriers , so it was assumed that the battlecruisers would not have to face overwhelming carrier @-@ based air strikes . Moreover , the presence of these powerful ships — whose larger guns could easily out @-@ range any escorting cruisers or destroyers — would give the Dutch a fleet in being in the East Indies that could delay or end plans for an amphibious assault for fear that the invasion would be disrupted or the attacking fleet destroyed .
= = Design = =
In 1938 , a number of high @-@ ranking naval officers within the Koninklijke Marine gathered to discuss possible improvements to the navy . They concluded that the Dutch should have a navy strong enough to force an enemy to " use such a large part of his military potential that there would be an unacceptable weakening of his capabilities in other theaters " . At this , and a note from the Chief of Naval Staff , the Minister of Defence J.C.C. van Dijk ordered the navy on 18 February 1939 to begin planning and estimating costs for two or possibly three battlecruisers .
Requirements for the new battlecruiser design were laid down by the navy a day before the order from van Dijk was made ; they included the ability to steam for 12 hours at 32 knots , an endurance of 4 @,@ 500 nautical miles at 20 knots , a maximum of fifteen minutes for the ship to go from 20 to 30 knots , protection for the engine room that would allow the ship to take hits in that area without being slowed , a draft not to exceed 9 meters , and capacity for six weeks ' worth of supplies . Desired weaponry was nine 280 mm guns in three triple turrets for the main armament , with each gun capable of firing independently , a dual @-@ purpose secondary armament of 120 mm guns in four twin mounts , and an anti @-@ aircraft battery of fourteen 40 mm guns in pairs with centralized fire control . Aircraft were to be two fighters and two reconnaissance aircraft . Specific values were given for each aspect of the design 's armor , which featured substantial anti @-@ torpedo and mine protection and a defense against 28 cm shells and 300 kg bombs .
= = = Preliminary designs = = =
With no prior experience in building such large ships — as 1913 plans for 24 @,@ 650 @-@ ton dreadnoughts were never brought to fruition due to the First World War — and no significant source of information on more modern vessels — the only material available being unclassified sources such as Jane 's Fighting Ships — the Dutch turned to foreign sources for technical assistance .
Although they hoped that the French would release plans for their Dunkerque class of ' fast battleships ' , they decided to focus their effort on Hitler 's Germany . Informal talks had already been held in Berlin on 24 – 25 April 1939 where the Dutch proposed that , in return for the complete plans for the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleship , they would order all of the necessary equipment for their construction program from Germany .
A draft design was completed without foreign assistance by the Construction Department on 11 July 1939 , but it did not reflect the numerous technical developments that had entered capital ship designs after the First World War . In particular , its armor scheme was utterly obsolete , as it lacked any substantial amount of deck armor or good underwater protection ; it came closer to the designs of 20 to 25 years previous than to that of a modern warship .
Despite German interest in the battlecruiser project , the two sides could not agree on terms . The German delegation insisted that orders placed in their country be guaranteed , with financial compensation to be paid to German companies if the Dutch did not construct the ships . They also refused to release a complete set of plans for the Scharnhorsts . Further complicating negotiations , the Dutch Cabinet , which would have to approve any deal , did not convene during the summer of 1939 .
While awaiting official approval , Dutch planning went ahead . A contract with Ferrostaal A.G. Essen was drawn up , and on 15 May 1939 a list of products for purchase in Germany was submitted . Two months later , talks were held in Bremen and Berlin ( on 13 and 31 July , respectively ) in which the Germans agreed to release plans and drawings that , although not specifically of the Scharnhorst @-@ class , would reveal their ideas on battlecruiser design . Delivered on 21 August of that year , these showed various modern protection schemes that could be used in the new battlecruisers . On 4 October 1939 , a German admiral previously appointed as a liaison between the two navies asserted that while Germany could not guarantee punctual delivery dates , it could assure the Netherlands that it would pressure the companies to meet the contractual dates and that the Kriegsmarine would not interfere with orders from the same companies . A month later , Ferrostaal A.G. Essen was formally appointed as the Dutch proxy in most of their dealings with Germany ; this appointment did not include Krupp Germaniawerft .
Work on armament for the new designs was contracted to Krupp Germaniawerft ; the Dutch met with the company on 31 July 1939 and supplied the characteristics for the main and secondary armament . Turret armor , main armament depression and elevation ( 10 – 45 ° , obtained through the use of hydraulics ) , and the muzzle velocity for the guns ( 850 – 900 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 – 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) ) were all specified . Requirements for the secondary armament included a maximum depression of 10 ° , a maximum elevation of 80 ° , and approximate armor values for their mounts ( 80 mm front , 150 mm roof , 50 mm sides ) . The fire control arrangement was discussed on 6 November 1939 with the Dutch company NV Hazemeyer Signaal Apparatenfabriek .
By this time the propulsion plant , which was to be built in the Netherlands , was taking shape . Requirements sent out in August 1939 mandated that the ships have eight boiler rooms , four sets of geared turbines , and 180 @,@ 000 shp . After further improvements , Nevesbu and two German firms ( Krupp Germaniawerft was responsible for the turbines and Deschimag for the boilers ) began sketching preliminary plans . These were then incorporated into two different design studies , one by Nevesbu and the other by NV Ingenieurskantoor voor Scheepsbouw ( IvS ) . IvS was purportedly a Dutch company linking Dutch and German designers , but in reality functioned as a front company for German interests . Their design was probably based upon a set of plans drawn up by the Ship Construction Office of the German Navy and received in the Netherlands on 31 August . It did not give the propulsion machinery enough space , and it was thought that this design did not provide enough room for magazines . Nevertheless , it was taken into discussions with the Dutch , where the 11 July design was merged with it . IvS came out with one further plan on 11 March 1940 , the merits of which were discussed with the Dutch in April of that year .
= = = Design studies = = =
In December 1939 the two studies produced their design proposals ; both were capable of 180 @,@ 000 shp and both had similar boiler capabilities , but the Dutch design was 199 m2 ( 2 @,@ 140 sq ft ) larger than the German . Although it had the advantage of smaller size , the Dutch were concerned that the German design 's power plant might not be capable of operating without problems ( the Kriegsmarine did indeed face plant problems during the war ) . However , questions about reliability soon became moot ; it was originally believed that around 84 m ( 276 ft ) of the ship 's length would be required for its propulsion plant , but it was discovered that no more than 72 @.@ 8 m ( 239 ft ) could be spared if the ship 's ammunition was to be behind armor — and the German design needed 74 m ( 243 ft ) , while the Dutch design needed 78 m ( 256 ft ) .
December also saw real doubts start to creep over the project , as a new Navy Minister had been appointed , and he believed that the Dutch would be better off acquiring a modern version of the old armored cruiser type . Basic characteristics were drawn up for a 29 kn ( 33 mph ; 54 km / h ) , 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 257 t ; 17 @,@ 920 short tons ) standard ship that had nine 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns , a 175 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) belt and a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck . Even though these vessels would have been superior to any 20 cm ( 8 in ) -gunned , 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ; 11 @,@ 000 short tons ) treaty cruiser , it was felt that too many compromises would be necessary . The belt and deck armor were judged inadequate , but to achieve the same protection as the battlecruiser design would mean no armament could be fitted . The smaller design also did not feature the speed advantage over opponents that the battlecruisers had . For these reasons the Navy " strongly recommended against the construction of such a ship " , and the proposal was abandoned .
The plan for three battlecruisers was authorized in February 1940 ; they , along with two light cruisers of the Eendracht class , would be responsible for the main sea defense of the East Indies . The new light cruisers would replace the older Java class , which would then assume the role of gunnery training ships from grossly obsolete ships such as the protected cruiser De Gelderland , which had been laid down more than forty years prior on 28 September 1898 . The authorization of large battlecruisers meant that a new 40 @,@ 000 @-@ ton floating dock would be built and many improvements to their planned base in the East Indies , the naval yard in Soerabaya , would begin . To handle the construction of such a ship , a new 250 m ( 820 ft ) building way was begun by the Netherlands Construction Company , Ltd ..
Germany 's refusal to give the Dutch access to plans detailing the design of the Scharnhorsts below the waterline was a major problem . Inexperienced in designing an underwater protection scheme for a ship of this size , the Dutch were forced to turn to Italy for assistance , which allowed a delegation of engineers and naval officers to enter the country in February 1940 . Although the Dutch delegation was barred from viewing technical drawings or the battleship Roma , then under construction , possibly to ensure that the details of their Pugliese system remained a secret , they were allowed to visit Vittorio Veneto , toured several shipyards , interviewed the Chief Constructor of the Italian Navy , and received additional information on the Scharnhorsts , the Italians — Germany 's ally — knowing some details of the ships .
Although the issues the Dutch designers were having with a propulsion system were discussed , the delegation came away from Italy entirely uninspired by the Italians ' efforts in that area . On the other hand , the visit provoked a drastic reworking of the internal subdivision of the proposed battlecruisers . The designers got rid of the previously required central longitudinal bulkhead and attempted to raise the double bottom to provide greater protection against magnetic torpedoes . However , due to the requirement for a shallow draft , this modification had to be abandoned .
= = = Last design = = =
When another delegation was sent to Germany to discuss the problems with the battlecruisers , the Dutch took their evolving design with them . Dated 19 April 1940 , this was the final version prior to the invasion of the Netherlands by Germany ; Design 1047 was never fully completed . The normal load displacement was now planned to be around 28 @,@ 482 tonnes ( 28 @,@ 032 long tons ) . Although the propulsion was not yet finalized , the requirements had been re @-@ examined in March 1940 to ascertain if 160 @,@ 000 shp would be enough , taking into account that a plant that would produce 180 @,@ 000 shp in tropical water would in northern regions produce ca . 200 @,@ 000 shp — warmer waters adversely affect a steam turbine 's efficiency . The updated requirements also called for eight Yarrow boilers fitted in four boiler rooms , and four Parsons geared turbines in two engine rooms , to drive four propellers at either 40 @,@ 000 or 45 @,@ 000 shp each ( 40 @,@ 000 in tropic water conditions , 45 @,@ 000 in North Sea conditions ) . Length requirements for the machinery had also been altered , once in early March and again on 20 April 1940 ; a total length of 79 @.@ 5 meters was now called for .
= = = Armament = = =
The table of characteristics provided by Lt. Jurrien S. Noot for the 19 April 1940 design does not give any armament specifics , as these likely remained unaltered from the earlier 16 February 1940 drawing . This drawing provided the following : a main armament of nine 283 mm guns , a secondary armament of twelve 120 mm dual purpose guns , and an anti @-@ aircraft defense consisting of fourteen Bofors 40 mm guns and eight Oerlikon 20 mm cannons .
Work on the main armament was contracted to Krupp Germaniawerft , which based its designs for the turrets , mountings , and guns of the 1047s on the 28 cm SK C / 34 used on the Scharnhorst class . With a 315 kg ( 694 lb ) APC shell , the guns would have had a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 2 @,@ 950 ft / s ) and a maximum range of 42 @,@ 600 meters ( 46 @,@ 600 yards ) ; 120 rounds of ammunition would have been stowed for each gun , and the rate of fire would have been about 2 @.@ 5 rounds per minute . The guns would have been able to be elevated to a maximum angle of 45 ° and trained to 150 ° , while the loading angle would have been about 2 ° .
Secondary armament was planned to be twelve Bofors 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns in dual mounts . It is unclear whether or not these were an older version of the gun ( which had been mounted as the main armament on Dutch destroyers since the 1920s ) or an entirely new version . However , the debate is academic as the new guns were developed in the 1940s during the chaos of the Second World War and were unavailable for warships until after the war 's end . Detailed specifics such as range or rate of fire are also unknown ; had the older gun been used it would in any case have been updated ( including the use of dual instead of single half @-@ shield mounts ) , and the more modern version did not see service until 1950 , by which time it incorporated improvements from lessons learned during the war .
Arguably the best light anti @-@ aircraft gun of the Second World War , the 40 mm Bofors was used for air defense both on land and at sea by many of the countries involved , including the Americans , British , Dutch , Japanese , and Swedish . Produced in the early 1930s , it first entered service with the Royal Netherlands Navy when the cruisers Java and Sumatra were refitted in 1934 – 35 . Before the Second World War , Hazemeyer , a Dutch subsidiary of the German company Siemens & Halske , had devised " a very advanced triaxial mounting together with a tachymetric control system " for the 40 mm gun . When the Netherlands fell in 1940 , this was brought to the U.K. aboard the minesweeper Willem van der Zaan , where it was copied and put into service as the British Mark IV twin mount . The description of the proposed fire control mechanism for the 1047s , discussed on 6 November 1939 , mentions that the 40 mm weapons were " to be controlled autonomously from the gun positions " ; this seems to describe Hazemeyer 's system , but no direct link is made in sources .
The Dutch Navy had already acquired a quantity of the Hispano Suiza 20mm guns before the war for mounting in torpedo boats and other craft and 6 of these were mounted in the cruiser Jacob van Heemskerck when she made her escape to Britain in 1940 . The Hispano fired similar 20 × 110 ammunition to the Oerlikon but had a higher rate of fire and slightly higher muzzle velocity . The Hispano Suiza however was to prove insufficiently durable for shipboard use and would find its niche as a highly successful aircraft gun .
= = = Differences from the Scharnhorst class = = =
Despite their superficially similar appearance , there were many differences between the Scharnhorst class and the final incarnation of the Dutch design . The 1047 was inferior in its armor protection , but in other respects was far superior : the main guns could be elevated 5 ° higher , the anti @-@ torpedo system was thicker , the deck protection better accommodated the ship boilers , and the design did not make use of the problematic German power plant . In addition , the 1047s ' anti @-@ aircraft armament was far superior to the Scharnhorst class . The use of twelve 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) dual purpose guns — able to function in both anti @-@ surface and anti @-@ aircraft roles — as opposed to the German division between 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) anti @-@ surface guns and 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , was a more effective solution , as it saved needed space and weight on the ships in addition to simplifying logistics by requiring just one size of secondary ammunition .
= = Fate = =
With the outbreak of the Second World War , almost all design work was halted , although work on turrets and gunnery arrangements by Krupp Germaniawerft 's designers continued until the German invasion of the Netherlands in May . The first 1047 @-@ class ship was scheduled to be completed in 1944 , so would in any case have been too late to stop the Japanese advance into the Dutch East Indies . Due to the war , final plans for the ships were never completed , and the ships were never constructed .
|
= Edward Burne @-@ Jones =
Sir Edward Coley Burne @-@ Jones , 1st Baronet ARA ( 28 August 1833 – 17 June 1898 ) was a British artist and designer closely associated with the later phase of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite movement , who worked closely with William Morris on a wide range of decorative arts as a founding partner in Morris , Marshall , Faulkner & Co . Burne @-@ Jones was closely involved in the rejuvenation of the tradition of stained glass art in Britain ; his stained glass works include the windows of St. Philip 's Cathedral , Birmingham , St Martin in the Bull Ring , Birmingham , Holy Trinity Church , Sloane Square , Chelsea , St Martin 's Church in Brampton , Cumbria ( the church designed by Philip Webb ) , St Michael 's Church , Brighton , All Saints , Jesus Lane , Cambridge , Christ Church , Oxford and in St. Anne 's Church , Brown Edge , Staffordshire Moorlands . Burne @-@ Jones 's early paintings show the heavy inspiration of Dante Gabriel Rossetti , but by the 1860s Burne @-@ Jones was discovering his own artistic " voice " . In 1877 , he was persuaded to show eight oil paintings at the Grosvenor Gallery ( a new rival to the Royal Academy ) . These included The Beguiling of Merlin . The timing was right , and he was taken up as a herald and star of the new Aesthetic Movement .
In addition to painting and stained glass , Burne @-@ Jones worked in a variety of crafts ; including designing ceramic tiles , jewellery , tapestries , mosaics and book illustration , most famously designing woodcuts for the Kelmscott Press 's Chaucer in 1896 .
= = Early life = =
Edward Coley Burne Jones ( the hyphen came later ) was born in Birmingham , the son of a Welshman , Edward Richard Jones , a frame @-@ maker at Bennetts Hill , where a blue plaque commemorates the painter 's childhood . His mother Elizabeth Coley Jones died within six days of his birth , and he was raised by his grieving father and the family housekeeper , Ann Sampson , an obsessively affectionate but humourless and unintellectual local girl . He attended Birmingham 's King Edward VI grammar school from 1844 and the Birmingham School of Art from 1848 to 1852 , before studying theology at Exeter College , Oxford . At Oxford he became a friend of William Morris as a consequence of a mutual interest in poetry . The two Exeter undergraduates , together with a small group of Jones ' friends from Birmingham known as the Birmingham Set , speedily formed a very close and intimate society , which they called " The Brotherhood " . The members of the Brotherhood read John Ruskin and Tennyson , visited churches , and worshipped the Middle Ages . At this time Burne @-@ Jones discovered Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d 'Arthur which was to be so influential in his life . At that time neither Burne @-@ Jones nor Morris knew Rossetti personally , but both were much influenced by his works , and met him by recruiting him as a contributor to their Oxford and Cambridge Magazine which Morris founded in 1856 to promote their ideas .
Burne @-@ Jones had intended to become a church minister , but under Rossetti 's influence both he and Morris decided to become artists , and Burne @-@ Jones left college before taking a degree to pursue a career in art . In February 1857 , Rossetti wrote to William Bell Scott
Two young men , projectors of the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine , have recently come up to town from Oxford , and are now very intimate friends of mine . Their names are Morris and Jones . They have turned artists instead of taking up any other career to which the university generally leads , and both are men of real genius . Jones 's designs are marvels of finish and imaginative detail , unequalled by anything unless perhaps Albert Dürer 's finest works .
= = Marriage and family = =
In 1856 Burne @-@ Jones became engaged to Georgiana " Georgie " MacDonald ( 1840 – 1920 ) , one of the MacDonald sisters . She was training to be a painter , and was the sister of Burne @-@ Jones 's old school friend . The couple married in 1860 , after which she made her own work in woodcuts and became a close friend of George Eliot . ( Another MacDonald sister married the artist Sir Edward Poynter , a further sister married the ironmaster Alfred Baldwin and was the mother of the Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin , and yet another sister was the mother of Rudyard Kipling . Kipling and Baldwin were thus Burne @-@ Jones 's nephews by marriage ) .
Georgiana bore a son , Philip , in 1861 . A second son , born in the winter of 1864 while Georgiana was gravely ill with scarlet fever , died soon after birth . The family soon moved to 41 Kensington Square , and their daughter Margaret was born there in 1866 .
In 1867 Burne @-@ Jones and his family settled at the Grange , an 18th @-@ century house set in a large garden in North End Road , Fulham , London . For much of the 1870s Burne @-@ Jones did not exhibit , following a spate of bitterly hostile attacks in the press , and a passionate affair ( described as the " emotional climax of his life " ) with his Greek model Maria Zambaco , which ended with her trying to commit suicide by throwing herself in Regent 's Canal . During these difficult years Georgiana developed a close friendship with Morris , whose wife Jane had fallen in love with Rossetti . Morris and Georgie may have been in love , but if he asked her to leave her husband , she refused . In the end , the Burne @-@ Joneses remained together , as did the Morrises , but Morris and Georgiana were close for the rest of their lives .
In 1880 the Burne @-@ Joneses bought Prospect House in Rottingdean , near Brighton in Sussex , as their holiday home , and soon after the next door Aubrey Cottage to create North End House , reflecting the fact that their Fulham home was in North End Road . ( Years later , in 1923 , Sir Roderick Jones , head of Reuters , and his wife , playwright and novelist Enid Bagnold , were to add the adjacent Gothic House to the property , which became the inspiration and setting for her play The Chalk Garden ) .
His troubled son Philip , who became a successful portrait painter , died in 1926 . His adored daughter Margaret ( died 1953 ) married John William Mackail ( 1850 – 1945 ) , the friend and biographer of Morris , and Professor of Poetry at Oxford from 1911 – 1916 . Their children were the novelists Angela Thirkell and Denis Mackail . In an edition of the boys ' magazine , Chums ( No. 227 , Vol . V , 13 January 1897 ) , an article on Burne @-@ Jones stated that " .... his pet grandson used to be punished by being sent to stand in a corner with his face to the wall . One day on being sent there he was delighted to find the wall prettily decorated with fairies , flowers , birds , and bunnies . His indulgent grandfather had utilised his talent to alleviate the tedium of his favourite 's period of penance . "
= = Artistic career = =
= = = Early years : Rossetti and Morris = = =
Burne @-@ Jones once admitted that after leaving Oxford he " found himself at five @-@ and @-@ twenty what he ought to have been at fifteen " . He had had no regular training as a draughtsman , and lacked the confidence of science . But his extraordinary faculty of invention as a designer was already ripening ; his mind , rich in knowledge of classical story and medieval romance , teemed with pictorial subjects , and he set himself to complete his set of skills by resolute labour , witnessed by innumerable drawings . The works of this first period are all more or less tinged by the influence of Rossetti ; but they are already differentiated from the elder master 's style by their more facile though less intensely felt elaboration of imaginative detail . Many are pen @-@ and @-@ ink drawings on vellum , exquisitely finished , of which his Waxen Image ( 1856 ) is one of the earliest and best examples . Although the subject , medium and manner derive from Rossetti 's inspiration , it is not the hand of a pupil merely , but of a potential master . This was recognized by Rossetti himself , who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him .
Burne @-@ Jones 's first sketch in oils dates from this same year , 1856 , and during 1857 he made for Bradfield College the first of what was to be an immense series of cartoons for stained glass . In 1858 he decorated a cabinet with the Prioress 's Tale from Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales , his first direct illustration of the work of a poet whom he especially loved and who inspired him with endless subjects . Thus early , therefore , we see the artist busy in all the various fields in which he was to labour .
In the autumn of 1857 Burne @-@ Jones joined Morris , Valentine Prinsep , J. R. Spencer Stanhope and others in Rossetti 's ill @-@ fated scheme to decorate the walls of the Oxford Union . None of the painters had mastered the technique of fresco , and their pictures had begun to peel from the walls before they were completed . In 1859 Burne @-@ Jones made his first journey to Italy . He saw Florence , Pisa , Siena , Venice and other places , and appears to have found the gentle and romantic Sienese more attractive than any other school . Rossetti 's influence still persisted , and is visible , more strongly perhaps than ever before , in the two watercolours of 1860 , Sidonia von Bork and Clara von Bork . Both paintings illustrate the 1849 gothic novel Sidonia the Sorceress by Lady Wilde , a translation of Sidonia Von Bork : Die Klosterhexe ( 1847 ) by Johann Wilhelm Meinhold .
= = = Decorative arts : Morris & Co . = = =
In 1861 , William Morris founded the decorative arts firm of Morris , Marshall , Faulkner & Co. with Rossetti , Burne @-@ Jones , Ford Madox Brown and Philip Webb as partners , together with Charles Faulkner and Peter Paul Marshall , the former of whom was a member of the Oxford Brotherhood , and the latter a friend of Brown and Rossetti . The prospectus set forth that the firm would undertake carving , stained glass , metal @-@ work , paper @-@ hangings , chintzes ( printed fabrics ) , and carpets . The decoration of churches was from the first an important part of the business . The work shown by the firm at the 1862 International Exhibition attracted much notice , and within a few years it was flourishing . Two significant secular commissions helped establish the firm 's reputation in the late 1860s : a royal project at St. James 's Palace and the " green dining room " at the South Kensington Museum ( now the Victoria and Albert ) of 1867 which featured stained glass windows and panel figures by Burne @-@ Jones .
In 1871 Morris & Co. were responsible for the windows at All Saints , designed by Burne @-@ Jones for Alfred Baldwin , his wife 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . The firm was reorganized as Morris & Co. in 1875 , and Burne @-@ Jones continued to contribute designs for stained glass , and later tapestries until the end of his career . Stained glass windows in the Christ Church cathedral and other buildings in Oxford are by William Morris & Co. with designs by Burne @-@ Jones Stanmore Hall was the last major decorating commission executed by Morris & Co. before Morris 's death in 1896 . It was also the most extensive commission undertaken by the firm , and included a series of tapestries based on the story of the Holy Grail for the dining room , with figures by Burne @-@ Jones .
In 1891 Jones was elected a member of the Art Workers Guild .
= = = Illustration work = = =
Although known primarily as a painter , Burne @-@ Jones was also an illustrator , helping the Pre @-@ Raphaelite aesthetic to enter mainstream awareness . In addition , he designed books for the Kelmscott Press between 1892 and 1898 . His illustrations appeared in the following books , among others :
The Fairy Family by Archibald Maclaren ( 1857 )
The Earthly Paradise by William Morris ( not completed )
The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer by Geoffrey Chaucer ( 1896 )
Bible Gallery by Dalziel ( 1881 )
= = = Painting = = =
In 1864 Burne @-@ Jones was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in Water @-@ Colours ( also known as the Old Water @-@ Colour Society ) , and exhibited , among other works , The Merciful Knight , the first picture which fully revealed his ripened personality as an artist . The next six years saw a series of fine watercolours at the same gallery . In 1866 Mrs Cassavetti commissioned Burne @-@ Jones to paint her daughter , Maria Zambaco , in Cupid finding Psyche , an introduction which led to their tragic affair . In 1870 , Burne @-@ Jones resigned his membership following a controversy over his painting Phyllis and Demophoön . The features of Maria Zambaco were clearly recognizable in the barely draped Phyllis ( as they are in several of Burne @-@ Jones 's finest works ) , and the undraped nakedness of Demophoön coupled with the suggestion of female sexual assertiveness offended Victorian sensibilities . Burne @-@ Jones was asked to make a slight alteration , but instead " withdrew not only the picture from the walls , but himself from the Society . "
During the next seven years , 1870 – 1877 , only two works of the painter 's were exhibited . These were two water @-@ colours , shown at the Dudley Gallery in 1873 , one of them being the beautiful Love among the Ruins , destroyed twenty years later by a cleaner who supposed it to be an oil painting , but afterwards reproduced in oils by the painter . This silent period was , however , one of unremitting production . Hitherto Burne @-@ Jones had worked almost entirely in water @-@ colours . He now began a number of large pictures in oils , working at them in turn , and having always several on hand . The first Briar Rose series , Laus Veneris , the Golden Stairs , the Pygmalion series , and The Mirror of Venus are among the works planned and completed , or carried far towards completion , during these years . These years also mark the beginnings of Burne @-@ Jones 's partnership with the fine @-@ art photographer Frederick Hollyer , whose reproductions of paintings and — especially — drawings would expose a wider audience to Burne @-@ Jones 's works in the coming decades .
At last , in May 1877 , the day of recognition came , with the opening of the first exhibition of the Grosvenor Gallery , when the Days of Creation , The Beguiling of Merlin , and the Mirror of Venus were all shown . Burne @-@ Jones followed up the signal success of these pictures with Laus Veneris , the Chant d 'Amour , Pan and Psyche , and other works , exhibited in 1878 . Most of these pictures are painted in brilliant colours . A change is noticeable the next year , 1879 , in the Annunciation and in the four pictures making up the second series of Pygmalion and the Image ; the former of these , one of the simplest and most perfect of the artist 's works , is subdued and sober ; in the latter a scheme of soft and delicate tints was attempted , not with entire success . A similar temperance of colours marks The Golden Stairs , first exhibited in 1880 . The almost sombre Wheel of Fortune was shown in 1883 , followed in 1884 by King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid , in which Burne @-@ Jones once more indulged his love of gorgeous colour , refined by the period of self @-@ restraint . He next turned to two important sets of pictures , The Briar Rose and The Story of Perseus , though these were not completed for some years .
Burne @-@ Jones was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1885 , and the following year he exhibited ( for the only time ) at the Academy , showing The Depths of the Sea , a painting of a mermaid carrying down with her a youth whom she has unconsciously drowned in the impetuosity of her love . This picture adds to the habitual haunting charm a tragic irony of conception and a felicity of execution which give it a place apart among Burne @-@ Jones 's works . He formally resigned his Associateship in 1893 . One of the Perseus series was exhibited in 1887 , two more in 1888 , with The Brazen Tower , inspired by the same legend . In 1890 the second series of The Legend of Briar Rose were exhibited by themselves , and won the widest admiration . The huge watercolor , The Star of Bethlehem , painted for the corporation of Birmingham , was exhibited in 1891 . A long illness for some time checked the painter 's activity , which , when resumed , was much occupied with decorative schemes . An exhibition of his work was held at the New Gallery in the winter of 1892 @-@ 1893 . To this period belong several of his comparatively few portraits . In 1894 Burne @-@ Jones was made a baronet . Ill @-@ health again interrupted the progress of his works , chief among which was the vast Arthur in Avalon . In the winter following his death a second exhibition of his works was held at the New Gallery , and an exhibition of his drawings ( including some of the charmingly humorous sketches made for children ) at the Burlington Fine Arts Club .
= = = Design for the theatre = = =
In 1894 , theatrical manager and actor Henry Irving commissioned Burne @-@ Jones to design sets and costumes for the Lyceum Theatre production of King Arthur by J. Comyns Carr , who was Burne @-@ Jones 's patron and the director of the New Gallery as well as a playwright . The play starred Irving as King Arthur and Ellen Terry as Guinevere , and toured America following its London run . Burne @-@ Jones accepted the commission with some enthuisiasm , but was disappointed with much of the final result . He wrote confidentially to his friend Helen Mary Gaskell ( known as May ) , " The armour is good — they have taken pains with it ... Perceval looked the one romantic thing in it ... I hate the stage , don 't tell — but I do . "
= = = Aesthetics = = =
Burne @-@ Jones 's paintings were one strand in the evolving tapestry of Aestheticism from the 1860s through the 1880s , which considered that art should be valued as an object of beauty engendering a sensual response , rather than for the story or moral implicit in the subject matter . In many ways this was antithetical to the ideals of Ruskin and the early Pre @-@ Raphaelites .
Burne @-@ Jones 's aim in art is best given in some of his own words , written to a friend :
I mean by a picture a beautiful , romantic dream of something that never was , never will be - in a light better than any light that ever shone - in a land no one can define or remember , only desire - and the forms divinely beautiful - and then I wake up , with the waking of Brynhild .
No artist was ever more true to his aim . Ideals resolutely pursued are apt to provoke the resentment of the world , and Burne @-@ Jones encountered , endured and conquered an extraordinary amount of angry criticism . Insofar as this was directed against the lack of realism in his pictures , it was beside the point . The earth , the sky , the rocks , the trees , the men and women of Burne @-@ Jones are not those of this world ; but they are themselves a world , consistent with itself , and having therefore its own reality . Charged with the beauty and with the strangeness of dreams , it has nothing of a dream 's incoherence . Yet it is a dreamer always whose nature penetrates these works , a nature out of sympathy with struggle and strenuous action . Burne @-@ Jones 's men and women are dreamers too . It was this which , more than anything else , estranged him from the age into which he was born . But he had an inbred " revolt from fact " which would have estranged him from the actualities of any age . That criticism seems to be more justified which has found in him a lack of such victorious energy and mastery over his materials as would have enabled him to carry out his conceptions in their original intensity . Yet Burne @-@ Jones was singularly strenuous in production . His industry was inexhaustible , and needed to be , if it was to keep pace with the constant pressure of his ideas . Whatever faults his paintings may have , they have always the fundamental virtue of design ; they are always pictures . His designs were informed with a mind of romantic temper , apt in the discovery of beautiful subjects , and impassioned with a delight in pure and variegated colour .
= = Honours = =
In 1881 Burne @-@ Jones received an honorary degree from Oxford , and was made an Honorary Fellow in 1882 . In 1885 he became the President of the Birmingham Society of Artists . At about that time he began hyphenating his name , merely — as he wrote later — to avoid " annihilation " in the mass of Joneses . In November 1893 , he was approached to see if he would accept a Baronetcy on the recommendation of the outgoing Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone , the following February he legally changed his name to Burne @-@ Jones He was formally created a baronet of Rottingdean , in the county of Sussex , and of the Grange , in the parish of Fulham , in the county of London in the baronetage of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1894 , but remained unhappy about accepting the honour , which disgusted his socialist friend Morris and was scorned by his equally socialist wife Georgiana . Only his son Philip , who mixed with the set of the Prince of Wales and would inherit the title , truly wanted it .
Morris died in 1896 , and the health of the devastated Burne @-@ Jones declined substantially . In 1898 he suffered an attack of influenza , and had apparently recovered when he was again taken suddenly ill , and died on 17 June 1898 . Six days later , at the intervention of the Prince of Wales , a memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey . It was the first time an artist had been so honoured . Burne @-@ Jones was buried in the churchyard at St Margaret 's Church , Rottingdean , a place he knew through summer family holidays .
= = Influence = =
Burne @-@ Jones exerted a considerable influence on French painting . He was also highly influential among French symbolist painters , from 1889 . His work inspired poetry by Swinburne – Swinburne 's 1866 Poems & Ballads is dedicated to Burne @-@ Jones .
Three of Burne @-@ Jones 's studio assistants , John Melhuish Strudwick , T. M. Rooke and Charles Fairfax Murray , went on to successful painting careers . Murray later became an important collector and respected art dealer . Between 1903 and 1907 he sold a great many works by Burne @-@ Jones and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites to the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery , at far below their market worth . Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery now has the largest collection of works by Burne @-@ Jones in the world , including the massive watercolour Star of Bethlehem , commissioned for the Gallery in 1897 . The paintings are believed by some to have influenced the young J. R. R. Tolkien , then growing up in Birmingham .
Burne @-@ Jones was also a very strong influence on the Birmingham Group of artists , from the 1890s onwards .
= = Neglect and rediscovery = =
On 16 June 1933 , Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin , a nephew of Burne @-@ Jones , officially opened the centenary exhibition featuring Burne @-@ Jones 's drawings and paintings at the Tate Gallery in London . In his opening speech at the exhibition , Mr Baldwin expressed what the art of Burne @-@ Jones stood for :
In my view , what he did for us common people was to open , as never had been opened before , magic casements of a land of faery in which he lived throughout his life ... It is in that inner world we can cherish in peace , beauty which he has left us and in which there is peace at least for ourselves . The few of us who knew him and loved him well , always keep him in our hearts , but his work will go on long after we have passed away . It may give its message in one generation to a few or in other to many more , but there it will be for ever for those who seek in their generation , for beauty and for those who can recognise and reverence a great man , and a great artist .
But , in fact , long before 1933 , Burne @-@ Jones was hopelessly out @-@ of @-@ fashion in the art world , much of which soon preferred the major trends in Modern art , and the exhibit marking the 100th anniversary of his birth was a sad affair , poorly attended . It was not until the mid @-@ 1970s that his work began to be re @-@ assessed and once again acclaimed . A major exhibit in 1989 at the Barbican Art Gallery , London ( in book form as : John Christian , The Last Romantics , 1989 ) , traced Burne @-@ Jones 's influence on the next generation of artists , and another at Tate Britain in 1997 explored the links between British Aestheticism and Symbolism .
A second lavish centenary exhibit – this time marking the 100th anniversary of Burne @-@ Jones 's death – was held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in 1998 , before traveling to the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery and the Musée d 'Orsay , Paris .
Fiona MacCarthy , in a review of Burne @-@ Jones 's legacy , notes that he was " a painter who , while quintessentially Victorian , leads us forward to the psychological and sexual introspection of the early twentieth century " .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Stained and painted glass = = =
= = = Drawings = = =
= = = Paintings = = =
Early works
Pygmalion ( first series )
Pygmalion and the Image ( second series )
The Grosvenor Gallery years
The Legend of Briar Rose ( second series )
Later works
= = = Decorative arts = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
= = = Photographs = = =
|
= Amman =
Amman ( English pronunciation : / ɑːˈmɑːn / ; Arabic : عمّان ) is the capital and most populous city of Jordan , and the country 's economic , political and cultural centre . Situated in north @-@ central Jordan , Amman is the administrative centre of the Amman Governorate . The city has a population of 4 @,@ 007 @,@ 526 and a land area of 1 @,@ 680 square kilometres ( 648 @.@ 7 sq mi ) . Today , Amman is considered to be among the most liberal and westernized Arab cities . It is a major tourist destination in the region , particularly among Arab and European tourists .
The earliest evidence of settlement in the area is a Neolithic site known as ' Ain Ghazal . Its successor was known as " Rabbath Ammon " , which was the capital of the Ammonites , then as " Philadelphia " , and finally as Amman . It was initially built on seven hills but now spans over 19 hills combining 27 districts , which are administered by the Greater Amman Municipality headed by its mayor Aqel Biltaji . Areas of Amman have either gained their names from the hills ( Jabal ) or valleys ( Wadi ) they lie on , such as Jabal Lweibdeh and Wadi Abdoun . East Amman is predominantly filled with historic sites that frequently host cultural activities , while West Amman is more modern and serves as the economic center of the city .
Approximately 2 million visitors arrived in Amman in 2015 , which ranked it as the 93rd most visited city in the world and the 5th most visited Arab city . Amman has a relatively fast growing economy , and it is ranked Beta − on the global city index . Moreover , it was named one of the Middle East and North Africa 's best cities according to economic , labor , environmental , and socio @-@ cultural factors . The city is among the most popular locations in the Arab world for multinational corporations to set up their regional offices , alongside Doha and only behind Dubai . It is expected that in the next 10 years these three cities will capture the largest share of multinational corporation activity in the region .
= = Etymology = =
Amman derives its name from the 13th century BC when the Ammonites named it " Rabbath Ammon " , with the term Rabbath meaning the " Capital " or the " King 's Quarters " . Over time , the term " Rabbath " was no longer used and the city became known as " Ammon " . The influence of new civilizations that conquered the city gradually changed its name to " Amman " . In the Hebrew Bible , it is referred to as " Rabbat ʿAmmon " ( Biblical Hebrew : רבת עמון , Tiberian Hebrew Rabbaṯ ʿAmmôn ) . However , Ptolemy II Philadelphus , the Macedonian ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom who reigned from 283 to 246 BC , renamed the city to " Philadelphia " ( Ancient Greek : Φιλαδέλφεια ; literally : " brotherly love " ) after occupying it . The name was given as an adulation to his own nickname , Philadelphus .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient period = = =
In the outskirts of Amman , one of the largest known ancient settlements in the Near East was discovered . The site , known as ' Ain Ghazal which is situated on a valley @-@ side , dates back to 7250 BC and spans an area of 15 hectares . It was a typical average sized aceramic Neolithic village that accommodated around 3 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Its houses were rectangular mud @-@ bricked buildings that included a main square living room , whose walls were made up of lime plaster . The site was discovered in 1974 as construction workers were working on a road crossing the area . By 1982 when the excavations started , around 600 meters ( 2 @,@ 000 feet ) of road ran through the site . Despite the damage brought by urban expansion , the remains of ' Ain Ghazal provided wealthy information .
'Ain Ghazal is well known for a set of small human statues found buried in pits which were discovered in 1983 , when local archaeologists stumbled upon the edge of a large pit 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 feet ) containing plaster statues . These statues are human figures made with white plaster . The figures have painted clothes , hair , and in some cases ornamental tattoos . 32 figures were found in two caches , 15 of them full figures , 15 busts , and two fragmentary heads . Three of the busts were two @-@ headed , the significance of which is not clear .
In the 13th century BC Amman was the capital of the Ammonites , and became known as " Rabbath Ammon " . Ammon provided several natural resources to the region , including sandstone and limestone . Along with a productive agricultural sector , which made Ammon a vital location along the King 's Highway , the ancient trade route connecting Egypt with Mesopotamia , Syria and Anatolia . As with the Edomites and Moabites , trade along this route gave the Ammonites considerable revenue . Ammonites worshiped an ancient deity called Moloch . Excavations by archaeologists near Amman Civil Airport uncovered a temple , which included an altar containing many human bone fragments . The bones showed evidence of burning , which led to the assumption that the altar functioned as a pyre .
Today , several Ammonite ruins across Amman exist , such as Qasr Al @-@ Abd , Rujm Al @-@ Malfouf and some parts of the Amman Citadel . The ruins of Rujm Al @-@ Malfouf consist of a surveillance stone tower that was used to ensure protection of their capital and several store rooms east of it . The city was later conquered by the Assyrian Empire , followed by the Persian Empire .
= = = Classical period = = =
Conquest of the Middle East and Central Asia by Alexander the Great firmly consolidated the influence of Hellenistic culture . The Greeks founded new cities in the area of modern @-@ day Jordan , including Umm Qays , Jerash and Amman . Ptolemy II Philadelphus , the Macedonian ruler of Egypt , who occupied and rebuilt the city , named it " Philadelphia " , which means " brotherly love " in Greek . The name was given as an adulation to his own nickname , Philadelphus .
One of the most original monuments in Jordan , and perhaps in the Hellenistic period in the Near East , is the village of Iraq Al @-@ Amir in the valley of Wadi Al @-@ Sir , southwest of Amman , which is home to Qasr Al @-@ Abd ( Castle of the Slave ) . Other nearby ruins include a village , an isolated house and a fountain , all of which are barely visible today due to the damage brought by a major earthquake that hit the region in the year 362 . Qasr Al @-@ Abd is believed to have been built by Hyrcanus of Jerusalem , who was the head of the powerful Tobiad family . Shortly after he began the construction of that large building , in 170 BC upon returning from a military campaign in Egypt , Antiochus IV conquered Jerusalem , ransacked a temple where the treasure of Hyrcanus was kept and appeared determined to attack Hyrcanus . Upon hearing this , Hyrcanus committed suicide , leaving his palace in Philadelphia uncompleted . The Tobiads fought the Arab Nabateans for twenty years until they lost the city to them . After losing Philadelphia , we no longer hear of the Tobiad family in written sources .
The Romans conquered much of the Levant in 63 BC , inaugurating a period of Roman rule that lasted for four centuries . In the northern modern @-@ day Jordan , the Greek cities of Philadelphia ( Amman ) , Gerasa , Gedara , Pella and Arbila joined with other cities in Palestine and Syria ; Scythopolis , Hippos , Capitolias , Canatha and Damascus to form the Decapolis League , a fabled confederation linked by bonds of economic and cultural interest . Philadelphia became a point along a road stretching from Ailah to Damascus that was built by Emperor Trajan in 106 AD . This provided an economic boost for the city in a short period of time . During the late Byzantine era in the 7th century , several bishops and churches were based in the city .
Roman rule in Jordan left several ruins across the country , some of which exist in Amman , such as the Temple of Hercules at the Amman Citadel , the Roman Theatre , the Odeon , and the Nymphaeum . The two theatres and the Nymphaeum fountain were built during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius around 161 AD . The theatre was the larger venue of the two and had a capacity for 6 @,@ 000 attendees . It was oriented north and built into the hillside , to protect the audience from the sun . To the northeast of the theatre was a small odeon . Built at roughly the same time as the theatre , the Odeon had 500 seats and is still in use today for music concerts . Archaeologists speculate that the structure was originally covered with a wooden roof to shield the audience from the weather . The Nymphaeum is situated southwest of the Odeon and served as Philadelphia 's chief fountain . The Nymphaeum is believed to have contained a 600 @-@ square meter pool which was three meters deep and was continuously refilled with water .
= = = Islamic era = = =
In the 630s , the Rashidun army conquered the region from the Byzantines , beginning the Islamic era in the Levant . Philadelphia was renamed " Amman " by the Muslims and became part of the district of Jund al @-@ Urdunn . A large part of the population already spoke Arabic , which facilitated integration into the caliphate , as well as several conversions to Islam . Under the Umayyad caliphs who began their rule in 661 AD , numerous desert castles were established as a means to govern the desert area of modern @-@ day Jordan , several of which are still well @-@ preserved . Amman had already been functioning as an administrative centre . The Umayyads built a large palace on the Amman Citadel hill , known today as the Umayyad Palace . Amman was later destroyed by several earthquakes and natural disasters , including a particularly severe earthquake in 747 . The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids three years later .
Amman 's importance declined by the mid @-@ 8th century after damage caused by several earthquakes rendered it uninhabitable . Excavations among the collapsed layer of the Umayyad Palace have revealed remains of kilns from the time of the Abbasids ( 750 @-@ 696 ) and the Fatimids ( 969 @-@ 1099 ) . In the late 9th century , Amman was noted as the " capital " of the Balqa by geographer al @-@ Yaqubi . Likewise , in 985 , the Jerusalemite historian al @-@ Muqaddasi described Amman as the capital of Balqa , and that it was a town in the desert fringe of Syria surrounded by villages and cornfields and was a regional source of lambs , grain and honey . Furthermore , al @-@ Muqaddasi describes Amman as a " harbor of the desert " where Arab Bedouin would take refuge , and that its citadel , which overlooked the town , contained a small mosque .
The occupation of the Citadel Hill by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem is so far based only on interpretations of Crusader sources . William of Tyre writes in his Historia that in 1161 Philip of Milly received the castle of " Ahamant " , which is seen to refer to Amman , as part of the Lordship of Oultrejordain . In 1166 Philip joined the military order of the Knights Templar , passing on to them a significant part of his fief including the castle of Ahamant or " Haman " , as it is named in the deed of confirmation issued by King Amalric . The remains of a watch tower on Citadel Hill , first attributed to the Crusaders , now are preferentially dated to the Ayyubid period , after 1187 , leaving it to further research to find the location of the Crusader castle . During the Ayyubid period , the Damascene geographer al @-@ Dimashqi wrote that Amman was part of the province of al @-@ Karak , although " only ruins " remained of the town .
During the Mamluk era ( late 13th – early 16th centuries ) , the region of Amman was a part of Wilayat Balqa , the southernmost district of Mamlakat Dimashq ( Damascus Province ) . The capital of the district in the first half of the 14th century was the minor administrative post of Hisban , which had a considerably smaller garrison than the other administrative centers in Transjordan , namely Ajlun and al @-@ Karak . In 1321 , the geographer Abu 'l Fida , recorded that Amman was " a very ancient town " with fertile soil and surrounded by agricultural fields . For unclear , though likely financial reasons , in 1356 , the capital of Balqa was transferred from Hisban to Amman , which was considered a madina ( city ) . In 1357 , Emir Sirghitmish bought Amman in its entirety , most likely to use revenues from the city to help fund the Madrasa of Sirghitmish , which he built in Cairo that same year . After his purchase of the city , Sirghitmish transferred the courts , administrative bureaucracy , markets and most of the inhabitants of Hisban to Amman . Moreover , he financed new building works in the city .
Ownership of Amman following Sirghitmish 's death in 1358 passed to successive generations of his descendants until 1395 , when his descendants sold it to Emir Baydamur al @-@ Khwarazmi , the na 'ib as @-@ saltana ( viceroy ) of Damascus . Afterward , part of Amman 's cultivable lands were sold to Emir Sudun al @-@ Shaykhuni ( died 1396 ) , the na 'ib as @-@ saltana of Egypt . The increasingly frequent division and sale of the city and lands of Amman to different owners signaled declining revenues coming from Amman , while at the same time , Hisban was restored as the major city of the Balqa in the 15th century . From the 15th century onward until 1878 , Amman became an abandoned pile of ruins only sporadically used for shelter by seasonal farmers from elsewhere who used the arable land of the area , and by Bedouin tribes who used its pastures and water .
The Ottoman Empire annexed the region of Amman in 1516 , but for much of the Ottoman period , al @-@ Salt functioned as the virtual political centre of Transjordan . Amman was only resettled starting from 1878 , when hundreds of Circassians arrived following their exodus from the Caucasus during the rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II . Between 1872 – 1910 , tens of thousands of Circassians were forcibly relocated to Ottoman Syria from historical Circassia by the Russian Empire during the events of the Russo @-@ Circassian War . English traveller Laurence Oliphant wrote of a visit to the settlement of Amman in 1879 in his The Land of Gilead .
= = = Modern era = = =
Ottoman records from 1906 show around 5 @,@ 000 Circassians living in Amman and virtually no inhabitants who spoke Arabic . The city 's demographics changed dramatically after the Ottoman government 's decision to construct the Hejaz Railway , which linked Damascus and Medina , and facilitated the annual Hajj pilgrimage and trade . Because of its location along the railway , Amman was transformed from a small village into a major commercial hub in the region .
The First and Second Battle of Amman were part of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I and the Arab Revolt , taking place in 1918 . Amman had a strategic location along the Hejaz Railway ; its capture by British forces and the Hashemite Arab army facilitated the British advance towards Damascus . The second battle was won by the British , resulting in the establishment of the British Mandate .
In 1921 , the Hashemite emir and later king , Abdullah I , designated Amman instead of al @-@ Salt to be the capital of the newly created state , the Emirate of Transjordan , which became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1950 . Its function as the capital of the country attracted immigrants from different Levantine areas , particularly from al @-@ Salt , a nearby city that had been the largest urban settlement east of the Jordan River at the time . The early settlers who came from Palestine were overwhelmingly from Nablus , from which many of al @-@ Salt 's inhabitants had originated . They were joined by other immigrants from Damascus . Amman later attracted people from the southern part of the country , particularly Al Karak and Madaba . The city 's population was around 10 @,@ 000 in the 1930s .
Jordan gained its independence in 1946 and Amman was designated the country 's capital . Amman received many refugees during wartime events in nearby countries , beginning with the 1948 Arab – Israeli War . A second wave arrived after the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 , and a third wave of Palestinian and Jordanian refugees arrived in Amman from Kuwait after the 1991 Gulf War . The first wave of Iraqi refugees settled in the city after the 1991 Gulf War , with a second wave occurring in the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Most recently a wave of Syrian refugees have arrived in the city during the ongoing Syrian Civil War which began in 2011 . Amman was a principal destination for refugees for the security and prosperity it offered .
In 1970 , Amman was a battlefield during the conflict between the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) and the Jordanian Army known as Black September . The Jordanian Army defeated the PLO in 1971 , and the latter were expelled to Lebanon . On 9 November 2005 , Al @-@ Qaeda under Abu Musab al @-@ Zarqawi 's leadership launched coordinated explosions in three hotel lobbies in Amman , resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured . The bombings , which targeted civilians , caused widespread outrage among Jordanians . Jordan 's security as a whole was dramatically improved after the attack , and no major terrorist attacks have been reported since then .
During the last ten years the city has experienced an economic , cultural and urban boom . The large growth in population has significantly increased the need for new accommodation , and new districts of the city were established at a quick pace . This strained Jordan 's scarce water supply and exposed Amman to the dangers of quick expansion without careful municipal planning . Today , Amman is known as a modern , liberal and westernized Arab city , with major mega projects such as the Abdali Urban Regeneration Project and the Jordan Gate Towers . The city contains several high @-@ end hotel franchises including the Four Seasons Hotel Amman , Sheraton Hotel Amman , Fairmont Amman , St. Regis Hotel Amman , Le Royal Hotel and others .
= = Geography = =
Amman is situated on the East Bank Plateau , an upland characterized by three major wadis which run through it . Originally , the city had been built on seven hills . Amman 's terrain is typified by its mountains . The most important areas in the city are named after the hills or mountains they lie on . The area 's elevation ranges from 700 to 1 @,@ 100 m ( 2 @,@ 300 to 3 @,@ 600 ft ) . Al @-@ Salt and al @-@ Zarqa are located to the northwest and northeast , respectively , Madaba is located to the west and al @-@ Karak and Ma 'an are to Amman 's southwest and southeast , respectively . One of the only remaining springs in Amman now supplies the Zarqa River with water .
= = = Climate = = =
Amman 's position on the mountains near the Mediterranean climate zone places it under the semi @-@ arid climate classification ( Köppen climate : BSk ) . Summers are mildly hot and breezy , however , one or two heat waves may occur during summer . Spring is brief and warm , where highs reach 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) . Spring usually starts between April and May , and last about a month . Around the end of November is the period in which winter usually starts and continues from early to mid March . Temperatures are usually near or below 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) , with snow occasionally falling once or twice a year . Rain averages about 300 mm ( 12 in ) a year and periodic droughts are common , where most rain fall between October and April . At least 120 days of heavy fog per year is usual . Difference in elevation plays a major role in the different weather conditions experienced in the city , snow may accumulate in the western and northern parts of Amman ( an average altitude of 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) above sea level ) while at the same time it could be raining at the city centre ( elevation of 776 m ( 2 @,@ 546 ft ) ) . ( 900 to 1 @,@ 100 metres ( 3 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 600 ft ) ) .
Amman has extreme examples of microclimate , and almost every district exhibits its own weather . It is known among locals that some boroughs such as the northern suburb of Abu Nser are among the coldest in the city , and can be experiencing frost while other warmer districts such as Marka can be providing much warmer temperatures to its inhabitants at the same time .
The temperatures listed below are taken from the weather station at the centre of the city which is at an elevation of 767 m ( 2 @,@ 516 ft ) above sea level . At higher elevations , the temperatures will be lower during winter and higher during summer . For example , in areas such as al @-@ Jubaiha , Sweileh , Khalda , Abu Nser which are at / higher than 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) above sea level have average temperatures of 7 to 9 ° C ( 45 to 48 ° F ) in the day and 1 to 3 ° C ( 34 to 37 ° F ) at night in January . In August , the average high temperatures in these areas are 25 to 28 ° C ( 77 to 82 ° F ) in the day and 14 to 16 ° C ( 57 to 61 ° F ) at night .
= = Local government = =
Amman is governed by a 41 @-@ member city council elected in five @-@ year term direct elections . All Jordanian citizens above 18 years old are eligible to vote in the municipal elections . However , the mayor is appointed by the king and not through elections . In 1909 a city council was established in Amman by Circassian Ismael Babouk who became the first ever Mayor of the capital , and in 1914 Amman 's first city district centre was founded .
The Greater Amman Municipality has been investing towards making the city a better place , through a number of initiatives . ' Green Amman 2020 ' was initiated in 2014 , aiming to turn the city to a green metropolis by 2020 . According to official statistics , only 2 @.@ 5 % of Amman is green space . In 2015 , ( GAM ) and Zain Jordan started operating free @-@ of @-@ charge Wi @-@ Fi services at 15 different locations , including Wakalat Street , Rainbow Street , The Hashemite Plaza , Ashrafieh Cultural Complex , Zaha Cultural Centre , Al Hussein Cultural Center , Al Hussein Public Parks and others .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Jordan is divided into twelve administrative divisions , each called a governorate . Amman Governorate divides into nine nahias , five of which are divided into districts and are further divided into neighborhoods . The other four nahias lying in the suburbs are either divided into villages or towns .
The city is administered as the Greater Amman Municipality ( GAM ) and covers 27 districts which include :
= = Economy = =
= = = Banking sector = = =
The banking sector is one of the principal foundations of Jordan 's economy . Despite the unrest and economic difficulties in the Arab world resulting from the Arab Spring uprisings , Jordan 's banking sector maintained its growth in 2014 . The sector currently consists of 25 banks , 15 of which are listed on the Amman Stock Exchange . Amman is the base city for the international Arab Bank , one of the largest financial institutions in the Middle East , serving clients in more than 600 branches in 30 countries on five continents . Arab Bank represents 28 % of the Amman Stock Exchange and is the highest @-@ ranked institution by market capitalization on the exchange .
= = = Tourism = = =
Amman is the 4th most visited Arab city and the ninth highest recipient of international visitor spending . Roughly 1 @.@ 8 million tourists visited Amman in 2011 and spent over $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in the city . The expansion of Queen Alia International Airport is an example of the Greater Amman Municipality 's heavy investment in the city 's infrastructure . The recent construction of a public transportation system and a national railway , and the expansion of roads , are intended to ease the traffic generated by the millions of annual visitors to the city .
Amman , and Jordan in general , is the Middle East 's hub for medical tourism . Jordan receives the most medical tourists in the region and the fifth highest in the world . Amman receives 250 @,@ 000 foreign patients a year and over $ 1 billion annually .
= = = Business = = =
Amman is introducing itself as a business hub . The city 's skyline is being continuously transformed through the emergence of new projects . A significant portion of business flowed into Amman following the 2003 Iraq War . Jordan 's main airport , Queen Alia International Airport , is located south of Amman and is the hub for the country 's national carrier Royal Jordanian , a major airline in the region . The airline is headquartered in Zahran district . Rubicon Group Holding and Maktoob , two major regional information technology companies , are based in Amman , along with major international corporations such as Hikma Pharmaceuticals , one of the Middle East 's largest pharmaceutical companies , and Aramex , the Middle East 's largest logistics and transportation company .
In a report by Dunia Frontier Consultants , Amman , along with Doha , Qatar and Dubai , United Arab Emirates , are the favored hubs for multinational corporations operating in the Middle East and North Africa region . In FDI magazine , Amman was chosen as the Middle Eastern city with the most potential to be a leader in foreign direct investment in the region . Furthermore , several of the world 's largest investment banks have offices in Amman including Standard Chartered , Société Générale , and Citibank .
= = Demographics = =
Population of city reached 4 @,@ 007 @,@ 526 in 2015 , Amman contains about 42 % of Jordan 's entire population . It has a land area of 1 @,@ 680 km2 ( 648 @.@ 7 sq mi ) which yields a population density of about 2 @,@ 380 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 6 @,@ 200 / sq mi ) . The population of Amman has risen exponentially with the successive waves of immigrants and refugees arriving throughout the 20th century . From a population of roughly 1 @,@ 000 in 1890 , Amman grew to around 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 inhabitants in 1990 , primarily as a result of immigration , but also due to the high birthrate in the city . Amman had been abandoned for centuries until hundreds of Circassians settled it in the 19th century . Today , about 40 @,@ 000 Circassians live in Amman and its vicinity . After Amman became a major hub along the Hejaz Railway in 1914 , many Muslim and Christian merchant families from al @-@ Salt immigrated to the city . A large proportion of Amman 's inhabitants have Palestinian roots ( urban or rural origin ) , and the two main demographic groups in the city today are Arabs of Palestinian or Jordanian descent . Circassians comprise about 2 % of the population . There are no official statistics about the proportion of people of Palestinian or Jordanian descent .
New arrivals consisting of Jordanians from the north and south of the country and immigrants from Palestine had increased the city 's population from 30 @,@ 000 in 1930 to 60 @,@ 000 in 1947 . About 10 @,@ 000 Palestinians , mostly from Safad , Haifa and Acre , migrated to the city for economic opportunities before the 1948 war . Many of the immigrants from al @-@ Salt from that time were originally from Nablus . The 1948 war caused an exodus of urban Muslim and Christian Palestinian refugees , mostly from Jaffa , Ramla and Lydda , to Amman , whose population swelled to 110 @,@ 000 . With Jordan 's capture of the West Bank during the war , many Palestinians from that area steadily migrated to Amman between 1950 and 1966 , before another mass wave of Palestinian refugees from the West Bank moved to the city during the 1967 War . By 1970 , the population had swelled to an estimated 550 @,@ 000 . A further 200 @,@ 000 Palestinians arrived after their expulsion from Kuwait during the 1991 Gulf War . Several large Palestinian refugee camps exist around the centre of Amman .
Because Amman lacks a deep @-@ rooted native population , the city does not have a distinct Arabic dialect , although recently such a dialect utilizing the various Jordanian and Palestinian dialects , has been forming . The children of immigrants in the city are also increasingly referring to themselves as " Ammani " , unlike much of the first @-@ generation inhabitants who identify more with their respective places of origin .
= = = Religion = = =
Amman has a mostly Sunni Muslim population , and the city contains numerous mosques . Among the main mosques is the large King Abdullah I Mosque , built between 1982 and 1989 . It is capped by a blue mosaic dome beneath which 3 @,@ 000 Muslims may offer prayer . The Abu Darweesh Mosque , noted for its checkered black @-@ and @-@ white pattern , has an architectural style that is unique to Jordan . The mosque is situated on Jabal Ashrafieh , the highest point in the city . The mosque 's interior is marked by light @-@ coloured walls and Persian carpets . It was built by a Circassian resident of Amman . During the 2004 Amman Message conference , edicts from various clergy @-@ members afforded the following schools of thought as garnering collective recognition : Hanafi , Hanbali , Maliki , Shafi 'i , Ja 'fari , Zahiri , Zaydi , Ibadi , tassawuf @-@ related Sufism , Muwahhidism and Salafism . Amman also has a small Druze community .
Large numbers of Christians from throughout Jordan , particularly from al @-@ Salt , have moved to Amman . Nearby Fuheis is a predominantly Christian town located to the northwest of the city . A small Armenian Catholic community of around 70 families is present in the city . Ecclesiastical courts for matters of personal status are also located in Amman . A total of 16 historic churches are located in Umm ar @-@ Rasas ruins in Al @-@ Jeezah district ; the site is believed to have initially served as Roman fortified military camps which gradually became a town around the 5th century AD . It has not been completely excavated . It was influenced by several civilizations including the Romans , Byzantines and Muslims . The site contains some well @-@ preserved mosaic floors , particularly the mosaic floor of the Church of Saint Stephen .
= = Cityscape = =
Downtown Amman , the city centre area ( known in Arabic as Al @-@ Balad ) , has been dwarfed by the sprawling urban area that surrounds it . Despite the changes , much remains of its old character . Jabal Amman is a well @-@ known touristic attraction in old Amman , where the city 's greatest souks , fine museums , ancient constructions , monuments , and cultural sites are found . Jabal Amman also contains the famous Rainbow Street and the cultural Souk Jara market .
= = = Architecture = = =
Residential buildings are limited to four stories above street level and if possible another four stories below , according to the Greater Amman Municipality regulations . The buildings are covered with thick white limestone or sandstone . The buildings usually have balconies on each floor , with the exception of the ground floor , which has a front and back yard . Some buildings make use of Mangalore tiles on the roofs or on the roof of covered porches . Hotels , towers and commercial buildings are either covered by stone , plastic or glass .
= = = High @-@ rise construction and towers = = =
Zahran district in west Amman is the location of the Jordan Gate Towers , the first high @-@ rise towers in the city . It is a high @-@ class commercial and residential project currently under construction , close to the 6th Circle . The towers are one of the best known skyscrapers in the city . The southern tower will host a Hilton Hotel , while the northern tower will host offices . The towers are separated by a podium that is planned to become a mall . It also contains bars , swimming pools and conference halls . The developers are Bahrain 's Gulf Finance House , the Kuwait Investment and Finance Company ( KIFC ) . The project is expected to be opened by 2018 .
Abdali Urban Regeneration Project in Abdali district will host a mall , a boulevard along with several hotels , commercial and residential towers . Valued at more than US $ 5 billion , the Abdali project will create a new visible centre for Amman and act as the major business district for the city . The first phase contains about ten towers , five of which are under construction to be completed by 2016 . Abdali is being developed as a smart city centre that enables the deliverance of state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art technologies to every home , office and outlet , while offering district energy solutions and central gas systems to guarantee a safe and friendly environment in addition to the large savings in energy cost . Across 30 @,@ 000 square meters of land , a central dynamic park is the main feature of phase II which will serve as a focal theme for mainly residential , office , hotel and retail developments over 800 @,@ 000 square meters .
The towers in the first phase include Rotana Hotel Amman , W Hotel Amman , The Heights Tower , Clemenceau Medical Center tower , Abdali mall tower , Abdali Gateway tower , K tower , Vertex Tower , Capital tower , Saraya headquarters tower and Hamad tower .
= = Culture = =
= = = Museums = = =
The largest museum in Jordan is The Jordan Museum . It contains much of the valuable archaeological findings in the country , including some of the Dead Sea Scrolls , the Neolithic limestone statues of ' Ain Ghazal , and a copy of the Mesha Stele . Other museums include the Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts , Jordan Archaeological Museum , The Children 's Museum Jordan , The Martyrs ' Memorial and Museum , the Royal Automobile Museum , the Prophet Mohammad Museum , the Museum of Parliamentary Life , the Jordan Folklore Museum , and museums at the University of Jordan .
= = = Lifestyle = = =
Amman is considered one of the most liberal and westernized cities in the Arab world . The city has become one of the most popular destinations for Western expatriates and college students who seek to live , study , or work in the Middle East or the Arab world in general . The city 's culinary scene has changed from its shawerma stands and falafel joints to embrace many popular western restaurants and fast @-@ food outlets such as Asian fusion restaurants , French bistros and Italian trattorias . The city has become famous for its fine dining scene among Western expatriates and Persian Gulf tourists .
Large shopping malls were built during the 2000s in Amman , including the Mecca Mall , Abdoun Mall , City Mall , Al @-@ Baraka Mall , Taj Mall , Zara Shopping Center , Avenue Mall , and Abdali Mall in Al Abdali ( under construction ) . Wakalat Street ( " Agencies Street " ) is Amman 's first pedestrian @-@ only street and carries a lot of name @-@ label clothes . The Sweifieh area is considered to be the main shopping district of Amman .
Nightclubs , music bars and shisha lounges are present across Amman , changing the city 's old image as the conservative capital of the kingdom . This burgeoning new nightlife scene is shaped by Jordan 's young population . In addition to the wide range of drinking and dancing venues on the social circuit of the city 's affluent crowd , Amman hosts cultural entertainment events , including the annual Amman Summer Festival . Souk Jara is a Jordanian annual weekly flea market event that occurs every Friday throughout the summer . Abdoun Circle is a major centre of the city 's nightlife where clubs maintain a strict " couples only " policy . Sweifieh is considered to be the unofficial red @-@ light district of Amman as it holds most of the city 's nightclubs , bars , strip @-@ clubs , massage parlors , and other adult entertainment venues . Jabal Amman and Jabal al @-@ Weibdeh are home to many pubs and bars as well , making the area popular among bar hoppers .
Alcohol is widely available in restaurants , bars , nightclubs , and supermarkets . There are numerous nightclubs and bars across the city , especially in West Amman . As of 2011 , there were 77 registered nightclubs in Jordan ( excluding bars and pubs ) , overwhelmingly located in the capital city . There are 222 registered liquor stores in Amman
= = = Cuisine = = =
Danielle Pergament of The New York Times described Ammani cuisine as a product of several cuisines in the region , writing that it combines " the bright vegetables from Lebanon , crunchy falafels from Syria , juicy kebabs from Egypt and , most recently , spicy meat dishes from Jordan 's neighbor , Iraq . It 's known as the food of the Levant — an ancient word for the area bounded by the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian peninsula . But the food here isn 't just the sum of its calories . In this politically , religiously and ethnically fraught corner of the world , it is a symbol of bloodlines and identity . " However , the city 's streetfood scene makes the Ammani cuisine distinctive .
= = = Sports = = =
Amman @-@ based football clubs Al @-@ Wehdat and Al @-@ Faisaly , both former league champions , share one of the most popular rivalries in the local football scene . Amman is set to host the 2016 FIFA U @-@ 17 Women 's World Cup along with Irbid and Zarqa .
The 2007 Asian Athletics Championships and more than one edition of the IAAF World Cross Country Championships were held in the city . Amman also hosts the Jordan Rally , which form part of the FIA World Rally Championship , becoming one of the largest sporting events ever held in Jordan .
Amman is home to a growing number of foreign sports such as skateboarding and rugby ; the latter has two teams based in the city : Amman Citadel Rugby Club and Nomads Rugby Club . In 2014 , German non @-@ profit organization Make Life Skate Life completed construction of the 7Hills Skatepark , a 650 square meter concrete skatepark located at Samir Rifai park in Downtown Amman .
= = = Media and music = = =
The majority of Jordan 's radio stations are based in Amman . The first radio station to originate in the city was Hunna Amman in 1959 ; it mainly broadcast traditional Bedouin music . In 2000 , Amman Net became the first de facto private radio station to be established in the country , despite private ownership of radio stations being illegal at the time . After private ownership was legalized in 2002 , several more radio stations were created . There were eight registered radio stations broadcasting from Amman by 2007 . Most English language stations play pop music targeted towards young audiences .
Most Jordanian newspapers and news stations are situated in Amman . Daily newspapers published in Amman include Alghad , Ad @-@ Dustour , The Jordan Times , and Al Ra 'i , the most circulated newspaper in the country . In 2011 , Al Ra 'i was ranked the 5th most popular newspaper in the Arab world by Forbes Middle @-@ East report . Al @-@ Arab Al @-@ Yawm is the only daily pan @-@ Arab newspaper in Jordan . The two most popular Jordanian TV channels , Ro 'ya TV and JRTV , are based in Amman .
Aside from mainstream Arabic pop , there is a growing independent music scene in the city which includes many bands that have sizable audiences across the Arab world . Local Ammani bands along with other bands in the Middle East gather in the Roman Theatre during the Al @-@ Balad Music Festival held annually in August . Music genres of the local bands are diverse , ranging from heavy metal to Arabic rock , jazz and rap . Performers include JadaL , Torabyeh , Bilocate , Akher Zapheer , Autostrad and El Morabba3 .
= = = Events = = =
Many events take place in Amman , including Redbull sponsored events , soundclash and soapbox race , the second part of Jerash Festival , Al @-@ Balad Music Festival , Amman Marathon , Made in Jordan Festival , Amman Book Festival and New Think Festival . The New Think Festival is a yearly weekend event that is part of NewThink , a non @-@ profit initiative that aims to inspire youth to think about the world in an innovative way . The festival is one of the many events throughout the year to get youth involved . In 2015 the festival hosted 40 different organizations at King Hussein Business Park in Amman that inspired their audience to be visionary and think differently about the world through presentations and workshops . The variety of organizations included business , environmental , medical and educational groups .
= = Transportation = =
With the exception of a functioning railway system , Amman has a railway station as part of the Hejaz Railway . Amman has a developed public and private transportation system . There are two international airports in Amman .
= = = Airports = = =
The main airport serving Amman is Queen Alia International Airport , situated about 30 km ( 18 @.@ 64 mi ) south of Amman . Much smaller is Amman Civil Airport , a one @-@ terminal airport that serves primarily domestic and nearby international routes and the army . Queen Alia International Airport is the major international airport in Jordan and the hub for Royal Jordanian , the flag carrier . Its expansion was recently done and modified , including the decommissioning of the old terminals and the commissioning of new terminals costing $ 700M , to handle over 16 million passengers annually . It is now considered a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art airport and was rewarded ' the best airport in the Middle East ' for 2014 and 2015 and ' the best improvement in the Middle East ' for 2014 by Airport Service Quality Survey , the world 's leading airport passenger satisfaction benchmark program .
= = = Roads = = =
Amman has an extensive road network , although the mountainous terrain of the area has prevented the connection of some main roads , which are instead connected by bridges and tunnels . The Abdoun Bridge spans Wadi Abdoun and connects the 4th Circle to Abdoun Circle . It is considered one of Amman 's many landmarks and is the first curved suspended bridge to be built in the country .
There are eight circles , or roundabouts , that span and connect west Amman . Successive waves of immigrants to the city has led to the rapid construction of new neighborhoods , but Amman 's capacity for new or widened roads remains limited despite the influx . This has resulted in increasing traffic jams , particularly during summer when there are large numbers of tourists and Jordanian expatriates visiting . The municipality began construction on a bus rapid transit ( BRT ) system as a solution in 2015 . In 2015 , a ring road encompassing the city was constructed , which aims to connect the northern and southern parts of the city in order for traffic to be diverted outside Amman and to improve the environmental conditions in the city .
= = = Bus and taxi = = =
The city has frequent bus connections to other cities in Jordan , as well as to major cities in neighboring countries ; the latter are also served by service taxis . Internal transport is served by a number of bus routes and taxis . Service taxis , which most often operate on fixed routes , are readily available and inexpensive . The two main bus and taxi stations are Abdali ( near the King Abdullah Mosque , the Parliament and Palace of Justice ) and the Raghadan Central Bus Station near the Roman theatre in the city centre . Popular Jordanian bus company services include JETT and Al @-@ Mahatta . Taxis are the most common way to get around in Amman due their high availability and inexpensiveness .
= = = Bus rapid transit = = =
Currently under construction are dedicated lanes for bus services which will operate as part of the new urban rapid transit network ( bus rapid transit ) . The system includes high @-@ quality stations and stops ; express buses that can carry more than 120 passengers and will run on a three @-@ minute frequency during peak hours along Amman 's busiest corridors ; terminals and park @-@ n @-@ ride facilities ; and an integrated fare collection system allowing passengers to pay the fare at stations before embarking on the bus . The BRT is planned to run along three major corridors . The first one connects Sweileh with Mahatta via Sport City , with a major underground station at the University of Jordan . The second corridor connects Sport City with Downtown Amman at Ras El @-@ Ain . The third corridor connects Customs Square with Mahatta .
= = Education = =
According to Jordan Department of Statistics , Amman has the highest literacy percentage in Jordan : 95 @.@ 2 % ( 97 @.@ 3 % among males and 93 @.@ 1 % among females ) . There are 20 universities in Amman . The University of Jordan is the largest public university in the city . There are 448 private schools in the city attended by 90 @,@ 000 students , including Amman Baccalaureate School , Amman Academy , Amman National School , Modern American School , International School of Choueifat , American Community School in Amman and National Orthodox School .
= = Twin towns and sister cities = =
Amman is twinned with :
= = Gallery = =
|
= Rise and Fall : Civilizations at War =
Rise and Fall : Civilizations at War is a real @-@ time strategy game developed by both Stainless Steel Studios and Midway Games ; it was released on June 12 , 2006 . The game incorporates segments of both third @-@ person and first @-@ person shooter gameplay , by allowing the player to temporarily control a " hero " . Rise and Fall is based in the first millennium BC , and features four playable civilizations : Persia , Greece , Egypt , and Rome . The game includes over eighty civilization @-@ unique military units , as well as eight " hero " units — of which only one may be purchased during a game . In Rise and Fall , there are two campaigns : one follows the conquests of Alexander the Great ; and the other , the fictional liberation of Egypt by Cleopatra .
During the game 's development , Stainless Steel Studios closed . They abandoned all their games , including Rise and Fall , which was near finishing . Rick Goodman , founder of Stainless Steel and the lead designer of Rise and Fall , reported that Midway stopped funding the game when its release date was pushed back by several months . Midway then decided to finish the game themselves . Reviews of the game were mixed ; it won two awards , and was commercially successful in the United Kingdom .
On October 16 , 2008 , Midway released a free , ad @-@ supported version of the game , supported by the US Air Force .
= = Gameplay = =
Featuring mainly RTS , but also third @-@ person and — with a few heroes only — first @-@ person shooter scenarios , the gameplay in Rise and Fall is unique . The goal of the game is to defeat the opponent ( s ) , which is done by first micromanaging a base , and then training an army to destroy the enemy 's position . Both land and sea units are available , allowing for different strategies , including amphibious warfare . As in most RTS games , units fight using a rock , paper , scissors method , meaning some soldiers are more capable of defeating a certain kind of enemy , while being defeated by another ( ex. cavalry defeat archers , archers defeat spearmen , spearmen defeat cavalry ) .
Military units in Rise and Fall are grouped as infantry , cavalry , special , siege , or naval . Infantry , cavalry , and some special units automatically group themselves into formations — groups of soldiers that receive attack and defense bonuses — when at least eight of that kind of unit is present ; the maximum number of units a formation may consist of is sixty @-@ four . The unit 's speed , attack , defensive capabilities , and range vary , depending on several factors ; these include their civilization ; unit type ; the upgrades that have been purchased ; whether or not they are in formation , and , if so , its size . Three resources — wood , gold , and glory — are used to build structures , train units , purchase upgrades ; a fourth resource , stamina , is spent using " hero mode . " Wood and gold are deposited in settlements , or one of their various upgrades , such as town centers . Glory and stamina are both earned : glory by building and fighting , and stamina when the hero unit kills an enemy . In several RTS games , upgrades — sometimes called " Ages " — are available that represent time periods or technological levels ; Rise and Fall uses a similar concept . When upgrades to the hero — called " Levels " in this game — are purchased with glory , new technologies , upgrades , units , and advisors are unlocked . Advisors — paid for with glory as well — provide civilization @-@ specific benefits and bonuses to the player 's army and economy . Outposts , guarded by artificial intelligence soldiers , — soldiers who defend automatically — also play an important part in Rise and Fall . Conquering outposts increases the number of units trained from military buildings or ships , while not augmenting their price . The outpost guardians , however , protect it , and reappear until the outpost is taken by a player ; once captured , they protect the outpost from attacks by the owner 's enemies .
Another feature in Rise and Fall is " hero mode , " which allows the player to temporarily take control of a hero , as if in a third @-@ person shooter game ; certain heroes — for instance , Cleopatra — can zoom in further than others with their bow , allowing the player to aim as if in a first @-@ person shooter game . In hero mode , the hero unit becomes much more powerful , often allowing the player to destroy multiple enemy formations . Stamina is required to use this mode , however , and is lost quickly during its duration . The longest a player can spend in hero mode varies with stamina levels , which is increased with upgrades to the hero . To balance the game , hero mode can be used much less than RTS mode . Each civilization has two heroes from which to choose , usually a famous leader in history , — such as Alexander the Great — but sometimes pertaining to mythology — such as Achilles .
Rise and Fall may be played in both single @-@ player and multiplayer . In single @-@ player games , only one human player may play , against one through seven computer players . If more than two players will play , they may be grouped into teams , which can be chosen to be either permanent or manageable during the game using diplomacy . Other options available before beginning a game include the " population capacity " ; — the number of units that are trainable — which map of the twenty @-@ four to play on ; the difficulty setting ; the number of resources given at the start ; and the color and civilization of all players . Rise and Fall 's multiplayer component is powered by GameSpy , and may be played by anyone who has updated his or her version of the game . Players may host or join matches through either the internet or LAN . The host of the game chooses the options , while the player ( s ) who join the game either agree to the conditions , or reject them ; the match begins when all players agree with the host 's terms . Each player may select his own civilization and color , and does not require the host to change them . The multiplayer was discussed on the forums of Rise and Fall Heaven , a popular strategy game fansite . It was said that it is not frequented by many players , and that matches are often difficult to begin due to indecisiveness . During a game , the rules previously agreed upon are often broken by one or more players , leading to unruliness . Despite these drawbacks , several players reported that they played multiplayer .
= = Campaigns = =
Rise and Fall includes two campaigns , which are divided into acts containing from two to four chapters each ; a chapter comprises a battle and a cinematic . The first campaign follows Alexander the Great on his quest to defeat the allegiance of his brother , and the Persian general , Memnon . The second campaign features Cleopatra , and her attempts to repel a Roman invasion by Octavian .
The Alexander the Great campaign recounts the young king 's conquest of Asia . The beginning cinematic is of the killing of Philip II of Macedon , Alexander 's father , and introduces Alexander as a naive and unprepared prince , who is challenged by the duties thrust upon him . Alexander decides to follow the advice of his tutor , Aristotle , by quelling rebellions in Greece and its territories , as well as forming an allegiance with Parmenion . He then follows his brother — who had left to Persia — by sea , and faces off against the army and navy of General Memnon . Captured by deceit , Alexander escapes , but only after fighting in an amphitheatre . He then begins to sack Persian cities , and takes a temple containing the Bow of Heracles , a mythical weapon of immense power . Alexander eventually captures his brother , and executes him for treason . Finally , during the Siege of Tyre ( 332 BC ) , Alexander defeats Memnon , and is portrayed as having earned his kingdom . By now , Alexander has matured , and his men hold him in high esteem .
The Cleopatra campaign focuses on Cleopatra VII and her efforts to drive out an invasion by Octavian . As the Roman legions take control of much of Egypt , Cleopatra , her lover Mark Antony , and her brother Ptolemy free areas under Roman rule . Antony distrusts Ptolemy however , believing him to be in league with Rome . Meanwhile , Cleopatra defeats several of Octavian 's legions , causing him to send one of his best generals to eliminate her . After an expedition to Nubia , Cleopatra and the Egyptians gain the ability to train war elephants , a gift from the Nubian queen . Ptolemy is found guilty of treason , as Mark Antony suspected , and is arrested . He escapes , killing the guards , but is recaptured . Before being executed , he says he did not kill the guards , and escaped only to save himself ; he blames a priest , Tor , for being allied with Rome and killing his guards . The warrior priest kills two more guards as soon as he hears this , before Mark Antony attacks him . Tor quickly kills Antony , and escapes . Bent on revenge , Cleopatra tracks him down and defeats him , along with many Romans and Egyptian traitors . Octavian 's general soon arrives with his legions , but is defeated multiple times . Octavian , tired of his defeats , kills him before the Roman armies , setting an example for his men . The Emperor himself then leads the attack on Alexandria , and plunders the city until Cleopatra arrives . Then , he and Cleopatra fight ; the Egyptian queen slays Octavian , but is mortally wounded , and dies moments after having freed Egypt . Ptolemy buries his sister in a pyramid , and many Egyptians attend her funeral procession .
= = Development = =
Rise and Fall was mainly developed by Stainless Steel Studios ( SSSI ) from 2005 to early 2006 . Stainless Steel was founded in 1998 , by Rick Goodman and other Age of Empires designers . Before working on Rise and Fall , they had released Empire Earth and Empires : Dawn of the Modern World , two commercially successful titles . In addition , they created two game engines , the Titan , and its upgrade , the Titan 2 @.@ 0 .
Rise and Fall uses the Titan 2 @.@ 0 engine to run . It includes many features , such as the game 's scenario editor , graphics , and artificial intelligence . The engine also powers the multiplayer mode , and handles all objects in the game world .
The scenario editor for Rise and Fall is similar to that used in Empires : Dawn of the Modern World , though Stainless Steel claims it has been improved . Features from the Empire Earth editor were re @-@ introduced into that of Rise and Fall , and new ones were added as well . The editor handles flora in an advanced way , and has improved its movement . Ranger , a Stainless Steel Studios staff member , announced that all units — including the hero — will be editable using triggers ; in Titan editors , triggers can alter unit statistics and features , allowing for many alterations to the game . The editor also allows the existing maps to be edited , and new ones created . The developers of Rise and Fall created the campaigns using the built in editor , meaning that experienced enthusiasts and modders of the game have the option of creating new missions .
The developers , however , did not finish the game due to the sudden closure of Stainless Steel . Goodman blamed Midway Games , the publisher , for not funding the project , which led to the firing of employees . A GameSpot news article on the subject read , " He [ Goodman ] reportedly told Gamestar that after the PC strategy game 's release was pushed from October to early 2006 , Midway cut off advances to Stainless Steel , which in turn had to lay off its staff due to lack of funding . " As former AI programmer Daniel Higgins said , " This is true , SSSI is no more . I can 't give details as to why , but I can tell you the product is in excellent shape , the team was in high morale and plowing ahead at full steam , and we were just weeks from gold disk . " To complete the game , Midway , the publisher , shuffled it to their San Diego studios , where it was finished . As The Armchair Empire said in its review , " Overall , Rise & Fall feels like an unfinished product . Besides AI that often lines up to be killed , the engine powering the game stutters often . After doing a bit of research , this can probably be traced back to the financial woes of publisher Midway . Close to going " gold " developer Stainless Steel Studios ceased operation due to insufficient funds , Midway shuffled the project internally . The lack of polish is the result . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Rise and Fall was received by critics with both positive and negative scores , with an average rating — according to Game Rankings — of 65 % ( 78th PC game of 2006 ) . PC Gamer UK called it " Pure 24 @-@ carat gaming gold ! " Games Radar said " This RTS has its ups and downs ... " , while Games Radar UK said " The RTS Rubicon has been crossed . " GameSpot remarked that " this game doesn 't quite know what it wants to be . " ; IGN stated that " ... there 's very little reason to recommend this title to fans of the strategy or action genres . "
The graphics were examined by the reviewers . Games Radar admired them , having said " Rise & Fall is about pretty units killing each other in a beautifully drawn environment ... " GameSpy reported that they " are way behind the curve " ; GameSpot agreed , saying : " Buildings and units seem boxy and chunky , suffering from a low number of polygons , while the textures themselves look grainy . "
The sound in the game fared well in the reviews . GameSpot said of the music " The game sounds better , at least , thanks to some appropriately pompous Gladiator @-@ style music . " IGN reported that " Music is decent , and voice @-@ overs are passable , but sound effects need some serious help . "
The campaign was also criticized , and was said to have " poorly rendered , incomprehensible cutscenes filled with bad dialogue and characters that seemed to swagger like they were walking down Main Street in a Western @-@ movie gunfight " by GameSpy ; IGN agreed , reporting that " the cutscenes are also presented as pre @-@ rendered engine movies compressed to questionable quality . " GameSpot said that the hero @-@ only levels required " ... a vast amount of patience , the reflexes of a teenager , and a good deal of luck , " and that the campaigns are " bound to turn off strategy fans " . IGN complained that " these levels take a long damn time to load ... "
Naval warfare was thoroughly reviewed as well . GameSpy enjoyed it , saying " The game also puts a new spin on naval combat ... when everything goes just right with ship movement ... this is a blast . " On the other hand , IGN thought it was not well done , and wrote that " One of the features that looked fairly tasty was naval combat and some aspects of it are nice ... Unfortunately it 's another case of execution not coming through . Pro @-@ G agreed , and did not enjoy the naval side of the game at all , complaining that " ... it 's often near impossible to dock on dry land . " , and that " numerous boats in your fleet ... complicate things further , with the path finding AI seemingly unable to navigate around other boats in anything but huge stretches of open water . "
Hero mode was also praised by some , and depreciated by others . Games Radar thought , " ... it ’ s cool to pick off enemy soldiers in first person ... " , while Pro @-@ G 's impression was that " Hero mode is a good idea that 's gone badly wrong . " IGN said that " the lack of personality , special combat moves , and the fun factor that most action games focus on really makes hero mode dull . " GameSpot was more forgiving ; they thought that " In small doses , hero command is a nice feature that lets you vent some steam by hacking and slashing mindlessly . But when it 's the basis of an entire level it can be maddening ... " GameSpy had mixed opinions ; they began saying that " the Hero ... is a genuinely fun part of the game as well as a key element of the player 's strategy . " , but then shifted to a more negative view : " Once players get past the visceral thrill of being able to buzzsaw through enemy armies ... they 'll realize that such moments are pretty few and far between . " Finally , they mentioned that " the hero controls are a bit swimmy , and the game 's collision detection in third @-@ person mode is kind of wonky . "
Overall , the opinions of reviewers seem to have been summed up by Pro @-@ G : " One day someone is going to combine the RTS with another genre and pull it off really well ; Rise & Fall isn 't that game . The basic RTS elements are sound , but the hero mode verges on awful , boat control is a nightmare , and the campaigns are dull ... There are so many other games out there that offer a better all @-@ round RTS experience , there 's really no reason to bother with Midway 's effort . Some praise must be given for trying something a little different , but Rise & Fall is another idea that falls a long way short of its potential . "
= = = Awards and popularity = = =
Rise and Fall received two notable awards , and achieved high sales in the United Kingdom . It was one of the winners in the " E3 2005 : Best of Show " , hosted by The Wargamer . They were impressed with the game , and complimented its innovation : " ... real @-@ time strategy games are simply wars between faceless and lifeless armies . Sure , it ’ s nice to put a zillion units on the game screen and watch them run into each other , but too often these games blend together because they lack personality . Stainless Steel Studios seems to have solved that problem in Rise & Fall , their new historical strategy game which allows players to not only control massive armies at war , but also jump into the shoes of the heroes themselves ... " . The other award won by Rise and Fall was in the " Strategy " category at the British Academy Video Games Awards . According to the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association ( ELSPA ) , Rise and Fall became one of the best @-@ selling games in the United Kingdom soon after its release , and it remained in the top ten for two months .
|
= Henry Taylor ( swimmer ) =
Henry Taylor ( 17 March 1885 – 28 February 1951 ) was an English competitive swimmer who represented Great Britain in four Summer Olympics between 1906 and 1920 . Taylor served in the Royal Navy during the First World War , and continued to swim competitively until 1926 . His fortunes declined after he retired and he died penniless . His record of three gold medals at one Olympic Games – the most by any Briton – stood for 100 years until it was equaled by cyclist Chris Hoy in 2008 . Tying the medal count of American Mel Sheppard , he was the most successful athlete at the 1908 Olympics .
= = Early life = =
Henry Taylor was born in Hollinwood in Oldham , Lancashire , on 17 March 1885 to James , a coal miner , and Elizabeth Taylor . Henry 's parents died when he was young and he was raised by his older brother , Bill . Taylor learned to swim in the Hollinwood Canal , and practised in any water body he could find – baths , becks , canals , lakes , etc . , including the Hollinwood Canal and Alexandra Park 's boating lake . Austin Rawlinson , who was Taylor 's friend and later president of Amateur Swimming Association , recalled that Taylor " loved his swimming more than anything else in life " . At the age of seven Taylor swam in his first race .
Bill became his coach and Henry trained in the Oldham Baths , and from 1894 in the Chadderton Baths , often on the " dirty water days " because of cheaper admission . During this time he continued to train in the canal and when he got a job at a cotton mill , he spent his lunch times swimming in the canal . At 5 ' 5 " ( 1 @.@ 65 m ) and weighing 10 stone 6 pounds ( 66 kg ) , he wore a hand @-@ woven silk swimming costume weighing about an ounce .
= = Career = =
Taylor came to attention after success with Chadderton Swimming Club . He was selected for the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens . Although he was not expected to win any medals he won gold in the one mile freestyle , a silver in the 400 m freestyle and a bronze in the 4 × 250 m freestyle . Later that year , Taylor broke the world record for 880 yards ( 800 m ) . He was an automatic selection for the 1908 Summer Olympics .
During the 1908 Summer Olympics in London , Taylor won gold medals in the three events in which he took part : the 400 m freestyle , the 4 × 200 m freestyle , and the 1500 m freestyle . He finished first in all of the races he took part in during the games bar one . After performing well in the heats of the 400 m freestyle , he finished second in the semi @-@ final to Austrian Otto Scheff , who won the same event in the 1906 Intercalated Games . However , in the final Taylor finished 10 seconds ahead of the Austrian who won the bronze . The British press hailed Taylor as " Britain 's Greatest Amateur Swimmer " . He was the first man to hold the world record for the 1500 metres freestyle , a feat that he completed on 25 July 1908 in a time of 22 : 48 @.@ 4 in London . His haul of three was the most gold medals won by any Briton at the Olympics . This feat was not repeated by any British participant in the Olympic Games for a century until Chris Hoy won three gold medals in cycling events at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing .
Four years later , Taylor was selected for the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm . In the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay , he helped his team win bronze . There were no Olympic Games in 1916 because of the First World War . Taylor joined the Royal Navy in 1914 and kept fit by swimming around the ships when his ship was anchored at Scapa Flow . He was present at the Battle of Jutland . A popular story tells that during the course of the battle , his ship , HMS St. Vincent , was sunk and while the survivors waited for two hours to be rescued , Taylor swam around encouraging his crewmates . However , this story is probably a myth as HMS St Vincent was not sunk at the Battle of Jutland . He was transferred to HMS Ramillies where he remained until he was demobilised .
After the war , Taylor returned to swimming . He took part in the Morecambe Bay Race , winning eight times over a period of 20 year and at one point held the record . Taylor attempted to emulate Matthew Webb in swimming across the English Channel but failed due to bad weather . He annually took on the French champion , swimming in the River Thames and the River Seine and winning on every occasion . Taylor 's last appearance in the Olympic Games was at Antwerp , Belgium , in 1920 when he again helped the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay team to a bronze medal .
= = After swimming = =
Taylor continued swimming competitively into his 40s until he retired in 1926 . He also played water polo for England . During his career he won over 35 trophies and 300 medals . He suffered a setback when the public house , the Nudger , he owned in Dobcross was closed due to financial difficulties . Taylor became an attendant at Chadderton Baths . To raise money , Taylor was forced to sell most of his prizes . He died in obscurity aged 65 on 28 February 1951 , at lodgings in Brierley Street , Chadderton , he was penniless and unmarried . He was cremated and his remains were scattered at Rochdale Cemetery .
The trophies Taylor won were collected and temporarily displayed at Chadderton Baths . In 1969 he was posthumously inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame . In 2002 , a blue plaque was unveiled at Chadderton Baths commemorating his swimming achievements . At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China , Rebecca Adlington became the first British swimmer to win more than one gold medal at a single Olympic Games since Taylor won three in 1908 .
|
= Gawsworth Old Hall =
Gawsworth Old Hall is a Grade I listed country house in the village of Gawsworth , Cheshire , England . It is a timber @-@ framed house in the Cheshire black @-@ and @-@ white style . The present house was built between 1480 and 1600 , replacing an earlier Norman house . It was probably built as a courtyard house enclosing a quadrangle , but much of it has been demolished , leaving the house with a U @-@ shaped plan . The present hall was owned originally by the Fitton family , and later by the Gerards , and then the Stanhopes . Since the 1930s it has been in the possession of the Richards family . Raymond Richards collected a number of items from other historic buildings and incorporated them into the hall .
Notable residents have included Mary Fitton , perhaps the " Dark Lady " of Shakespeare 's sonnets , and Samuel " Maggoty " Johnson , a playwright described as the last professional jester in England , whose grave is nearby in Maggoty Wood , a small National Trust woodland . In 1712 a dispute about the ownership of the Gawsworth estate culminated in a duel , in which both the combatants were killed .
The hall is surrounded by formal gardens and parkland , which once comprised an Elizabethan pleasure garden and , possibly , a tilting ground for jousting . The grounds are listed Grade II * , and contain four Grade II listed buildings , including the Gatehouse , gatepiers , and garden walls . The hall and grounds are open to the public at advertised times , and events are organised . During the summer months a series of concerts and other entertainment is arranged in an open @-@ air theatre near the hall .
= = History = =
The original house on the site dated from the Norman era . The earliest documentary reference is the granting of a licence for the administration of a chapel within the house in 1365 . The house was then owned by Thomas Fitton , who had inherited it by marriage in 1316 , and it remained in the possession of the Fitton family until 1611 . The original house was replaced in the 15th and 16th centuries . Building started in 1480 , and continued in stages until about 1600 . Since then , parts of the house have been demolished , and others have been considerably altered . It is considered by the architectural historians Peter de Figueiredo and Julian Treuherz that the site of the house was originally moated , and that its plan was that of a quadrangle , forming a courtyard house .
In 1579 the house was inherited by Sir Edward Fitton III on the death of his father , Sir Edward Fitton II . Sir Edward III was the father of Mary Fitton , a maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth and a candidate for the " Dark Lady " of Shakespeare 's sonnets . Following the death of Sir Edward Fitton , 2nd Baronet in 1643 , the estate passed to Sir Charles Gerard , later the first Earl of Macclesfield . There was a dispute about the legal ownership of the estate between Sir Charles and his cousin Alexander Fitton , which seemed to be settled by 1663 . Demolition of parts of the house took place in about 1700 , and it is thought by de Figueiredo and Treuherz that the west range was removed , possibly including the gatehouse . At the beginning of the 18th century the dispute between the Fittons and the Gerards resurfaced , culminating in a duel in Hyde Park , London , in 1712 between the rival claimants : Lord Mohun , from the Gerard family , and the 4th Duke of Hamilton , from the Fittons . Both of the combatants were killed . The estate remained with the Gerards , until it was bought by William Stanhope , who later became the first Earl of Harrington , and it remained with this family until 1935 . The house was owned by the Cheshire antiquary Raymond Richards until his death in 1978 . Richards collected items from historic buildings that were being demolished in the 1960s , either incorporating them into the house or displaying them in the grounds . The house is still owned and run by the Richards family .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior and plan = = =
Gawsworth Old Hall is a timber @-@ framed house in the Cheshire black @-@ and @-@ white tradition , roofed in Kerridge sandstone . It has been estimated that the weight of the roof may be in excess of 300 long tons ( 300 t ) . The house is in mainly in two storeys . In the north range , and on the south front , the timber frame has been encased in brick , with timbering applied to its outer surface . Internally the roof trusses have been retained . Its plan is that of a U @-@ shape with its open side facing the west , towards what was the courtyard . The main entrance is in the north range , leading into the Entrance Hall . To the west of this is the Library , and to the east , the Morning Room . The Entrance Hall leads into the longest range , the eastern range , consisting of the Long Hall , at the north end , and the Dining Room . The Long Hall was originally the Great Hall , and was open to the roof , but is now divided into two floors . To the east of the range extend the kitchen and the chapel . The Dining Room leads into a room now known as the Green Room , which is canted ten degrees to the east . This was also originally open to the roof , but was not a great hall . De Figueiredo and Treuherz are of the opinion that this was originally a larger , separate structure , probably a barn , and incorporated into the main building when the east range was built . Little of the south range remains . It originally contained domestic apartments , which formerly extended to join the now @-@ demolished west range . In the angle between the Dining Room and what remains of the south range is the Drawing Room . The special feature of this room is a canted bay window on the north side , extending upwards for three storeys . The only dated item in the building is the Fitton coat of arms on the north front , which was carved by Richard Rany in 1570 .
= = = Interior = = =
Many of the original features have been lost as a consequence of the many changes that have taken place over the centuries . Additional features have been added to the interior by Raymond Richards , such as the doorcase around the entrance . The Entrance Hall has retained its medieval shape and low ceiling . It contains the coat of arms of the Richards family and items of weaponry , including a decorative suit of armour dating from the 19th century and moved here from Scarisbrick Hall . To the west of the Entrance Hall is the Library . This is in the shape of a double cube , measuring 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) by 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) . Its major item is a richly carved Tudor chimneypiece . The bookcases were designed by A. W. N. Pugin . Both of these items were moved here by Raymond Richards , the bookcases coming from Scarisbrick Hall . The bookcases contain a comprehensive collection of books relating to Cheshire . In a corner cabinet is a flint axe head dating from about 2000 BC . This was discovered in the park nearby in 1912 . To the south of the Entrance Hall is the Long Hall . This has retained the fireplace and ceiling introduced in the Tudor era . The hall contains items of antique furniture , and paintings by David Wilkie , J. M. W. Turner and John Constable . To the south of the Long Hall is the principal staircase , which was remodelled in 1920 . The area around the staircase contains a Waterford glass chandelier dating from about 1780 , and a portrait of the first Earl of Harrington by Allan Ramsay . From this area , a door leads into the chapel . This is the third or fourth chapel in the house , and was dedicated to Thomas More when he was canonised in 1935 . Much of the woodwork in it dates from 1803 . Many of the ornaments in the chapel were brought here by Richards from a redundant church in Ipswich . Two marble plaques in the chapel are by Thomas Thornycroft , a sculptor born in the nearby village . Alongside the chapel is an ambulatory or baptistry which contains a font and items of stained glass , made by Morris & Co. and designed by Edward Burne @-@ Jones . These were obtained by Richards from All Saints Church , Birkenhead . They depict the Crucifixion , and Saints Agnes , George , Stephen and Alban . The south door contains fragments of ancient glass from Plas Newydd , that were originally in a medieval church . Adjacent to the chapel is a conservatory containing marble sculptures by John Warrington Wood .
To the south of the Long Hall is the Dining Room , which is little changed since the Tudor era . Its contents include a 16th @-@ century refectory table , an oak escritoire from about 1650 , and items of Wedgwood majolica ware made in about 1830 . The Dining Room leads to the small Guard Room , which contains two 17th @-@ century chairs and an 18th @-@ century blunderbuss . To the west of this is the Drawing Room , the principal living room of the hall which has been little altered since the middle of the 16th century . To the south of the Drawing Room is a small room known as the Gold Room . This room has retained a frieze dating from the early 16th century , including carvings of Tudor roses , flowers and birds . Also in the room is a bust of Charles Gerard . In the southeast corner of the hall is the Green Room . This contains a painting of Gawsworth Rectory by Charles Tattershall Dodd , and a complete set of a dinner service by Minton , comprising 120 pieces .
A staircase from the east of the Guard Room leads to the Gallery on the upper floor , to the south side of which is the Solar , containing a 16th @-@ century four @-@ poster bed known as the Boswell bed . It was formerly in Lympne Castle , Kent . The house 's principal bedroom is the Hall Room , much of which has survived from the early 16th century . It contains a four @-@ poster bed from the era of William and Mary and a portrait by Zuccaro of members of the Fitton family , which was formerly in Brereton Hall . A room next to the Hall Room has been converted into a modern bathroom , next to which is Mary Fitton 's Bedroom , which contains an old plaster frieze . The other rooms on floor are the French Room , containing an 18th @-@ century French bed , and a small bedroom known as the Griffin Room . Adjacent to this is the Billiard Room , which has exposed roof timbers . As well as the billiard table , the room contains a marble sculpture of Echo by Alfred Gatley and a bust of John Milton .
= = Grounds = =
= = = Gardens = = =
Associated with the house is an inner garden of about 30 acres ( 12 ha ) surrounded by a parkland of about 600 acres ( 240 ha ) ; both are enclosed by walls . To the south of the hall the inner garden comprises a modern formal garden occupying the site of the original 16th @-@ century formal garden . Beyond this , in the parkland , are the earthworks of an earlier garden . The parkland is almost square in shape , with a section curving out from the south border . It consists of " one huge grassed area " with " lumps and bumps " . The Cheshire historian George Ormerod , writing in 1819 , considered that this area contained a tilting ground for jousting . That claim is repeated in the hall 's official guidebook , which goes on to suggest that it was created in the hope that Queen Elizabeth I would visit the hall on her royal progress , but she never did so . There is some doubt regarding the dating of the creation of the garden , but it is generally accepted that it comprised an Elizabethan pleasure garden . A raised mound of earth in the southwest corner of the garden would have been used to view the garden from an elevated position . A corresponding mound at the southeast corner was removed during the Second World War . To the west of the hall a wooded area known as the Rookery contains mature lime trees . Limited excavation work carried out in 1989 – 90 discovered , inter alia , a filled @-@ in canal running in a north @-@ south axis down the centre of the garden . The excavations provided " a tremendous insight into the past , although not enough to date it with certainty " . To the north of the hall are four fish ponds .
= = = Structures = = =
Four structures in the grounds around the hall are recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed buildings ; Grade II listing means that a building or structure is considered to be " nationally important and of special interest " . The 17th @-@ century Gatehouse is constructed in brick with ashlar dressings and a stone slate roof , in two storeys and three bays . The gate piers date from the late 17th or early 18th century . They are in painted ashlar surmounted by 20th @-@ century ball finials . The garden walls were built in the 16th century , with later additions and alterations . They are constructed in brick with ashlar dressings . At the southern end is a large rectangular enclosure . In nearby woodland are the grave and memorial to Samuel " Maggoty " Johnson , a playwright said to have been the last professional jester in England , who lived in the hall and died in 1773 aged 82 . A table tomb over the grave consists of an inscribed stone slab on a brick plinth . Adjacent to it is another inscribed stone slab , dating from the 19th century .
= = Present day = =
Gawsworth Old Hall is south of the village of Gawsworth , 3 miles ( 5 km ) southeast of Macclesfield . Immediately to the west is the Grade I listed Church of St James , to the north beyond a fish pond is the Grade II * listed Gawsworth New Hall , and nearby is the Grade I listed Gawsworth Old Rectory . The Old Hall was listed Grade I on 25 July 1952 . Grade I listing is granted to buildings of " exceptional interest , sometimes considered to be internationally important " , and encompasses only 2 @.@ 5 percent of all listed buildings . The grounds have been designated Grade II * in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . Designation as Grade II * means that the site is " particularly important , of more than special interest " .
The hall is open to the general public at advertised times . A series of events is held in the grounds and in the hall during the year . There is a licensed tea room in the grounds , and the hall is also licensed for civil weddings . Ceremonies are conducted in the Long Hall , and receptions can be held in a marquee in the grounds . During the summer months plays , concerts and other entertainments take place in the open @-@ air theatre close to the hall .
|
= Hebden , North Yorkshire =
Hebden ( / ˈhɛb.dən / HEB @-@ dərn ) is a village and civil parish in the Craven district of North Yorkshire , England , and one of four villages in the ecclesiastical parish of Linton . It lies near Grimwith Reservoir and Grassington , in Wharfedale in the Yorkshire Dales National Park . In 2011 it had a population of 230 .
Hebden has a church , a chapel , a hotel and public house , a tea room , a community hall , a small general store associated with the pub , and is well served by buses . Until 1983 it had a primary school . Hebden straddles a cross roads . The east @-@ west B6265 road connects it with Grassington 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) to the west , and from there south to the market town of Skipton , 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from Hebden . To the east , the road crosses a bridge over Hebden Gill , built in 1827 , and thence over the watershed to Pateley Bridge in Nidderdale , 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) distant .
Main Street , the village high street , continues south as Mill Lane , towards the bank of the River Wharfe and the villages of Hartlington and Burnsall , the latter being just over 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away . The road to the north runs to the small hamlet of Hole Bottom , from there continuing as a track onto Grassington Moor .
The layout of the village largely originates from manorial times , but during the 19th century the village grew to become a substantial industrial community with lead mining and a cotton mill as the main sources of employment . Since then it has reverted to a rural community , and is a focal point for walkers and cyclists wishing to enjoy the local countryside .
= = History = =
The name Hebden may be derived from either heope , Old English for a rose @-@ hip or heopa , Old English for a bramble , and dene , Old English for a valley , or from the Scandinavian Hebban , a topographical description of a ridge forming an elevated site above a small valley . Two Bronze Age stone circles and remnants of huts on the moors above the village show that the area has been settled since earliest times , and a hoard of 33 silver dinari dating from 30 to 170 AD found in a local field indicates that the Romans had a presence . The hoard is now on display at the Craven Museum & Gallery . An Iron Age or Romano @-@ British settlement has been tentatively identified on the banks of Gate Up Gill on the moors to the north @-@ west of the village . Place names such as Scale Haw indicate the Norse left their influence . There is no documentary record of the area until a mention in the Domesday Book of 1086 , in which the settlement was referred to as Hebedene held by Osbern d 'Arques , of Thorpe Arch . At the time of the Conquest the land was held by Dreng , which is a Nordic name .
During medieval times , an important east @-@ west droving route used to move sheep between winter pastures around Fountains Abbey and summer pastures around Malham , crossed the Hebden Beck at Hebden . It broadly followed the line of the North Craven Fault avoiding the moorland peat bogs , and became a busy packhorse route for traders .
Although no property in the village is older than the early 17th century , its layout reflects its development in medieval times as a planned village . Eight toft compartments are discernible to the west of Main Street , and the outline of the four surrounding common fields , now divided , may be identified from the pattern of dry stone walls . The fields were largely arable , providing the village with most of its food requirements , but are now farmed exclusively for pasture and hay . The village manor house was on land now occupied by Hebden Hall at the south end of Main Street .
The last stretch of Hebden Beck before it reaches the River Wharfe was used to power a corn mill in the Middle Ages , and corn milling survived into the middle of the 19th century . In the 14th century Fountains Abbey had a fulling mill in the village . In 1791 a three @-@ storey cotton mill was built alongside the corn mill . It housed 54 spinning frames and was productive until 1870 when it was driven out of business by the more efficient stream @-@ driven machinery of the industrial revolution . At its peak , the mill employed more than 70 men , women , and children . The building was used for other purposes including a roller skating rink until it was demolished in 1967 .
Lead mining on Grassington Moor became important in the 18th century , and as a result of the mines ' success , a number of the mine owners promoted the provision of the Grassington to Pately Bridge turnpike road , which was begun in 1760 and provided an all @-@ weather route across the moors for wagons . From the early 19th century Hebden was a dormitory village for some miners , contributing to the population rising to more than 500 in the 1830s . In the early 1850s profitable mines were established in the parish to the north of the village on veins associated with Grassington Moor , which helped sustain the population . Although activity continued sporadically into the last decade of the century , the accessible ore was largely exhausted by 1865 , and the population declined to a low of 199 in 1901 .
As the freeholders shared the mineral royalties , the mines brought prosperity which gave rise to the remodelling and redevelopment of much of the village . Green Terrace , which includes the old post office , was built in the 1870s , and Main Street was transformed from a back lane into the high street . The village school , with working clock and bell tower , was built by the community in 1874 , and the stone @-@ built Ibbotson Institute , now the community hall , was completed in 1903 .
The coming of the Yorkshire Dales Railway to Threshfield in 1902 opened up Hebden as a destination for day visitors and holiday makers . A purpose @-@ built timber guest house was opened in 1909 at the south end of the village by the Co @-@ operative Holiday Association , founded by Thomas Arthur Leonard . It passed into private hands in 1960 , and continued as a holiday centre until 1990 , mainly catering for school parties . The village stores and post office shut at the end of 2013 after 100 years of trading , and a new store associated with the public house opened at the beginning of 2014 , currently run as a community shop . The gold painted George V Type B wall post box was removed from the outside wall of the post office , and replaced with a modern gold painted lamp box a few metres away ; and the K6 Tudor Crown phone box was decommissioned , and set up at the cross @-@ roads as a street ornament .
Although it now has a number of second homes , holiday cottages and commuters , with eight working farms , a fish farm , coach and haulage companies , Hebden remains a working and thriving community .
= = Governance = =
Hebden was a township in the parish of Linton , part of the east division of the wapentake of Staincliffe and Ewcross in the historic county of the West Riding of Yorkshire . It became a separate civil parish in Skipton Rural District in 1866 as a result of the enactment of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1866 . In 1974 it was transferred to Craven District in North Yorkshire as the result of the enactment of the Local Government Act 1972 .
Hebden lies in the Skipton and Ripon Parliamentary Constituency , a seat held by Julian Smith MP for the Conservative ; and in the Mid @-@ Craven electoral division of North Yorkshire County Council , represented by Conservative party member , Shelagh Marshall . Hebden is in the Grassington ward of Craven District , a non @-@ metropolitan district , which is represented by Richard Foster for the Conservative party . As it is located within the Yorkshire Dales National Park , the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority is the local planning authority for the area .
Hebden has a parish council with five independent members supported by a parish clerk . Elections are held every four years , the most recent in 2016 . Council meetings are held every six weeks . The parish council 's activities are largely funded by income from parish lands in the form of rent , grants , and easements .
= = Geography = =
The south @-@ east boundary of Hebden parish is the River Wharfe , 500 feet ( 150 m ) above sea level , and the north @-@ east boundary runs along the Wharfedale @-@ Nidderdale watershed , reaching a height of 1 @,@ 770 feet ( 540 m ) . The upper section of the eastern boundary is Gate Up Gill , one of the main inflows of Grimwith Reservoir . The parish approximates a parallelogram in shape , averaging under 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) in width and some 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) in length . To the north , the land rises away from Hebden to the 2 @,@ 310 feet ( 700 m ) summit of Great Whernside , some 7 miles ( 11 km ) distant .
The habitations and main farming areas are largely confined to the Wharfe valley , and the rest of the parish is mainly rough moorland pasture . The village is on one of several branches of the North Craven Fault where Hebden Beck emerges from the moors through a steep @-@ sided valley into the Wharfe valley , on an ancient east @-@ west route .
Hebden Beck rises on Grassington Moor some 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) from the village , but the main valley continues north as a dry valley , until it reaches Mossdale Caverns and the upper flanks of Great Whernside .
The geology is dominated by rocks Carboniferous in age but , as the parish straddles a complex section of the North Craven Fault , it is varied . To the north @-@ east of the village the rocks are predominantly Bowland sandstones and shales , and to the south @-@ east are largely massive limestones . The River Wharfe runs across the limestone , through an impressive gorge at Loup Scar . The mineral veins of the Bowland series have been exploited for lead ore .
= = Population change = =
= = Landmarks = =
Hebden is a centre for walking and cycling in Upper Wharfedale . It has an inn , a shop , and a tea room cater for visitors , and within walking distance are the Dales villages of Appletreewick , Burnsall , Thorpe , Linton and Grassington . A gold post box near the old post office commemorates the 2012 Olympic Games rowing gold medal won by Andrew Triggs Hodge , who grew up in the village . Grimwith Reservoir , used for wind surfing , dinghy sailing , and bird watching , is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the east along the B6265 , and 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) further is Stump Cross Caverns - a show cave . The Dales Cycle Way passes through Hebden on its way from Appletreewick to Grassington .
Because of its proximity to the Craven Fault , the scenery is varied . The Dales Way passes through the parish along the banks of the River Wharfe between Burnsall and Grassington , mainly through limestone pastures but occasionally , as at Loup Scar and Linton Falls , through limestone gorges and past waterfalls . It crosses the Wharfe at Hebden on a wrapped steel @-@ cable suspension bridge , a few yards upstream of the reconstructed course of medieval stepping stones . The bridge was built in 1885 by local blacksmith William Bell , and paid for by public subscription . Made of recycled materials , it originally had a central supporting pier ( the base of which can be seen in low water conditions ) , that was removed when the span was raised in 1937 after being damaged in a heavy flood . The bridge has been conserved and is a landmark on the river @-@ side path .
Hebden Beck flows down from Grassington Moor , which is dominated by the long @-@ abandoned remains of the lead mining industry , through a rugged and wooded gill , past the hamlet of Hole Bottom , made famous by William Riley 's novel Jerry and Ben , and then over the 16 feet ( 5 m ) Scala Falls . A popular walk is an 8 miles ( 13 km ) circuit up to Grassington Moor , and thence to Grassington , returning along the River Wharfe . South of Hebden , the edge of the limestone is heralded by a number of text @-@ book examples of reef knolls , including Elbolton Hill , Stebden Hill , and Kail Hill , which are the conical remnants of limestone reef structures . Behind the reef knolls is a large expanse of Grassington Grit grouse moor , Thorpe Fell and Burnsall Fell , where walking may be enjoyed - especially around the edges .
= = Conservation area = =
In 2006 the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority designated Hebden a conservation area . In the proposal it was stated that :
" The special character of Hebden is defined by a historic settlement pattern of great significance together with a collection of important listed buildings and a group of unlisted buildings which , although essentially vernacular and humble in architectural terms , combine well together to create a harmonious and generally high quality environment of buildings , open spaces and tree cover . In addition , the setting is very distinctive with natural topography of surrounding hills and adjacent steep sided valley combining with a man made agricultural landscape of some age and significance in its own right . "
= = Sport = =
Hebden Sports Day is held annually on August Bank Holiday . Dating back to the nineteenth century , Hebden Sports provides a variety of running races , novelty races , and entertainments for all age groups . It has hosted the professional Hebden Fell Race since at least 1922 , which was a regular feature on the British Open Fell Runners Association calendar until 2013 . The village cricket team , the Hebden Hedgehogs plays in the Underdales League , a league with its own set of idiosyncratic rules . Rugby union , football , and crown green bowling facilities are available at Grassington and Threshfield .
= = Religion = =
Hebden is part of the ecclesiastical parish of Linton in the Skipton deanery of the Diocese of Bradford , and its church was built as a chapel of ease to St Michael and All Angels Church in Linton in 1841 and dedicated to St Peter . Until then , parishioners attended church in Linton a distance of some 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) using the church path across fields to stepping stones crossing the Wharfe . St Peter 's Church was built on land donated by the Rev Henry Bailey , and was designed by the curate , the Rev. John Feron , in the Gothic Revival style . It is a Grade II listed building . Its pipe organ was built by Harrison & Harrison of Durham and was dedicated in 1894 . It was refurbished in 2010 by A. Carter of Wakefield , and has been granted a Grade II Historic Organ Certificate .
The Methodist church built in 1812 is part of the Skipton and Grassington Methodist Circuit . Because the congregations are small , Anglicans and Methodists share a single service on Sundays , alternating between the venues .
= = Public services and transport = =
Local medical facilities are provided by the medical centre in Grassington , and hospital facilities are provided by the Airedale NHS Trust at Airedale General Hospital in Steeton , some 18 miles ( 29 km ) away . Ambulance services are provided by the Yorkshire Ambulance Service NHS Trust , who have an ambulance station in Grassington .
Fire fighting services are provided by North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Services , who maintain a retained fire station in Grassington , and cave and mountain rescue services are provided by the Upper Wharfedale Fell Rescue Association , based in Grassington . Police Services are provided by the North Yorkshire Police . The nearest manned police station is in Skipton , but there is a team of officers based in Grassington .
Regional television services are provided by BBC Yorkshire and Yorkshire Television . Cable Internet access is not available in the village , and the ADSL broadband speed is about 2 @.@ 5 Mbit / s . Fast broadband is available from BT Infinity .
Electricity distribution is the responsibility of Northern Powergrid ( Yorkshire ) , which is wholly owned by MidAmerican Energy Holdings Company . There is no domestic gas mains supply . Water is supplied by Yorkshire Water from Embsay Reservoir . Yorkshire Water is responsible for wastewater disposal , and a small @-@ scale treatment plant is located adjacent to the River Wharfe south of Hebden Beck . Refuse collection is handled by Craven District Council , and North Yorkshire County Council provides a household waste and recycling centre at Skibeden , between Bolton Abbey and Skipton .
The village is served by buses , with services to Skipton , Grassington , and Buckden , and other destinations from Grassington . The nearest railway station is in Skipton , with services to Leeds , Bradford , Carlisle , and Carnforth , and the nearest international airport is Leeds Bradford Airport .
|
= New York State Route 108 =
New York State Route 108 ( NY 108 ) is a 1 @.@ 72 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 77 km ) north – south state highway located on the Suffolk County side of the Suffolk – Nassau county line on Long Island , New York , in the United States . It is a spur route connecting NY 25A in Cold Spring Harbor to the Cold Spring Harbor station on the Long Island Rail Road 's Port Jefferson Branch via Harbor Road . Harbor Road terminates at an intersection with Woodbury Road , on the Nassau County line , which carries County Route 11 to the east and unsigned County Route 12 to the west . NY 108 , assigned in the early 1930s , is the shortest state highway on Long Island .
= = Route description = =
NY 108 begins at Woodbury Road at the Nassau County line in the community of Cold Spring Harbor . Woodbury Road continues east as CR 11 , which later becomes Pulaski Road . To the west , Woodbury Road proceeds through Nassau County as unsigned CR 12 . The road , named Harbor Road , passes to the north of the Long Island Rail Road 's Cold Spring Harbor station and runs along the Nassau – Suffolk county line . The route heads northward through a small residential neighborhood . At the intersection with Stillwell Lane , NY 108 southbound crosses into Nassau County , but soon curves away back into Suffolk . Soon after , the two @-@ lane road continues into Trail View State Park , where the route becomes desolate , passing two local ponds . A short distance later , NY 108 enters a small region of houses and intersects with Lawrence Hill Road . At the intersection with Lawrence Hill , NY 108 terminates ; just westward lies at an intersection with NY 25A ( North Hempstead Turnpike ) in Cold Spring Harbor .
= = History = =
Harbor Road was improved to state highway standards as part of a project contracted out by the state of New York on September 4 , 1919 . A total of 5 @.@ 86 miles ( 9 @.@ 43 km ) of highway were rebuilt as part of the $ 205 @,@ 500 project ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 73 million in 2016 ) , including the westernmost 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) of modern NY 25A in Suffolk County . The roads reconstructed as part of the project were added to the state highway system on January 11 , 1921 , as unsigned State Highway 1525 ( SH 1525 ) . The east – west portion of SH 1525 was designated as part of NY 25 in the mid @-@ 1920s ; however , the north – south leg did not receive a posted route number until c . 1932 , when it became NY 108 . The alignment of NY 108 has not been altered as of 1932 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Cold Spring Harbor , Suffolk County .
|
= Mi Reflejo =
Mi Reflejo ( English : My Reflection ) is the second studio album and first Spanish album by American singer Christina Aguilera . It was released on September 12 , 2000 by BMG U.S. Latin . After the commercial success of her debut studio effort , Christina Aguilera ( 1999 ) , Aguilera recorded her follow @-@ up project during 2000 . It includes five Spanish @-@ language versions of tracks from her previous album , in addition to four original compositions and two cover songs . The tracks were adapted and composed by Rudy Pérez who also produced the album .
In the United States , Mi Reflejo peaked at number @-@ one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts where it spent 19 weeks at the top of both charts . The album was the best @-@ selling Latin pop album of 2000 and was certified 6 × Platinum ( Latin field ) by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It reached number two in Argentina and Uruguay , and has sold an estimated three million copies worldwide .
Upon its release , Mi Reflejo received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who noted musical similarities to Christina Aguilera . The album led to Aguilera receiving a Latin Grammy award for Best Female Pop Vocal Album , as well as a Grammy nomination , two Billboard Latin Music Awards , and a Lo Nuestro nomination . Three singles were released from the album : " Ven Conmigo ( Solamente Tú ) " , " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " and " Falsas Esperanzas " . To promote the album , Aguilera extended her tour , Christina Aguilera in Concert , into 2001 for eight more dates and performed at the 2001 Grammy Awards .
= = Background = =
According to her manager Steve Kurtz , Aguilera expressed interest in recording a Spanish @-@ language album before she recorded her debut studio album Christina Aguilera . At the time , Aguilera was simultaneously touring to promote her debut album and recording a Christmas album My Kind of Christmas , released later in 2000 . Mi Reflejo was intended to be titled Latin Lover Girl ; the title 's origin came from the Spanish version of the song " Reflection " , which Aguilera recorded for the soundtrack to Mulan .
= = Composition = =
In 1999 , she began recording in Miami with Cuban @-@ American producer Rudy Pérez . He co @-@ wrote the songs " Si No Te Hubiera Conocido " , " Cuando No es Contigo " , and " El Beso Del Final " . He also composed the Spanish versions of " Come On Over Baby ( All I Want Is You ) " ( " Ven Conmigo ( Solamante Tú ) " ) , " Genie in a Bottle " ( " Genio Atrapado " ) , " I Turn to You " ( " Por Siempre Tu " ) , " What a Girl Wants " ( " Una Mujer " ) , and " Reflection " ( " Mi Reflejo " ) . Aguilera covers Perez 's song " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " , which was originally performed by Puerto Rican singer Lourdes Robles on her album Definitivamente ( 1991 ) . Pérez stated that Aguilera did not know any Spanish while recording ; he remedied the problem by phonetically writing out lyrics and included a system that allowed Aguilera to pronounce the " r 's " in the songs . Mi Reflejo features a cover of César Portillo de la Luz 's bolero " Contigo En La Distancia " . Additionally , Aguilera made a duet with Puerto Rican singer Luis Fonsi on the ballad " Si No Te Hubiera Conocido " . Aguilera wanted Fonsi to perform a duet with her because she felt that she could relate to him as they " grew up listening to the same things " . " Cuando No es Contigo " is an uptempo salsa song which was arranged by Sergio George . " Falsas Esperanzas " is another uptempo song in the album which features Cuban musician Paquito Hechevarria performing the piano .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Mi Reflejo received an average score of 56 , based on seven reviews , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . Stephen Erlewine of Allmusic described the album as a mirror image of her debut album Christina Aguilera . He felt that it was a " little too familiar " although he praised recordings as " well @-@ produced " ; however , he concluded that the album " doesn 't add anything new to her music , since it 's just the old music in new clothing . " An editor for Billboard wrote that Aguilera has yielded a mostly mainstream pop album with Latin inflections . Eliseo Cardona of CDNow gave the album a mixed review . While he enjoyed Aguilera 's vocal performance , which he described as " precisely , gracefully , forcefully " , he criticized the literal Spanish translation of the lyrics from English which he said made a " good laugh and a better yawn " . He commended " Cuando No es Contigo " as making Aguilera a " credible , expressive salsera " and her cover of " Contigo en la Distancia " as the album 's finest moment .
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly , who gave the album a C rating , wrote the review in a parody memo from Aguilera 's point of view . He mocked at Aguilera 's attempt at making Spanish @-@ language album simply because of her Ecuadorian heritage , criticized her " unnecessary " high note " , ballads that " old Latin ladies 'll like " , and the photos used in the album 's booklet . Mike Magnuson of HOB.com wrote a critical review of the album admonishing the photos in the record for attempting to make Aguilera look Latino which he insisted was a bad influence for the younger audience . Though he mentions that " you can count on her agreeable voice " and lauded the use of Latin percussion and horns , he asserted that the record was " purely a marketing scam gone too far . " Parry Gettelman from Orlando Sentinel stated that " Mi Reflejo lacks emotional depth , and her decision to record in Spanish seems more a bid to conquer new chart territory than anything else " .
Sonicnet called its production " superslick " and compared Aguilera 's vocals to that of Mariah Carey , completing that the album " almost guarantees that the diminutive diva will expand her colonial powers south of the border . In other words , she 's planning to do a reverse Ricky Martin on us " . Ernesto Lechner of the Los Angeles Times rated the album two out of four stars comparing her vocals in her debut album and in Mi Reflejo , describing her performance in the latter as " ridiculous " . He complained about Aguilera 's cover of " Contigo en la Distancia " which he described as a " bloated confection " . Kurt B. Reighley from Wall of Sound wrote that the album is " an impressive addition to young Christina 's limited canon " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Mi Reflejo debuted at number 27 on the Billboard 200 on the week of September 30 , 2000 . On the same week , the album debuted at number @-@ one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and replaced Son by Four 's eponymous album . It spent nineteen weeks on top of the chart until was it replaced by Vicente Fernández for his greatest hits album Historia de un Idolo , Vol . 1 . Mi Reflejo was best fifth best @-@ selling Latin album of 2000 and became the second best @-@ selling Latin album of the year later after Paulina by Paulina Rubio . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it has sold 487 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of 2014 . Likewise , the album debuted at number @-@ one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart where it debuted on top of the chart succeeding Galería Caribe by Ricardo Arjona . It spent also spent nineteen on top of this chart until it was replaced by Abrázame Muy Fuerte by Juan Gabriel . Mi Reflejo was the best @-@ selling Latin pop album of 2000 . On September 10 , 2001 , it was certified 6 × Platinum in the Latin field for shipping 600 @,@ 000 copies by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
Internationally , the album peaked at number two on the Argentine albums chart and was certified platinum by the Cámara Argentina de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( CAPIF ) . It also peaked at fifty @-@ four in Switzerland and certified platinum in Mexico by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) . In Spain , the album peaked at number twelve on the Spanish Albums Charts and was certified Platinum in the country for shipping 100 @,@ 000 copies . It has sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies in Panama . The album has sold around 3 million copies worldwide as of 2007 .
= = Singles = =
The lead single of album was " Ven Conmigo ( Solamente Tú ) " , the Spanish version of " Come On Over Baby ( All I Want Is You ) " , which was released on August 8 , 2000 to Latin radio stations . The song reached number @-@ one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and number two on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs charts . It also peaked at number eight in Spain . The second single , " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " was released in December 2000 . The song reached number eight on the Hot Latin Songs and number five on Latin Pop Songs charts . In Spain , it reached number three on the chart . Its music video was directed by Kevin G. Bray . The third single " Falsas Esperanzas " was released on July 3 , 2001 . The song reached number fifteen in Spain . Its music video , taken from her DVD My Reflection , was directed by Lawrence Jordan . " Genio Atrapado " and " Por Siempre Tu " were previously released as singles along with their original versions . The former single peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart while the latter single peaked at number six on the Hot Latin Songs and number two on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart .
= = Promotion = =
To promote Mi Reflejo , Aguilera extended her tour , Christina Aguilera : In Concert , into 2001 for eight more dates , visiting Mexico , Puerto Rico , Venezuela , Panama and Japan . Aguilera also gave a performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards , performing " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " and " Falsas Esperanzas " .
= = Accolades = =
At the Latin Grammy Awards of 2001 , the album received the award for Best Female Pop Vocal Album . At the 2001 Grammy Awards , the album received a nomination for Best Latin Pop Album which was awarded to Shakira for MTV Unplugged . The album also received a nomination at the 13th Lo Nuestro Awards for " Pop Album of the Year " , but lost to Paulina by Paulina Rubio . Aguilera herself received two Lo Nuestro awards including Pop Female Artist of the Year and Pop New Artist of the Year . At the 2001 Billboard Latin Music Awards , the album received two awards for Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist and Pop Album of the Year by a New Artist . At the 2001 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , Aguilera received an award for Favorite Artist , Latino due to the success of the album in the United States .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Mi Reflejo .
Musicians
Production
= = Charts = =
= = = Decade @-@ end charts = = =
= = Sales and certifications = =
|
= Bisporella citrina =
Bisporella citrina , commonly known as yellow fairy cups or lemon discos , is a species of fungus in the family Helotiaceae . The fungus produces tiny yellow cups up to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) in diameter , often without stalks , that fruit in groups or dense clusters on decaying deciduous wood that has lost its bark . The widely distributed species is found in North Africa , Asia , Europe , North America , and Central and South America . Found in late summer and autumn , the fungus is fairly common , but is easily overlooked owing to its small size . There are several similar species that can in most cases be distinguished by differences in color , morphology , or substrate . Microscopically , B. citrina can be distinguished from these lookalikes by its elliptical spores , which have a central partition , and an oil drop at each end .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was originally described from Europe in 1789 by German naturalist August Batsch as Peziza citrina . Elias Fries sanctioned this name in the second volume of his Systema Mycologicum ( 1821 ) . Jean Louis Émile Boudier transferred the species to Calycella in 1885 . Another historical name for the fungus was derived from Johann Hedwig 's 1789 Octospora citrina . Fries referred Hedwig 's name to Helotium in 1846 , and for several decades the fungus was known as either Calycella citrina or Helotium citrinum , depending on which generic concept an author accepted . In a 1974 publication , Richard Korf noted that the generic name Helotium competes with a basidiomycete genus of the same name , and under the rules of botanical nomenclature , the ascomycete version of the name had to be abandoned because the basidiomycete version was sanctioned by Fries in 1832 , and thus had priority . He also pointed out that the generic name Calycella could not be used , as it is a synonym of an older name Calycina , which contains species that bear no taxonomic relationship to Helotium citrinum . Accordingly , he formally transferred Helotium citrinum to Bisporella , to produce the new combination Bisporella citrina . Korf further noted that since Bisporella was published by Pier Andrea Saccardo in 1884 , it had priority over Boudier 's 1885 Calycella . Calycella has since been folded into Bisporella .
The specific epithet citrina is derived from the Latin citrin , meaning " lemon yellow " . Common names for the fungus include " yellow fairy cups " , and the British Mycological Society @-@ approved " lemon disco " ; the name " disco " is short for Discomycetes , an older term for ascomycete species with disc- and cup @-@ shaped fruit bodies . Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " lemon funnel @-@ stool " in his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants .
= = Description = =
Fruit bodies begin as spherical , closed globules , before expanding . The smooth , bright yellow fruit bodies are small — typically less than 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) in diameter and up to 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) high — and shallowly cup- or disc @-@ shaped . The inner surface is smooth , and bright yellow , while the outer surface is a paler yellow . In mass , the spore color is white . The stalk is broad , pale yellow in color , and short to nearly absent ; when present it is rarely more than 1 mm . The fruit bodies may be so numerous that their shapes are distorted by overcrowding . Fruit bodies that have dried are wrinkled and have a dull orangish @-@ brown color . The fruit bodies have no distinctive taste nor odor , and are not edible .
The smooth spores are roughly elliptical , measuring 8 – 14 by 3 – 5 μm ; in maturity they have one cross @-@ wall , and oil drops at either end . The asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) measure 100 – 135 by 7 – 10 μm . The paraphyses are shaped liked narrow cylinders with diameters up to 1 @.@ 5 μm , and have tips that are rounded or somewhat club @-@ shaped. β @-@ Carotene is the predominant pigment responsible for the yellow color of the fruit body .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are several small yellow discomycetes with which Bisporella citrina might be confused . Lookalikes include the acorn cup ( Hymenoscyphus fructigenus ) that grows on fallen acorns and hickory nuts . The green stain fungus ( Chlorociboria aeruginascens ) forms blue @-@ green cups , and stains its wood substrate bluish @-@ green . Lachnellula arida is up to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) in diameter , and has hairs around the edge of its cup , and its outer surface is covered with short brown hairs . Fruit bodies of Bisporella sulfurina have a coloration similar to B. citrina , but they are smaller and grow in clusters on old , blackened , fungal stroma on wood .
Other lookalikes include Hymenoscyphus species , including H. calyculus , but these can be distinguished by their distinct stalks , and growth on smaller woody debris like sticks and twigs , rather than logs and stumps . Many other small , yellow discos have fringed or hairy margins to the discs , like Anthracobia melaloma ; this latter species grows on or near moss , rather than wood . Chlorosplenium chlora is another small cup fungus resembling B. citrina . It has a bright yellow outer surface , but the hymenium becomes develops greenish tints in age . The common jellyspot fungus ( Dacrymyces stillatus ) is usually smaller but can approach the dimensions of B. citrina . Similar in color , its fruit bodies are usually blob @-@ like rather than cup shaped . Another cup fungus that grows on dead beech wood is Neobulgaria pura , but its fruit bodies are larger , ranging from 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) .
= = Ecology and distribution = =
Bisporella citrina is saprobic , and so obtains nutrients by breaking down complex organic molecules into simpler ones . Fruit bodies are typically encountered growing in dense clusters on the surface of rotten wood ( especially deciduous trees ) , particularly beech . They have also been found growing on the fruit bodies of the polypore fungus Daedaleopsis confragosa . In a study of the succession of fungi associated with the decay of a 120 @-@ year @-@ old healthy beech tree uprooted by strong winds , B. citrina was found on the wood about three years after the fall . It appeared after early colonizers such as Quaternaria quaternata , Tubercularia vulgaris ( the anamorph form of Nectria cinnabarina ) , and Bulgaria inquinans , and was followed by Stereum hirsutum and Nectria cinnabarina .
The widespread fungus is known from North Africa , Asia , Europe , North America , Central and South America , Australia , and New Zealand . It is one of the most common of the small discomycetes .
|
= Le Paradis massacre =
The Le Paradis massacre was a war crime committed by members of the 14th Company , SS Division Totenkopf , under the command of Hauptsturmführer Fritz Knöchlein . It took place on 27 May 1940 , during the Battle of France , at a time when the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) was attempting to retreat through the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region during the Battle of Dunkirk .
Soldiers of the 2nd Battalion , the Royal Norfolk Regiment , had become isolated from their regiment . They occupied and defended a farmhouse against an attack by Waffen @-@ SS forces in the village of Le Paradis . After running out of ammunition , the defenders surrendered to the German troops . The Germans led them across the road to a wall , and machine @-@ gunned them . Ninety @-@ seven British troops died . Two survived , with injuries , and hid until they were captured by German forces several days later .
After the war , Fritz Knöchlein was located , tried and convicted by a war crimes court , with the two survivors acting as witnesses against him . For his part in the massacre , Knöchlein was executed in 1949 .
= = Background = =
The German invasion of France through the Netherlands and Belgium began on 10 May 1940 . Army Group A fought its way through southern Belgium and north @-@ eastern France . German forces pushed the French Army and the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) to the Meuse river on 12 May , crossing it that evening . From there , the German forces rapidly advanced to the English Channel over the course of the next week . BEF units , including detached companies of the Royal Norfolks and Royal Scots , were ordered to try to slow the German advance in northern France to buy time to evacuate troops at Dunkirk .
One of the participating German units , the 3rd SS Division Totenkopf , had been strongly indoctrinated with the Nazi Party ideology by its commander Theodor Eicke . Eicke 's men had a fanatical loyalty to him and to Germany . The men of Totenkopf fought recklessly throughout the campaign , suffering higher death rates than other German forces .
The Battle of France was SS Division Totenkopf 's first major engagement of World War II . The division , part of the reserves of Army Group A , was called to the front line on 17 May . The unit was engaged in " mopping up " operations against Allied forces to the north and east of Cambrai . In total 16 @,@ 000 prisoners had been taken by the division , but they had refused the surrender of 200 Muslim French @-@ Moroccan troops , who were executed on the spot .
By the time the operation had finished in Cambrai , the first German units had reached the English Channel , but the British counter @-@ attacked just west of Arras on 21 May , following on from the counter @-@ attack of the day before ( Battle of Arras ) . The Totenkopf division suffered casualties of just under 100 men in repelling the assault . The Totenkopf was then ordered to the town of Béthune and crossed the La Bassée river under British attack on 24 May . However , the men were ordered to retreat the next day to preserve tanks for the upcoming campaign in Dunkirk and to allow the Luftwaffe to attack Allied positions in the area . The men thus had to make the hazardous crossing again on the night of 26 May . The SS men took Béthune after heavy house @-@ to @-@ house fighting with the British , who withdrew to a line between Locon and Le Paradis .
The 2nd Battalion of the Royal Norfolks , along with the 8th Lancashire Fusiliers , were holding the Allied line at the villages of Riez du Vinage , Le Cornet Malo and Le Paradis with the battalion headquarters based at Le Paradis . The battalions had been ordered to hold out for as long as possible against the Germans to give time for the BEF to evacuate from Dunkirk .
The SS Division Totenkopf emerged from the Bois de Paqueaut wood and attacked Le Cornet Malo at dawn on 27 May . The British troops defended stubbornly but were eventually overrun . The attack resulted in the deaths of four German officers and 150 men . Another 480 men and 18 officers were wounded . Later the same day , the German troops moved forward to attack Le Paradis .
= = = Battle of Le Paradis = = =
After the engagement at Le Cornet Malo , C Company and HQ Company of the 2nd Royal Norfolks had fallen back to their headquarters at Cornet Farm , just outside Le Paradis . The company commanders had been informed by radio that their units were isolated and would receive no assistance . They therefore dug in around the farmhouse , which lay on the Rue du Paradis , the boundary between the Royal Norfolk Regiment and the adjacent 1st Royal Scots . The Norfolks ' last contact with Brigade Headquarters at L 'Epinette was at 11 : 30 but despite no support and heavy opposition , the defenders held out against the 14th Company , 1st Battalion of the 2nd SS Infantry Regiment until 17 : 15 , when they ran out of ammunition . During the battle the Germans attacked the farmhouse with mortars , tanks and artillery shelling , which destroyed the building and forced the defenders to relocate to a cowshed .
The 99 surviving defenders of the 2nd Norfolks were eventually ordered by their commander Major Lisle Ryder , the brother of Robert Edward Dudley Ryder , to surrender and they left the cowshed that they had been defending under a white flag . Due to the boundary between the two British regiments being the road , Ryder 's men surrendered not to the company they had been fighting , but rather to SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Fritz Knöchlein 's unit , which had been fighting the Royal Scots . Mass graves found near Le Paradis in 2007 suggest that around 20 men of the Royal Scots who surrendered to an SS unit may also have been killed in a separate massacre .
= = Massacre = =
The British captives , a majority of whom were wounded , were disarmed and marched down a road off the Rue du Paradis . While they were waiting , two machine @-@ guns from No.4 Machine @-@ gun Company were prepared and set up by a barn in a paddock of the farm . The British prisoners were marched to the barn , lined up alongside it and fired upon by the two German machinegunners , who continued firing until all the British had fallen . Knöchlein then armed his men with bayonets to kill any remaining survivors . Satisfied that they had killed them all , the German soldiers left to rejoin the rest of their regiment .
An account by Private Albert Pooley , one of only two survivors :
... we turned off the dusty French road , through a gateway and into a meadow beside the buildings of a farm . I saw with one of the nastiest feelings I have ever had in my life two heavy machine guns inside the meadow ... pointing at the head of our column . The guns began to spit fire ... for a few seconds the cries and shrieks of our stricken men drowned the crackling of the guns . Men fell like grass before a scythe ... I felt a searing pain and pitched forward ... my scream of pain mingled with the cries of my mates , but even before I fell into the heap of dying men , the thought stabbed my brain ' If I ever get out of here , the swine that did this will pay for it.'
Ninety @-@ seven British prisoners were killed and the Germans forced French civilians to bury the bodies in a shallow mass grave the next day . Despite the German efforts , Private William O 'Callaghan had survived and pulled Private Albert Pooley alive from among the bodies in the field . The pair then hid in a pig @-@ sty for three days and nights , surviving on raw potatoes and water from puddles before being discovered by the farm 's owner , Madame Duquenne @-@ Creton , and her son Victor . The French civilians risked their lives caring for the two men , who were later captured by the Wehrmacht 's 251st Infantry Division and transferred to a military hospital .
= = Aftermath = =
On the day after the massacre , 28 May , Gunter d 'Alquen , a journalist in the Waffen @-@ SS , arrived at the scene with Dr Thum , the SS @-@ Totenkopf deputy legal advisor. d 'Alquen made a report of what he saw :
It was possible to look into the back yard from the road ... the corpses in British uniform were lying in the yard near the buildings . They were lying in such a position that one can assume they were killed by machine @-@ gun bursts . It struck me at once that the dead soldiers were not wearing helmets , nor did they have any equipment on them ... I took pictures of the dead bodies , and the whole farm . At Thum 's request these were to be placed at the disposal of the division ... I believe I was already sitting there in the vehicle when Thum ... told me that in the field which he had returned the equipment ... the shot British soldiers were lying in a heap , from which he had come to the conclusion that a summary trial had taken place .
Major Friedkerr von Riedner , who was also at the scene of the massacre on that day , reported that " These people had almost all suffered head wounds from shots that must have been fired at close range . Some had their whole skull smashed in , an injury that can almost only be caused by a blow from a gun butt or similar means . "
News of the massacre spread to neighbouring German divisions , eventually reaching General Erich Hoepner , commander of the German forces in France . He disliked the SS , especially Eicke , and was determined to have him dismissed if charges of mistreatment or murdering of prisoners could be brought . However , none of these investigations were ever successful . Regardless , many SS officers were appalled by the massacre ; some reportedly challenged Knöchlein to a duel , although none were ever fought .
The Allies received no information about the massacre until the summer of 1943 , when Pooley , who had spent the last three years in a German hospital due to the injuries he had suffered in the massacre , was declared medically unfit and repatriated . British authorities did not believe Pooley 's story on his arrival ; it was not thought that the German army were capable of such atrocities against British troops . Private O 'Callaghan did not return to the United Kingdom until 1945 after the liberation of his prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp . His confirmation of Pooley 's story prompted an official investigation .
The bodies of those killed in the massacre were exhumed in 1942 by the French , but only about 50 of the 97 were successfully identified . The bodies were then reburied in Le Paradis churchyard , which now forms part of the Le Paradis War Cemetery administered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission . In 1970 , a memorial plaque was placed on the barn wall where the massacre took place and a large memorial was subsequently erected beside the church .
= = Trial of Knöchlein = =
After the war , O 'Callaghan 's evidence and the discovery of the SS @-@ run extermination camps prompted the British authorities to look into the reports . The massacre was investigated by the War Crimes Investigation Unit and after Knöchlein 's company was identified as the perpetrators in 1947 , he was traced and arrested in Germany . Knöchlein was arraigned on charges of war crimes in August 1948 ; to which he pleaded not guilty :
The accused Fritz Knöchlein , a German national , in the charge of the Hamburg Garrison Unit , pursuant to Regulation 4 of the Regulations for the Trial of War Criminals , is charged with committing a war crime in that he in the vicinity of Paradis , Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , France , on or about 27 May 1940 , in violation of the laws and usages of war , was concerned in the killing of about ninety prisoners @-@ of @-@ war , members of The Royal Norfolk Regiment and other British Units .
He was tried before Curiohaus war crimes court in Rotherbaum , in Court Number 5 on Monday , 11 October 1948 . Knöchlein 's defence hinged on the claim that he was not present at the massacre , although his lawyers did not deny that the event took place . They also claimed that the British had used dumdum bullets during the battle and misused a flag of truce ; all of which were vigorously denied by the prosecution . Evidence was given by Pooley , O 'Callaghan , Madame Duquenne @-@ Creton , and a French civilian who testified to recognizing Knöchlein .
On the 12th day of the trial , during his summation , the Judge @-@ Advocate said that whether the British had used illegal ammunition or abused a flag of truce was irrelevant ; the German troops still had absolutely no right to execute prisoners of war without a fair and proper trial . On 25 October at 11 : 30 , the President of the court pronounced the verdict that the defendant , Fritz Knöchlein , had been found guilty of war crimes . His lawyer , Dr. Uhde , made the following plea to the court for clemency on account of Knöchlein 's wife and family , who had attended every day of the trial :
" All that is left for me to say is that some little doubt may have remained in the minds of the Court which will enable the members not to award the extreme penalty . Spare the life of the accused . He has a wife and four children who are dependent upon him for support . Consider also the fact that he is a soldier , and the Court is composed of members of the British Army . I believe I am entitled to appeal to the Court to pronounce a sentence which will enable my client to come out of prison at an early date . "
Despite this plea , at 15 : 00 he was sentenced to death by hanging , which was carried out on 28 January 1949 in Hamburg . No other German soldiers or officers were prosecuted for their roles in the massacre .
|
= Dimitri Marick =
Dimitri Marick is a fictional character from the American ABC soap opera All My Children . The role has been most notably portrayed by Michael Nader , previously famed for his role on Dynasty . Former head writers Agnes Nixon and Lorraine Broderick created the character in 1991 , designing him as a brooding and mysterious character based on heroes from gothic literature , such as Maxim de Winter from Daphne du Maurier 's novel Rebecca and Heathcliff from Emily Brontë 's novel Wuthering Heights . The character 's introduction raised All My Children in the Nielsen ratings and was credited as the " saving grace " of the unpopular Natalie and Janet storyline .
Soon after his debut on the soap opera , Dimitri became a complex leading man and took part in some of the most notable plots of the 1990s . Those storylines included popular romances with Erica Kane ( Susan Lucci ) and Alexandra Devane ( Finola Hughes ) , as well as a loving yet antagonistic fraternal relationship with Edmund Grey ( John Callahan ) .
In July 1999 , Nader was let go from All My Children due to budgetary considerations , however , he later returned in May 2000 . The following year , the actor 's arrest brought him and the character to the center of a large fan campaign organized by a group called the Loyalists , as well as a highly publicized lawsuit catching the attention of People and Entertainment Tonight , among other media outlets . As a result , Nader was let go again by the soap opera , with an official statement saying they would be prepared to consider having him return once he had addressed the lawsuit issues . The role was temporarily recast with actor Anthony Addabbo , who was negatively received by viewers , and let go shortly after his debut . Nader later stated in an interview that ABC had informed him that they had no intention of ever bringing him or the character back due to a lack of storyline . In 2004 , Nader 's suit was subsequently thrown out . In May 2013 , after a twelve @-@ year absence from All My Children , Nader was announced to be reprising the role , with his return airing on June 12 , 2013 .
= = Casting = =
Casting the role of Dimitri gave All My Children difficulty . The series ' casting director , Judy Blye Wilson , tested between fifteen and twenty actors , and could not find the right actor for the job . Wilson then learned that the former Dynasty star , Michael Nader was available and suggested the show offer him the part .
Before All My Children offered him the role of Dimitri Marick , Nader already planned on working in both Los Angeles and New York . " My fiancee , Beth Windsor , had literally just worked into being bicoastal , " he said . " She had an apartment here and I had been seeking out some theater here in New York and would have been spending time both here and in L.A. So after we made the decision to go ahead with that game plan , this offer ( Dimitri ) came on the table and when we worked out all the figures moneywise it was a great opportunity . " Despite Nader 's prime time success as Dynasty 's Dex Dexter , he did not look down on daytime television . " The fact of the matter is we 're in a different era , " he said . " And if you look at the cutbacks in Hollywood , being on a soap is not of any less or more value than being in any other medium at this time . " Another factor that contributed to his decision to join All My Children was the actors strike . He intended to stay on All My Children for a year . That year turned into more because the actor fell in love with New York .
Since finding the right actor to play Dimitri took such a long time , the show had already begun taping around the character for two weeks . Nader spent his first weeks on All My Children working overtime to catch up . " By the time we had resolved some of the terms , " he said , " they were really against the wall in terms of back story .... In retrospect , I should have just slept on the set because it was like sixty or seventy pages a day ! " Nader also taped his scenes out of sequence while dealing with sixteen different scripts from different points in the story . To keep each scene straight he gave them each a name that described the scene 's main action . After those scenes were taped , they were spliced into the otherwise completed episodes . This went on for two weeks until the episodes were all caught up . Another complication Nader dealt with was the wardrobe . He said , " They had devised this sort of ' tapestry ' layered look for Dimitri and it was like doing scenes inside a sauna . " This was eventually rectified , but not before the actor lost around twelve pounds in the two weeks .
Michael Nader was fired from All My Children in July 1999 , due to budget considerations , and Dimitri was killed off . This led to a fan outcry from viewers who campaigned for the actor 's return . To partially appease them , the show 's executive producer , Jean Dadario Burke , offered Nader his job back on a recurring basis . He rejected this offer because " after being a major character for so long , it didn 't make any sense to me . So I declined . But if the network was interested in seriously discussing Dimitri 's return on a contract basis I would love to go back . "
In May 2000 , he was rehired and brought back into the role with a multi @-@ year contract . The return story scripted for the Dimitri character centered on the romance between his brother Edmund and his wife Alex . Dimitri was revealed to be alive just as his wife , Alex , and brother , Edmund , had sex for the first time . Nader said he wanted to create a deeper layer in the character instead of focusing solely on the love triangle between Dimitri , Alex , and Edmund . " I do hope to pursue some sort of subtle spiritual change , some perception that Dimitri is different , " he said . He questioned the writers ' storyline choice in not exploring the popular Dimitri and Erica romance again . " I found it sort of odd that they 'd move me so far away from Susan [ Lucci , Erica ] , " Nader said . " They 're trying to explore these other themes . "
Nader lost the role again in February 2001 as a result of the actor getting arrested for allegedly selling cocaine to an undercover police officer . All My Children released an official statement saying , " If Mr. Nader gets the help that he needs and addresses his problem , and it makes sense for the show , we would be prepared to speak with Michael in the future . " The network put Nader on probation and ordered him to seek help for his problem .
Anthony Addabbo temporarily took over the role , first airing on April 6 , 2001 . To prepare for the role , he watched tapes of Nader 's portrayal of Dimitri in order to see the relationships between Dimitri and other characters . Despite the fan protest against the role being recast , Addabbo told Soap Opera Digest he was not worried . " I don 't find it intimidating , " he said . " I know how they can come to love a certain actor portraying a role and how he plays the role and everything , but this happens in daytime so frequently that I didn 't find it intimidating at all . " Soap Opera Digest considered him an odd choice for a Dimitri recast since Addabbo usually portrayed " all @-@ American good guys " such as Generations Jason Craig and Guiding Light 's Jim LeMay . A large number of All My Children fans rejected Addabbo in the role and continued to campaign for Nader 's return . The controversy forced the writers to lessen Dimitri 's role on the show until July 2001 when Addabbo was let go " for storyline reasons " , according to ABC 's official statement .
During an interview , Nader told Soap Opera Digest that in late September 2001 , ABC called a meeting with him to inform him that , though he resolved his personal problems , they had no intention of ever bringing him or the character back due to lack of story . Nader argued that other storyline possibilities existed since he and Dimitri received " a tremendous response " from viewers . " For years , Dimitri and Erica were a popular coupling , " he said . " A good friend of mine , Jack Scalia ( Chris ) , is on ... that alone would be a dynamic triangle . "
In May 2013 , following a twelve @-@ year absence from All My Children , Nader was announced to be reprising the role of Dimitri , scheduled to begin in June . Initially his first airdate was 3 June , however , due to Prospect Park 's decision to reduce the amount of episodes made available each week , he did not air until 12 June .
= = Development = =
Former head writers Agnes Nixon and Lorraine Broderick created the character Dimitri Marick in 1991 . His original purpose was to rescue Natalie Marlowe from the well her sister , Janet Green , trapped her in . He was also designed as a rival for Natalie 's current love interest , Trevor Dillon . Trevor and Natalie were a popular couple at that point and the writers wanted to create a viable obstacle for them. eally exciting , romantic , handsome leading man , so that there would be a real impediment ; you know we 'd have a really exciting love story between Trevor and somebody as different from Trevor as we could get ... because Trevor is a wonderful , warm , teddy bear , lovable , down @-@ to @-@ earth , right @-@ out @-@ there guy- and Dimitri is very much opposite from that . " Broderick characterized the character in an interview with Soap Opera Update , stating :
Nixon and Broderick also crafted the character as a darkly brooding and mysterious man in the same vein as gothic literary heroes such as Heathcliff from Wuthering Heights , Edward Rochester from Jane Eyre , and Maxim de Winter from Rebecca . Nixon used these characters as inspiration for Dimitri because , as she told Soap Opera Weekly , " In doing the ' stolen life ' story , I felt that we needed something to follow that was also a little larger than life , very romantic , and gothic . " The characters played a part in shaping Dimitri as well as his environment and storylines . Maxim de Winter 's estate , Manderley , provided the inspiration for Dimitri 's Pine Valley estate , Wildwind . The design was taken from both the description in Du Maurier 's book and the depiction from the film Rebecca , a 1940 adaptation of the novel by Alfred Hitchcock . Like Mr. Rochester , the wife Dimitri falsely claims died years ago is revealed to be alive just before his marriage to another woman .
Nixon infused elements of those literatures into the Dimitri and Natalie romance with as well . " There 's a gothic quality to it " , she said , referring to the couple . " It 's Wuthering Heights or Jane Eyre . Everybody loves somebody who has a past and a secret- and certainly Dimitri does- which we haven 't divulged yet . That heightens ones interest and suspense . It 's a special situation but what really makes it special is the actor 's talent , personalities , good looks , and chemistry . " Since the writers created Dimitri as a very mysterious character , Michael Nader mostly stayed away from the press in order to help maintain that image . Whenever he did do an interview , he discussed the character in such a way as to add more mystery . Nader compared Dimitri to the Dynasty character he once portrayed , Dex Dexter . On Dynasty , " John James ( Jeff Colby ) played the ' aw , shucks ; ' nice guy , and I played the guy who was on the edge , who would take care of business and not take any bull " , he said . " Dimitri is sort of a darker Dex . Though I don 't know exactly how dark to make him yet . " Nader , as an actor , also provided the writers with more inspiration on the character . " The more we see of him , the more he inspires us " , Broderick said . " It 's just a wonderful marriage of actor and character [ ... ] He 's giving us so many levels and such depth , that it 's a challenge . But it 's exciting . Dimitri is one of the characters that is so much fun to write . "
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
To further the mystery element and add an international twist to the story , Nixon scripted Dimitri as having close European roots , though he is an American . He is the son of Hungarian parents , Hugo and Anna . Originally , his wealth comes from all the land around Pine Valley and the One Life to Live city Llanview , which he inherits from his parents . That is also where his fictional estate , Wildwind , is located . Later , during Dimitri 's 1992 story with Erica Kane , he is revealed to also be Hungarian nobility as Count Andrassy . He inherited his title and his Hungarian castle , Vadzel , from his father 's side . Both of his parents were dead by the time Dimitri first appears on All My Children . He spends his childhood years growing up in Europe and on the Wildwind estate . He has a complicated relationship with Edmund Gresham , the son of two of his family 's employees , unknown to Dimitri to be his half @-@ brother . His childhood sweetheart was Angelique Voynitzeva , the daughter of his nanny , Helga . Helga later becomes his housekeeper . Fifteen years prior to Dimitri 's appearance on @-@ screen , he and Angelique married . Angelique becomes pregnant but suffers a miscarriage which devastates both of them . Angelique has a riding accident which leaves her in a coma . Dimitri tries to find a cure , but is unable to and sends her to a clinic in Austria . He becomes reclusive for the next decade because of the guilt he feels over her condition . Finding Natalie in 1991 brings him out into society again .
= = = 1991 – 2001 = = =
Dimitri Marick first appears in Pine Valley in 1991 when he rescues Natalie Marlowe from the well her twin sister , Janet Green , trapped her in on the Wildwind estate . She resembles his wife , Angelique , which attracts him to her . While he nurses her back to health , Dimitri becomes obsessively in love with her . His housekeeper , Helga , warns him not to get involved with her because of his marriage to her comatose daughter , Angelique . He lies to Natalie that his wife died years ago . Once Natalie recovers and everyone learns what happened to her at Janet 's hand , Natalie 's fiance , Trevor Dillon , tries to reconcile with her . She rejects him because Janet fooled him so easily . Dimitri and Natalie become engaged . Unbeknown to Dimitri , Angelique awakens from her coma . Helga reveals Angelique is out of her coma by bringing her to Wildwind during Dimitri and Natalie 's engagement party . Natalie leaves Dimitri and reunites with Trevor . Dimitri reconciles with his wife .
In 1992 , Dimitri begins an affair with Erica Kane . He falls in love with her , but feels he must stay with Angelique . He eventually leaves her for Erica . Dimitri and Erica 's storylines include a tumultuous romance leading to two failed marriages and a miscarriage . One of the biggest obstacles in their relationship is Erica 's vindinctive and manipulative daughter , Kendall Hart .
In that same year , Edmund Gresham , now going by Edmund Grey , returns to town to see his childhood friend , Angelique . Dimitri is furious to see Edmund again . Dimitri is stunned when Edmund informs him that they are half @-@ brothers . Edmund had discovered this when he found a will of Hugo Marick that states he is not only his illegitimate son , but that he is the lawful heir to Wildwind . Helga had planted the will because she believed Dimitri was going to leave Angelique for Erica . When Dimitri assures Helga he will stay with Angelique , she destroys the will in order to keep the estate for her daughter . Edmund accuses Dimitri of stealing the will and files a lawsuit to have Hugo 's body exhumed in order to perform a DNA test . Dimitri believes Edmund is lying about everything and is infuriated by the lawsuit . The hatred between the two deepens even more . Eventually , the truth about what Helga did is revealed and she dies . Dimitri and Edmund agree to put the past behind them and they bond as brothers . They develop an extremely close and loving relationship , but they also continue to have a standing rivalry .
Another bombshell is dropped in Dimitri 's life when he finds out that Anton Lang , who he supported through medical school , is really his son with his maid , Corvina Lang ( Margaret Sophie Stein ) . Dimitri had had a drunken one @-@ night stand with Corvina which he had no memory of . Dimitri is happy to finally be a father and attempts to forge relationship with Anton , which proves to be difficult . Anton , who had believed Corvina was his sister , doesn 't take the news of his parentage well and marries Kendall to throw it in Dimitri 's face . Eventually , Anton sees Kendall for the manipulator that she is and divorces her . Anton and Dimitri manage to work things out before Anton leaves town .
During a time when they are both particularly vulnerable , Dimitri and Edmund 's wife , Maria , sleep together . When Maria finds out she is pregnant , they have a DNA test done . Skye Chandler , who is in love with Edmund , tampers with test so it will show Dimitri is the father when it is in fact Edmund . After Maria confesses everything , a devastated Edmund tells Dimitri that he is dead to him and he will be bringing the child up as his own . Maria gives birth to a baby girl named Maddie and is later presumed dead in a plane crash . Dimitri discovers that Edmund is Maddie 's father when he finds out their blood types do not match . He takes her to Vadzel , but Edmund tracks them down and takes back custody of Maddie . The brothers remain estranged for quite some time , but eventually manage to reconcile . Dimitri leaves Pine Valley permanently in 2001 with his current wife , Alex Devane Marick .
= = = 2013 = = =
In June 2013 , Dimitri received an Email from his old friend , and former lover , Brooke English . Brooke was shocked when Dimitri responded by showing up at her door , and told him that she thought she 'd never see him again . Dimitri revealed that he and Alex had divorced , and that he had not bothered remaining in touch with Edmund 's family and had reverted to his reclusive ways , but that Europe was beginning to bore him and her timing couldn 't have been better . Upon returning to town , he stopped by his former residence , Wildwind , only to find that the place was empty . Brooke explained that after its last occupant , Caleb Cortlandt , had moved out , Sam and Maddie , Edmund 's children , had not bothered to rent the mansion out again . Dimitri told Brooke that , while at Wildwind , he stopped by the mausoleum and made amends to Edmund , who had died in a fire 8 years earlier .
Brooke explained to Dimitri that she needed someone to oversee the online division of Chandler Media , and she felt Dimitri would be perfect for the job . Dimitri eagerly accepted . Later , Brooke re @-@ introduced Dimitri to J.R. Chandler , who , although appeared happy to see Dimitri , was nonetheless jealous of the fact that Dimitri , and not him , would be overseeing Chandler Media .
As Dimitri and Brooke worked more and more closely together , Dimitri developed feelings for her , which came to a head when he kissed her shortly after the Chandler Media Gala . Brooke told Dimitri that can never happen again , because she is engaged to marry Adam .
= = Reception = =
Dimitri became a popular leading man soon after his debut on All My Children in 1991 and " was prominent in some of the show 's most memorable tales of that decade . " The character and his portrayer , Michael Nader , were credited with lifting the Nielsen ratings as well as saving the Natalie , Trevor , and Janet storyline . In that storyline , the character Janet Green imprisons her sister Natalie in a well and masquerades as Natalie to seduce her fiance Trevor . Fans and soap opera press criticized the story . In Soap Opera Weekly , Marlena De Lacroix said , " Dimitri was the saving grace of the storyline I 'd earlier called an artistic disaster : the Janet and Natalie body switch . " She described Dimitri as a " cross between Rudolph Valentino 's Sheik and the gothic Maxim de Winter from Rebecca . " Viewers found the character " irresistible " ; so much so that Soap Opera Digest questioned whether the character was a diversion from the failed storyline . All My Children 's head writer Agnes Nixon denied this . " We expected to get negative mail on Janet / Nat , " she said , " they [ the viewers ] don 't like it but they [ keep ] watching . "
The character gained further success with the popular Dimitri and Erica pairing . In 1993 , viewers named them a supercouple , along with One Life to Live 's Bo and Nora and Days of our Lives ' Roman and Marlena . In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly listed them among the top seventeen supercouples . Soap Opera Digest compared them to the real life couple Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton because of their tumultuous nature .
The romance between Dimitri and Finola Hughes ' Alexandra Devane Marick also rose in popularity . Soap Opera Update named them the best couple of the year in 1999 for All My Children despite the fact that their love story played out through brief flashbacks . The magazine compared the couple 's relationship to the television series Once and Again . Soap Opera Update also referred to them as the " break out supercouple of the year " .
The Dimitri character took a darker turn in 1997 , in what Soap Opera Digest considered an effort to make Erica more sympathetic after her role in the kidnapping of the baby Maddie Grey ( then known as Sonya ) . Soap Opera Digest praised the move in an article naming Nader Performer of the Week , saying , " Nader has been surprisingly effective as a meanie , and nothing short of brilliant taking an already complex character and making him more compelling . " Soap Opera Weekly 's Gabrielle Winkel expressed similar sentiments , saying , " Michael Nader is far more entertaining and compelling now that Dimitri is out for himself than when he was as Erica 's devoted husband ... AMC was right on target when it developed Dimitri 's dark side . Nader 's brooding looks and raspy voice have always given Dimitri that evil edge . Nader , though , wisely keeps Dimitri 's obsessiveness sufficiently in check to make it believable . " At the conclusion of the storyline Soap Opera Digest again named him Performer of the Week for " unleashing the sort of go @-@ for @-@ broke fury and fray that actors are usually reluctant to release unless they 're certain their character is about to be killed off . "
Soap Opera Digest noted the rarity of brothers like Edmund Grey and Dimitri Marick . In the soap opera genre , brothers with a standing rivalry as well as a strong fraternal bond are considered to be a rarity . Sisters on soap operas were usually the ones who shared " men , makeup , and misery . " Dimitri and Edmund 's relationship was scripted as complicated , transitioning between loving and antagonistic . Their relationship gained positive feedback from both viewers and the soap opera media . Soap Opera Digest named them Best Brothers of 1994 , saying , " In Michael Nader ( Dimitri ) and John Callahan ( Edmund ) , AMC has charismatic performers with chemistry , and they 're making the most of it . " Complications in the brothers ' relationship included childhood jealousies , the revelation that they were brothers , Dimitri 's one @-@ night stand with Edmund 's wife Maria and subsequent question of the paternity of Maddie Grey , and the Dimitri , Alex , and Edmund triangle . Along with the conflict , they displayed a loving relationship where they stood by each other . In describing the relationship , Nader said , " The storyline with Edmund and Dimitri , the Marick brothers , there wasn 't a brother duo on television that had the sort of power that John and I could bring to that relationship . "
Storylines they featured in met with both praise and negative reactions . With the plot centering on Maddie Grey 's paternity and kidnappings , All My Children " fans revolted en masse . " Yet Soap Opera Digest hailed the plot as " one of the best told , most fascinating storylines of the year . " In the Dimitri , Alex , and Edmund triangle , viewers took two opposing views on which brother should end up with Alex . Soap Opera Weekly proclaimed the triangle a hit , while Soap Opera Update rated it a ten out of ten . In the storyline , Alex and Edmund fall in love while her husband Dimitri is presumed dead . They eventually become engaged . When he returns and witnesses their happy relationship , Dimitri decides not to interfere . " The dilemma for Dimitri is his brother 's happiness , " Nader said . " As much as he loves Alex , he 's made the choice to give her to Edmund . " Alex discovers Dimitri alive first . They reunite and engage in sex . Edmund finds out and feels betrayed by them both . The scenes of the confrontation between all three characters was written to express the views of both the Dimitri and Alex and the Edmund and Alex fans . The viewers who rooted for Edmund argued that Dimitri and Alex betrayed him by having sex immediately after reuniting . Viewers who supported Dimitri argued that the reunion was not a betrayal since Dimitri was Alex 's husband . Alex ends up with Dimitri , which changes " Edmund from a jaded , one @-@ note character into a far more multidimensional and intriguing hero . " Soap Opera Weekly praised All My Children for not dragging the triangle out and instead using it as a catalyst for character development .
= = Controversy = =
In what Soap Opera Digest named the year 's Dumbest Male Axing in 1999 , Nader was fired from the role of Dimitri and the character was killed off . The firing " set off a firestorm of protest from devoted fans . " Those fans came together to form a group called the Loyalists and campaigned for the actor 's return . They " bombarded " All My Children with letters centering on three major complaints concerning Nader 's dismissal , as summarized in Soap Opera Digest : " 1 ) They have waited two years for a Dimitri / Erica reunion , which they won 't get now that he 's leaving . 2 ) They adore Nader 's chemistry with on @-@ screen brother John Callahan ( Edmund ) and don 't want to lose it . 3 ) They fear that Nader has been sacrificed to make room in the budget for new- and younger- cast members . " In response to the last complaint , an All My Children spokesperson pointed out the storylines planned for characters over thirty years old such as Tad , Dixie , Erica , David , Edmund , and Alex .
Nader thanked the Loyalists for their support and expressed his surprise at the size of the response . " [ T ] he expanse and impact were quite astounding to me , " he said . " In my years of doing this , I never experienced this kind of support . " Susan Lucci commented on the fan response , saying , " So many people stop me on the street and ask me , ' Will Dimitri ever come back and will he and Erica ever get together . ' "
At a fan luncheon , the Loyalists confronted All My Children 's executive producer Jean Dadario Burke with a petition asking for Nader 's return . They also organized a tune @-@ out of the show on November 5 , 1999 . To appease them at least in part , Burke offered Nader his job back on a recurring basis , which he refused . In 2000 , All My Children rehired him on a contract basis . His co @-@ star , Hughes was happy about the news , saying his return would " give a huge injection of ' fuel ' " to the Alex and Edmund romance .
In 2001 , Nader was arrested for cocaine possession . All My Children suspended him and demanded he get treatment . They cast Addabbo in the role as a temporary replacement . Fans of Nader , the Loyalists in particular , rejected the recast . Though the majority of the viewers did not take to him , Addabbo gained an amount of support from fans who wanted him to continue in the role or portray a different character once Nader returned . Soap Opera Digest criticized the casting of Addabbo because the actor usually portrayed " all @-@ American good guys " , the opposite of the Dimitri Marick role . In July of that year , Addabbo was let go and Dimitri was officially written out .
After Nader got help for his drug addiction at Hazelton Clinic in Minnesota , All My Children opted not to bring him back . Nader filed a $ 31 @.@ 7 million lawsuit against ABC for breach of contract under the Americans with Disabilities Act . ABC 's lawyers cited Nader 's violation of the morals clause in his contract as justification for not rehiring him . The firing and lawsuit caught the attention of non @-@ soap opera medias such as TV Guide , Inside Edition , People , Celebrity Justice , Extra , Entertainment Tonight , and Larry King Live . Manhattan Federal Judge Jed S. Rakoff threw out the suit in 2004 .
|
= Hezbollah =
Hezbollah ( pronounced / ˌhɛzbəˈlɑː / ; Arabic : حزب الله Ḥizbu ' llāh , literally " Party of Allah " or " Party of God " ) — also transliterated Hizbullah , Hizballah , etc . — is a Shi 'a Islamist militant group and political party based in Lebanon . Hezbollah 's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council , and its political wing is Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese parliament . After the death of Abbas al @-@ Musawi in 1992 , the group has been headed by Hassan Nasrallah , its Secretary @-@ General .
After the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 , Israel occupied a strip of south Lebanon , which was controlled by the South Lebanon Army ( SLA ) , a militia supported by Israel . Hezbollah was conceived by Muslim clerics and funded by Iran primarily to harass the Israeli occupation . Its leaders were followers of Ayatollah Khomeini , and its forces were trained and organized by a contingent of 1 @,@ 500 Revolutionary Guards that arrived from Iran with permission from the Syrian government , which was in occupation of Lebanon at the time . Hezbollah waged a guerilla campaign in South Lebanon — SLA collapsed and surrendered , and Israel withdrew from Lebanon on May 24 , 2000 .
Hezbollah 's military strength has grown so significantly that its paramilitary wing is considered more powerful than the Lebanese Army . Hezbollah has been described as a " state within a state " , and has grown into an organization with seats in the Lebanese government , a radio and a satellite TV station , social services and large @-@ scale military deployment of fighters beyond Lebanon 's borders . Hezbollah is part of the March 8 Alliance within Lebanon , in opposition to the March 14 Alliance . Hezbollah maintains strong support among Lebanon 's Shi 'a population , while Sunnis have disagreed with the group 's agenda . Hezbollah receives military training , weapons , and financial support from Iran , and political support from Syria . Hezbollah and Israel fought each other in the 2006 Lebanon War .
Hezbollah 's 1985 manifesto listed its objectives as the expulsion of " the Americans , the French and their allies definitely from Lebanon , putting an end to any colonialist entity on our land " , submission of the Phalangists to " just power " and bringing them to justice " for the crimes they have perpetrated against Muslims and Christians " , and permitting " all the sons of our people " to choose the form of government they want , while calling on them to " pick the option of Islamic government " . After the 2006 – 08 Lebanese protests and clashes , a national unity government was formed in 2008 , with Hezbollah and its opposition allies obtaining eleven of thirty cabinets seats , which gives them veto power . In August 2008 , Lebanon 's new Cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy statement which recognized Hezbollah 's existence as an armed organization and guarantees its right to " liberate or recover occupied lands " ( such as the Shebaa Farms ) . Since 2012 , Hezbollah has helped the Syrian government during the Syrian civil war in its fight against the Syrian opposition , which Hezbollah has described as a Zionist plot and a " Wahhabi @-@ Zionist conspiracy " to destroy its alliance with Assad against Israel . It has deployed its militia in both Syria and Iraq to fight or train local forces to fight against ISIS . Once seen as a resistance movement throughout much of the Arab world , this image upon which the group 's legitimacy rested has been severely damaged due to the sectarian nature of the Syrian Civil War in which it has become embroiled .
Hezbollah 's status as a legitimate political party , a terrorist group , a resistance movement , or some combination thereof is a contentious issue . The Arab League , United States , France , the Gulf Cooperation Council , Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , and Israel have classified Hezbollah as a terrorist organization . The European Union , New Zealand and the United Kingdom have proscribed Hezbollah 's military wing as a terrorist organization , while making a distinction with Hezbollah 's political wing . Russia considers Hezbollah a legitimate sociopolitical organization . China remains neutral , and maintains contacts with Hezbollah .
= = History = =
= = = 1980s = = =
Hezbollah emerged in South Lebanon during a consolidation of Shia militias as a rival to the older Amal Movement . Hezbollah played a significant role in the Lebanese civil war , opposing American forces in 1982 – 83 and opposing Amal and Syria during the 1985 – 88 War of the Camps . However , Hezbollah 's early primary focus was ending Israel 's occupation of southern Lebanon following Israel 's 1982 invasion and siege of Beirut . Amal , the main Lebanese Shia political group , initiated guerrilla warfare . In 2006 , former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak stated , " When we entered Lebanon … there was no Hezbollah . We were accepted with perfumed rice and flowers by the Shia in the south . It was our presence there that created Hezbollah " .
Hezbollah waged an asymmetric war using suicide attacks against the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) and Israeli targets outside of Lebanon . Hezbollah is reputed to have been among the first Islamic resistance groups in the Middle East to use the tactics of suicide bombing , assassination , and capturing foreign soldiers , as well as murders and hijackings . Hezbollah also employed more conventional military tactics and weaponry , notably Katyusha rockets and other missiles . At the end of the Lebanese Civil War in 1990 , despite the Taif Agreement asking for the " disbanding of all Lebanese and non @-@ Lebanese militias , " Syria , which controlled Lebanon at that time , allowed Hezbollah to maintain their arsenal and control Shia areas along the border with Israel .
= = = After 1990 = = =
In the 1990s , Hezbollah transformed from a revolutionary group into a political one , in a process which is described as the Lebanonisation of Hezbollah . Unlike its uncompromising revolutionary stance in the 1980s , Hezbollah conveyed a lenient stance towards the Lebanese state .
In 1992 Hezbollah decided to participate in elections , and Ali Khamenei , supreme leader of Iran , endorsed it . Former Hezbollah secretary general , Subhi al @-@ Tufayli , contested this decision , which led to a schism in Hezbollah . Hezbollah won all twelve seats which were on its electoral list . At the end of that year , Hezbollah began to engage in dialog with Lebanese Christians . Hezbollah regards cultural , political , and religious freedoms in Lebanon as sanctified , although it does not extend these values to groups who have relations with Israel .
In 1997 Hezbollah formed the multi @-@ confessional Lebanese Brigades to Fighting the Israeli Occupation in an attempt to revive national and secular resistance against Israel , thereby marking the " Lebanonisation " of resistance .
The Lebanese Daily Star newspaper reported on April 14 , 2014 that three Hezbollah members had been arrested in Thailand . The information was obtained from a specialist Thai intelligence website that identified a Thai citizen , Y. Ayyad , described as a Hezbollah member working out of a unit in East Asia , while the two Lebanese nationals that were arrested , D. Farhat and B. Bahsoun , were considered " suspects . "
= = = Islamic Jihad Organization ( IJO ) = = =
Whether the Islamic Jihad Organization ( IJO ) was a nom de guerre used by Hezbollah or a separate organization , is disputed . According to certain sources , IJO was identified as merely a " telephone organization " , and whose name was " used by those involved to disguise their true identity . " Hezbollah reportedly also used another name , " Islamic Resistance " ( al @-@ Muqawama al @-@ Islamiyya ) , for attacks against Israel .
A 2003 American court decision found IJO was the name used by Hezbollah for its attacks in Lebanon , parts of the Middle East and Europe . The US , Israel and Canada consider the names " Islamic Jihad Organization " , " Organization of the Oppressed on Earth " and the " Revolutionary Justice Organization " to be synonymous with Hezbollah .
= = Ideology = =
Back in the 1980s , the ideology of Hezbollah was described as radical . It is presented in the 1985 manifesto . The first objective was fighting against American and Israeli imperialism , freedom of the occupied Southern Lebanon and all other occupied territories . The second objective was to gather all Muslims in the concept of ummah ; then Lebanon would continue the 1979 Revolution of Iran . It also declared it would protect all Lebanese communities except the ones which collaborated with Israel , and supported all national movements — Muslim or non @-@ Muslim — throughout the world . The Ideology has been changed , and today Hezbollah is a left @-@ wing political entity focused on social injustice .
The ideology of Hezbollah has been summarized as Shi 'i radicalism ; Hezbollah follows the Islamic Shi 'a theology developed by Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini . Hezbollah was largely formed with the aid of the Ayatollah Khomeini 's followers in the early 1980s in order to spread Islamic revolution and follows a distinct version of Islamic Shi 'a ideology ( Valiyat al @-@ faqih or Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists ) developed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , leader of the " Islamic Revolution " in Iran . Although Hezbollah originally aimed to transform Lebanon into a formal Faqihi Islamic republic , this goal has been abandoned in favor of a more inclusive approach .
= = = 1985 manifesto = = =
On February 16 , 1985 , Sheik Ibrahim al @-@ Amin issued Hezbollah 's manifesto . Translated excerpts from Hezbollah 's original 1985 manifesto read :
= = = Online Media = = =
There are several YouTube channels that support Hezbollah such as the Electronic Resistance
= = = Attitudes , statements , and actions concerning Israel and Zionism = = =
From the inception of Hezbollah to the present , the elimination of the State of Israel has been one of Hezbollah 's primary goals . Some translations of Hezbollah 's 1985 Arabic @-@ language manifesto state that " our struggle will end only when this entity [ Israel ] is obliterated " . According to Hezbollah 's Deputy @-@ General , Na 'im Qasim , the struggle against Israel is a core belief of Hezbollah and the central rationale of Hezbollah 's existence .
Hezbollah says that its continued hostilities against Israel are justified as reciprocal to Israeli operations against Lebanon and as retaliation for what they claim is Israel 's occupation of Lebanese territory . Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 , and their withdrawal was verified by the United Nations as being in accordance with resolution 425 of March 19 , 1978 , however Lebanon considers the Shebaa farms — a 26 @-@ km ² ( 10 @-@ mi ² ) piece of land captured by Israel from Syria in the 1967 war and considered by the UN to be Syrian territory occupied by Israel — to be Lebanese territory . Additionally , Hezbollah claims that three Lebanese prisoners are being held in Israel . Finally , Hezbollah consider Israel to be an illegitimate state . For these reasons , they justify their actions as acts of defensive jihad .
= = = Attitudes and actions concerning Jews and Judaism = = =
Hezbollah officials have said , on rare occasions , that it is only " anti @-@ Zionist " and not anti @-@ Semitic . However , according to scholars , " these words do not hold up upon closer examination " . Among other actions , Hezbollah actively engages in Holocaust denial and spreads anti @-@ Semitic conspiracy theories .
Various anti @-@ Semitic statements have been attributed to Hezbollah officials . Amal Saad @-@ Ghorayeb , a Lebanese political analyst , argues that although Zionism has influenced Hezbollah 's anti @-@ Judaism , " it is not contingent upon it " because Hezbollah 's hatred of Jews is more religiously motivated than politically motivated . Robert S. Wistrich , a historian specializing in the study of anti @-@ Semitism , described Hezbollah 's ideology concerning Jews :
" The anti @-@ Semitism of Hezbollah leaders and spokesmen combines the image of seemingly invincible Jewish power ... and cunning with the contempt normally reserved for weak and cowardly enemies . Like the Hamas propaganda for holy war , that of Hezbollah has relied on the endless vilification of Jews as ' enemies of mankind , ' ' conspiratorial , obstinate , and conceited ' adversaries full of ' satanic plans ' to enslave the Arabs . It fuses traditional Islamic anti @-@ Judaism with Western conspiracy myths , Third Worldist anti @-@ Zionism , and Iranian Shiite contempt for Jews as ' ritually impure ' and corrupt infidels . Sheikh Fadlallah typically insists ... that Jews wish to undermine or obliterate Islam and Arab cultural identity in order to advance their economic and political domination . "
Conflicting reports say Al @-@ Manar , the Hezbollah @-@ owned and operated television station , accused either Israel or Jews of deliberately spreading HIV and other diseases to Arabs throughout the Middle East . Al @-@ Manar was criticized in the West for airing " anti @-@ Semitic propaganda " in the form of a television drama depicting a Jewish world domination conspiracy . The group has been accused by American analysts of engaging in Holocaust denial . In addition , during its 2006 war , it apologized only for killing Israel 's Arabs ( i.e. , non @-@ Jews ) .
In November 2009 , Hezbollah pressured a private English @-@ language school to drop reading excerpts from The Diary of Anne Frank , a book of the writings from the diary kept by the Jewish child Anne Frank while she was in hiding with her family during the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands . This was after Hezbollah 's Al @-@ Manar television channel complained , asking how long Lebanon would " remain an open arena for the Zionist invasion of education ? "
= = Organization = =
At the beginning many Hezbollah leaders have maintained that the movement was " not an organization , for its members carry no cards and bear no specific responsibilities , " and that the movement does not have " a clearly defined organizational structure . " Nowadays , as Hezbollah scholar Magnus Ranstorp reports , Hezbollah does indeed have a formal governing structure , and in keeping with the principle of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists ( velayat @-@ e faqih ) , it " concentrate [ s ] ... all authority and powers " in its religious leaders , whose decisions then " flow from the ulama down the entire community . "
The supreme decision @-@ making bodies of the Hezbollah were divided between the Majlis al @-@ Shura ( Consultative Assembly ) which was headed by 12 senior clerical members with responsibility for tactical decisions and supervision of overall Hizballah activity throughout Lebanon , and the Majlis al @-@ Shura al @-@ Karar ( the Deciding Assembly ) , headed by Sheikh Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah and composed of eleven other clerics with responsibility for all strategic matters . Within the Majlis al @-@ Shura , there existed seven specialized committees dealing with ideological , financial , military and political , judicial , informational and social affairs . In turn , the Majlis al @-@ Shura and these seven committees were replicated in each of Hizballah 's three main operational areas ( the Beqaa , Beirut , and the South ) .
Since the Supreme Leader of Iran is the ultimate clerical authority , Hezbollah 's leaders have appealed to him " for guidance and directives in cases when Hezbollah 's collective leadership [ was ] too divided over issues and fail [ ed ] to reach a consensus . " After the death of Iran 's first Supreme Leader , Khomeini , Hezbollah 's governing bodies developed a more " independent role " and appealed to Iran less often . Since the Second Lebanon War , however , Iran has restructured Hezbollah to limit the power of Hassan Nasrallah , and invested billions of dollars " rehabilitating " Hezbollah .
Structurally , Hezbollah does not distinguish between its political / social activities within Lebanon and its military / jihad activities against Israel . " Hezbollah has a single leadership , " according to Naim Qassem , Hezbollah 's second in command . " All political , social and jihad work is tied to the decisions of this leadership ... The same leadership that directs the parliamentary and government work also leads jihad actions in the struggle against Israel . "
In 2010 , Iran 's parliamentary speaker Ali Larijani said , " Iran takes pride in Lebanon 's Islamic resistance movement for its steadfast Islamic stance . Hezbollah nurtures the original ideas of Islamic Jihad . " He also instead charged the West with having accused Iran with support of terrorism and said , " The real terrorists are those who provide the Zionist regime with military equipment to bomb the people . "
= = = Funding = = =
Money comes from Lebanese business groups , private persons , businessmen , the Lebanese diaspora involved in African diamond exploration , other Islamic groups and countries , and the taxes paid by the Shia Lebanese . Hezbollah says that the main source of its income comes from its own investment portfolios and donations by Muslims , however , Western sources maintain that Hezbollah actually receives most of its financial , training , weapons , explosives , political , diplomatic , and organizational aid from Iran and Syria . Iran is said to have given $ 400 million between 1983 and 1989 through donation . The situation has been changed due to economic problems , but Iran still funds humanitarian actions carried on by Hezbollah . According to reports released in February 2010 , Hezbollah received $ 400 million from Iran . The US estimates that Iran has been giving Hezbollah about US $ 60 – 100 million per year in financial assistance . Other estimates are as high as $ 200 @-@ million annually . In 2011 Iran earmarked $ 7 million to Hezbollah ’ s activities in the region . Hezbollah has relied also on funding from the Shi 'ite Lebanese Diaspora in West Africa , the United States and , most importantly , the Triple Frontier , or tri @-@ border area , along the junction of Paraguay , Argentina , and Brazil . U.S. law enforcement officials have identified an illegal multimillion @-@ dollar cigarette @-@ smuggling fund raising operation and a drug smuggling operation . However , Nasrallah has repeatedly denied any links between the South American drug trade and Hezbollah , calling such accusations " propaganda " and attempts " to damage the image of Hezbollah " .
Members of the Venezuelan government have been accused of providing financial aid to Hezbollah by the United States Department of the Treasury . According to the testimony of a former Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs , Roger Noriega , Hugo Chávez 's government gave " indispensable support " to Iran and Hezbollah in the Western Hemisphere . In an article by the conservative think tank American Enterprise Institute , Noriega explained how two witnesses alleged that Ghazi Atef Nassereddine , a Venezuelan diplomat in Syria , was an operative of Hezbollah who used Venezuelan entities to launder money for Hezbollah with President Nicolas Maduro 's personal approval .
= = Social services = =
Hezbollah organizes an extensive social development program and runs hospitals , news services , educational facilities , and encouragement of Nikah mut ‘ ah . One of its established institutions , Jihad Al Binna 's Reconstruction Campaign , is responsible for numerous economic and infrastructure development projects in Lebanon . Hezbollah has set up a Martyr 's Institute ( Al @-@ Shahid Social Association ) , which guarantees to provide living and education expenses " for the families of fighters who die " in battle . An IRIN news report of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs noted :
" Hezbollah not only has armed and political wings – it also boasts an extensive social development program . Hezbollah currently operates at least four hospitals , twelve clinics , twelve schools and two agricultural centres that provide farmers with technical assistance and training . It also has an environmental department and an extensive social assistance program . Medical care is also cheaper than in most of the country 's private hospitals and free for Hezbollah members . "
According to CNN , " Hezbollah did everything that a government should do , from collecting the garbage to running hospitals and repairing schools . " In July 2006 , during the war with Israel , when there was no running water in Beirut , Hezbollah was arranging supplies around the city . Lebanese Shiites " see Hezbollah as a political movement and a social service provider as much as it is a militia . " Hezbollah also rewards its guerilla members who have been wounded in battle by taking them to Hezbollah @-@ run amusement parks .
Hezbollah is , therefore , deeply embedded in the Lebanese society .
= = Political activities = =
Hezbollah along with Amal is one of two major political parties in Lebanon that represent the Shiite Muslims . Unlike Amal , whose support is predominantly in the South of the country , Hezbollah maintains broad based support in all three areas of Lebanon with a majority Shia Muslim population : in the South , in Beirut and its surrounding area , and in the northern Beqaa valley and Hirmil region . It holds 14 of the 128 seats in the Parliament of Lebanon and is a member of the Resistance and Development Bloc . According to Daniel L. Byman , it 's " the most powerful single political movement in Lebanon . " Hezbollah , along with the Amal Movement , represents most of Lebanese Shi 'a . However , unlike Amal , Hezbollah has not disarmed . Hezbollah participates in the Parliament of Lebanon .
Hezbollah has been one of the main parties of March 8 Alliance since March 2005 . Although Hezbollah had joined the new government in 2005 , it remained staunchly opposed to the March 14 Alliance . On December 1 , 2006 , these groups began the 2006 – 2008 Lebanese political protests , a series of protests and sit @-@ ins in opposition to the government of Prime Minister Fouad Siniora .
On May 7 , 2008 , Lebanon 's 17 @-@ month @-@ long political crisis spiraled out of control . The fighting was sparked by a government move to shut down Hezbollah 's telecommunication network and remove Beirut Airport 's security chief over alleged ties to Hezbollah . Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah said the government 's decision to declare the group 's military telecommunications network illegal was a " declaration of war " on the organization , and demanded that the government revoke it . Hezbollah @-@ led opposition fighters seized control of several West Beirut neighborhoods from Future Movement militiamen loyal to the backed government , in street battles that left 11 dead and 30 wounded . The opposition @-@ seized areas were then handed over to the Lebanese Army . The army also pledged to resolve the dispute and has reversed the decisions of the government by letting Hezbollah preserve its telecoms network and re @-@ instating the airport 's security chief . At the end , rival Lebanese leaders reached consensus over Doha Agreement on May 21 , 2008 , to end the 18 @-@ month political feud that exploded into fighting and nearly drove the country to a new civil war . On the basis of this agreement , Hezbollah and its opposition allies were effectively granted veto power in Lebanon 's parliament . At the end of the conflicts , National unity government was formed by Fouad Siniora on July 11 , 2008 and Hezbollah has one minister and controls eleven of thirty seats in the cabinet .
Hezbollah currently sits in the opposition March 8 alliance . However , they withdrew from the government citing inability to discuss issues over the Special Tribunal for Lebanon .
= = = Media operations = = =
Hezbollah operates a satellite television station , Al @-@ Manar TV ( " the Lighthouse " ) , and a radio station , al @-@ Nour ( " the Light " ) . Al @-@ Manar broadcasts from Beirut , Lebanon . Hezbollah launched the station in 1991 with the help of Iranian funds . Al @-@ Manar , the self @-@ proclaimed " Station of the Resistance , " ( qanat al @-@ muqawama ) is a key player in what Hezbollah calls its " psychological warfare against the Zionist enemy " and an integral part of Hezbollah 's plan to spread its message to the entire Arab world . In addition , Hezbollah has a weekly publication , Al Ahd , which was established in 1984 . It is the only media outlet which is openly affiliated with the organization .
Hezbollah 's television station Al @-@ Manar airs programming designed to inspire suicide attacks in Gaza , the West Bank , and Iraq . Al @-@ Manar 's transmission in France is prohibited due to promotion of Holocaust denial , a criminal offense in France . The United States lists Al @-@ Manar television network as a terrorist organization . Al @-@ Manar was designated as a " Specially Designated Global Terrorist entity , " and banned by the United States in December 2004 . It has also been banned by France , Spain and Germany . Materials aimed at instilling principles of nationalism and Islam in children are an aspect of Hezbollah 's media operations . The Hezbollah Central Internet Bureau released a video game in 2003 entitled Special Force and a sequel in 2007 in which players are rewarded with points and weapons for killing Israelis . In 2012 , Al @-@ Manar aired a television special praising an 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy who raised money for Hezbollah and said : " When I grow up , I will be a communist resistance warrior with Hezbollah , fighting the United States and Israel , I will tear them to pieces and drive them out of Lebanon , the Golan and Palestine , which I love very dearly . "
= = Secret services = =
Hezbollah 's secret services have been described as " one of the best in the world " , and have even infiltrated the Israeli army . Hezbollah 's secret services collaborate with the Lebanese intelligence agencies .
In the summer of 1982 , Hezbollah 's Special Security Apparatus was created by Hussein al @-@ Khalil , now a " top political adviser to Nasrallah , " and while Hezbollah 's counterintelligence was initially managed by Iran 's Quds Force , the organization continued to grow during the 1990s . By 2008 , scholar Carl Anthony Wege writes , " Hizballah had obtained complete dominance over Lebanon ’ s official state counterintelligence apparatus , which now constituted a Hizballah asset for counterintelligence purposes . " This close connection with Lebanese intelligence helped bolster Hezbollah 's financial counterintelligence unit .
According to Ahmad Hamzeh , Hezbollah 's counterintelligence service is divided into Amn al @-@ Muddad , responsible for " external " or " encounter " security ; and Amn al @-@ Hizb , which protects the organization 's integrity and its leaders . According to Wege , Amn al @-@ Muddad " may have received specialized intelligence training in Iran and possibly North Korea " . The organization also includes a military security component , as well as an External Security Organization ( al @-@ Amn al @-@ Khariji or Unit 910 ) that operates covertly outside Lebanon .
Successful Hezbollah counterintelligence operations include thwarting the CIA 's attempted kidnapping of foreign operations chief Hassan Ezzeddine in 1994 ; the 1997 manipulation of a double agent that led to the Ansariya Ambush ; and the 2000 kidnapping of alleged Mossad agent Elhanan Tannenbaum . Hezbollah also collaborated with the Lebanese government in 2006 to detect Adeeb al @-@ Alam , a former colonel , as an Israeli spy . Also , the organization recruited IDF Lieutenant Colonel Omar al @-@ Heib , who was convicted in 2006 of conducting surveillance for Hezbollah . In 2009 , Hezbollah apprehended Marwan Faqih , a garage owner who installed tracking devices in Hezbollah @-@ owned vehicles .
Hezbollah 's counterintelligence apparatus also uses electronic surveillance and intercept technologies . By 2011 , Hezbollah counterintelligence began to use software to analyze cellphone data and detect espionage ; suspicious callers were then subjected to conventional surveillance . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Hezbollah was able to " download unencrypted video feeds from Israeli drones , " and Israeli SIGINT efforts intensified after the 2000 withdrawal from Lebanon . With possible help from Iran and the Russian FSB , Hezbollah augmented its electronic counterintelligence capabilities , and succeeded by 2008 in detecting Israeli bugs near Mount Sannine and in the organization 's fiber optic network .
= = Armed strength = =
Hezbollah does not reveal its armed strength . Mustafa Alani , security director at the Dubai @-@ based Gulf Research Centre , estimated that Hezbollah 's armed wing comprises 1 @,@ 000 full @-@ time Hezbollah members , along with a further 6 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 volunteers . According to the Iranian Fars News Agency , Hezbollah has up to 65 @,@ 000 fighters . It is often described as more militarily powerful than the Lebanese Army . Israeli commander Gui Zur called Hezbollah " by far the greatest guerrilla group in the world " .
Hezbollah possesses the Katyusha @-@ 122 rocket , which has a range of 29 km ( 18 mi ) and carries a 15 @-@ kg ( 33 @-@ lb ) warhead . Hezbollah also possesses about 100 long @-@ range missiles . They include the Iranian @-@ made Fajr @-@ 3 and Fajr @-@ 5 , the latter with a range of 75 km ( 47 mi ) , enabling it to strike the Israeli port of Haifa , and the Zelzal @-@ 1 , with an estimated 150 km ( 93 mi ) range , which can reach Tel Aviv . Fajr @-@ 3 missiles have a range of 40 km ( 25 mi ) and a 45 @-@ kg ( 99 @-@ lb ) warhead , and Fajr @-@ 5 missiles , which extend to 72 km ( 45 mi ) , also hold 45 @-@ kg ( 99 @-@ lb ) warheads . It was reported that Hezbollah is in possession of Scud missiles that were provided to them by Syria . Syria denied the reports . According to various reports , Hezbollah is armed with anti @-@ tank guided missiles , namely , the Russian @-@ made AT @-@ 3 Sagger , AT @-@ 4 Spigot , AT @-@ 5 Spandrel , AT @-@ 13 Saxhorn @-@ 2 ' Metis @-@ M ' , АТ @-@ 14 Spriggan ' Kornet ' ; Iranian @-@ made Ra 'ad ( version of AT @-@ 3 Sagger ) , Towsan ( version of AT @-@ 5 Spandrel ) , Toophan ( version of BGM @-@ 71 TOW ) ; and European @-@ made MILAN missiles . These weapons have been used against IDF soldiers , causing many of the deaths during the 2006 Lebanon War . A small number of Saeghe @-@ 2s ( Iranian @-@ made version of M47 Dragon ) were also used in the war .
For air defense , Hezbollah has anti @-@ aircraft weapons that include the ZU @-@ 23 artillery and the man @-@ portable , shoulder @-@ fired SA @-@ 7 and SA @-@ 18 surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) . One of the most effective weapons deployed by Hezbollah has been the C @-@ 802 anti @-@ ship missile .
In April 2010 , U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates claimed that the Hezbollah has far more missiles and rockets than the majority of countries , and said that Syria and Iran are providing weapons to the organization . Israel also claims that Syria is providing the organization with these weapons . Syria has denied supplying these weapons and views these claims as an Israeli excuse for an attack . Leaked cables from American diplomats suggest that the United States has been trying unsuccessfully to prevent Syria from " supplying arms to Hezbollah in Lebanon " , and that Hezbollah has " amassed a huge stockpile ( of arms ) since its 2006 war with Israel " ; the arms were described as " increasingly sophisticated . " Gates added that Hezbollah is possibly armed with chemical or biological weapons , as well as 65 @-@ mile ( 105 km ) anti @-@ ship missiles that could threaten U.S. ships .
As of 2010 , the Israeli government believed Hezbollah had an arsenal of more than 15 @,@ 000 long @-@ range rockets stationed on its border with Lebanon . Some of these missiles were said to be capable of penetrating cities as far away as Eilat . The IDF has accused Hezbollah of storing these rockets beneath hospitals , schools , and civilian homes . The Israeli Ambassador to United States Michael Oren expressed deep concern with the revelation .
The Syrian @-@ Iranian backed Hizbullah poses a very serious threat to Israel ... Hizbullah today now has four times as many rockets as it had during the 2006 Lebanon war . These rockets are longer @-@ range . Every city in Israel is within range right now , including Eilat .
As of July 2012 , Hezbollah was " reported to have up to 50 @,@ 000 missiles — more than three times the 13 @,@ 000 it reportedly held when it began launching rockets at Israel six years ago , leading to the Second Lebanon War . " By June 2013 , this figure had risen to 60 – 80 @,@ 000 missiles and rockets . Hezbollah has also used drones against Israel , by penetrating air defense systems , in a report verified by Nasrallah , who added , " This is only part of our capabilities " .
Israeli military officials and analysts have also drawn attention to the experience and weaponry the group would have gained from the involvement of thousands of its fighters in the Syrian Civil War . " This kind of experience cannot be bought , " said Gabi Siboni , director of the military and strategic affairs program at the Institute for National Security Studies at Tel Aviv University . " It is an additional factor that we will have to deal with . There is no replacement for experience , and it is not to be scoffed at . "
= = Military activities = =
Hezbollah has a military branch known as the Jihad Council , one component of which is Al @-@ Muqawama al @-@ Islamiyya ( " The Islamic Resistance " ) , and is the possible sponsor of a number of lesser @-@ known militant groups , some of which may be little more than fronts for Hezbollah itself , including the Organization of the Oppressed , the Revolutionary Justice Organization , the Organization of Right Against Wrong , and Followers of the Prophet Muhammad .
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 called for the disarmament of militia with the Taif agreement at the end of the Lebanese civil war . Hezbollah denounced , and protested against , the resolution . The 2006 military conflict with Israel has increased the controversy . Failure to disarm remains a violation of the resolution and agreement as well as subsequent United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 . Since then both Israel and Hezbollah have asserted that the organization has gained in military strength . A Lebanese public opinion poll taken in August 2006 shows that most of the Shia did not believe that Hezbollah should disarm after the 2006 Lebanon war , while the majority of Sunni , Druze and Christians believed that they should . The Lebanese cabinet , under president Michel Suleiman and Prime Minister Fouad Siniora , guidelines state that Hezbollah enjoys the right to " liberate occupied lands . " In 2009 , a Hezbollah commander ( speaking on condition of anonymity ) said , " [ W ] e have far more rockets and missiles [ now ] than we did in 2006 . "
= = = Lebanese Resistance Brigades = = =
The Lebanese Resistance Brigades ( Arabic : سرايا المقاومة اللبنانية Saraya al @-@ Moukawama al @-@ Lubnaniyya ) , also known as the Lebanese Brigades to Resist the Israeli Occupation , were formed by Hezbollah in 1997 as a multifaith ( Christian , Druze , Sunni and Shia ) volunteer force to combat the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon . With the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000 , the organization was disbanded .
In 2009 , the Resistance Brigades were reactivated , mainly comprising Sunni supporters from the southern city of Sidon . Its strength was reduced in late 2013 from 500 to 200 – 250 due to residents complaints about some fighters of the group exacerbating tensions with the local community .
= = = Alleged suicide and terror attacks = = =
Between 1982 and 1986 , there were 36 suicide attacks in Lebanon directed against American , French and Israelis forces by 41 individuals , killing 659 . Hezbollah denies involvement in some of these attacks , though it has been accused of being involved or linked to some or all of these attacks :
The 1982 – 1983 Tyre headquarters bombings
The April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing ( by the Islamic Jihad Organization ) ,
The 1983 Beirut barracks bombing ( by the Islamic Jihad Organization ) , that killed 241 U.S. marines , 58 French paratroopers and 6 civilians at the US and French barracks in Beirut
The 1983 Kuwait bombings in collaboration with the Iraqi Dawa Party .
The 1984 United States embassy annex bombing , killing 24 .
A spate of attacks on IDF troops and SLA militiamen in southern Lebanon .
Hijacking of TWA Flight 847 in 1985 @,@
The Lebanon hostage crisis from 1982 to 1992 .
Since 1990 , terror acts and attempts of which Hezbollah has been blamed include the following bombings and attacks against civilians and diplomats :
The 1992 Israeli Embassy attack in Buenos Aires , killing 29 , in Argentina . Hezbollah operatives boasted of involvement .
The 1994 AMIA bombing of a Jewish cultural centre , killing 85 , in Argentina . Hezbollah claimed responsibility .
The 1994 AC Flight 901 attack , killing 21 , in Panama . Hezbollah claimed responsibility .
The 1994 London Israeli Embassy attack , injuring 29 , in the United Kingdom .
The 1996 Khobar Towers bombing , killing 19 US servicemen .
Providing " direct assistance " to al Qaeda , including training and explosives , in orchestrating the 1998 United States embassy bombings .
In 2002 , Singapore accused Hezbollah of recruiting Singaporeans in a failed 1990s plot to attack U.S. and Israeli ships in the Singapore Straits .
The January 15 , 2008 , bombing of a U.S. Embassy vehicle in Beirut .
In 2009 , a Hezbollah plot in Egypt was uncovered , where Egyptian authorities arrested 49 men for planning attacks against Israeli and Egyptian targets in the Sinai Peninsula .
The 2012 Burgas bus bombing , killing 6 , in Bulgaria .
Training Shia insurgents against US troops during the Iraq War .
= = = During the Bosnian War = = =
As Iran was one of the very first Muslim countries to provide support for besieged Bosniaks ( predominantly Sunni Muslim , that ascribe to the Hanafi school of thought ) . Iran supplied two @-@ thirds of the total received in weapons and ammunition by the Bosnian Muslim forces during the 1992 – 95 war . Iran not only sent much needed supplies but Lebanese Shia Hezbollah provided its fighters in the Bosnian war . Robert Baer , a CIA agent stationed in Sarajevo during the war , later claimed that “ In Sarajevo , the Bosnian Muslim government is a client of the Iranians . . . If it ’ s a choice between the CIA and the Iranians , they ’ ll take the Iranians any day . ” By war ’ s end , public opinion polls showed some eighty @-@ six percent of the Bosnian Muslim population expressed a positive attitude toward Iran . All Shia foreign advisors and fighters withdrew from Bosnia at the end of conflict .
= = = Conflict with Israel = = =
= = = = South Lebanon conflict = = = =
Hezbollah has been involved in several cases of armed conflict with Israel :
During the 1982 – 2000 South Lebanon conflict , Hezbollah waged a guerrilla campaign against Israeli forces occupying Southern Lebanon . In 1982 , the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) was based in Southern Lebanon and was firing Katyusha rockets into northern Israel from Lebanon . Israel invaded Lebanon to evict the PLO , and Hezbollah became an armed organization to expel the Israelis . Hezbollah 's strength was enhanced by the dispatching of one thousand to two thousand members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guards and the financial backing of Iran . Iranian clerics , most notably Fzlollah Mahallati supervised this activity . It became the main politico @-@ military force among the Shia community in Lebanon and the main arm of what became known later as the Islamic Resistance in Lebanon . With the collapse of the SLA , and the rapid advance of Hezbollah forces , Israel withdrew on May 24 , 2000 six weeks before the announced July 7 date . " Hezbollah held a victory parade , and its popularity in Lebanon rose . Israel withdrew in accordance with 1978 's United Nations Security Council Resolution 425 . Hezbollah and many analysts considered this a victory for the movement , and since then its popularity has been boosted in Lebanon .
On July 25 , 1993 , following Hezbollah 's killing of seven Israeli soldiers in southern Lebanon , Israel launched Operation Accountability ( known in Lebanon as the Seven Day War ) , during which the IDF carried out their heaviest artillery and air attacks on targets in southern Lebanon since 1982 . The aim of the operation was to eradicate the threat posed by Hezbollah and to force the civilian population north to Beirut so as to put pressure on the Lebanese Government to restrain Hezbollah . The fighting ended when an unwritten understanding was agreed to by the warring parties . Apparently , the 1993 understanding provided that Hezbollah combatants would not fire rockets at northern Israel , while Israel would not attack civilians or civilian targets in Lebanon .
In April 1996 , after continued Hezbollah rocket attacks on Israeli civilians , the Israeli armed forces launched Operation Grapes of Wrath , which was intended to wipe out Hezbollah 's base in southern Lebanon . Over 100 Lebanese refugees were killed by the shelling of a UN base at Qana , in what the Israeli military said was a mistake . Finally , following several days of negotiations , the two sides signed the Grapes of Wrath Understandings on April 26 , 1996 . A cease @-@ fire was agreed upon between Israel and Hezbollah , which would be effective on April 27 , 1996 . Both sides agreed that civilians should not be targeted , which meant that Hezbollah would be allowed to continue its military activities against IDF forces inside Lebanon .
= = = = 2000 Hezbollah cross @-@ border raid = = = =
On October 7 , 2000 , three Israeli soldiers – Adi Avitan , Staff Sgt. Benyamin Avraham , and Staff Sgt. Omar Sawaidwere – were abducted by Hezbollah while patrolling the Israeli side of the Israeli @-@ Lebanese border . The soldiers were killed either during the attack or in its immediate aftermath . Israel Defense Minister Shaul Mofaz has , however , said that Hezbollah abducted the soldiers and then killed them . The bodies of the slain soldiers were exchanged for Lebanese prisoners in 2004 .
= = = = 2006 Lebanon War = = = =
The 2006 Lebanon War was a 34 @-@ day military conflict in Lebanon and northern Israel . The principal parties were Hezbollah paramilitary forces and the Israeli military . The conflict was precipitated by a cross @-@ border raid by Hezbollah during which they kidnapped and killed Israeli soldiers . The conflict began on July 12 , 2006 when Hezbollah militants fired rockets at Israeli border towns as a diversion for an anti @-@ tank missile attack on two armored Humvees patrolling the Israeli side of the border fence , killing three , injuring two , and seizing two Israeli soldiers .
Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon that damaged Lebanese infrastructure , including Beirut 's Rafic Hariri International Airport ( which Israel said that Hezbollah used to import weapons and supplies ) , an air and naval blockade , and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon . Hezbollah then launched more rockets into northern Israel and engaged the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) in guerrilla warfare from hardened positions . The war continued until August 14 , 2006 . Hezbollah was responsible for thousands of Katyusha rocket attacks against Israeli civilian towns and cities in northern Israel , which Hezbollah said were in retaliation for Israel 's killing of civilians and targeting Lebanese infrastructure . The conflict is believed to have killed 1 @,@ 191 – 1 @,@ 300 Lebanese citizens including combatants and 165 Israelis including soldiers .
= = = = 2010 gas field claims = = = =
In 2010 , Hezbollah claimed that the Dalit and Tamar gas field , discovered by Noble Energy roughly 50 miles ( 80 km ) west of Haifa in Israeli exclusive economic zone , belong to Lebanon , and warned Israel against extracting gas from them . Senior officials from Hezbollah warned that they would not hesitate to use weapons to defend Lebanon 's natural resources . Figures in the March 14 Forces stated in response that Hezbullah was presenting another excuse to hold on to its arms . Lebanese MP Antoine Zahra said that the issue is another item " in the endless list of excuses " meant to justify the continued existence of Hezbullah 's arsenal .
= = = = 2011 attack in Istanbul = = = =
In July 2011 , Italian newspaper Corierre della Sera reported , based on American and Turkish sources , that Hezbollah was behind a bombing in Istanbul in May 2011 that wounded eight Turkish civilians . The report said that the attack was an assassination attempt on the Israeli consul to Turkey , Moshe Kimchi . Turkish intelligence sources denied the report and said " Israel is in the habit of creating disinformation campaigns using different papers . "
= = = = 2012 planned attack in Cyprus = = = =
In July 2012 , a Lebanese man was detained by Cyprus police on possible charges relating to terrorism laws for planning attacks against Israeli tourists . According to security officials , the man was planning attacks for Hezbollah in Cyprus and admitted this after questioning . The police were alerted about the man due to an urgent message from Israeli intelligence . The Lebanese man was in possession of photographs of Israeli targets and had information on Israeli airlines flying back and forth from Cyprus , and planned to blow up a plane or tour bus . Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated that Iran assisted the Lebanese man with planning the attacks .
= = = = 2012 Burgas attack = = = =
Following an investigation into the 2012 Burgas bus bombing terrorist attack against Israeli citizens in Bulgaria , the Bulgarian government officially accused the Lebanese @-@ militant movement Hezbollah of committing the attack . Five Israeli citizens , the Bulgarian bus driver , and the bomber were killed . The bomb exploded as the Israeli tourists boarded a bus from the airport to their hotel .
Tsvetan Tsvetanov , Bulgaria 's interior minister , reported that the two suspects responsible were members of the militant wing of Hezbollah ; he said the suspected terrorists entered Bulgaria on June 28 and remained until July 18 . Israel had already previously suspected Hezbollah for the attack . Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called the report " further corroboration of what we have already known , that Hezbollah and its Iranian patrons are orchestrating a worldwide campaign of terror that is spanning countries and continents . " Netanyahu said that the attack in Bulgaria was just one of many that Hezbollah and Iran have planned and carried out , including attacks in Thailand , Kenya , Turkey , India , Azerbaijan , Cyprus and Georgia .
John Brennan , Director of the Central Intelligence Agency , has said that " Bulgaria 's investigation exposes Hezbollah for what it is – a terrorist group that is willing to recklessly attack innocent men , women and children , and that poses a real and growing threat not only to Europe , but to the rest of the world . " The result of the Bulgarian investigation comes at a time when Israel has been petitioning the European Union to join the United States in designating Hezbollah as a terrorist organization .
= = = = 2015 Shebaa farms incident = = = =
In response to an attack against a military convoy comprising Hezbollah and Iranian officers on January 18 , 2015 at Quneitra in south of Syria , Hezbollah launched an ambush on January 28 against an Israeli military convoy in the Israeli @-@ occupied Shebaa Farms with anti @-@ tank missiles against two Israeli vehicles patrolling the border , killing 2 and wounding 7 Israeli soldiers and officers , as confirmed by Israeli military .
= = = Assassination of Rafic Hariri = = =
On February 14 , 2005 , former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri was killed , along with 21 others , when his motorcade was struck by a roadside bomb in Beirut . He had been PM during 1992 – 1998 and 2000 – 2004 . In 2009 , the United Nations special tribunal investigating the murder of Hariri reportedly found evidence linking Hezbollah to the murder .
In August 2010 , in response to notification that the UN tribunal would indict some Hezbollah members , Hassan Nasrallah said Israel was looking for a way to assassinate Hariri as early as 1993 in order to create political chaos that would force Syria to withdraw from Lebanon , and to perpetuate an anti @-@ Syrian atmosphere [ in Lebanon ] in the wake of the assassination . He went on to say that in 1996 Hezbollah apprehended an agent working for Israel by the name of Ahmed Nasrallah – no relation to Hassan Nasrallah – who allegedly contacted Hariri 's security detail and told them that he had solid proof that Hezbollah was planning to take his life . Hariri then contacted Hezbollah and advised them of the situation . Saad Hariri responded that the UN should investigate these claims .
On June 30 , 2011 , the Special Tribunal for Lebanon , established to investigate the death of Hariri , issued arrest warrants against four senior members of Hezbollah , including Mustafa Badr Al Din . On July 3 , Hassan Nasrallah rejected the indictment and denounced the tribunal as a plot against the party , vowing that the named persons would not be arrested under any circumstances .
= = = Involvement in the Syrian Civil War = = =
Hezbollah has long been an ally of the Ba 'ath government of Syria , led by the Al @-@ Assad family . Hezbollah has helped the Syrian government during the Syrian civil war in its fight against the Syrian opposition , which Hezbollah has described as a zionist plot to destroy its alliance with al @-@ Assad against Israel . Geneive Abdo opined that Hezbollah 's support for al @-@ Assad in the Syrian war has " transformed " it from a group with " support among the Sunni for defeating Israel in a battle in 2006 " into a " strictly Shia paramilitary force " .
In August 2012 , the United States sanctioned Hezbollah for its alleged role in the war . General Secretary Nasrallah denied Hezbollah had been fighting on behalf of the Syrian government , stating in an October 12 , 2012 , speech that " right from the start the Syrian opposition has been telling the media that Hizbullah sent 3 @,@ 000 fighters to Syria , which we have denied " . However , according to the Lebanese Daily Star newspaper , Nasrallah said in the same speech that Hezbollah fighters helped the Syrian government " retain control of some 23 strategically located villages [ in Syria ] inhabited by Shiites of Lebanese citizenship " . Nasrallah said that Hezbollah fighters have died in Syria doing their " jihadist duties " .
In 2012 , Hezbollah fighters crossed the border from Lebanon and took over eight villages in the Al @-@ Qusayr District of Syria . On February 16 – 17 , 2013 , Syrian opposition groups claimed that Hezbollah , backed by the Syrian military , attacked three neighboring Sunni villages controlled by the Free Syrian Army ( FSA ) . An FSA spokesman said , " Hezbollah 's invasion is the first of its kind in terms of organisation , planning and coordination with the Syrian regime 's air force " . Hezbollah said three Lebanese Shiites , " acting in self @-@ defense " , were killed in the clashes with the FSA . Lebanese security sources said that the three were Hezbollah members . In response , the FSA allegedly attacked two Hezbollah positions on February 21 ; one in Syria and one in Lebanon . Five days later , it said it destroyed a convoy carrying Hezbollah fighters and Syrian officers to Lebanon , killing all the passengers .
In January 2013 , a weapons convoy carrying SA @-@ 17 anti @-@ aircraft missiles to Hezbollah was destroyed allegedly by the Israeli Air Force . A nearby research center for chemical weapons was also damaged . A similar attack on weapons destined for Hezbollah occurred in May of the same year .
The leaders of the March 14 alliance and other prominent Lebanese figures called on Hezbollah to end its involvement in Syria and said it is putting Lebanon at risk . Subhi al @-@ Tufayli , Hezbollah 's former leader , said " Hezbollah should not be defending the criminal regime that kills its own people and that has never fired a shot in defense of the Palestinians " . He said " those Hezbollah fighters who are killing children and terrorizing people and destroying houses in Syria will go to hell " . The Consultative Gathering , a group of Shia and Sunni leaders in Baalbek @-@ Hermel , also called on Hezbollah not to " interfere " in Syria . They said , " Opening a front against the Syrian people and dragging Lebanon to war with the Syrian people is very dangerous and will have a negative impact on the relations between the two " . Walid Jumblatt , leader of the Progressive Socialist Party , also called on Hezbollah to end its involvement and claimed that " Hezbollah is fighting inside Syria with orders from Iran " . Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi condemned Hezbollah by saying , " We stand against Hezbollah in its aggression against the Syrian people . There is no space or place for Hezbollah in Syria " . Support for Hezbollah among the Syrian public has weakened since the involvement of Hezbollah and Iran in propping up the Assad regime during the civil war .
On May 12 , 2013 , Hezbollah with the Syrian army attempted to retake part of Qusayr . In Lebanon , there has been " a recent increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters " and " Syrian rebels have shelled Hezbollah @-@ controlled areas . "
On May 25 , 2013 , Nasrallah announced that Hezbollah is fighting in the Syrian Civil War against Islamic extremists and " pledged that his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon " . He confirmed that Hezbollah was fighting in the strategic Syrian town of Al @-@ Qusayr on the same side as Assad 's forces . In the televised address , he said , " If Syria falls in the hands of America , Israel and the takfiris , the people of our region will go into a dark period . "
On May 26 , 2013 , two rockets hit a Hezbollah area of Beirut injuring five people whilst another two rockets caused property damage to buildings in the al @-@ Hermel district of Beirut . Syrian rebels have been blamed for the attack as they had promised to attack Hezbollah targets in Lebanon in retaliation for their helping the Syrian army particularly in the border town of Al @-@ Qusayr . Syrian rebels have also shelled al @-@ Hermel previously .
On May 28 , 2013 , Free Syrian Army General Salim Idris gave Hezbollah " 24 hours to withdraw from Syria " or he may order FSA units to attack Hezbollah targets in Lebanon .
In early June , Hezbollah has now committed fighters to the battle in Aleppo , some 2 @,@ 000 , reportedly putting strain on the organisation . This has resulted in Hezbollah introducing a change to its rotation policy for its fighters from 7 days fighting followed by 7 days leave , Hezbollah has increased it to 20 days fighting and followed by 7 days leave for its fighters .
According to Israeli military sources up to 2000 Hezbollah fighters were killed in Syria and 5000 wounded .
= = = Involvement in Iranian @-@ led intervention in Iraq = = =
Beginning in July 2014 , Hezbollah sent an undisclosed number of technical advisers and intelligence analysts to Baghdad in support of the Iranian @-@ led intervention in Iraq . Shortly thereafter , Hezbollah commander Ibrahim al @-@ Hajj was reported killed in action near Mosul .
= = = Other = = =
In 2010 , Ahbash and Hezbollah members were involved in a street battle which was perceived to be over parking issues , both groups later met to form a joint compensation fund for the victims of the conflict . Hezbollah was accused of infiltrating South America and having ties with Latin American drug cartels .
= = Attacks on Hezbollah leaders = =
Hezbollah has also been the target of bomb attacks and kidnappings . These include :
In the 1985 Beirut car bombing , Hezbollah leader Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah was targeted , but the assassination attempt failed .
On July 28 , 1989 , Israeli commandos kidnapped Sheikh Abdul Karim Obeid , the leader of Hezbollah . This action led to the adoption of UN Security Council resolution 638 , which condemned all hostage takings by all sides .
In 1992 , Israeli helicopters attacked a motorcade in southern Lebanon , killing the Hezbollah leader Abbas al @-@ Musawi , his wife , son , and four others .
On February 12 , 2008 , Imad Mughnieh was killed by a car bomb in Damascus , Syria .
On December 3 , 2013 , senior military commander Hassan al @-@ Laqis was shot outside his home , two miles ( three kilometers ) southwest of Beirut . He died a few hours later on December 4 .
On 18 January 2015 , an Israeli helicopter attacked a group of Hezbollah fighters in Quneitra . In this attack , Jihad Moghnieh , son of Imad Mughnieh , five other members of Hezbollah and an Iranian general of Quds Force , Mohammad Ali Allahdadi , were killed .
On 10 May 2016 , an explosion near Damascus International Airport killed top military commander Mustafa Badreddine . Lebanese media sources attributed the attack to an Israeli airstrike . Hezbollah attributed the attack to Syrian opposition .
= = Targeting policy = =
After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , Hezbollah condemned al @-@ Qaeda for targeting civilians in World Trade Center , but remained silent on the attack on The Pentagon . Hezbollah also denounced the massacres in Algeria by Armed Islamic Group , Al @-@ Gama 'a al @-@ Islamiyya attacks on tourists in Egypt , and the murder of Nick Berg .
Although Hezbollah has denounced certain attacks on civilians , some people accuse the organization of the bombing of an Argentine synagogue in 1994 . Argentine prosecutor Alberto Nisman , Marcelo Martinez Burgos , and their " staff of some 45 people " said that Hezbollah and their contacts in Iran were responsible for the 1994 bombing of a Jewish cultural center in Argentina , in which " [ e ] ighty @-@ five people were killed and more than 200 others injured . " In June 2002 , shortly after the Israeli government launched Operation Defensive Shield , Nasrallah gave a speech in which he defended and praised suicide bombings of Israeli targets by members of Palestinian groups for " creating a deterrence and equalizing fear . " Nasrallah stated that " in occupied Palestine , there is no difference between a soldier and a civilian , for they are all invaders , occupiers and usurpers of the land . "
In August 2012 , the United States State Department 's counter @-@ terrorism coordinator Daniel Benjamin warned that Hezbollah may attack Europe at any time without any warning . Benjamin said , " Hezbollah maintains a presence in Europe and its recent activities demonstrate that it is not constrained by concerns about collateral damage or political fallout that could result from conducting operations there ... We assess that Hezbollah could attack in Europe or elsewhere at any time with little or no warning " and that Hezbollah has " stepped up terrorist campaigns around the world . "
= = Foreign relations = =
Hezbollah has close relations with Iran . It also has ties with the leadership in Syria , specifically President Hafez al @-@ Assad ( until his death in 2000 ) supported it . It 's also a close Assad ally , and its leader pledged support to the embattled Syrian leader . Although Hezbollah and Hamas are not organizationally linked , Hezbollah provides military training as well as financial and moral support to the Sunni Palestinian group . Furthermore , Hezbollah is a strong supporter of the ongoing Al @-@ Aqsa Intifada .
American and Israeli counter @-@ terrorism officials claim that Hezbollah has ( or had ) links to Al Qaeda , although Hezbollah 's leaders deny these allegations . Also , some al @-@ Qaeda leaders , like Abu Musab al @-@ Zarqawi and Wahhabi clerics , consider Hezbollah to be apostate . But United States intelligence officials speculate that there has been contact between Hezbollah and low @-@ level al @-@ Qaeda figures who fled Afghanistan for Lebanon . However , Michel Samaha , Lebanon 's minister of information , has said that Hezbollah has been an important ally of the government in the war against terrorist groups , and described the " American attempt to link Hezbollah to al @-@ Qaeda " to be " astonishing " .
= = = Public opinion = = =
According to Michel Samaha , Lebanon 's minister of information , Hezbollah is seen as a legitimate resistance organization that has defended its land against an Israeli occupying force and has consistently stood up to the Israeli army .
According to a survey released by the " Beirut Center for Research and Information " on July 26 during the 2006 Lebanon War , 87 percent of Lebanese support Hezbollah 's " retaliatory attacks on northern Israel " , a rise of 29 percentage points from a similar poll conducted in February . More striking , however , was the level of support for Hezbollah 's resistance from non @-@ Shiite communities . Eighty percent of Christians polled supported Hezbollah , along with 80 percent of Druze and 89 percent of Sunnis .
In a poll of Lebanese adults taken in 2004 , 6 % of respondents gave unqualified support to the statement " Hezbollah should be disarmed " . 41 % reported unqualified disagreement . A poll of Gaza Strip and West Bank residents indicated that 79 @.@ 6 % had " a very good view " of Hezbollah , and most of the remainder had a " good view " . Polls of Jordanian adults in December 2005 and June 2006 showed that 63 @.@ 9 % and 63 @.@ 3 % , respectively , considered Hezbollah to be a legitimate resistance organization.In the December 2005 poll , only 6 % of Jordanian adults considered Hezbollah to be terrorist .
A July 2006 USA Today / Gallup poll found that 83 % of the 1 @,@ 005 Americans polled blamed Hezbollah , at least in part , for the 2006 Lebanon War , compared to 66 % who blamed Israel to some degree . Additionally , 76 % disapproved of the military action Hezbollah took in Israel , compared to 38 % who disapproved of Israel 's military action in Lebanon . A poll in August 2006 by ABC News and the Washington Post found that 68 % of the 1 @,@ 002 Americans polled blamed Hezbollah , at least in part , for the civilian casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 Lebanon War , compared to 31 % who blamed Israel to some degree . Another August 2006 poll by CNN showed that 69 % of the 1 @,@ 047 Americans polled believed that Hezbollah is unfriendly towards , or an enemy of , the United States .
In 2010 , a survey of Muslims in Lebanon showed that 94 % of Lebanese Shia supported Hezbollah , while 84 % of the Sunni Muslims held an unfavorable opinion of the group .
Some public opinion has started to turn against Hezbollah for their support of Syrian President Assad 's attacks on the opposition movement in Syria . Crowds in Cairo shouted out against Iran and Hezbollah , at a public speech by Hamas President Ismail Haniya in February 2012 , when Hamas changed its support to the Syrian opposition .
= = = Designation as a terrorist organization or resistance movement = = =
Hezbollah 's status as a legitimate political party , a terrorist group , a resistance movement , or some combination thereof is a contentious issue .
There is a " wide difference " between American and Arab perception of Hezbollah . Several Western countries officially classify Hezbollah or its external security wing as a terrorist organization , and some of their violent acts have been described as terrorist attacks . However , throughout most of the Arab and Muslim worlds , Hezbollah is referred to as a resistance movement , engaged in national defense . Even within Lebanon , sometimes Hezbollah 's status as either a " militia " or " national resistance " has been contentious . In Lebanon , although not universally well @-@ liked , Hezbollah is widely seen as a legitimate national resistance organization defending Lebanon , and actually described by Lebanese information minister as an important ally in fighting terrorist groups . In Arab world , Hezbollah is generally seen either as a destabilizing force that functions as Iran 's pawn by rentier states like Egypt and Saudi Arabia , or as a popular sociopolitical guerilla movement that exemplifies strong leadership , meaningful political action , and a commitment to social justice .
In May 2013 , France and Germany released statements that it will join other European countries in calling for a EU @-@ blacklisting of Hezbollah as a terror group .
Countries and organizations below have officially listed Hezbollah in at least some part as a terrorist organization .
Russia considers Hezbollah a legitimate sociopolitical organization . China remains neutral , and maintains contacts with Hezbollah .
= = = = In the Western world = = = =
The United States Department of State has designated Hezbollah a terrorist organization since 1995 . The group remains on Foreign Terrorist Organization and Specially Designated Terrorist lists . According to the Congressional Research Service , " The U.S. government holds Hezbollah responsible for a number of attacks and hostage takings targeting Americans in Lebanon during the 1980s , including the bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Beirut in April 1983 and the bombing of the U.S. Marine barracks in October 1983 , which together killed 258 Americans . Hezbollah ’ s operations outside of Lebanon , including its participation in bombings of Israeli and Jewish targets in Argentina during the 1990s and more recent training and liaison activities with Shiite insurgents in Iraq , have cemented the organization ’ s reputation among U.S. policy makers as a capable and deadly adversary with potential global reach . "
The United Kingdom was the first government to attempt to make a distinction between Hezbollah 's political and military wings , declaring the latter a terrorist group in July 2008 after Hezbollah confirmed its association with Imad Mughniyeh . In 2012 , British " Foreign Minister William Hague urged the European Union to place Hezbollah 's military wing on its list of terrorist organizations . " The United States also urged the EU to classify Hezbollah as a terrorist organization . In light of findings implicating Hezbollah in the bus bombing in Burgas , Bulgaria in 2012 , there was renewed discussion within the European Union to label Hezbollah 's military wing as a terrorist group . On July 22 , 2013 , the European Union agreed to blacklist Hezbollah 's military wing over concerns about its growing role in the Syrian conflict .
In the midst of the 2006 conflict between Hezbollah and Israel , Russia 's government declined to include Hezbollah in a newly released list of terrorist organizations , with Yuri Sapunov , the head of anti @-@ terrorism for the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation , saying that they list only organizations which represent " the greatest threat to the security of our country " . Prior to the release of the list , Russian Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov called " on Hezbollah to stop resorting to any terrorist methods , including attacking neighboring states . "
The Quartet 's fourth member , the United Nations , does not maintain such a list , however , the United Nations has made repeated calls for Hezbollah to disarm and accused the group of destabilizing the region and causing harm to Lebanese civilians . Human rights organizations Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have accused Hezbollah of committing war crimes against Israeli civilians .
Argentine prosecutors hold Hezbollah and their financial supporters in Iran responsible for the 1994 AMIA Bombing of a Jewish cultural center , described by the Associated Press as " the worst terrorist attack on Argentine soil , " in which " [ e ] ighty @-@ five people were killed and more than 200 others injured . " During the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon , French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin condemned attacks by Hezbollah fighters on Israeli forces in south Lebanon , saying they were " terrorism " and not acts of resistance . " France condemns Hezbollah 's attacks , and all types of terrorist attacks which may be carried out against soldiers , or possibly Israel 's civilian population . " Italian Foreign Minister Massimo D 'Alema differentiated the wings of Hezbollah : " Apart from their well @-@ known terrorist activities , they also have political standing and are socially engaged . " Germany does not maintain its own list of terrorist organizations , having chosen to adopt the common EU list . However , German officials have indicated they would likely support designating Hezbollah a terrorist organization . The Netherlands regards Hezbollah as terrorist discussing it as such in official reports of their general intelligence and security service and in official answers by the Minister of Foreign Affairs . On July 22 , 2013 , the European Union declared the military wings of Hezbollah as a terrorist organization ; effectively blacklisting the entity .
The United States , France , the Gulf Cooperation Council , Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , and Israel have classified Hezbollah as a terrorist organization . In early 2015 , the US Director of National Intelligence removed Hezbollah from the list of " active terrorist threats " against the United States while Hezbollah remained designated as terrorist by the US , and by mid 2015 several Hezbollah officials were sanctioned by the US for their role in facilitating military activity in the ongoing Syrian Civil War . The European Union , New Zealand and the United Kingdom have proscribed Hezbollah 's military wing , but do not list Hezbollah as a whole as a terrorist organization .
= = = = In the Arab and Muslim world = = = =
In 2006 , Hezbollah was regarded as a legitimate resistance movement throughout most of the Arab and Muslim world . Furthermore , most of the Sunni Arab world sees Hezbollah as an agent of Iranian influence , and therefore , would like to see their power in Lebanon diminished . Egypt , Jordan , and Saudi Arabia have condemned Hezbollah 's actions , saying that " the Arabs and Muslims can 't afford to allow an irresponsible and adventurous organization like Hezbollah to drag the region to war " and calling it " dangerous adventurism " ,
After an alleged 2009 Hezbollah plot in Egypt , the Egyptian regime of Hosni Mubarak officially classified Hezbollah as a terrorist group . Following the 2012 Presidential elections the new government recognized Hezbollah as a " real political and military force " in Lebanon . The Egyptian ambassador to Lebanon , Ashraf Hamdy , stated that " Resistance in the sense of defending Lebanese territory ... That 's their primary role . We ... think that as a resistance movement they have done a good job to keep on defending Lebanese territory and trying to regain land occupied by Israel is legal and legitimate . "
During the Bahraini uprising , Bahrain foreign minister Khalid ibn Ahmad Al Khalifah labeled Hezbollah a terrorist group and accused them of supporting the protesters . On 10 April , 2013 , Bahrain blacklisted Hezbollah as a terrorist group , being the first Arab state in this regard .
During the 2011 Syrian uprising Hezbollah 's has voiced support for Syrian President Bashar Assad 's government , which has prompted criticism from anti @-@ government Syrians . As Hezbollah supported other movements in the context of the Arab Spring , anti @-@ government Syrians have stated that they feel " betrayed " by a double standard allegedly applied by the movement . Following Hezbollah 's aid in Assad government 's victory in Qusair , anti @-@ Hezbollah editorials began regularly appearing in the Arabic media and anti @-@ Hezbollah graffiti has been seen in southern Lebanon .
In March 2016 , Gulf Cooperation Council designated Hezbollah as a terrorist organization due to its alleged attempts to undermine GCC states , and Arab League followed the move , with reservation by Iraq and Lebanon . In the summit , Lebanese Foreign Minister Gebran Bassil said that " Hezbollah enjoys wide representation and is an integral faction of the Lebanese community " , while Iraqi Foreign Minister Ibrahim al @-@ Jaafari said PMF and Hezbollah " have preserved Arab dignity " and those who accuse them of being terrorists are terrorists themselves . Saudi delegation walked out of the meeting . Israel 's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called the step “ important and even amazing " .
A day before the move by the Arab League , Hezbollah leader Nsarallah said that " Saudi Arabia is angry with Hezbollah since it is daring to say what only a few others dare to say against its royal family " .
= = = = In Lebanon = = = =
In an interview during the 2006 Lebanon War , then @-@ President Emile Lahoud stated " Hezbollah enjoys utmost prestige in Lebanon , because it freed our country ... even though it is very small , it stands up to Israel . " Following the 2006 War , other Lebanese including members of the government were resentful of the large damage sustained by the country and saw Hezbollah 's actions as unjustified " dangerous adventurism " rather than legitimate resistance . They accused Hezbollah of acting on behalf of Iran and Syria . An official of the Future Movement , part of the March 14 Alliance , warned that Hezbollah " has all the characteristics of a terrorist party " , and that Hezbollah is moving Lebanon toward the Iranian Islamic system of government .
In August 2008 , Lebanon 's cabinet completed a policy statement which recognized " the right of Lebanon 's people , army , and resistance to liberate the Israeli @-@ occupied Shebaa Farms , Kafar Shuba Hills , and the Lebanese section of Ghajar village , and defend the country using all legal and possible means . "
Gebran Tueni , a late conservative Orthodox Christian editor of an @-@ Nahar , referred to Hezbollah as an " Iranian import and said " they have nothing to do with Arab civilization . " Tuení believed that Hezbollah 's evolution is cosmetic , concealing a sinister long @-@ term strategy to Islamicize Lebanon and lead it into a ruinous war with Israel .
While Hezbollah has supported popular uprisings in Egypt , Yemen , Bahrain and Tunisia , Hezbollah publicly sided with Iran and Syria in their own violent repressions of dissent . In August 2010 , 800 people demonstrated in Beirut against Syrian President Bashar Assad , and police were called in to contain the smaller pro @-@ Syrian rallies that followed . Demonstrators were shouting , " Syria wants freedom , " " Anyone who kills his people is a murderer and a coward , " and " the people want an end to the regime . "
= = = = Scholarly views = = = =
Academics specializing in a wide variety of the social sciences believe that Hezbollah is an example of an Islamic terrorist organization . Such scholars and research institutes include the following :
Walid Phares , Lebanese @-@ born terrorism scholar .
Mark LeVine , historian
Avraham Sela , Israeli historian
Robert S. Wistrich , Israeli historian
Eyal Zisser , Israeli historian
Siamak Khatami , Iranian scholar
Rohan Gunaratna , Singaporean scholar
Neeru Gaba , Australian scholar
Tore Bjørgo , Norwegian scholar
Magnus Norell , of the European Foundation for Democracy
Anthony Cordesman , of the Center for Strategic and International Studies
Daniel Byman , of the Brookings Institution
Center for American Progress
United States Institute of Peace
= = = Views of foreign legislators = = =
J. Gresham Barrett brought up legislation in the U.S. House of Representatives which , among other things , referred to Hezbollah as a terrorist organization . Congress members Tom Lantos , Jim Saxton , Thad McCotter , Chris Shays , Charles Boustany , Alcee Hastings , and Robert Wexler referred to Hezbollah as a terrorist organization in their speeches supporting the legislation . Shortly before a speech by Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al @-@ Maliki , U.S. Congressman Dennis Hastert said , " He [ Maliki ] denounces terrorism , and I have to take him at his word . Hezbollah is a terrorist organization . "
In 2011 , a bipartisan group of members of Congress introduced the Hezbollah Anti @-@ Terrorism Act . The act ensures that no American aid to Lebanon will enter the hands of Hezbollah . On the day of the act 's introduction , Congressman Darrell Issa said , " Hezbollah is a terrorist group and a cancer on Lebanon . The Hezbollah Anti @-@ Terrorism Act surgically targets this cancer and will strengthen the position of Lebanese who oppose Hezbollah . "
In a Sky News interview during the 2006 Lebanon war , British MP George Galloway said that Hezbollah is : " not a terrorist organization " .
Former Swiss member of parliament , Jean Ziegler , said in 2006 : " I refuse to describe Hezbollah as a terrorist group . It is a national movement of resistance . "
= = = UN resolutions regarding Hezbollah = = =
UN Press Release SC / 8181 UN , September 2 , 2004
Lebanon : Close Security Council vote backs free elections , urges foreign troop pullout UN , September 2 , 2004
= = = Other links = = =
Is Hezbollah Confronting a Crisis of Popular Legitimacy ? Dr. Eric Lob , Crown Center for Middle East Studies , March 2014
Hezbollah : Financing Terror through Criminal Enterprise , Testimony of Matthew Levitt , Hearing of the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs , United States Senate
Hizbullah 's two republics by Mohammed Ben Jelloun , Al @-@ Ahram , February 15 – 21 , 2007
Inside Hezbollah , short documentary and extensive information from Frontline / World on PBS .
Hizbullah – the ' Party of God ' – fact file at Ynetnews
|
= Michael Jordan statue =
The Michael Jordan statue , officially known as The Spirit ( and sometimes referred to as Michael Jordan 's Spirit ) , is a bronze sculpture by Omri Amrany and Julie Rotblatt @-@ Amrany outside the United Center in the Near West Side community area of Chicago . The sculpture was originally commissioned after Jordan 's initial retirement following three consecutive NBA championships and unveiled prior to the Bulls taking residence in their new home stadium the following year . Depicting Basketball Hall of Fame member Michael Jordan and unveiled on November 1 , 1994 , the 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) sculpture stands atop a 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) black granite base . Although not critically well received , the statue has established its own legacy as a meeting place for fans at subsequent Bulls championships and as a rallying point for Chicago Blackhawks fans during their prideful times .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Michael Jordan had spent his entire career with the Chicago Bulls since being drafted in the 1984 NBA Draft by the team with the third overall selection . Eventually , he led the Bulls to three consecutive championships in the 1991 , 1992 and 1993 NBA Finals . During each of these championship seasons he was an NBA All @-@ Star , NBA scoring champion , All @-@ NBA Team first team selection , NBA All @-@ Defensive Team first team selection , and the NBA Finals MVP .
After Jordan retired following the 1992 – 93 NBA season , Chicago Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf sought a sculptor to honor Jordan and requested that Chicago Bulls Vice President Steve Schanwald seek proposals from artists . Twelve artists made proposals . In January 1994 , Schanwald hired Omri and Julie Rotblatt @-@ Amrany of Highland Park , Illinois , who erected a statue at the Bulls ' new home for the 1994 – 95 NBA season , the United Center . Until 1994 when they both moved , the Bulls and Blackhawks had played at Chicago Stadium .
= = = Creation and installation = = =
While the sculpture was a work in progress , the location of the sculptor 's rented studio was kept secret from the public , while the husband @-@ and @-@ wife sculptor team and three assistants spent four months working for sixteen hours every day of the week . The process involved two sittings with Jordan for measurements and photos , including one in which the clay version had to be driven from Chicago to Nashville , to ensure the accuracy of the clay likeness . The 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 907 @.@ 2 kg ) sculpture , which is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) tall , rests on a 5 @-@ foot high black granite base that has an inscription reading " The best there ever was . The best there ever will be . " The base also includes a list of his accomplishments . The bronze statue used lost @-@ wax casting . The sculpture has led to a lot of similar work for the couple .
The sculpture 's official address is United Center , 1901 W. Madison Street . Officially named The Spirit , it is located outside of Gate 4 . The United Center opened on August 18 , 1994 . The exact pose of Jordan in midflight is left for artistic interpretation , but speculations include his 63 @-@ point performance against Boston in the 1986 NBA Playoffs , the 1988 NBA All @-@ Star Game slam @-@ dunk contest at Chicago Stadium and his jumpman logo that has been on Jordan branded Nike products since the 1980s . Jordan is depicted doing a right @-@ handed slam dunk over two opponents while jumping right @-@ to @-@ left in the eastward facing statue giving him a southbound trajectory . Prior to the beginning of each basketball season , the sculpture gets touched up .
The sculpture was installed on October 31 and unveiled on November 1 , 1994 in front of a national audience by Jordan , Reinsdorf and Larry King . Jordan 's jersey number was retired during the ceremony . Only Jordan 's knee is attached to the base via a triple @-@ steel post . A stationary basketball hoop was almost part of the sculpture too . The sculpture , which is hollow , was designed to withstand the natural elements . After his second retirement following the 1997 – 98 NBA season , the following quote from the 1992 film A River Runs Through It was added to the base : " At that moment I knew , surely and clearly , that I was witnessing perfection . He stood before us , suspended above the earth , free from all its laws like a work of art , and I knew , just as surely and clearly , that life is not a work of art , and that the moment could not last . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
Some complain that the sculpture does not depict Jordan 's well @-@ known open @-@ mouthed tongue wag . Chicago Tribune art critic Alan G. Artner says the inscription at the base that reads " The best there ever was . The best there ever will be . " refers only to the subject and not the sculpture . Following the Bulls ' second three @-@ peat after Jordan 's return , the statue became a sports mecca for fans to gather and take photographs . ESPN The Magazine listed the sculpture as one of the ten greatest sports photo opportunities in 1998 .
In 1995 , 123 28 @-@ inch ( 71 @.@ 1 cm ) bronze maquettes of the sculpture on 6 @-@ inch ( 15 @.@ 2 cm ) granite bases were produced by the Rotblatt @-@ Amranys and sold at $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 15 @,@ 530 in 2016 dollars ) each as a fundraiser for the James Jordan Boys & Girls Club . The TNT 2 @-@ hour broadcast of the original ceremony had also been in part a fundraiser for the Boys & Girls Club , but some had thought it was overdone and ungraceful .
At times , the statue has been adorned with various Chicago Blackhawks player jerseys . When Denis Savard 's jersey was retired on March 19 , 1998 , fans put his jersey on the statue , but it was removed one hour later . During the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals , United Center personnel added an ice hockey helmet , a Reebok jersey of captain Jonathan Toews and Reebok ice skates to the statue . Within 48 hours , the Reebok logos on the ice skates had been covered by Nike stickers . When Chicagoan Barack Obama welcomed the Blackhawks to the White House as President of the United States , he made mention of the jersey being placed on the Jordan statue . In May 2011 , there was an announcement the Hockey Hall of Famers Stan Mikita and Bobby Hull would have statues placed outside of the United Center near Jordan 's sometime early during the 2011 – 12 NHL season .
|
= Interstate 70 in Colorado =
Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) is a transcontinental Interstate Highway in the United States , stretching from Cove Fort , Utah to Baltimore , Maryland . In Colorado , the highway traverses an east – west route across the center of the state . In western Colorado , the highway connects the metropolitan areas of Grand Junction and Denver via a route through the Rocky Mountains . In eastern Colorado , the highway crosses the Great Plains , connecting Denver with metropolitan areas in Kansas and Missouri . Bicycles and other non @-@ motorized vehicles , normally prohibited on Interstate Highways , are allowed on those stretches of I @-@ 70 in the Rockies where no other through route exists .
The U.S. Department of Transportation ( USDOT ) lists the construction of I @-@ 70 among the engineering marvels undertaken in the Interstate Highway system , and cites four major accomplishments : the section through the Dakota Hogback , Eisenhower Tunnel , Vail Pass and Glenwood Canyon . The Eisenhower Tunnel , with a maximum elevation of 11 @,@ 158 feet ( 3 @,@ 401 m ) and length of 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) , is the longest mountain tunnel and highest point along the Interstate Highway System . The portion through Glenwood Canyon was completed on October 14 , 1992 . This was one of the final pieces of the Interstate Highway System to open to traffic , and is one of the most expensive rural highways per mile built in the United States . The Colorado Department of Transportation ( CDOT ) earned the 1993 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award from the American Society of Civil Engineers for the completion of I @-@ 70 through the canyon .
When the Interstate Highway system was in the planning stages , the western terminus of I @-@ 70 was proposed to be at Denver . The portion west of Denver was included into the plans after lobbying by Governor Edwin C. Johnson , for whom one of the tunnels along I @-@ 70 is named . East of Idaho Springs , I @-@ 70 was built along the corridor of U.S. Highway 40 , one of the original transcontinental U.S. Highways . West of Idaho Springs , I @-@ 70 was built along the route of U.S. Highway 6 , which was extended into Colorado during the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
= = = Colorado River = = =
I @-@ 70 enters Colorado from Utah , concurrent with US 6 and US 50 , on a plateau between the north rim of Ruby Canyon of the Colorado River and the south rim of the Book Cliffs . The plateau ends just past the state line and the highway descends into the Grand Valley , formed by the Colorado River and its tributaries . The Grand Valley is home to several towns and small cities that form the Grand Junction Metropolitan Statistical Area , the largest conurbation in the area locally known as the Western Slope . The highway directly serves the communities of Fruita , Grand Junction and Palisade . Grand Junction is the largest city between Denver and Salt Lake City and serves as the economic hub of the area . The freeway passes to the north of downtown , while US 6 and 50 retain their original routes through downtown . US 6 rejoins I @-@ 70 east of Grand Junction ; US 50 departs on a course toward Pueblo .
I @-@ 70 exits the valley through De Beque Canyon , a path carved by the Colorado River that separates the Book Cliffs from Battlement Mesa . The river and its tributaries provide the course for the ascent up the Rocky Mountains . In the canyon , I @-@ 70 enters the Beavertail Mountain Tunnel , the first of several tunnels built to route the freeway across the Rockies . This tunnel design features a curved sidewall , unusual for tunnels in the United States , where most tunnels feature a curved roof and flat side @-@ walls . Engineers borrowed a European design to give the tunnel added strength . After the canyon winds past the Book Cliffs , the highway follows the Colorado River through a valley containing the communities of Parachute and Rifle .
= = = Glenwood Canyon = = =
Approaching the city of Glenwood Springs , the highway enters Glenwood Canyon . Both the federal and state departments of transportation have praised the engineering achievement required to build the freeway through the narrow gorge while preserving the natural beauty of the canyon . A 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) section of roadway features the No Name Tunnel , Hanging Lake Tunnel , Reverse Curve Tunnel , 40 bridges and viaducts , and miles of retaining walls . Through a significant portion of the canyon , the eastbound lanes extend cantilevered over the Colorado River and the westbound lanes are suspended on a viaduct several feet above the canyon floor . Along this run , the freeway hugs the north bank of the Colorado River , while the main line of the former Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad ( now part of Union Pacific ) occupies the south bank .
To minimize the hazards along this portion , a command center staffed with emergency response vehicles and tow trucks on standby monitors cameras along the tunnels and viaducts in the canyon . Traffic signals have been placed at strategic locations to stop traffic in the event of an accident , and variable message signs equipped with radar guns will automatically warn motorists exceeding the design speed of one of the curves . The USDOT makes provision for bicycles , which are usually prohibited along Interstate Highways , along the freeway corridor in Glenwood Canyon .
= = = Rocky Mountains = = =
The highway departs the Colorado River near Dotsero , the name given to the railroad separation for the two primary mountain crossings , the original via Tennessee Pass / Royal Gorge and the newer and shorter Moffat Tunnel route . I @-@ 70 uses a separate route between the two rail corridors . From this junction I @-@ 70 follows the Eagle River toward Vail Pass , at an elevation of 10 @,@ 666 feet ( 3 @,@ 251 m ) . In this canyon I @-@ 70 reaches the western terminus of U.S. Highway 24 , which meanders through the Rockies before rejoining I @-@ 70 . US 24 is known as the Highway of the Fourteeners , from the concentration of mountains exceeding 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) along the highway corridor . Along the ascent , I @-@ 70 serves the ski resort town of Vail and the ski areas of Beaver Creek Resort , Vail Ski Resort and Copper Mountain .
The construction of the freeway over Vail Pass is also listed as an engineering marvel . One of the challenges of this portion is the management of the wildlife that roams this area . Several parts of the approach to the pass feature large fences that prevent wildlife from crossing the freeway and direct the animals to one of several underpasses . At least one underpass is located along a natural migratory path and has been landscaped to encourage deer to cross .
The highway descends to Dillon Reservoir , near the town of Frisco , and begins one final ascent to the Eisenhower Tunnel , where the freeway crosses the Continental Divide . At the time of dedication , this tunnel was the highest vehicular tunnel in the world , at 11 @,@ 158 feet ( 3 @,@ 401 m ) . As of 2010 , the facility was still the highest vehicular tunnel in the United States . The Eisenhower Tunnel is noted as both the longest mountain tunnel and highest point on the Interstate Highway System . The tunnel has a command center , staffed with 52 full @-@ time employees , to monitor traffic , remove stranded vehicles , and maintain generators to keep the tunnel 's lighting and ventilation systems running in the event of a power failure . Signals are placed at each entrance and at various points inside the tunnel to close lanes or stop traffic in an emergency . There are several active and former ski resorts in the vicinity of the tunnel , including Breckenridge Ski Resort , Keystone Resort , Arapahoe Basin , Loveland Ski Area , Berthoud Pass Ski Area and Winter Park Resort .
= = = Clear Creek = = =
The freeway follows Clear Creek down the eastern side of the Rockies , passing through the Veterans Memorial Tunnels near Idaho Springs . Farther to the east , I @-@ 70 departs the US 6 corridor , which continues to follow Clear Creek through a narrow , curving gorge . The interstate , however , follows the corridor of US 40 out of the canyon . The highway crests a small mountain near Genesee Park to descend into Mount Vernon Canyon to exit the Rocky Mountains . This portion features grade @-@ warning signs with unusual messages , such as " Trucks : Don 't be fooled , " " Truckers , you are not down yet , " and " Are your brakes adjusted and cool ? " Runaway truck ramps are a prominent feature along this portion of I @-@ 70 , with a total of seven used along the descent of either side the Continental Divide to stop trucks with failed brakes .
The last geographic feature of the Rocky Mountains traversed before the highway reaches the Great Plains is the Dakota Hogback . The path through the hogback features a massive cut that exposes various layers of rock millions of years old . The site includes a nature study area for visitors .
= = = Great Plains = = =
As the freeway passes from the Rocky Mountains to the Great Plains , I @-@ 70 enters the Denver metropolitan area , part of a larger urban area called the Front Range Urban Corridor . The freeway arcs around the northern edge of the LoDo district , the common name of the lower downtown area of Denver . Through the downtown area , US 40 is routed along Colfax Avenue , which served as the primary east – west artery through the Denver area before the construction of I @-@ 70 . Through downtown , US 6 is routed along 6th Avenue before departing the I @-@ 70 corridor to join Interstate 76 on a northeast course toward Nebraska . The freeway meets Interstate 25 in an interchange frequently called the Mousetrap . From I @-@ 25 on to I @-@ 225 , I @-@ 70 serves — together with those two Interstates — as part of an inner beltway around Denver .
I @-@ 70 has one official branch in Colorado , Interstate 270 , which connects the interstate with the Denver – Boulder Turnpike . Where these two freeways merge is the busiest portion of I @-@ 70 in the state , with an annual average daily traffic of 183 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . While State Highway 470 and E @-@ 470 are not officially branches of I @-@ 70 , they are remnants of plans for an I @-@ 470 outer beltway around Denver that were cancelled when the allocated funds were spent elsewhere .
Leaving Denver , the highway serves the redevelopment areas on the former site of Stapleton International Airport ; runway 17R / 35L crossed over the Interstate at the runway 's midsection . East of Aurora , I @-@ 70 rejoins the alignment of U.S. Highway 40 at Colfax Avenue . The freeway proceeds east across the Great Plains , briefly dipping south to serve the city of Limon , which bills itself as Hub City because of the many rail and road arteries that intersect there . I @-@ 70 enters Kansas near Burlington , a small community known for having one of the oldest carousels in the United States .
= = History = =
As first proposed in 1944 , the western terminus of I @-@ 70 was Denver , along the corridor of US 40 . The portion across the Rocky Mountains was added to the plans , after lobbying by Colorado officials , following the US 6 corridor . The origins of both the US 40 and US 6 pre @-@ date the U.S. System of numbered highways , using established transcontinental trails .
= = = Earlier routes = = =
Before the formation of the United States Numbered Highways , the U.S. relied on an informal network of roads , organized by various competing interests , collectively called the auto trail system . The surveyors of most trails chose either South Pass in Wyoming or a southern route through New Mexico to traverse the Rocky Mountains . Both options were less formidable than the higher mountain passes in Colorado , but left the state without a transcontinental artery . When the planners of the Lincoln Highway also decided to cross the Rockies in Wyoming , officials pressed for a loop to branch from the main route in Nebraska , enter Colorado , and return to the main route in Wyoming . While the Lincoln Highway was briefly routed this way , the loop proved impractical and was soon removed .
After losing the connection to the Lincoln Highway , officials convinced planners of the Victory Highway to traverse the state . The highway entered Colorado from Kansas along what was previously called the Smoky Hill Trail . The highway crossed the mountains along a trail blazed by a railroad surveyor and captain in the American Civil War , cresting at Berthoud Pass . After a round of political infighting between Utah and Nevada , the Victory Highway would become the Lincoln Highway 's main rival for San Francisco @-@ bound traffic . When the U.S. Highway system was unveiled in 1926 , the Victory Highway was numbered U.S. Highway 40 .
While US 6 was also one of the original 1926 U.S. Highways , the road originally served the portion of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains . The highway was not extended to the Pacific coast until 1937 , mostly following the Midland Trail . Around the time the U.S. Highway system was formed , the portion of the Midland Trail through Glenwood Canyon , known as the Taylor State Road , was destroyed by a flood . When US 6 was extended , the Works Progress Administration was rebuilding the road through the canyon and the Public Works Administration was nearing completion of a new highway over Vail Pass . In western Colorado , US 6 was routed concurrent with US 50 from the Utah state line to Grand Junction and eventually replaced US 24 from Grand Junction to near Vail . To keep these routes over the Rockies competitive with alternatives in other states , the Colorado Department of Highways relied on ingenuity to keep the roads safe . The department pioneered new machines to clear snow and various bridge and culvert designs to protect the roads from flooding .
= = = Interstate Highway planning = = =
Governor Edwin C. Johnson , for whom one of the tunnels along I @-@ 70 was later named , was a primary force in persuading the planners of the Interstate Highway System to extend the highway across the state . He stated to the Senate subcommittee :
You are going to have a four @-@ lane highway through Wyoming . You are going to build two four @-@ lane highways through New Mexico and Arizona . Colorado needs to be able to compete with our neighboring states . We do not want to take anything away from them . We do not want them to get way out ahead of us , either , because these interstate highways are going to be very attractive highways for the East and West to travel on .
Colorado held several meetings to convince reluctant Utah officials they would benefit from a freeway link between Denver and Salt Lake City . Utah officials expressed concerns that , given the terrain between these cities , this link would be difficult to build . They later expressed concerns that the construction would drain resources from completing Interstate Highways they deemed to have a higher priority . Colorado officials persisted , presenting three alternatives to route I @-@ 70 west of Denver , using the corridors of US 40 , US 6 and a route starting at Pueblo , proceeding west along US 50 / US 285 / US 24 . In March 1955 , Colorado officials succeeded in convincing Utah officials with the state legislature passing a resolution supporting a link with Denver . The two states jointly issued a proposal to the U.S. Congress that would extend the plans for I @-@ 70 along the US 6 corridor . Under this proposal the freeway would terminate at I @-@ 15 near Spanish Fork , Utah , linking the Front Range and Wasatch Front metropolitan areas .
Congress approved the extension of I @-@ 70 ; however , the route still had to be approved by the representatives of the U.S. military on the planning committee . Military representatives were concerned that plans for this new highway network did not have a direct connection from the central U.S. to southern California ; and further felt Salt Lake City was adequately connected . Military planners approved the extension , but moved the western terminus south to Cove Fort , using I @-@ 70 as part of a link between Denver with Los Angeles instead of Salt Lake City . Utah officials objected to the modification , complaining they were being asked to build a long and expensive freeway that would serve no populated areas of the state . After being told this was the only way the military would approve the extension , Utah officials agreed to build the freeway along the approved route .
= = = Construction = = =
The first Colorado portion of I @-@ 70 opened to traffic in 1961 . This section bypassed and linked Idaho Springs to the junction where US 6 currently separates from I @-@ 70 west of the city . The majority of the alignment through Denver was completed by 1964 . The Mousetrap reused some structures that were built in 1951 , before the formation of the Interstate Highway system . The last piece east of Denver opened to traffic in 1977 .
= = = = Eisenhower Tunnel = = = =
Planning on how to route the freeway over the Rocky Mountains began in the early 1960s . The US 6 corridor crosses two passes : Loveland Pass , at an elevation of 11 @,@ 992 feet ( 3 @,@ 655 m ) and Vail Pass , at 10 @,@ 666 feet ( 3 @,@ 251 m ) . Engineers recommended tunneling under Loveland Pass to bypass the steep grades and hairpin curves required to navigate US 6 . The project was originally called the Straight Creek Tunnel , after the waterway that runs along the western approach . The tunnel was later renamed the Eisenhower – Johnson Memorial Tunnel , after U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Colorado Governor Edwin C. Johnson .
Construction on the first bore of the tunnel was started on March 15 , 1968 . Construction efforts suffered many setbacks and the project went well over time and budget . One of the biggest setbacks was the discovery of fault lines in the path of the tunnel that were not discovered during the pilot bores . These faults began to slip during construction and emergency measures had to be taken to protect the tunnels and workers from cave @-@ ins and collapses . A total of nine workers were killed during the construction of both bores . Further complicating construction was that the boring machines could not work as fast as expected at such high altitudes , and the productivity was significantly less than planned . The frustration prompted one engineer to comment , " We were going by the book , but the damned mountain couldn 't read " . The first bore was dedicated March 8 , 1973 . Initially this tunnel was used for two @-@ way traffic , with one lane for each direction . The amount of traffic through the tunnel exceeded predictions , and efforts soon began to expedite construction on the second tube ( the Johnson bore ) , which was finished on December 21 , 1979 . The initial engineering cost estimate for the Eisenhower bore was $ 42 million ; the actual cost was $ 108 million ( equivalent to $ 576 million today ) . Approximately 90 % of the funds were paid by the federal government , with the state of Colorado paying the rest . At the time , this figure set a record for the most expensive federally aided project . The excavation cost for the Johnson bore was $ 102 @.@ 8 million ( equivalent to $ 335 million today ) .
The tunnel construction became unintentionally involved in the women 's rights movement when Janet Bonnema was given a position in the construction of the Straight Creek Tunnel project . After 18 months on the job , however , she had still not entered the tunnel . There was opposition to a woman entering the construction site ; one supervisor stated that if she entered , " Those workers would flat walk out of that there tunnel and they 'd never come back " . Emboldened by the passage of an equal rights law in Colorado , she finally entered the tunnel on November 9 , 1972 . Several workers did walk off the job , but most returned the next day .
= = = = Vail Pass = = = =
While designing the Eisenhower Tunnel , controversies erupted over how to build the portions over Vail Pass and Glenwood Canyon . The route of US 6 over Vail Pass has a distinctive " V " shape . Initially engineers thought they could shorten the route of I @-@ 70 by about 10 miles ( 16 km ) by tunneling from Gore Creek to South Willow Creek , an alternative known as the Red Buffalo Tunnel . This alternative sparked a nationwide controversy as it would require an easement across federally protected lands , through what is now called the Eagles Nest Wilderness . After the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture refused to grant the easement , the engineers agreed to follow the existing route across Vail Pass . The engineers added infrastructure to accommodate wildlife , and had significant portions of the viaducts constructed offsite and lifted in place to minimize the environmental footprint . The grade over Vail Pass reaches seven percent .
= = = = Glenwood Canyon = = = =
Glenwood Canyon has served as the primary transportation artery through the Rocky Mountains , even before the creation of U.S. highways . Railroads have used the canyon since 1887 and a dirt road was built through the canyon in the early 20th century . The first paved road was built from 1936 to 1938 at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 25 million today ) .
With the Eisenhower Tunnel finished , the last remaining obstacle for I @-@ 70 to be an interstate commercial artery was the two lane , non @-@ freeway portion in Glenwood Canyon . Construction had started on this section in the 1960s with a small section opening to traffic in 1966 . The remainder was stopped due to environmentalist protests that caused a 30 @-@ year controversy . The original design was criticized as " the epitome of environmental insensitivity " . Engineers scrapped the original plans and started work on a new design that would minimize additional environmental impacts . A new design was underway by 1971 , which was approved in 1975 ; however , environmental groups filed lawsuits to stop construction , and the controversy continued even when construction finally resumed in 1981 . The final design included 40 bridges and viaducts , three additional tunnel bores ( two were completed before construction was stopped in the 1960s ) and 15 miles ( 24 km ) of retaining walls for a stretch of freeway 12 miles ( 19 km ) long . The project was further complicated by the need to build the four @-@ lane freeway without disturbing the operations of the railroad . This required using special and coordinated blasting techniques . Engineers designed two separate tracks for the highway , one elevated above the other , to minimize the footprint in the canyon . The final design was praised for its environmental sensitivity . A Denver architect who helped design the freeway proclaimed , " Most of the people in western Colorado see it as having preserved the canyon . " He further stated , " I think pieces of the highway elevate to the standard of public art . " A portion of the project included shoring up the banks of the Colorado River to repair damage and remove flow restrictions created in the initial construction of US 6 in the 1930s .
The freeway was finally completed on October 14 , 1992 , in a ceremony covered nationwide . Most coverage celebrated the engineering achievement or noted this was the last major piece of the Interstate Highway System to open to traffic . However , newspapers in western Colorado celebrated the end of the frustrating traffic delays . For most of the final 10 years of construction , only a single lane of traffic that reversed direction every 30 minutes remained open in the canyon . One newspaper proudly proclaimed " You heard right . For the first time in more than 10 years , construction delays along that 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) stretch of Interstate 70 will be non @-@ existent . "
The cost was $ 490 million ( equivalent to $ 800 million today ) to build 12 miles ( 19 km ) , 40 times the average cost per mile predicted by the planners of the Interstate Highway system . This figure exceeded that of Interstate 15 through the Virgin River Gorge , which was previously proclaimed the most expensive rural freeway in the United States . The construction of I @-@ 70 through Glenwood Canyon earned 30 awards for the Colorado Department of Transportation , including the 1993 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award from the American Society of Civil Engineers . At the dedication it was claimed that I @-@ 70 through Glenwood Canyon was the final piece of the Interstate Highway System to open to traffic . For this reason , the system was proclaimed to be complete . However , as of 2009 , at least two sections of the original Interstate Highway System have not been constructed : a section of Interstate 95 in central New Jersey , and a section of I @-@ 70 in Breezewood , Pennsylvania .
= = = Legacy = = =
When first approved , the extension of I @-@ 70 from Denver to Cove Fort was criticized in some area newspapers as a road to nowhere ; an information liaison specialist with the U.S. Department of Transportation in Baltimore , Maryland — the eastern terminus of I @-@ 70 — claims people have asked " did we think Baltimoreans were so desperate to get to Cove Fort that we were willing to pay $ 4 billion to get them there ? " However , a resident engineer with the USDOT has called the extension one of the " crown jewels " of the Interstate Highway System . In Colorado , the freeway helped unite the state , despite the two halves being separated by the formidable Rocky Mountains . The Eisenhower Tunnel alone is credited with saving up to an hour from the drive across the state . Prior to I @-@ 70 's construction , the highway through Glenwood Canyon was one of the most dangerous in the state . With the improvements , the accident rate has dropped 40 % even though traffic through the canyon has substantially increased . The Colorado Department of Transportation is considering the nomination of various portions of I @-@ 70 as a National Historic Landmark , even though the freeway will not qualify as historical for several decades .
The freeway is credited with enhancing Colorado 's ski industry . The ski resort town of Vail did not exist until I @-@ 70 began construction , with developers working in close partnership with the Department of Transportation . By 1984 , the I @-@ 70 corridor between Denver and Grand Junction contained the largest concentration of ski resorts in the United States . The towns and cities along the corridor have experienced significant growth , luring recreational visitors from the Denver area . As one conservationist lamented , I @-@ 70 " changed rural Colorado into non @-@ rural Colorado " .
One accident at the Mousetrap , a complex interchange , had national ramifications . On August 1 , 1984 , a truck carrying six torpedoes for the U.S. Navy overturned . The situation was made worse as no one answered at the phone number provided with the cargo , and an unknown liquid was leaking from one of the torpedoes . It took more than three hours before any military personnel arrived on the scene , U.S. Army personnel from a nearby base . The incident left thousands of cars stranded and Denver 's transportation network paralyzed for about eight hours . Approximately 50 residents in the area were evacuated . Investigations later revealed that the truck driver did not follow a recommended route provided by officers , and was specifically warned to avoid the Mousetrap . The Navy promised reforms after being criticized for providing an unstaffed phone number with a hazardous cargo shipment , a violation of federal law , and failing to notify Denver officials about the shipment . The Mousetrap was grandfathered into the Interstate Highway system , with some structures built in 1951 . The incident provided momentum to rebuild the interchange with a more modern and safer design . Construction began in several phases in 1987 and the last bridge was dedicated in 2003 .
In 2014 , mile marker 420 was altered by CDOT to read " Mile 419 @.@ 99 " following repeat thefts of the original sign due to the significance of the number 420 in cannabis culture .
= = Exit list = =
|
= Borodino @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Borodino @-@ class battlecruisers ( Russian : Линейные крейсера типа « Измаил » ) were a group of four battlecruisers ordered by the Imperial Russian Navy before World War I. Also referred to as the Izmail class , they were laid down in December 1912 at Saint Petersburg for service with the Baltic Fleet . Construction of the ships was delayed as many domestic factories were overloaded with orders and some components had to be ordered from abroad . The start of World War I slowed their construction still further as the imported components were often not delivered and domestic production was diverted into areas more immediately useful for the war effort .
Three of the four ships were launched in 1915 and the fourth in 1916 . Work on the gun turrets lagged , and it became evident that Russian industry would not be able to complete the ships during the war . The Russian Revolution of 1917 put a stop to their construction , which was never resumed . Although some consideration was given to finishing the hulls that were nearest to completion , they were all eventually sold for scrap by the Soviet Union . The Soviet Navy proposed in 1925 to convert Izmail , the ship closest to completion , to an aircraft carrier , but the plan was cancelled after political maneuvering by the Red Army led to funding not being available .
= = Design and development = =
After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1905 , the Russian Naval General Staff decided that it needed a squadron of fast " armoured cruisers " that could use their speed to engage the leader of an enemy 's battle line , much as Admiral Tōgō had done against the Russian fleet during the Battle of Tsushima . Initially the Naval General Staff wanted a ship with high speed ( 28 knots or 52 kilometres per hour or 32 miles per hour ) , 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns , and limited protection ( a waterline belt of 190 mm or 7 @.@ 5 in ) ; the Emperor approved construction of four such ships on 5 May 1911 , but the Duma session ended before the proposal could be voted on . Preliminary bids for the ships were solicited from private builders , but the bids proved to be very high , leading to a reconsideration of the requirements . A new specification was issued on 1 July 1911 by the Naval General Staff for a ship with a speed of only 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) and with armour increased to 254 mm ( 10 in ) . Armaments were increased to nine 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) guns in three non @-@ superfiring triple @-@ gun turrets , based on a false rumor that the Germans were increasing the caliber of their guns . The Russian Navy believed that widely separating the main gun magazines improved the survivability of the ship , and that under a superfiring arrangement , muzzle blast would hurt the sailors manning the gun sights in the lower turrets through the open sighting hoods on the turret roofs .
The Naval Ministry solicited new bids on 8 September from 23 shipbuilders , domestic and foreign , but only seven responded , even after the deadline was extended by a month . A number of designs were rejected for not meeting the revised criteria . In the meantime , the Artillery Section of the Main Administration of Shipbuilding had decided that it preferred a four @-@ turret design , and new bids were solicited in May 1912 from the leading contenders from the first round of bidding . The eventual winner was a design by the Admiralty Works in Saint Petersburg , which had the extra turret added to a new hull section inserted into the original three @-@ turret design .
The Duma approved construction in May 1912 , before the design was finalised , and allocated 45 @.@ 5 million rubles for each ship . However , the increase in armaments and consequential increase in the size of the ships raised their estimated cost by seven million rubles each , and some money was diverted from the budget for the Svetlana @-@ class cruisers . Orders were placed on 18 September 1912 for a pair of ships each from the New Admiralty Shipyard and the Baltic Works . The first pair was to be ready for trials on 14 July 1916 and the second pair on 14 September 1916 .
Full @-@ scale armour trials revealed serious weaknesses in the proposed protection scheme . The trials employed the obsolete ironclad Chesma , modified with armour protection identical to that used by the Gangut @-@ class battleships then under construction . The deck and turret roof armour proved to be too thin , and the structure supporting the side armour was not strong enough to withstand the shock of impact from heavy shells .
The design of the Borodino @-@ class ships was modified as a consequence , which slowed their construction . Deck armour was reinforced with extra plates , the turret roofs were increased to a thickness of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , and the side and roof of the conning tower were increased by 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) and 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) respectively . To compensate for the additional weight , the rear conning tower was removed entirely and the thickness of the main belt was reduced by 4 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 18 in ) . Mortise and tenon joints were introduced between the armour plates along their vertical edges to better distribute the shock of a shell impact and to lessen the stress on the supporting hull structure . The launching of the first pair of ships was postponed by six months because of these changes , plus delays imposed by the large number of ship orders already in hand .
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 caused further delays as a number of components had been ordered from foreign manufacturers . As an example , the gun turrets rested on 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) roller bearings made in Germany , but attempts to order replacements from the United Kingdom and Sweden proved futile , as no company was willing and able to make the bearings . Components for the turbines of Navarin and Izmail that had been ordered from AG Vulcan in Germany were seized by the German government at the beginning of the war and used in the construction of the two Brummer @-@ class cruisers .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Borodino @-@ class ships were 223 @.@ 85 metres ( 734 ft 5 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft 1 in ) and a draught of 8 @.@ 81 metres ( 28 ft 11 in ) at full load . The ships displaced 32 @,@ 500 long tons ( 33 @,@ 000 t ) normally , and 36 @,@ 646 long tons ( 37 @,@ 234 t ) at ( full load ) . High @-@ tensile steel was used throughout the hull with mild steel used only in areas that did not contribute to structural strength . The hull was subdivided into 25 transverse watertight bulkheads and the engine room was divided by a longitudinal bulkhead . The double bottom had a height of 1 @.@ 275 metres ( 4 ft 2 @.@ 2 in ) , while the vitals of the ship were protected by a triple bottom that added an extra 875 millimetres ( 34 @.@ 4 in ) of depth . The design called for a freeboard of 8 @.@ 89 metres ( 29 ft 2 in ) forward , 6 @.@ 24 metres ( 20 ft 6 in ) amidships and 6 @.@ 49 metres ( 21 ft 4 in ) aft . The ships were fitted with three Frahm anti @-@ rolling tanks on each side .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Two sets of steam turbines were ordered on 22 April 1913 from the Franco @-@ Russian Works in Saint Petersburg for the Admiralty @-@ built ships ; the Baltic Works built its own turbines and one pair for Navarin was ordered by the AG Vulcan Stettin in Germany , with some components ordered from abroad . The wing propeller shafts were powered by high @-@ pressure impulse @-@ reaction turbines , and the inboard shafts were powered by low @-@ pressure reaction @-@ type turbines . They produced a total of 66 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 49 @,@ 000 kW ) and were designed to be overloaded to 90 @,@ 000 shp ( 67 @,@ 000 kW ) . The turbines were powered by 25 triangular Yarrow boilers with a working pressure of 17 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 667 kPa ; 242 psi ) . The forward boilers were grouped into three compartments with three oil @-@ fired boilers in each compartment . The rear boilers were split into four compartments with each containing four coal @-@ fired boilers fitted with oil sprayers . Maximum speed was estimated at 26 @.@ 5 knots , although forcing the machinery would increase it to 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) . Coal capacity was 1 @,@ 974 long tons ( 2 @,@ 006 t ) and fuel oil capacity was 1 @,@ 904 long tons ( 1 @,@ 935 t ) , which gave an estimated range of 2 @,@ 280 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 220 km ; 2 @,@ 620 mi ) at full speed .
The Borodino @-@ class ships had six turbo generators and two diesel generators , each rated at 320 kilowatts ( 430 hp ) . These were divided among four compartments on the platform deck , two forward and two aft of the machinery . The generators powered a complex electrical system that combined alternating current for most equipment with direct current for heavy @-@ load machinery such as the turret motors .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of four electrically powered turrets , which were never built . The turrets were designed to elevate and traverse at a rate of 3 ° per second . Each would have had three 52 @-@ calibre 356 @-@ millimetre ( 14 in ) Model 1913 guns . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to + 25 ° . They could be loaded at any angle between − 5 ° and + 15 ° ; the expected rate of fire was three rounds per minute . At full load , 80 rounds per gun could be carried . The guns fired 747 @.@ 6 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 648 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 731 @.@ 5 m / s ( 2 @,@ 400 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 240 metres ( 25 @,@ 420 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of twenty @-@ four 55 @-@ calibre 130 mm Pattern 1913 guns mounted in casemates . A pair of casemates were situated on each side , below the three rear turrets ; near the forward turret were six additional casemates , two of which were directly above the middle pair . This positioning reflected the Naval General Staff 's prediction of the most likely direction of attack by torpedo boats .
The anti @-@ aircraft armament was intended to be four 38 @-@ caliber 64 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns fitted on the upper deck with 220 rounds stored per gun . Four 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns were to be mounted in pairs on the main turret roofs for sub @-@ caliber training with the main guns . Six underwater 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes were fitted , three on each broadside ; they were provided with a total of eighteen torpedoes .
= = = Fire control = = =
The fore and aft main gun turrets were given a 6 @-@ meter ( 19 ft 8 in ) rangefinder , and there was another 5 @-@ metre ( 16 ft 5 in ) unit on top of the conning tower . These would provide data for the Geisler central artillery post computer , which would then transmit commands to the gun crew . The mechanical fire @-@ control computer would have been either a Pollen Argo range clock , which had been bought in 1913 , or a domestically designed Erikson system .
= = = Protection = = =
The trials with the Chesma greatly affected the armour protection design of the Borodino @-@ class ships . The Krupp cemented @-@ armour plates were sized to match the frames to provide support for their joints , and they were locked together with mortise @-@ and @-@ tenon joints to better distribute the shock of a shell 's impact . The 237 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 35 in ) waterline belt covered the middle 151 @.@ 2 metres ( 496 ft 1 in ) of the ship . It had a total height of 5 @.@ 015 metres ( 16 ft 5 @.@ 4 in ) , 3 @.@ 375 metres ( 11 ft 0 @.@ 9 in ) of which was above the design waterline and 1 @.@ 64 metres ( 5 ft 5 in ) below . It was backed by 75 millimeters of wood to make a better fit between the hull and the armour . The remaining portion of the waterline was protected by 125 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) plates backed by 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of wood . The upper belt was 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick and had a height of 2 @.@ 89 metres ( 9 ft 6 in ) . It thinned to 75 mm forward of the casemates all the way to the bow . The rear portion of the forecastle deck was protected by an upward extension of the upper belt in the area of the forward barbettes and the upper casemates . The upper casemates themselves were protected from axial fire by 100 mm transverse bulkheads . Behind the side armour was an inboard longitudinal splinter bulkhead that was 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick between the middle and lower decks . This decreased to 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) between the middle and upper decks . The bulkhead sloped away from the edge of the lower deck to the lower edge of the armour belt with a total thickness of 75 mm . The slope was one 50 mm plate of Krupp non @-@ cemented armour ( KNC ) on a 25 mm nickel @-@ steel plate . The forward end of the armoured citadel was protected separately and the transverse bulkhead was therefore only 75 mm thick . The rear bulkhead had no other protection and was 300 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick between the middle and lower decks , decreasing to 75 mm at the level of the armour belt .
The main gun turrets had sides 300 mm thick with 150 mm roofs . The gun ports were protected by 50 mm plates , and 25 mm bulkheads separated each gun . The barbettes were 247 @.@ 5 mm ( 9 @.@ 74 in ) thick , decreasing to 147 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 81 in ) when behind other armour . They were shaped like truncated cones which matched the trajectories of descending shells and thus lessened their protective value . The conning tower was 400 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) thick , reduced to 300 mm below the upper deck . The funnel uptakes were protected by 50 mm of armour . The upper deck was 37 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 48 in ) thick while the middle deck consisted of 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) plates of KNC on 25 mm of nickel @-@ steel over the armoured citadel . Underwater protection was minimal : there was only a 10 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) watertight bulkhead behind the upward extension of the double bottom , and even this was thinner as the hull narrowed towards the end turrets .
= = Construction = =
All four ships were officially laid down on 19 December 1912 , but work did not begin until March – April 1913 . After a progress review on 4 June 1914 , launching of the first pair of ships was delayed until October 1914 . When World War I began , the hull of Izmail , the most advanced ship , was judged 43 percent complete , with the others lagging considerably behind . The war caused more delays , including problems obtaining imported components , and the ships were competing for scarce resources with other production deemed necessary for the war . Three of the four ships were launched in 1915 , but it was clear that Russian industry would not be able to complete them during the war , mostly because the turrets were seriously delayed . They were reclassified as 2nd rank projects by the Main Administration of Shipbuilding in 1916 .
A number of plans were made for the post @-@ war completion of the ships , including modifying the turrets to load at a fixed angle of + 4 ° to reduce the weight and complexity of the loading equipment . Another intended change was to lengthen the funnels by 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) to minimise smoke interference with the bridge , as this had been noted as a problem on the Gangut @-@ class dreadnoughts . There were suggestions to improve the machinery with geared turbines , turbo @-@ electric drive , or Föttinger 's hydraulic transmission , but these were more theoretical than practical .
After the February Revolution , the condition of the ships was assessed on 28 April 1917 . The ship that was furthest along was the Ismail : her hull , engines , and boilers were around 65 % complete , and her armour was 36 % complete . Her turrets , however , were not expected to be completed until 1919 . The Congress of Shipyard Workers decided to continue work on the Izmail in mid @-@ 1917 , but only to provide jobs . The Provisional Government halted all work on Borodino , Kinburn , and Navarin on 24 October 1917 , and the Soviet Supreme Naval College ordered work on Izmail halted on 14 December 1917 .
After the end of the Russian Civil War the victorious Bolsheviks considered finishing Izmail , and possibly Borodino , to their original design . It would have taken at least two years to build all of Izmail 's turrets , even if enough guns had been available . Ten had been delivered by Vickers before the Revolution and one gun had been completed domestically in 1912 , but the prospects that more guns could be purchased from Vickers or that the Soviets could make more were not promising , given the state of their heavy industry in the wake of the Civil War . Another problem was the complicated electrical system ; it could not be completed under current conditions , and at least twenty months would be required to replace it with a simpler system .
The Soviets considered finishing Kinburn and Navarin to a modified design that featured 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) guns ; a two @-@ gun turret weighed slightly less than a triple 14 @-@ inch gun turret . Four proposals were made with various changes to the turrets ' armour scheme , but none were accepted , not least because the prospects of actually acquiring such guns were minimal . Domestic industry was not capable of building such large guns and they were not able to purchase the guns from any foreign company . Other ideas were examined for the three less complete ships . These included converting the hulls to cargo ships , passenger liners , or 22 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 22 @,@ 000 t ) oil barges , but most of the ideas were rejected as the hulls were thought to be too large and unwieldy for the proposed alternative uses . None of the proposals was accepted , and all three of the less complete ships were sold to a German company for scrap on 21 August 1923 to raise much @-@ needed cash for the government .
The Operational Administration of the Soviet Navy worked out the requirements in May 1925 for a conversion that would have made Izmail into an aircraft carrier with a top speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and a capacity of fifty aircraft . She would have been armed with eight 183 @-@ millimetre ( 7 @.@ 2 in ) guns and her armour reduced to a maximum of 76 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) . This proposal was approved by Alexey Rykov , Chairman of the Council of the People 's Commissars on 6 July 1925 . The plan was cancelled on 16 March 1926 after the Red Army managed to gain control of a commission appointed to review the needs of the Navy , and the Army was strongly opposed to spending additional money on naval projects . She was scrapped beginning in 1931 in Leningrad .
= = Ships = =
The ships were named after battles fought by the Russian Empire :
|
= Carousel ( musical ) =
Carousel is the second musical by the team of Richard Rodgers ( music ) and Oscar Hammerstein II ( book and lyrics ) . The 1945 work was adapted from Ferenc Molnár 's 1909 play Liliom , transplanting its Budapest setting to the Maine coastline . The story revolves around carousel barker Billy Bigelow , whose romance with millworker Julie Jordan comes at the price of both their jobs . He attempts a robbery to provide for Julie and their unborn child ; after it goes wrong , he is given a chance to make things right . A secondary plot line deals with millworker Carrie Pipperidge and her romance with ambitious fisherman Enoch Snow . The show includes the well @-@ known songs " If I Loved You " , " June Is Bustin ' Out All Over " and " You 'll Never Walk Alone " . Richard Rodgers later wrote that Carousel was his favorite of all his musicals .
Following the spectacular success of the first Rodgers and Hammerstein musical , Oklahoma ! ( 1943 ) , the pair sought to collaborate on another piece , knowing that any resulting work would be compared with Oklahoma ! , most likely unfavorably . They were initially reluctant to seek the rights to Liliom ; Molnár had refused permission for the work to be adapted in the past , and the original ending was considered too depressing for the musical theatre . After acquiring the rights , the team created a work with lengthy sequences of music and made the ending more hopeful .
The musical required considerable modification during out @-@ of @-@ town tryouts , but once it opened on Broadway on April 19 , 1945 , it was an immediate hit with both critics and audiences . Carousel initially ran for 890 performances and duplicated its success in the West End in 1950 . Though it has never achieved as much commercial success as Oklahoma ! , the piece has been repeatedly revived , and has been recorded several times . A production by Nicholas Hytner enjoyed success in 1992 in London , in 1994 in New York and on tour . In 1999 , Time magazine named Carousel the best musical of the 20th century .
= = Background = =
= = = Liliom = = =
Ferenc Molnár 's Hungarian @-@ language drama , Liliom , premiered in Budapest in 1909 . The audience was puzzled by the work , and it lasted only thirty @-@ odd performances before being withdrawn , the first shadow on Molnár 's successful career as a playwright . Liliom was not presented again until after World War I. When it reappeared on the Budapest stage , it was a tremendous hit .
Except for the ending , the plots of Liliom and Carousel are very similar . Andreas Zavocky ( nicknamed Liliom , the Hungarian word for " lily " , a slang term for " tough guy " ) , a carnival barker , falls in love with Julie Zeller , a servant girl , and they begin living together . With both discharged from their jobs , Liliom is discontented and contemplates leaving Julie , but decides not to do so on learning that she is pregnant . A subplot involves Julie 's friend Marie , who has fallen in love with Wolf Biefeld , a hotel porter — after the two marry , he becomes the owner of the hotel . Desperate to make money so that he , Julie and their child can escape to America and a better life , Liliom conspires with lowlife Ficsur to commit a robbery , but it goes badly , and Liliom stabs himself . He dies , and his spirit is taken to heaven 's police court . As Ficsur suggested while the two waited to commit the crime , would @-@ be robbers like them do not come before God Himself . Liliom is told by the magistrate that he may go back to Earth for one day to attempt to redeem the wrongs he has done to his family , but must first spend sixteen years in a fiery purgatory .
On his return to Earth , Liliom encounters his daughter , Louise , who like her mother is now a factory worker . Saying that he knew her father , he tries to give her a star he stole from the heavens . When Louise refuses to take it , he strikes her . Not realizing who he is , Julie confronts him , but finds herself unable to be angry with him . Liliom is ushered off to his fate , presumably Hell , and Louise asks her mother if it is possible to feel a hard slap as if it was a kiss . Julie reminiscently tells her daughter that it is very possible for that to happen .
An English translation of Liliom was credited to Benjamin " Barney " Glazer , though there is a story that the actual translator , uncredited , was Rodgers ' first major partner Lorenz Hart . The Theatre Guild presented it in New York City in 1921 , with Joseph Schildkraut as Liliom , and the play was a success , running 300 performances . A 1940 revival , with Burgess Meredith and Ingrid Bergman was seen by both Hammerstein and Rodgers . Glazer , in introducing the English translation of Liliom , wrote of the play 's appeal :
And where in modern dramatic literature can such pearls be matched — Julie incoherently confessing to her dead lover the love she had always been ashamed to tell ; Liliom crying out to the distant carousel the glad news that he is to be a father ; the two thieves gambling for the spoils of their prospective robbery ; Marie and Wolf posing for their portrait while the broken @-@ hearted Julie stands looking after the vanishing Liliom , the thieves ' song ringing in her ears ; the two policemen grousing about pay and pensions while Liliom lies bleeding to death ; Liliom furtively proffering his daughter the star he has stolen for her in heaven . ... The temptation to count the whole scintillating string is difficult to resist .
= = = Inception = = =
In the 1920s and 1930s , Rodgers and Hammerstein both became well known for creating Broadway hits with other partners . Rodgers , with Lorenz Hart , had produced a string of over two dozen musicals , including such popular successes as Babes in Arms ( 1937 ) , The Boys from Syracuse ( 1938 ) and Pal Joey ( 1940 ) . Some of Rodgers ' work with Hart broke new ground in musical theatre : On Your Toes was the first use of ballet to sustain the plot ( in the " Slaughter on Tenth Avenue " scene ) , while Pal Joey flouted Broadway tradition by presenting a knave as its hero . Hammerstein had written or co @-@ written the words for such hits as Rose @-@ Marie ( 1924 ) , The Desert Song ( 1926 ) , The New Moon ( 1927 ) and Show Boat ( 1927 ) . Though less productive in the 1930s , he wrote material for musicals and films , sharing an Academy Award for his song with Jerome Kern , " The Last Time I Saw Paris " , which was included in the 1941 film Lady Be Good .
By the early 1940s , Hart had sunk into alcoholism and emotional turmoil , becoming unreliable and prompting Rodgers to approach Hammerstein to ask if he would consider working with him . Hammerstein was eager to do so , and their first collaboration was Oklahoma ! ( 1943 ) . Thomas Hischak states , in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia , that Oklahoma ! is " the single most influential work in the American musical theatre . In fact , the history of the Broadway musical can accurately be divided into what came before Oklahoma ! and what came after it . " An innovation for its time in integrating song , character , plot and dance , Oklahoma ! would serve , according to Hischak , as " the model for Broadway shows for decades " , and proved a huge popular and financial success . Once it was well @-@ launched , what to do as an encore was a daunting challenge for the pair . Movie producer Sam Goldwyn saw Oklahoma ! and advised Rodgers to shoot himself , which according to Rodgers " was Sam 's blunt but funny way of telling me that I 'd never create another show as good as Oklahoma ! " As they considered new projects , Hammerstein wrote , " We 're such fools . No matter what we do , everyone is bound to say , ' This is not another Oklahoma ! ' "
Oklahoma ! had been a struggle to finance and produce . Hammerstein and Rodgers met weekly in 1943 with Theresa Helburn and Lawrence Langner of the Theatre Guild , producers of the blockbuster musical , who together formed what they termed " the Gloat Club " . At one such luncheon , Helburn and Langner proposed to Rodgers and Hammerstein that they turn Molnár 's Liliom into a musical . Both men refused — they had no feeling for the Budapest setting and thought that the unhappy ending was unsuitable for musical theatre . In addition , given the unstable wartime political situation , they might need to change the setting from Hungary while in rehearsal . At the next luncheon , Helburn and Langner again proposed Liliom , suggesting that they move the setting to Louisiana and make Liliom a Creole . Rodgers and Hammerstein played with the idea over the next few weeks , but decided that Creole dialect , filled with " zis " and " zose " would sound corny and would make it difficult to write effective lyrics .
A breakthrough came when Rodgers , who owned a house in Connecticut , proposed a New England setting . Hammerstein wrote of this suggestion in 1945 @,@
I began to see an attractive ensemble — sailors , whalers , girls who worked in the mills up the river , clambakes on near @-@ by islands , an amusement park on the seaboard , things people could do in crowds , people who were strong and alive and lusty , people who had always been depicted on the stage as thin @-@ lipped puritans — a libel I was anxious to refute ... as for the two leading characters , Julie with her courage and inner strength and outward simplicity seemed more indigenous to Maine than to Budapest . Liliom is , of course , an international character , indigenous to nowhere .
Rodgers and Hammerstein were also concerned about what they termed " the tunnel " of Molnár 's second act — a series of gloomy scenes leading up to Liliom 's suicide — followed by a dark ending . They also felt it would be difficult to set Liliom 's motivation for the robbery to music . Molnár 's opposition to having his works adapted was also an issue ; he had famously turned down Giacomo Puccini when the great composer wished to transform Liliom into an opera , stating that he wanted the piece to be remembered as his , not Puccini 's . In 1937 , Molnár , who had recently emigrated to the United States , had declined another offer from Kurt Weill to adapt the play into a musical .
The pair continued to work on the preliminary ideas for a Liliom adaptation while pursuing other projects in late 1943 and early 1944 — writing the film musical State Fair and producing I Remember Mama on Broadway . Meanwhile , the Theatre Guild took Molnár to see Oklahoma ! Molnár stated that if Rodgers and Hammerstein could adapt Liliom as beautifully as they had modified Green Grow the Lilacs into Oklahoma ! , he would be pleased to have them do it . The Guild obtained the rights from Molnár in October 1943 . The playwright received one percent of the gross and $ 2 @,@ 500 for " personal services " . The duo insisted , as part of the contract , that Molnár permit them to make changes in the plot . At first , the playwright refused , but eventually yielded . Hammerstein later stated that if this point had not been won , " we could never have made Carousel . "
In seeking to establish through song Liliom 's motivation for the robbery , Rodgers remembered that he and Hart had a similar problem in Pal Joey . Rodgers and Hart had overcome the problem with a song that Joey sings to himself , " I 'm Talking to My Pal " . This inspired " Soliloquy " . Both partners later told a story that " Soliloquy " was only intended to be a song about Liliom 's dreams of a son , but that Rodgers , who had two daughters , insisted that Liliom consider that Julie might have a girl . However , the notes taken at their meeting of December 7 , 1943 state : " Mr. Rodgers suggested a fine musical number for the end of the scene where Liliom discovers he is to be a father , in which he sings first with pride of the growth of a boy , and then suddenly realizes it might be a girl and changes completely . "
Hammerstein and Rodgers returned to the Liliom project in mid @-@ 1944 . Hammerstein was uneasy as he worked , fearing that no matter what they did , Molnár would disapprove of the results . Green Grow the Lilacs had been a little @-@ known work ; Liliom was a theatrical standard . Molnár 's text also contained considerable commentary on the Hungarian politics of 1909 and the rigidity of that society . A dismissed carnival barker who hits his wife , attempts a robbery and commits suicide seemed an unlikely central character for a musical comedy . Hammerstein decided to use the words and story to make the audience sympathize with the lovers . He also built up the secondary couple , who are incidental to the plot in Liliom ; they became Enoch Snow and Carrie Pipperidge . " This Was a Real Nice Clambake " was repurposed from a song , " A Real Nice Hayride " , written for Oklahoma ! but not used .
Molnár 's ending was unsuitable , and after a couple of false starts , Hammerstein conceived the graduation scene that ends the musical . According to Frederick Nolan in his book on the team 's works : " From that scene the song " You 'll Never Walk Alone " sprang almost naturally . " In spite of Hammerstein 's simple lyrics for " You 'll Never Walk Alone " , Rodgers had great difficulty in setting it to music . Rodgers explained his rationale for the changed ending ,
Liliom was a tragedy about a man who cannot learn to live with other people . The way Molnár wrote it , the man ends up hitting his daughter and then having to go back to purgatory , leaving his daughter helpless and hopeless . We couldn 't accept that . The way we ended Carousel it may still be a tragedy but it 's a hopeful one because in the final scene it is clear that the child has at last learned how to express herself and communicate with others .
When the pair decided to make " This Was a Real Nice Clambake " into an ensemble number , Hammerstein realized he had no idea what a clambake was like , and researched the matter . Based on his initial findings , he wrote the line , " First came codfish chowder " . However , further research convinced him the proper term was " codhead chowder " , a term unfamiliar to many playgoers . He decided to keep it as " codfish " . When the song proceeded to discuss the lobsters consumed at the feast , Hammerstein wrote the line " We slit ' em down the back / And peppered ' em good " . He was grieved to hear from a friend that lobsters are always slit down the front . The lyricist sent a researcher to a seafood restaurant and heard back that lobsters are always slit down the back . Hammerstein concluded that there is disagreement about which side of a lobster is the back . One error not caught involved the song " June Is Bustin ' Out All Over " , in which sheep are depicted as seeking to mate in late spring — they actually do so in the winter . Whenever this was brought to Hammerstein 's attention , he told his informant that 1873 was a special year , in which sheep mated in the spring .
Rodgers early decided to dispense with an overture , feeling that the music was hard to hear over the banging of seats as latecomers settled themselves . In his autobiography , Rodgers complained that only the brass section can be heard during an overture because there are never enough strings in a musical 's small orchestra . He determined to force the audience to concentrate from the beginning by opening with a pantomime scene accompanied by what became known as " The Carousel Waltz " . The pantomime paralleled one in the Molnár play , which was also used to introduce the characters and situation to the audience . Author Ethan Mordden described the effectiveness of this opening :
Other characters catch our notice — Mr. Bascombe , the pompous mill owner , Mrs. Mullin , the widow who runs the carousel and , apparently , Billy ; a dancing bear ; an acrobat . But what draws us in is the intensity with which Julie regards Billy — the way she stands frozen , staring at him , while everyone else at the fair is swaying to the rhythm of Billy 's spiel . And as Julie and Billy ride together on the swirling carousel , and the stage picture surges with the excitement of the crowd , and the orchestra storms to a climax , and the curtain falls , we realize that R & H have not only skipped the overture and the opening number but the exposition as well . They have plunged into the story , right into the middle of it , in the most intense first scene any musical ever had .
= = = Casting and out @-@ of @-@ town tryouts = = =
The casting for Carousel began when Oklahoma ! ' s production team , including Rodgers and Hammerstein , was seeking a replacement for the part of Curly ( the male lead in Oklahoma ! ) . Lawrence Langner had heard , through a relative , of a California singer named John Raitt , who might be suitable for the part . Langner went to hear Raitt , then urged the others to bring Raitt to New York for an audition . Raitt asked to sing Largo al factotum , Figaro 's aria from The Barber of Seville , to warm up . The warmup was sufficient to convince the producers that not only had they found a Curly , they had found a Liliom ( or Billy Bigelow , as the part was renamed ) . Theresa Helburn made another California discovery , Jan Clayton , a singer / actress who had made a few minor films for MGM . She was brought east and successfully auditioned for the part of Julie .
The producers sought to cast unknowns . Though many had played in previous Hammerstein or Rodgers works , only one , Jean Casto ( cast as carousel owner Mrs. Mullin , and a veteran of Pal Joey ) , had ever played on Broadway before . It proved harder to cast the ensemble than the leads , due to the war — Rodgers told his casting director , John Fearnley , that the sole qualification for a dancing boy was that he be alive . Rodgers and Hammerstein reassembled much of the creative team that had made Oklahoma ! a success , including director Rouben Mamoulian and choreographer Agnes de Mille . Miles White was the costume designer while Jo Mielziner ( who had not worked on Oklahoma ! ) was the scenic and lighting designer . Even though Oklahoma ! orchestrator Russell Bennett had informed Rodgers that he was unavailable to work on Carousel due to a radio contract , Rodgers insisted he do the work in his spare time . He orchestrated " The Carousel Waltz " and " ( When I Marry ) Mister Snow " before finally being replaced by Don Walker . A new member of the creative team was Trude Rittmann , who arranged the dance music . Rittmann initially felt that Rodgers mistrusted her because she was a woman , and found him difficult to work with , but the two worked together on Rodgers ' shows until the 1970s .
Rehearsals began in January 1945 ; either Rodgers or Hammerstein was always present . Raitt was presented with the lyrics for " Soliloquy " on a five @-@ foot long sheet of paper — the piece ran nearly eight minutes . Staging such a long solo number presented problems , and Raitt later stated that he felt that they were never fully addressed . At some point during rehearsals , Molnár came to see what they had done to his play . There are a number of variations on the story . As Rodgers told it , while watching rehearsals with Hammerstein , the composer spotted Molnár in the rear of the theatre and whispered the news to his partner . Both sweated through an afternoon of rehearsal in which nothing seemed to go right . At the end , the two walked to the back of the theatre , expecting an angry reaction from Molnár . Instead , the playwright said enthusiastically , " What you have done is so beautiful . And you know what I like best ? The ending ! " Hammerstein wrote that Molnár became a regular attendee at rehearsals after that .
Like most of the pair 's works , Carousel contains a lengthy ballet , " Billy Makes a Journey " , in the second act , as Billy looks down to the Earth from " Up There " and observes his daughter . In the original production the ballet was choreographed by de Mille . It began with Billy looking down from heaven at his wife in labor , with the village women gathered for a " birthing " . The ballet involved every character in the play , some of whom spoke lines of dialogue , and contained a number of subplots . The focus was on Louise , played by Bambi Linn , who at first almost soars in her dance , expressing the innocence of childhood . She is teased and mocked by her schoolmates , and Louise becomes attracted to the rough carnival people , who symbolize Billy 's world . A youth from the carnival attempts to seduce Louise , as she discovers her own sexuality , but he decides she is more girl than woman , and he leaves her . After Julie comforts her , Louise goes to a children 's party , where she is shunned . The carnival people reappear and form a ring around the children 's party , with Louise lost between the two groups . At the end , the performers form a huge carousel with their bodies .
The play opened for tryouts in New Haven , Connecticut on March 22 , 1945 . The first act was well @-@ received ; the second act was not . Casto recalled that the second act finished about 1 : 30 a.m. The staff immediately sat down for a two @-@ hour conference . Five scenes , half the ballet , and two songs were cut from the show as the result . John Fearnley commented , " Now I see why these people have hits . I never witnessed anything so brisk and brave in my life . " De Mille said of this conference , " not three minutes had been wasted pleading for something cherished . Nor was there any idle joking . ... We cut and cut and cut and then we went to bed . " By the time the company left New Haven , de Mille 's ballet was down to forty minutes .
A major concern with the second act was the effectiveness of the characters He and She ( later called by Rodgers " Mr. and Mrs. God " ) , before whom Billy appeared after his death . Mr. and Mrs. God were depicted as a New England minister and his wife , seen in their parlor . The couple was still part of the show at the Boston opening . Rodgers said to Hammerstein , " We 've got to get God out of that parlor " . When Hammerstein inquired where he should put the deity , Rodgers replied , " I don 't care where you put Him . Put Him on a ladder for all I care , only get Him out of that parlor ! " Hammerstein duly put Mr. God ( renamed the Starkeeper ) atop a ladder , and Mrs. God was removed from the show . Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest terms this change a mistake , leading to a more fantastic afterlife , which was later criticized by The New Republic as " a Rotarian atmosphere congenial to audiences who seek not reality but escape from reality , not truth but escape from truth " .
Hammerstein wrote that Molnár 's advice , to combine two scenes into one , was key to pulling together the second act and represented " a more radical departure from the original than any change we had made " . A reprise of " If I Loved You " was added in the second act , which Rodgers felt needed more music . Three weeks of tryouts in Boston followed the brief New Haven run , and the audience there gave the musical a warm reception . An even shorter version of the ballet was presented the final two weeks in Boston , but on the final night there , de Mille expanded it back to forty minutes , and it brought the house down , causing both Rodgers and Hammerstein to embrace her .
= = Plot = =
= = = Act 1 = = =
Two young female millworkers in 1873 Maine visit the town 's carousel after work . One of them , Julie Jordan , attracts the attention of the barker , Billy Bigelow ( " The Carousel Waltz " ) . When Julie lets Billy put his arm around her during the ride , Mrs. Mullin , the widowed owner of the carousel , tells Julie never to return . Julie and her friend , Carrie Pipperidge , argue with Mrs. Mullin . Billy arrives and , seeing that Mrs. Mullin is jealous , mocks her ; he is fired from his job . Billy , unconcerned , invites Julie to join him for a drink . As he goes to get his belongings , Carrie presses Julie about her feelings toward him , but Julie is evasive ( " You 're a Queer One , Julie Jordan " ) . Carrie has a beau too , fisherman Enoch Snow ( " ( When I Marry ) Mister Snow " ) , to whom she is newly engaged . Billy returns for Julie as the departing Carrie warns that staying out late means the loss of Julie 's job . Mr. Bascombe , owner of the mill , happens by along with a policeman , and offers to escort Julie to her home , but she refuses and is fired . Left alone , she and Billy talk about what life might be like if they were in love , but neither quite confesses to the growing attraction they feel for each other ( " If I Loved You " ) .
Over a month passes , and preparations for the summer clambake are under way ( " June Is Bustin ' Out All Over " ) . Julie and Billy , now married , live at Julie 's cousin Nettie 's spa . Julie confides in Carrie that Billy , frustrated over being unemployed , hit her . Carrie has happier news — she is engaged to Enoch , who enters as she discusses him ( " ( When I Marry ) Mister Snow ( reprise ) ) " . Billy arrives with his ne 'er @-@ do @-@ well whaler friend , Jigger . The former barker is openly rude to Enoch and Julie , then leaves with Jigger , followed by a distraught Julie . Enoch tells Carrie that he expects to become rich selling herring and to have a large family , larger perhaps than Carrie is comfortable having ( " When the Children Are Asleep " ) .
Jigger and his shipmates , joined by Billy , then sing about life on the sea ( " Blow High , Blow Low " ) . The whaler tries to recruit Billy to help with a robbery , but Billy declines , as the victim — Julie 's former boss , Mr. Bascombe — might have to be killed . Mrs. Mullin enters and tries to tempt Billy back to the carousel ( and to her ) . He would have to abandon Julie ; a married barker cannot evoke the same sexual tension as one who is single . Billy reluctantly mulls it over as Julie arrives and the others leave . She tells him that she is pregnant , and Billy is overwhelmed with happiness , ending all thoughts of returning to the carousel . Once alone , Billy imagines the fun he will have with Bill Jr . — until he realizes that his child might be a girl , and reflects soberly that " you 've got to be a father to a girl " ( " Soliloquy " ) . Determined to provide financially for his future child , whatever the means , Billy decides to be Jigger 's accomplice .
The whole town leaves for the clambake . Billy , who had earlier refused to go , agrees to join in , to Julie 's delight , as he realizes that being seen at the clambake is integral to his and Jigger 's alibi ( " Act I Finale " ) .
= = = Act 2 = = =
Everyone reminisces about the huge meal and much fun ( " This Was a Real Nice Clambake " ) . Jigger tries to seduce Carrie ; Enoch walks in at the wrong moment , and declares that he is finished with her ( " Geraniums In the Winder " ) , as Jigger jeers ( " There 's Nothin ' So Bad for a Woman " ) . The girls try to comfort Carrie , but for Julie all that matters is that " he 's your feller and you love him " ( " What 's the Use of Wond 'rin ' ? " ) . Julie sees Billy trying to sneak away with Jigger and , trying to stop him , feels the knife hidden in his shirt . She begs him to give it to her , but he refuses and leaves to commit the robbery .
As they wait , Jigger and Billy gamble with cards . They stake their shares of the anticipated robbery spoils . Billy loses : his participation is now pointless . Unknown to Billy and Jigger , Mr. Bascombe , the intended victim , has already deposited the mill 's money . The robbery fails : Bascombe pulls a gun on Billy while Jigger escapes . Billy stabs himself with his knife ; Julie arrives just in time for him to say his last words to her and die . Julie strokes his hair , finally able to tell him that she loved him . Carrie and Enoch , reunited by the crisis , attempt to console Julie ; Nettie arrives and gives Julie the resolve to keep going despite her despair ( " You 'll Never Walk Alone " ) .
Billy 's defiant spirit ( " The Highest Judge of All " ) is taken Up There to see the Starkeeper , a heavenly official . The Starkeeper tells Billy that the good he did in life was not enough to get into heaven , but so long as there is a person alive who remembers him , he can return for a day to try to do good to redeem himself . He informs Billy that fifteen years have passed on Earth since the former barker 's suicide , and suggests that Billy can get himself into heaven if he helps his daughter , Louise . He helps Billy look down from heaven to see her ( instrumental ballet : " Billy Makes a Journey " ) . Louise has grown up to be lonely and bitter . The local children ostracize her because her father was a thief and a wife @-@ beater . In the dance , a young ruffian , much like her father at that age , flirts with her and abandons her as too young . The dance concludes , and Billy is anxious to return to Earth and help his daughter . He steals a star to take with him , as the Starkeeper pretends not to notice .
Outside Julie 's cottage , Carrie describes her visit to New York with the now @-@ wealthy Enoch . Carrie 's husband and their many children enter to fetch her — the family must get ready for the high school graduation later that day . Enoch Jr . , the oldest son , remains behind to talk with Louise , as Billy and the Heavenly Friend escorting him enter , invisible to the other characters . Louise confides in Enoch Jr. that she plans to run away from home with an acting troupe . He says that he will stop her by marrying her , but that his father will think her an unsuitable match . Louise is outraged : each insults the other 's father , and Louise orders Enoch Jr. to go away . Billy , able to make himself visible at will , reveals himself to the sobbing Louise , pretending to be a friend of her father . He offers her a gift — the star he stole from heaven . She refuses it and , frustrated , he slaps her hand . He makes himself invisible , and Louise tells Julie what happened , stating that the slap miraculously felt like a kiss , not a blow — and Julie understands her perfectly . Louise retreats to the house , as Julie notices the star that Billy dropped ; she picks it up and seems to feel Billy 's presence ( " If I Loved You ( Reprise ) " ) .
Billy invisibly attends Louise 's graduation , hoping for one last chance to help his daughter and redeem himself . The beloved town physician , Dr. Seldon ( who resembles the Starkeeper ) advises the graduating class not to rely on their parents ' success or be held back by their failure ( words directed at Louise ) . Seldon prompts everyone to sing an old song , " You 'll Never Walk Alone " . Billy , still invisible , whispers to Louise , telling her to believe Seldon 's words , and when she tentatively reaches out to another girl , she learns she does not have to be an outcast . Billy goes to Julie , telling her at last that he loved her . As his widow and daughter join in the singing , Billy is taken to his heavenly reward .
= = Principal roles and notable performers = =
° denotes original Broadway cast
= = Musical numbers = =
= = Productions = =
= = = Early productions = = =
The original Broadway production opened at the Majestic Theatre on April 19 , 1945 . The dress rehearsal the day before had gone badly , and the pair feared the new work would not be well received . One successful last @-@ minute change was to have de Mille choreograph the pantomime . The movement of the carnival crowd in the pantomime had been entrusted to Mamoulian , and his version was not working . Rodgers had injured his back the previous week , and he watched the opening from a stretcher propped in a box behind the curtain . Sedated with morphine , he could see only part of the stage . As he could not hear the audience 's applause and laughter , he assumed the show was a failure . It was not until friends congratulated him later that evening that he realized that the curtain had been met by wild applause . Bambi Linn , who played Louise , was so enthusiastically received by the audience during her ballet that she was forced to break character , when she next appeared , and bow . Rodgers ' daughter Mary caught sight of her friend , Stephen Sondheim , both teenagers then , across several rows ; both had eyes wet with tears .
The original production ran for 890 performances , closing on May 24 , 1947 . The original cast included John Raitt ( Billy ) , Jan Clayton ( Julie ) , Jean Darling ( Carrie ) , Eric Mattson ( Enoch Snow ) , Christine Johnson ( Nettie Fowler ) , Murvyn Vye ( Jigger ) , Bambi Linn ( Louise ) and Russell Collins ( Starkeeper ) . In December 1945 , Clayton left to star in the Broadway revival of Show Boat and was replaced by Iva Withers ; Raitt was replaced by Henry Michel in January 1947 ; Darling was replaced by Margot Moser .
After closing on Broadway , the show went on a national tour for two years . It played for five months in Chicago alone , visited twenty states and two Canadian cities , covered 15 @,@ 000 miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ) and played to nearly two million people . The touring company had a four @-@ week run at New York City Center in January 1949 . Following the City Center run , the show was moved back to the Majestic Theatre in the hopes of filling the theatre until South Pacific opened in early April . However , ticket sales were mediocre , and the show closed almost a month early .
The musical premiered in the West End , London , at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane on June 7 , 1950 . The production was restaged by Jerome Whyte , with a cast that included Stephen Douglass ( Billy ) , Iva Withers ( Julie ) and Margot Moser ( Carrie ) . Carousel ran in London for 566 performances , remaining there for over a year and a half .
= = = Subsequent productions = = =
Carousel was revived in 1954 and 1957 at City Center , presented by the New York City Center Light Opera Company . Both times , the production featured Barbara Cook , though she played Carrie in 1954 and Julie in 1957 ( playing alongside Howard Keel as Billy ) . The production was then taken to Belgium to be performed at the 1958 Brussels World 's Fair , with David Atkinson as Billy , Ruth Kobart as Nettie , and Clayton reprising the role of Julie , which she had originated .
In August 1965 , Rodgers and the Music Theater of Lincoln Center produced Carousel for 47 performances . John Raitt reprised the role of Billy , with Jerry Orbach as Jigger and Reid Shelton as Enoch Snow . The roles of the Starkeeper and Dr. Seldon were played by Edward Everett Horton in his final stage appearance . The following year , New York City Center Light Opera Company brought Carousel back to City Center for 22 performances , with Bruce Yarnell as Billy and Constance Towers as Julie .
Nicholas Hytner directed a new production of Carousel in 1992 , at London 's Royal National Theatre , with choreography by Sir Kenneth MacMillan and designs by Bob Crowley . In this staging , the story begins at the mill , where Julie and Carrie work , with the music slowed down to emphasize the drudgery . After work ends , they move to the shipyards and then to the carnival . As they proceed on a revolving stage , carnival characters appear , and at last the carousel is assembled onstage for the girls to ride . Louise is seduced by the ruffian boy during her Act 2 ballet , set around the ruins of a carousel . Michael Hayden played Billy not as a large , gruff man , but as a frustrated smaller one , a time bomb waiting to explode . Hayden , Joanna Riding ( Julie ) and Janie Dee ( Carrie ) all won Olivier Awards for their performances . Patricia Routledge played Nettie . Enoch and Carrie were cast as an interracial couple whose eight children , according to the review in The New York Times , looked like " a walking United Colors of Benetton ad " . Clive Rowe , as Enoch , was nominated for an Olivier Award . The production 's limited run from December 1992 through March 1993 was a sellout . It re @-@ opened at the Shaftesbury Theatre in London in September 1993 , presented by Cameron Mackintosh , where it continued until May 1994 .
The Hytner production moved to New York 's Vivian Beaumont Theater , where it opened on March 24 , 1994 and ran for 322 performances . This won five Tony Awards , including best musical revival , as well as awards for Hytner , MacMillan , Crowley and Audra McDonald ( as Carrie ) . The cast also included Sally Murphy as Julie , Shirley Verrett as Nettie , Fisher Stevens as Jigger and Eddie Korbich as Enoch . One change made from the London to the New York production was to have Billy strike Louise across the face , rather than on the hand . According to Hayden , " He does the one unpardonable thing , the thing we can 't forgive . It 's a challenge for the audience to like him after that . " The Hytner Carousel was presented in Japan in May 1995 . A U.S. national tour with a scaled @-@ down production began in February 1996 in Houston and closed in May 1997 in Providence , Rhode Island . Producers sought to feature young talent on the tour , with Patrick Wilson as Billy and Sarah Uriarte Berry , and later Jennifer Laura Thompson , as Julie .
A revival opened at London 's Savoy Theatre on December 2 , 2008 , after a week of previews , starring Jeremiah James ( Billy ) , Alexandra Silber ( Julie ) and Lesley Garrett ( Nettie ) . The production received warm to mixed reviews . It closed in June 2009 , a month early . Michael Coveney , writing in The Independent , admired Rodgers ' music but stated , " Lindsay Posner 's efficient revival doesn 't hold a candle to the National Theatre 1992 version " .
= = = Film , television and concert versions = = =
A film version of the musical was made in 1956 , starring Gordon MacRae and Shirley Jones . It follows the musical 's story fairly closely , although a prologue , set in the Starkeeper 's heaven , was added . The film was released only a few months after the release of the film version of Oklahoma ! . It garnered some good reviews , and the soundtrack recording was a best seller . As the same stars appeared in both pictures , however , the two films were often compared , generally to the disadvantage of Carousel . Thomas Hischak , in The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia , later wondered " if the smaller number of Carousel stage revivals is the product of this often @-@ lumbering [ film ] musical " .
There was also an abridged ( 100 minute ) 1967 network television version that starred Robert Goulet , with choreography by Edward Villella .
The New York Philharmonic presented a staged concert version of the musical from February 28 , 2013 to March 2 , 2013 at Avery Fisher Hall . Kelli O 'Hara played Julie , with Nathan Gunn as Billy , Stephanie Blythe as Nettie , Jessie Mueller as Carrie , Jason Danieley as Enoch , Shuler Hensley as Jigger , John Cullum as the Starkeeper , and Kate Burton as Mrs. Mullin . Tiler Peck danced the role of Louise to choreography by Warren Carlyle . The production was directed by John Rando . Charles Isherwood of The New York Times wrote , " this is as gorgeously sung a production of this sublime 1945 Broadway musical as you are ever likely to hear . " It was broadcast as part of the PBS " Live from Lincoln Center " series , premiering on April 26 , 2013 .
= = Music and recordings = =
= = = Musical treatment = = =
Rodgers designed Carousel to be an almost continuous stream of music , especially in Act 1 . In later years , Rodgers was asked if he had considered writing an opera . He stated that he had been sorely tempted to , but saw Carousel in operatic terms . He remembered , " We came very close to opera in the Majestic Theatre . ... There 's much that is operatic in the music . "
Rodgers uses music in Carousel in subtle ways to differentiate characters and tell the audience of their emotional state . In " You 're a Queer One , Julie Jordan " , the music for the placid Carrie is characterized by even eighth @-@ note rhythms , whereas the emotionally restless Julie 's music is marked by dotted eighths and sixteenths ; this rhythm will characterize her throughout the show . When Billy whistles a snatch of the song , he selects Julie 's dotted notes rather than Carrie 's . Reflecting the close association in the music between Julie and the as @-@ yet unborn Louise , when Billy sings in " Soliloquy " of his daughter , who " gets hungry every night " , he uses Julie 's dotted rhythms . Such rhythms also characterize Julie 's Act 2 song , " What 's the Use of Wond 'rin ' " . The stable love between Enoch and Carrie is strengthened by her willingness to let Enoch not only plan his entire life , but hers as well . This is reflected in " When the Children Are Asleep " , where the two sing in close harmony , but Enoch musically interrupts his intended 's turn at the chorus with the words " Dreams that won 't be interrupted " . Rodgers biographer Geoffrey Block , in his book on the Broadway musical , points out that though Billy may strike his wife , he allows her musical themes to become a part of him and never interrupts her music . Block suggests that , as reprehensible as Billy may be for his actions , Enoch requiring Carrie to act as " the little woman " , and his having nine children with her ( more than she had found acceptable in " When the Children are Asleep " ) can be considered to be even more abusive .
The twelve @-@ minute " bench scene " , in which Billy and Julie get to know each other and which culminates with " If I Loved You " , according to Hischak , " is considered the most completely integrated piece of music @-@ drama in the American musical theatre " . The scene is almost entirely drawn from Molnár and is one extended musical piece ; Stephen Sondheim described it as " probably the single most important moment in the revolution of contemporary musicals " . " If I Loved You " has been recorded many times , by such diverse artists as Frank Sinatra , Barbra Streisand , Sammy Davis Jr . , Mario Lanza and Chad and Jeremy . The D @-@ flat major theme that dominates the music for the second act ballet seems like a new melody to many audience members . It is , however , a greatly expanded development of a theme heard during " Soliloquy " at the line " I guess he 'll call me ' The old man ' " .
When the pair discussed the song that would become " Soliloquy " , Rodgers improvised at the piano to give Hammerstein an idea of how he envisioned the song . When Hammerstein presented his collaborator with the lyrics after two weeks of work ( Hammerstein always wrote the words first , then Rodgers would write the melodies ) , Rodgers wrote the music for the eight @-@ minute song in two hours . " What 's the Use of Wond 'rin ' " , one of Julie 's songs , worked well in the show but was never as popular on the radio or for recording , and Hammerstein believed that the lack of popularity was because he had concluded the final line , " And all the rest is talk " with a hard consonant , which does not allow the singer a vocal climax .
Irving Berlin later stated that " You 'll Never Walk Alone " had the same sort of effect on him as the 23rd Psalm . When singer Mel Tormé told Rodgers that " You 'll Never Walk Alone " had made him cry , Rodgers nodded impatiently . " You 're supposed to . " The frequently recorded song has become a universally accepted hymn . The cast recording of Carousel proved popular in Liverpool , like many Broadway albums , and in 1963 , the Brian Epstein @-@ managed band , Gerry and the Pacemakers had a number @-@ one hit with the song . At the time , the top ten hits were played before Liverpool F.C. home matches ; even after " You 'll Never Walk Alone " dropped out of the top ten , fans continued to sing it , and it has become closely associated with the soccer team and the city of Liverpool . A BBC program , Soul Music , ranked it alongside " Silent Night " and " Abide With Me " in terms of its emotional impact and iconic status .
= = = Recordings = = =
The cast album of the 1945 Broadway production was issued on 78s , and the score was significantly cut — as was the 1950 London cast recording . Theatre historian John Kenrick notes of the 1945 recording that a number of songs had to be abridged to fit the 78 format , but that there is a small part of " Soliloquy " found on no other recording , as Rodgers cut it from the score immediately after the studio recording was made .
A number of songs were cut for the 1956 film , but two of the deleted numbers had been recorded and were ultimately retained on the soundtrack album . The expanded CD version of the soundtrack , issued in 2001 , contains all of the singing recorded for the film , including the cut portions , and nearly all of the dance music . The recording of the 1965 Lincoln Center revival featured Raitt reprising the role of Billy . Studio recordings of Carousel 's songs were released in 1956 ( with Robert Merrill as Billy , Patrice Munsel as Julie , and Florence Henderson as Carrie ) , 1962 and 1987 . The 1987 version featured a mix of opera and musical stars , including Samuel Ramey , Barbara Cook and Sarah Brightman . Kenrick recommends the 1962 studio recording for its outstanding cast , including Alfred Drake , Roberta Peters , Claramae Turner , Lee Venora , and Norman Treigle .
Both the London ( 1993 ) and New York ( 1994 ) cast albums of the Hytner production contain portions of dialogue that , according to Hischak , speak to the power of Michael Hayden 's portrayal of Billy . Kenrick judges the 1994 recording the best all @-@ around performance of Carousel on disc , despite uneven singing by Hayden , due to Sally Murphy 's Julie and the strong supporting cast ( calling Audra McDonald the best Carrie he has heard ) . The Stratford Festival issued a recording in 2015 .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
The musical received almost unanimous rave reviews after its opening in 1945 . According to Hischak , reviews were not as exuberant as for Oklahoma ! as the critics were not taken by surprise this time . John Chapman of the Daily News termed it " one of the finest musical plays I have ever seen and I shall remember it always " . The New York Times 's reviewer , Lewis Nichols , stated that " Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein 2d , who can do no wrong , have continued doing no wrong in adapting Liliom into a musical play . Their Carousel is on the whole delightful . " Wilella Waldorf of the New York Post , however , complained , " Carousel seemed to us a rather long evening . The Oklahoma ! formula is becoming a bit monotonous and so are Miss de Mille 's ballets . All right , go ahead and shoot ! " Dance Magazine gave Linn plaudits for her role as Louise , stating , " Bambi doesn 't come on until twenty minutes before eleven , and for the next forty minutes , she practically holds the audience in her hand " . Howard Barnes in the New York Herald Tribune also applauded the dancing : " It has waited for Miss de Mille to come through with peculiarly American dance patterns for a musical show to become as much a dance as a song show . "
When the musical returned to New York in 1949 , The New York Times reviewer Brooks Atkinson described Carousel as " a conspicuously superior musical play ... Carousel , which was warmly appreciated when it opened , seems like nothing less than a masterpiece now . " In 1954 , when Carousel was revived at City Center , Atkinson discussed the musical in his review :
Carousel has no comment to make on anything of topical importance . The theme is timeless and universal : the devotion of two people who love each other through thick and thin , complicated in this case by the wayward personality of the man , who cannot fulfill the responsibilities he has assumed . ... Billy is a bum , but Carousel recognizes the decency of his motives and admires his independence . There are no slick solutions in Carousel .
Stephen Sondheim noted the duo 's ability to take the innovations of Oklahoma ! and apply them to a serious setting : " Oklahoma ! is about a picnic , Carousel is about life and death . " Critic Eric Bentley , on the other hand , wrote that " the last scene of Carousel is an impertinence : I refuse to be lectured to by a musical comedy scriptwriter on the education of children , the nature of the good life , and the contribution of the American small town to the salvation of souls . "
New York Times critic Frank Rich said of the 1992 London production : " What is remarkable about Mr. Hytner 's direction , aside from its unorthodox faith in the virtues of simplicity and stillness , is its ability to make a 1992 audience believe in Hammerstein 's vision of redemption , which has it that a dead sinner can return to Earth to do godly good . " The Hytner production in New York was hailed by many critics as a grittier Carousel , which they deemed more appropriate for the 1990s . Clive Barnes of the New York Post called it a " defining Carousel — hard @-@ nosed , imaginative , and exciting . "
Critic Michael Billington has commented that " lyrically [ Carousel ] comes perilously close to acceptance of the inevitability of domestic violence . " BroadwayWorld.com stated in 2013 that Carousel is now " considered somewhat controversial " because Julie " opts to stays [ sic ] with Billy Bigelow even after he begins hitting her " ; actress Kelli O 'Hara noted that the domestic violence that Julie " chooses to deal with – is a real , existing and very complicated thing . And exploring it is an important part of healing it . "
Rodgers considered Carousel his favorite of all his musicals and wrote , " it affects me deeply every time I see it performed " . In 1999 , Time magazine , in its " Best of the Century " list , named Carousel the Best Musical of the 20th century , writing that Rodgers and Hammerstein " set the standards for the 20th century musical , and this show features their most beautiful score and the most skillful and affecting example of their musical storytelling " . Hammerstein 's grandson , Oscar Andrew Hammerstein , in his book about his family , suggested that the wartime situation made Carousel 's ending especially poignant to its original viewers , " Every American grieved the loss of a brother , son , father , or friend ... the audience empathized with [ Billy 's ] all @-@ too @-@ human efforts to offer advice , to seek forgiveness , to complete an unfinished life , and to bid a proper good @-@ bye from beyond the grave . " Author and composer Ethan Mordden agreed with that perspective :
If Oklahoma ! developed the moral argument for sending American boys overseas , Carousel offered consolation to those wives and mothers whose boys would only return in spirit . The meaning lay not in the tragedy of the present , but in the hope for a future where no one walks alone .
= = Awards and nominations = =
|
= Peter Canavan =
Peter Canavan ( born 9 April 1971 ) is a former Gaelic footballer and manager .
He played inter @-@ county football for Tyrone , and is one of the most decorated players in the game 's history , winning two All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship medals , six All Stars Awards ( more than any other Ulster player , and joint third overall ) , four provincial titles , and two National Leagues and several under @-@ age and club championship medals . He represented Ireland in the International Rules Series on several occasions from 1998 until 2000 . He is considered one of the great players of the last twenty years by commentators such as John Haughey of the BBC , and in 2009 , he was named in the Sunday Tribune 's list of the 125 Most Influential People in GAA History .
His scoring record of 218 points is the second highest of all time in the Ulster Senior Football Championship . His early high scoring rate , when he would often be Tyrone 's best performer – particularly in the 1995 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship Final when he scored eleven of Tyrone 's twelve points — led to claims that Tyrone was a " one @-@ man show , " and that the team was too dependent on him , particularly in his early career .
Since retiring as a player he has managed the Fermanagh inter @-@ county Gaelic football team ( 2011 – 2013 ) .
= = Personal life = =
Canavan is from Glencull , near Ballygawley , County Tyrone and was the tenth of eleven children . His older brother , Pascal , played with him on the Tyrone panel for most of the 1990s . He is married to Finola ( sister of former Tyrone team @-@ mate Ronan McGarrity ) , and has four children , Aine , Claire , Darragh and Ruairi , and has been a Physical Education teacher in Holy Trinity College , Cookstown , throughout most of his career ( Gaelic games are amateur sports ) . While there , he taught Eoin Mulligan his point @-@ taking technique , and the pair have been known in the media as ' master and student ' ever since , particularly by television commentators .
He writes a column for the Gaelic games magazine , Hogan Stand and the Northern Ireland edition of The Daily Mirror. and in 2008 , Canavan joined TV3 as a football pundit for their first year of broadcasting live GAA matches .
In 2003 , just over a week before Tyrone 's Ulster final appearance against Down , Canavan 's father , Seán , died . It came as a shock to Canavan , who had thought his father ( who was already in hospital ) was getting better . He decided to play in the match , stating that he knew , subconsciously " [ he ] was going to be playing in the Ulster final all along and Daddy certainly wouldn 't have wanted [ him ] to do anything but play . "
Canavan has suffered from asthma since he was a child , and has battled throughout his career to control the ailment . He told the Asthma Society of Ireland , " I thought to myself , this is something that I am just going to have to put up with . " In later years , however , improved medication has afforded Canavan what he described as , " a better quality of life " .
= = Under @-@ age career = =
To play for an inter @-@ county GAA team , Canavan had to work around a Gaelic Athletic Association ( GAA ) bylaw , because of a dispute in his parish , Errigal Ciarán . Two clubs claimed to represent the parish , the established Ballygawley St. Ciaran 's club and the newly formed club , then called Errigal Ciaran Naomh Malachai . Players from the Errigal team were not recognised as being GAA members , because the club failed to register correctly . Canavan registered as a member of the Killyclogher hurling club , even though he didn 't play the sport , just so he would be eligible for selection for the Tyrone minors . Prior to that , he had not played legitimate club football , but had forged his way onto the Tyrone under @-@ age teams with his performances at school level . The two clubs united under the banner of Errigal Ciaran two years later .
In 1988 , Canavan won the Ulster minor Championship , an under eighteens tournament , but lost in the All @-@ Ireland semi @-@ final to Kerry . The crux of this team , including Adrian Cush , Ciaran Corr and others , would stay together as part of the senior team for most of the nineties . Canavan captained Tyrone to two All @-@ Ireland Under @-@ 21 Football Championships titles in 1991 and 1992 , having been on the team which lost the 1990 final , again to Kerry . In four years as an Under 21 player , Canavan scored 13 – 53 ( 13 goals and 53 points — each goal equals 3 points ; 13 × 3 + 53 = 92 points , see GAA scoring rules ) for Tyrone . By the time he was twenty , he was already an automatic choice in the senior panel .
= = Early senior career : 1993 – 1998 = =
Canavan 's name was already known around Tyrone because of his exploits for the Under 21 team , but he started to make an impact in the Ulster Senior Football Championship in 1994 , as Tyrone lost to eventual All @-@ Ireland champions , Down . He was the top scorer in the province , earning him his first All Star , at the age of 23 .
= = = 1995 All @-@ Ireland Final = = =
Throughout the 1995 championship , Canavan had spearheaded Tyrone 's march to the final , with round after round of massive scoring exploits . Against Derry in the Ulster Semi @-@ final , he scored 0 – 8 , and against Galway in the All @-@ Ireland semi @-@ final , he scored 1 – 7 .
Tyrone reached their second All @-@ Ireland Final in 1995 , and were up against Dublin who hadn 't won a Championship since the 1980s . In a turgid match , Canavan scored eleven of Tyrone 's twelve points in the , but still ended up on the losing side . The game was remembered as contentious for Tyrone fans , for the fact that a point that would have equalised the match in the dying seconds was controversially disallowed , because the blind @-@ sided referee deemed Canavan to have touched the ball on the ground . The referee , Paddy Russell stated in his autobiography that he was certain the ball was on the ground , but Canavan contested in the same book that he managed to get elevation on the ball as he punched , which would have been very difficult to do if it was touching the ground . He was the top scorer in Ireland that year , with a total of 1 – 38 , earning him the inaugural Footballer of the Year title . The fact that Canavan 's scoring tally was so far ahead of his peers on the team led to suggestions that Tyrone were depending too heavily on him .
= = = 1996 : Injury = = =
For the 1996 championship , Canavan was handed the captaincy of Tyrone , and was Ulster 's leading scorer for the third year in a row , and subsequently awarded his third successive All Star . Tyrone reached the All @-@ Ireland semi @-@ final against Meath , but Canavan was one of six Tyrone players to sustain injuries that day , which some Tyrone fans attribute to Meath 's heavy @-@ handedness . Canavan 's injury was so severe that he was still feeling the effects for over a year , and there was speculation as to whether he had been playing on a broken foot .
= = 1998 – 2000 : International stage = =
During a weak period for Tyrone Seniors in the late 1990s , Canavan represented Ireland in the inaugural International Rules Series in 1998 against Australia . In 1999 , he was named vice @-@ captain of the team for the tour to Australia , and Ireland came away convincing winners , with Canavan scoring eleven points in the first test in Adelaide , South Australia . In 2000 , In the first test Australia 's Jason Akermanis gave Canavan a bloody nose 20 seconds into the game . Canavan was sent off in the second test , after fighting with Akermanis . He was banned for one match , which wouldn 't be played until the next year , so he ruled himself out of the next series . In five tests Canavan scored 37 points , becoming one of the few Irish players to leave their mark on the Australian supporters .
= = Late senior career = =
Tyrone were one of the favourites for the 2002 All @-@ Ireland , having won their first National Football League in the spring , but ended up losing a qualifying match to Sligo , even though Canavan scored six points on the day . That particular defeat stunned him so much , he considered retiring Inter County football . Despite that , he won his fourth All Star that year , the only Tyrone player to do so , which made him Tyrone 's most represented player on the All Star Roll of Honour , overtaking Eugene McKenna , his manager at the time .
= = = 2003 : Championship glory = = =
In 2003 , Canavan shook off his tag as ' the greatest player never to win an All @-@ Ireland ' , captaining Tyrone to their first All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship . As he approached the podium on Croke Park 's Hogan Stand after the final , his nervousness was visible , and after being handed the trophy , he made an emotional speech about how he had to enviously watch other Ulster teams lift the Sam Maguire Cup , but " to eventually win it is something else . "
His appearance in the final was remarkable for the fact that he was the top scorer of the day with five points , despite having suffered an ankle injury in the previous match , and was not expected ( or advised ) to play . He started the final and was taken off before half time . During the break , and even some way into the second half , he was receiving treatment to his ankle , including pain @-@ killing injections .
With ten minutes remaining , he was reintroduced by manager Mickey Harte , likely due to his experience as the only member of the team who had played in an All @-@ Ireland final before . This reintroduction , while not the first time it had happened ( blood substitutions had been used sporadically , for example ) , was seen as one of the greatest moments in the GAA in the last forty years .
In the drawn Ulster final against Down , Canavan was playing a week after the death of his father . He remarked in his autobiography that he feared Tyrone were going to lose by one of the biggest margins in Ulster Championship history , if they didn 't stem the flow of the Down attack . When Tyrone were awarded a penalty , Canavan stepped up , due to Stephen O 'Neill ( the first choice penalty @-@ taker ) being on the bench . He took the kick , and managed to find the net , later describing it as " the most important [ kick ] of my career , " citing the fact that if Tyrone had been heavily beaten , they probably wouldn 't have been able to pick themselves up to play in the ' back door ' qualifier series .
Over the course of the 2003 Championship , he amassed a total of 1 – 48 ( a total of 51 points ) , and had won the National League in the spring , all of which earned him a fifth All Star . Among his more notable performances of the year included an eight @-@ point haul in the replayed first round match against Derry , and in the replayed Ulster Final , Canavan scored eleven points .
He became the first GAA star to gain an honorary doctorate from the University of Ulster , and was also voted BBC Northern Ireland Sports Personality of the Year , a regional award of the BBC Sports Personality of the Year . Following an email campaign throughout Ireland , Canavan was an early forerunner for the national award , despite the fact that Gaelic games have very little exposure in Great Britain .
Following the 2003 final , Canavan relinquished the captaincy to Cormac McAnallen , but the 24 @-@ year @-@ old died shortly after taking up the position . This tragedy adversely affected the mindset of the team , and they were unable to defend their All @-@ Ireland .
= = = 2005 : Championship swan song = = =
Canavan was used mostly as an ' impact substitute ' throughout the 2005 Championship — brought on to either unsettle the opposition , or rally his teammates . This backfired when he was controversially sent off within a minute of coming on as a substitute in the Ulster Final replay replay .
In the All @-@ Ireland semi @-@ final against Armagh ( who were meeting Tyrone for the third time that year ) , Canavan scored with the last kick of the game , winning the match for Tyrone . Kevin McStay , a former Mayo player , described it as the point of the season , despite the free kick being from a relatively straightforward position .
Mickey Harte chose Canavan on the starting line @-@ up of the All @-@ Ireland final and went on to score Tyrone 's only goal , winning on a scoreline of 1 – 16 to 2 – 10 .
He retired from inter @-@ county football following this performance with a sixth All Star , ending a sixteen @-@ year tenure in Senior championship football . He said of his decision , " I have spent enough time on the treatment table " , referring to the instances where he played while carrying potentially career @-@ threatening injuries , as he had done in 1996 and 2003 . Canavan 's appearance in the 2005 final ( his last game for Tyrone ) , was his forty @-@ ninth Championship match .
= = Other intercounty successes = =
Canavan was part of both Tyrone sides that won the National Football League title two years in a row — in 2002 and 2003 — and he competed in the 1994 final against Derry . His success in other competitions include five Railway Cups , two Vocational Schools titles , and one Dr. McKenna Cup .
= = Club career = =
After retiring from inter @-@ county football , he continued to play at club level for Errigal Ciarán until 2007 . During the seventeen years he played he won six Tyrone Senior Club titles and two Ulster Club Championships , and in 2006 , he won his first Tyrone All Star for his performances in the club championship . In December 2008 , he moved into management for the first time , by taking charge of Errigal Ciaran , leading them to win the Tyrone All County League final in 2009 .
= = Disciplinary problems = =
His career features many examples of indiscipline , including on @-@ pitch scuffles with other players. which at times threatened to overshadow his achievements . Jack O 'Connor , Kerry 's manager in the 2005 All @-@ Ireland final , suggested in his autobiography that Canavan tackled Colm Cooper off the ball , preventing him getting into a goal @-@ scoring position , a claim backed up by Sunday Tribune journalist , Kieran Shannon .
= = Management career = =
Canavan was appointed manager of Fermanagh in November 2011 on a three @-@ year term to be reviewed annually , with trainer Kieran Donnelly and selector Enda Kilpatrick joining him . His first game was against Antrim , Fermanagh winning that one by a scoreline of 2 – 11 to 1 – 06 .
He stepped down as Fermanagh manager in September 2013 .
Canavan however was not out of management for long.he was appointed manager of Cavan Gaels in December 2013 and guided them to their 1st Senior Championship in 3 years in October 2014 . They beat Kingscourt Stars in the final by one point.this was a huge success for Canavan and the Cavan Gaels Club .
After delivering the Oliver Plunkett trophy back to the Cavan town club Peter then went on to become a selector with the Tyrone under 21 panel in 2015.he was part of the management team which consisted of Fergal Logan ( Manager ) and Brian Dooher.They guided the under 21s to Ulster Final Victory against Donegal in Celtic Park and subsequently to the All Ireland title after defeating Tipperary in the final .
|
= Mythicomyces =
Mythicomyces is a fungal genus in the family Psathyrellaceae . A monotypic genus , it contains the single species Mythicomyces corneipes , first described by Elias Fries in 1861 . The fungus produces fruit bodies with shiny yellowish @-@ orange to tawny caps that are 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . These are supported by stems measuring 2 – 5 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) long and 1 – 2 mm thick . A rare to uncommon species , it is found in northern temperate regions of North America and Europe , where it typically fruits in groups , in wet areas of coniferous forests . There are several species with which M. corneipes might be confused due to a comparable appearance or similar range and habitat , but microscopic characteristics can be used to reliably distinguish between them .
= = Taxonomy = =
The genus Mythicomyces was circumscribed in 1986 by mycologists Scott Redhead and Alexander H. Smith to contain the species originally named Agaricus corneipes by Elias Magnus Fries in 1861 . Fries described the species from collections made in a fir forest near Alsike , Sweden ; it was subsequently recorded in North America ( northwestern USA ) by Andrew Price Morgan in 1907 , and several times by Smith . When listing the synonyms of the species , Redhead and Smith cited the publication year of Fries 's work as 1863 instead of the correct 1861 , which rendered their new combination invalid according to the rules of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , although the generic name was valid . The binomial was subsequently published validly in 2011 .
In its taxonomic history , the species has also been placed in Geophila by Lucien Quélet in 1886 , and Psilocybe by Petter Karsten in 1879 . Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán excluded the taxon from the latter genus in his 1983 monograph , based on its roughened spores that lacked a germ pore , pale spore print , stem texture , and the tawny basal mycelium . Guzmán , who examined Smith 's US collections , suggested that the material might be more appropriately considered a Galerina , but Redhead and Smith noted that several features of Mythicomyces corneipes are inconsistent with placement in Galerina , including spore print color , presence of metuloids , stem texture , and tawny basal mycelium .
Redhead and Smith placed the genus in the Strophariaceae , as the biology of the fruit bodies and spore print color fit the broad concept of that family envisaged by Robert Kühner in 1984 . They noted , however , that the genus did not fit well in a more restricted concept of the family due to its lack of a germ pore and roughened spore walls . More recently , taxonomic authorities have placed the genus in the family Psathyrellaceae ; molecular analysis shows it to be most closely allied to this group . Mythicomyces and Stagnicola form a clade that is sister to the rest of the family .
= = Description = =
The cap is initially somewhat conical with margins rolled inward , and expands to become bell @-@ shaped or broadly convex in maturity , reaching a diameter of 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) . The cap sometimes has an umbo , which is rounded to conical . The color of the cap ranges from dull to bright orange when young , to yellowish @-@ brown ( tawny ) in maturity . It is hygrophanous , and the color fades to yellowish @-@ buff . The cap surface is smooth and polished , and somewhat translucent , such that the radial gill lines can be seen on the margin . The gills are closely spaced , and have two tiers of interspersed lamellulae ( short gills ) . Gills have an adnate to adnexed attachment to the stem , although the gills tend to secede ( separate from the stem ) in maturity . They are initially pallid to whitish in color before turning brownish when the spores mature . The smooth stem measures 3 – 5 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) long by 1 – 2 mm thick . Yellowish to pale orange near the top and dark reddish brown below , it has tawny mycelium at the base . In maturity the stem turns black from the base upward . In 1907 , Morgan noted the stipe to be remarkably similar to that of Marasmius cohaerens . The mushroom flesh has an odor that ranges from indistinct to somewhat of geraniums , while its taste is indistinct to faintly bitter . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
The spore print is pale purplish brown . Spores are ovoid ( egg @-@ shaped ) to somewhat ellipsoidal , binucleate ( visible when stained with acetocarmine solution ) , often contain a single oil droplet , and measure 6 – 8 @.@ 5 by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 µm . The spore walls are roughened with small points and ridges , and have a small plage . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 24 – 26 by 6 – 8 @.@ 5 µm . Cystidia on the gill face ( pleurocystidia ) are abundant . They are spindle @-@ shaped with swollen middles , and thick tips that are occasionally encrusted with translucent crystals . They have dimensions of 43 – 86 by 10 – 24 µm , with walls that are pale brown to translucent , and up to 3 µm thick . Cystidia on the gill edge ( cheilocystidia ) are roughly the same morphologically , but shorter . The cap cuticle comprises a layer of radially arranged gelatinized hyphae measuring 1 – 4 µm in diameter . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Stagnicola perplexa is similar in appearance and shares habitats and a geographical range comparable to Mythicomyces corneipes . S. perplexa generally has a more faded coloration , and produces brownish spore prints lacking purplish tones . The two species can be reliably distinguished by microscopic characteristics , as Stagnicola has smooth spores and cheilocystidia with thin walls . Owing to its similarly colored cap and habitat amongst mosses , Phaeocollybia attenuata might be confused with M. corneipes . Phaeocollybia attenuata can readily be differentiated in the field by the long wirelike pseudorhiza extending below the substrate , and microscopically by the much more heavily ornamented limoniform @-@ globose spores and absence of pleurocystidia . Other morphologically similar species include Hypholoma udum and H. elongatum , but unlike M. corneipes , both of these agarics have smooth spores , yellow chrysocystidia , and lack metuloids . The lookalike Galerina sideroides is found in Washington , Michigan , and Sweden , where it fruits in groups on rotten conifer logs . It has distinct microscopic characteristics , such as a wider range of basidial widths ( 20 – 40 µm ) , and a lack of pleurocystidia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mythicomyces corneipes is a saprobic fungus , and uses plant debris — usually bits of wood — as a substrate . Fruit bodies appear in autumn , and grow in groups among mosses in moist habitats , such as near the edges of bogs , or under conifers or birch in soil wet from spring flooding . It has been recorded from North America , where it is most common in the Pacific Northwest region , and Europe , where it is rare , but widespread across the northern part of the continent . In 1938 , Smith called the species " extremely rare " .
|
= Post @-@ punk revival =
Post @-@ punk revival ( also described as new wave revival , garage rock revival , or new rock revolution ) is a genre of alternative rock and indie rock that developed in the late 20th and early 21st centuries , inspired by the original sounds and aesthetics of garage rock of the 1960s and new wave and post @-@ punk of the 1980s . Bands that broke through to the mainstream from local scenes across the world in the early 2000s included the Strokes , Interpol , the White Stripes , the Hives and the Vines , who were followed to commercial success by many established and new acts . By the end of the decade , most of the bands had broken up , moved on to other projects or were on hiatus , although some bands returned to recording and touring in the 2010s .
= = Definitions and characteristics = =
In the early 2000s , a new group of bands that played a stripped down and back @-@ to @-@ basics version of guitar rock emerged into the mainstream . They were variously characterised as part of a garage rock , new wave or post @-@ punk revival . Influences ranged from traditional blues , through new wave to grunge . The music ranged from the atonal tracks of bands like Liars to the melodic pop songs of groups like the Sounds , popularising distorted guitar sounds . They shared an emphasis on energetic live performance and used aesthetics ( in hair and clothes ) closely aligned with their fans , often drawing on fashion of the 1950s and 1960s , with " skinny ties , white belts [ and ] shag haircuts " . There was an emphasis on " rock authenticity " that has been seen as a reaction to the commercialism of MTV @-@ oriented nu metal , hip hop and " bland " post @-@ Britpop groups . Because the bands came from across the globe , cited diverse influences and adopted differing styles of dress , their unity as a genre has been disputed . For historian of garage rock Eric James Abbey , these were diverse bands that appropriated , or been given , the label " garage " to gain a degree of credibility .
= = History = =
= = = Genres , scenes and origins = = =
There were attempts to revive garage rock and elements of punk in the 1980s and 1990s , and by 2000 , scenes had grown up as part of the alternative and indie music scenes in several countries . The Detroit rock scene included the Von Bondies , Electric Six , the Dirtbombs and the Detroit Cobras , while New York 's included Radio 4 , Liars , Yeah Yeah Yeahs and the Rapture . Billy Childish and The Buff Medways from the United Kingdom , the ( International ) Noise Conspiracy from Sweden , and the 5 @.@ 6 @.@ 7 @.@ 8 's from Japan , enjoyed underground , regional or national success .
New wave was a term adopted in the aftermath of punk rock to describe a generation of bands who generally pursued a more commercially successful punk @-@ influenced sound . Major acts included Talking Heads , Devo , the Cars , the Go @-@ Go 's , the Pretenders , Elvis Costello and " skinny tie " bands like Blondie and the Knack . The term post @-@ punk was originally coined to describe groups of this era who took punk and experimented with more challenging musical structures , lyrical themes , and a self @-@ consciously art @-@ based image , while retaining punk 's initial iconoclastic stance . AllMusic argued that rather than a revival , the history of post @-@ punk was more of a continuum from the mid @-@ 1980s , with scattered bands that included Big Flame , World Domination Enterprises , and Minimal Compact extending the genre . In the mid @-@ 1990s , notable bands in this vein included Six Finger Satellite , Brainiac and Elastica . American band Satisfact was also considered as an early example of the new wave revival sound .
At the turn of the century , the term post @-@ punk began to appear in the music press again , with a number of critics reviving the label to describe a new set of bands that shared some of the aesthetics of the original post @-@ punk era . Music critic Simon Reynolds noted that bands like the Rapture and Franz Ferdinand were influenced by the more angular strain of post @-@ punk , particularly bands such as Wire and Gang of Four . Others identified this movement as another wave of garage rock revivalism , with NME in 2003 designating it a " new garage rock revolution " , or simply a " new rock revolution " . According to music critic Jim DeRogatis , the Strokes , the White Stripes and the Hives all had a sound " to some extent rooted in Nuggets @-@ era garage rock " .
= = = Commercial breakthrough = = =
The commercial breakthrough from these scenes was led by four bands : the Strokes , who emerged from the New York club scene with their debut album Is This It ( 2001 ) ; the White Stripes , from Detroit , with their third album White Blood Cells ( 2001 ) ; the Hives , from Sweden , with their compilation album Your New Favourite Band ( 2001 ) ; and the Vines , from Australia , with Highly Evolved ( 2002 ) . Both the Strokes and the White Stripes obtained their initial commercial success in the UK , before achieving recognition in the US and elsewhere . They were christened by the media as the " The " bands , and dubbed " the saviours of rock ' n ' roll " , prompting Rolling Stone magazine to declare on its September 2002 cover , " Rock is Back ! " The attention in the press in turn led to accusations of hype , and some dismissed the scene as unoriginal , image @-@ conscious and tuneless . According to Simon Reynolds , " apart from maybe the White Stripes , none could really be described as retro " .
In the wake of this attention existing acts like Yeah Yeah Yeahs were able to sign to major record labels . A second wave of bands that managed to gain international recognition as a result of the movement included Interpol , Black Rebel Motorcycle Club , the Killers , Kings of Leon , the Catheters , Mooney Suzuki and the Go from the US . From the UK were Franz Ferdinand , Bloc Party , Maxïmo Park , Editors , the Libertines , the Fratellis , Razorlight and Kaiser Chiefs . Arctic Monkeys were the most prominent act to owe their initial commercial success to the use of Internet social networking , with two number one singles and Whatever People Say I Am , That 's What I 'm Not ( 2006 ) , which became the fastest @-@ selling debut album in British chart history .
= = = Decline = = =
As a dominant commercial force , the revival was relatively short @-@ lived . By 2007 , the initial success of the movement was beginning to subside , leading commentators to discuss its decline as a phenomenon and argue that it had been overtaken by the more musically and emotionally complex music of indie rock bands like Arcade Fire ( which , nevertheless , has been characterized by critics as featuring post @-@ punk influences and sound ) and Death Cab for Cutie . By the end of the decade , many of the bands of the movement had broken up , were on hiatus or had moved into other musical areas , and very few were making significant impact on the charts . Bands that returned to recording and touring in the 2010s included Arctic Monkeys , the Strokes and Interpol .
|
= Turn Up the Music ( Chris Brown song ) =
" Turn Up the Music " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown . It was written by Alexander " Fuego " Palmer , Brown , Damon Thomas , Harvey Mason , Jr . , Michael " Mike J " Jimenez , Terence Cole and Agent X , while production was handled by Fuego and The Underdogs . " Turn Up the Music " was sent to contemporary hit radio playlists in the United States on February 7 , 2012 , as the lead single from Brown 's fifth studio album Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was released for digital download on February 10 , 2012 . " Turn Up the Music " is an uptempo song which draws from the genres of electronic dance and house . Instrumentation consists of pulsating beats , synthesizers , a " throbbing bass " and percussion . According to Mason , Jr . , the song 's inspiration came from visualizing Brown as an artist , " how he dances and how he performs , and giving him something to match that energy . "
" Turn Up the Music " garnered positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its production and compared the song to Brown 's previous singles " Forever " ( 2008 ) and " Yeah 3x " ( 2010 ) , for its similar musical direction . Critics also noted its similarities to the work of LMFAO and David Guetta . " Turn Up the Music " achieved commercial success worldwide , becoming Brown 's first number one single on the UK Singles Chart , and his eleventh top ten single on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song also reached the top ten in Australia and New Zealand , and the top twenty in Canada , Hungary , Ireland and Slovakia . It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , and gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) .
The accompanying music video for " Turn Up the Music " was directed by Godfrey Taberez and Brown , and filmed in Los Angeles , California . It features Brown at a party filled with masked people , where he performs heavily @-@ choreographed dance routines . The video garnered positive reception from critics , for its series of dance sequences which were compared to Michael Jackson . It won Best Male Video and Best Choreography at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards , and earned Taberez and Brown a nomination for Video Director of the Year at the 2012 BET Awards . Brown promoted the song with live performances on televised shows and at awards ceremonies , including Dancing with the Stars , Today , the 2012 NBA All @-@ Star Game halftime show , the 54th Grammy Awards , the 2012 Billboard Music Awards and the BET Awards . He also included the song in his set list at Supafest Australia . The official remix of " Turn Up the Music " premiered online on February 20 , 2012 , and features Brown 's former girlfriend Rihanna .
= = Background and release = =
" Turn Up the Music " was written by Alexander " Fuego " Palmer , Chris Brown , Damon Thomas , Harvey Mason , Jr . , Michael " Mike J " Jimenez , Terence Cole and Agent X. Production for the song was handled by Fuego and The Underdogs . The mixing engineering process was completed by John Hanes with assistance by Phil Seaford , while the audio mixing was completed by Serban Ghenea . " Turn Up the Music " was recorded at The Record Plant in Los Angeles , California and Mason Sound in North Hollywood , California by Andrew Hey and Brian Springer with assistance by Iain Findley . In an interview with MTV News , Mason , Jr. revealed that inspiration for the song came from visualizing Brown as an artist . He explained , " The inspiration was really him as an artist , visualizing how he dances and how he performs , and giving him something to match that energy . "
On January 25 , 2012 , Brown announced via his official Twitter account that the lead single from his fifth studio album Fortune would be called " Turn Up the Music " , tweeting " New FORTUNE single coming 1 / 26 ! ! ! TURN UP THE MUSIC ! ! ! ! " . The following day , both the single and its artwork were posted online , showing Brown wearing an unbuttoned shirt and a fedora , while words in different languages are displayed . " Turn Up the Music " was officially sent to contemporary hit radio playlists in the United States on February 7 , 2012 . It was released as a one @-@ track digital download in Oceania and most European countries on February 10 , 2012 . However , in the United Kingdom , " Turn Up the Music " was released as a three @-@ track digital download on March 25 , 2012 , which contained Brown 's previous single " Strip " and the Invaderz remix of " Yeah 3x " ( 2010 ) . It was also released as a two @-@ track CD single in Germany on April 6 , 2012 , including " Strip " as a B @-@ side .
An unofficial remix of " Turn Up the Music " made by DJ Pauly D , premiered on Ryan Seacrest 's morning radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest on February 14 , 2012 . The official remix of " Turn Up the Music " premiered online on February 20 , 2012 , and features Brown 's former girlfriend Rihanna . Brown previously hinted via Twitter that Rihanna would be the featured artist on the remix , after rumors that he would feature on the remix of her single " Birthday Cake " ( 2012 ) sparked media controversy , due to the fact that Brown physically assaulted Rihanna before a Pre @-@ Grammy Awards party in 2009 . The remix marks the first collaboration from the two singers since they last collaborated on " Bad Girl " ( 2009 ) .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Turn Up the Music " is an uptempo electronic dance , and house song , which last for a duration of three minutes and forty @-@ nine seconds . Instrumentation is provided by pulsating beats , synthesizers and percussion . Rap @-@ Up described the production as " synth @-@ heavy " . The song opens with Brown singing " Turn up the music cause the sun just came up / Turn up the music if they try to turn us down / Turn up the music cause I 'm trying to hear the speakers blow / Turn up the music , fill your cup and drink it down " . It is then followed by repeated chants of " If you 're sexy and you know it put your hands up in the air " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard noted that the chanting was a reference to LMFAO 's " Sexy and I Know It " ( 2011 ) . Andy Kellman of Allmusic likened the song to Baltimora 's " Tarzan Boy " ( 1985 ) .
= = Critical reception = =
" Turn Up the Music " garnered positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its production . Christina Garibaldi of MTV News noted that the song is similar to " Yeah 3x " , and that it " is destined to get people in the clubs and on the dance floor " . Georgette Cline of The Boombox described it as a " dance @-@ inspired track " that " will undeniably move partygoers to showcase their best moves " . Liz Barker of MTV Buzzworthy described it as an " undeniably dance floor @-@ ready " track that " deserves to be played at maximum decibels " . Jim Farber of the Daily News viewed " Turn Up the Music " as one of the standout tracks on Fortune . A reviewer for Rap @-@ Up described " Turn Up the Music " as a " party anthem " that " is bound to become the soundtrack for clubgoers everywhere " . Bryan of radio station WNOW @-@ FM wrote that the song sees Brown taking his " music to the next level ! " .
Mark Iraheta of Complex magazine called " Turn Up the Music " a " soon @-@ to @-@ be smash " that will see Brown making " substantial damage on the Top 100 charts " . Robbie Daw of Idolator described the song as " energetic " and wrote that it follows in the footsteps of Brown 's past hits " Forever " ( 2008 ) and " Yeah 3x " , " but with more dancefloor urgency " . Daw concluded by writing that the song " should please the same crowd " that listen to the music of LMFAO , Kesha and Lady Gaga . Melinda Newman of HitFix described " Turn Up the Music " as a cousin to LMFAO 's " Party Rock Anthem " ( 2011 ) , and called it " an absolute smash " . Scott Shelter of PopCrush awarded the song three and a half stars out of four , and noted its similarities to the work of David Guetta and LMFAO . Shetler also commented that the production was lacking originality and the song " isn 't going to blow anyone away from a lyrical perspective " . Andrew Martin of Prefix magazine was critical of the song , writing that it sounds like a left over track from Guetta 's album Nothing but the Beat ( 2011 ) . At the 2012 BET Awards , " Turn Up the Music " was nominated for the Viewer 's Choice Award .
= = Chart performance = =
In Australia , " Turn Up the Music " debuted on the ARIA Singles Chart at number 13 on February 20 , 2012 , becoming the highest new entry for that week . The song also entered the ARIA Urban Singles Chart at number six . The following week , " Turn Up the Music " ascended to number six on the ARIA Singles Chart and number four on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart . The song was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , " Turn Up the Music " debuted and peaked at number nine on February 20 , 2012 , and spent 11 weeks in the chart . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting shipments of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
In the United States , " Turn Up the Music " entered the Pop Songs chart at number 36 on the chart dated February 25 , 2012 , becoming the highest debut for that week . It also gained airplay and entered the Radio Songs chart at number 71 . Following Brown 's performance of the song at the 54th Grammy Awards , " Turn Up the Music " debuted on the Digital Songs chart at number nine on the chart dated March 3 , 2012 , with 180 @,@ 000 copies sold . That same week , the song debuted and peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 , giving Brown his eleventh top ten single on the chart . " Turn Up the Music " also saw a 27 % increase in airplay to 21 million audience impressions , moving from number 71 to number 56 on the Radio Songs chart . On the chart dated March 24 , 2012 , the song peaked at number 24 on the Radio Songs chart . As of August 2012 , " Turn Up the Music " has sold 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States . In Canada , " Turn Up the Music " entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number 38 on the chart dated March 3 , 2012 . It peaked at number 19 on April 14 , 2012 and spent four weeks in the chart .
" Turn Up the Music " also reached the top twenty in some European countries . It peaked at number 15 on the Hungarian Airplay Chart , and number 20 on the Slovak Airplay Chart . On the Irish Singles Chart , " Turn Up the Music " peaked at number 12 and spent 18 weeks in the chart . In the United Kingdom , the song first charted on March 10 , 2012 in a cover version by Beautiful People , reaching the top 100 . On April 7 , 2012 , the Chris Brown version , having sold 83 @,@ 777 copies in its first week , became Brown 's first UK number one single . That same week , it also debuted at number one on the Scottish Singles Chart . " Turn Up the Music " has sold 273 @,@ 000 copies in the UK as of December 2012 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The accompanying music video for " Turn Up the Music " was directed by Godfrey Taberez and Brown , and filmed in Los Angeles , California on February 1 – 2 , 2012 . It was produced by Andrew Listermann of Riveting Entertainment . On February 2 , 2012 , Brown revealed details about the video via his official Twitter account , tweeting " I 'll let you guys judge but this Turn Up the music video hands down is probably my best video by far ! ! ! " . Several images from the shoot were leaked online the same day , showing Brown in the passenger seat of a classic car , and standing shirtless on top of a vehicle with a group of people . Another image showed one of the dancer 's face covered with a " wild mask " . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video clip was posted online on February 14 , 2012 . The video showed Brown , dressed in a black suit , performing dance routines with several backup dancers in a club , surrounded by people wearing animal heads . Another scene showed Brown dancing in the rain and in the streets . The music video premiered online on February 17 , 2012 , and features a cameo appearance by hip hop trio The Rej3ctz .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video is set at night and opens with Brown , dressed in a black suit , drinking alcohol in the streets , before hailing a futuristic hover @-@ cab . Brown asks the cab driver to take him to the best spot in town . He then asks the driver to turn up the air conditioner because he 's hot , but the driver turns up the music instead , while wearing a horse mask on his head . As the song begins , Brown exits the cab and arrives at a street party filled with people wearing animal heads . He then enters a club , where he performs the first dance sequence in the video with his male backup dancers . During the first chorus , Brown arrives inside the main room of the club filled with flashing lights and people dancing while wearing animal heads . After a hat gets tossed to him by one of his dancers in the crowd , Brown and his backup dancers perform another dance sequence as the queen of the party watches them from her perch . These party scenes are intercut with scenes of Brown dancing alone in another room surrounded by flashing lights and speakers in the background .
During the second chorus , Brown enters another room surrounded by people in animal heads , and performs the third dance sequence in the video with his backup dancers . Towards the end of the chorus , Brown and his dancers appear back inside the main room and continue dancing . At one point , the video is slowed down as Brown and his dancers do flips . In other scenes , he is seen dancing alone with a cane in a rain @-@ filled room , wearing white dress pants , a black tank top and a fedora . Brown then splits into three people , comes back together , takes off his shirt and throws it at the camera , causing its lens to crack .
= = = Reception = = =
The music video received positive reviews from critics . Rap @-@ Up called the video " electrifying " and complimented the " slickly @-@ choreographed routines " performed by Brown . Andrew Martin of Prefix magazine praised Brown 's " killer dance moves " . Katie Hasty of HitFix gave the video a positive review , writing " there is a serious series of sweeping dance shots that may impress the hating @-@ est of haters " . Jacob Moore of Complex magazine noted that the dance party scenes is what " you 'd expect from a Breezy video " . Meena Rupani of DesiHits felt that the video took her " into a whole different world " that reminded her of the films Eyes Wide Shut ( 1999 ) and Men in Black ( 1997 ) . Rupani also described it as " extremely futuristic and looks like it belongs in the year 2030 " . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News called it an " eye @-@ popping video " and noted that there were several outfits Brown wore that paid homage to Michael Jackson . A reviewer for Capital FM praised Brown 's " impressive dance routines " and noted that it was " similar to that of a Michael Jackson show " . This was echoed by Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush who wrote that Brown 's dance routines were " quite reminiscent of Michael Jackson and his classic , dance @-@ driven videos " . Joey of WXRK found the video to " be a hybrid between Michael Jackson 's ' Smooth Criminal ' , a party that Ke $ ha would be at , and that scene from Fame when everyone is dancing in the streets on top of cabs and cars " . The video earned Brown and Taberez a nomination for Video Director of the Year at the 2012 BET Awards . It won Best Male Video and Best Choreography at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards . On September 19 , 2012 , the video received a nomination at the 2012 Soul Train Music Awards for Best Dance Performance .
= = Live performances = =
" Turn Up the Music " was performed live for the first time at the 54th Grammy Awards ceremony , which took place at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California on February 12 , 2012 . Brown performed the song as part of a medley with " Beautiful People " from F.A.M.E. ( 2011 ) . He was dressed in a white and gray varsity jacket , white pants and sparkling sneakers . Brown and his backup dancers performed heavily @-@ choreographed routines to " Turn Up the Music " atop a collection of blocks , which changed from colors red to blue to yellow and green . He then sang " Beautiful People " as he jumped across the blocks , while the dancers followed in a high @-@ flying routine . The performance ended when Brown saluted to the audience before he took a bow . Rob Markman of MTV News noted that the blocks " resembled the 1980s arcade game Q * bert " , while Evelyn McDonnell of Los Angeles Times noted that Brown lip @-@ synched his performance . Andrew Martin of Prefix magazine wrote that it was one of the worst performances at the Grammy Awards due to the fact that he lip @-@ synched . The performance was made available for download via the iTunes Store in the United States on February 15 , 2012 .
Brown performed a shortened version of " Turn Up the Music " during the halftime show of the 2012 NBA All @-@ Star Game in Orlando on February 26 , 2012 . In April 2012 , Brown performed the song during his set at Supafest Australia , as part of a set list , which included " Run It ! " , " Yeah 3x " , " Look at Me Now " , " She Ain 't You " , " Wet the Bed " , " Body 2 Body " and " Birthday Cake " . Rap @-@ Up wrote that " A tatted Chris Brown thrilled with his chart @-@ topping hits " . On May 8 , 2012 , Brown performed the song on Dancing with the Stars . He later performed " Turn Up the Music " at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards ceremony , which took place at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Paradise , Nevada on May 20 , 2012 . Brown wore a leopard fur @-@ lined jacket , waxed pants , Air Jordan sneakers and a bandana . The performance began when Brown entered the stage on a fluorescent bike and asked his astronaut doll to activate the fun zone . The fluorescent and graffitied @-@ drawn backdrop then lit up as several dancers appeared onstage and performed with Brown , while " BMX bike riders performed several high @-@ flying tricks " on bike ramps behind them . The performance received a mixed response from celebrities , most notably Joe Jonas , Pink and Carey Hart , who all criticized Brown for lip @-@ synching .
On June 8 , 2012 , Brown performed " Turn Up the Music " on Today as part of its Summer Concert Series , for which he wore a New York Yankees cap , a multicolored Snow Beach Polo jacket , black jeans and white sneakers . The set list also included " Don 't Wake Me Up " , " Yeah 3x " and " Forever " . Brown later performed a medley of " Turn Up the Music " and " Don 't Wake Me Up " at the 2012 BET Awards ceremony on July 1 , 2012 , for which he appeared shirtless for the performance with half his body spray painted in grey . Brown performed acrobatic moves with six backup dancers " under triangle @-@ shaped beams " as green and red flashing lights appeared throughout the stage . Georgette Cline of The Boombox wrote that Brown " put on an energetic show " and described his dance routines during the performance as " eye @-@ catching " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Cog ( advertisement ) =
" Cog " is a British television and cinema advertisement launched by Honda in 2003 to promote the seventh @-@ generation Accord line of cars . It follows the convention of a Rube Goldberg machine , utilizing a chain of colliding parts taken from a disassembled Accord . Wieden + Kennedy developed a GB £ 6 million marketing campaign around " Cog " and its partner pieces , " Sense " and " Everyday " , broadcast later in the year . The piece itself was produced on a budget of £ 1 million by Partizan Midi @-@ Minuit . Antoine Bardou @-@ Jacquet directed the seven @-@ month production , contracting The Mill to handle post @-@ production . The 120 @-@ second final cut of " Cog " was broadcast on British television on 6 April 2003 , during a commercial break in ITV 's coverage of the 2003 Brazilian Grand Prix .
The campaign was very successful both critically and financially . Honda 's UK domain saw more web traffic in the 24 hours after " Cog " ' s television début than all but one UK automotive brand received during that entire month . The branded content attached to " Cog " through interactive television was accessed by over 250 @,@ 000 people , and 10 @,@ 000 people followed up with a request for a brochure for the Honda Accord or a DVD copy of the advertisement . The media reaction to the advertisement was equally effusive ; The Independent 's Peter York described it as creating " the water @-@ cooler ad conversation of the year " , while Quentin Letts of The Daily Telegraph believed it was " certain to become an advertising legend " .
The high cost of 120 @-@ second slots in televised commercial breaks meant that the full version of " Cog " was broadcast only a handful of times , and only in the United Kingdom , Australia , and Sweden . Despite its limited run , it is regarded as one of the most groundbreaking and influential commercials of the 2000s , and received more awards from the television and advertising industries than any commercial in history . Its success was blighted , however , by persistent accusations of plagiarism by Peter Fischli and David Weiss , the creators of The Way Things Go ( 1987 ) .
= = Sequence = =
" Cog " opens with a close @-@ up on a transmission bearing rolling down a board into a synchro hub . The hub in turn rolls into a gear wheel cog , which falls off of the board and into a camshaft and pulley wheel . The camera tracks slowly from left to right , following the domino chain of reactions across an otherwise empty gallery space . The complexity of the interactions increases as the commercial progresses , growing from simple collisions to ziplines made from a bonnet release cable , scales and see @-@ saws constructed from multiple carefully balanced parts , and a swinging mobile of suspended glass windows . Later sequences begin to make use of the Accord 's electronic systems ; the automated water sensors attached to the windscreen are used to make wiper blades start crawling across the floor , and a side door with a door @-@ mirror indicator lowers the automated window to let a part pass through .
The majority of " Cog " takes place in complete silence , the only sounds coming from the collisions of the pieces themselves . This is broken with the activation of the CD player from the Accord , which begins playing The Sugarhill Gang 's 1979 single " Rapper 's Delight " . The sequence ends when the button of an electronic key fob is pressed , closing the hatchback of a fully assembled Honda Accord on a carefully balanced trailer . The car rolls off of the trailer , and stops in front of a tonneau cover bearing the " Accord " marque , while narrator Garrison Keillor asks " Isn 't it nice when things just work ? " . The screen fades to white and the piece closes on the Honda logo and the brand 's motto , " The Power of Dreams " .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Sales of Honda products within Europe had been in decline since 1998 , and the company 's position as the number two Japanese automotive company , behind Toyota , had been taken by Nissan . European consumers perceived the brand as staid , uninspiring , and the cars to be of lesser quality than those produced by European manufacturers . In one survey , one quarter of respondents " wouldn 't dream of buying a Honda as their next car " . It was in this climate in 2001 that Wieden + Kennedy proposed to Honda a new advertising strategy based on the company 's Japanese motto , " Yume No Chikara " ( " Power of Dreams " ) . The stated goal of the campaign was to increase Honda 's share of the UK market to five percent within three years and to change the public image of the brand from " dull but functional " to " warm and consumer @-@ friendly " , all on a lower marketing budget than their predecessors had demanded .
The first series of promotions in the United Kingdom adopted the strapline " What if ... ? " , and explored various " dream @-@ like " scenarios . The first television campaign explicitly introduced the premise of the campaign by asking what would happen if the world 's favourite word ( Okay ) was replaced with " What if ? " . The next few pieces of the campaign , " Pecking Order " , " Seats " , and " Bus Lane " for television and " Doodle " , " Big Grin " , and " Oblonger " for radio , became progressively more surreal , and featured oddities ranging from a traffic cone draped in leopard fur to trees growing traffic lights from their branches . In 2002 , Matt Gooden , a creative director , and Ben Walker , a copywriter , proposed a new television and cinema advertisement to promote the seventh @-@ generation Honda Accord line that had recently been rolled out in Europe and Japan . The advertisement , based on a complex chain reaction of moving parts from the Accord itself , was approved and given the working title " Cog " .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Gooden and Walker had been working together since 1988 . By 2002 , their portfolio included a Guinness World Record @-@ holding one @-@ second advertisement produced for Leo Burnett Worldwide , and a depression @-@ awareness booklet for the Charlie Waller Memorial Trust . The pair approached Honda with a rough , low @-@ budget 30 @-@ second trial film inspired by the children 's board game Mouse Trap , Caractacus Potts ' breakfast @-@ making machine in the film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , and a 1987 Swiss art film by Peter Fischli and David Weiss , Der Lauf der Dinge ( The Way Things Go ) .
The Honda executives were intrigued , but demanded a cut using actual automotive parts before giving permission to go ahead with the full @-@ scale project . " Cog " was approved with a budget of £ 1 million , and Gooden & Walker recruited a London @-@ based team to go through the logistics of the shoot in detail . The team , which comprised engineers , special effects technicians , car designers , and even a sculptor , spent a month working with parts from a disassembled Honda Accord before the design for the advertisement 's set was even finalised . Approval for the script took another month . Honda insisted that several specific Accord features , such as a door with a wing @-@ mirror indicator and a rain @-@ sensitive windscreen , appear in the final cut . The company planned to highlight these features in sales brochures . Antoine Bardou @-@ Jacquet was hired to direct the piece . Bardou @-@ Jacquet was mostly known for directing several award @-@ winning music videos , including Alex Gopher 's " The Child " , Playgroup 's " Number One " , and Air 's " How Does It Make You Feel " .
= = = Filming = = =
Bardou @-@ Jacquet wanted to compose the advertisement with as little computer @-@ generated imagery as possible , believing that the final product would be that much more appealing to its audience . To this end , he set two months aside for the creation of hundreds of conceptual drawings detailing various possible interactions between the parts , and a further four months for practical testing and development . For the testing phase , the script was broken into small segments , each comprising only one or two interactions . Ideas deemed unworkable by the testing crew , such as airbag explosions and collisions between front and rear sections of the car , were abandoned , and the remaining segments were slowly brought together until the full and final sequence was developed .
The final cut of " Cog " consists of two continuous sixty @-@ second dolly shots taken from a technocrane , stitched together later in post @-@ production . ( The stitching appears during the moment when the muffler rolls across the floor . ) Four days of filming were required to get these two shots , two days for each minute @-@ long section . Filming sessions lasted seven hours and the work was exacting , as some parts needed to be positioned with an accuracy of a sixteenth of an inch . Despite the detailed instructions derived from the testing period , small variations in ambient temperature , humidity and settling dust continually threw off the movement of the parts enough to end the sequence early . It took 90 minutes on the first day just to get the initial transmission bearing to roll correctly into the second . Between testing and filming , 606 takes were needed to capture the final cut . The team commandeered two of Honda 's six hand @-@ assembled Accords — one to roll off the trailer at the end of the advertisement , the other to be stripped for parts . While several sections of the early scripts had to be abandoned due to the total unavailability of certain Accord components , by the time production finished the accumulated spare parts filled two articulated lorries .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
" Cog " needed only limited post @-@ production work , as the decision had been made early on to eschew computer @-@ generated imagery wherever possible . To further reduce the work required , " Barnsley " , a specialist in the Flame editing tool ( real name , Andrew Wood ) , from The Mill , spent a lot of time on set during filming , where he advised the film crew on whether particular sections could be accomplished more easily by re @-@ filming or by manipulating the image afterwards . Even so , the constant movement of the components on @-@ camera made it difficult to achieve a seamless transition between the two 60 @-@ second shots . Several sections also required minor video editing , such as re @-@ centering the frame to stay closer to the action , removal of wires , highlighting a spray of water , and adjusting the pace for dramatic purposes .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Schedule = = =
" Cog " was first aired on British television on Sunday 6 April 2003 . It filled an entire commercial break in ITV 's coverage of the Brazilian Grand Prix . The release was widely remarked upon by the media , with articles appearing in both broadsheets such as The Daily Telegraph , The Independent , and The Guardian , and tabloid papers such as The Sun and The Daily Mirror . The day after " Cog " ' s debut , the Honda website received more hits than at any time in its history , and overnight became the second most @-@ popular automotive website in the UK .
The full 120 @-@ second version of the advertisement aired only 10 times in all , and only in the 10 days after the initial screening . The slots were chosen for maximum impact , mostly in high @-@ profile sporting events such as the UEFA Champion 's League football match between Manchester United and Real Madrid . The full version was then put aside in favour of a 60 @-@ second and five 30 @-@ second variations , which continued to air for a further six weeks . These shortened versions made use of newly introduced interactive options on the Sky Digital television network . Viewers were encouraged to press a button on their remote control , bringing up a menu that allowed the viewer to see the full 120 @-@ second version of the advertisement . Other menu options included placing an order for a free documentary DVD and a brochure for the Honda Accord . The DVD , which was also included as an insert in 1 @.@ 2 million newspapers in the first week of the commercial 's rollout , contained a " making @-@ of " documentary featuring interviews and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the production process , a virtual tour of the Accord , the original music video to " Rapper 's Delight " by the Sugarhill Gang , and an illustrated guide to all the parts shown in " Cog " . The interactive 30 @-@ second versions of " Cog " proved hugely successful . Over 250 @,@ 000 people used the menu option , spending an average of two and a half minutes in the dedicated advertising area . A significant number watched the looped 120 @-@ second version for up to ten minutes . Of those who opened the menu , 10 @,@ 000 requested either a DVD or a brochure , and Honda used the data collected from the interactive option to arrange a number of test drives .
Expansion of the " Cog " campaign to a worldwide market was fraught with a number of logistical difficulties . The cost of airing a 120 @-@ second commercial proved prohibitive in most markets . Combined with Honda 's use of different advertising agencies in different regions and the relative autonomy of its various business units in marketing decisions , meant that " Cog " screened in only a few selected markets : the United Kingdom , Sweden , and Australia , and in cinemas in only a handful of other countries . For most markets , including the United States , the only way for audiences to see the piece was via the Internet , or in one of a handful of unsolicited and unpaid broadcasts on news channel review programmes . Traffic to Honda websites quadrupled ; in the first few weeks , " Cog " was downloaded by over a million people . By mid @-@ May , the number was twice that . It has been estimated that more people in the United States voluntarily chose to watch " Cog " than any other Honda commercial .
In financial terms , " Cog " was an unprecedented success for Honda . The £ 32 @,@ 000 spent on placements on the BSkyB network alone achieved a greater response than a previous £ 1 million direct mailing campaign . Sales of Honda vehicles in the United Kingdom jumped by 28 percent , despite lower marketing and public relations spending by the company and an increase in prices relative to their competitors . Visits to Honda dealerships rose from an average of 3 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 700 per month , with 22 percent of these resulting in the purchase of a Honda , compared to 19 percent before the campaign . In all , " Cog " has been credited with increasing Honda 's revenue by nearly £ 400m .
= = = Plagiarism accusations = = =
Shortly after Cog appeared on television , Wieden + Kennedy received a letter from Peter Fischli and David Weiss , creators of the 1987 art film Der Lauf der Dinge . The film was well known in the advertising industry , and its creators had been approached several times with offers for the right to use the concept , but had always declined . The letter pointed out several similarities between their work and " Cog " , and warned the agency that they were considering legal action on the basis of the " commercialisation and simplification of the film 's content and the false impression that [ they ] might have endorsed the use " . When interviewed by Creative Review magazine , the pair made clear that they wished they had been consulted on the advertisement , and that they would not have given permission if asked . Media publications quickly picked up the story , and asserted that Fischli and Weiss were already in the process of litigation against the car manufacturer .
Comparisons were made between the case and that of Mehdi Norowzian , a British director who complained about Diageo 's , the drinks conglomerate , for allegedly plagiarising his work in their 1994 Anticipation campaign for Guinness @-@ brand stout . The matter was complicated by the fact that Wieden + Kennedy acknowledged that the film had served as an " inspiration " for " Cog " , and had distributed copies of the work to its script @-@ writers . Ultimately , Fischli and Weiss did not file a lawsuit against either Wieden + Kennedy or Honda UK .
= = = Awards = = =
Despite the lingering shadow of these accusations , " Cog " drew an unprecedented amount of critical acclaim . It received more awards than any commercial in history ; so many that it was both the most @-@ awarded commercial of 2004 and the 33rd @-@ most @-@ awarded commercial of 2003 . The jury for the British Television Advertising Awards gave the piece the highest score of any commercial ever recorded ; the jury 's chairman Charles Inge commented : " My own opinion is that this is the best commercial that I have seen for at least ten years . " After awarding " Cog " with several Silver awards , the president @-@ elect of the D & AD Awards , Dick Powell , said of the piece : " It delights and entrances , [ ... ] it communicates engineering quality and quality of thinking , and leaves you with a smile . "
Having swept the majority of award ceremonies within the advertising community to date , " Cog " was widely believed to be the favourite for the industry 's top award , the Grand Prix at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival . Its chief competition was thought to be " Sheet Metal " for Saturn automobiles . " Cog " held a disadvantage in that the chairman of the Cannes voting jury , Dan Wieden , was one of the founders of Wieden + Kennedy , the firm responsible for creating " Cog " ; tradition holds that it is bad form for the chairman of the jury to vote for a piece by his or her own agency .
The result at Cannes was a surprise ; after the longest judging period in the festival 's history , the Grand Prix went to neither of the two event favourites . Instead , the jury awarded the prize to " Lamp " , a U.S. advertisement directed by Spike Jonze for the IKEA chain of furniture stores . Voted second was a British ad , " Ear Tennis " for the Xbox video game console . Chief among speculated reasons for the outcome was the plagiarism debate surrounding " Cog " . Ben Walker told Adweek " A couple of people on the jury told me the reason it didn 't win is ' cause they didn 't want to be seen to be awarding something which people in some corners had said we copied . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = In advertising = = =
The popularity and recognition received by " Cog " led a number of other companies to create pieces in a similar vein — either as homages , in parody , or simply to further explore the design space . The first of these was Just Works , a deliberate parody advertisement for the 118 118 directory assistance service in the summer of 2003 , in which the Honda parts are replaced with such oddities as a tractor wheel , a flamingo and a space hopper , with impetus provided by two moustachioed runners . Just Works was created by advertising agency WCRS . It was written by Anson Harris and directed by JJ Keith , whose previous work included spots for BT Cellnet , Heinz , and Guinness , and the Oscar @-@ nominated short film Holiday Romance . Honda refused to give WCRS permission to copy their advert , which , under BACC guidelines , prevented either the 60- or 90 @-@ second Just Works spots from appearing on British television . Instead , the ad was shown online and promoted virally . Just Works went on to win a number of awards in its own right , including Golds in several categories at the British Television Advertising Awards and the Creative Circle Awards , a Silver Lion from the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival , and a Bronze award from The One Club .
In 2004 , BBC Radio Manchester asked for and received permission from Wieden + Kennedy to produce a television advertisement in the style of " Cog " to advertise coverage of football events by local radio stations . The ad , which was directed by Reg Sanders and produced by Tracy Williams , shows pieces of sports equipment such as footballs and team shirts knocking into each other in sequence . In all , 65 versions were broadcast , each tailored to advertise the local BBC Radio station . Wieden + Kennedy were pleased to gain the extra publicity and Neil Christie , managing director of Wieden + Kennedy London , commented : " We are very happy that every time the BBC runs one of their adverts , the person who watches it thinks of Honda . "
Campaign magazine listed " Cog " , along with Balls for the Sony BRAVIA line of high @-@ definition televisions , as one of the most @-@ imitated commercials in recent times . Among the pieces believed to draw inspiration from " Cog " are a 2003 piece for breakfast cereal Sugar Puffs , Nearness for the Oslo School of Architecture and Design , a 30 @-@ second animated advertisement for Heinz Tomato Ketchup , an advertisement for BBC Radio Merseyside football coverage , and the 2007 Tipping Point , advertising Guinness stout . When asked about the similarities between " Cog " and " Tipping Point " , Paul Brazier , executive creative director at the advertising agency behind Tipping Point , replied : " I knew the ad was similar in places , but as an executive creative director , you have to look at things like that and make a decision . The fact the TV ad was only part of a huge internet campaign meant that I thought it wasn ’ t that near " Cog " . "
= = = Outside advertising = = =
" Cog " has also inspired a number of other creative endeavours outside of the advertising industry , including an elaborate domino @-@ toppling world record attempt by Robin Weijers , and a three @-@ minute introductory trailer to the BBC show Bang Goes the Theory . In 2004 , the United States Coast Guard Training Centre in California requested permission to use the ad in their training regime as a demonstration of the importance of attention to detail . Discussion of " Cog " as an example of the confluence of art and advertising , and as an example of inspiration versus plagiarism , has been ongoing . Mark Leckey included " Cog " as part of his video art installation " Cinema in the Round " , in the Tate Britain gallery , London , in 2008 . It was also the focus of a panel discussion at the Tate Modern during a retrospective of Fischli & Weiss ' work there in 2006 .
The next piece created by Wieden + Kennedy for Honda , Sense , advertised the company 's " Integrated Motor System " hybrid car technology . Deliberate steps were taken to distance the spot from " Cog " , using metaphor to make the promotion , rather than focusing on the technology itself . In 2005 , Honda was once again in contention for the Grand Prix at the Cannes Lions International Film Festival , with the animated 60 @-@ second spot Grrr . This time , it returned home triumphant , defeating Singing in the rain for the Volkswagen Golf and Stella Artois ' Pilot to bring home the top prize . Antoine Bardou @-@ Jacquet went on to direct two further Honda advertisements for Wieden + Kennedy . Choir , created with the help of fellow " Cog " team @-@ members Ben Walker and Matt Gooden , was released in 2006 , and Problem Playground in 2008 .
|
= Evolution of cetaceans =
The evolutionary history of cetaceans is thought to have occurred in the Indian subcontinent from even @-@ toed ungulates 50 million years ago , over a period of at least 15 million years . Cetaceans are fully aquatic marine mammals belonging to the order Artiodactyla , and branched off from other artiodactyls around 50 mya ( million years ago ) . Cetaceans are thought to have evolved during the Eocene or earlier , sharing a closest common ancestor with hippopotamuses . Being mammals , they surface to breathe air ; they have finger bones in their fins ; they nurse their young ; and , despite their fully aquatic life style , they retained many skeletal features from their terrestrial , mammalian ancestors . These mammalian characteristics all point to their terrestrial origin , also the first mammals were terrestrial , so cetaceans , being mammals , must have come from the land . Discoveries starting in the late 1970s in Pakistan revealed several stages in the transition of cetaceans from land to sea .
The two modern parvorders of cetaceans – Mysticeti ( baleen whales ) and Odontoceti ( toothed whales ) – are thought to have separated from each other , and the archaeocetes , around 34 million years ago in a second cetacean radiation , the first occurring with the archaeocetes . The adaptation of echolocation in toothed whales distinguishes them from fully aquatic archaeocetes and early baleen whales . The presence of baleen in baleen whales occurred gradually , with earlier varieties having very little baleen , and their size is linked to baleen dependence ( and subsequent increase in filter feeding ) .
Modern @-@ day cetacean evolution is largely affected by local culture and social network . Tool @-@ use for foraging in certain societies affects the diet , and allows them to access more varieties of food . This behavior is passed down from mother @-@ to @-@ child , as in the bottlenose dolphins residing in Shark Bay , where many use sponges to protect their beak while foraging . Social bonds between dolphins in a pod can affect overall fitness in a habitat , decreasing or increasing the survival chances for any particular individual in that pod . Social bonds between different species can sometimes cause interbreeding , which always results in infertile hybrids when it occurs .
= = Early evolution = =
The aquatic lifestyle of cetaceans first began in the Indian subcontinent from even @-@ toed ungulates 50 million years ago , over a period of at least 15 million years , however a jawbone discovered in Antarctica may reduce this to 5 million years . Archaeoceti is an extinct parvorder of Cetacea containing ancient whales . The traditional theory of cetacean evolution , first proposed by Van Valen in 1966 , was that whales were related to the mesonychids , an extinct order of carnivorous ungulates ( hoofed animals ) that resembled wolves with hooves and were a sister group of the artiodactyls ( even @-@ toed ungulates ) . This theory arose due to similarities between the unusual triangular teeth of the mesonychids and those of early whales . However , molecular phylogeny data indicates that whales are very closely related to the artiodactyls , with hippopotamuses as their closest living relative . Because of this , cetaceans and hippopotamuses are placed in the same suborder , Whippomorpha . Cetartiodactyla ( formed from the words Cetacea and Artiodactyla ) is a proposed name for an order containing both cetaceans and artiodactyls . However , the earliest anthracotheres , the ancestors of hippos , do not appear in the fossil record until the Middle Eocene , millions of years after Pakicetus , the first known whale ancestor , appeared during the Early Eocene , implying the two groups diverged well before the Eocene . Since molecular analysis identifies artiodactyls as being very closely related to cetaceans , mesonychids are probably an offshoot from Artiodactyla , and cetaceans did not derive directly from them .
The molecular data is supported by the discovery of Pakicetus , the earliest archaeocete . The skeletons of Pakicetus show that whales did not derive directly from mesonychids . Instead , they are artiodactyls that began to take to the water soon after artiodactyls split from mesonychids . Archaeocetes retained aspects of their mesonychid ancestry ( such as the triangular teeth ) which modern artiodactyls , and modern whales , have lost . The earliest ancestors of all hoofed mammals were probably at least partly carnivorous or scavengers , and today 's artiodactyls and perissodactyls became herbivores later in their evolution . Whales , however , retained their carnivorous diet because prey was more available and they needed higher caloric content in order to live as marine endotherms ( warm @-@ blooded ) . Mesonychids also became specialized carnivores , but this was likely a disadvantage because large prey was uncommon . This may be why they were out @-@ competed by better @-@ adapted animals like the creodonts and later Carnivora .
= = = Indohyus = = =
Indohyus was a small chevrotain @-@ like animal that lived about 48 million years ago in what is now the Kashmir . It belongs to the artiodactyl family Raoellidae , and is believed to be the closest sister group of Cetacea . Indohyus is identified as an artiodactyl because it has two trochlea hinges , a trait unique to artiodactyls . About the size of a raccoon or domestic cat , this herbivorous creature shared some traits of modern whales , most notably the involucrum , a bone growth pattern which is the diagnostic characteristic of any cetacean ; this is not found in any other species . It also showed signs of adaptations to aquatic life , including dense limb bones that reduce buoyancy so that they could stay underwater , which are similar to the adaptations found in modern aquatic mammals such as the hippopotamus . This suggests a similar survival strategy to the African mousedeer or water chevrotain which , when threatened by a bird of prey , dives into water and hides beneath the surface for up to four minutes .
= = = Pakicetidae = = =
The pakicetids were digitigrade hoofed mammals that are thought to be the earliest known cetaceans , with Indohyus being the closest sister group . They lived in the early Eocene , around 50 million years ago . Their fossils were first discovered in North Pakistan in 1979 , located at a river not far from the shores of the former Tethys Sea . After the initial discovery , more fossils were found , mainly in the early Eocene fluvial deposits in northern Pakistan and northwestern India . Based on this discovery , pakicetids most likely lived in an arid environment with ephemeral streams and moderately developed floodplains millions of years ago . By using stable oxygen isotopes analysis , they were shown to drink fresh water , implying that they lived around freshwater bodies . Their diet probably included land animals that approached water for drinking or some freshwater aquatic organisms that lived in the river . The elongated cervical vertebrae and the four , fused sacral vertebrae are consistent with artiodactyls , making Pakicetus one of the earliest fossils to be recovered from the period following the Cetacea / Artiodactyla divergence event .
Pakicetids are classified as cetaceans mainly due to the structure of the auditory bulla ( ear bone ) , which is formed only from the ectotympanic bone . The shape of the ear region in pakicetids is highly unusual and the skull is cetacean @-@ like , although a blowhole is still absent at this stage . The jawbone of pakicetids also lacks the enlarged space ( mandibular foramen ) that is filled with fat or oil , which is used in receiving underwater sound in modern cetaceans . They have dorsal orbits ( eye sockets facing up ) , which are similar to crocodiles . This eye placement helps submerged predators observe potential prey above the water . According to a 2009 study , the teeth of pakicetids also resemble the teeth of fossil whales , being less like a dog 's incisors , and having serrated triangular teeth , which is another link to more modern cetaceans . It was initially thought that the ears of pakicetids were adapted for underwater hearing , but , as would be expected from the anatomy of the rest of this creature , the ears of pakicetids are specialized for hearing on land . However , pakicetids were able to listen underwater by using enhanced bone conduction , rather than depending on the tympanic membrane like other land mammals . This method of hearing did not give directional hearing underwater .
Pakicetids have long thin legs , with relatively short hands and feet which suggest that they were poor swimmers . To compensate for that , their bones are unusually thick ( osteosclerotic ) , which is probably an adaptation to make the animal heavier to counteract the buoyancy of the water . According to a 2001 morphological analysis by Thewissen et al . , pakicetids display no aquatic skeletal adaptation ; instead they display adaptations for running and jumping . Hence pakicetids were most likely aquatic waders .
= = = Ambulocetidae = = =
Ambulocetus , which lived about 49 million years ago , was discovered in Pakistan in 1994 . It was probably amphibious , and resembled crocodiles in its physical appearance . In the Eocene , ambulocetids inhabited the bays and estuaries of the Tethys Sea in northern Pakistan . The fossils of ambulocetids are always found in near @-@ shore shallow marine deposits associated with abundant marine plant fossils and littoral mollusks . Although they are found only in marine deposits , their oxygen isotope values indicate that they consumed a range of water with different degree of salinity , with some specimens having no evidence of sea water consumption and others that did not ingest fresh water at the time when their teeth were fossilized . It is clear that ambulocetids tolerated a wide range of salt concentrations . Hence , ambulocetids represent a transition phase of cetacean ancestors between fresh water and marine habitat .
The mandibular foramen in ambulocetids had increased in size , which indicates that a fat pad was likely to be housed in the lower jaw . In modern toothed whales , this fat pad in the mandibular foramen extends posteriorly to the middle ear . This allows sounds to be received in the lower jaw , and then transmitted through the fat pad to the middle ear . Similar to pakicetids , the orbits of ambulocetids are on the top of the skull , but they face more laterally than in pakicetids .
Ambulocetids had relatively long limbs with particularly strong hind legs , and they retained a tail with no sign of a fluke . The hindlimb structure of Ambulocetids shows that their ability to engage in terrestrial locomotion was significantly limited compared to that of contemporary terrestrial mammals . The skeletal structures of the knee and ankle indicates that the motion of the hindlimbs was restricted into one plane . This suggests that , on land , propulsion of the hindlimbs was powered by the extension of dorsal muscles . Although they could walk on land , in addition to swimming , it is clear that they were not fast in either environment . It has been speculated that Ambulocetids hunted like crocodiles , lurking in the shallows to snatch unsuspecting riparian prey and fish . They probably swam by pelvic paddling ( a way of swimming which mainly utilizes their hind limbs to generate propulsion in water ) and caudal undulation ( a way of swimming which uses the undulations of the vertebral column to generate force for movements ) , as otters , seals and modern cetaceans do . This is an intermediate stage in the evolution of cetacean locomotion , as modern cetaceans swim by caudal oscillation ( a way of swimming similar to caudal undulation , but is more energy efficient ) .
= = = Remingtonocetidae = = =
Remingtonocetids lived in the Middle @-@ Eocene in South Asia , about 49 to 43 million years ago . Compared to family Pakicetidae and Ambulocetidae , Remingtonocetidae was a diverse family found in north and central Pakistan and western India . Remingtonocetids were also found in shallow marine deposits , but they were obviously more aquatic than ambulocetidae . This is demonstrated by the recovery of their fossils from a variety of coastal marine environments , including near @-@ shore and lagoonal deposits . According to stable oxygen isotopes analysis , most remingtonocetids did not ingest fresh water , and had hence lost their dependency on fresh water relatively soon after their origin .
The orbits of remingtonocetids faced laterally and were small . This suggests that vision was not an important sense for them . The nasal opening , which eventually becomes the blowhole in modern cetaceans , was located near the tip of the snout . The position of the nasal opening had remained unchanged since pakicetids . One of the notable features in remingtonocetids is that the semicircular canals , which are important for balancing in land mammals , had decreased in size . This reduction in size had closely accompanied the cetacean radiation into marine environments . According to a 2002 study done by Spoor et al . , this modification of the semicircular canal system may represent a crucial ‘ point of no return ’ event in early cetacean evolution , which excluded a prolonged semi @-@ aquatic phase .
Compared to ambulocetids , remingtonocetids had relatively short limbs . Based on their skeletal remains , remingtonocetids were probably amphibious cetaceans that were well adapted to swimming , and likely to swim by caudal undulation only .
= = = Protocetidae = = =
The protocetids form a diverse and heterogeneous group known from Asia , Europe , Africa , and North America . They lived in the Eocene , approximately 48 to 35 million years ago . The fossil remains of protocetids were uncovered from coastal and lagoonal facies in South Asia ; unlike previous cetacean families , their fossils uncovered from Africa and North America also include open marine forms . They were probably amphibious , but more aquatic compared to remingtonocetids . Protocetids were the first cetaceans to leave the Indian subcontinent and disperse to all shallow subtropical oceans of the world . There were many genera among the family Protocetidae . Great variations in aquatic adaptations exist among them , with some probably able to support their weight on land , whereas others could not . Their supposed amphibious nature is supported by the discovery of a pregnant Maiacetus , in which the fossilised fetus was positioned for a head @-@ first delivery , suggesting that Maiacetus gave birth on land . If they gave birth in the water , the fetus would be positioned for a tail @-@ first delivery to avoid drowning during birth .
Unlike remingtonocetids and ambulocetids , protocetids have large orbits which are oriented laterally . Increasingly lateral @-@ facing eyes might be used to observe underwater prey , and are similar to the eyes of modern cetaceans . Furthermore , the nasal openings were large and were halfway up the snout . The great variety of teeth suggests diverse feeding modes in protocetids . In both remingtonocetids and protocetids , the size of the mandibular foramen had increased . The large mandibular foramen indicates that the mandibular fat pad was present . However the air @-@ filled sinuses that are present in modern cetaceans , which function to isolate the ear acoustically to enable better underwater hearing , were still not present . The external auditory meatus ( ear canal ) , which is absent in modern cetaceans , was also present . Hence , the method of sound transmission that were present in them combines aspects of pakicetids and modern odontocetes ( toothed whales ) . At this intermediate stage of hearing development , the transmission of airborne sound was poor due to the modifications of the ear for underwater hearing while directional underwater hearing was also poor compared to modern cetaceans .
Some protocetids had short , wide fore- and hindlimbs that were likely to have been used in swimming , but the limbs gave a slow and cumbersome locomotion on land . It is possible that some protocetids had flukes . However , it is clear that they were adapted even further to an aquatic life @-@ style . In Rodhocetus , for example , the sacrum ( a bone that , in land @-@ mammals , is a fusion of five vertebrae that connects the pelvis with the rest of the vertebral column ) was divided into loose vertebrae . However , the pelvis was still connected to one of the sacral vertebrae . The ungulate ancestry of these archaeocetes is still underlined by characteristics like the presence of hooves at the ends of the toes in Rodhocetus .
The foot structure of Rodhocetus shows that protocetids were predominantly aquatic . A 2001 study done by Gingerich et al. hypothesized that Rodhocetus locomoted in the oceanic environment similarly to how ambulocetids pelvic paddling , which was supplemented by caudal undulation . Terrestrial locomotion of Rodhocetus was very limited due to their hindlimb structure . It is thought that they moved in a way similar to how eared seals move on land , by rotating their hind flippers forward and underneath their body .
= = = Basilosauridae = = =
Basilosaurids and dorudontines lived together in the late Eocene around 41 to 35 million years ago , and are the oldest known obligate aquatic cetaceans . They were fully recognizable whales which lived entirely in the ocean . This is supported by their fossils usually found in deposits indicative of fully marine environments , lacking any freshwater influx . They were probably distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical seas of the world . Basilosaurids are commonly found in association with dorudontines , and were closely related to one another . The fossilised stomach contents in one basilosaurid indicates that it ate fish .
Although they look very much like modern cetaceans , basilosaurids lacked the ' melon organ ' that allows toothed whales to use echolocation . They had small brains ; this suggests they were solitary and did not have the complex social structures of some modern cetaceans . The mandibular foramen of basilosaurids covered the entire depth of the lower jaw as in modern cetaceans . Their orbits faced laterally , and the nasal opening had moved even higher up the snout , closer to the position of the blowhole in modern cetaceans . Furthermore , their ear structures were functionally modern , with the insertion of air @-@ filled sinuses between ear and skull . Unlike modern cetaceans , basilosaurids retained a large external auditory meatus .
Both basilosaurids have skeletons that are immediately recognizable as cetaceans . A basilosaurid was as big as the larger modern whales , with genera like Basilosaurus reaching lengths of up to 60 ft ( 18 m ) long ; dorudontines were smaller , with genera like Dorudon reaching about 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) long . The large size of basilosaurids is due to the extreme elongation of their lumbar vertebrae . They had a tail fluke , but their body proportions suggest that they swam by caudal undulation and that the fluke was not used for propulsion . In contrast , dorudontines had a shorter but powerful vertebral column . They too had a fluke and , unlike basilosaurids , they probably swam similarly to modern cetaceans , by using caudal oscillations . The forelimbs of basilosaurids were probably flipper @-@ shaped , and the external hind limbs were tiny and were certainly not involved in locomotion . Their fingers , however , retained the mobile joints of their ambulocetid relatives . The two tiny but well @-@ formed hind legs of basilosaurids were probably used as claspers when mating . The pelvic bones associated with these hind limbs were not connected to the vertebral column as they were in protocetids . Essentially , any sacral vertebrae can no longer be clearly distinguished from the other vertebrae .
Both basilosaurids and dorudontines are relatively closely related to modern cetaceans , which belong to parvorders Odontoceti and Mysticeti . However , according to a 1994 study done by Fordyce and Barnes , the large size and elongated vertebral body of basilosaurids preclude them from being ancestral to extant forms . As for dorudontines , there are some species within the family that do not have elongated vertebral bodies , which might be the immediate ancestors of Odontoceti and Mysticeti . The other basilosaurids became extinct .
= = Evolution of modern cetaceans = =
= = = Baleen whales = = =
All modern baleen whales or mysticetes are filter @-@ feeders which have baleen in place of teeth , though the exact means by which baleen is used differs among species ( gulp @-@ feeding within balaenopterids , skim @-@ feeding within balaenids , and bottom plowing within eschrichtiids ) . the first members of both groups appeared during the middle Miocene . Filter feeding is very beneficial as it allows baleen whales to efficiently gain huge energy resources , which makes the large body size in modern variety possible . The development of filter feeding may have been a result of worldwide environmental change and physical changes in the oceans . A large @-@ scale change in ocean current and temperature could have initiated the radiation of modern mysticetes , leading to the demise of the toothed forms . The earlier variety of baleen whales , or " archaeomysticetes " , such as Janjucetus and Mammalodon had very little baleen and relied mainly on their teeth . Generally it is speculated the four modern mysticete families have separate origins among the cetotheres . Modern baleen whales , Balaenopteridae ( rorquals and humpback whale , Megaptera novaengliae ) , Balaenidae ( right whales ) , Eschrichtiidae ( gray whale , Eschrictius robustus ) , and Neobalaenidae ( pygmy right whale , Caperea marginata ) all have derived characteristics presently unknown in any cetothere and vice versa ( such as a sagital crest ) .
= = = Toothed whales = = =
The adaptation of echolocation occurred when toothed whales ( Odontoceti ) split apart from baleen whales , and distinguishes modern toothed whales from fully aquatic archaeocetes . This happened around 34 million years ago in a second cetacean radiation . Modern toothed whales do not rely on their sense of sight , but rather on their sonar to hunt prey . Echolocation also allowed toothed whales to dive deeper in search of food , with light no longer necessary for navigation , which opened up new food sources . Toothed whales echolocate by creating a series of clicks emitted at various frequencies . Sound pulses are emitted , reflected off objects , and retrieved through the lower jaw . Skulls of Squalodon show evidence for the first hypothesized appearance of echolocation . Squalodon lived from the early to middle Oligocene to the middle Miocene , around 33 – 14 million years ago . Squalodon featured several commonalities with modern toothed whales : the cranium was well compressed ( to make room for the melon , a part of the nose ) , the rostrum telescoped outward into a beak , a characteristic of the modern toothed whales that gave Squalodon an appearance similar to them . However , it is thought unlikely that squalodontids are direct ancestors of modern toothed whales .
The first oceanic dolphins such as kentriodonts , evolved in the late Oligocene and diversified greatly during the mid @-@ Miocene . The first fossil cetaceans near shallow seas ( where porpoises inhabit ) were found around the North Pacific ; species like Semirostrum were found along California ( in what was then estuaries ) . These animals spreading to the European coasts and Southern Hemisphere only much later , during the Pliocene . The earliest known ancestor of arctic whales is Denebola brachycephala from the late Miocene around 9 – 10 million years ago . A single fossil from Baja California indicates the family once inhabited warmer waters .
Ancient sperm whales differ from modern sperm whales in tooth count and the shape of the face and jaws . For example , Scaldicetus had a tapered rostrum . Genera from the Oligocene and Miocene had teeth in their upper jaws . These anatomical differences suggest that these ancient species may not have necessarily been deep @-@ sea squid hunters like the modern sperm whale , but that some genera mainly ate fish . Contrary to modern sperm whales , most ancient sperm whales were built to hunt whales . Livyatan had a short and wide rostrum measuring 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) across , which gave the whale the ability to inflict major damage on large struggling prey , such as other early whales . Species like these are collectively known as killer sperm whales .
Beaked whales consist of over 20 genera . Earlier variety were probably preyed upon by killer sperm whales and large sharks such as Megalodon . In 2008 , a large number of fossil ziphiids were discovered off the coast of South Africa , confirming the remaining ziphiid species might just be a remnant of a higher diversity that has since gone extinct . After studying numerous fossil skulls , researchers discovered the absence of functional maxillary teeth in all South African ziphiids , which is evidence that suction feeding had already developed in several beaked whale lineages during the Miocene . Extinct ziphiids also had robust skulls , suggesting that tusks were used for male @-@ male interactions .
= = Skeletal evolution = =
Modern cetaceans have internal , rudimentary hind limbs , such as reduced femurs , fibulas , and tibias , and a pelvic girdle . Indohyus has a thickened ectotympanic internal lip of the ear bone . This feature compares directly to that of modern cetaceans . Another similar feature was the composition of the teeth , which contained mostly calcium phosphate which is needed for eating and drinking by aquatic animals , though , unlike modern day toothed whales , they had a heterodont ( more than one tooth morphology ) dentition as opposed to a homodont ( one tooth morphology present ) dentition . Although they somewhat resembled a wolf , the fossils of pakicetids showed the eye sockets were much closer to the top of their head than that of other terrestrial mammals , but similar to the structure of the eyes in cetaceans . Their transition from land to water led to reshaping of the skull and food processing equipment because the eating habits were changing . Ultimately , the change in position of the eyes and limb bones is what led the pakicetids to become waders . The ambulocetids also began to develop long snouts , which is seen in current cetaceans . Their limbs ( and hypothesized movement ) were very similar to otters .
Limblessness in cetaceans does not represent a regression of fully formed limbs nor the absence of limb bud initiation , but rather arrest of limb bud development . Limb buds develop normally in cetacean embryos . Limb buds progress to the condensation phase of early skeletogenesis , where nerves grow into the limb bud and the apical ectodermal ridge ( AER ) , a structure that ensures proper limb development , appears functional . Occasionally , the genes that code for longer extremities cause a modern whale to develop miniature legs ( atavism ) .
Pakicetus had a pelvic bone most similar to that of terrestrial mammals . In later species , such as Basilosaurus , the pelvic bone , no longer attached to the vertebrae and the ilium , was reduced . Certain genes are believed to be responsible for the changes that occurred to the cetacean pelvic structure , such as BMP7 , PBX1 , PBX2 , PRRX1 , and PRRX2 . The pelvic girdle in modern cetaceans were once thought to be vestigial structures that served no purpose at all . The pelvic girdle in male cetaceans is different in size compared to females , and the size is thought to be a result of sexual dimorphism . The pelvic bones of modern male cetaceans are more massive , longer , and larger than those of females . Due to the sexual dimorphism displayed , they were most likely involved in supporting male genitalia that remain hidden behind abdominal walls until sexual reproduction occurs .
Early archaeocetes such as Pakicetus had the nasal openings at the end of the snout , but in later species such as Rodhocetus , the openings had begun to drift toward the top of the skull . This is known as nasal drift . The nostrils of modern cetaceans have become modified into blowholes that allow them to break to the surface , inhale , and submerge with convenience . The ears began to move inward as well , and , in the case of Basilosaurus , the middle ears began to receive vibrations from the lower jaw . Today 's modern toothed whales use their melon organ , a pad of fat , for echolocation .
= = Ongoing evolution = =
= = = Culture = = =
Culture is group @-@ specific behavior transferred by social learning . Tool use to aid with foraging is one example . Whether or not a dolphin uses a tool affects their eating behavior , which causes differences in diet . Also , using a tool allows a new niche and new prey to open up for that particular dolphin . Due to these differences , fitness levels change within the dolphins of a population , which further causes evolution to occur in the long run . Culture and social networks have played a large role in the evolution of modern cetaceans , as concluded in studies showing dolphins preferring mates with the same socially learned behaviors , and humpback whales using songs between breeding areas . For dolphins particularly , the largest non @-@ genetic effects on their evolution are due to culture and social structure .
Based on a 2014 study , the population of Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops sp . ) around Shark Bay of Western Australia can be divided into spongers and nonspongers . Spongers put sea sponges on their snout as a protective means against abrasions from sharp objects , stingray barbs , or toxic organisms . The sponges also help the dolphins target fish without swim bladders , since echolocation cannot detect these fish easily against a complex background . Spongers also specifically forage in deep channels , but nonspongers are found foraging in both deep and shallow channels . This foraging behavior is mainly passed on from mother to child . Therefore , since this is a group behavior being passed down by social learning , this tool use is considered a cultural trait .
Researchers in a 2014 study in Shark Bay found the fatty acid analyses between the West and East Gulf populations to differ , which is due to the two areas having different food sources . However , when comparing data from within the West Gulf , the spongers vs. the nonspongers in the deep channels had very different fatty acid results even though they are in the same habitat . Nonspongers from deep and shallow channels had similar data . This suggests that sponging was the cause of the different data and not the deep vs. shallow channels . Sponging opened up a new niche for the dolphins and allowed them access to new prey , which caused long @-@ term diet changes . By producing different food sources within a population , there is less intrapopulation competition for resources , showing character displacement . As a result , the carrying capacity increases since the entire population does not depend on one food source . The fitness levels within the population also change , thus allowing this culture to evolve .
= = = = Social structure = = = =
Social structure forms groups with individuals that interact with one another , and this allows for cultural traits to emerge , exchange , and evolve . This relationship is especially seen in the bottlenose dolphin populations in southwestern Australia , which have been known to beg for food from fishermen . This begging behavior was spread through the population due to individual ( dolphins spending time around boats ) and social ( dolphins spending time with other dolphins who express begging behavior ) learning .
Culture can , however , impact social structure by causing behavior matching and assertive mating . Individuals within a certain culture are more likely to mate with individuals using the same behaviors rather than a random individual , thus influencing social groups and structure . For example , the spongers of Shark Bay preferentially stick with other spongers . Also , some bottlenose dolphins in Moreton Bay , Australia followed prawn trawlers to feed on their debris , while other dolphins in the same population did not . The dolphins preferentially associated with individuals with same behavior even though they all lived in the same habitat . Later on , prawn trawlers were no longer present , and the dolphins integrated into one social network after a couple of years .
Social networks can still affect and cause evolution on their own by impending fitness differences on individuals . According to a 2012 study , male calves had a lower survival rate if they had stronger bonds with juvenile males . However , when other age and sex classes were tested , their survival rate did not significantly change . This suggests that juvenile males impose a social stress on their younger counterparts . In fact , it has been documented that juvenile males commonly perform acts of aggression , dominance , and intimidation against the male calves . According to a 2010 study , certain populations of Shark Bay dolphins had varying levels of fitness and calf success . This is either due to social learning ( whether or not the mother passed on her knowledge of reproductive ability to the calves ) , or due to the strong association between mother dolphins in the population ; by sticking in a group , an individual mother does not need to be as vigilant all the time for predators .
Genetic studies conducted on Clymene dolphins ( Stenella clymene ) focused on their natural histories , and the results show that the origin of the species was actually an outcome of hybrid speciation . Hybridization between spinner dolphins ( Stenella longirostris ) and striped dolphins ( Stenella coeruleoalba ) in the North Atlantic was caused by constant habitat sharing of the two species . Relationships between these three species had been speculated according to notable resemblances between anatomies of the Clymene and the spinner dolphins , resulting in the former being regarded as subspecies of the latter until 1981 , and the possibility of the Clymene dolphin as a hybrid between the spinner and the striped dolphins have come to question based on anatomical and behavioral similarities between these two species .
= = = Environmental factors = = =
Genome sequences done in 2013 revealed that the Yangtze River dolphin , or " baiji " ( Lipotes vexillifer ) , lacks single nucleotide polymorphisms in their genome . After reconstructing the history of the baiji genome for this dolphin species , researchers found that the major decrease in genetic diversity occurred most likely due to a bottleneck event during the last deglaciation event . During this time period , sea levels were rising while global temperatures were decreasing . Other historical climate events can be correlated and matched with the genome history of the Yangtze River dolphin as well . This shows how global and local climate change can drastically affect a genome , leading to changes in fitness , survival , and evolution of a species .
The European population of common dolphins ( Delphinus delphis ) in the Mediterranean have differentiated into two types : eastern and western . According to a 2012 study , this seems to be due to a recent bottleneck as well , which drastically decreased the size of the eastern Mediterranean population . Also , the lack of population structure between the western and eastern regions seems contradictory of the distinct population structures between other regions of dolphins . Even though the dolphins in the Mediterranean area had no physical barrier between their regions , they still differentiated into two types due to ecology and biology . Therefore , the differences between the eastern and western dolphins most likely stems from highly specialized niche choice rather than just physical barriers . Through this , environment plays a large role in the differentiation and evolution of this dolphin species .
The divergence and speciation within bottlenose dolphins has been largely due to climate and environmental changes over history . According to research , the divisions within the genus correlate with periods of rapid climate change . For example , the changing temperatures could cause the coast landscape to change , niches to empty up , and opportunities for separation to appear . In the Northeast Atlantic , specifically , genetic evidence suggests that the bottlenose dolphins have differentiated into coastal and pelagic types . Divergence seems most likely due to a founding event where a large group separated . Following this event , the separate groups adapted accordingly and formed their own niche specializations and social structures . These differences caused the two groups to diverge and to remain separated .
Two endemic , distinctive types of pilot whale , Tappanaga ( or Shiogondou ) the larger , northern type and Magondou the smaller , southern type , can be found along the Japanese archipelago where distributions of these two types mostly do not overlap by the oceanic front border around the easternmost point of Honshu . It is thought that the local extinction of long @-@ finned pilot whales in the North Pacific in the 12th century could have triggered the appearance of Tappanaga , causing short @-@ finned pilot whales to colonize the colder ranges of the long @-@ finned variant .
|
= Cult film =
A cult film , also commonly referred to as a cult classic , is a film that has acquired a cult following . Cult films are known for their dedicated , passionate fanbase , an elaborate subculture that engage in repeated viewings , quoting dialogue , and audience participation . Inclusive definitions allow for major studio productions , especially box office bombs , while exclusive definitions focus more on obscure , transgressive films shunned by the mainstream . The difficulty in defining the term and subjectivity of what qualifies as a cult film mirror classificatory disputes about art . The term cult film itself was first used in the 1970s to describe the culture that surrounded underground films and midnight movies , though cult was in common use in film analysis for decades prior to that .
Cult films trace their origin back to controversial and suppressed films kept alive by dedicated fans . In some cases , reclaimed or rediscovered films have acquired cult followings decades after their original release , occasionally for their camp value . Other cult films have since become well @-@ respected or reassessed as classics ; there is debate as to whether these popular and accepted films are still cult films . After failing in the cinema , some cult films have become regular fixtures on cable television or profitable sellers on home video . Others have inspired their own film festivals . Cult films can both appeal to specific subcultures and form their own subcultures . Other media that reference cult films can easily identify which demographics they desire to attract and offer savvy fans an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge .
Cult films frequently break cultural taboos , and many feature excessive displays of violence , gore , sexuality , profanity , or combinations thereof . This can lead to controversy , censorship , and outright bans ; less transgressive films may attract similar amounts of controversy when critics call them frivolous or incompetent . Films that fail to attract requisite amounts of controversy may face resistance when labeled as cult films . Mainstream films and big budget blockbusters have attracted cult followings similar to more underground and lesser known films ; fans of these films often emphasize the films ' niche appeal and reject the more popular aspects . Fans who like the films for the wrong reasons , such as perceived elements that represent mainstream appeal and marketing , will often be ostracized or ridiculed . Likewise , fans who stray from accepted subcultural scripts may experience similar rejection .
Since the late 1970s , cult films have become increasingly popular . Films that once would have been limited to obscure cult followings are now capable of breaking into the mainstream , and showings of cult films have proved to be a profitable business venture . Overbroad usage of the term has resulted in controversy , as purists state it has become a meaningless descriptor applied to any film that is the slightest bit weird or unconventional ; others accuse Hollywood studios of trying to artificially create cult films or use the term as a marketing tactic . Films are frequently stated to be an " instant cult classic " now , occasionally before they are released . Fickle fans on the Internet have latched on to unreleased films only to abandon them later on release . At the same time , other films have acquired massive , quick cult followings , thanks to spreading virally through social media . Easy access to cult films via video on demand and peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing has led some critics to pronounce the death of cult films .
= = Definition = =
A cult film is any film that has a cult following , although the term is not easily defined and can be applied to a wide variety of films . The definition is occasionally expanded to exclude films that have been released by major studios or have big budgets , try specifically to become cult films , or become accepted by mainstream audiences and critics . Cult films are defined by audience reaction as much as they are content . This may take the form of elaborate and ritualized audience participation , film festivals , or cosplay . Over time , the definition has become more vague and inclusive as it drifts away from earlier , stricter views . Increasing use of the term by mainstream publications has resulted in controversy , as cinephiles argue that the term has become meaningless or " elastic , a catchall for anything slightly maverick or strange " . Academic Mark Shiel has criticized the term itself as being a weak concept , reliant on subjectivity ; different groups can interpret films in their own terms . According to feminist scholar Joanne Hollows , this subjectivity causes films with strong female cult followings to be perceived as too mainstream and not transgressive enough to qualify as a cult film . Academic Mike Chopra ‑ Gant says that cult films become decontextualized when studied as a group , and Shiel criticizes this recontextualization as cultural commodification .
In 2008 , Cineaste asked a range of academics for their definition of a cult film . Several people defined cult films primarily in terms of their opposition to mainstream films and conformism , explicitly requiring a transgressive element , though others disputed the transgressive potential , given the demographic appeal to white males and mainstreaming of cult films . Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock instead called them mainstream films with transgressive elements . Most definitions also required a strong community aspect , such as obsessed fans or ritualistic behavior . Citing misuse of the term , Mikel J. Koven took a self @-@ described hard @-@ line stance that rejected definitions that use any other criteria . Matt Hills instead stressed the need for an open @-@ ended definition rooted in structuration , where the film and the audience reaction are interrelated and neither is prioritized . Ernest Mathijs focused on the accidental nature of cult followings , arguing that cult film fans consider themselves too savvy to be marketed to , while Jonathan Rosenbaum rejected the continued existence of cult films and called the term a marketing buzzword . Mathijs suggests that cult films help to understand ambiguity and incompleteness in life given the difficulty in even defining the term . That cult films can have opposing qualities – such as good and bad , failure and success , innovative and retro – helps to illustrate that art is subjective and never self @-@ evident . This ambiguity leads critics of postmodernism to accuse cult films of being beyond criticism , as the emphasis is now on personal interpretation rather than critical analysis or metanarratives . These inherent dichotomies can lead audiences to be split between ironic and earnest fans .
Writing in Defining Cult Movies , Jancovich et al. quote academic Jeffrey Sconce , who defines cult films in terms of paracinema , marginal films that exist outside critical and cultural acceptance : everything from exploitation to beach party musicals to softcore pornography . However , they reject cult films as having a single unifying feature ; instead , they state that cult films are united in their " subcultural ideology " and opposition to mainstream tastes , itself a vague and undefinable term . Cult followings themselves can range from adoration to contempt , and they have little in common except for their celebration of nonconformity – even the bad films ridiculed by fans are artistically nonconformist , albeit unintentionally . At the same time , they state that bourgeois , masculine tastes are frequently reinforced , which makes cult films more of an internal conflict within the bourgeoisie , rather than a rebellion against it . This results in an anti @-@ academic bias despite the use of formal methodologies , such as defamiliarization . This contradiction exists in many subcultures , especially those dependent on defining themselves in terms of opposition to the mainstream . This nonconformity is eventually co @-@ opted by the dominant forces , such as Hollywood , and marketed to the mainstream . Academic Xavier Mendik also defines cult films as opposing the mainstream and further proposes that films can become cult by virtue of their genre or content , especially if it is transgressive . Due to their rejection of mainstream appeal , Mendik says cult films can be more creative and political ; times of relative political instability produce more interesting films .
= = General overview = =
Cult films have existed since the early days of cinema . Film critic Harry Allan Potamkin traces them back to 1910s France and the reception of Pearl White , William S. Hart , and Charlie Chaplin , which he described as " a dissent from the popular ritual " . Nosferatu ( 1922 ) was an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stoker 's Dracula . Stoker 's widow sued the production company and drove it to bankruptcy . All known copies of the film were destroyed , and Nosferatu become an early cult film , kept alive by a cult following that circulated illegal bootlegs . Academic Chuck Kleinhans identifies the Marx Brothers as making other early cult films . On their original release , some highly regarded classics from the Golden Age of Hollywood were panned by critics and audiences , relegated to cult status . The Night of the Hunter ( 1955 ) was a cult film for years , quoted often and championed by fans , before it was reassessed as an important and influential classic . During this time , American exploitation films and imported European art films were marketed similarly . Although critics Pauline Kael and Arthur Knight argued against arbitrary divisions into high and low culture , American films settled into rigid genres ; European art films continued to push the boundaries of simple definitions , and these exploitative art films and artistic exploitation films would go on to influence American cult films . Much like later cult films , these early exploitation films encouraged audience participation , influenced by live theater and vaudeville .
Modern cult films grew from 1960s counterculture and underground films , popular among those who rejected mainstream Hollywood films . These underground film festivals led to the creation of midnight movies , which attracted cult followings . The term cult film itself was an outgrowth of this movement and was first used in the 1970s , though cult had been in use for decades in film analysis with both positive and negative connotations . These films were more concerned with cultural significance than the social justice sought by earlier avant @-@ garde films . Midnight movies became more popular and mainstream , peaking with the release of The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 1975 ) , which finally found its audience several years after its release . Eventually , the rise of home video would marginalize midnight movies once again , after which many directors joined the burgeoning independent film scene or went back underground . Home video would give a second life to box office flops , as positive word @-@ of @-@ mouth or excessive replay on cable television led these films to develop an appreciative audience , as well as obsessive replay and study . For example , The Beastmaster ( 1982 ) , despite its failure at the box office , became one of the most played movies on American cable television and developed into a cult film . Home video and television broadcasts of cult films were initially greeted with hostility . Joanne Hollows states that they were seen as turning cult films mainstream – in effect , feminizing them by opening them to distracted , passive audiences .
Releases from major studios – such as The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) , which was distributed by Universal Studios – can become cult films when they fail at the box office and develop a cult following through reissues , such as midnight movies , festivals , and home video . Hollywood films , due to their nature , are more likely to attract this kind of attention , which leads to a mainstreaming effect of cult culture . With major studios behind them , even financially unsuccessful films can be re @-@ released multiple times , which plays into a trend to capture audiences through repetitious reissues . The constant use of profanity and drugs in otherwise mainstream , Hollywood films , such as The Big Lebowski , can alienate critics and audiences yet lead to a large cult following among more open @-@ minded demographics not often associated with cult films , such as Wall Street bankers and professional soldiers . Thus , even comparatively mainstream films can satisfy the traditional demands of a cult film , perceived by fans as transgressive , niche , and uncommercial . Discussing his reputation for making cult films , Bollywood director Anurag Kashyap said , " I didn 't set out to make cult films . I wanted to make box @-@ office hits . " Writing in Cult Cinema , academics Ernest Mathijs and Jamie Sexton state that this acceptance of mainstream culture and commercialism is not out of character , as cult audiences have a more complex relationship to these concepts : they are more opposed to mainstream values and excessive commercialism than they are anything else .
In a global context , popularity can vary widely by territory , especially with regard to limited releases . Mad Max ( 1979 ) was an international hit – except in America where it became an obscure cult favorite , ignored by critics and available for years only in a dubbed version though it earned over $ 100M internationally . Foreign cinema can put a different spin on popular genres , such as Japanese horror , which was initially a cult favorite in America . Asian imports to the West are often marketed as exotic cult films and of interchangeable national identity , which academic Chi @-@ Yun Shin criticizes as reductive . Foreign influence can affect fan response , especially on genres tied to a national identity ; when they become more global in scope , questions of authenticity may arise . Filmmakers and films ignored in their own country can become the objects of cult adoration in another , producing perplexed reactions in their native country . Cult films can also establish an early viability for more mainstream films both for filmmakers and national cinema . The early cult horror films of Peter Jackson were so strongly associated with his homeland that they affected the international reputation of New Zealand and its cinema . As more artistic films emerged , New Zealand was perceived as a legitimate competitor to Hollywood , which mirrored Jackson 's career trajectory . Heavenly Creatures ( 1994 ) acquired its own cult following , became a part of New Zealand 's national identity , and paved the way for big @-@ budget , Hollywood @-@ style epics , such as Jackson 's Lord of the Rings trilogy .
Mathijs states that cult films and fandom frequently involve nontraditional elements of time and time management . Fans will often watch films obsessively , an activity that is viewed by the mainstream as wasting time yet can be seen as resisting the commodification of leisure time . They may also watch films idiosyncratically : sped up , slowed down , frequently paused , or at odd hours . Cult films themselves subvert traditional views of time – time travel , non @-@ linear narratives , and ambiguous establishments of time are all popular . Mathijs also identifies specific cult film viewing habits , such as viewing horror films on Halloween , sentimental melodrama on Christmas , and romantic films on Valentine 's Day . These films are often viewed as marathons where fans can gorge themselves on their favorites . Mathijs states that cult films broadcast on Christmas have a nostalgic factor . These films , ritually watched every season , give a sense of community and shared nostalgia to viewers . New films often have trouble making inroads against the institutions of It 's A Wonderful Life ( 1946 ) and Miracle on 34th Street ( 1947 ) . These films provide mild criticism of consumerism while encouraging family values . Halloween , on the other hand , allows flaunting society 's taboos and testing one 's fears . Horror films have appropriated the holiday , and many horror films debut on Halloween . Mathijs criticizes the over @-@ cultified , commercialized nature of Halloween and horror films , which feed into each other so much that Halloween has turned into an image or product with no real community . Mathijs states that Halloween horror conventions can provide the missing community aspect .
Despite their oppositional nature , cult films can produce celebrities . Like cult films themselves , authenticity is an important aspect of their popularity . Actors can become typecast as they become strongly associated with such iconic roles . Tim Curry , despite his acknowledged range as an actor , found casting difficult after he achieved fame in The Rocky Horror Picture Show . Even when discussing unrelated projects , interviewers frequently bring up the role , which causes him to tire of discussing it . Mary Woronov , known for her transgressive roles in cult films , eventually transitioned to mainstream films . She was expected to recreate the transgressive elements of her cult films within the confines of mainstream cinema . Instead of the complex gender deconstructions of her Andy Warhol films , she became typecast as a lesbian or domineering woman . Sylvia Kristel , after starring in Emmanuelle ( 1974 ) , found herself highly associated with the film and the sexual liberation of the 1970s . Caught between the transgressive elements of her cult film and the mainstream appeal of soft @-@ core pornography , she was unable to work in anything but exploitation films and Emmanuelle sequels . Despite her immense popularity and cult following , she would rate only a footnote in most histories of European cinema if she was even mentioned . Similarly , Chloë Sevigny has struggled with her reputation as a cult independent film star famous for her daring roles in transgressive films . Cult films can also trap directors . Leonard Kastle , who directed The Honeymoon Killers ( 1969 ) , never directed another film again . Despite his cult following , which included François Truffaut , he was unable to find financing for any of his other screenplays . Qualities that bring cult films to prominence – such as an uncompromising , unorthodox vision – caused Alejandro Jodorowsky to languish in obscurity for years .
= = Transgression and censorship = =
Transgressive films as a distinct artistic movement began in the 1970s . Unconcerned with genre distinctions , they drew inspiration equally from the nonconformity of European art cinema and experimental film , the gritty subject matter of Italian neorealism , and the shocking images of 1960s exploitation . Some used hardcore pornography and horror , occasionally at the same time . In the 1980s , filmmaker Nick Zedd identified this movement as the Cinema of Transgression and later wrote a manifesto . Popular in midnight showings , they were mainly limited to large urban areas , which led academic Joan Hawkins to label them as " downtown culture " . These films acquired a legendary reputation as they were discussed and debated in alternative weeklies , such as The Village Voice . Home video would finally allow general audiences to see them , which gave many people their first taste of underground film . Ernest Mathijs says that cult films often disrupt viewer expectations , such as giving characters transgressive motivations or focusing attention on elements outside the film . Cult films can also transgress national stereotypes and genre conventions , such as Battle Royale ( 2000 ) , which broke many rules of teenage slasher films . The reverse – when films based on cult properties lose their transgressive edge – can result in derision and rejection by fans . Audience participation itself can be transgressive , such as breaking long @-@ standing taboos against talking during films and throwing things at the screen .
According to Mathijs , critical reception is important to a film 's perception as cult , through topicality and controversy . Topicality , which can be regional ( such as objection to government funding of the film ) or critical ( such as philosophical objections to the themes ) , enables attention and a contextual response . Cultural topics make the film relevant and can lead to controversy , such as a moral panic , which provides opposition . Cultural values transgressed in the film , such as sexual promiscuity , can be attacked by proxy , through attacks on the film . These concerns can vary from culture to culture , and they need not be at all similar . However , Mathijs says the film must invoke metacommentary for it to be more than simply culturally important . While referencing previous arguments , critics may attack its choice of genre or its very right to exist . Taking stances on these varied issues , critics assure their own relevance while helping to elevate the film to cult status . Perceived racist and reductive remarks by critics can rally fans and raise the profile of cult films , an example of which would be Rex Reed 's comments about Korean culture in his review of Oldboy ( 2003 ) . Critics can also polarize audiences and lead debates , such as how Joe Bob Briggs and Roger Ebert dueled over I Spit On Your Grave ( 1978 ) . Briggs would later contribute a commentary track to the DVD release in which he describes it as a feminist film . Films which do not attract enough controversy may be ridiculed and rejected when suggested as cult films .
Academic Peter Hutchings , noting the many definitions of a cult film that require transgressive elements , states that cult films are known in part for their excesses . Both subject matter and its depiction are portrayed in extreme ways that break taboos of good taste and aesthetic norms . Violence , gore , sexual perversity , and even the music can be pushed to stylistic excess far beyond that allowed by mainstream cinema . Film censorship can make these films obscure and difficult to find , common criteria used to define cult films . Despite this , these films remain well @-@ known and prized among collectors . Fans will occasionally express frustration with dismissive critics and conventional analysis , which they believe marginalizes and misinterprets paracinema . In marketing these films , young men are predominantly targeted . Horror films in particular can draw fans who seek the most extreme films . Audiences can also ironically latch on to offensive themes , such as misogyny , using these films as catharsis for the things that they hate most in life . Exploitative , transgressive elements can be pushed to excessive extremes for both humor and satire . Frank Henenlotter faced censorship and ridicule , but he found acceptance among audiences receptive to themes that Hollywood was reluctant to touch , such as violence , drug addiction , and misogyny . Lloyd Kaufman sees his films ' political statements as more populist and authentic than the hypocrisy of mainstream films and celebrities . Despite featuring an abundance of fake blood , vomit , and diarrhea , Kaufman 's films have attracted positive attention from critics and academics . Excess can also exist as camp , such as films that highlight the excesses of 1980s fashion and commercialism .
Films that are influenced by unpopular styles or genres can become cult films . Director Jean Rollin worked within cinéma fantastique , an unpopular genre in modern France . Influenced by American films and early French fantasists , he drifted between art , exploitation , and pornography . His films were reviled by critics , but he retained a cult following drawn by the nudity and eroticism . Similarly , Jess Franco chafed under fascist censorship in Spain but became influential in Spain 's horror boom of the 1960s . These transgressive films that straddle the line between art and horror may have overlapping cult followings , each with their own interpretation and reasons for appreciating it . The films that followed Jess Franco were unique in their rejection of mainstream art . Popular among fans of European horror for their subversiveness and obscurity , these later Spanish films allowed political dissidents to criticize the fascist regime within the cloak of exploitation and horror . Unlike most exploitation directors , they were not trying to establish a reputation . They were already established in the art @-@ house world and intentionally chose to work within paracinema as a reaction against the New Spanish Cinema , an artistic revival supported by the fascists . As late as the 1980s , critics still cited Pedro Almodóvar 's anti @-@ macho iconoclasm as a rebellion against fascist mores , as he grew from countercultural rebel to mainstream respectability . Transgressive elements that limit a director 's appeal in one country can be celebrated or highlighted in another . Takashi Miike has been marketed in the West as a shocking and avant @-@ garde filmmaker despite his many family @-@ friendly comedies , which have not been imported .
The transgressive nature of cult films can lead to their censorship . During the 1970s and early 1980s , a wave of explicit , graphic exploitation films caused controversy . Called " video nasties " within the UK , they ignited calls for censorship and stricter laws on home video releases , which were largely unregulated . Consequently , the British Board of Film Classification banned many popular cult films due to issues of sex , violence , and incitement to crime . Released during the cannibal boom , Cannibal Holocaust ( 1980 ) was banned in dozens of countries and caused the director to be briefly jailed over fears that it was a real snuff film . Although opposed to censorship , director Ruggero Deodato would later agree with cuts made by the BBFC which removed unsimulated animal killings , which limited the film 's distribution . Frequently banned films may introduce questions of authenticity as fans question whether they have seen a truly uncensored cut . Cult films have been falsely claimed to have been banned to increase their transgressive reputation and explain their lack of mainstream penetration . Marketing campaigns have also used such claims to raise interest among curious audiences . Home video has allowed cult film fans to import rare or banned films , finally giving them a chance to complete their collection with imports and bootlegs . Cult films previously banned are sometimes released with much fanfare and the fans assumed to be already familiar with the controversy . Personal responsibility is often highlighted , and a strong anti @-@ censorship message may be present . Previously lost scenes cut by studios can be re @-@ added and restore a director 's original vision , which draws similar fanfare and acclaim from fans . Imports are sometimes censored to remove elements that would be controversial , such as references to Islamic spirituality in Indonesian cult films .
Academics have written of how transgressive themes in cult films can be regressive . David Church and Chuck Kleinhans describe an uncritical celebration of transgressive themes in cult films , including misogyny and racism . Church has also criticized gendered descriptions of transgressive content that celebrate masculinity . Joanne Hollows further identifies a gendered component to the celebration of transgressive themes in cult films , where male terms are used to describe films outside the mainstream while female terms are used to describe mainstream , conformist cinema . Jacinda Read 's expansion states that cult films , despite their potential for empowerment of the marginalized , are more often used by politically incorrect males . Knowledgeable about feminism and multiculturalism , they seek a refuge from the academic acceptance of these progressive ideals . Their playful and ironic acceptance of regressive lad culture invites , and even dares , condemnation from academics and the uncool . Thus , cult films become a tool to reinforce mainstream values through transgressive content ; Rebecca Feasy states that cultural hierarchies can also be reaffirmed through mockery of films perceived to be lacking masculinity . However , the sexploitation films of Doris Wishman took a feminist approach which avoids and subverts the male gaze and traditional goal @-@ oriented methods . Wishman 's subject matter , though exploitative and transgressive , was always framed in terms of female empowerment and the feminine spectator . Her use of common cult film motifs – female nudity and ambiguous gender – were repurposed to comment on feminist topics . Similarly , the films of Russ Meyer were a complicated combination of transgressive , mainstream , progressive , and regressive elements . They attracted both acclaim and denouncement from critics and progressives . Transgressive films imported from cultures that are recognizably different yet still relatable can be used to progressively examine issues in another culture .
= = Subcultural appeal and fandom = =
Cult films can be used to help define or create groups as a form of subcultural capital ; knowledge of cult films proves that one is " authentic " or " non @-@ mainstream " . They can be used to provoke an outraged response from the mainstream , which further defines the subculture , as only members could possibly tolerate such deviant entertainment . More accessible films have less subcultural capital ; among extremists , banned films will have the most . By referencing cult films , media can identify desired demographics , strengthen bonds with specific subcultures , and stand out among those who understand the intertextuality . Popular films from previous eras may be reclaimed by genre fans long after they have been forgotten by the original audiences . This can be done for authenticity , such as horror fans who seek out now @-@ obscure titles from the 1950s instead of the modern , well @-@ known remakes . Authenticity may also drive fans to deny genre categorization to films perceived as too mainstream or accessible . Authenticity in performance and expertise can drive fan acclaim . Authenticity can also drive fans to decry the mainstream in the form of hostile critics and censors . Especially when promoted by enthusiastic and knowledgeable programmers , choice of venue can be an important part of expressing individuality . Besides creating new communities , cult films can link formerly disparate groups , such as fans and critics . As these groups intermix , they can influence each other , though this may be resisted by older fans , unfamiliar with these new references . In extreme cases , cult films can lead to the creation of religions , such as Dudeism . For their avoidance of mainstream culture and audiences , enjoyment of irony , and celebration of obscure subcultures , academic Martin Roberts compares cult film fans to hipsters .
A film can become the object of a cult following within a particular region or culture if it has unusual significance . For example , Norman Wisdom 's films , friendly to Marxist interpretation , amassed a cult following in Albania , as they were among the few Western films allowed by the country 's Communist rulers . The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) and its star , Judy Garland , hold special significance to American and British gay culture , although it is a widely viewed and historically important film in greater American culture . Similarly , James Dean and his brief film career have become icons of alienated youth . Cult films can have such niche appeal that they are only popular within certain subcultures , such as Reefer Madness ( 1936 ) and Hemp for Victory ( 1942 ) among stoner subculture . Beach party musicals , popular among American surfers , failed to find an equivalent audience when imported to the United Kingdom . When films target subcultures like this , they may seem unintelligible without the proper cultural capital . Films which appeal to teenagers may offer subcultural identities that are easily recognized and differentiate various subcultural groups . Films which appeal to stereotypical male activities , such as sports , can easily gain strong male cult followings . Sports metaphors are often used in the marketing of cult films to males , such as emphasizing the " extreme " nature of the film , which increases the appeal to youth subcultures fond of extreme sports .
Matt Hills ' concept of the " cult blockbuster " involves cult followings inside larger , mainstream films . Although these are big budget , mainstream films , they still attract cult followings . The cult fans differentiate themselves from ordinary fans in several ways : longstanding devotion to the film , distinctive interpretations , and fan works . Hills identifies three different cult followings for The Lord of the Rings , each with their own fandom separate from the mainstream . Academic Emma Pett identifies Back to the Future ( 1985 ) as another example of a cult blockbuster . Although the film topped the charts when it was released , it has developed a nostalgic cult following over the years . The hammy acting by Christopher Lloyd and quotable dialogue draw a cult following , as they mimic traditional cult films . Blockbuster science fiction films that include philosophical subtexts , such as The Matrix , allow cult film fans to enjoy them on a higher level than the mainstream . Star Wars , with its large cult following in geek subculture , has been cited as both a cult blockbuster or a cult film . Although a mainstream epic , Star Wars has provided its fans with a spirituality and culture outside of the mainstream . Fans , in response to the popularity of these blockbusters , will claim elements for themselves while rejecting others . For example , in the Star Wars film series , mainstream criticism of Jar Jar Binks focused on racial stereotyping ; although cult film fans will use that to bolster their arguments , he is rejected because he represents mainstream appeal and marketing . Also , instead of valuing textual rarity , fans of cult blockbusters will value repeat viewings . They may also engage in behaviors more traditional for fans of cult television and other serial media , as cult blockbusters are often franchised , preconceived as a film series , or both . To reduce mainstream accessibility , a film series can be self @-@ reflexive and full of in @-@ jokes that only longtime fans can understand .
Cult films can create their own subculture . Rocky Horror , originally made to exploit the popularity of glam subculture , became what academic Gina Marchetti called a " sub @-@ subculture " , a variant that outlived its parent subculture . Although often described as primarily composed of obsessed fans , cult film fandom can include many newer , less experienced members . Familiar with the film 's reputation and having watched clips on YouTube , these fans may take the next step and enter the film 's fandom . If they are the majority , they may alter or ignore long @-@ standing traditions , such as audience participation rituals ; rituals which lack perceived authenticity may be criticized , but accepted rituals bring subcultural capital to veteran fans who introduce them to the newer members . Fans who flaunt their knowledge receive negative reactions . Newer fans may cite the film itself as their reason for attending a showing , but longtime fans often cite the community . Organized fandoms may spread and become popular as a way of introducing new people to the film , as well as theatrical screenings being privileged by the media and fandom itself . Fandom can also be used as a process of legitimation . Fans of cult films , as in media fandom , are frequently producers instead of mere consumers . Unconcerned with traditional views on intellectual property , these fan works are often unsanctioned , transformative , and ignore fictional canon .
Like cult films themselves , magazines and websites dedicated to cult films revel in their self @-@ conscious offensiveness . They maintain a sense of exclusivity by offending mainstream audiences with misogyny , gore , and racism . Obsessive trivia can be used to bore mainstream audiences while building up subcultural capital . Specialist stores on the fringes of society ( or websites which prominently partner with hardcore pornographic sites ) can be used to reinforce the outsider nature of cult film fandom , especially when they use erotic or gory imagery . By assuming a preexisting knowledge of trivia , non @-@ fans can be excluded . Previous articles and controversies can also be alluded to without explanation . Casual readers and non @-@ fans will thus be left out of discussions and debates , as they lack enough information to meaningfully contribute . When fans like a cult film for the wrong reasons , such as casting or characters aimed at mainstream appeal , they may be ridiculed . Thus , fandom can keep the mainstream at bay while defining themselves in terms of the " Other " , a philosophical construct divergent from social norms . Commercial aspects of fandom ( such as magazines or books ) can also be defined in terms of " otherness " and thus valid to consume : consumers purchasing independent or niche publications are discerning consumers , but the mainstream is denigrated . Irony or self @-@ deprecating humor can also be used . In online communities , different subcultures attracted to transgressive films can clash over values and criteria for subcultural capital . Even within subcultures , fans who break subcultural scripts , such as denying the affectivity of a disturbing film , will be ridiculed for their lack of authenticity .
= = Types = =
= = = " So bad it 's good " = = =
The critic Michael Medved characterized examples of the " so bad it 's good " class of low @-@ budget cult film through books such as The Golden Turkey Awards . These films include financially fruitless and critically scorned films that have become inadvertent comedies to film buffs , such as Plan 9 from Outer Space ( 1959 ) and The Room ( 2003 ) . Similarly , Paul Verhoeven 's Showgirls ( 1995 ) bombed in theaters but developed a cult following on video . Catching on , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer capitalized on the film 's ironic appeal and marketed it as a cult film . Films which attract the derision of audiences can turn into outlets for fan creativity where fans impose their own interpretation , such as reinterpreting an earnest melodrama as a comedy . Jacob deNobel of the Carroll County Times states that films can be perceived as nonsensical or inept when audiences misunderstand avant @-@ garde filmmaking or misinterpret parody . Films such as Rocky Horror can be misinterpreted as " weird for weirdness sake " by people unfamiliar with the cult films that it parodies. deNobel ultimately rejects the use of the label " so bad it 's good " as mean @-@ spirited and often misapplied . Alamo Drafthouse programmer Zack Carlson has further said that any film which succeeds in entertaining an audience is good , regardless of irony . The rise of the Internet and on @-@ demand films has led critics to question whether " so bad it 's good " films have a future now that people have such diverse options in both availability and catalog , though fans eager to experience the worst films ever made can lead to lucrative showings for local theaters and merchandisers .
= = = Camp and guilty pleasures = = =
Chuck Kleinhans states that the difference between a guilty pleasure and a cult film can be as simple as the number of fans ; David Church raises the question of how many people it takes to form a cult following , especially now that home video makes fans difficult to count . As these cult films become more popular , they can bring varied responses from fans that depend on different interpretations , such as camp , irony , genuine affection , or combinations thereof . Earnest fans , who recognize and accept the film 's faults , can make minor celebrities of the film 's cast , though the benefits are not always clear . Cult film stars known for their camp can inject subtle parody or signal when films should not be taken seriously . Campy actors can also provide comic book supervillains for serious , artistic @-@ minded films . This can draw fan acclaim and obsession more readily than subtle , method @-@ inspired acting . Mark Chalon Smith of the Los Angeles Times says technical faults may be forgiven if a film makes up for them in other areas , such as camp or transgressive content . Smith states that the early films of John Waters are amateurish and less influential than claimed , but Waters ' outrageous vision cements his place in cult cinema . Films such as Myra Breckinridge ( 1970 ) and Beyond the Valley of the Dolls ( 1970 ) can experience critical reappraisal later , once their camp excess and avant @-@ garde filmmaking are better accepted , and films that are initially dismissed as frivolous are often reassessed as campy . Films that intentionally try to appeal to fans of camp may end up alienating them , as the films become perceived as trying too hard or not authentic .
= = = Nostalgia = = =
According to academic Brigid Cherry , nostalgia " is a strong element of certain kinds of cult appeal . " When Veoh added many cult films to their site , they cited nostalgia as a factor for their popularity . Academic I. Q. Hunter describes cult films as " New Hollywood in extremis " and a form of nostalgia for that period . Ernest Mathijs instead states that cult films use nostalgia as a form of resistance against progress and capitalistic ideas of a time @-@ based economy . By virtue of the time travel plot , Back to the Future permits nostalgia for both the 1950s and 1980s . Many members of its nostalgic cult following are too young to have been alive during those periods , which Emma Pett interprets as fondness for retro aesthetics , nostalgia for when they saw the film rather than when it was released , and looking to the past to find a better time period . Similarly , films directed by John Hughes have taken hold in midnight movie venues , trading off of nostalgia for the 1980s and an ironic appreciation for their optimism . Mathijs and Sexton describe Grease ( 1978 ) as a film nostalgic about an imagined past that has acquired a nostalgic cult following . Other cult films , such as Streets of Fire ( 1984 ) , create a new fictional world based on nostalgic views of the past . Cult films may also subvert nostalgia , such as The Big Lebowski , which introduces many nostalgic elements and then reveals them as fake and hollow . Author China Miéville praises the use of satire in Donnie Darko for its avoidance of falling into facile and comforting nostalgia , but Nathan Lee of the New York Sun identifies the retro aesthetic and nostalgic pastiche as factors in its popularity among midnight movie crowds .
= = = Midnight movies = = =
Author Tomas Crowder @-@ Taraborrelli describes midnight movies as a reaction against the political and cultural conservatism in America , and Joan Hawkins identifies the movement as running the gamut from anarchist to libertarian , united in their anti @-@ establishment attitude and punk aesthetic . These films are resistant to simple categorization and are defined by the fanaticism and ritualistic behaviors of their audiences . Midnight movies require a night life and an audience willing to invest themselves actively . Hawkins states that these films took a rather bleak point of view due to the living conditions of the artists and the economic prospects of the 1970s . Like the surrealists and dadaists , they not only satirically attacked society but also the very structure of film – a counter @-@ cinema that deconstructs narrative and traditional processes . In the late 1980s and 1990s , midnight movies transitioned from underground showings to home video viewings ; eventually , a desire for community brought a resurgence , and The Big Lebowski kick @-@ started a new generation . Demographics shifted , and more hip and mainstream audiences were drawn to them . Although studios expressed skepticism , large audiences were drawn to box office flops , such as Donnie Darko ( 2001 ) and Office Space ( 1999 ) . Modern midnight movies retain their popularity and have been strongly diverging from mainstream films shown at midnight . Mainstream cinemas , eager to disassociate themselves from negative associations and increase profits , have begun abandoning midnight screenings . Although classic midnight movies have dropped off in popularity , they still bring reliable crowds .
= = = Art and exploitation = = =
Although seemingly at odds with each other , art and exploitation films are frequently treated as equal and interchangeable in cult fandom , listed alongside each other and described in similar terms : their ability to provoke a response . The most exploitative aspects of art films are thus played up and their academic recognition ignored . This flattening of culture follows the popularity of post @-@ structuralism , which rejects a hierarchy of artistic merit and equates exploitation and art . Mathijs and Sexton state that although cult films are not synonymous with exploitation , as is occasionally assumed , this is a key component ; they write that exploitation , which exists on the fringes of the mainstream and deals with taboo subjects , is well @-@ suited for cult followings . Academic David Andrews writes that cult softcore films are " the most masculinized , youth @-@ oriented , populist , and openly pornographic softcore area . " The sexploitation films of Russ Meyer were among the first to abandon all hypocritical pretenses of morality and were technically proficient enough to gain a cult following . His persistent vision saw him received as an auteur worthy of academic study ; director John Waters attributes this to Meyer 's ability to create complicated , sexually charged films without resorting to explicit sex . Myrna Oliver described Doris Wishman 's exploitation films as " crass , coarse , and camp ... perfect fodder for a cult following . " " Sick films " , the most disturbing and graphically transgressive films , have their own distinct cult following ; these films transcend their roots in exploitation , horror , and art films . In 1960s and 1970s America , exploitation and art films shared audiences and marketing , especially in New York City 's grindhouse cinemas .
= = = B and genre films = = =
Mathijs and Sexton state that genre is an important part of cult films ; cult films will often mix , mock , or exaggerate the tropes associated with traditional genres . Science fiction , fantasy , and horror are known for their large and dedicated cult followings ; as science fiction films become more popular , fans emphasize non @-@ mainstream and less commercial aspects of it . B films , which are often conflated with exploitation , are as important to cult films as exploitation . Teodor Reljic of Malta Today states that cult B films are a realistic goal for Malta 's burgeoning film industry . Genre films , B films that strictly adhere to genre limitations , can appeal to cult film fans : given their transgressive excesses , horror films are likely to become to cult films ; films like Galaxy Quest ( 1999 ) highlight the importance of cult followings and fandom to science fiction ; and authentic martial arts skills in Hong Kong action films can drive them to become cult favorites . Cult musicals can range from the traditional , such as Singin ' in the Rain ( 1952 ) , which appeal to cult audiences through nostalgia , camp , and spectacle , to the more non @-@ traditional , such as Cry @-@ Baby ( 1990 ) , which parodies musicals , and Rocky Horror , which uses a rock soundtrack . Romantic fairy tale The Princess Bride ( 1987 ) failed to attract audiences in its original release , as the studio did not know how to market it . The freedom and excitement associated with cars can be an important part of drawing cult film fans to genre films , and they can signify action and danger with more ambiguity than a gun . Ad Week writes that cult B films , when released on home video , market themselves and need only enough advertising to raise curiosity or nostalgia .
= = = Animation = = =
Animation can provide wide open vistas for stories ; the French film Fantastic Planet ( 1972 ) explored ideas beyond the limits of traditional , live @-@ action science fiction films . Phil Hoad of The Guardian identifies Akira ( 1988 ) as introducing violent , adult Japanese animation ( known as anime ) to the West and paving the way for later works . Anime , according to academic Brian Ruh , is not a cult genre , but the lack of individual fandoms inside anime fandom itself lends itself to a bleeding over of cult attention and can help spread works internationally . Anime , which is often highly franchised , provides its fans with alternative fictional canons and points of view that can drive fan activity . The Ghost in the Shell franchise , for example , provided Japanese fans with enough bonus material and spinoffs that it encouraged cult tendencies . Markets that did not support the sale of these materials saw less cult activity . Ralph Bakshi 's career has been marked with controversy : Fritz the Cat ( 1972 ) , the first animated film to be rated " X " by the MPAA , provoked outrage for its racial caricatures and graphic depictions of sex , and Coonskin ( 1975 ) was decried as racist . Bakshi recalls that older animators had tired of " kid stuff " and desired edgier work , whereas younger animators hated his work for " destroying the Disney images " . Eventually , his work would be reassessed and cult followings , which include Quentin Tarantino and Robert Rodriguez , developed around several of his films . Heavy Metal ( 1981 ) faced similar denunciations from critics ; Donald Liebenson of the Los Angeles Times cites the violence and sexual imagery as alienating critics , who did not know what to make of the film . It would go on to become a popular midnight movie and frequently bootlegged by fans , as licensing issues kept it from being released on video for many years .
= = = Nonfiction = = =
Sensationalistic documentaries called mondo films replicate the most shocking and transgressive elements of exploitation films ; they are usually modeled after " sick films " and cover similar subject matter . In The Cult Film Reader , academics Mathijs and Mendik write that these documentaries often present non @-@ Western societies as " stereotypically mysterious , seductive , immoral , deceptive , barbaric or savage " . Though they can be interpreted as racist , Mathijs and Mendik state that they also " exhibit a liberal attitude towards the breaking of cultural taboos " . Mondo films like Faces of Death mix real and fake footage freely , and they gain their cult following through the outrage and debate over authenticity that results . Like " so bad it 's good " cult films , old propaganda and government hygiene films may be enjoyed ironically by more modern audiences for the camp value of the outdated themes and outlandish claims made about perceived social threats , such as drug use . Academic Barry K. Grant states that Frank Capra 's Why We Fight World War II propaganda films are explicitly not cult , because they are " slickly made and have proven their ability to persuade an audience . " The sponsored film Mr. B Natural became a cult hit when it was broadcast on the satirical television show Mystery Science Theater 3000 ; cast member Trace Beaulieu cited these educational shorts as his favorite to mock on the show . Mark Jancovich states that cult audiences are drawn to these films because of their " very banality or incoherence of their political positions " , unlike traditional cult films , which achieve popularity through auteurist radicalism .
= = Mainstream popularity = =
Mark Shiel explains the rising popularity of cult films as an attempt by cinephiles and scholars to escape the oppressive conformity and mainstream appeal of even independent film , as well as a lack of condescension in both critics and the films ; Academic Donna de Ville says it is a chance to subvert the dominance of academics and cinephiles . According to Xavier Mendik , " academics have been really interested in cult movies for quite a while now . " Mendik has sought to bring together academic interest and fandom through Cine @-@ Excess , a film festival . I. Q. Hunter states that " it 's much easier to be a cultist now , but it is also rather more inconsequential . " Citing the mainstream availability of Cannibal Holocaust , Jeffrey Sconce rejects definitions of cult films based on controversy and excess , as they 've now become meaningless . Cult films have influenced such diverse industries as cosmetics , music videos , and fashion . Cult films have shown up in less expected places ; as a sign of his popularity , a bronze statue of Ed Wood has been proposed in his hometown , and L 'Osservatore Romano , the official newspaper of the Holy See , has courted controversy for its endorsement of cult films and pop culture . When cities attempt to renovate neighborhoods , fans have called attempts to demolish iconic settings from cult films " cultural vandalism " . Cult films can also drive tourism , even when it is unwanted .
As far back as the 1970s , Attack of the Killer Tomatoes ( 1978 ) was designed specifically to be a cult film , and The Rocky Horror Picture Show was produced by 20th Century Fox , a major Hollywood studio . Over its decades @-@ long release , Rocky Horror became the seventh highest grossing R @-@ rated film when adjusted for inflation ; Journalist Matt Singer has questioned whether Rocky Horror 's popularity invalidates its cult status . Founded in 1974 , Troma Entertainment , an independent studio , would become known for both its cult following and cult films . In the 1980s , Danny Peary 's Cult Movies ( 1981 ) would influence director Edgar Wright and film critic Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club . The rise of home video would have a mainstreaming effect on cult films and cultish behavior , though some collectors would be unlikely to self @-@ identify as cult film fans . Film critic Joe Bob Briggs began reviewing drive @-@ in theater and cult films , though he faced much criticism as an early advocate of exploitation and cult films . Briggs highlights the mainstreaming of cult films by pointing out the respectful obituaries that cult directors have received from formerly hostile publications and acceptance of politically incorrect films at mainstream film festivals . This acceptance is not universal , though , and some critics have resisted this mainstreaming of paracinema . Beginning in the 1990s , director Quentin Tarantino would have the greatest success in turning cult films mainstream . Tarantino later used his fame to champion obscure cult films that had influenced him and set up the short @-@ lived Rolling Thunder Pictures , which distributed several of his favorite cult films . Tarantino 's clout led Phil Hoad of The Guardian to call Tarantino the world 's most influential director .
As major Hollywood studios and audiences both become savvy to cult films , productions once limited to cult appeal have instead become popular hits , and cult directors have become hot properties known for more mainstream and accessible films . Remarking on the popular trend of remaking cult films , Claude Brodesser @-@ Akner of New York magazine states that Hollywood studios have been superstitiously hoping to recreate past successes rather than trading on nostalgia . Their popularity would bring some critics to proclaim the death of cult films now that they have finally become successful and mainstream , are too slick to attract a proper cult following , lack context , or are too easily found online . In response , David Church says that cult film fans have retreated to more obscure and difficult to find films , often using illegal distribution methods , which preserves the outlaw status of cult films . Virtual spaces , such as online forums and fan sites , replace the traditional fanzines and newsletters . Cult film fans consider themselves collectors , rather than consumers , as they associate consumers with mainstream , Hollywood audiences . This collecting can take the place of fetishization of a single film . Addressing concerns that DVDs have revoked the cult status of films like Rocky Horror , academic Mikel J. Koven states that small scale screenings with friends and family can replace midnight showings . Koven also identifies television shows , such as Twin Peaks , as retaining more traditional cult activities inside popular culture . David Lynch himself has not ruled out another television series , as studios have become reluctant to take chances on non @-@ mainstream ideas . Despite this , the Alamo Drafthouse has capitalized on cult films and the surrounding culture through inspiration drawn from Rocky Horror and retro promotional gimmickry . They sell out their shows regularly and have acquired a cult following of their own .
Academic Bob Batchelor , writing in Cult Pop Culture , states that the Internet has democratized cult culture and destroyed the line between cult and mainstream . Fans of even the most obscure films can communicate online with each other in vibrant communities . Although known for their big @-@ budget blockbusters , Steven Spielberg and George Lucas have criticized the current Hollywood system of gambling everything on the opening weekend of these productions . Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent instead suggests that Hollywood look to capitalize on cult films , which have exploded in popularity on the Internet . The rise of social media has been a boon to cult films . Sites such as Twitter have displaced traditional venues for fandom and courted controversy from cultural critics who are unamused by campy cult films . After a clip from one of his films went viral , director @-@ producer Roger Corman made a distribution deal with YouTube . Found footage which had originally been distributed as cult VHS collections eventually went viral on YouTube , which opened them to new generations of fans . Films such as Birdemic ( 2008 ) and The Room ( 2003 ) gained quick , massive popularity , as prominent members of social networking sites discussed them . Their rise as " instant cult classics " bypasses the years of obscurity that most cult films labor under . In response , critics have described the use of viral marketing as astroturfing and an attempt to manufacture cult films .
I. Q. Hunter identifies a prefabricated cult film style which includes " deliberately , insulting bad films " , " slick exercises in dysfunction and alienation " , and mainstream films " that sell themselves as worth obsessing over " . Writing for NPR , Scott Tobias states that Don Coscarelli , whose previous films effortlessly attracted cult followings , has drifted into this realm . Tobias criticizes Coscarelli as trying too hard to appeal to cult audiences and sacrificing internal consistency for calculated quirkiness . Influenced by the successful online hype of The Blair Witch Project ( 1999 ) , other films have attempted to draw online cult fandom with the use of prefabricated cult appeal . Snakes on a Plane ( 2006 ) is an example that attracted massive attention from curious fans . Uniquely , its cult following preceded the film 's release and included speculative parodies of what fans imagined the film might be . This reached the point of convergence culture when fan speculation began to impact on the film 's production . Although it was proclaimed a cult film and major game @-@ changer before it was released , it failed to win either mainstream audiences or maintain its cult following . In retrospect , critic Spencer Kornhaber would call it a serendipitous novelty and a footnote to a " more naive era of the Internet " . However , it became influential in both marketing and titling . This trend of " instant cult classics " which are hailed yet fail to attain a lasting following is described by Matt Singer , who states that the phrase is an oxymoron .
Cult films are often approached in terms of auteur theory , which states that the director 's creative vision drives a film . This has fallen out of favor in academia , creating a disconnect between cult film fans and critics . Matt Hills states that auteur theory can help to create cult films ; fans that see a film as continuing a director 's creative vision are likely to accept it as cult . According to academic Greg Taylor , auteur theory also helped to popularize cult films when middlebrow audiences found an accessible way to approach avant @-@ garde film criticism . Auteur theory provided an alternative culture for cult film fans while carrying the weight of scholarship . By requiring repeated viewings and extensive knowledge of details , auteur theory naturally appealed to cult film fans . Taylor further states that this was instrumental in allowing cult films to break through to the mainstream . Academic Joe Tompkins states that this auteurism is often highlighted when mainstream success occurs . This may take the place of – and even ignore – political readings of the director . Cult films and directors may be celebrated for their transgressive content , daring , and independence , but Tompkins argues that mainstream recognition requires they be palatable to corporate interests who stand to gain much from the mainstreaming of cult film culture . While critics may champion revolutionary aspects of filmmaking and political interpretation , Hollywood studios and other corporate interests will instead highlight only the aspects that they wish to legitimize in their own films , such as sensational exploitation . Someone like George Romero , whose films are both transgressive and subversive , will have the transgressive aspects highlighted while the subversive aspects are ignored .
|
= Hermann Detzner =
Hermann Philipp Detzner ( 16 October 1882 – 1 December 1970 ) was an officer in the German colonial security force ( Schutztruppe ) in Kamerun ( Cameroon ) and German New Guinea , as well as a surveyor , an engineer , an adventurer , and a writer .
In early 1914 , the German government sent Detzner to explore and chart the interior of Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland , the imperial protectorate on the island of New Guinea . When World War I broke out in Europe , he was well into the interior and without radio contact . He refused to surrender to Australian troops when they occupied German New Guinea , concealing himself in the jungle with a band of approximately 20 soldiers . For four years , Detzner and his troops provocatively marched through the bush , singing " Watch on the Rhine " and flying the German Imperial flag . He led at least one expedition from the Huon Peninsula to the north coast , and a second by a mountain route , to attempt an escape to the neutral Dutch colony to the west . He explored areas of the New Guinean interior formerly unseen by Europeans and surrendered in full dress uniform , flying the Imperial flag , to Australian forces in January 1919 .
Detzner received a hero 's welcome when he returned to Germany . He wrote a book about his adventures — Four Years Among the Cannibals in the Interior of German New Guinea under the Imperial Flag , from 1914 until the Armistice — that achieved notoriety in Great Britain and Germany , entered three printings , and was translated into French , English , Finnish and Swedish . He received a position in the Imperial Colonial Archives , and appeared frequently on the lecture circuit throughout the 1920s . In the late 1920s , scientific portions of his book were discredited . In 1932 , he admitted that he had mixed fact and fiction and , after that time , eschewed public life .
= = Family = =
Detzner was the son of a dentist , Johann Philipp Detzner ( 12 July 1846 – 1907 ) and his wife , Wilhelmine Katharina Faber , in the city of Speyer , in the Bavarian Palatinate , a cultural , economic , and historical center on the Rhine River . His father received his degree from Heidelberg University and was licensed to practice by the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1867 ; Detzner 's father pioneered innovations in dental prosthetics . His large family included nine children . Hermann Detzner was trained as a topographer , surveyor , and an engineer , and received his promotion to Fahnrich in the 6 Infantry Regiment ( Prussian ) , 2nd Pioneer Battalion , in February 1902 . During World War I , military authorities transferred his commission to the 1st Bavarian Pioneer Battalion .
= = Early explorations = =
Hermann Detzner participated in a joint British @-@ German scientific and surveying expedition to Kamerun in 1908 and 1909 and again in 1912 – 1913 . He and one Captain Nugent , Royal Artillery , identified and marked the frontiers of Kamerun and explored the Niger valley . Detzner later published a paper on the marking of the boundary .
Navigators charted the coastline of the northern and eastern portions of New Guinea in the early 17th century and , later in the century , British Admiralty navigators named the visible mountain ranges . Most German surveying efforts had focused on coastal regions and river basins , where Germans had established plantations , leaving the interior unexplored . In late 1913 , the Imperial Colonial office appointed Detzner to lead an expedition to survey the border between the British protectorate , called Papua , and the German territory , called Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland , and to survey and map the interior .
Detzner 's mission was also to be the first serious attempt to explore the unknown interior and to evaluate and describe its contents . The boundary between Papua and Kaiser Wilhelmsland had been broadly established by a joint British @-@ German expedition in 1909 , but the interior had not been mapped and the German colonial administration maintained that the boundary was imprecise . Since then , Papuan gold prospectors may have crossed into the German territory which , from the German perspective , made the accuracy of the border essential . Detzner had had experience in joint operations in Kamerun in 1907 – 08 and could be expected to understand the challenges faced by the previous commission ; he had a reputation as a methodical and precise engineer . Although small , he was tough and wiry , extremely focused and determined , and seemed like the right man for the job .
= = Adventures in New Guinea = =
In January 1914 , Detzner travelled to Rabaul on New Pomerania ( now New Britain ) . In February , he began his expedition into Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland . His survey immediately revealed inaccuracies in the 1909 joint survey ; by March , Detzner had concluded that the border corridor was already showing a discrepancy of more than 650 meters ( 2 @,@ 133 ft ) from the 8 ° 0'S parallel . The discrepancy increased the further west he traveled , revealing a widening wedge in the boundary as it was agreed upon , and as it was marked . The discrepancy favored German interests .
He was well into the interior when , on 4 August 1914 , Britain declared war on Germany . As World War I spread to the Pacific , Australian troops invaded German New Guinea , taking the German barracks in Herbertshöhe ( Kokopo ) and forcing the defending German colonial troops to capitulate on 21 September after their defeat at Bita Paka . At the beginning of October , he was still unaware of the state of war that now existed between his country and the Commonwealth .
The several months following the outbreak of war found Detzner on border survey work with his sergeant , Konradt , 25 police and 45 carriers , two servants and an interpreter in the high country between Mt Chapman , the Ono River , and Mt Lawson , that is to say along the territorial boundary between Australian @-@ governed Papua and German New Guinea . Eventually he sighted people he named Rockpapua or " skirted Papuans ' - these were Kamea people perhaps in the area south of Tekadu in the southernmost part of Morobe Province or the northern part of Gulf Province . On 11 November 1914 , one of the carriers , left with several others to rest at a temporary camp , arrived bearing a note from Frederick Chisholm , an Australian Patrol Officer , informing him of the state of war between Germany and Great Britain and requesting him to surrender at Nepa on the Lakekamu River , five days walk away .
= = = Four years in the unexplored interior of New Guinea = = =
Rather than comply , Detzner led his party , on a forced march north to the Markham Valley . His route is uncertain , but his description of a valley with steep grassy ravines entering from east and west may place the latter part of his journey in the Langimar Valley , through which flows a tributary of the Watut River . A clash with local people that he describes has been identified as having occurred at Rangama among with Middle Watut people . Once on the Watut itself , the party built rafts and floated downstream to the Markham .
His final destination was Sattelberg on the Huon peninsula . His second in command , Sergeant Konradt , who suffered from frequent bouts of malaria , and a German officer , were captured by the Australians by spring 1915 . Eventually , Detzner found his way to the vicinity of Lutheran mission at the Sattelberg , at a foggy , cool area at 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) , above Finschhafen . The Sattelberg mission was one of the Neuendettelsau Mission Society enterprises established by the Old Lutheran missionary , Johann Flierl , in 1885 . This station , and additional mission stations in Heldbach , Simbang , Tami Islands , and Simbu , were an important evangelical presence in the Morobe Province . The missionaries had signed oaths of neutrality for the Australians , who allowed them to remain at their Stations and continue their work .
Once Detzner reached the vicinity of the Sattelberg Mission , nearby villagers in the Borrum valley housed him and his remaining men , which had dwindled to about 20 soldiers , plus four European officers and , on his behalf , the villagers sought assistance from the Sattelberg director , Christian Keyser , and another missionary , Otto Thiele . They reluctantly agreed to keep Detzner 's presence a secret . Among the villagers , Detzner established a base camp from which he could depart at short notice . The valley was relatively secure for him , and inaccessible for the Australians , but if they ventured too close to his base , Detzner and his men would retreat into the mountainous Saruwaged , or , if necessary , further into the Finisterre mountains . These were rugged and remote locations , accessible to Detzner , who had the help of native guides , but which the Australians , who usually traveled in larger patrols , could not penetrate .
Detzner and his band stayed near the Sattelberg Mission for the remainder of the war . After the war , however , Detzner would claim he had roamed throughout the eastern jungles of the island , eluding Australian patrols and making little effort to hide . He said he flew the Imperial German flag ( sewn from dyed loincloths ) in villages throughout the bush , and marched his command through the jungle , loudly singing such patriotic German songs as " Watch on the Rhine " ( Die Wacht am Rhein ) and popular sentimental ballads like " The Linden Tree " ( Der Lindenbaum ) .
= = = Escape attempts = = =
Detzner may have made attempts to reach West New Guinea , which was then neutral Dutch New Guinea , but his claims to have been the first outsider to enter the Papua New Guinea highlands can be discounted . In 1915 , and again in 1917 , Detzner and some of his men tried to escape along the coast in two canoes . In 1917 , they reached the vicinity of Friedrich @-@ Wilhelmshafen , which today is Madang . There lay anchored the Australian ship , HMAS Una , which earlier had been the German imperial yacht , the SMS Komet , designated for use by the German governor of the colony . The ship blocked any further travel , and ended any notions they had of a water escape to Dutch New Guinea . On this escape attempt , Detzner also learned the Australians had orders to shoot him on sight . He made one further attempt to escape overland to Dutch New Guinea , but had to be carried back suffering from an internal hemorrhage . He spent the remainder of the time investigating the island 's inhabitants and its flora and fauna , particularly in the Huon peninsula and Huon gulf .
= = = Surrender = = =
In late November 1918 , Detzner received the news of the end of the war from a worker at the Sattelberg Mission Station . He wrote a letter to the Australian commander in Morobe in which he offered his capitulation . On 5 January 1919 , he surrendered at the Finschhafen District headquarters , marching with his remaining German troops in a column , and wearing his carefully preserved full @-@ dress uniform . He was brought to Rabaul , the Australian headquarters , and on 8 February 1919 , was transferred to Sydney aboard the Melusia ; after a brief internment in the prisoner of war camp at Holsworthy , he was repatriated to Germany .
= = Book and honours = =
On his arrival home , Detzner received a hero 's welcome . The press likened him to the successful commander of German East Africa , Major General Paul Emil von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck , who tied down British forces in Africa for the duration of the war . Detzner had been promoted to the rank of captain during the war ; upon his return , he was promoted to major . In that year , he wrote Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland , nach dem Stande der Forschung im Jahre 1919 , ( Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland , According to the State of Research in the Year 1919 ) , which was widely read in scientific circles . The claim that the Geographical Society of Berlin honored him with the Nachtigal medal , named after the German explorer Gustav Nachtigal , in 1919 is false ; this misinformation may have been planted by Detzner himself . Nevertheless , the Geographic Society of Hamburg did award him their gold medal in 1921 , the University of Bonn granted him an honorary degree , and the military awarded him the Iron Cross ( 1st Class ) . He received a position in the colonial administration 's archive in Berlin .
To satisfy the public curiosity about his adventures , Detzner wrote Four Years among the Cannibals , from 1914 to the Armistice , under the German Flag , in the Unexplored Interior of New Guinea . The book brought him fame in Germany and Britain , and he became a sought @-@ after speaker on the lecture circuit . In the 1920s , in addition to several articles and two maps of New Guinea , Detzner published a memoir of his adventures in the Niger valley — In the land of the Dju @-@ Dju : travel experiences in the eastern watershed of the Niger — in 1923 , but it did not achieve the popularity of his previous work .
= = = Book reception = = =
Detzner 's book was wildly popular among the general population for its incredible tales of stubborn patriotism and its narratives describing the exotic locales of the lost imperial colonies . His descriptions touched a chord in the German imagination : one of their own had explored the colony , walked its paths , seen its mountains and valleys , and met its people . His vivid descriptions brought to life the images Germans had seen on postcards ( such as the one to left ) , newspapers , and in school books . Furthermore , he had defended Germany 's " place in the sun " when others had failed to do so . His book was translated into English , Finnish , Swedish and eventually French . ( See below . )
In a speech at the Berlin Geographical Society in 1919 , Detzner claimed that the natives of New Guinea had opposed Australian domination and resisted a military recruitment that amounted to slavery , that even the English plantation holders wished to remain independent of Australia , and that the natives were collecting money to build a war memorial for the Germans . The report on Detzner 's speech , transmitted from a news agency in London , caused a small flutter in Australian government circles , but generally was dismissed ; an earlier report by the Australian judiciary had absolved the Australian force of improper recruiting or treatment of the New Guineans . An angry letter to the editor from another Australian source , who claimed to have been in service in Morobe from 1914 – 1915 , received little attention .
In the scientific world , several of his descriptive passages generated excitement and curiosity . In early 1914 , he had been surveying a portion of the international boundary in the Upper Waria River between the German and British protectorates . By late September , he had passed into a different portion of the highlands , where the clay @-@ slate mountains changed into limestone highlands . In this geologic transition , he said , he also found a change in the ethnographic character of the population , whom he described as a " new " people . They were stocky , powerfully built , and long – limbed ; they wore their hair in knots on the centre of their heads , which were otherwise shaven , and painted yellow and black lines across their chests . They also wore grass skirts , so he called them the skirted ones . They used bows and arrows , slings and stone axes . As he pushed west to Mount Joseph , Detzner claimed , he had found the southern hills of the central watershed cut by numerous rivers flowing north to south . He had surmised that there were no insurmountable obstacles between him and the Sepik river . In 1917 , he had travelled through the Ramu valley into the Bismarck range , northwest of the Kratke Mountains , and had continued on that route for 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) . He also described the presence of an indigenous variation of German , called Unserdeutsch ( our German ) , in several New Guinean dialects .
= = Controversy = =
In 1919 , after an account of Detzner 's speech in Berlin to the Geographical Society was published in Australia , an angry Australian wrote anonymously to the editor of The Argus , a Melbourne newspaper , and described what he claimed were Detzner 's lies . " There was no mystery about the disappearance of Captain Detzner and his party " , he claimed . The writer attributed Detzner 's success at staying ahead of the Australians to the perfidy of the German missionaries , who had agreed to remain neutral and in return for such agreement were allowed to continue their mission work . Detzner was a civilian [ emphasis in the original ] surveyor , the writer claimed , not a soldier and he survived on mission station rations supplied by public subscription from the German plantation owners . Furthermore , this writer asserted , Detzner 's movements were so well known to the district officer at Morobe that he was prevented from escaping ; they could have shot him several times , but did not . The writer dismissed Detzner 's claims about Australian recruitment of the natives as " in keeping with his dozens of other lying statements in all cases endeavoring to belittle Englishmen or British officers , in every case pure fabrications and typical scurrilous Hun lies " .
While such criticism of Detzner 's adventures might have been dismissed as post @-@ bellum bellicosity , in 1929 , Detzner 's assertions came under more serious assault . Two of the German missionaries in the Finschhafen District , Christian Keyser ( also spelled Kayser or Keysser ) and Otto Thiele , claimed Detzner had not spent the war roaming the jungle , one step ahead of the Australians , but had been under the Mission 's protection the entire time . Keyser 's additional accusations were particularly specific : Detzner had appropriated his own scientific observations . Keyser 's claims carried some weight . He had published a dictionary of the Kâte language , and was a reliable expert on New Guinean dialects , and the German @-@ based creole languages that had arisen in New Guinea ; he was also a bona fide explorer and adventurer , having lived from 1899 to 1920 among the mountain peoples of the island . In 1913 , Keyser climbed the 4 @,@ 121 @-@ meter ( 13 @,@ 520 ft ) Saruwaged Massif ; over the course of his 21 years in New Guinea , he had identified hundreds of new plant and animal species , and had maintained a regular correspondence with the German Geographical Society in Berlin . Ernst Mayr , a rising star in ornithology , had heard about Detzner from Australians on a research trip to New Guinea . In Germany , during a meeting with Keyser , they discussed Detzner 's claims , and Mayr lost no time in broadcasting the discrepancy to his scientific contacts in Europe and the United States .
More problematically , Detzner had no documentation of his findings . As he explained in his many speeches , although he had kept notebooks with drawings of plants , animals , maps , and people , and journals recounting his day – to – day experiences , some of his notebooks and journals had been destroyed by the Australians as they over – ran his hiding places ; others , which he had buried to keep them from being destroyed , had rotted beyond repair in the jungle humidity . He implied that what remained of his notes had been confiscated when he surrendered . Detzner 's narrative also was rife with contradictions and omissions : Detzner named few villages or streams and stated that the valleys he discovered were thinly populated , whereas they actually contained large populations , at least by New Guinea standards . He also stated that the highest point in the range was 3 @,@ 600 meters ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) , a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) miscalculation , which , for a mapmaker and a surveyor , needed to be explained .
Detzner made attempts to explain away specific ambiguities , contradictions , and errors . In 1915 , he said , he lost his surveying instruments while eluding an Australian patrol , which explained why many of his assertions were vague and inconclusive , and his calculations inaccurate . This was true , the Australians did find a box of Detzner 's equipment in the location where the missionary Johann Flierl 's oldest son , Wilhelm , had kept ( or stored ) his small canoe . Although Wilhelm denied helping Detzner and his men , the Australians arrested him . The event coincided with one of Detzner 's narrow escapes from Australian patrols in 1915 and was inadvertently corroborated in 1919 by the angry letter to The Argus 's editor . Some of Detzner 's assertions could be sustained through observable physical evidence : he had reportedly wasted to a mere 40 kilograms ( 88 lb ) while roaming in the bush , which should not have happened , some supporters claimed , if he had indeed been under the protection of Keyser and Thiele . On the other hand , this weight loss could also have been due to his debilitating illness in 1917 .
Despite his explanations , the missionaries Thiele and Keyser , whose own autobiography appeared in 1929 , and the widely respected Mayr , who by this time had become the leader of the Whitney South Seas Expeditions , continued to challenge the bulk of Detzner 's scientific " discoveries " . Detzner 's position became increasingly untenable . In 1932 , he admitted that he had mixed fact and fiction in his book , explaining that he had never intended it to be taken as science , but rather at its face @-@ value , as the story of his adventurous years in the jungles of New Guinea . The following year , Detzner resigned from the prestigious Geographical Society of Berlin .
I wish to state that my book , Vier Jahre unter Kannibalen , contains a number of misrepresentations regarding my journeys in New Guinea . The book in question is a scientific report in part only ; it is primarily a fictional account of my experiences in New Guinea and owes its origin to the unusual circumstances prevailing in Germany at the time of my return . Some of the journeys I had actually undertaken are not described at all ; on the other hand it contains passages that do not correspond with the facts .
After this , he withdrew entirely from public life , although he retained his position in the colonial archive . He lived in Schmargendorf , Berlin , on Auguste @-@ Viktoria @-@ Straße , and later became the director of the Carl @-@ Pfeffer Verlag , a publishing house in Heidelberg . He died there in 1970 , at the age of 88 .
= = Legacy = =
The ambiguous wording of Detzner 's resignation from the Geographical Society of Berlin — the use of such phrases as contains misrepresentations , scientific report in part only , primarily fictional , unusual circumstances in Germany , and so on — misled later scholars , many of whom remained unaware of the controversy surrounding his book . Consequently , his work continued to inform the geographical , linguistic , and anthropological investigations of New Guinean culture and geography well into the 1950s and 1960s , much to the dismay of Ernst Mayr , who had been instrumental in discrediting Detzner in the 1920s .
Since the mid – 1970s , references to Four Years Among the Cannibals have continued to appear in studies on New Guinea . In the 1990s , Detzner 's work received some rehabilitation from ethnographer Terence Hays , who placed Detzner 's work in its contemporary context : Four Years Among the Cannibals , he wrote , " paved the way for me [ to become an ethnographer ] by creating romanticized images that served as a backdrop for more serious readings " . Since then , geographer Robert Linke has raised some important questions : " Why did Detzner resort to lies to embellish his wonderful story ? The unadorned truth would have been enough to establish him as one of the great figures in New Guinea history . " Detzner had remained at large for four years , as a fugitive in enemy @-@ held territory : surely , Linke concluded , this was an exceptional feat . No doubt the Australians could have made a more broadly organized attempt to capture him , and probably would have succeeded , but they did not make the effort ; they preferred instead the more convenient " shoot @-@ at @-@ sight " method . " It is impossible " , Linke wrote , " not to admire his [ Detzner 's ] sheer elan , his courage and tenacity . " In 2008 , Detzner 's book was retranslated , reprinted , and marketed as a modern translation of a rare and valuable book about the exploration of the New Guinean interior during World War I.
= = Detzner 's works = =
( German ) " Kamerun @-@ Boundary : Die nigerische Grenze von Kamerun zwischen Yola und dem Cross @-@ Fluss " . Mitteilungen aus den Deutschen Schutzgebieten . 26 : 13 , pp. 317 – 338 .
( German ) " Der Saruwaged und seine östlichen und südöstlichen Anschlussgebiete " . Kolonial Rundschau . Number 25 ( 1919 ) ( Booklets , 8 , 9 , 10 ) pp. 209 – 221 .
( German ) " Kreuz- und Querzüge in Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland während des Weltkrieges : Februar 1914 bis November 1918 " . Mitteilungen aus den Deutschen Schutzgebieten . Volume 32 ( 1919 ) , pp. 4 – 19 .
( German ) Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland , nach dem Stande der Forschung im Jahre 1919 , with Max Moisel , Map . Berlin [ Mittler ] , 1919 .
( German ) Vier Jahre unter Kannibalen . Von 1914 bis zum Waffenstillstand unter deutscher Flagge im unerforschten Innern von Neuguinea , Scherl , Berlin , 1920 , 1921 .
( English ) Four Years among the Cannibals , from 1914 to the Armistice under the German Flag in unexplored interior of New Guinea . Berlin , August Scherl , [ 1921 ] .
( Finnish ) Neljä vuotta ihmissyöjien parissa : Saksan lipun suojassa Uuden @-@ Guinean tutkimattomissa sisäosissa 1914 – 1918 . Porvoo , WSOY , 1925 .
( French ) Mœurs et coutumes des Papous : quatre ans chez les cannibales de Nouvelle @-@ Guinée ( 1914 – 1918 ) Avec une carte . Paris , Payot , 1923 , 1935 .
( Swedish ) Fyra år bland kannibaler . Ani Mari Nordman , trans . Helsingfors , Schildt , 1925 .
( English ) Four Years Among the Cannibals ... Gisela Batt , ( Trans . ) , Pacific Press , Gold Coast , Australia , 2008 . ( Retranslation and reprint ) .
( German ) " Medizinische und hygienische Streiflichter aus dem Innern von Neuguinea " . Archiv für Schiffs- und Tropen @-@ Hygiene , Pathologie und Therapie exotischer Krankheiten . 1921 , 25 ( 3 ) : pp. 67 – 79 .
( German ) Im Lande der Dju @-@ Dju . Reiseerlebnisse im östlichen Stromgebiet des Niger , Scherl , Berlin 1923 .
( German ) " Stammesgemeinschaften im Zentralgebiet von Deutsch @-@ Neuguinea " . Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten , Volume 36 ( 1928 ) , pp. 112 – 130 .
( German ) " Unter Unbekannten Kannibalen " , Die Woche , 24 . 1 . 1925 , Nr. 4 .
( German ) Die Kolonien unter Mandatsherrschaft . Berlin , Deutscher Wille , 1927 .
( German ) Das " Zentralgebirge " Neuguineas im Gebiet der Wasserscheide zwischen Hüon- und Papua @-@ Golf . Map . Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten , Kt . 3 im 2 . Heft , Bd . XXXVI , 1928 .
|
= Tudur Hen =
Tudur Hen ( English : Tudur the Elder ) or Tudur ap Goronwy ( died 11 October 1311 ) was a Welsh aristocrat and a member of the Tudor family of Penmynydd , Anglesey , North Wales . He was one of three sons of Goronwy ab Ednyfed who received lands from King Edward I of England . Nonetheless , he backed the rebellion of Madog ap Llywelyn , but afterwards swore allegiance to both Edward I and his son , Edward of Caernarfon . Tudur Hen was responsible for the restoration of the Franciscan friary at Bangor , Gwynedd , where his body was later placed on 11 October 1311 .
= = Ancestry and family = =
His father Goronwy ab Ednyfed ( d.1268 ) was seneschal to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd ( also known as Llywelyn the Last ) , the King of Gwynedd by 1258 , continuing in the role until his death on 12 October 1268 . In that role , Goronwy had followed in the footsteps of his father , Ednyfed Fychan , and by doing so had tied the fortunes of the early House of Tudor to that of Llywelyn . Goronwy led Llywelyn 's military forces , such as in February 1263 when he took them as far south as Gwent in action against the Marcher Lords . Tudur ap Goronwy was one of three sons of Goronwy ab Ednyfed , alongside Goronwy ab Goronwy ( also known as Goronwy the Younger or Goronwy Fychan ) and Hywel ab Goronwy . Tudur Hen was not the first member of the family to be named Tudur . He was preceded by his uncle , Tudur ab Ednyfed , who had been in service to the previous Prince of Wales , Dafydd ap Llywelyn .
= = Service to the English crown and rebellion = =
In September 1278 , lands were granted by King Edward I of England to Tudur and his brothers . The majority of the noble houses in Wales sided with the Welsh forces during the English invasion of Gwynedd , but Edward proclaimed that any who joined him would retain their lands and titles under the English crown . Tudur Hen retained his prestige and lands following the death of Llywelyn in 1282 and the victory of the English . Tudur and his brother Goronwy were two of those lords who backed the rebellion of Madog ap Llywelyn against the English in 1294 – 95 . Tudur acted as steward to Madog , while Goronwy was in his service .
Tudur and Goronwy were two of three men who witnessed the Madog 's charter , known as the Penmachno Document , in 1294 which granted lands to Ardudwy and Llansannan to Bleddyn Fychan . Following the failure of the revolt , Tudur was among those lords from North Wales who pledged their loyalty to Edward in person in 1296 , and again to Edward of Caernarfon when he was named Prince of Wales in 1301 .
Although Tudur Hen has been historically credited since the 18th century with the construction of the Franciscan Llanfaes Friary near Bangor , Gwynedd , it has since been discovered that the building pre @-@ dated him . However , since the friary sided with Edward in the two Welsh wars since the original construction , it has been proposed that Tudur had been responsible for re @-@ building the site around 1293 following damage inflicted during that period . He made arrangements for his own interment in the south wall of the site .
He acted as an official representative for the English Royal Family in the Perfeddwlad territories . Tudur used the English property laws , which he found more advantageous in his position than those used by the Welsh as they allowed for inheritance of lands by a single party . He continued to hold the lands in North Wales and Cardiganshire which he had inherited . Upon his death in 1311 , his holdings passed into the hands of his son Goronwy ap Tudur Hen . He had two further sons , Madog and Hywel . Tudur Hen was take for internment to Bangor priory on 11 October 1311 ; his son , Goronwy , was also placed there on 11 December 1331 following his death .
= = Legacy = =
One of the earliest works by bard Iolo Goch was based on Tudur Hen , as Iolo may have studied at the Bangor priory . Tudur Hen 's most significant legacy was his name itself . The naming practice of the time in Wales was to attach the father 's surname to the new first name , hence his son being named Goronwy ap Tudur Hen . Goronwy had children , one of which was named Tudur , becoming a second Tudur ap Goronwy . The younger Tudur was noticed by King Edward III of England and was made a knight in his service , and he was the grandfather ( through Maredudd ap Tudur ) to Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudur . Owain anglicised his name to become Owen Tudor , and was the grandfather of King Henry VII of England , the founder of the Royal House of Tudor .
= = = Linage = = =
|
= Barzillai J. Chambers =
Barzillai Jefferson Chambers ( December 5 , 1817 – September 16 , 1895 ) was an American surveyor , lawyer , and politician of the Gilded Age . Born in Kentucky , he moved to Texas to join that state 's war for independence against Mexico . Chambers stayed in Texas after its independence and annexation by the United States , earning a living as a surveyor and farmer in Johnson County . In the American Civil War , he served briefly in the Confederate army , then returned to his farming and business interests , becoming part @-@ owner of a bank in his hometown of Cleburne . In the 1870s , Chambers became concerned with farming and monetary issues in politics , eventually joining the nascent Greenback Party in 1877 . He ran unsuccessfully for Vice President on the Greenback ticket with presidential nominee James B. Weaver of Iowa in 1880 . The Greenback nominees finished in a distant third place , receiving only 3 @.@ 3 % of the popular vote and no electoral votes . After the election , Chambers remained active in Greenback politics in Texas until the party 's demise in the late 1880s . He died at his home in Cleburne in 1895 .
= = Early life = =
Barzillai Jefferson Chambers was born in 1817 in Montgomery County , Kentucky , the son of Walker Chambers and Talitha Cumi Mothershead Chambers . Chambers lived on his father 's Kentucky farm for the first twenty years of his life . In 1837 , he followed his uncle , Thomas Jefferson Chambers , to Texas . The elder Chambers , who had lived in Texas since 1830 , had raised a regiment to join the Texas Revolution and commissioned his nephew as a captain and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp . After helping his uncle to recruit soldiers in Kentucky , the two departed for Texas but arrived too late to see action . Chambers was discharged from the Texas army in 1838 and remained in the state , becoming a surveyor in the southern part of the state . The next year , he was appointed deputy surveyor for north central Texas , between the Brazos and Trinity rivers . The area had little white settlement at the time , and Chambers " narrowly escaped Indian attacks on several occasions . "
Chambers continued to work as a surveyor in the 1840s while also engaging in land speculation . By 1850 , he was promoted to district surveyor ; he had , by then , acquired 10 @,@ 000 acres of land in Navarro and Johnson counties . He devoted some of the land to farming , but also donated some lots to Johnson County for the erection of the county seat , in Cleburne . He became a lawyer in 1860 , but never developed a sizable law practice . Chambers married three times : first in 1852 to Susan Wood , who died the next year ; secondly in 1854 to Emma Montgomery , who died in childbirth the next year ; and finally in 1861 to Harriet Killough . Chambers had no children who survived infancy with the first two wives , but with his third wife he would have three children : Mary , Patrick , and Isabella .
= = Business and political career = =
After the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States in 1860 , Chambers , a Democrat , served on two committees in Navarro County that drafted resolutions opposed to Lincoln and racial equality . He supported Texas 's secession from the Union in 1861 and adhesion to the newly formed Confederacy , but , being 44 years old at the subsequent outbreak of the Civil War , did not immediately enlist . Although he was exempted from the Confederacy 's military draft , Chambers thought the exemption unjust , and wrote to Confederate President Jefferson Davis to protest it . In 1864 , he did enlist for six months in the 1st Regiment of Texas State Troops , but saw no action . After the war , Chambers returned to farming but also became a half @-@ owner of Cleburne 's only bank from 1871 to 1875 . By that time , Chambers was the largest landowner in Johnson County . He also actively promoted the Dallas and Cleburne Railroad , working unsuccessfully to get the railroad to make its stock available to all local citizens .
Chambers 's political opinions after the war were at first concerned with government debt . In an 1868 article in the Cleburne Chronicle , Chambers argued against all interest @-@ bearing national debts , and for a general policy of inflationism . Running as a Democrat , he was elected an alderman of Cleburne and was a delegate to Texas 's constitutional convention of 1875 . The proposed constitution that emerged was primarily an attempt to reverse the changes made by Republicans during Reconstruction . Chambers opposed its adoption , not for that reason , but because " while taxation was unequally thrown upon property alone , unqualified suffrage was given to every man " . He also opposed the homestead exemption , " which protect [ s ] the debtor class from the just demands of the creditor class . " Nevertheless , the constitution was adopted by a two @-@ to @-@ one majority .
= = Greenback party = =
When the Democratic Party 's platform did not endorse his inflationist views in 1876 , Chambers quit the party . The new Greenback Party ( sometimes called the Greenback @-@ Labor Party , ) had not yet begun to organize in Texas , but its positions better suited Chambers and he joined in 1877 . The Greenbackers , in the words of one author , " anticipated by almost fifty years the progressive legislation of the first quarter of the twentieth century . " Their platform advocated an eight @-@ hour work day , safety regulations in factories , and prohibition of child labor . Their most prominent position , however , and the one from which their name was derived , was support for the continued issuance of the greenback dollar .
During the Civil War , Congress had authorized " greenbacks , " a new form of fiat money that was redeemable not in gold but in government bonds . The greenbacks had helped to finance the war when the government 's gold supply did not keep pace with the expanding costs of maintaining the armies . When the crisis had passed , many in both parties , especially in the East , wanted to return the nation 's currency to a gold standard as soon as possible . The Specie Payment Resumption Act , passed in 1875 , ordered that greenbacks be gradually withdrawn and replaced with gold @-@ backed currency beginning in 1879 . At the same time , economic depression had made it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had contracted when currency was less valuable . Farmers and laborers , especially , clamored for the return of coinage in both gold and silver , believing the increased money supply would restore wages and property values . With neither major party willing to endorse inflation , some partisans of loose money joined the new Greenback faction .
Chambers rose quickly in the new party 's leadership , serving as a delegate to their state convention in July 1878 . Initially a candidate for state land commissioner , Chambers withdrew his name in August of that year to allow former Republican Jacob Kuechler to win a unanimous nomination ; he was nominated instead for a seat in the state legislature . Ten Greenbackers were elected to the legislature that year , but Chambers was not among them . During the campaign , Chambers published a pamphlet attacking the Democratic candidates and calling for Congress to create " a sufficient amount of paper money , making it equal to gold and silver , and full legal tender for all debts " . While it did not help his own election , the pamphlet was widely circulated within the party and raised Chambers 's profile among Greenbackers .
= = 1880 election = =
By 1879 , the Greenback coalition had splintered , and Chambers became affiliated with the faction most prominent in the South and West , called the " Union Greenback Labor Party , " led by Marcus M. " Brick " Pomeroy . Pomeroy 's faction was more radical and emphasized its independence , suggesting that Eastern Greenbackers were likely to " sell out the party at any time to the Democrats . " Chambers was chosen as a delegate to the Pomeroy faction 's 1880 national convention in St. Louis . The 212 delegates nominated Stephen D. Dillaye of New York for President and Chambers for Vice President . Accepting the nomination , Chambers called for unity between the Greenback factions and restated his belief in the party 's goals , and attacked bankers as " Huns and Vandals . " To further promote his views , he purchased a small newspaper , the Cleburne Avalanche , and spoke at the state convention in Texas in May 1880 .
The more Eastern @-@ oriented faction of the Greenbacks , called the " National Greenback Party , " held its convention in Chicago that June , and Chambers attended along with others from the Pomeroy faction , hoping to heal the party split . The two factions resolved their differences and wrote a joint platform . The Greenbackers also agreed to admit forty @-@ four delegates of the Socialist Labor Party . Dillaye stepped aside to allow the nomination of James B. Weaver of Iowa , a Civil War general and Congressman . Chambers was proposed for Vice President by the reunited party , as was Absolom M. West of Mississippi ; Chambers was victorious on the first ballot , by 403 votes to 311 . West moved that the nomination be made unanimous , which it was .
Chambers gave speeches on his way back to Texas , castigating the banks and defending the admission of socialists to the convention as " simply a body of men enlisted in the cause of human rights . " In his official acceptance letter , he called for expansion of the currency , immigration restriction to help workingmen compete " with Chinese serf labor , " and the forfeiture of all unfulfilled railroad grants . On July 8 , before reaching home , Chambers fell as he exited his train in Kosse , Texas , and broke two ribs . He was confined to bed for several weeks and considered withdrawing from the race , but decided against it . His efforts , however , were limited by his injuries , and his only contribution to the campaign was to publish his newspaper , renamed the Cleburne Greenbacker . Greenbackers had high hopes for the 1880 election , but were disappointed with the result : Weaver and Chambers won just over 300 @,@ 000 votes ( 3 @.@ 3 % of the popular vote ) and did not carry a single state in the electoral college .
= = Post @-@ election life = =
Chambers remained active in politics after the 1880 election . He served as chairman of the Texas Greenback Party in 1882 as George Washington Jones received the party 's endorsement for governor . He was unsuccessful , and Chambers worried that the party was becoming " disorganized and disintegrated beyond the hope of a successful rally . " In 1884 , Jones ran again for governor and Chambers broke with him on the question of whether the state should lease public lands or let cattlemen use them without payment ( Chambers favored the former option ) . He also criticized the party 's presidential nominee that year , Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts , for attacking monopolies without offering any suggestions on how to reform them . After the 1884 election , Chambers had little involvement in politics . The Greenback Party fell apart by 1888 , but many of its ideas and members found a home in the People 's Party , which arose in the early 1890s . Chambers made his last foray into politics in 1890 in two letters to the Southern Mercury , a newspaper of the Farmers ' Alliance , in which he again condemned monopolies and corporations , and suggested that all laws creating them be repealed . He was encouraged by the growth of the People 's Party , but old age and ill health kept him from being an active member . Chambers died at his home on September 16 , 1895 , and was buried in Cleburne Memorial Cemetery .
|
= European hare =
The European hare ( Lepus europaeus ) , also known as the brown hare , is a species of hare native to Europe and parts of Western Asia and Central Asia . It is a mammal adapted to temperate , open country . It is related to and looks very similar to the European rabbit , which is in the same family but in a different genus . Hares are larger than the European rabbit , have longer ears and hind legs and breed on the ground rather than in a burrow . They rely on speed to escape from predators .
Generally nocturnal and shy in nature , hares change their behaviour in the spring , when they can be seen in broad daylight chasing one another around fields and meadows . During this spring frenzy , they can be seen striking one another with their paws ( " boxing " ) . For a long time , this had been thought to be competition between males , but closer observation has revealed it is usually a female hitting a male , either to show she is not yet ready to mate or as a test of his determination . This species has a fairly long breeding season which lasts from January to August . Hares are herbivorous and feed on grasses , herbs , twigs , buds , bark and field crops . Their natural predators include birds of prey , canids and felids .
The European hare is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN . However it is declining in mainland Europe because of changes in farming practices . The hare has been a traditional symbol of fertility and reproduction in some cultures , and its courtship behaviour in the spring inspired the English idiom mad as a March hare .
= = Taxonomy and genetics = =
The European hare was first described by German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in 1778 . It shares the genus Lepus with other hares and jackrabbits . These animals are distinguished from other leporids by their longer legs , wider nostrils and precocial young . The former two are adaptations for long distance running . Historically , up to 30 subspecies of European hare have been classified , although their status has been variable . These subspecies have been distinguished by differences in pelage colouration , body size , external body measurements , and skull and tooth shape . The Corsican hare , Broom hare and Granada hare were at some points considered to be subspecies of the European hare , however DNA sequencing and morphological analysis has supported them as separate species .
There is some debate as to whether the European hare and Cape hare are the same species . A 2005 nuclear gene pool study supported this position . However , a 2006 study of the mtDNA of these same animals concluded they had diverged enough to be considered separate species . A 2008 study claims that in the case of Lepus hares , with their rapid evolution , species designation cannot be based solely on mtDNA but should also include an examination of the nuclear gene pool . It is possible that the genetic differences between the European and Cape hare is due to geographic distance rather than actual divergence . It has been speculated that in the Near East , hare populations are intergrading and experiencing gene flow . Another 2008 study suggests that more research is needed before a conclusion is reached as to whether there is a species complex . As of 2008 , the European hare remains classified as a single species until further data shows otherwise .
There appears to be genetic diversity in the European hare in the North Rhine @-@ Westphalia region of Germany . However , it is possible that restricted gene flow could change this within populations that become isolated . Based on molecular phylogenetic studies , the Cantabric population in Spain has unique mtDNA in relation to other European populations .
= = Description = =
The European hare is one of the largest living members of Lagomorpha . Its head and body length can range from 48 to 75 cm ( 19 to 30 in ) with a tail length of 7 to 13 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 5 @.@ 1 in ) . The body mass can range from 2 @.@ 5 to 7 kg ( 5 @.@ 5 to 15 @.@ 4 lb ) . As with all leporids , the hare has elongated ears which , in this species , ranges from 9 @.@ 4 to 11 @.@ 0 cm ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 3 in ) from the notch . It also has long hind feet that have a length from 14 to 16 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 3 in ) . The fur colour is grizzled yellow @-@ brown on the back ; rufous on the shoulders , legs , neck and throat ; white on the underside and black on the tail and ear tips . The European hare ’ s fur does not turn completely white in the winter , although the sides of the head and base of the ears do develop white areas . The limb musculature of hares is adapted for high @-@ speed endurance running in open areas . By contrast , cottontail rabbits are built for short bursts of speed in more covered habitats .
= = Range and habitat = =
European hares are native to much of continental Europe . Their range extends from northern Spain to southern Scandinavia , eastern Europe and northern parts of the Middle East and Central Asia . They have been extending their range into Siberia . They may have been introduced to Britain by the Romans . They have also been introduced , mostly as game animals , to North America ( in Ontario and New York State , and unsuccessfully in Pennsylvania , Massachusetts , and Connecticut ) , Brazil , Chile , Argentina , Uruguay , Paraguay , Bolivia , Peru , the Falkland Islands , Australia , both islands of New Zealand and the south Pacific coast of Russia .
Hares primarily live in open fields with scattered brush for shelter . They are very adaptable and thrive in mixed farmland . According to a study done in the Czech Republic , the mean hare densities were highest at altitudes below 200 metres ( 660 ft ) , 40 to 60 days of annual snow cover , 450 to 700 millimetres ( 18 to 28 in ) of annual precipitation , and a mean annual air temperature of around 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) . With regards to climate the study found that hare densities were highest in : " A warm and dry district with mild winter and longer duration of sunshine ; a warm and dry district with mild winter and shorter duration of sunshine ; a warm and moderately dry district with mild winter " .
In the United Kingdom , hares are seen most frequently on arable farms , especially those with fallow land , wheat and sugar beet crops . In mainly grass farms their numbers are raised when there are improved pastures , some arable crops and patches of woodland . They are seen less frequently where foxes are abundant or where there are many buzzards . They also seem to be fewer in number in areas with high rabbit populations . Although they are shot as game when they are plentiful , this is a self @-@ limiting activity and is less likely to occur in localities where they are scarce .
= = Behaviour and life history = =
Hares are primarily nocturnal and spend a third of their time foraging . During daytime , a hare will hide in a depression called a " form " where it is partially hidden . Hares can run at 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) and when confronted by predators they rely on outrunning them in the open . Hares may be preyed on by canids , felids and birds of prey . They are generally thought of as asocial but can be seen in both large and small groups . They do not appear to be territorial , living in shared home ranges of around 300 ha ( 740 acres ) . Hares communicate with each other by a variety of visual signals . To show interest they raise their ears , while lowering the ears warns others to keep away . When challenging a conspecific , a hare will thump its front feet ; the hind feet are used to warn others of a predator . A hare will squeal when hurt or scared and a female will make " guttural " calls to attract her young .
= = = Food and foraging = = =
European hares are primarily herbivorous . During the summer , they eat grasses , herbs and field crops . Their preference is for wild grasses and weeds but with the intensification of agriculture , they have taken to feeding on crops . During the winter , they eat herbage , twigs , buds and the bark of shrubs and young fruit trees . They have been known to eat their own green , pellet feces to recover proteins and vitamins . Two to three adult hares can eat more food than a single sheep .
European hares forage in groups . Group feeding is beneficial as individuals can spend more time feeding knowing that other hares are being vigilant . Nevertheless , the distribution of food affects these benefits . When food is well @-@ spaced , all hares are able to access it . When food is clumped together , only dominant hares can access it . In small gatherings , dominants are more successful in defending food , but as more individuals join in , they must spend more time driving off others . The larger the group , the less time dominant individuals have in which to eat . Meanwhile , the subordinates can access the food while the dominants are distracted . As such , when in groups , all individuals fare worse when food is clumped as opposed to when it is widely spaced .
= = = Mating and reproduction = = =
European hares have a prolonged breeding season which lasts from January to August . Sexual maturity occurs at seven or eight months for females and six months for males . Females , or does , can be found pregnant in all breeding months and males , or bucks , are fertile all year round except during October and November . After autumn , the resting period for breeding activity , the size and activity of the males ' testes increase , signalling the start of a new reproductive cycle . This continues through December , January and February and the reproductive tract gains back its functionality . Matings start before ovulation with the first pregnancies containing one foetus and pregnancy failures being common . Full reproductive activity begins in March and April , when all the females may become pregnant , the majority with three or more foetuses .
Females have six @-@ weekly reproductive cycles and are receptive for only a few hours in one day . Thus competition among local bucks is intense . This phenomenon is known as " March madness " as it observed in March as the nights , the bucks ' preferred time for activity , are shorter and thus forces them to be active in the daytime . In addition to dominants subduing subordinates , the female will fight off her numerous suitors if she is not ready to mate . Fights can be vicious and can leave numerous scars on the ears . Hares will stand upright and attack each other with their paws , a practice known as " boxing " , and this activity is usually between a female and a male and not between males as previously believed . When a doe is ready to mate , she will run across the countryside , starting a chase that will test the fitness of the following males . When only the most dominant male remains , the female will stop and allow copulation .
Female fertility continues through May , June and July , however testosterone production decreases in males and sexual behaviour becomes less overt . Litter sizes decrease as the breeding season draws to a close with no pregnancies occurring after August . The testes of males begin to regress and sperm production ends in September . Does give birth in hollow depressions in the ground . An individual female may have three litters in a year with a 41 to 42 day gestation period . The young weigh about 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) at birth . The leverets ( young hares ) are fully furred and are precocial , being ready to leave the nest as soon as they are born , an adaption to the lack of physical protection relative to that afforded by a burrow . A mother will visit the nest to nurse the leverets for five minutes a day . Young can eat solid food after two weeks and are weaned when they are four weeks old . Hares can live for as long as twelve years .
= = Status and human interactions = =
The European hare is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN as it is considered to be wide @-@ ranging and moderately abundant throughout its geographic distribution . However , population declines have occurred since the 1960s and have possibly been caused by the intensification of agricultural practices . In low population densities , hare are vulnerable to local extinctions . The Bern Convention lists the hare under Appendix III as a protected species . Several countries have placed the species on their Red List as " near threatened " or " threatened " . The hare is considered a pest in some areas and is known to damage crops . They are also hunted as game animals . Additional threats to the hare are the diseases European brown hare syndrome , pasteurellosis , yersiniosis ( pseudo @-@ tuberculosis ) , coccidiosis and tularaemia , which are the principal sources of mortality .
= = = In culture = = =
In Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism , the hare is associated with reproduction and fertility and is a symbol for the spring goddess Ēostre . Its connection with Easter eggs was based on a misconception by the Europeans that lapwings laid their eggs in the homes of hares . Germanic cultures noticed the high activity of hares during the spring and it was believed that their " mating dance " helped the earth grow . This observation would also lead to the popular English idiom mad as a March hare . The hare is a character in some fables , such as The Tortoise and the Hare of Aesop . It also appears in Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll , in which Alice participates in a crazy tea party with the March Hare and the Mad Hatter .
|
= Osteitis fibrosa cystica =
Osteitis fibrosa cystica / ˌɒstiːˈaɪtᵻs faɪˈbroʊsə ˈsɪstᵻkə / , abbreviated OFC , also known as osteitis fibrosa , osteodystrophia fibrosa , and Von Recklinghausen 's disease of bone ( not to be confused with Von Recklinghausen 's disease , neurofibromatosis type I ) , is a skeletal disorder caused by hyperparathyroidism , which is a surplus of parathyroid hormone from over @-@ active parathyroid glands . This surplus stimulates the activity of osteoclasts , cells that break down bone , in a process known as osteoclastic bone resorption . The hyperparathyroidism can be triggered by a parathyroid adenoma , hereditary factors , parathyroid carcinoma , or renal osteodystrophy . Osteoclastic bone resorption releases minerals , including calcium , from the bone into the bloodstream . In addition to elevated blood calcium levels , over @-@ activity of this process results in a loss of bone mass , a weakening of the bones as their calcified supporting structures are replaced with fibrous tissue ( peritrabecular fibrosis ) , and the formation of cyst @-@ like brown tumors in and around the bone . The symptoms of the disease are the consequences of both the general softening of the bones and the excess calcium in the blood , and include bone fractures , kidney stones , nausea , moth @-@ eaten appearance in the bones , appetite loss , and weight loss .
First described in the nineteenth century , OFC is currently detected through a combination of blood testing , X @-@ rays , and tissue sampling . Before 1950 , around half of those diagnosed with hyperparathyroidism in the United States saw it progress to OFC , but with early identification techniques and improved treatment methods , instances of OFC in developed countries are increasingly rare . Where treatment is required , it normally involves addressing the underlying hyperparathyroidism before commencing long @-@ term treatment for OFC — depending on its cause and severity , this can range from hydration and exercise to surgical intervention .
= = Classification = =
Osteitis fibrosa cystica is defined as the classic skeletal manifestation of advanced hyperparathyroidism . Under the ICD @-@ 10 classification system , established by the World Health Organization , OFC is listed under category E21.0 , primary hyperparathyroidism .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The major symptoms of OFC are bone pain or tenderness , bone fractures , and skeletal deformities such as bowing of the bones . The underlying hyperparathyroidism may cause kidney stones , nausea , constipation , fatigue and weakness . X @-@ rays may indicate thin bones , fractures , bowing , and cysts . Fractures are most commonly localized in the arms , legs , or spine .
The addition of weight loss , appetite loss , vomiting , polyuria , and polydipsia to the aforementioned symptoms may indicate that OFC is the result of parathyroid carcinoma . Parathyroid carcinoma , an uncommon cancer of the parathyroid glands , is generally indicated by serum calcium levels higher than usual , even in comparison to the high serum calcium levels that OFC generally presents with . Symptoms are also often more severe . Generally , the presence of a palpable neck mass is also indicative of the cancer , occurring in approximately 50 % of sufferers , but virtually nonexistent in individuals with OFC with a different origin .
= = Causes = =
Osteitis fibrosa cystica is the result of unchecked hyperparathyroidism , or the overactivity of the parathyroid glands , which results in an overproduction of parathyroid hormone ( PTH ) . PTH causes the release of calcium from the bones into the blood , and the reabsorption of calcium in the kidney . Thus , excess PTH in hyperparathyroidism causes elevated blood calcium levels , or hypercalcemia . There are four major causes of primary hyperparathyroidism that result in OFC :
Parathyroid Adenoma
The vast majority of cases of hyperparathyroidism are the result of the random formation of benign , but metabolically active , parathyroid adenoma swellings . These instances comprise approximately 80 – 85 % of all documented cases of hyperparathyroidism .
Hereditary factors
Approximately 1 in 10 documented cases of hyperparathyroidism are a result of hereditary factors . Disorders such as familial hyperparathyroidism , multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 ( MEN Type 1 ) and hyperparathyroidism @-@ jaw tumor syndrome can , if left unchecked , result in OFC . MEN Type 1 is an autosomal dominant disorder and the most common hereditary form of hyperparathyroidism , affecting about 95 % of genetic cases of OFC , and also tends to affect younger patients than other forms . Major mutations which can lead to hyperparathyroidism generally involve the parathyroid hormone receptor , G proteins , or adenylate cyclase . Certain genetic mutations have been linked to a higher rate of parathyroid carcinoma occurrence , specifically mutations to the gene HRPT2 , which codes for the protein parafibromin .
Parathyroid carcinoma
Parathyroid carcinoma ( cancer of the parathyroid gland ) is the rarest cause of OFC , accounting for about 0 @.@ 5 % of all cases of hyperparathyroidism . OFC onset by parathyroid carcinoma is difficult to diagnose .
Renal complications
OFC is a common presentation of renal osteodystrophy , which is a term used to refer to the skeletal complications of end stage renal disease ( ESRD ) . OFC occurs in approximately 50 % of patients with ESRD . ESRD occurs when the kidneys fail to produce calcitriol , a form of Vitamin D , which assists in the absorption of calcium into the bones . When calcitriol levels decrease , parathyroid hormone levels increase , halting the storage of calcium , and instead triggering its removal from the bones . The concept of renal osteodystrophy is currently included into the broader term chronic kidney disease @-@ mineral and bone disorder ( CKD @-@ MBD ) .
= = Pathophysiology = =
The effects of OFC on bone are largely dependent on the duration of the disease and the level of parathyroid hormone ( PTH ) produced . PTH is responsible for maintaining a homeostatic calcium concentration in the blood . It activates the parathyroid @-@ hormone related protein receptor located on osteoblasts and osteocytes , both of which are responsible for the building and calcification of bone . Abnormalities affecting the parathyroid glands cause a surplus of PTH , which , in turn , increases the activity and frequency of osteoblasts and osteocytes . Increased PTH levels trigger the release of stored calcium through the dissolution of old bone , as well as the conservation of serum calcium through a cessation in the production of new bone .
Generally , the first bones to be affected are the fingers , facial bones , ribs , and pelvis . Long bones , which are longer than they are wide , are also among the first affected . As the disease progresses , any bone may be affected .
= = Diagnosis = =
OFC may be diagnosed using a variety of techniques . Muscles in patients afflicted with OFC can either appear unaffected or " bulked up . " If muscular symptoms appear upon the onset of hyperparathyroidism , they are generally sluggish contraction and relaxation of the muscles . Deviation of the trachea ( a condition in which the trachea shifts from its position at the midline of the neck ) , in conjunction with other known symptoms of OFC can point to a diagnosis of parathyroid carcinoma .
Blood tests on patients with OFC generally show high levels of calcium ( normal levels are considered to range between 8 @.@ 5 and 10 @.@ 2 mg / dL , parathyroid hormone ( levels generally above 250 pg / mL , as opposed to the " normal " upper @-@ range value of 65 pg / mL ) , and alkaline phosphatase ( normal range is 20 to 140 IU / L ) .
X @-@ rays may also be used to diagnose the disease . Usually , these X @-@ rays will show extremely thin bones , which are often bowed or fractured . However , such symptoms are also associated with other bone diseases , such as osteopenia or osteoporosis . Generally , the first bones to show symptoms via X @-@ ray are the fingers . Furthermore , brown tumors , especially when manifested on facial bones , can be misdiagnosed as cancerous . Radiographs distinctly show bone resorption and X @-@ rays of the skull may depict an image often described as " ground glass " or " salt and pepper " . Dental X @-@ rays may also be abnormal .
Cysts may be lined by osteoclasts and sometimes blood pigments , which lend to the notion of " brown tumors . " Such cysts can be identified with nuclear imaging combined with specific tracers , such as sestamibi . Identification of muscular degeneration or lack of reflex can occur through clinical testing of deep tendon reflexes , or via photomotogram ( an achilles tendon reflex test ) .
Fine needle aspiration ( FNA ) can be used to biopsy bone lesions , once found on an X @-@ ray or other scan . Such tests can be vital in diagnosis and can also prevent unnecessary treatment and invasive surgery . Conversely , FNA biopsy of tumors of the parathyroid gland is not recommended for diagnosing parathyroid carcinoma and may in fact be harmful , as the needle can puncture the tumor , leading to dissemination and the possible spread of cancerous cells .
The brown tumors commonly associated with OFC display many of the same characteristics of osteoclasts . These cells are characteristically benign , feature a dense , granular cytoplasm , and a nucleus that tends to be ovular in shape , enclosing comparatively fine chromatin . Nucleoli also tend to be smaller than average .
= = Management = =
= = = Medical = = =
Medical management of OFC consists of Vitamin D treatment , generally alfacalcidol or calcitriol , delivered intravenously . Studies have shown that in cases of OFC caused by either end @-@ stage renal disease or primary hyperparathyoidism , this method is successful not only in treating underlying hyperparathyoidism , but also in causing the regression of brown tumors and other symptoms of OFC .
= = = Surgery = = =
In especially severe cases of OFC , parathyroidectomy , or the full removal of the parathyroid glands , is the chosen route of treatment . Parathyroidectomy has been shown to result in the reversal of bone resorption and the complete regression of brown tumors . In situations where parathyroid carcinoma is present , surgery to remove the tumors has also led to the regression of hyperparathyroidism as well as the symptoms of OFC .
Bone transplants have proven successful in filling the lesions caused by OFC . A report showed that in 8 out of 11 instances where cavities caused by OFC were filled with transplanted bone , the lesion healed and the transplanted bone blended rapidly and seamlessly with the original bone .
= = Prognosis = =
Almost all who undergo parathyroidectomy experience increased bone density and repair of the skeleton within weeks . Additionally , patients with OFC who have undergone parathyroidectomy begin to show regression of brown tumors within six months . Following parathyroidectomy , hypocalcaemia is common . This results from a combination of suppressed parathyroid glands due to prolonged hypercalcaemia , as well as the need for calcium and phosphate in the mineralization of new bone .
Thirty percent of patients with OFC caused by parathyroid carcinoma who undergo surgery see a local recurrence of symptoms . The post @-@ surgical survival rate hovers around seven years , while patients who do not undergo surgery have a survival rate of around five years .
= = Epidemiology = =
Osteitis fibrosa cystica has long been a rare disease . Today , it appears in only 2 % of individuals diagnosed with primary hyperparathyroidism , which accounts for 90 % of instances of the disease . Primary hyperparathyroidism is three times as common in individuals with diabetes mellitus .
The hospitalization rate for hyperparathyroidism in the United States in 1999 was 8 @.@ 0 out of 100 @,@ 000 . The disease has a definite tendency to affect younger individuals , typically appearing before the age of 40 , with a study in 1922 reporting that 70 % of cases display symptoms before the age of 20 , and 85 % before 35 . Primary hyperparathyoidism , as well as OFC , is more common in Asiatic countries . Before treatment for hyperparathyroidism improved in the 1950s , half of those diagnosed with hyperparathyroidism saw it progress into OFC .
Rates of OFC increase alongside cases of unchecked primary hyperparathyroidism . In developing countries , such as India , rates of disease as well as case reports often mirror those published in past decades in the developed world .
The other 10 % of cases are primarily caused by primary hyperplasia , or an increase of the number of cells . Parathyroid carcinoma accounts for less than 1 % of all cases , occurring most frequently in individuals around 50 years of age ( in stark contrast to OFC as a result of primary hyperparathyroidism ) and showing no gender preference . Approximately 95 % of hyperparatyhroidism caused by genetic factors is attributed to MEN type 1 . This mutation also tends to affect younger individuals .
= = History = =
The condition was first described by Gerhard Engel in 1864 and Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen in 1890 , though William Hunter , who died in 1783 , is credited with finding the first example of the disease . " von Recklinghausen 's disease " ( without the qualification " of bone " ) is a completely unrelated disorder , nowadays termed neurofibromatosis . In 1884 , Davies Colley delivered a presentation to the Pathological Society of London that detailed the manifestation of hyperparathyroidism into a brown tumor of the mandible , as well as the histological makeup of the tumor .
The discovery and subsequent description of the parathyroid glands is credited to Ivar Sandstrom , though his publication , On a New Gland in Man and Several Mammals @-@ Glandulae Parathyroideae , received little attention . Gustaf Retzius and Eugene Gley compounded his research , the latter credited with the discovery of the function of the parathyroid glands . This research cumulated in the first surgical removal of a parathyroid tumor by Felix Mandel in 1925 . A 2 @.@ 5 × 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 × 38 mm ) tumor was removed from the thyroid artery of a man suffering from advanced OFC . The patient 's symptoms disappeared , only to return in approximately six years as a result of renal stones that were diagnosed only after the patient had died . In 1932 , blood tests on a female patient suffering from renal stone @-@ based OFC revealed extremely high blood calcium levels . Fuller Albright diagnosed and treated the woman , who suffered from a large tumor of the neck as well as renal stones .
The first published literature to describe a brown tumor ( which was linked to OFC ) was published in 1953 , though clinical reports from before 1953 do draw a correlation between the disease and tumors previous to the publication .
The advent of the multichannel autoanalyzer in the 1960s and 70s led to an increase in early diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism . This increase led to a sharp decline in the prolonged manifestation of the disease , leading to a drop in the number of cases of OFC due to the early detection of hyperparathyroidism . Before this invention , the diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism was generally prolonged until the emergence of severe manifestations , such as OFC .
|
= The Dying Swan =
The Dying Swan ( originally The Swan ) is a solo choreographed by Mikhail Fokine in 1905 to Camille Saint @-@ Saëns 's Le Cygne from Le Carnaval des animaux as a pièce d 'occasion for the ballerina Anna Pavlova , who performed it about 4 @,@ 000 times . The short ballet ( 4 minutes ) follows the last moments in the life of a swan , and was first presented in St. Petersburg , Russia in 1905 . The ballet has since influenced modern interpretations of Odette in Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake and has inspired non @-@ traditional interpretations and various adaptations .
= = Background = =
Inspired by swans that she had seen in public parks and Alfred , Lord Tennyson 's poem " The Dying Swan " , Anna Pavlova ( who had just become a ballerina at the Mariinsky Theatre ) asked Michel Fokine to create a solo for her for a 1905 concert being given by artists from the chorus of the Imperial Mariinsky Opera . Fokine suggested Saint @-@ Saëns 's cello solo , Le Cygne ( which Fokine had been playing at home on a mandolin to a friend 's piano accompaniment ) and Pavlova agreed . A rehearsal was arranged and the short dance completed very quickly . Fokine remarked in Dance Magazine ( August 1931 ) :
It was almost an improvisation . I danced in front of her , she directly behind me . Then she danced and I walked alongside her , curving her arms and correcting details of poses . Prior to this composition , I was accused of barefooted tendencies and of rejecting toe dancing in general . The Dying Swan was my answer to such criticism . This dance became the symbol of the New Russian Ballet . It was a combination of masterful technique with expressiveness . It was like a proof that the dance could and should satisfy not only the eye , but through the medium of the eye should penetrate the soul .
In 1934 , Fokine told Arnold Haskell , author of Balletomania :
Small work as it is , [ ... ] it was ' revolutionary ' then , and illustrated admirably the transition between the old and the new , for here I make use of the technique of the old dance and the traditional costume , and a highly developed technique is necessary , but the purpose of the dance is not to display that technique but to create the symbol of the everlasting struggle in this life and all that is mortal . It is a dance of the whole body and not of the limbs only ; it appeals not merely to the eye but to the emotions and the imagination .
= = Plot summary = =
The ballet was originally entitled The Swan but acquired its now familiar title following Pavlova 's tremulous interpretation of the work 's dramatic arc as the expiration of life . The dance is composed principally of supple upper body and arm movements and tiny , nibbling steps called pas de bourrée suivi .
The French critic André Levinson wrote :
Arms folded , on tiptoe , she dreamily and slowly circles the stage . By even , gliding motions of the hands , returning to the background from whence she emerged , she seems to strive toward the horizon , as though a moment more and she will fly — exploring the confines of space with her soul . The tension gradually relaxes and she sinks to earth , arms waving faintly as in pain . Then faltering with irregular steps toward the edge of the stage — leg bones quiver like the strings of a harp — by one swift forward @-@ gliding motion of the right foot to earth , she sinks on the left knee — the aerial creature struggling against earthly bonds ; and there , transfixed by pain , she dies .
= = Performances and critical commentary = =
The Dying Swan was first performed by Pavlova at a gala in the Noblemen 's Hall , St. Petersburg , Russia , on Friday , 22 December 1905 , and first performed in the United States at the Metropolitan Opera House , New York , on 18 March 1910 . American dance critic and photographer Carl Van Vechten noted that the ballet was " the most exquisite specimen of [ Pavlova 's ] art which she has yet given to the public . " Pavlova performed the role some 4 @,@ 000 times and , on her deathbed in The Hague , reportedly cried , " Prepare my swan costume . "
Fokine 's granddaughter , Isabelle , notes that the ballet does not make " enormous technical demands " on the dancer but it does make " enormous artistic ones because every movement and every gesture should signify a different experience , " which is " emerging from someone who is attempting to escape death . " She notes that modern performances are significantly different from her grandfather 's original conception and that the solo today is often made to appear to be a variation of Swan Lake — " Odette at death 's door . " The ballet is not about a ballerina being able to transform herself into a swan , she states , but about death , with the swan simply being a metaphor for that .
= = Legacy = =
Pavlova was recorded dancing The Dying Swan in a 1925 silent , nearly complete film , to which sound is often post @-@ applied . The short ballet has influenced interpretations of Odette in Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake , particularly in the parting of the lovers in the first lakeside scene .
The dance was almost immediately adapted following its premiere by various ballerinas across the globe to suit their techniques and temperaments . As a result , Fokine published an official version of the choreography in 1925 , highlighted with 36 photographs of his wife Vera Fokina demonstrating the ballet 's sequential poses . At a later date , Kirov @-@ trained Natalia Makarova commented :
Of Fokine 's original choreography [ ... ] only scattered fragments remain [ ... ] he created only the bourrées [ a walking or running ballet step usually executed on the points of the toes ] for Pavlova . Subsequently , every performer [ ... ] has used the piece at her own taste and at her own risk [ ... ] In Russia I had danced Dudinskaya 's version and [ ... ] experienced a certain discomfort [ ... ] from all the sentimental stuff — the rushing around the stage , the flailing of the arms [ ... ] to the contemporary eye , its conventions look almost ludicrous [ ... ] the dance needs total emotional abandon , conveying the image of a struggle with death or a surrender to it [ ... ] As for the emotional content , I was helped by Pavlova , whose film of the work I saw . Even today , her Swan is striking — the flawless feeling for style , the animated face — although certain melodramatic details seem superfluous .
The ballet has been variously interpreted and adapted . The 1917 Russian film The Dying Swan by director Yevgeni Bauer , for example , tells the story of an artist who strangles a ballerina . Maya Plisetskaya re @-@ interpreted the swan simply as elderly and stubbornly resisting the effects of aging , much like herself . Eventually the piece came to be considered one of Pavlova 's trademarks . More recently , Les Ballets Trockadero de Monte Carlo perform a parody version that emphasizes every excess dormant in the choreography , and , in 2000 , street theatre artist Judith Lanigan created a hula hoop act based on the Fokine / Pavlova ballet divertissement that has been performed at international street theatre festivals , comedy and burlesque events , and in traditional and contemporary @-@ style circuses .
Several figure skaters have performed The Dying Swan with skate @-@ choreography inspired by the original ballet . Maribel Vinson ( 1936 Olympic bronze medallist from the US ) reviewed Sonja Henie 's 1936 professional debut for The New York Times and noted :
The crowd settled quickly into a receptive mood for Sonja 's famous interpretation of the Dying Swan of Saint @-@ Saëns . With spotlights giving the ice the effect of water at night , Miss Henie , outlined in a blue light , performed the dance made immortal by Pavlova . Whether one agrees that such posturing is suited to the medium of ice , there is no doubt that Miss Henie 's rendition is a lovely thing . Too much toe work at the start leaves the feeling that this does not belong to skating , but when she glides effortlessly back and forth , she is free as a disembodied spirit and there is an ease of movement that ballet never can produce .
Some ballerinas , including Ashley Bouder of New York City Ballet and Nina Ananiashvili , formerly of American Ballet Theatre , have used " Dying Swan " arms in Swan Lake when making Odette 's exit at the end of Act II ( the first lakeside scene ) .
|
= Anahim hotspot =
The Anahim hotspot is a volcanic hotspot in central British Columbia , Canada . It is situated on the Interior Plateau , a large region that lies between the Cariboo and Monashee Mountains to the east , and the Hazelton Mountains , Coast Mountains to the west . As a geologic hotspot , it is a place that has experienced active volcanism over a long period of time .
Identifiable from the mid @-@ Miocene period , it has recorded changes in the western @-@ moving North American Plate because it is believed to have been relatively stationary for tens of millions of years . Since then it has formed a line of volcanoes called the Anahim Volcanic Belt , stretching from the coast to the Interior Plateau near Quesnel . Each of the volcanoes was once over the hotspot , but migration of the North American Plate has pulled the volcanoes away from the hotspot 's magmatic source at a rate of 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) to 3 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) per year . As a result , the volcanoes are progressively older to the west . The composition of magma to the volcanoes and its supply change with time as the volcanoes grow over the hotspot and migrate away .
= = Geological history = =
= = = Dike swarm emplacements = = =
The Anahim hotspot has a long history . About 13 and 12 million years ago , the Anahim hotspot created a peralkaline volcanic complex on what was then the coast of British Columbia , now heavily eroded to form the ~ 20 km ( 12 mi ) long Bella Bella and ~ 6 km ( 4 mi ) long Gale Passage dike swarms . Individual dikes are as thick as 20 m ( 66 ft ) and have basalt , trachyte , and comendite compositions . The converging dikes may mark the first appearance of the Anahim hotspot . During the early to middle Miocene era , the passage of the Anahim hotspot beneath the range created the central Coast Mountains ; this orogeny caused reactions with the North American Plate in late Miocene @-@ Pliocene time .
= = = Rainbow Range eruptive period = = =
During a period of 2 million years , extrusion of highly fluid basic and silicic lava flows built up the gently sloping Late Miocene Rainbow Range . It is one of three large peralkaline shield volcanoes that lie on an east @-@ west trend in west @-@ central British Columbia . Alkaline and peralkaline lava flows from four volcanic episodes make up an 845 m ( 2 @,@ 772 ft ) composite section on the north flank of the shield volcano . Basal comenditic trachyte flows are unconformably overlain by flows and flow breccias of mugearite . A sequence of 40 – 60 m ( 130 – 200 ft ) thick columnar @-@ jointed comendite flows blankets the underlying units and gives the volcano its shield @-@ like form . Hawaiite dikes , plugs , and minor capping flows are scattered over the north flank . Comendite flows , which commonly have a glassy selvage at the base , account for 75 % of the lavas in the flank zone . The Rainbow shield was erupting until 6 @.@ 7 million years ago .
= = = Ilgachuz Range eruptive period = = =
Over a period of 2 million years , extrusion of highly fluid basic and silicic lava flows built up the gently sloping Late Miocene @-@ to @-@ Early Pliocene Ilgachuz Range . It is the second youngest of the three large peralkine shield volcanoes that lie on an east @-@ west trend in west @-@ central British Columbia with a diameter of 25 km ( 16 mi ) . The Ilgachuz shield was created by two chemically separate magmatic periods ; an early complex series of trachyte and rhyolite eruptions and late extrusion of a sequence of basaltic lava flows . The surface of the outer shield , cut by deeply incised radial valleys , rises to a complexly dissected summit area where remnants of a small central caldera and numerous felsic domes and basaltic feeders are exposed . The outer flanks of the shield merge with flat @-@ lying basalt of the Chilcotin Group , which is thought to have been formed by a back @-@ arc basin behind the Cascadia subduction zone . The volcano was spewing out ash , cinder , pumice , rhyolite , trachyte and basaltic lava up until 4 million years ago .
= = = Itcha Range eruptive period = = =
During a period of 3 million years , extrusion of undersaturated trachyte flows built up the gently sloping Late Pliocene @-@ to @-@ Pleistocene Itcha Range . It is the easternmost and youngest of the three large felsic shield volcanoes lying on an east @-@ west trend in west @-@ central British Columbia . It has a diameter of 15 km ( 9 mi ) . The broad scale morphology of the Itcha shield is given by the extensive lateral distribution of thick ( 70 – 150 m ( 230 – 490 ft ) ) felsic flows which erupted from fissure vents around a central vent to cover an area of 330 km3 ( 79 cu mi ) . Most late @-@ stage lavas capping the Itcha shield complex were erupted from cinder cones , tuff rings , and fissure vents in the eastern half of the complex about 80 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = = Nazko Cone eruptive period = = =
Throughout the Holocene epoch , the Anahim hotspot has energized numerous volcanoes . This volcanic activity has produced numerous Hawaiian eruptions , which created lava fountains , small cinder cones and lava flows . The youngest expression of the Anahim hotspot is Nazko Cone , which formed about 340 @,@ 000 years ago . The most recent eruptive activity at Nazko Cone occurred about 7 @,@ 200 years ago . This is very recent in geological terms , suggesting that the volcano may yet have some ongoing volcanic activity . The Rainbow Range is the largest Anahim volcano , although Nazko Cone is now the site of the most intense volcanic activity , located directly on top of the Anahim hotspot at . Its last eruption started with an eruption of two different progressions of runny lava flows , which resulted in an older , grey basalt becoming overlain by a younger , darker black basaltic lava flow . The passive eruptions were followed by a period of explosive eruptions . This explosive activity built three overlying cinder cones that broke by the two lava flows near the end of the explosive phase of activity . The last phase of explosive activity spread tephra to the north and east of the cones . The deepest deposits near the cone are less than 3 m ( 10 ft ) ; that they thin to less than a few centimetres only a few kilometres away , suggests that the explosive eruptions at Nazko Cone were fairly small . However , the last eruption from Nazko Cone could have started forest fires , since there is charcoal inside the tephra layer .
= = Petrology and geochemistry = =
Analysis of the chemical composition of the lavas gives important clues about the source and dynamics of the hotspot plume . Where hotspots occur under thick continental crust , basaltic magma is trapped in the less dense continental crust , which is heated and melts to form rhyolites . These rhyolites can be quite hot and form violent eruptions , despite their low water content . Such rhyolitic magma can be found at the western part of the Anahim Volcanic Belt , which contrasts the more basaltic material in the Nazko Cone area . This suggests that as the North American Plate moves westwards , the Anahim hotspot underlies thinner continental crust . This hypothesis has been verified by observation of the crustal regime in other compression margins – the thickest granitic structures are found near the margin itself , with the North American Plate becoming less compressed in regions away from the margin . In this case , the thinner crust would represent briefer travel time , thus reducing the time available for magma differentiation , whose end products are rhyolites . As most magma is basaltic in origin , the eruption would therefore contain more basaltic materials . A few igneous rock types with composition unlike basalt , such as nephelinite , do occur at the small basaltic cinder cones and flows but are extremely rare .
Basaltic lava flows have a high ferromagnesian ( iron and magnesium ) content and erupt at temperatures between 1000 ° C and 1200 ° C ; these values are higher than those of other common igneous rocks . Due to the high temperature of this lava flow , the lava would be extremely fluid ( it has low viscosity ) , allowing the lava to travel long distances from the magma source ( the volcano or vent ) . These extremely fluid lavas have flow speeds that depend heavily on underlying terrain , with a maximum of almost 60 kilometres per hour ( 37 mph ) in underground lava channels . Flow independent of such channels and tubes moves quite a bit slower , averaging speeds of 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 mi ) per hour . However , this flow speed changes considerably within the flow , with speeds depending heavily on depth and degree of cooling that the flow has experienced ( essentially distance from the vent ) . Although the Nazko area flows would not be highly basaltic like those found in Iceland or Hawaii , lower depths are unlikely as viscosity is normally higher .
A few volcanic centers in the vicinity of the Bella Bella and Gale Passage dike swarms , such as Helmet Peak and Kitasu Hill , which are members of the Milbanke Sound Group , may represent the westernmost of the Anahim volcanoes , but their ages are significantly different , provoking on @-@ going questions about their origin and connection to other regional volcanic activity . However , many volcanoes in that center are believed to be monogenetic , suggesting a monogenetic volcanic field may be responsible .
= = Origin = =
The source of the Anahim hotspot is a matter of controversy . Some geologists hypothesize that the Anahim hotspot is linked with an upper mantle plume ( miniplume ) rather than the more common deep mantle plume because of the small size of the Bella Bella and Gale Passage dike swarms . Others prefer to attribute the hotspot to tensional cracking of the lithosphere above the northern edge of the subducting Juan de Fuca and Explorer plates at the Cascadia subduction zone or interpreted as an edge effect of the subducting plates in the mantle . None of the hypotheses so far suggested is without critics . Part of the controversy is due to the rather sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record . A number of hotspot models have been suggested to explain tensional cracking origins , however . Some of Earth 's more prominent hotspots were unified along with flood basalt volcanism and continential rifting . While mafic lava flows appear to merge laterally with the less silicon @-@ undersaturated lavas of the Chilcotin Group surrounding the Anahim Volcanic Belt , the particular nature and connection between the Anahim hotspot and the Chilcotin Group is unknown . Volcanic chemistry and isotopic composition of the Anahim Volcanic Belt do not distinguish between either a rift or a hotspot setting .
= = Future and present = =
Volcanism appears to have ceased in the western parts of the Anahim Volcanic Belt , but if that is correct , future eruptive activity can be expected in the Nazko Cone area and east of it . Future eruptions from the Anahim hotspot are most likely in the creation of basaltic cinder cones , but eruptions of less mafic magma , typical of the eastern portions of the Anahim Volcanic Belt , cannot be ruled out .
= = = Seismology = = =
The Anahim hotspot is the only notable earthquake zone in the Canadian Cordillera away from the British Columbia Coast . A series of < 3 @.@ 0 magnitude earthquakes began October 9 , 2007 with its epicenter in the McNaughton Lake region near Nazko Cone , which could signal the resumption of intense subterranean volcanic activity in the area . Thirty @-@ four such < 3 @.@ 0 magnitude earthquakes were observed on October 10 , 2007 alone . Since then more than 1 @,@ 000 small earthquakes have been recorded . They are thought to have originated 25 km ( 16 mi ) below the surface , but none of them have been felt by people . The cause of this seismic activity is believed to be the upwelling of 500 @,@ 000 m3 ( 650 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of magma , because the area is not close to any faults or tectonic plate boundaries . This is the first indication of potential volcanic activity in Canada since around 1830 to 1850 in northwestern British Columbia .
The recent earthquake swarms in the Anahim hotspot have aroused much interest from volcanologists and seismologists since they began on October 9 , 2007 . More than 1 @,@ 000 earthquakes have now been detected , and seven stations are now monitoring the area for further activity . The region 's earthquake swarms have given rise to speculation of a possible eruption , a possibility estimated around 10 % . An eruption in the region would not cause many fatalities , due to the region 's remoteness , but people engaged in logging and ranching in the region are at risk . The greatest threats would be from forest fires and possible health risks to those in the area if volcanic gasses or ash columns were released . Also , the Anahim hotspot is situated in the immediate proximity of a major air traffic route , and volcanic ash reduces visibility and can cause jet engine failure as well as damage to other aircraft systems .
|
= 1952 Groundhog Day tropical storm =
The extraordinary 1952 Groundhog Day Storm was the only Atlantic tropical cyclone on record in the month of February . First observed in the western Caribbean Sea on February 2 as a non @-@ frontal low , it moved rapidly throughout its duration and struck southwestern Florida early the next day as a gale @-@ force storm . In the state , the winds damaged some crops and power lines , but no serious damage was reported . The system became a tropical storm after emerging over the Atlantic Ocean before quickly transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on February 4 . Strong winds and waves washed a freighter ashore , but no injuries were related to the event . Subsequently , the storm brushed eastern New England , causing minor power outages , before it moved inland near Maine . There were no reported fatalities related to the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
On February 2 , Groundhog Day , a disturbance was first observed in the western Caribbean Sea . Winds were estimated at around 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , and it tracked rapidly northward , initially to the north @-@ northwest . After passing near Cancún along the Yucatan Peninsula , it turned northeastward and brushed the northwest coast of Cuba . Early on February 3 the storm approached Key West , and shortly thereafter moved ashore near Cape Sable , Florida . It quickly crossed the state , passing near Miami before emerging into the western Atlantic Ocean . The Miami National Weather Service office recorded a wind gust of 68 mph ( 110 km / h ) , as well as sustained tropical storm force winds for about four hours ; the station also recorded a barometric pressure of 1004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 66 inHg ) .
After leaving Florida , the storm continued rapidly northeastward and transitioned into a tropical cyclone . Late on February 3 it reached its peak strength with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . On February 4 it completed the transition into an extratropical cyclone off the coast of North Carolina . Around that time , gale force winds extended 100 miles ( 160 km ) to the east of the center . Later that day , it passed over Cape Cod , and early on February 5 it moved into eastern Maine . The Hurricane Research Division assessed the storm as losing its identity shortly thereafter , over New Brunswick . However , a map produced by the U.S. Weather Bureau indicated that the storm continued northward into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and later crossed eastern Quebec and Labrador . By February 6 , it reached the ocean again , deepening to a minimum pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . At that point , the Weather Bureau track ended , and as such the ultimate fate of the storm is unknown .
= = Impact and records = =
Residents and tourists in southern Florida were unprepared for the unusual off @-@ season storm . Winds of up to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) spread across the area , causing damage to windows and power lines . The storm dropped 2 – 4 inches ( 50 – 100 mm ) of precipitation along its path ; the combination of unseasonable rainfall and winds resulted in crop damage in Miami @-@ Dade County .
After the storm moved into the western Atlantic , the Miami U.S. Weather Bureau issued storm warnings for the North Carolina coastline from Wilmington to Cape Hatteras ; the region was warned to prepare for strong winds . The agency also issued a small craft advisory southward through Charleston , South Carolina . Offshore , the storm produced winds of up to 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , as well as waves up to 35 feet ( 10 m ) in height . The combination of the winds and rough waves drove a freighter ashore along Portsmouth Island in the Outer Banks , after the engine was damaged when water entered the fuel line . The 26 person crew initially planned to evacuate , but they later decided to stay on the freighter as the U.S. Coast Guard were deployed to assist . The seas damaged a portion of the ship , but the entire crew was rescued without any injuries . The storm later brushed New England , bringing rain , fog , warmer temperatures , and gusty winds . The combination resulted in downed power poles and tree limbs , leaving 10 @,@ 000 houses without electricity .
The storm was described as a " freak " , forming about three months after the end of the hurricane season . The chief forecaster at Miami U.S. Weather Bureau , Grady Norton , remarked that he was unsure how the cyclone developed . It is the only tropical or subtropical storm on record during the month of February , and was the earliest tropical cyclone to strike the United States . Its structure initially was uncertain , and the storm was not included in the 1952 Atlantic hurricane season summary published by the Miami Weather Bureau office . Ultimately it was included in the tropical cyclone database . Had it been operationally treated as a tropical cyclone , it would have been named Tropical Storm Able .
|
= Gabriel Jones ( Virginia ) =
Gabriel Jones ( May 17 , 1724 – October 1806 ) was an 18th @-@ century Welsh American lawyer , legislator , court clerk and civil servant in the colony ( and later U.S. state ) of Virginia .
Jones attended Christ 's Hospital ( also known as " The Bluecoat School " ) , after which he served as an indentured apprentice studying jurisprudence under a solicitor in the Court of Chancery and of Lyon 's Inn in Middlesex . At the age of 21 , Jones was admitted to practice law following the completion of his apprenticeship . He was persuaded by either Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , the landowner of the Northern Neck Proprietary , or his relative Hugh Mercer to return to Virginia , where he engaged in the practice of law .
Jones served as Clerk of Court for Hampshire County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) for a tenure lasting 25 years ( 1757 – 1782 ) and represented Frederick , Hampshire , and Augusta counties as a member of the House of Burgesses of Virginia . In addition , Jones also served as the King 's Attorney for Augusta County and as the coroner for Frederick County . He was elected to represent Virginia at the Continental Congress but did not attend , and was elected to represent Rockingham County in the Virginia Ratifying Convention . Jones was an uncle of American pioneer John Gabriel Jones ( 1752 – 1776 ) , and he was a friend of both George Washington and Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron .
= = Early life and education = =
Gabriel Jones was born on May 17 , 1724 , approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Williamsburg , in York County , Colony of Virginia . He was a son of John and Elizabeth Jones , who had arrived in Virginia several years earlier from Montgomeryshire in northern Wales , Great Britain , where Jones 's family was of noble descent . Jones 's father was a weaver . Jones 's elder sister Elizabeth was born on August 13 , 1721 , at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg , and his younger brother John was born on June 12 , 1725 , at the same location as Jones .
According to Jones family tradition , Jones 's father lost a significant amount of his wealth while in Virginia , which brought about his family 's return to England in 1727 . Jones 's father 's death prior to 1727 also precipitated the family 's move , and following their relocation to England , Elizabeth raised Jones and his siblings in London where she had Jones 's sister baptized at St Giles in the Fields on February 20 , 1727 .
In April 1732 , Jones was granted admission to Christ 's Hospital ( also known as " The Bluecoat School " ) in London following his presentation by Thomas Sandford . Jones attended Christ 's Hospital for seven years . On April 12 , 1739 , he was discharged from the institution by his mother and John Houghton , a Solicitor in the Court of Chancery and of Lyon 's Inn in Middlesex . Despite its noble origins , Jones 's family was of limited means , and he served as an indentured apprentice studying jurisprudence under Houghton 's charge for a term of six years until 1745 . At the age of 21 , Jones was admitted to practice law following the completion of his apprenticeship .
= = Political career = =
= = = Return to Virginia = = =
Following his admission to the bar and the death of his mother in 1745 , Jones was persuaded by either Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , the landowner of the Northern Neck Proprietary , or his relative Hugh Mercer to return to Virginia . Once he was " free of his indentures " and had " attained his majority " , Jones secured his return to Virginia . He settled first in Fredericksburg and later relocated to Frederick County , after which on March 1 , 1747 , he acquired a tract of land along Opequon Creek near present @-@ day Kernstown , where he resided for several years . Upon settling in Frederick County , Jones became the private secretary to Lord Fairfax .
= = = House of Burgesses tenures = = =
Jones was appointed to serve as the first King 's Attorney for Augusta County around April 1746 , at the age of 22 . The county 's court recommended Jones to the position , citing him " as a fit person to transact His Majesty 's affairs in this county " . Jones continued to reside in Frederick County while performing the duties of King 's Attorney in Augusta County . When the first appointed justices of Augusta County assembled on December 9 , 1745 , the body qualified Jones to practice as an " attorney @-@ at @-@ law " in the county . He was the first lawyer to reside within the then @-@ boundaries of Augusta County . Jones served in that position for two years until his election to represent Frederick County as a member of the House of Burgesses of Virginia in 1748 , and he was subsequently re @-@ elected to his seat for the 1749 legislative session . From 1748 to 1750 , Jones represented Frederick County alongside George Fairfax .
Jones was again elected to represent Frederick County in the House of Burgesses in 1752 , but resigned in 1753 to serve as the county 's coroner . From 1752 until 1754 , Jones represented Frederick County alongside George William Fairfax . In 1753 , Jones relocated from Kernstown in Frederick County to his estate " Bogota " in Augusta County ( present @-@ day Rockingham County near the modern unincorporated community of Port Republic ) . From 1754 to 1755 , Jones served alongside a Mr. Parker representing Hampshire County in the House of Burgesses . Jones and Parker were Hampshire County 's first representatives in the House of Burgesses following the county 's creation on May 1 , 1754 . Jones , along with Lord Fairfax , was appointed as a trustee for the towns of Winchester and Stephensburg ( present @-@ day Stephens City ) charged with laying out the towns and establishing regulations for the construction of residences in each town .
= = = Hampshire County Clerk of Court tenure = = =
In 1757 , Jones was appointed by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , to serve as Clerk of Court for Hampshire County . Jones was on close terms with Lord Fairfax , and George Rockingham Gilmer described Jones as a " kinsman , friend and executor of Lord Fairfax " . Despite the county 's establishment in 1754 , it was not until 1757 that formal record @-@ keeping was actualized in Hampshire County , due in part to the French and Indian War . While Archibald Wager was likely the first appointed Clerk of Court for Hampshire County , Jones was the first operational appointee to serve in the position . According to historian Wilmer L. Kerns in Hampshire County , West Virginia , 1754 – 2004 ( 2004 ) , Jones was " well @-@ organized " and had the " best penmanship of any clerk in the history of the county , in spite of being totally blind in his right eye " . Historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher described Jones 's handwriting as " unmistakable " in their History of Hampshire County , West Virginia ( 1897 ) .
Around 1760 , Jones hired Samuel Dew of Richmond County to serve as his deputy clerk . Dew apprenticed under Jones for 21 years , occasionally performing duties as acting clerk . Due to his close relationship with Lord Fairfax , it is likely that Jones was Clerk of Court of neighboring counties also under the ownership of Lord Fairfax 's Northern Neck Proprietary . According to Maxwell and Swisher , Jones relied upon his deputy clerks , such as Dew , to transcribe and document court proceedings , which Jones traveled among the various counties to sign .
While serving as Clerk of Court , Jones was again elected to serve as a member of the House of Burgesses representing Augusta County from 1757 until 1758 and Hampshire County from 1758 until 1761 . It was during this period that Jones formed a close relationship with George Washington , and the two regularly corresponded . Jones was elected to serve a final term in the House of Burgesses representing Augusta County in 1771 . In 1774 , Jones was elected to represent Virginia in the Continental Congress but did not attend . When Jones 's Bogota estate became part of the newly minted Rockingham County following its creation from Augusta County in 1778 , Jones thus became a citizen of Rockingham and was summarily appointed as its Deputy Commonwealth 's Attorney . Jones was also commissioned to ascertain the " pay and subsistence " of the Virginia militia and damages caused by Cherokee and Catawba Native American tribes throughout the Virginia frontier . In addition , Jones was appointed , along with Samuel Washington and George Read , by the Continental Congress and Virginia to travel to Fort Pitt , Pennsylvania , to inquire about " the condition of affairs there " in 1777 . Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , Jones was one of the executors of Lord Fairfax 's will .
Jones served as Clerk of Court for Hampshire County for a tenure spanning 25 years until his retirement from the position in 1782 . In their History of Hampshire County , West Virginia ( 1897 ) , Maxwell and Swisher theorize that Jones retired from his position due in part to Lord Fairfax 's death the previous year and waning British influence in Virginia toward the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Following his retirement from his position as Clerk of Court for Hampshire County , Jones continued to remain active in Virginia political affairs . In 1784 , George Washington visited and dined with Jones at his home at Bogota . In 1788 , Jones and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Thomas Lewis were elected to represent Rockingham County at the Virginia Ratifying Convention , where both were fervent proponents for the adoption of the United States Constitution . Archibald Stuart of neighboring Augusta County traveled to Rockingham to canvass for Jones prior to the election , and in return , Jones gifted Stuart a chaise for he and his wife to return home in to Augusta County . Jones was among the first trustees of the Staunton Academy , following its incorporation by an act of the Virginia General Assembly on December 4 , 1792 .
Jones continued to practice law in Rockingham County until his death . The road upon which he regularly traveled between his residence Bogota and Rockingham County 's seat of Harrisonburg became known as " The Lawyer 's Road " , which evolved to its present name of " Lawyer Road " . Because of his prominence throughout the Valley of Virginia region , and possibly also due to the fact he may have been the first lawyer in Augusta County , Jones was nicknamed " The Valley Lawyer " . Jones died at his estate Bogota in October 1806 .
In the spring of 1887 , a memorial window to Jones and his wife was installed in a new Episcopal church erected near their former Bogota residence . Jones was further memorialized in historian Joseph Addison Waddell 's Annals of Augusta County , Virginia ( 1886 ) , in which Waddell remarked of Jones : " He was considered a man of great ability and unbending integrity . His only fault , or the only one which tradition tells of , was an extremely irritable temper , which , when aroused , expressed itself in the strongest terms he could command , mingled with no little profanity . Having a scorn of all dishonesty and meanness , he did not spare a miscreant by tongue or pen . " In his Historic Families of Kentucky ( 1889 ) , historian and genealogist Thomas Marshall Green said of Jones : " Gabriel Jones rose rapidly in his profession ; in attainments he was second to no man at the colonial bar ; in native ability he was conspicuous among those who stood in the first rank . "
= = Personal life = =
Jones was married on October 16 , 1749 , to Margaret Strother Morton ( 1726 – 1822 ) , the widow of George Morton and the daughter of William Strother and his wife Margaret Watts of King George County . Jones 's wife lived to be 97 , and was described by Waddell in his Annals of Augusta County , Virginia as " a lady of eminent Christian character " . Jones and his wife Margaret had three daughters , one son , and a child of unknown sex that died in infancy : Margaret Morton Jones Harvie , married to lawyer Colonel John Harvie of Albemarle County ; Elizabeth Jones Lewis , married to merchant John Lewis of Fredericksburg ( son of Fielding Lewis and his first wife Catharine Washington ) ; Anna Gabriella Jones Hawkins , married to John Hawkins of Kentucky ; and William Strother Jones ( born March 21 , 1756 ) , married to Fanny Thornton of Fredericksburg .
Jones was an Anglican . As early as 1750 , Jones used the same family crest and coat of arms as philologist Sir William Jones , indicating a possible familial relationship between the two . Physically , Jones was of short stature , and according to an extant contemporary portrait of him by artist John Drinker , Jones sported a wig and an eyepatch over his right eye . According to Jones 's descendants , it was supposed that his right eye was injured in his earlier years while others attributed the loss of his right eye to an accident during his later years . Jones was completely blind in his right eye , and had likely suffered his injury prior to his tenure as Clerk of Court for Hampshire County in 1757 . Philip Doddridge described Jones as wearing a bicorne hat , " frilled shirt bosom " , and waistbands . He further described Jones as sporting " powdered hair " , a blue coat , a white vest , a cravat , silk stockings , and silver knee and shoe buckles .
In his spare time during and between holding political appointments and serving in elected offices , Jones regularly embarked upon " pleasure trips " to various American cities including Baltimore and Richmond . Another known pastime of Jones 's was gaming . According to Maxwell and Swisher in their History of Hampshire County , West Virginia ( 1897 ) , Jones had been gambling over the course of several days while in Richmond until a final game left him with only one shilling remaining in his pocketbook . Jones was wearing a coat fastened with twelve gold buttons each valued at five dollars , and undeterred after losing his last shilling , he began staking one gold button at a time until he was left with one . Without hesitation , Jones removed his final button and remarked : " Here goes the last button on Gabe 's coat . " Maxwell and Swisher state that Jones 's remark " became a proverb in Hampshire County " and was used when someone had been driven to extremes and utilized what little resources were left at their disposal .
= = Landholdings = =
Jones settled in Frederick County and on March 1 , 1747 , he acquired a tract of land along Opequon Creek near present @-@ day Kernstown , where he resided for several years . On August 8 , 1751 , Jones acquired from Christopher Francisco of Pennsylvania 244 acres ( 99 ha ; 0 @.@ 381 sq mi ) of land along the northern side of the South Fork Shenandoah River in Augusta County ( later Rockingham County ) near the present @-@ day unincorporated community of Port Republic .
While still a resident in Frederick County , Jones purchased another 400 acres ( 160 ha ; 0 @.@ 63 sq mi ) on the northern side of the James River in Botetourt County . On December 3 , 1753 , Jones sold his property near Kernstown in Frederick County and relocated to his tract of land along the Shenandoah River , on which he established his estate later known as Bogota . Jones was the first to settle and construct a residence on his Bogota property upon his arrival in 1753 , and the estate received its name under Jones 's occupancy . Jones continued to reside at Bogota until his death in 1806 .
Following Jones 's death in 1806 , his widow Margaret Morton Jones continued to reside at Bogota until her own death in 1822 . Jaquelin Harvie , the son of Jones 's daughter Margaret Jones Harvie and her husband John Harvie , purchased the Bogota estate after the death of Jones 's wife , and Harvie subsequently sold the property in 1830 to Jacob Strayer , who built the current house in 1845 – 1847 . The original house erected and occupied by Jones was demolished shortly after the construction of the current house . The site of Jones 's house is presently located on property no longer part of the Bogota estate , which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 25 , 2009 . A log tenant house estimated to have been built during the mid @-@ 18th century during the ownership of the Jones family is extant , and remains part of the current Bogota estate , as of 2008 .
|
= Circuit split =
In United States federal courts , a circuit split occurs when two or more different circuit courts of appeals provide conflicting rulings on the same legal issue . The existence of a circuit split is one of the factors that the Supreme Court of the United States considers when deciding whether to grant review of a case . Some scholars suggest that the Supreme Court is more likely to grant review of a case to resolve a circuit split than for any other reason .
Despite the Supreme Court 's desire to resolve conflicts between circuit courts , legal scholars disagree about whether circuit splits are detrimental or beneficial . Some argue that circuit splits are harmful because they create confusion and encourage forum shopping , while other scholars argue that variation among circuits allows local courts to experiment with new laws that reflect the values of local residents . Scholars have also observed that regional variations in different areas of the United States have provided certain circuits with a particular specialization or expertise in some subjects of the law .
= = Origins = =
Article III of the United States Constitution specifies that " [ t ] he judicial Power of the United States , shall be vested in one supreme Court , and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish . " In 1789 , Congress created the first system of intermediate appellate courts , known as federal circuit courts , which had appellate jurisdiction over certain matters decided by District Courts . These federal circuit courts consisted of two justices from the Supreme Court of the United States and one district court judge . In 1891 , Congress created the existing system of United States courts of appeals , which hear appeals from United States district courts within limited geographic areas . For example , the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit hears appeals originating from United States district courts in Louisiana , Mississippi , and Texas . Decisions in circuit courts are usually made by rotating three @-@ judge panels chosen from judges sitting within that circuit , and circuit courts also occasionally decide cases en banc .
Circuit courts do not collaborate or work with other circuits to resolve legal issues , and different circuit courts may reach conflicting conclusions about the same legal issue . Furthermore , cases decided in one circuit are not binding authority on other circuits . If the Supreme Court of the United States has not ruled on a legal issue , federal courts of appeals resolve these issues " as they see fit , subject only to a norm of intracircuit stare decisis . " When a circuit split occurs , there is rarely an even numeric division among courts of appeals with regard to how the dispute should be resolved . In fact , one study found that courts of appeals split evenly in less than one third of all circuit splits . Occasionally , separate courts of appeals will reach three or more different conclusions with regard to the same legal issue .
= = Significance = =
Some scholars criticize the existence of circuit splits , while other scholars suggest that circuit splits may , in fact , be beneficial . Others simply argue that circuit splits may not be ideal , but problems associated with inter @-@ circuit conflicts are overstated . For example , Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Harvie Wilkinson once stated the " world will not end because a few circuit splits are left unresolved . "
= = = Criticisms of circuit splits = = =
Legal analysts have identified problems associated with circuit splits . Jesse M. Boodoo , for example , suggests that circuit splits create a state of confusion and uncertainty for citizens . Because different laws are applied and enforced in different jurisdictions , Daniel J. Meador has argued that Circuit splits may create a judicial " Tower of Babel . " Additionally , Wayne A. Logan has argued that if courts speak with a unified voice , this will " secure popular respect for judicial authority . " Likewise , Matthew Lund cautions that circuit splits will lead to forum shopping , where litigants flock to jurisdictions with more favorable laws . Judge Kimberly A. Moore also suggests that circuit splits and forum shopping lead to economic inefficiency because outcomes are unpredictable and litigants are less likely to settle .
Scholars have also argued that inconsistent application of laws in different circuits is inherently unfair . Trevor W. Morrison , for example , claims that circuit splits create potential due process conflicts if criminal defendants are unaware that their behavior constitutes criminal activity in that circuit . An article in the New England Journal on Criminal & Civil Confinement also suggested that there is the potential for the unconstitutional ex post facto application of law after circuit splits are resolved . Additionally , Jesse M. Boodoo argues that federal agencies tasked with enforcing laws throughout the United States may face challenges implementing regulatory measures when federal legislation is interpreted differently in separate circuits .
= = = Arguments in favor of circuit splits = = =
Legal scholars have also identified benefits associated with circuit splits . For example , Justice Louis Brandeis praised the fact that splits of opinion among courts allow jurisdictions to experiment with new developments in law without risking harm to other jurisdictions . Judge Diane P. Wood has suggested that circuit splits and " disagreements with colleagues force judges to sharpen their writing , push them to defend their positions , and from time to time persuade them that someone else 's perspective is preferable " . Amanda Frost has argued that negative attitudes toward circuit splits may hinder progress and creative problem solving because " [ c ] ourts of appeals are generally hesitant to depart from precedent set in other jurisdictions , despite being under no obligation to adhere to decisions by sister circuits . " Consequently , Frost suggests that uniformity among circuits may be " overvalued . " Likewise , Wayne A. Logan suggests that Circuit splits may also be beneficial by virtue of the fact that citizens in different parts of the country have different preferences for how to structure their laws . Additionally , Judge J. Clifford Wallace has argued that there is nothing inherently wrong with different laws existing in different circuits , and " if conflicts were by their very nature unacceptable , the traditional rule denying precedential status to out @-@ of @-@ circuit decisions probably would not have enjoyed its long history . "
= = Resolving circuit splits at the Supreme Court of the United States = =
One of the primary functions of the Supreme Court of the United States is to ensure that laws are interpreted uniformly among intermediate courts of appeal . Unless the legislature takes action , the United States Supreme Court is the only source of resolution for conflicts among intermediate courts of appeal . Consequently , the existence of a circuit split may be a key factor when the Supreme Court decides whether to accept a case . Although the Court always maintains discretion over whether it should grant review of a case , the Rules of the Supreme Court of the United States specifically state that the existence of a circuit split is one of the factors the Court considers when deciding whether to grant review . Philip Allen Lacovara and H.W. Perry both claim that the existence of a circuit split is " the single most important generalizable factor " that determines whether the Supreme Court will grant review of a case .
Although federal judges are prohibited from commenting publicly " on the merits of a matter pending or impending in any court " , Judge Alfred T. Goodwin has stated that circuit court judges will occasionally create circuit splits to " hold the Supreme Court 's toes to the fire " and force the Supreme Court to overrule precedent in other circuits . Goodwin also wrote that " some of our number actually found it intellectually stimulating to challenge the Supreme Court from time to time " but that those judges were " usually were rewarded by a Nine Zip reversal " . Likewise , Judge Charles R. Wilson noted that when he drafted dissenting opinions , he would consider whether the parties planned to appeal the case to the Supreme Court of the United States , and " [ i ] f I believe that the parties will [ file an appeal ] , I write the dissent with the Supreme Court in mind " . C. Steven Bradford has also argued that circuit courts will " disregard a Supreme Court precedent if convinced that the Supreme Court would not follow it " .
A study of Supreme Court cases during the first six terms of the Roberts Court ( 2005 @-@ 2010 ) resolving circuit splits found that the Supreme Court upheld the view held by the majority of circuits in 51 @.@ 5 percent of all cases . This same study found the greatest agreement when deciding legal issues between the Fifth and Tenth circuits ( 80 @.@ 6 percent ) , the First and Second circuits ( 73 @.@ 5 percent ) , and the Fifth and Fourth circuits ( 73 @.@ 0 percent ) . The circuit courts that agreed the least frequently were the Ninth and Fourth circuits ( 39 @.@ 0 percent ) and the Ninth and Seventh circuits ( 39 @.@ 2 percent ) . Additionally , a study analyzing cases from the 2010 term found that nearly two thirds of Supreme Court decisions resolving circuit splits were decided unanimously or by an 8 @-@ 1 vote . Historically , the Supreme Court has reversed a high percentage of cases from the Ninth Circuit . In the 1996 @-@ 1997 term , the Supreme Court reversed twenty seven out of twenty eight cases on review from the Ninth Circuit . Marybeth Herald attributes this high reversal rate to the Ninth Circuit 's liberal reputation , and former United States senator Conrad Burns claims the Ninth Circuit is " out of step " with the rest of the nation .
= = Specialization among circuit courts of appeals = =
The eleven numbered circuit courts of appeals and the District of Columbia Circuit have appellate jurisdiction over cases in almost every area of the law arising within the boundaries of that circuit . However , the subjects that appear more frequently in each circuit vary according to the kinds of cases that arise more often within the circuit 's boundaries . The District of Columbia Circuit , for example , hears a large number of administrative law cases . Likewise , the Second Circuit hears nearly one third of all federal securities law appeals , and the Fifth Circuit hears approximately one half of all federal immigration appeals . Eric Hansford argues that this has led to " specialized " courts with particular expertise with the subjects that appear before the court more frequently . Studies also suggest that the Supreme Court is more likely to affirm decisions of circuit courts when the circuit court has ruled on a case for which they possess special expertise .
In some specialized areas of the law , cases are assigned to a court of appeals that possesses expertise in that area of the law . For example , Congress created the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit as an exclusive federal court of appeals for patent cases . Congress noted that consolidating cases in a single court of appeals would " strengthen the United States patent system in such a way as to foster technological growth and industrial innovation . " Because of its role as a specialist court , circuit splits rarely exist between the Federal Circuit and other circuit courts of appeal . In his opinion in Markman v. Westview Instruments , Inc . , Justice David Souter observed that avoiding conflicting rulings among circuit courts in patent law cases benefits the economy by providing legal certainty to businesses .
= = Examples of existing circuit splits = =
The following are examples of existing splits of authority between different circuit courts of appeals :
The Sixth Circuit and the Tenth Circuit disagree with regard to whether police may seize an individual , without a warrant , based solely on the officers ' reasonable suspicion that the individual being seized committed a misdemeanor .
The Third Circuit , Fifth Circuit , and Ninth Circuit disagree with regard to whether the " special needs " exception permits warrantless strip searches of juveniles .
The Fifth Circuit and the Eleventh Circuit disagree with regard to whether prisoners have a reasonable expectation of privacy for correspondence with their attorney .
The First Circuit and the Fifth Circuit disagree with regard to the appellate standard of review for a trial court 's determination of the scope of defendant 's consent to search .
|
= Thomas Danforth =
Thomas Danforth ( baptized November 20 , 1623 – November 5 , 1699 ) was a politician , magistrate , and landowner in the Massachusetts Bay Colony . A conservative Puritan , he served for many years as one of the colony 's councilors and magistrates , generally leading opposition to attempts by the English kings to assert control over the colony . He accumulated land in the central part of the colony that eventually became a portion of Framingham , Massachusetts . His government roles included administration of territory in present @-@ day Maine that was purchased by the colony .
Danforth was a magistrate and leading figure in the colony at the time of the Salem witch trials , but did not sit on the Court of Oyer and Terminer . Despite this , he is inaccurately depicted in Arthur Miller 's play The Crucible and its movie adaptations as doing so . He is presented as a harsh and domineering judge , apparently conflated with William Stoughton , who is not even named in Miller 's play . In reality , Danforth is recorded as being critical of the conduct of the trials , and played a role in bringing them to an end .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Danforth was born in Framlingham , Suffolk , England , and baptized on November 20 , 1623 . He was the eldest son of Nicholas Danforth ( 1589 – 1638 ) and Elizabeth Symmes ( 1596 – 1629 ) . Danforth immigrated with his father , brothers Samuel and Jonathan , and sisters Anna , Elizabeth , and Lydia to New England in 1634 , probably aboard the Griffin . The family , along with the 200 or so other passengers aboard , left England to escape persecution for their Puritan beliefs . William Laud had become archbishop of the Church of England in 1633 and begun a crackdown on Nonconformist religious practices ( such as those practiced by the more Calvinist Puritans ) that prompted a wave of migration to the New World .
= = Public service = =
Soon after his arrival in the Massachusetts Bay Colony Nicholas Danforth acquired property in Cambridge , becoming one of the town 's leading citizens and a member of the colony 's general court ( as its assembly was known ) . He died in 1638 , leaving his lands and the care of his younger children to Thomas . In 1643 Danforth was admitted a freeman of the colony , which conferred on him the right to vote and to participate in the colony 's political affairs .
He was appointed Treasurer of Harvard College in its charter of 1650 , and served as a steward of the college from 1669 to 1682 . From 1659 he sat on the colony 's council of assistants , and was elected deputy governor in 1679 . In 1665 Danforth was member of a commission that oversaw the extension of Massachusetts colonial authority over the territories of what is now southern Maine , which colonial surveyors had determined to fall within its borders .
Danforth 's politics and religion were relatively conservative , with one historian describing him as " the Pym of Massachusetts politics " . In 1661 the colony was rebuked by King Charles II for its mistreatment of Quakers ; the colonial government had banned Quakers from its territory under threat of death , and four of them had recently been hanged after repeatedly violating the ban . The king in his letter demanded that the colony allow Quakers and others freedom of religious expression . Danforth was one member of a committee that was established to formulate a response . The document the committee drafted was a conservative declaration that the colonial government was essentially sovereign except where its laws conflicted with English law . ( By the time the king 's letter arrived the colonial government had already lessened the harsh punishments for violating bans . ) Two committee members , magistrate Simon Bradstreet and minister John Norton , were sent to England to argue the colony 's case .
When King Philip 's War broke out in 1675 ( pitting many Native American tribes of southern New England against English colonists ) , Danforth was involved in some of the events of the war . Many colonists distrusted the Praying Indians ( Christianized Indians living peacefully in communities on the outskirts of English towns ) , some of whom were attacked by mobs of English settlers seeking revenge for attacks on their communities . Danforth , along with Daniel Gookin and the Indian missionary Reverend John Eliot , was a vocal supporter of the Praying Indians , and worked to prevent some of these excesses , at some personal risk . In one notable instance Danforth was aboard a small boat with other colonial officials in Boston Harbor en route to Long Island to inspect facilities for Praying Indians who had been relocated their " for their own safety " when a nearby ship apparently intentionally rammed the smaller vessel . No one was injured in the incident , but all of the older officials were dunked in the cold waters of the harbor .
In 1680 Danforth was chosen president in the District of Maine by the Massachusetts assembly . The colony had previously governed this territory ( roughly the land between the Piscataqua and Kennebec Rivers in what is now southwestern Maine ) , but its right to do so had been stripped by King Charles after protests by the heirs of Sir Ferdinando Gorges , who had long @-@ standing claims to the area . Agents for Massachusetts then purchased the territory from the Gorges heirs , and Danforth was appointed to administer it . The territory had been devastated and many properties abandoned during King Philip 's War , and Danforth acted in effect as a Lord Proprietor , making land grants and reestablishing towns such as Falmouth and North Yarmouth . Danforth was rewarded by the colony with a grant of an island in Casco Bay for this work , which he oversaw until 1686 .
Throughout the 1670s the Massachusetts leadership steadfastly refused to make changes to its administration that were demanded by King Charles . At the instigation of agent Edward Randolph , Charles made increasingly specific demands concerning freedom of religion and adherence to colonial trade regulations known as the Navigation Acts , and prepared to issue a quo warranto writ to demand the return of the colonial charter . Danforth was one of the leading opponents to making any accommodation to the king 's demands . The issue reached a peak in the 1684 election , in which Danforth stood for election as governor representing the hardline party . He was narrowly defeated by the more conciliatory Simon Bradstreet , but retained the post of deputy governor . The colony 's attempts at moderation were in vain — the charter was formally annulled on June 18 , 1684 .
In 1686 King James II established the Dominion of New England as a new colonial entity to govern all of New England . He appointed Massachusetts native Joseph Dudley as its first governor ; he was replaced later that year by Sir Edmund Andros . Both Dudley and Andros excluded Danforth from their councils , given his opposition to crown authority . The dominion reign , which did not include an elected assembly , was extremely unpopular in Massachusetts for a variety of reasons . When the Glorious Revolution deposed James , Massachusetts Puritan leaders orchestrated an uprising and arrested Andros , Dudley , and other dominion officials . In the period between the dominion 's collapse and the establishment of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1692 , the old colonial government was temporarily reestablished , and Danforth resumed his offices .
= = = Salem trials = = =
In 1692 , Danforth was acting governor during the early months of the witch hysteria in Salem and his name appears once in the Salem court records as part of a council which observed the proceedings on April 11 @.@ but his involvement ended in May upon the arrival of Sir William Phips , the first royal governor under the new charter of the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Danforth was not assigned to the special Court of Oyer and Terminer that Phips established shortly thereafter , and he was opposed to the manner in which magistrate William Stoughton conducted the witch trials , which unconditionally accepted spectral evidence in its proceedings , and vigorously presumed the guilt of the accused . In a letter by Thomas Brattle in October 8 , 1692 , Danforth is described as among a select group of " several about the Bay , men for understanding , judgement and piety ... that do utterly condemn the said proceedings , and do freely deliver their judgment ... "
After the Court of Oyer and Terminer stopped sitting , a new Superior Court was created , and , in December 1692 , Stoughton was elected by the governor 's council to head the court , defeating Danforth by three votes . In early 1693 , Danforth sat on Superior Court sessions conducted by Stoughton that continued to hear witchcraft cases , but without accepting spectral evidence . By this time the hysteria was dying down , and the court ( sometimes with Danforth leading after Stoughton temporarily removed himself in protest at the ban on spectral evidence and other reforms imposed by Governor Phips . Danforth was sympathetic to the plight of individuals accused , relocating some of them to his lands west of Boston ; Salem End Road in Framingham is part of the area where they settled .
= = Family and property = =
Danforth married Mary Withington in 1644 . The couple had 12 children , but half of these died before the age of three . Danforth was survived by only three of the others . Danforth died in Cambridge on November 5 , 1699 .
In 1662 Danforth began to acquire land to the west of Boston by way of land grants by the Great and General Court } after general surveys conducted by Edmund Rice at the behest of the Court . Originally known as " Danforth 's Farm " , he began to refer to the estate as " Framingham " in the 1670s in honor of his birthplace . Although Danforth continued to reside in Cambridge , he developed these lands , which came to number 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 km2 ) , by issuing 999 year leases rather than selling parcels . By the 1690s a number of somewhat discontiguous communities existed on the land , which petitioned the state for incorporation . Objections were made to the earliest petition ( of 1692 ) by Danforth , since it did not include all of his lands , and a number of subsequent petitions were objected to by neighboring communities . It was not until 1700 , after Danforth had died , that the town of Framingham was granted a charter . The town 's seal contains the words " Danforth 's Farm " in commemoration of this heritage .
Danforth , Maine is named in his honor . The Danforth Museum of Art , founded in 1975 , is located in Framingham .
= = Fictional character in The Crucible = =
In Arthur Miller 's play The Crucible , Danforth is depicted as the leading judicial figure overseeing the Salem trials . William Stoughton is not a character in the play , and Miller portrays Danforth as an honest but domineering and selfish judge , under whose authority many are imprisoned and sentenced to hang . When John Proctor , an accused , defies his authority at the end of the play by refusing to lie and sign a public confession saying that he is a witch and accusing others , he is mercilessly sentenced to hang . In an introduction to the play , Miller wrote that he had combined several persons and made other changes to the historical characters for dramatic purposes .
Miller also wrote the screenplay for the 1996 film version of the play , in which the name Danforth was retained ( portrayed by actor Paul Scofield ) as the principal judicial antagonist . In the 1957 film adaptation of the play , whose screenplay was written by Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , Danforth ( portrayed by Raymond Rouleau , who also directed the picture ) is portrayed the same way .
|
= Thomas Harrison ( architect ) =
Thomas Harrison ( 7 August ( baptised ) 1744 – 29 March 1829 ) was an English architect and bridge engineer who trained in Rome , where he studied classical architecture . Returning to England , he won the competition in 1782 for the design of Skerton Bridge in Lancaster . After moving to Lancaster he worked on local buildings , received commissions for further bridges , and designed country houses in Scotland . In 1786 Harrison was asked to design new buildings within the grounds of Lancaster and Chester castles , projects that occupied him , together with other works , until 1815 . On both sites he created accommodation for prisoners , law courts , and a shire hall , while working on various other public buildings , gentlemen 's clubs , churches , houses , and monuments elsewhere . His final major commission was for the design of Grosvenor Bridge in Chester .
Some of Harrison 's designs , including his buildings at Lancaster Castle , were Gothic in style , but most were Neoclassical , particularly those at Chester Castle . He was regarded at the time , and since , as a major influence in the emergence of the Greek Revival in British architecture . A bridge he designed at the start of his career , and another towards the end of his career , incorporated innovative features ; Skerton Bridge was the first substantial bridge in England to have a flat roadway , and the Grosvenor Bridge was the longest single @-@ arched masonry bridge in the world at the time of its construction . Many of Harrison 's structures have survived , most of them now designated by English Heritage as listed buildings . Despite his work being nationally admired he spent his entire career in northwest England , visiting London only occasionally ; most of his buildings were in Lancashire , Cheshire , and the nearby counties .
= = Early life and training = =
Thomas Harrison was born in Richmond , Yorkshire , England , the son of a joiner , also named Thomas . His precise date of birth is not known , but it is likely that he was baptised on 7 August 1744 . Little is known about his early life , other than he attended Richmond Grammar School , and it is presumed that he worked with his father . In 1769 he was sponsored by a local landowner , Sir Lawrence Dundas of Aske Hall , to join George Cuitt ( who later became a landscape painter ) to study in Rome . Here he studied at the Accademia di San Luca , and during his seven years in Rome , amongst other activities , made drawings of Roman structures , including temples and Trajan 's Column . In 1770 Harrison submitted a design to Pope Clement XIV for converting the Vatican Cortile del Belvedere into a museum for antique statues . This was " favourably received but not in the end adopted " . Three years later he entered the Accademia 's competition to re @-@ plan the Piazza del Popolo . His design was unsuccessful , but it was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1777 . Following the failure of this design to be accepted , he petitioned the pope , and was awarded gold and silver medals , and made Accademico di Merito . He was then commissioned by the pope to alter the sacristy of St Peter 's , but the pope died before the work started . Harrison returned to England in 1776 , probably via France , as he made drawings of buildings in Nîmes and Paris . He produced designs for a bridge and a road in London , which were not accepted , and he returned to Richmond in 1778 .
= = Works = =
= = = Bridges = = =
The major works executed by Harrison at the start and end of his career were bridges : Skerton Bridge in Lancaster and Grosvenor Bridge in Chester , both of which incorporated innovative features . In 1782 he won the first prize in a competition to design a bridge to cross the River Lune at Lancaster and to replace a medieval bridge . After some amendments to the design , the foundation stone was laid in June 1783 , and Skerton Bridge was completed in September 1787 , at a cost of £ 14 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The bridge was carried on five elliptical arches , and was the first in England to have a flat road surface . Harrison subsequently received further commissions for bridges , including St Mary 's Bridge in Derby ( 1788 – 93 ) , Harrington Bridge near Sawley , Derbyshire ( 1789 – 90 ) , and Stramongate Bridge in Kendal , Cumbria ( 1791 – 94 ) , followed by smaller bridges in Lancashire and Cheshire . He was appointed unofficially as the bridge master of Lancashire , and having carried out the duties of country surveyor for Cheshire since 1800 , was officially appointed to the post in 1815 . Harrison 's later bridges in Cheshire included the Mersey Bridge at Warrington ( 1812 – 17 ) , and Cranage Bridge near Holmes Chapel ( 1815 – 16 ) . These were the only bridges he designed to be built in timber rather than in stone , and both have been replaced . They were the first bridges of their type to be built in England , and were his only bridges to be regarded as " failures " . During his career , Harrison was consulted about the design of other bridges in the country .
Towards the end of his career , Harrison worked on two bridges in Chester . At the time the only road crossing over the River Dee was the medieval Old Dee Bridge , which was becoming inadequate for the increasing volume of traffic . In 1825 Harrison added three new arches on the upstream side of the bridge , and built a footway that was corbeled @-@ out , also on the upstream side . Meanwhile , negotiations had been underway for a much more substantial bridge . In 1825 an Act of Parliament was passed for the Grosvenor Bridge to be built downstream from the Old Dee Bridge . To provide access to the new bridge , properties , including a church , had to be demolished , and Harrison was involved in designing the new approach to the bridge , which was named Grosvenor Street . He also prepared three different plans for the bridge , one in iron , the others in stone ; one of the stone bridges had three arches , the other a single arch spanning 200 feet ( 61 m ) . The single @-@ arch bridge would be the longest single @-@ arch stone bridge in the world at the time , and there were doubts about its stability . Harrison 's design was supported by the engineers James Trubshaw and John Rennie , and Trubshaw made a limestone model of the bridge to confirm its stability . By this time Harrison was aged over 80 , and in 1826 he resigned from the commission . Later that year the design was costed by Thomas Telford , and the town council subsequently accepted the design . Trubshaw was in charge of the construction , with Jesse Hartley as his clerk @-@ of @-@ works . The foundation stone was laid in 1827 by the Earl of Grosvenor ( after whose family the bridge was named ) , and work began the following year . It was formally opened in 1832 by the future Queen Victoria , and traffic began to cross it the following year . The total cost of the bridge was just under £ 50 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 4 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Harrison did not live to see it completed , as he died in 1829 .
= = = Lancaster and Chester Castles = = =
Around the time that Harrison was involved in the construction of Skerton Bridge , he received other commissions for work in Lancaster . These included the addition of a clock tower to the Town Hall , the addition of a tower and spire to St John 's Church , and the building of Bridge Houses on the east side of Skerton Bridge . In October 1786 Harrison was asked to prepare plans for substantial improvements to Lancaster Castle ; in January that year he had also won the competition for major improvements to Chester Castle . He worked on both projects simultaneously for the next 30 years , and beyond that until 1815 in Chester , where he added further new buildings . In both projects he designed buildings for prisoners and prison staff , courtrooms and a Shire Hall . Both towns already had gaols , but there was a national move in the later part of the 18th century to improve them , following the campaigns by penal formers led by John Howard . Amongst these reforms were the separation of men and women , and of criminals and debtors , which were incorporated into Harrison 's designs .
= = = = Lancaster = = = =
Harrison did not create an overall plan for his work on the site ; a series of plans for different buildings were prepared and building works continued until 1792 . The new buildings had to be placed between the existing medieval castle buildings , including the keep , towers and the gatehouse . Harrison decided to design them with Gothic motifs , such as battlements and windows with pointed heads . Construction started in 1788 , and the first building to be completed was the Keeper 's House , standing to the right of the gatehouse . The next substantial building to be completed was the Female Felon 's Prison on the other side of the gatehouse . He designed an arcade on the south side of the keep to give some shelter to the debtors as they walked round their courtyard . He later added two storeys to provide more accommodation for debtors , and completed the Male Felon 's Prison to the north of the keep . By 1794 these buildings and other improvements had cost £ 10 @,@ 853 ( equivalent to £ 1 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , more than had been expected . By 1795 Harrison had moved from Lancaster to Chester , from where he continued to supervise the work on both sites . At Lancaster this work included rebuilding the Crown Court and the Shire Hall . At that time the Crown Court was held in the medieval hall of the castle , and civil cases were held in the Shire Hall in the keep . The new buildings form a symmetrical group to the west of the keep , and were completed in 1798 , although the internal decoration and furnishings were not finished until some years later by Joseph Gandy . The Crown Court is a simple rectangular room , measuring about 50 feet ( 15 m ) by 30 feet ( 9 m ) high and wide . The Shire Hall has a plan of half a polygon about 80 feet ( 24 m ) in diameter . Six Gothic columns support a panelled vault covering the main part of the courtroom . Around the perimeter is an arcade , and the judge 's bench has an elaborate canopy in Coade stone . The precise cost of these buildings is unknown , but in 1807 an estimate of more than £ 40 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 4 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) was given .
= = = = Chester = = = =
In contrast with Lancaster , Harrison was able to prepare an organised plan for the gaol , as it was to be built on a new site behind the Elizabethan Shire Hall on land sloping down to the River Dee . Also in contrast to Lancaster , the buildings were to be in Neoclassical style . The Gaoler 's House would stand behind the Shire Hall , overlooking the exercise courtyards . Inside the semi @-@ octagonal perimeter wall of the site would stand two @-@ storey blocks to house the prisoners . The site was staked @-@ out in November 1786 , but nothing could be done until the necessary Act of Parliament was passed the following July . Work started on the prisoners ' accommodation early in 1789 and on the Goaler 's House in early 1792 , and was completed two years later . Plans were then put in place for a new Shire Hall to replace the Elizabethan building , which was completed in 1802 . The Shire Hall was another structure in which Harrison made innovations , in this case the use of Greek architectural motifs . Its façade is about 250 feet ( 76 m ) long and 25 feet ( 8 m ) high , in nineteen bays with two storeys . At its centre is a Doric @-@ style portico with twelve columns , projecting forwards by about 10 feet ( 3 m ) . Its interior contains a semi @-@ circular courtroom with a diameter of 80 feet ( 24 m ) . Its curved wall has a colonnade of ten Ionic columns , and on each side of the judge 's bench are two similar columns . The room has a coffered semi @-@ dome .
In addition to courts , and now a gaol , Chester Castle also housed a garrison of soldiers . The forecourt of the Shire Hall formed a parade ground for the garrison , and Harrison designed two new buildings for the soldiers . On the west side of the parade ground he built an Armoury , and on the east side a matching block , with more utilitarian buildings behind , to act as the Barracks . Both of the blocks consists of a two @-@ storey building in nine bays , the fronts of which are decorated with Ionic half @-@ columns about 23 feet ( 7 m ) high . Harrison 's final building in the complex was a monumental gateway or Propylaea at the entrance to the forecourt . This consists of a central block , with two lateral pavilions that originally served as guardhouses . The central block has a portico extending some 10 feet ( 3 m ) in front of the pavilions , with a double colonnade of four Doric monolithic columns standing 18 feet ( 5 m ) high . Above them is a triglyph frieze , and a low attic . The pavilions are lower than the central block , and decorated at their front with two Doric half @-@ columns between pilasters . At the back the pavilions project 10 feet ( 3 m ) beyond the central block and have four Doric columns . The structure , which was built between 1813 and 1815 , contains 22 monolithic columns .
= = = Gentlemen 's clubs and public buildings = = =
The first gentlemen 's club to be designed by Harrison was the Lyceum in Liverpool . This contained a newsroom , a coffee house , and new premises for the Liverpool Library . It was the first building in Liverpool to incorporate Greek motifs in its design . It includes one of the earliest recessed porticoes in England , and its exterior includes Doric and Ionic columns . Inside the building , the library is a circular room about 50 feet ( 15 m ) in diameter ; it is top @-@ lit with a dome . The newsroom and coffee room measure about 70 feet ( 21 m ) by 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The club was built between 1801 and 1802 at a cost of £ 11 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 890 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . In 1803 building commenced in Manchester of the Portico Library , which also incorporated a gentlemen 's club , and introduced Greek motifs to the city . Like the Liverpool club , it contains a recessed portico with Ionic columns and half @-@ columns . The interior measures about 60 feet ( 18 m ) by 40 feet ( 12 m ) ; the ground floor was used as the newsroom , the library books were arranged around a gallery , and again it was top @-@ lit with a dome . The building was completed in 1806 and cost about £ 6 @.@ 800 ( equivalent to £ 500 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The third gentlemen 's club was the Commercial News Room in Chester , with three Ionic half @-@ columns on its main front . The newsroom measures about 40 feet ( 12 m ) by 25 feet ( 8 m ) . It opened in 1808 , and is smaller than the other club 's , costing about £ 2 @,@ 700 ( equivalent to £ 190 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . All the gentlemen 's clubs are still in existence , but two major buildings Harrison designed in Manchester have not survived . The Theatre Royal was built in 1806 – 07 at a cost of about £ 12 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 860 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) ; it could seat 1 @,@ 020 people , but was destroyed by fire in 1844 . Harrison also designed the Manchester Exchange to replace an earlier building with the same purpose . It contained a newsroom , library , dining room , and post office . The exchange was built between 1806 and 1809 , and had a semi @-@ circular front decorated with Doric half @-@ columns , but it has since been superseded by a larger building .
= = = Domestic and related structures = = =
While Harrison was working on Lancaster and Chester castles , he was also involved with domestic projects , four of them around Edinburgh in Scotland . The first consisted in making alterations to Gosford House for the 7th Earl of Wemyss . There is circumstantial evidence that he also designed the mausoleum in the grounds of the house , but a definite attribution cannot be made . This commission led , through personal contacts , for further work . The first was to build Kennet House near Clackmannan ( now demolished ) for Sir Thomas Dundas ; it was Harrison 's first major house . He then made extensions to Broomhall , a house near Dunfermline , for Thomas Bruce , 7th Earl of Elgin . Finally in Scotland , Harrison prepared plans for another new house , Colinton House near Edinburgh , for the banker Sir William Forbes . Following this , Harrison is credited with the design of Quernmore Park Hall , near Lancaster , for Charles Gibson , a house built between 1795 and 1798 .
In 1804 Harrison made a series of plans for the rebuilding of Lowther Hall in Westmorland , but these were not accepted . However he was successful with his plans to enlarge and remodel Gredington , a house in North Wales , for Lord Kenyon , executed between 1807 and 1811 at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 675 ( equivalent to £ 440 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Between 1808 and 1810 Harrison converted three rooms on the west side of the first floor of Tabley House , near Knutsford , Cheshire , into a picture gallery for Sir John Fleming Leicester . This was followed by a series of new houses , Oughtrington Hall , near Lymm , Cheshire , Woodbank , on the edge of Stockport ( then in Cheshire ) , Glan @-@ yr @-@ Afon in Llanferres , North Wales , Dee Hills House in Chester , and Grove House in Allerton near Liverpool .
In 1820 Harrison designed Watergate House on a corner site in Watergate Street , Chester ; it is one of the largest private houses in the town . The entrance to the house is on the corner , leading to a circular lobby and a square entrance hall , which is top @-@ lit by a dome with a lantern . Harrison 's last commission for a country house in Cheshire was his design for Tilstone Lodge near the village of Tilstone Fearnall ; this has a porte @-@ cochère supported by four Doric columns . At about this time Harrison was also designing alterations to the east wing of Chirk Castle in North Wales . In late 1821 he was commissioned to work on Hardwick Grange near Hadnall in Shropshire for Rowland Hill , 1st Viscount Hill , which involved alterations to the front of the house , and the addition of a new dining @-@ room . At the request of the owner , this was in Gothic style ; the house has since been demolished . In 1822 – 23 Harrison built a house for himself , St Martin 's Lodge in Nicholas Street , Chester , which consists of a simple villa . His last work for a private client was again for Roland Hill , a building called the Citadel in Hawkstone Park , Shropshire . It was built as a dower house for his mother , and has the appearance of a small castle , with three circular battlemented towers .
= = = Ecclesiastical buildings = = =
Only a small proportion of Harrison 's work was on churches . In 1804 he re @-@ faced the south side of St Peter 's Church in Chester , and he carried out further alterations to the church in 1813 . Between 1805 and 1806 he redesigned the nave of St John the Baptist 's Church in Whittington , Shropshire , which had been badly damaged in a storm . He did design one new church , the Wesleyan Methodist Church in St John Street , Chester , which was built in 1811 . Although his design was used for the exterior , the internal decoration and fittings were planned by his main contractor , William Cole , and the church has been much altered since . In 1810 came the commission for what is described as " without doubt his [ Harrison 's ] best work at a church " , to rebuild the steeple of the Church of Our Lady and Saint Nicholas , Liverpool . Earlier that year the spire on the medieval tower had collapsed , destroying the tower in the process . The work was completed in 1815 at a cost of over £ 22 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 1 @,@ 470 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The steeple has a height of 120 feet ( 37 m ) , its buttresses rising above the top of the tower as pinnacles , the open @-@ work spire being supported by flying buttresses . Harrison also designed a domed ceiling for St Paul 's Church in Liverpool , but this has since been demolished .
Between 1814 and 1816 a chapel was built to Harrison 's design at West Hall , High Legh to replace an earlier chapel . This was a simple building that burnt out in 1891 , some of its fabric being incorporated into a new church on the site , St John 's Church . In 1818 the Right Revd George Law , bishop of Chester , asked Harrison to carry out work on the south transept of Chester Cathedral , which was showing signs of instability . This work involved building deep buttresses at the south end of the transept , and giving some attention to the gutters .
= = = Other works = = =
Harrison designed a variety of other structures , one of the most important of which was the replacement of Northgate in Chester , at the suggestion of Earl Grosvenor , mayor of the city in 1807 . The other three gateways , Eastgate , Bridgegate , and Watergate , which carried the footway of the City Walls over the medieval entrances to the city , had been replaced during the 18th century . The earl wanted the structure to be designed in Gothic style , but Harrison advised that it would be more fitting to the adjacent Roman walls for it to be Neoclassical , and after much debate this was accepted . The gateway consists of three arches , a wide central arch for vehicles , and two narrower arches for pedestrians , incorporating pairs of monolithic Doric columns . Harrison then designed Denbighshire Infirmary in North Wales , built between 1810 and 1813 , and in about 1820 he made some internal alterations to the Chester Exchange . In 1820 Harrison was consulted by Magdalen College , Oxford , about improvements to New Building , a block of the college built in 1733 , and on other alterations . His plans for New Building were adopted , and the additions were made in 1824 at a cost of £ 2 @,@ 600 ( equivalent to £ 210 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
Harrison was also involved in the building of a series of monuments . His first commission was to design the Jubilee Tower on the summit of Moel Famau , the highest point of the Clwydian Range in North Wales , to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of George III in 1810 . This consisted of an obelisk in two stages on a broad base . The obelisk collapsed in 1862 , and the base was remodelled in 1970 to make a viewing platform . The design of Lord Hill 's Column in Shrewsbury , Shropshire , has been attributed to Harrison , but this is incorrect . The architect was Edward Haycock , but Harrison did make alterations to the design , changing the style of the column , and adding a pedestal with statues of lions ; and Harrison did supervise the construction . Harrison designed The Marquess of Anglesey 's Column in Llanfairpwll on Anglesey to commemorate the feats of Henry Paget , 1st Marquess of Anglesey . This was constructed in 1816 – 17 at a cost of nearly £ 2 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 130 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . His last memorial was a ceremonial gateway at Holyhead , also on Anglesey , to commemorate the landing there of George IV in 1821 . It consists of an archway with Doric columns , and cost £ 600 ( equivalent to £ 38 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , and was opened in 1824 .
= = Personal life = =
Harrison married Margaret Shackleton at Lancaster Priory in 1785 . The couple had three children who survived childhood ; a son , John , who died in 1802 , and two daughters . Harrison died aged 85 at his home , St Martin 's Lodge , Chester , in 1829 . He was buried in the churchyard of St Bridget 's Church , Chester , but his remains were moved to Blacon Cemetery when the churchyard was cleared in about 1964 . His estate amounted to £ 6 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 480 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
= = Present day = =
An additional arch was added to Skerton Bridge in about 1849 to allow for the passage of the " Little " North Western Railway ( since closed ) beneath it . The bridge continues to be used by heavy traffic . A survey in 1995 concluded that the bridge is still strong enough to carry vehicles ten times the weight of the heaviest vehicles of the time it was built . Grosvenor Bridge remains in use , carrying the A483 road over the River Dee , and is still the longest single @-@ span masonry bridge in Britain .
Other than the smaller bridges , almost all the structures designed by Harrison have been designated as listed buildings by English Heritage , Cadw , or Historic Scotland . Some of the buildings he completely designed ( rather than altered ) have been listed at the highest levels , Grade I in England and Wales , and Category A in Scotland . Grade I includes buildings that " are of exceptional interest , sometimes considered to be internationally important " ; only 2 @.@ 5 % of listed buildings are in this Grade . Category A consists of " buildings of national or international importance , either architectural or historic , or fine little @-@ altered examples of some particular period , style or building type " , and includes about 8 % of the Scottish listed buildings . These structures are , in Chester , Grosvenor Bridge , and Northgate , and in Scotland , the Mausoleum at Gosford House , and Colinton House . Lancaster Castle as a whole is listed at Grade I , and at Chester Castle four of Harrison 's buildings are listed separately at this Grade : the main block containing the Shire Hall , the Propylaea , and the two blocks flanking the forecourt .
A number of Harrison 's structures in England and Wales are listed at Grade II * , the middle grade for those that are " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " ; 5 @.@ 5 % of all listed buildings are Grade II * . They include Skerton Bridge , Bridge Houses , Lancaster , St Mary 's Bridge , Derby , Quernmore Park Hall , the Lyceum in Liverpool , The Portico Library in Manchester , Woodbank in Stockport , the Marquess of Anglesey 's Column , Watergate House in Chester , and the Citadel at Hawkstone Park .
= = Appraisal = =
That Harrison was a fine innovative designer of bridges is evidenced by the continuing successful use by modern heavy traffic on Skerton and Grosvenor Bridges , and on St Mary 's Bridge in Derby . As an architect , the editors of the Cheshire volume of the Buildings of England series describe him as " one of the most important of Cheshire 's architects " . Harrison 's first biographer , Arthur Blomfield , said he was " almost , if not quite , the first architectural genius in the kingdom " .
Although most of his designs were in Neoclassical style , he also created buildings in Gothic style , for example at Lancaster Castle , and Hardwick Grange . Nevertheless , he is considered to be one of the main influences in the Greek Revival of architecture in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The architectural historian Giles Worsley describes him as " the first English architect to grasp the full potential of the Greek Revival " , and David Watkin says he is the " finest " of the architects who revived the forms of Greek architecture . Of the Shire Hall in Chester Castle , Worsley says it is " the first serious monument of the Greek Revival " . Writing about Harrison 's designs at Chester Castle , Pevsner says " What he [ Harrison ] has achieved here is one of the most powerful monuments of the Greek Revival in the whole of England " .
Harrison spent the whole of his career in the northwest of England and , other than his houses in Scotland and his work in Oxford , his works were confined to Lancashire , Cheshire , Shropshire , Cumbria , Derbyshire , and North Wales . He was never a member of the Royal Academy or any other London @-@ based institution , and only a rare visitor to London once his practice was established . Nevertheless , Charles Cockerell ( later to become the president of the Royal Institute of British Architects ) said of him in 1828 that he was " undoubtedly the noblest genius in architecture we have had " .
|
= Charles Atangana =
Charles Atangana ( c . 1880 – 1 September 1943 ) , also known by his birth name , Ntsama , and his German name , Karl , was the paramount chief of the Ewondo and Bane ethnic groups during much of the colonial period in Cameroon . Although from an unremarkable background , Atangana 's loyalty and friendship with colonial priests and administrators secured him successively more prominent posts in the colonial government . He proved himself an intelligent and diplomatic administrator and an eager collaborator , and he was eventually named paramount chief of two Beti @-@ Pahuin subgroups , the Ewondo and Bane peoples . His loyalty and acquiescence to the German Empire was unquestioning , and he even accompanied the Germans on their escape from Africa in World War I.
After a brief stay in Europe , Atangana returned to his homeland in Cameroon , which by then was a League of Nations mandate territory under the administration of the French Third Republic . The French doubted his loyalties at first , but Atangana served them with the same ardour he had shown the Germans and regained his post as paramount chief . During the remainder of his life , he oversaw the Westernisation of his subjects and the improvement of his domains despite the erosion of his powers due to French policies and unrest among his people . He never advocated resistance to the European powers , preferring to embrace the European as a means of personal enrichment and in the service of African interests . After his death in 1943 , Atangana was largely forgotten . However , since Cameroon 's independence in 1960 , Cameroonian scholars have rediscovered his story .
= = Early life = =
Ntsama Atangana was born sometime between 1876 and 1885 in Mvolyé , a small village in what is today Yaoundé , Cameroon . His parents gave him the drum name " He who is known by the nations " . He was the eleventh of twelve children born to Essomba Atangana , a headman of the Mvog Atemenge sublineage of the Ewondo ethnic group . Essomba Atangana was one of thousands of minor Beti leaders living between the Sanaga and Nyong rivers , each charged with providing for his compound and the extended family and slaves who lived there . His father died when Ntsama Atangana was about six years old .
Little is known about Atangana 's childhood . Like other Beti boys , he would have learned to fish , hunt , and trap , and would have memorised his family 's genealogy and folk wisdom . Explorers from the German Empire appeared near his village in 1887 in search of a direct route to the ivory trade in the savannas to the north . They had claimed Beti lands as part of their Kamerun colony in 1884 , and by February 1889 they had established a permanent base in the area , which they named Jaunde after the local people . The Ewondo opposed the foreigners at first , although Atangana was probably not yet old enough to participate in the fighting . After the defeat of Omgba Bissogo in 1895 and others like it , Ewondo resistance waned . The Germans randomly appointed chiefs and mayors to serve under them , and took local youths to perform menial tasks ; Atangana was among them , sent by his uncle to be a houseboy .
Ewondo who learned German were highly favoured in the early days of the colonial regime . Station commander Hans Dominik sent four such individuals to attend the mission school of the German Pallottine Fathers in Kribi , a settlement on the coast . There , Atangana learned German language , history , and geography ; mathematics ; and Roman Catholicism . Father Heinrich Vieter especially liked the boy , and Atangana became the first Ewondo baptised a Roman Catholic ; he took the Christian name Karl . Atangana 's schooling had just ended when members of the Bulu ethnic group , one closely related to the Ewondo , invaded Kribi and sacked the school and church in 1899 . Atangana waited out the revolt in Douala with the Fathers until the colonial militia defeated the rebels the following year .
= = Early career = =
In August 1900 , the commander of German forces at Victoria ( present @-@ day Limbe ) appointed Atangana interpreter for 500 Bulu hostages , who were being pressed into labour . Atangana kept the post for six months and took up extra duties as a nurse . The colonisers next sent Atangana to Buea to work as an office clerk . At some point between the end of his schooling in Kribi and the end of his service in Victoria , Atangana met Marie Biloa , a woman from a village called Mekumba . Although she was a little older and living as a kept woman by a German functionary , Atangana married her . She would eventually bear him two children : Jean Ndengue and Katerina ( or Catherine ) Edzimbi .
Atangana was a devout Christian , and he supported the church throughout his life with land and gifts . He opposed popular Beti syncretist practices , and he was an opponent of an Ewondo initiation rite called the Sso ; his efforts led to its eventual eradication from Beti society . In 1901 he secured land for the Pallottine Fathers to build a mission in Jaunde , thus opening East and South Kamerun to Catholic proselytisation . Nevertheless , Atangana supported traditional Ewondo customs on marriage . On widows , he said ,
My colleagues and I . . . can only reply in demanding the upholding of custom , which requires the widow to be the property of the heir until her liberation , which can only take effect after the return of her bridewealth . She must remain with him as long as this return is not made .
Early in 1902 , the colonial government appointed him their representative to the Ewondo people , and interpreter and clerk for the Germans posted in Jaunde . He was tasked with organising a census and tax collection system . He chose 300 headmen to be tax collectors , of whom the Germans approved 233 . Atangana negotiated a cut of 5 % for the collectors , much to their delight .
Hans Dominik became the Jaunde post commander in 1904 . For the next six years , Atangana accompanied him on at least fifteen administrative patrols and probative excursions . Atangana proved an astute diplomat , in one case negotiating with a group of rebellious Manguissa and thus averting a confrontation between the tribesmen and the Germans . Atangana helped open posts in such wide @-@ ranging places as Bafia , Abong @-@ Mbang , Mouloudou , Ngaoundéré , Garoua , and Maroua . The Germans largely kept themselves segregated from their African subjects , but Dominik and Atangana defied these standards and grew close , even dining together in the same tent on occasion . Back in Jaunde , Atangana gained responsibilities valued by the regime , such as overseeing a poll tax in October 1908 .
In 1907 , members of the Mvog Ada sublineage revolted against the colonial government over Atangana 's appointment as their official interpreter . The plot included a conspiracy to poison Atangana , but word leaked to him . He informed his masters , and on 11 April , six plotters were put to death and two others imprisoned .
Dominik died on 16 November 1910 . That same year , Atangana returned to Jaunde and received an administrative post , perhaps as head of the Ewondo @-@ Bane court , which presided over civil disputes and small claims and was the conduit through which the Germans transmitted communiqués ( and gauged the response to them ) . However , he resigned the post when the head of his sublineage died ; Atangana took over as headman of the sublineage and Mvolyé village .
In late 1911 , Atangana voyaged to Germany to teach Ewondo at the Colonial Institute of the University of Hamburg . He stayed there for about one year and transcribed Ewondo history and folklore for translation into German . His writings eventually became the Jaunde @-@ Texte , an important source document on Ewondo history and culture . In 1913 , he met Kaiser Wilhelm II in Germany and Pope Pius X in Rome . He returned to Kamerun the following year .
= = Paramount chief = =
The Germans had seen some success in uniting disparate groups under single individuals called paramount chiefs ( Oberhäuptlinge ) . Atangana was chosen for this position among the Ewondo and Bane either before his trip to Germany or soon after . This was technically only a temporary appointment ; his subjects would have to approve it a year later to make it permanent . They had little alternative ; Atangana was already the primary conduit of information to and from the Germans .
Some emulation of European manners and dress was expected of all chiefs , but Atangana seems to have genuinely preferred European styles to African ones . He endeavoured to fit himself into the German mould of an ideal administrator . He wrote , " To dare to approach the Germans it is necessary to abandon the traits which displease them , to become their friend and then be valued by them . " Accordingly , Atangana ate German food ; formed a European @-@ style , 20 @-@ piece orchestra ; and ordered a large , Germanic mansion to be built . This latter project requiring construction of a brickyard and sawmill and earned Atangana another epithet , Mindili Ebulu , " the man whose house is so large that it had a roof divided into nine sections instead of the two sections of an ordinary dwelling . " The number nine has great significance in Beti folklore .
Atangana was suspicious of anyone who might supplant him as the Germans ' favourite . He wrote ,
A number of persons who associated themselves with Europeans and proved themselves useful to white people achieved positions in the native society through fraud and extortion . But the Europeans , having noticed it , stopped it . They could discern natives of the noble class by their loyalty and honesty .
Atangana won over other chiefs and headmen through gifts , tax cuts , flattery , and intervention on their behalf . He lavished attention on visitors from out of town , letting them stay at his palace and use his horses , and treating them to feasts . In addition to flattering them , this allowed him to monitor their activities and dealings with the colonial authorities . His clerk appointees in Jaunde informed him of the doings of both the Germans and his subjects . Atangana gained a substantial amount of wealth . He owned workshops and sold produce from five plantations to provision impressed railway construction workers .
The paramount chief maintained some loyalty for his subjects . He persuaded the Germans to carry out infrastructure improvements such as the building of roads , schools , health clinics , and churches ; and he defended his subjects from colonial reprisals . In one instance , an Ewondo interpreter fired a gun during a dispute with a German , an offence punishable with a stiff prison sentence . Atangana interceded , and the man 's punishment was reduced to porter duty . However , the paramount chief remained completely loyal to the governors . In 1914 , for example , representatives of Duala leader Rudolf Duala Manga Bell tried to secure Atangana 's backing for a pan @-@ Kamerun revolt . Atangana kept the plot under wraps , but he instructed the envoy to urge Manga Bell to reconsider .
Atangana 's appointment irritated members of the Bulu ethnic group . They feared they might one day lose German favour , or worse yet , fall under the dominion of the Ewondo . This culminated in the 1912 Bulu uprising led by Martin @-@ Paul Samba , a German @-@ trained man much like Atangana . The rebellion was crushed and Samba executed .
= = World War I = =
The Allied West African Campaign of World War I reached Kamerun in 1914 . Douala fell on 17 September , and the Germans regrouped at Jaunde . Beti informants alerted Atangana as to the Allies ' progress , and as the loss of Jaunde seemed inevitable , Atangana prepared to escape with his masters . He and the chiefs under him gave their posts to weaker relatives so they could more easily take them back should the Germans return . They held out in Jaunde until 1 January 1916 , when troops of the British Army captured the town , and the German soldiers and missionaries fled into the forest . Atangana and 72 Ewondo and Bane chiefs , along with 14 – 20 @,@ 000 villagers ( mostly soldiers and their families ) , led them through . A Beti folk song , " Atangana Ntsama , the War Is Over " , tells of the retreat and shows the conflict between those Beti who supported Atangana and those who opposed him :
Atangana Ntsama , the war is over . . .
Hè ! Atangana Ntsama , the war is over !
The cannon are broken ,
Go tell it to the son of Ndono Edoa ,
To the great man who is the son of Ndono Edoa ,
Run quickly , why do you languish there ?
All you Ewondo , come and run quickly ,
Come and run quickly , brothers ;
Go tell it to Mindili Ebulu , son of Ndono Edoa .
How is it that you would like me to leave so many goods behind ?
Hè ! They will surprise you in your greed !
Such richness . I should take some !
You others , move off , what are you doing there ?
Friend , there were as many goods as in a market ;
Friend , we have marched through all of that without taking anything !
They reached Spanish Guinea in February and surrendered to the unaligned representatives of Spain under the Restoration . The Spanish government of Álvaro Figueroa Torres gave the Beti land to settle and agreed to transport the Germans to the nearby island of Fernando Po . Atangana and members of his family accompanied them . In 1918 , the Germans sent Atangana and six other chiefs to Spain , where they would witness if necessary that the Germans had treated their African subjects humanely . In September 1919 , Atangana had an audience with King Alfonso XIII of Spain and urged him to support the Germans in these proceedings . Atangana remained in Madrid for two years and stayed a month in Barcelona to retrieve money he had deposited through the Basel Mission .
Meanwhile , Ewondo lands came under the administration of the French Third Republic under a League of Nations mandate . Atangana , now known by the French version of his name , Charles , wrote the French government to swear his allegiance and demand readmittance to his homeland . He received his wish in June 1920 and arrived in Douala on 28 November 1920 .
= = Later life = =
Atangana 's unfailing loyalty and subservience to Germany prevented the French from ever fully trusting him . His first task under the new colonial regime was to supervise gangs of forced road @-@ construction labourers in the town of Dschang . In Atangana 's absence , the French had appointed a Beti headman named Joseph Atemengue as their local representative in Jaunde ( now known by the French spelling , Yaoundé ) . However , Atemengue never enjoyed the popularity Atangana had among the Beti . Atangana tried to secure an alliance with him by sending his 20 @-@ year @-@ old , German @-@ educated daughter , Katerina , to marry him , but she eventually fled from the much older Atemengue and back to her father . Atangana 's work performance convinced the French to let him return to Yaoundé in late 1921 or early 1922 .
Soon thereafter , Atemengue was made chief of the local court , and Atangana was again appointed paramount chief ( chef supérieur ) . He received a seat on the Council of Notables , a body the French had introduced to act as liaisons to their subjects and advisors to the administration . Atangana set up a cabinet based on those he had observed in Spain , but he never allowed it to do much , and its members were not accustomed to European @-@ style administration . It disbanded in 1925 .
The French granted the chiefs significantly less power than had their German predecessors . Atangana 's major role was simple : to enforce the dictats of French rule . Governor General Van Vollenhoven wrote in 1917 that , " the chiefs have no power of their own of any kind because there are not two authorities in the circle : French authority and indigenous authority ; there is only one . Only the commander of the circle commands . " As a colonial administrator , Atangana was expected to collect taxes , help the French introduce cocoa and coffee plantations , and mobilise chiefs to secure the labour to work these estates . In 1924 , the French introduced a requisition system to procure food for the Yaoundé urban community and for rail labourers ; Atangana was responsible for rallying the chiefs to gather the necessary provisions from rural farmers ; the exact methods used by the chiefs was left to them . Cocoa production in the South and Centre provinces increased even during the Great Depression , partially as a result of these efforts . He reorganised the chiefs and their duties and tried to Westernise his subjects by encouraging them to wear European @-@ style clothing , use new building methods and house styles , and work to improve roads .
Most of the chiefs respected Atangana as their spokesman and leader , and the Beti at large deferred to him prestige and power . A new system of status had evolved under his rule : a cadre of minor bureaucrats , envoys , interpreters , and office staff worked for Atangana and the other chiefs independent of the French government and were completely dependent on the chiefs . Atangana set up a private police force , for example , known as the fulus in Ewondo . The entire class recognised its reliance on the chiefs and gave them loyalty in exchange for protection and pay , and the chiefs relied on these functionaries to swiftly fulfill their duties to the French regime .
Nevertheless , the Beti at large detested French forced labour practices and taxes . Some people fled to the bush before the tax collector arrived ; others circumvented taxes by counting wives as out @-@ of @-@ town visitors or waiting until the last minute to pay and thus reducing the collector 's cut of the tax money . If the taxes were not collected to the satisfaction of the colonial administrators , Atangana himself was expected to make up some of the difference . To counter these minor rebellions , chiefs could punish their subjects with 15 days in jail or 100 franc fines without due process of law . This was meant to be reserved for only certain infractions , but Atangana and other chiefs interpreted it broadly to include all sorts of difficult behaviour . Atangana and his sub @-@ chiefs were expected to discipline such difficult subjects . He exerted continual pressure on the sub @-@ chiefs , who in turn placed constant pressure on the villagers to pay taxes and supply labourers .
Nevertheless , his wealth continued to grow . In 1922 , his salary was 6 @,@ 000 francs per year , and in 1938 , it had risen to 24 @,@ 000 francs per year . Atangana also received 2 % of all taxes collected by lower chiefs , pay for his legal role , and stipends for organising road construction . Oral informants have reported that as early as 1924 , he owned enormous plantations with as much as 1 km ² of cocoa , 1 @.@ 1 km ² of palms , 5 km ² of food crops , and 500 head of livestock . The amounts may be exaggerated , but Atangana was by all accounts a wealthy man . He owned two lorries and a car by 1926 , which he used to haul produce from his plantations . By the 1930s , important chiefs such as Atangana could earn more than 400 @,@ 000 francs per year on tax collecting alone .
The 278 Beti chiefs under Atangana 's control began to oppose his primacy by the mid @-@ 1920s . His control fell especially among the Bane . In 1924 , the Bane filed a complaint against Atangana in court , claiming , " We work always and it is Atangana who receives the money . For all the things that we have sent to the Europeans , such as chickens and eggs , through Atangana , we have received nothing . " They plotted to raise their own paramount chief and to drum up sentiment against Atangana among the common people . The French arrested the plotters for refusing to pay their taxes and provide labourers . This left Atangana still head of the Bane , but his influence had been severely curtailed .
In 1925 , the French reduced the number of Beti chiefs to 40 and removed the chiefs of Yaoundé from Atangana 's direct control . However , in 1928 the Yaoundé chiefs were deemed quarrelsome and incompetent , and Atangana was once again placed over them . In 1929 , he wrote a work on traditional Beti society in which he tried to hide his unremarkable childhood by taking the title of " King " and claiming descent from a fictitious line of Ewondo royalty . By the end of the decade , he was the head of perhaps 130 @,@ 000 people , the chief of Mvolyé village , and the supervisor of eight sectional chiefs and 72 village chiefs . In reality , his position was one of prestige but little actual power .
Collecting taxes and finding labour grew increasingly difficult as the decade progressed , thanks to greater access to paying employment in Yaoundé and on the plantations . Atangana 's 1938 proposal for the reorganisation of Yaoundé 's administration shows the frustration he experienced at that time :
the local people do not know what endurance means . . . [ and ] work with ill @-@ will for the administration or for private concerns , where they seek refuge as a safeguard when the administration gives the chiefs an order in the public interest or for their own good .
He further complained , " Notables , with their diminished influence , are almost inert in relation to the growing number of their recalcitrant subjects " and suggested that a chief could hardly control more than 5 @,@ 000 people . Atangana is not even mentioned in a French report on their African leaders from 1939 . However , he retained the right to announce the appointment of new chiefs and to claim that both he and the French had selected them .
Atangana travelled frequently in the French colonial period . He made a point of attending his subjects ' weddings and funerals , for example . He had more opportunities to visit Europe , including the Paris Colonial Exposition in 1931 and the French Colonial Conference in 1935 . In 1938 , his wife died . Atangana was a handsome man by Ewondo standards : strong , well groomed , with a reputation as a good fighter , dancer , and husband . He remarried on 6 January 1940 to Julienne or Yuliana Ngonoa , a young Beti woman of the Mvog Manga sublineage from the village Nkolafamba . She bore him two children : Marie @-@ Thérèse and René Grégoire . Atangana seems to have adhered to Catholic strictures against polygamy , despite the fact that other Beti chiefs at the time had several hundred wives .
Atangana lobbied in his later life for public health causes , such as the eradication of sleeping sickness . He never supported the expansion of Cameroun 's public school system , since he believed that educated subjects might one day challenge his rule . Atangana 's health began to fail him beginning in August 1943 . On 1 September , he died in Mvolyé , Yaoundé .
= = Legacy = =
No one took over as paramount chief upon Atangana 's death . His opulent palace went unoccupied and fell into ruins . However , traditional Cameroonian chieftaincies were re @-@ established on 11 July 1977 by Decree # 77 / 609 , and by the 1990s , Cameroonian ethnic groups had rejuvenated these dormant traditions . Atangana 's daughter Marie @-@ Thérèse became the new Ewondo paramount chief . In December 2000 , she began the renovation of his palace at Efoulan , Yaoundé , a project that would cost an estimated 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 francs CFA .
The colonialism that Atangana had supported was ruinous in Cameroon . Production centred on enriching the chiefs , wooing of foreign investment , and the apparatus of colonial administration , and building only that infrastructure that would aid in the transport and export of cash crops . Nevertheless , Atangana 's story became part of Beti folklore . For example , Beti storytellers related his tale in oral poems and songs that took up to a full night to recite . His legacy was largely forgotten by the nation at large between his death and Cameroonian independence . However , the nationalist scholarship that blossomed after Cameroon 's independence in 1960 resurrected his story . Charles Atangana Avenue in downtown Yaoundé is named for him . A statue in his likeness tops a hill nearby , which had fallen into disrepair by 2000 .
|
= USS Constellation vs La Vengeance =
The USS Constellation vs La Vengeance , or the Action of 1 February 1800 , was a single @-@ ship action fought between frigates of the French Navy and the United States Navy during the Quasi @-@ War . The battle resulted in the American frigate USS Constellation severely damaging the French frigate La Vengeance and forcing her to flee .
In 1798 , an undeclared war had begun between the United States and France due to French seizures of American merchantmen . As part of an American effort to deter French attacks , Commodore Thomas Truxton led an American naval squadron that was dispatched to the Lesser Antilles . Learning that regular French naval forces were in the region , Truxton set out in his flagship Constellation and sailed to Guadeloupe to engage them . On 1 February 1800 , while nearing the French colony , Constellation met François Marie Pitot 's frigate La Vengeance of the French Navy . Despite Pitot 's attempts to flee , his frigate was drawn into a heavy engagement with Constellation . Although the French frigate struck her colors ( surrendered ) twice , Constellation was unable to take La Vengeance as a prize . Eventually Pitot was able to escape with his frigate to Curaçao , though only after sustaining severe casualties and damage to his vessel . Truxton 's ship sustained light damage and sailed to Jamaica for repairs before returning home to a hero 's welcome .
= = Background = =
In 1800 , the Quasi @-@ War between the United States and France was in full force . In order to prevent French attacks against American merchantmen in the Caribbean , the United States Navy maintained four squadrons of vessels in the region . One such squadron was commanded by Commodore Thomas Truxton , and tasked with patrolling the Lesser Antilles . Taking command on 19 January 1800 after arriving at Saint Kitts in his flagship USS Constellation , Truxton 's squadron consisted of four frigates , three schooners , and a ship @-@ rigged man of war . Besides the numerous privateers operating in the area , the only French naval forces in Truxton 's area of operations were the frigate La Vengeance under François Marie Pitot and the corvette La Berceau under Louis Senes . Both vessels had arrived at Guadeloupe on 10 December 1799 escorting the new administrators of the French colony . Once at Saint Kitts Truxton dispersed his squadron , giving each ship orders to cruise independently . He then set sail for Guadeloupe on 30 January 1800 with his flagship Constellation , intending to challenge the French frigate and corvette there . The same day , Pitot in La Vengeance left Guadaloupe 's capital of Basse @-@ Terre for France .
By this point in the Quasi @-@ War , the 1 @,@ 265 @-@ ton Constellation carried 38 cannon despite officially being classified by the United States Navy as a 36 @-@ gun frigate . Previously her armament had consisted of 24 @-@ pounder guns , but these had proven inefficient during Truxton 's action with L 'Insurgente and as a result were removed and replaced with twenty @-@ eight 18 @-@ pounder cannon and ten 24 @-@ pounder carronades . Truxton and his crew were hardened veterans and were well prepared for a fight . Their French counterparts were not as ready for an engagement . Pitot 's frigate was carrying a large quantity of specie as well as 36 American prisoners of war and 80 passengers , two of whom were generals . Under such circumstances Pitot intended to avoid an engagement if possible , even though La Vengeance was a more heavily armed vessel carrying eight 42 @-@ pounder carronades , twenty @-@ eight 18 @-@ pounders , and sixteen 12 @-@ pounder cannon . The French also had a distinct advantage in the event of a boarding action , as Constellation had only 310 men to La Vengeance 's complement of 380 crew .
= = Engagement = =
On 1 February 1800 at 07 : 00 , Truxton 's crew spotted what appeared to be a 54 @-@ gun frigate flying British colors two leagues off the Basse @-@ Terre roadstead . In an effort to communicate with the mysterious frigate , Constellation flew British colors . Pitot had sighted the American ship by 07 : 45 . Thinking the vessel chasing him was a superior 55 @-@ gun warship , he sought to avoid conflict , and continued to sail with the wind rather than head north as he had originally intended . In an effort to increase her speed , the French frigate 's crew put out studding sails to catch more wind . The behavior of Pitot 's frigate signaled to Truxton that she was really a French warship , so he ordered Constellation cleared for action and gave chase . By 08 : 00 he struck the British colors and raised the American flag . As he closed with La Vengeance he shouted through a speaking trumpet for the French vessel to surrender .
At this point the action began , with Pitot 's stern chasers opening fire upon Constellation . In an effort to cut the American frigate 's advantage in speed , La Vengeance changed course to the south @-@ east where the wind would give her an advantage . As he maneuvered his vessel , Pitot was able to unleash a broadside aimed at Constellation 's rigging . The American frigate waited to return fire until she 'd gained the weather gage . Now having the advantage of the wind , Truxton 's opening double @-@ shotted broadside slammed into the port side of La Vengeance 's hull . Sailing side by side , the two frigates continued to engage each other for two and a half hours while Truxton attempted unsuccessfully to move his ship into a raking fire position . As the French tended to aim for the rigging , at one point Constellation 's foresails were shot away and the frigate lost her maneuverability until they could be replaced .
La Vengeance prepared for a boarding action when the two frigates drew closer together at 22 : 45 , but this attempt was foiled when Constellation fired broadsides of grapeshot at Pitot 's ship while American marines fired their muskets and hurled grenades down from the rigging . With the French ship drawing off , the two vessels began a longer range round shot duel that lasted until 02 : 00 on 2 February 1800 , when La Vengeance struck her colors for the second time . At some point earlier in the action , Pitot had struck his flag but the Americans did not notice because of darkness . Truxton moved Constellation to within 25 yards ( 23 m ) of his vanquished opponent aiming to take her as a prize . The American commodore 's ambitions were spoiled when at 03 : 00 Constellation 's mainmast fell overboard , killing several topmen who went down with it . With the Americans unable to come alongside his vessel , Pitot took advantage of the situation and simply slipped away into the darkness .
= = Aftermath = =
Casualties were heavy on both sides , and both vessels were in such poor condition that each commander thought he had sunk his opponent . Most of La Vengeance 's rigging had been blown away ; only the lower foremast , lower mizzenmast , and bowsprit were operational . Pitot set course for Curaçao and was forced to ground his vessel there to prevent her from sinking . The number of French casualties is somewhat unclear : official French accounts report 28 dead and 40 wounded , while accounts from Curaçao state that the French frigate had lost 160 men . Once Pitot reached Curaçao he was beset with further problems . La Vengeance remained out of action for months due to difficulties in acquiring support needed to repair the frigate from the Dutch officials there . A French expedition to seize the island brought the materiel needed to repair the frigate , but when asked to help attack the island Pitot refused and slipped away to Guadaloupe .
Constellation had suffered heavy damage with 15 of her crew slain and a further 25 wounded , of whom 11 later died . The ship sailed to Port Royal , Jamaica , for a refit , but Truxton could not complete the necessary repairs because of a shortage of naval stores . The ship left Jamaica a week after she arrived , with only her mainmast replaced . After escorting a convoy of 14 merchantmen back to the United States , Truxton sailed his battered frigate to Hampton Roads for a proper refit . Only after he returned to the United States did the American commodore finally learn that the La Vengeance had not been sunk . Truxton was considered a hero and received considerable praise for his actions . In response to his battle with Pitot 's frigate , the American government commended Truxton with a Congressional Gold Medal depicting the battle . James C. Jarvis , a 13 @-@ year @-@ old Midshipman who was killed when the mainmast collapsed , became famous for his bravery during the battle .
|
= Berkshire No. 7 =
Berkshire No. 7 is a wood and steel barge constructed in 1935 . It is historically important as a transitional canal barge and as one of the few surviving wooden @-@ hulled canal boats . It was used to transport bulk cargo , including shipping fertilizer , from Connecticut to Long Island Sound . It sank in 1974 along with the Elmer S. Dailey and the Priscilla Dailey . The sunken vessel has deteriorated to the point that a salvage operation could result in breaking it apart . The Berkshire No. 7 was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21 , 1978 .
= = Description = =
The Berkshire No. 7 is a small wood and steel canal barge that measures 104 feet ( 32 m ) long with a 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) beam . The depth of the hold is listed at 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) and it had a listed capacity of 216 tons . It is a transitional canal barge with steel framing and wood planking over the skeleton . Clouette describes the hull as being " nearly rectangular in profile , section and plan , with squared @-@ off stern and bluntly rounded bow . Low bulwarks with scuppers rise slightly to a peak where they join the prominently projecting stem " . The superstructure is primarily of a single low coaming with convex hatch covers that runs almost the full length of the shop . A rectangular cabin rises up above the coaming and has a companionway in the rear . The Berkshire No. 7 is listed in the U.S. Registry as # 172071 .
= = History = =
The Berkshire No. 7 was constructed in 1935 by Jacobson and Peterson , Inc. in Brooklyn , New York , for Stewart J. Dailey , a former mule driver on the Erie Canal who later became a partner in a Tonawanda , New York , shipbuilding company and afterwards opened his own business , S. J. Dailey Company . The barge was used to ferry materials , including shipping fertilizer from Connecticut to Long Island Sound between 1941 and 1972 . Afterwards it was moored in Bridgeport Harbor together with the Elmer S. Dailey and Priscilla Dailey . In the spring of 1974 , one of the barges began to take on water , dragging down the other two . No part of the Berkshire No. 7 is visible above water .
= = Importance = =
The Berkshire No. 7 has historical importance because of its design , which reflects the construction of 19th @-@ century canal boats . However , there is no record that the barge was ever used on a canal . The barge is one of two surviving wooden @-@ hulled canal boats in existence . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21 , 1978 . Its nomination and listing is unusual because the Berkshire No. 7 was not yet 50 years old at the time of its nomination , and it sank in 1974 . It and the other two barges that sank with it are the only shipwrecks in Connecticut listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
In 1998 , the historic status of the barges was a concern for the Port Authority of Bridgeport Harbor , as the sunken ships interfered with a billion @-@ dollar redevelopment project . Over the years , the barges had deteriorated so that a salvage operation would likely result in them breaking apart . No action had been taken by 2003 , but a report noted that prior to any activity of the Berkshire No. 7 , the Federal Transit Administration and / or the City of Bridgeport should document the barge with photos and a technical description . Specifics regarding the documentation based on the activity would be archived at the State Historic Preservation Office and the Mystic Seaport Museum .
|
= Constitutional Convention ( United States ) =
The Constitutional Convention ( also known as the Philadelphia Convention , the Federal Convention , or the Grand Convention at Philadelphia ) took place from May 25 to September 17 , 1787 , in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Although the Convention was intended to revise the Articles of Confederation , the intention from the outset of many of its proponents , chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton , was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one . The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention . The result of the Convention was the creation of the United States Constitution , placing the Convention among the most significant events in the history of the United States .
The most contentious disputes revolved around the composition and election of the Senate , how " proportional representation " was to be defined ( whether to include slaves or other property ) , whether to divide the executive power between three persons or invest the power into a single president , how to elect the president , how long his term was to be and whether he could run for reelection , what offenses should be impeachable , the nature of a fugitive slave clause , whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade , and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or executive . Most of the time during the Convention was spent on deciding these issues , while the powers of legislature , executive , and judiciary were not heavily disputed . Once the Convention began , the delegates first agreed on the principles of the Convention , then they agreed on Madison 's Virginia Plan and began to modify it . A Committee of Detail assembled during the July 4 recess and produced a rough draft . Most of this rough draft remained in place , and can be found in the final version of the constitution . After the final issues were resolved , the Committee on Style produced the final version , and it was voted on and sent to the states .
= = Historical context = =
Before the Constitution was drafted , the nearly 4 million inhabitants of the 13 newly independent states were governed under the Articles of Confederation , created by the Second Continental Congress . It soon became evident to nearly all that the chronically underfunded Confederation government , as originally organized , was inadequate for managing the various conflicts that arose among the states . As the Articles of Confederation could only be amended by unanimous vote of the states , any state had effective veto power over any proposed change . In addition , the Articles gave the weak federal government no taxing power : it was wholly dependent on the states for its money , and had no power to force delinquent states to pay .
Once the immediate task of winning the American Revolutionary War had passed , the states began to look to their own interests , and disputes arose . These included a dispute between Maryland and Virginia over the Potomac River and opposition to Rhode Island 's imposing taxes on all traffic passing through it on the post road that linked all the states . James Madison suggested that state governments should appoint commissioners " to take into consideration the trade of the United States ; to examine the relative situation and trade of said states ; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common interests and permanent harmony " .
In September 1786 , at the Annapolis Convention , delegates from five states called for a Constitutional Convention in order to discuss possible improvements to the Articles of Confederation . The Constitutional Convention took place in Philadelphia on May 14 , 1787 . Rhode Island , fearing that the Convention would work to its disadvantage , boycotted the Convention and , when the Constitution was put to the states , initially refused to ratify it .
= = The Convention = =
Due to the difficulty of travel in the late 18th century , very few of the selected delegates were present on the designated day of May 14 , 1787 , and it was not until May 25 that a quorum of seven states was secured . ( New Hampshire delegates would not join the Convention until more than halfway through the proceedings , on July 23 . ) James Madison arrived first , and soon most of the Virginia delegation arrived . While waiting for the other delegates , the Virginia delegation produced the Virginia Plan , which was designed and written by James Madison . On May 25 , the delegations convened in the Pennsylvania State House .
George Washington was unanimously elected president of the Convention , and it was agreed that the discussions and votes would be kept secret until the conclusion of the meeting . Although William Jackson was elected as secretary , his records were brief and included very little detail . Madison 's Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 , supplemented by the notes of Robert Yates , remain the most complete record of the Convention . Throughout the debate , delegates constantly referred to precedents from history in support of their position . Most commonly , they referred to the history of England , in particular the Glorious Revolution ( often simply called " The Revolution " ) , classical history ( mainly the Roman Republic and the leagues of Greek city @-@ states ) , and recent precedents from Holland and Germany .
Outside the Convention in Philadelphia , there was a national convening of the Society of the Cincinnati . Washington was said to be embarrassed . The 1776 " old republican " delegates like Elbridge Gerry ( MA ) found anything military or hereditary anathema . The Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia and New York convention was meeting to redefine its Confession , dropping the faith requirement for civil authority to prohibit false worship . Protestant Episcopalian Washington attended a Roman Catholic Mass and dinner . Revolution veteran Jonas Phillips , of the Mikveh Israel Synagogue , petitioned the Convention to avoid a national oath including belief in both Old and New Testaments . Merchants of Providence , Rhode Island , petitioned for consideration , even though their Assembly had not sent a delegation .
Manasseh Cutler came directly from the U.S. Capital in New York and found himself a frequent dinner guest among the delegates . He carried grants of five million acres to parcel out among The Ohio Company and " speculators " , some of whom would be found among those attending the Convention . A Philadelphia guest of Robert Morris , Noah Webster would write a pamphlet as " A Citizen of America " immediately after the signing . " Leading Principles of the Federal Convention " advocated adoption of the Constitution . It was published much earlier and more widely circulated than today 's better known Federalist Papers .
= = = James Madison 's blueprint = = =
While waiting for the Convention to formally begin , James Madison sketched out his initial draft , which became known as the Virginia Plan and reflected his views as a strong nationalist . By the time the rest of the Virginia delegation arrived , most of the Pennsylvania delegation had arrived as well . They agreed on Madison 's plan , and formed what came to be the predominant coalition . By the time the Convention started , the only blueprints that had been assembled were Madison 's Virginia Plan , and Charles Pinckney 's plan . As Pinckney didn 't have a coalition behind his plan , Madison 's plan was the starting point for deliberations .
The Convention agreed on several principles . Most importantly , they agreed that the Convention should go beyond its mandate merely to amend the Articles of Confederation , and instead should produce a new constitution outright . While some delegates thought this illegal , the Articles of Confederation were closer to a treaty between sovereign states than they were to a national constitution , so the genuine legal problems were limited . Another principle they agreed on was that the new government would have all the powers of the Confederation Congress , plus additional powers over the states . Once agreeing on these principles , the Convention voted on the Virginia plan and signaled their approval for it . Once this was done , they began modifying it .
Madison 's plan operated on several assumptions that were not seriously challenged . During the deliberations , few raised serious objections to the planned bicameral congress , nor the separate executive function , nor the separate judicial function . As English law had typically recognized government as having two separate functions , law making embodied in the legislature , and law executing embodied in the king and his courts , the division of the legislature from the executive and judiciary was a natural and uncontested point .
The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house wasn 't questioned either , despite the obscure origins of the English House of Lords and its role as the representative of the hereditary nobility . Americans had seldom known any but bicameral legislatures , both in Britain and in most state governments . The main exceptions to this were the dysfunctional Confederation Congress and the unicameral Pennsylvania legislature , which was seen as quickly vacillating between partisan extremes after each election . Experience had convinced the delegates that an upper house was necessary to tame the passions of the lower classes against the interests of wealthy merchants and landowners . Since America had no native hereditary aristocracy , the character of this upper house was designed to protect the interests of this wealthy elite , the " minority of the opulent , " against the interests of the lower classes , who constituted the majority of the population .
On Thursday , June 7 , it was proposed that senators should be chosen directly by the state legislatures , instead of by popular vote , as this method was more likely to preserve the power of the upper classes . Convention delegate Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts observed that " the great mercantile interest and of stockholders , is not provided for in any mode of election @-@ they will however be better represented if the State legislatures choose the second branch . " The proposal was carried unanimously .
The delegates also agreed with Madison that the executive function had to be independent of the legislature . In their aversion to kingly power , American legislatures had created state governments where the executive was beholden to the legislature , and by the late 1780s this was widely seen as being a source of paralysis . The Confederation government was the ultimate example of this .
Furthermore , in the English tradition , judges were seen as being agents of the King and his court , who represented him throughout his realm . Madison believed that in the American states , this direct link between state executives and judges was a source of corruption through patronage , and thought the link had to be severed between the two , thus creating the " third branch " of the judiciary which had been without any direct precedent before this point . Madison , however , did not believe that the judiciary should be truly independent , but rather beholden to the legislature rather than the executive . At the Convention , some sided with Madison that the legislature should choose judges , while others believed the president should choose judges . A compromise was eventually reached that the president should choose judges and the Senate confirm them .
In a few areas , Madison 's plan included provisions that had little support among the delegates . Few agreed with Madison that the legislature should be able to invalidate state laws , so the idea was dropped . While most thought there should be some mechanism to invalidate bad laws by congress , few agreed with Madison that a board of the executive and judges should decide on this . Instead , the power was given solely to the executive in the form of the veto . Many also thought this would be useful to protect the executive , whom many worried might become beholden to an imperial legislature . Also , during the deliberations , the New Jersey Plan was introduced , although it was more of a protest to the excessive national character of the Virginia plan , and was not seriously considered . The office of Vice President was also included later in the deliberations , mainly to provide the president a successor if he was unable to complete his term .
= = = The early debate = = =
Each state was allowed to cast a single vote either for or against a proposal during the debates in accordance with the majority opinion of the state 's delegates . Throughout the Convention , delegates would regularly come and go , with only 30 – 40 being present on a typical day . Consequently , if a state 's delegates were equally divided in their views on a given proposal , or if too few of the state 's delegates were in attendance to establish a quorum for the delegation when votes were being cast on a particular proposal , that state 's delegation had essentially no effect on the outcome of the vote on the proposal . Thus , for example , after two of New York 's three delegates abandoned the Convention in mid July with no intention of returning , New York was left unable to vote on any further proposals at the Convention , although Hamilton would continue to periodically attend and occasionally to speak during the debates .
The first area of major dispute was the manner by which the lower house would be apportioned . A minority wanted it to be apportioned so that all states would have equal weight , though this was never seriously considered . Most wanted it apportioned in accordance with some mixture of property and population . Though there was discussion on how to calculate property for this purpose , the issue of property was later dropped because of its difficulty , and an assumption that property would closely correlate to population .
Most accepted the desire among the slave states to count slaves as part of the population , although their servile status was raised as a major objection against this . The Three @-@ Fifths Compromise assessing population by adding the number of free persons to three @-@ fifths of " all other persons " ( slaves ) was agreed to without serious dispute . In 1783 , when attempting to assess a national taxation system , the Confederation Congress had considered a three fifths ratio , which did not achieve unanimity . This compromise resulted in a large coalition of states , including the small slave states of South Carolina and Georgia , backing the Virginia plan and thus expanding the power of the primary coalition . That the lower house was to be elected directly by the voters was also accepted without major dispute .
More contentious than the lower house was the question of the upper house . Few agreed with Madison that its members should be elected by the lower house . James Wilson suggested election by popular vote versus election by state legislature , but his proposal was shot down 10 @-@ 1 by the delegates . Most delegates didn 't question the intelligence of the voters , rather what concerned them was the slowness by which information spread in the late 18th century .
At the time of the Convention , they noted that local newspapers said little of current events , and what little they had was sketchy and dated . Local papers even said little about the meeting of the Convention . Alexander Hamilton proposed extending the term in office for senators to life , considering earlier proposals of four and seven years inefficient to enable the " rich and well born " to have a " distinct , permanent share in the government , " which could " check the imprudence of democracy . " Moreover , Hamilton proposed that senators not be elected directly by the general public , but by " electors " chosen for that purpose .
Besides the problems of direct election , the new Constitution was seen as such a radical break with the old system , by which delegates were elected to the Confederation Congress by state legislatures , that the Convention agreed to retain this method of electing senators to make the constitutional change less radical . The more difficult problem was the issue of apportionment . The Connecticut delegation offered a compromise , whereby the number of representatives for each state in the lower house would be apportioned based on the relative size of the state 's population , while the number of representatives in the upper house would be the same for all of the states , irrespective of size . The large states , fearing a diminution of their influence in the legislature under this plan , opposed this proposal . Unable to reach agreement , the delegates decided to leave this issue for further consideration later during the meeting .
The delegates couldn 't agree on whether the executive should be a single person , or a board of three . Many wished to limit the power of the executive and thus supported the proposal to divide the executive power between three persons . The possible problems of this system , in addition to the knowledge that George Washington would probably be the first president , calmed the fears enough so that the proponents of a singular executive could accumulate a large coalition . This issue came up occasionally after the matter was settled , but was never again seriously doubted .
Another issue concerned the election of the president . Few agreed with Madison that the executive should be elected by the legislature . There was widespread concern with direct election , because information diffused so slowly in the late 18th century , and because of concerns that people would only vote for candidates from their state or region . A vocal minority wanted the national executive to be chosen by the governors of the states .
The issue was one of the last major issues to be resolved , and was done so in the electoral college . At the time , before the formation of modern political parties , there was widespread concern that candidates would routinely fail to secure a majority of electors in the electoral college . The method of resolving this problem therefore was a contested issue . Most thought that the house should then choose the president , since it most closely reflected the will of the people . This caused dissension among delegates from smaller states , who realized that this would put their states at a disadvantage . To resolve this dispute , the Convention agreed that the house would elect the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority , but that each state delegation would vote as a bloc , rather than individually .
As the Convention was entering its second full month of deliberations , it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states that were present at that time at the Convention . The members of this " Grand Committee , " as it has come to be known , included Elbridge Gerry , Oliver Ellsworth , Robert Yates , William Paterson , Gunning Bedford , Jr . , George Mason , William Davie , John Rutledge , Abraham Baldwin , and Benjamin Franklin . In its report to the Convention on July 5 , the committee offered a compromise . The large states had opposed the Connecticut Compromise , because they felt it gave too much power to the smaller states . The Grand Committee 's proposal made two important modifications . It added the requirement that revenue bills originate in the lower house and not be subject to modification by the upper house ( although this Origination Clause would later be modified so that revenue bills could be amended in the upper house , or Senate ) .
The proposal also specified that each senator — rather than each state delegation — was to get one vote , and that each state would have multiple senators . This meant that the senators would each be voting individually , rather than as a bloc by state as delegates always had . This made senators free agents , presumably acting on behalf of their state at large , rather than as mere agents of the state legislatures . As such , the Senate would bring a federal character to the government , not because senators were elected by state legislatures , but because each state was equally represented in the Senate , which was the main aim of the smaller states . It was this , not simply Madison 's earlier agreement to replace the word national with the word federal , that convinced the delegates that the Constitution had a federal character . The final document was thus a mixture of Madison 's original " national " constitution and the desired " federal " Constitution that many of the delegates sought .
= = = The first draft = = =
The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the Committee of Detail , which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution . It was chaired by John Rutledge , with the other members including Edmund Randolph , Oliver Ellsworth , James Wilson , and Nathaniel Gorham .
Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings , three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee ’ s handiwork : an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge , extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson , also with Rutledge ’ s edits , and the committee ’ s final report to the Convention . From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan , the decisions of the Convention on modifications to that plan , and other sources , such as the Articles of Confederation , provisions of the state constitutions , and even Charles Pinckney 's plan , to produce the first full draft , which author David O. Stewart has called a " remarkable copy @-@ and @-@ paste job . "
Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline : that the Constitution should only include essential principles , avoiding minor provisions that would change over time , and that it should be stated in simple and precise language .
Much of what was included in the committee ’ s report consisted of numerous details that the Convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged ; and as such , much of the committee ’ s proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate . Examples of these details included the Speech and Debate Clause , which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs , and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate .
However , Rutledge , himself a former state governor , was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been , the national government ’ s power over the states should not be limitless ; and at Rutledge ’ s urging , the committee went beyond what the Convention had proposed . As Stewart describes it , the committee " hijacked " and remade the Constitution , altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made , enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government , and adding several far @-@ reaching provisions that the Convention had never discussed .
The first major change , insisted on by Rutledge , was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate “ in all cases for the general interests of the Union ” that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress . Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the Convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states . In Randolph ’ s outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific “ enumerated ” powers , many adopted from the Articles of Confederation , that would strictly limit the Congress ’ authority to measures such as imposing taxes , making treaties , going to war , and establishing post offices . Rutledge , however , was not able to completely convince all of the members of the committee to accept the change . Over the course of a series of drafts , a catchall provision ( the “ Necessary and Proper Clause ” ) was eventually added , most likely by Wilson , a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states , giving the Congress the broad power “ to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers , and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States , or in any department or officer thereof . ” Another revision of Wilson ’ s draft also placed eight specific limits on the states , such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money , providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge ’ s list of enumerated powers . In addition , Wilson ’ s draft modified the language of the Supremacy Clause adopted by the Convention , to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws .
These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document , as the Convention never challenged this dual @-@ sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson .
Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee ’ s report was presented to the Convention . On the day the Convention had agreed to appoint the committee , Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney , of South Carolina , had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states , or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports . Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates must have been delighted to see that the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress ’ authority in ways favorable to Southern interests . The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade . It would also prohibit taxation of exports , and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas ( that is , any laws akin to England 's “ Navigation Acts ” ) pass only with two @-@ thirds majorities of both houses of Congress . While much of the rest of the committee ’ s report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor , these last three proposals would provoke outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents .
The final report of the committee , which became the first draft of the Constitution , was the first workable constitutional plan , as Madison 's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure . Even after it issued this report , the committee continued to meet off and on until early September .
= = = Further modifications and concluding debate = = =
Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed , during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft , though few were successful . Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office , while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money . Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan .
One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the slave trade starting in 1808 . Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the Fugitive Slave Clause in exchange for removing a requirement that two @-@ thirds of Congress agree on " navigation acts " ( regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments ) . The two @-@ thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates , who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders .
Once the Convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail , a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution . The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to habeas corpus , freedom of the press , and an executive council to advise the president . Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts .
A new committee was created , the Committee on Postponed Parts , to address other questions that had been postponed . Its members , such as Madison , were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home . The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes , war making , patents and copyrights , relations with Indian tribes , and Franklin 's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House . The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency , and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee 's input . They adopted Wilson 's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college , and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority , which many such as Madison thought would be " nineteen times out of twenty " .
The committee also shortened the president 's term from seven years to four years , freed the president to seek re @-@ election after an initial term , and moved impeachment trials from the courts to the Senate . They also created the office of the vice president , whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office and to preside over the Senate . The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president , for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors . One controversial issue throughout much of the Convention had been the length of the president 's term , and whether the president was to be term limited . The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress ; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress , so a shorter term with eligibility for re @-@ election became a viable option .
Near the end of the Convention , Gerry , Randolph , and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition . Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison 's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge 's Committee of Detail . Some have argued that Randolph 's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition , in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival Patrick Henry in a future election . The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass " navigation acts " with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions . Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president .
Though most of their complaints did not result in changes , a couple did . Mason succeeded in adding " high crimes and misdemeanors " to the impeachment clause . Gerry also convinced the Convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments . The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment , in which two @-@ thirds of the states had to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments . Upon Gerry 's urging , the Convention added back the Virginia Plan 's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify . All amendments to the Constitution have been made through this latter method .
Despite their successes , these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the Convention 's business to an end and return home . As the Convention was drawing to a conclusion , and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version , one delegate raised an objection over civil trials . He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters , and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity . Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a bill of rights , which he thought could be prepared in a few hours . Gerry agreed , though the rest of the committee overruled them . They wanted to go home , and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic .
Few at the time realized how important the issue would become , with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the anti @-@ Federalists against ratification . Most of the Convention 's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights , and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights , so there was no need to include protections of rights . Once the Convention moved beyond this point , the delegates addressed a couple of last @-@ minute issues . Importantly , they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected , unmodified , by the Senate . The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House .
= = = Drafting and signing = = =
Once the final modifications had been made , the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed " to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house . " Unlike other committees , whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions , this final committee included no champions of the small states . Its members were mostly in favor of a strong national government and unsympathetic to calls for states ' rights . They were William Samuel Johnson ( Connecticut ) , Alexander Hamilton ( New York ) , Gouverneur Morris ( Pennsylvania ) , James Madison ( Virginia ) , and Rufus King ( Massachusetts ) . On Wednesday , September 12 , the report of the " committee of style " was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates . For three days , the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the Convention . The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday , September 15 by Jacob Shallus , and was submitted for signing on September 17 . It made at least one important change to what the Convention had agreed to ; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts . Although the Convention never took up the matter his language was now inserted , creating the contract clause .
Gouverneur Morris is credited , both now and then , as the chief draftsman of the final document , including the stirring preamble . Not all the delegates were pleased with the results ; thirteen left before the ceremony , and three of those remaining refused to sign : Edmund Randolph of Virginia , George Mason of Virginia , and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts . George Mason demanded a Bill of Rights if he was to support the Constitution . The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification , but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow . Shortly before the document was to be signed , Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 citizens . A similar measure had been proposed earlier , and failed by one vote . George Washington spoke up here , making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move . The Convention adopted it without further debate . Gorham would sign the document , although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single , unified nation for more than 150 years . Ultimately , 39 of the original 55 delegates ended up signing , but it is likely that none were completely satisfied . Their views were summed up by Benjamin Franklin , who said ,
I confess that There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve , but I am not sure I shall never approve them . ... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain , may be able to make a better Constitution . ... It therefore astonishes me , Sir , to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does ; and I think it will astonish our enemies ...
Rhode Island never sent delegates , and two of New York 's three delegates did not stay at the Convention for long . Therefore , as George Washington stated , the document was executed by " eleven states , and Colonel Hamilton . " Washington signed the document first , and then moving by state delegation from north to south , as had been the custom throughout the Convention , the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names .
At the time the document was signed , Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an anecdote on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington 's Chippendale chair . As recounted in Madison 's notes :
Whilst the last members were signing it Doctor . Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair , at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted , observed to a few members near him , that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun . I have said he , often and often in the course of the Session , and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue , looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting : But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun .
The Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification , pursuant to its own Article VII .
= = Proposed plans = =
Several plans were introduced , with the most important plan being that of James Madison ( the Virginia Plan ) . The Convention 's work was mostly a matter of modifying this plan . Charles Pinckney also introduced a plan , although this wasn 't considered and its exact character has been lost to history . After the Convention was well under way , the New Jersey Plan was introduced though never seriously considered . It was mainly a protest to what some delegates thought was the excessively radical change from the Articles of Confederation . Alexander Hamilton also offered a plan after the Convention was well under way , though it included an executive serving for life and therefore the delegates felt it too closely resembled a monarchy . Historians are unsure how serious he was about this , and some have speculated that he may have done it to make Madison 's plan look moderate by comparison . The Connecticut Compromise wasn 't a plan but one of several compromises offered by the Connecticut delegation . It was key to the ultimate ratification of the constitution , although was only included after being modified by Benjamin Franklin in order to make it more appealing to larger states .
= = = Virginia Plan = = =
Prior to the start of the Convention , the Virginian delegates met and , drawing largely from Madison 's suggestions , came up with what came to be known as the Virginia Plan , also known as the Large State Plan . For this reason , James Madison is sometimes called the Father of the Constitution . Presented by Virginia governor Edmund Randolph on May 29 , 1787 , the Virginia Plan proposed a very powerful bicameral legislature . Both houses of the legislature would be determined proportionately . The lower house would be elected by the people , and the upper house would be elected by the lower house . The executive would exist solely to ensure that the will of the legislature was carried out and would therefore be selected by the legislature . The Virginia Plan also created a judiciary , and gave both the executive and some of the judiciary the power to veto , subject to override .
= = = New Jersey Plan = = =
After the Virginia Plan was introduced , New Jersey delegate William Paterson asked for an adjournment to contemplate the Plan . Under the Articles of Confederation , each state had equal representation in Congress , exercising one vote each . The Virginia Plan threatened to limit the smaller states ' power by making both houses of the legislature proportionate to population . On June 14 and 15 , 1787 , a small @-@ state caucus met to create a response to the Virginia Plan . The result was the New Jersey Plan , otherwise known as the Small State Plan .
Paterson 's New Jersey Plan was ultimately a rebuttal to the Virginia Plan , and was much closer to the initial call for the Convention : drafting amendments to the Articles of Confederation to fix the problems in it . Under the New Jersey Plan , the existing Continental Congress would remain , but it would be granted new powers , such as the power to levy taxes and force their collection . An executive branch was created , to be elected by Congress ( the plan allowed for a multi @-@ person executive ) . The executives would serve a single term and were subject to recall on the request of state governors . The plan also created a judiciary that would serve for life , to be appointed by the executives . Lastly , any laws set by Congress would take precedence over state laws . When Paterson reported the plan to the Convention on June 15 , 1787 , it was ultimately rejected , but it gave the smaller states a rallying point for their interests .
= = = Hamilton 's plan = = =
Unsatisfied with the New Jersey Plan and the Virginia Plan , Alexander Hamilton proposed his own plan . It also was known as the British Plan , because of its resemblance to the British system of strong centralized government . In his plan , Hamilton advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty and consolidating the states into a single nation . The plan featured a bicameral legislature , the lower house elected by the people for three years . The upper house would be elected by electors chosen by the people and would serve for life . The plan also gave the Governor , an executive elected by electors for a life @-@ term of service , an absolute veto over bills . State governors would be appointed by the national legislature , and the national legislature had veto power over any state legislation .
Hamilton presented his plan to the Convention on June 18 , 1787 . The plan was perceived as a well @-@ thought @-@ out plan , but it was not considered , because it resembled the British system too closely . It also contemplated the loss of most state authority , which the states were unwilling to allow .
= = = Pinckney 's plan = = =
Immediately after Randolph finished laying out the Virginia Plan , Charles Pinckney of South Carolina presented his own plan to the Convention . As Pinckney did not reduce it to writing , the only evidence we have are Madison 's notes , so the details are somewhat vague . It was a confederation , or treaty , among the thirteen states . There was to be a bicameral legislature made up of a Senate and a House of Delegates . The House would have one member for every one thousand inhabitants . The House would elect Senators who would serve by rotation for four years and represent one of four regions . Congress would meet in a joint session to elect a President , and would also appoint members of the cabinet . Congress , in joint session , would serve as the court of appeal of last resort in disputes between states . Pinckney did also provide for a supreme Federal Judicial Court . The Pinckney plan was not debated , but it may have been referred to by the Committee of Detail .
= = = Connecticut Compromise = = =
The Connecticut Compromise , forged by Roger Sherman from Connecticut , was proposed on June 11 . In a sense it blended the Virginia ( large @-@ state ) and New Jersey ( small @-@ state ) proposals . Ultimately , however , its main contribution was in determining the apportionment of the Senate , and thus retaining a federal character in the constitution . Sherman sided with the two @-@ house national legislature of the Virginia Plan , but proposed " That the proportion of suffrage in the 1st. branch [ house ] should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants ; and that in the second branch or Senate , each State should have one vote and no more . " This plan failed at first , but on July 23 the question was finally settled .
What was ultimately included in the constitution was a modified form of this plan . In the Committee of Detail , Benjamin Franklin added the requirement that revenue bills originate in the house , and rather than the state delegations voting as a bloc as instructed by their state legislatures , Franklin 's modification made them free agents . As such , the Senate would bring a federal character to the government , not because senators were elected by state legislatures , but because each state was equally represented .
= = Slavery = =
Among the most controversial issues confronting the delegates was that of slavery . Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the Convention . Twenty @-@ five of the Convention 's 55 delegates owned slaves , including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina . Slaves comprised approximately one @-@ fifth of the population of the states ; and apart from northernmost New England , where slavery had largely been eliminated , slaves lived throughout all regions of the country . The majority of the slaves ( more than 90 % ) , however , lived in the South , where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves ( in the largest and wealthiest state , Virginia , that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families ) . The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor , and the Southern delegates to the Convention were unwilling to accept any proposals that they believed would threaten the institution .
Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that several Southern states refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed . Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery practiced within the confines of the new nation be completely outlawed . However , they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade , including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries . The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue . During the Convention 's late July recess , the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves . The Convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August , so they referred the matter to an eleven @-@ member committee for further discussion . This committee helped work out a compromise : Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade , but not for another twenty years ( that is , not until 1808 ) . In exchange for this concession , the federal government 's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two @-@ thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities .
Another contentious slavery @-@ related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress , or would instead be considered property and as such not be considered for purposes of representation . Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation , but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population . Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation , but not in determining representation .
Finally , delegate James Wilson proposed the Three @-@ Fifths Compromise . This was eventually adopted by the Convention .
= = Delegates = =
The states had originally appointed seventy representatives to the Convention , but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend , leaving 55 delegates who would ultimately craft the Constitution .
Almost all of the fifty @-@ five delegates had taken part in the Revolution , with at least twenty @-@ nine having served in the Continental forces , most in positions of command . All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers . The vast majority ( about 75 % ) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress , and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution . Several had been state governors . Just two delegates , Roger Sherman and Robert Morris , would be signatories to all three of the nation ’ s founding documents : the Declaration of Independence , the Articles of Confederation , and the Constitution .
More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers ( several had even been judges ) , although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal means of business . There were also merchants , manufacturers , shippers , land speculators , bankers or financiers , two or three physicians , a minister , and several small farmers . Of the twenty @-@ five who owned slaves , sixteen depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income . Most of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings , and most , with the possible exception of Roger Sherman and William Few , were very comfortably wealthy . George Washington and Robert Morris were among the wealthiest men in the entire country .
( * ) Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution . Randolph , Mason , and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign .
The names of several prominent Founders are notable for their not having participated in the Constitutional Convention . Thomas Jefferson was abroad , serving as the minister to France ( nonetheless , Jefferson , in a letter to John Adams , would describe the delegates approvingly as a gathering of “ demi @-@ gods ” ) . John Adams was in Britain , serving as minister to that country , but he wrote home to encourage the delegates . Patrick Henry refused to participate because he " smelt a rat in Philadelphia , tending toward the monarchy . " Also absent were John Hancock and Samuel Adams . Many of the states ’ older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the Convention , which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation , not to write a constitution for a completely new national government .
|
= The Real Thing ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" The Real Thing " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her debut solo studio album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . It was written by Stefani , Linda Perry , and her then @-@ husband Gavin Rossdale , who is credited as " GMR " . Nellee Hooper produced the song , with Mark " Spike " Stent serving as an additional producer . An Europop and synthpop ballad , " The Real Thing " talks about mutual love between two lovers .
Interscope Records released the track as a promotional single exclusively in the Philippines a year after the album 's release . It was released as a CD single that featured a remix by the music duo Wendy & Lisa . The remix was also included on the deluxe edition of L.A.M.B. , as well as on the international version of the album .
After its release , " The Real Thing " received generally favorable reviews from critics . Critics appreciated the " vintage " production of the song and labeled it a stand @-@ out track on the album , while also noting its New Order influence . Stefani performed the single throughout her 2005 Harajuku Lovers Tour in a vintage red bathing suit along with a group of breakdancers and the Harajuku Girls . The live performance was praised and compared to Madonna and Cyndi Lauper .
= = Background and release = =
While writing and recording for her debut album , Stefani cited her major influences as Club Nouveau , Lisa Lisa , Prince , New Order , The Cure and early Madonna and advised the producers and writers that she wanted a similar sound for the album . According to MTV 's Jennifer Vineyard , musician and sonwwriter Linda Perry " put Gwen in a headlock " during a party after the Grammys and told her they could make beautiful music together " ; however , Stefani felt scared and insecure about working with Perry . While recording at Perry 's house , Stefani was initially insecure about her writing process and " would go into another room to try to write some lyrics , and when she came back , Perry would already have the whole song nailed . " After a writing session where " What You Waiting For ? " was created , Stefani became less insecure and felt more comfortable when making songs . After working with other musicians , Stefani and Perry worked together on " The Real Thing " . On October 3 , 2005 , Interscope Records released the song as a promotional single exclusively in the Philippines . The label released a CD single , which featured the album version and a remix by Wendy & Lisa of the song .
= = Composition = =
" The Real Thing " was written by Gwen Stefani , Linda Perry and Gavin Rossdale , who is credited as " GMR " on the album 's booklet , while production was done by Nellee Hooper and Mark " Spike " Stent . New Order vocalist Bernard Sumner and bassist Peter Hook also contributed to the song while music duo Wendy & Lisa were in charge of providing guitar and keyboards respectively . The song has two versions : the first is a mid @-@ tempo Europop and synthpop ballad , and the second , which is a slow version remixed by Wendy & Lisa called : " Wendy & Lisa Slow Mix " . Lyrically , the song discusses mutual love between a couple .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , the song received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the song a " slice of vintage euro @-@ pop perfection , " while John Murphy of musicOMH named it " another poppy ballad which gets away with some cheesy lyrics by being touchingly sincere , making it probably the best track on the album . " Jennifer Nine of Yahoo ! Music agreed , labeling it an " airy , girlishly fresh album stand @-@ out [ that ] soars lump @-@ throatedly along on a peerlessly evocative Peter Hook bassline like some dreamy combination of Cyndi Lauper ’ s ' Time After Time ' and Ms Ciccone ’ s ' True Blue ' . Jason Damas of PopMatters claimed that the song " takes us back closer to No Doubt territory again , this time wedding a distinctively Peter Hook ( of New Order ) influenced bass line to a sweet pop ballad . "
Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone called her " some kind of visionary " for getting New Order on the same track as Wendy and Lisa . Kathi Kamen Goldmark of Commonsensemedia agreed , noting that the addition of the musicians " actually works . " Anthony Carew of Neumu called it an " obligatory cut [ ... ] where great care was taken to get that neo @-@ vintage sound sounding just right . " Charles Merwin of Stylus Magazine was more critical , calling it " tepid " , while Nick Sylvester of Pitchfork Media was overall displeased by the song , heavily comparing it to New Order 's " Bizarre Love Triangle " and stating : " Anyone remotely involved with ' The Real Thing ' should find a stray dog and let it bite him " .
= = Live performances = =
Stefani included the song on the setlist for both of her worldwide concert tours : Harajuku Lovers Tour and The Sweet Escape Tour . In his review of the video album Harajuku Lovers Live , Canoe.ca 's James Stevenson , wrote " the Harajuku Girls donned 40s @-@ era bathing suits and carried plastic beach balls while Stefani herself was glamorously decked out in a red @-@ and @-@ white @-@ polka dot suit in one of many costume changes " ; the Harajuku Girls are a dance troupe that has performed with Stefani on multiple occasions . Stevenson highlighted the performance as one of the standout on the concert , noting that it " set [ s ] the bar high early in the evening . " Corey Moss of MTV News compared the performance to Madonna 's and noted that the song " could have been titled ' Lucky Star 2005 . " During his review of the concert 's video album , Glenn Meads of the Manchester Evening News described Stefani 's performances as " reminiscent of Cyndi Lauper . " Stefani performed the " Slow Jam Mix " of the song during her The Sweet Escape Tour ( 2007 ) ; the performance also included Stefani in a 1940s @-@ style bathing suit , once again accompanied by the Harajuku Girls .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love . Angel . Music . Baby .
= = Release history = =
|
= Jan Zamoyski =
Jan Zamoyski or Zamojski ( Latin : Ioannes de Zamość ; 1542 – 1605 ) was a Polish nobleman , magnate , and the 1st ordynat of Zamość . Royal Secretary from 1566 , Deputy Kanclerz ( Chancellor ) of the Crown from 1576 , Lord Grand @-@ Chancellor of the Crown from 1578 , and Grand Hetman of the Crown from 1581 . General Starost of Kraków from 1580 to 1585 , Starost of Bełz , Międzyrzecz , Krzeszów , Knyszyn and Tartu . Important advisor to Kings Sigismund II Augustus and Stephen Báthory , he was one of the major opponents of Bathory 's successor , Sigismund III Vasa , and one of the most skilled diplomats , politicians and statesmen of his time , standing as a major figure in the politics of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth throughout his life .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Jan Zamoyski was born on 19 March 1542 to Stanisław Zamoyski and Anna Herburt in Skokówka . He started his education in a school in Krasnystaw but when he was thirteen years old he was sent to study abroad ; from 1555 to 1559 he was a paige at the royal court in Paris . Already at this young age he attended lectures at the Sorbonne University and Collège de France . In 1559 he briefly visited Poland , then attended the University of Strasbourg ; after a few months there he moved to University of Padua , where from 1561 he studied law and received a doctorate in 1564 . During his years abroad he converted from Calvinism to Roman Catholicism .
During his education , he became active in university politics , and in 1563 he was elected the rector of the law department . Around that time he also wrote De senatu Romano , a brochure about Ancient Rome government . He returned to the Commonwealth in 1565 , and was the first person to receive a commendation letter from the senate of the Republic of Venice .
= = = Early career = = =
After returning to Poland , he was appointed to the Royal Chancellery , and soon became a favorite secretary to King Sigismund II . In 1567 he commanded a royal task force , sent to remove the noble family of Starzechowscy from the royal lands they were decreed to hold illegally . Another major task he completed at that time was the reorganization of the Chancellery archive .
In 1571 he married Anna Ossolińska ; his wife and their young son died shortly afterwards , in 1572 . After the extinction of the Jagiellon dynasty in 1572 during the election sejm ( special session of the Commonwealth parliament ) he used his influence to enforce the viritim election ( meaning all nobles had the right to vote for the new king during the upcoming Polish – Lithuanian royal election , 1573 ) . However , his proposal for majority voting did not pass , which opened the process for abuses of liberum veto in the future . He was a colleague of Mikołaj Sienicki and Hieronim Ossolinski , and with them he was one of the leaders of a faction of the lesser and middle nobility ( szlachta ) in the Commonwealth , whose goal was the reform the country - the execution movement - preserving the unique constitutional and parliamentary government of the Commonwealth with the dominant role of poorer nobility ( Golden Freedom ) . He was so influential and popular among the lesser nobility that he was known as the " first tribune of nobility " or " Polish Gracchus . "
= = = Chancellor and hetman = = =
In that first election he was in favour of Henryk II Walezy ( later , Henry III of France ) . Subsequently he was part of the diplomatic mission that traveled to France to finish formalities with the newly elected king . He also published a pamphlet praising the new king , and thus suffered a loss of face when Henryk secretly abandoned Poland and returned to France . During the following 1575 election he was an vocal enemy of the Habsburg dynasty and its candidate , and this anti @-@ Habsburg stance , resounding among the lesser nobility , helped him regain his popularity . For the king , Zamoyski championed the case of a Polish candidate , which ended up in the marriage of Anna Jagiellon with the anti @-@ Habsburg Stephen Bathory of Transylvania .
Bathory thanked Zamoyski by granting him the office of Deputy Chancellor on 16 May 1576 . He participated on Batory 's side in the quelling of the Danzig rebellion in 1576 – 1577 , sponsoring a chorągiew of pancerni ( cavalry unit ) and participating in close combat on several occasions . In 1577 he married again , this time marrying Krystyna Radziwiłł , daughter of magnate Mikołaj Radziwiłł Czarny ; this made him a close ally of the Radziwiłł family , the most powerful family in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . In 1578 he received the post of the Grand Crown Chancellor . That year poet Jan Kochanowski dedicated his Odprawa Posłów Greckich , the first Polish tragedy , to him .
He took part in the preparation for a war against Muscovy in 1579 – 1581 , where he contributed a group of 400 or 600 mercenaries . Through he had little prior military background nor experience , he was interested in mastering the military art , and proved to be an adept learner . With Batory 's support , he begun filling in for some of the roles of Grand Crown Hetman Mikołaj Mielecki , particularly when Mielecki was not present . While not campaigning , he was also instrumental in ensuring that the ongoing political support for the war . In 1580 he was hit by another personal tragedy , as his wife died in labor , together with their child ; entering a short period of depression .
Later that year , in August , he captured Velizh in September he participated in the siege of Velikiye Luki , and then took Zavoloc . On 11 August 1581 he received the nomination for the post of Grand Crown Hetman ; this nomination , although uncontroversial at that time , was technically illegal . Following that he participated in the long and inconclusive Siege of Pskov , which ended with the Peace of Yam @-@ Zapolsky in 1582 . Though Zamoyski failed to capture Pskov , he drained the Russian resources , and the ongoing siege was a major reason for the final treaty , which was highly favorable to Poland .
In June 1583 Zamoyski took his third wife , Gryzelda Bathory , a relative of king Bathory himself . In May 1584 Zamoyski 's men captured Samuel Zborowski , a noble whose death sentence for treason and murder had been pending for roughly a decade , shortly afterwards with Bathory 's consent Zborowski was executed . This political conflict between Báthory , Zamoyski and the Zborowski family , framed as the clash between the monarch and the nobility , would be a major recurring controversy in internal Polish politics for many years , beginning with a major dispute at the Sejm of 1585 .
= = = Later years = = =
After the death of Batory in 1586 , Zamoyski helped Sigismund III Vasa gain the Polish throne , fighting in the brief civil war against the forces supporting Habsburg archduke Maximilian III of Austria . The camp supporting Sigismund was rallied around Zamoyski , whereas Maximilian was supported by the Zborowski family . Zamoyski defended Kraków and defeated Maximilian 's forces in the Battle of Byczyna in 1588 . In that battle , which Sławomir Leśniewski describes as " one of the most important in Polish history , and the most important in Zamoyski 's military career " , Maximilian was taken prisoner and in the resulting Treaty of Bytom and Będzin of 1589 had to give up all pretenses to the Polish crown . Later that year Zamoyski proposed a reform of the royal elections , which failed to pass the Sejm .
From 1589 Zamoyski , in his role as the hetman , tried to prevent the intensifying Tatar incursions along the Commonwealth south @-@ eastern border , but with little success . In order to deal with the recurring disturbances in that region Zamoyski developed a plan to turn Moldavia into a buffer zone between the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire ; this would lead to a lengthy campaign .
= = = In opposition to the throne = = =
Meanwhile , in internal Commonwealth politics , early on in Sigismund III 's reign , Zamoyski , who was once a staunch supporter of the Commonwealth kings , begun to distance himself from the King . Sigismund had quickly allied himself with the Habsburgs , much to chancellors dissatisfaction . Zamoyski was dissatisfied with Sigismund 's early plans to use Poland as a stepping stone to gaining the Swedish crown , as Sigismund was plotting to cede the Polish crown to the Habsburgs in exchange for their support of his right to the Swedish throne . The new King feared the chancellor 's power , but due to Commonwealth laws he was unable to dismiss him from his posts . He offered him a prestigious voivode of Kraków office , but Zamoyski declined , as if he was to accept , the law would require him to resign from his slightly less prestigious but more influential chancellorship . By 1590 – 1591 Zamoyski was seen as one of the king 's staunchest opponents . Open quarrel between king and chancellor broke out during the Sejm of 1591 , culminating in a heated exchange of words and the king storming out of the chamber . Despite their tensed relations , neither the king nor the chancellor wanted a civil war ; soon after their quarrel Zamoyski would issue a public apology to the king and their uneasy relationship would continue until Zamoyski 's death .
In 1594 Zamoyski once again failed to stop a Tatar incursion in the southern borders . The next year was much more successful , as in Moldavia in 1595 he was victorious in the Battle of Cecora , and helped hospodar Ieremia Movilă ( Jeremi Mohyła ) gain the throne . In 1600 he fought against Michael the Brave ( Michał Waleczny , Mihai Viteazul ) , hospodar of Wallachia and the new Prince of Transylvania , who had conquered Moldavia a few months earlier . He defeated him under Bukova ( Bucovu ) and restored Ieremia to the throne . He also helped his brother , Simion Movilă to become brief ruler of Wallachia , thus spreading the influence of the Commonwealth to the Central Danube .
In 1600 and 1601 Zamoyski took part in the war against Sweden commanding the Commonwealth forces in Livonia ( Inflanty ) . At the same time he was a vocal opponent of that war on the political scene . In 1600 he recaptured several strongholds from the Swedes and a year later captured Wolmar on 19 December 1601 Fellin on 16 May 1602 , and Bialy Kamien on 30 September 1602 . The rigours of the campaign , however , placed a strain on his health , and he resigned the command .
At the Sejm of 1603 Zamoyski led opposition to the governance reforms proposed by Sigismund ; seeing in them intentions of transforming the Commonwealth into an absolute monarchy . Later , he also opposed Sigismund 's plans to intervene in the civil war plaguing Muscovy ( the Time of Troubles and the Dymitriads ) . He clashed with Sigismund for the final time during the Sejm of January 1605 .
Zamoyski died suddenly on 3 June 1605 , due to a stroke . His fortune was inherited by his single son , Tomasz Zamoyski .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
= = = Remembrance = = =
Fame of Zamoyski , significance in life , endured after his death . He was praised by artists such as Szymon Starowolski and Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , and historians , including Stanisław Staszic , Stanisław Tarnowski and Artur Śliwiński . There were also those critical of him : Hugo Kołłątaj , Józef Szujski , Michał Bobrzyński . Nonetheless , Polish historiography and culture treatment of Zamoyski is mostly positive , and historian Janusz Tazbir remarked that Zamoyski posthumous career was even more magnificent than his real one . Leśniewski , ending his recent biography of Zamoyski , concludes that he is a significant , if controversial , figure of Polish Renaissance .
Zamoyski was the subject of several paintings and drawings . Most notably , he is one of the characters in two large paintings by Jan Matejko , featured on the Skarga 's Sermon and Batory at Pskov .
= = = Political and military leader = = =
Having control of both the Chancellorship and the Grand Hetman office , Zamoyski was one of the most powerful people in the country , having obtained both the power of Grand Hetman ( commander in chief of the armed forces ) and that of chancellor , combined for the first time in the hands of one person . He was responsible for much of the Polish internal and foreign policies . He is considered to be one of the most prominent statesmen in Polish history .
Even though his military career begun almost as an afterthought , or by accident , Zamoyski is also remembered as one of the most accomplished Polish military commanders . In his tactics , he favored sieges , flanking maneuvers , conserving his forces , and the new Western art of fortification and artillery . The war with Muscovy shown him to be a skilled commander in sieges , and latter events would prove him to be an equally able leader in the open field .
= = = Wealth and cultural patronage = = =
Zamoyski gathered a significant fortune ; his estates generated a revenue of over 200 @,@ 000 zloties in the early 17th century . His personal lands covered 6 @,@ 445 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 488 sq mi ) , and included eleven towns and over 200 villages . He was a royal caretaker of another dozen or so cities and over 600 villages . Totaled , his personal and leased lands covered over 17 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 6 @,@ 600 sq mi ) , with 23 towns and cities and 816 villages . In 1589 he succeeded in establishing the Zamoyski Family Fee Tail ( ordynacja zamojska ) , a de facto duchy . Zamoyski supported economical development of his lands , investing in colonization of frontiers , and the development of industry , both small ( sawmills , breweries , mills and such ) and large ( his lands had four iron mills and four glass factories ) .
His most prized creation was the capital of his Fee Tail , the city of Zamość , founded in 1580 , built and designed as a Renaissance citta ideale or " ideal city " by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando . In the city , in 1595 he founded the Akademia Zamojska , the third university in the history of education in Poland . In addition to Zamość , he also funded four other towns : Szarogród , Skinderpol , Busza and Jasnogród .
Zamoyski collected a significant library , and was a patron of numerous artists in his Fee Tail . Artists under his patronage included the poets Jan Kochanowski and Szymon Szymonowic , and the writer and historian Joachim Bielski .
= = = Personality = = =
Zamoyski was not a deeply religious person , and his conversion from Protestantism to Catholicism was primarily pragmatic . Leśniewski notes that Zamoyski was often motivated by greed , for example during the Danzig Rebellion , when he supported lenient treatment of the rebels , and during the 1577 – 1578 negotiations with , when he favored the solution of George Frederick , Margrave of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach ; in both cases his decision was likely influenced by bribes or favors . In another example , Leśniewski describes how Zamoyski openly demanded rewards following his victory at Byczyna , and tried to include an article favoring him in the Bytom and Będzin treaty . He further notes , critically , that with raising power and political success Zamoyski begun displaying negative qualities , such as egoism and arrogance . Zamoyski was ruthless to those weaker than him . At the same time , he was respected by his opponents , widely recognized as highly intelligent , a cunning strategist and tactician in matters political and military , and a popular political leader . He valued the good of the country at least as high as his own , and although he could have become the king after a victorious civil war against Sigismund , he preferred to act within the limits of law instead , avoiding a war that could devastate the country , and thus curbing his own ambitions .
|
= Pussy Riot =
Pussy Riot is a Russian feminist punk rock protest group based in Moscow .
Founded in August 2011 , it has a variable membership of approximately 11 women ranging in age from about 20 to 33 ( as of 2012 ) . The group has staged unauthorised provocative guerrilla performances in unusual public locations , which were edited into music videos and posted on the Internet . The collective 's lyrical themes include feminism , LGBT rights , and opposition to Russian President Vladimir Putin , whom the group considers a dictator , and to his links with the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church .
On February 21 , 2012 , five members of the group staged a performance in Moscow 's Cathedral of Christ the Savior . The group 's actions were eventually stopped by church security officials . By that evening , the collective had turned the performance into a music video entitled " Punk Prayer – Mother of God , Chase Putin Away ! " The women said their protest was directed at the Orthodox Church leader 's support for Putin during his election campaign . The head of the Russian Orthodox Church , Patriarch Kirill I , said the performers were doing the work of the devil .
On March 3 , 2012 , two of the group members , Nadezhda Tolokonnikova and Maria Alyokhina , were arrested and charged with hooliganism . A third member , Yekaterina Samutsevich , was arrested on March 16 . Denied bail , they were held in custody until their trial began in late July . On August 17 , 2012 , the three members were convicted of " hooliganism motivated by religious hatred " , and each was sentenced to two years ' imprisonment . Two other members of the group , who escaped arrest after the February protest , reportedly left Russia fearing prosecution . On October 10 , following an appeal , Samutsevich was freed on probation and her sentence suspended . The sentences of the other two women were upheld . In late October 2012 , Alyokhina and Tolokonnikova were sent to separate prisons .
The trial and sentence attracted considerable criticism , particularly in the West . The case was adopted by human rights groups including Amnesty International , which designated the women prisoners of conscience , and by a number of prominent entertainers . Public opinion in Russia was generally less sympathetic towards the women . Putin stated that the band had " undermined the moral foundations " of the nation and " got what they asked for " . Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev said he did not think the three members of Pussy Riot should have been sent to jail , but stressed that the release of the remaining two imprisoned members was a matter for the courts . Having served 21 months , Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina were released on December 23 , 2013 , after the State Duma approved an amnesty .
In February 2014 , a statement was made anonymously on behalf of some Pussy Riot members that both Alyokhina and Tolokonnikova were no longer members . However , both were among the group that performed as Pussy Riot during the Winter Olympics in Sochi , where group members were attacked with whips and pepper spray by Cossacks who were employed as security . On 6 March 2014 , Nadezhda Tolokonnikova and Maria Alyokhina were assaulted and sprayed with green paint by local youths in Nizhny Novgorod .
= = Origins and musical style = =
Pussy Riot is a collective formed in August 2011 . Their name is in English and is written in the Latin rather than Cyrillic alphabet . It usually appears thus in the Russian press , but sometimes the name is transliterated as " Пусси Райот " . It comprises around 11 performers and about 15 people who handle the technical work of shooting and editing their videos , which are posted on the Internet . Their costumes are usually brightly colored dresses and tights , even in bitterly cold weather , with their faces masked by balaclavas , both while performing and during interviews . During interviews they use nicknames such as " Balaclava " , " Cat " , " Seraph " , " Terminator " , and " Blondie " . In an interview with Gazeta.ru , a band member described their two @-@ minute concerts as performance art , creating images of " pure protest , saying : super heroes in balaclavas and acid bright tights seize public space in Moscow . " Another band member , who goes by the pseudonym Garadzha , told the Moskovskiye Novosti newspaper that the group is open to women recruits with limited musical talents . She said : " You don 't have to sing very well . It 's punk . You just scream a lot . "
The group cites punk rock and Oi ! bands Angelic Upstarts , Cockney Rejects , Sham 69 and The 4 @-@ Skins as their main musical influences . The band also cite American punk rock band Bikini Kill , performance artist Karen Finley and the riot grrrl movement of the 1990s as inspirations . They stated :
What we have in common is impudence , politically loaded lyrics , the importance of feminist discourse and a non @-@ standard female image . The difference is that Bikini Kill performed at specific music venues , while we hold unsanctioned concerts . On the whole , Riot Grrrl was closely linked to Western cultural institutions , whose equivalents don 't exist in Russia .
Tolokonnikova , her husband Pyotr Verzilov , and Samutsevich were all members of the anarchist art collective " Voina " from the group 's early days in 2007 , until an acrimonious split in 2009 . Following the split , they formed a separate Moscow @-@ based group , also named " Voina " , saying that they had as much right to use this name as Voina founder Oleg Vorotnikov .
= = Ideology = =
The musical performance group was organized , in part , due to anger over what members saw as government policies that discriminate against women , citing legislation that " placed restrictions on legal abortions " . According to Tolokonnikova , Pussy Riot is " part of the global anti @-@ capitalist movement , which consists of anarchists , Trotskyists , feminists and autonomists . " Pussy Riot uses Situationist @-@ style guerrilla performances . Tolokonnikova stated :
Pussy Riot 's performances can either be called dissident art or political action that engages art forms . Either way , our performances are a kind of civic activity amidst the repressions of a corporate political system that directs its power against basic human rights and civil and political liberties .
In a February 2012 interview with Vice magazine , Pussy Riot member " Serafima " named her major feminist influences as Simone de Beauvoir , Andrea Dworkin , Emmeline Pankhurst , Shulamith Firestone , Kate Millett , Rosi Braidotti and Judith Butler .
In an email interview with The St. Petersburg Times , the group explained their political positions further , saying that members ' perspectives ranged from anarchist to liberal left , but that all were united by feminism , anti @-@ authoritarianism and opposition to Putin , whom members regard as continuing the " aggressive imperial politics " of the Soviet Union . Group concerns include education , health care , and the centralization of power , and the group supports regional autonomy and grass roots organizing . Members regard unsanctioned rallies as a core principle , saying that authorities do not see rallies that they have sanctioned as a threat and simply ignore them . For this reason , all of Pussy Riot 's performances are illegal , and use co @-@ opted public space . Interviewed by the BBC during rehearsals the day before the Cathedral of Christ the Savior performance , band members argued that only vivid , illegal actions bring media attention .
Pussy Riot members have been outspoken in their support of LGBT rights , and in a 2012 interview confirmed that the group includes at least one member of a sexual minority . Both Tolokonnikova and Samutsevich participated in the banned 2011 Gay Pride rally in Moscow , and were briefly detained after the rally was broken up by police . Pussy Riot 's LGBT rights advocacy is seen in a negative light by conservative Russians ; according to a Levada poll published in 2010 , 74 % of Russians view homosexuality as a " moral perversion " or " mental illness " .
= = = Feminism = = =
Pussy Riot 's mass appeal ( particularly ) in the Western media has seen various famous figures and activists including Madonna , Paul McCartney , Lady Gaga , Björk and many others publicly show support for the group . This appeal from popular culture has been mostly due to the group 's feminist notions . Pussy Riot see themselves as feminist artists , who have various musical , literary , and political influences , such as Riot Grrl , Bikini Kill , Oi ! , Cockney Rejects , and by writers , activists and artists such as Alexandra Kollontai , Judith Butler , Karen Finley , Simone de Beauvoir , Vladimir Bukovsky and many more . The media tends to overlook the meaning behind Pussy Riot 's feminism ; the cultural context of it is vastly different to that of Western feminism . Pussy Riot 's feminism focuses on the repression created by authoritarian regimes that create idealised ideas of sexism , sex and family life . Pussy Riot make it clear that feminism in Russia is still an issue and that post @-@ feminism has not been achieved as many people would like to believe . Pussy Riot 's Russian cultural context must be acknowledged and their feminist notions must be seen differently from those of Western feminism because in places such as the United States , feminism has evolved to general " women 's issues " , whereas in Russia this is not the case . In Russia feminism is seen as something " that could destroy Russia " as said by Kirill , the head of the Russian Orthodox Church .
= = Songs and videos = =
Pussy Riot has released seven songs and five videos . An Associated Press reporter described them as " badly recorded , based on simple riffs and scream @-@ like singing " , and stated that critics had dismissed them as " amateur , provocative and obscene " . The A.V. Club described them as an " excellent band " with " fuzzed @-@ out guitars and classic Riot Grrrl chants " . In an opinion piece for The New York Times , Pitchfork Media reviewer Michael Idov wrote , " judging [ Pussy Riot ] on artistic merit would be like chiding the Yippies because Pigasus the Immortal , the pig they ran for president in 1968 , was not a viable candidate . "
Pussy Riot have not released any conventional albums . However , their songs are freely available for download on a number of internet sites , collected together under the title Ubey seksista ( " Kill the sexist " ) .
= = = " Kill the Sexist " = = =
On October 1 , 2011 , Tolokonnikova and Samutsevich gave a lecture on " punk feminism " as members of Voina . They played a recording of the song " Ubey seksista " ( " Kill the Sexist " ) , billing the performers as " a new Russian punk band called Pussy Riot " . This track featured extensive sampling of the Cockney Rejects ' 1979 recording " I 'm Not a Fool " .
= = = " Release the Cobblestones " = = =
Their first public performance as members of Pussy Riot was in November 2011 . Several masked women performed " Osvobodi Bruschatku " ( " Release the Cobblestones " ) atop a scaffold in a Moscow subway and from the top of trolley cars , while tearing apart down feather pillows , showering feathers onto the train platform below . The song recommends that Russians protest upcoming parliamentary elections , by throwing cobblestones during street clashes . " Your ballots will be used as toilet paper by the Presidential Administration " , the group said on its blog . Their first video was uploaded to YouTube on November 6 . The musical track once again used extensive sampling , this time from the Angelic Upstarts ' 1978 recording " Police Oppression " . The video of the performance quickly went viral and generated a flurry of interest from the Russian press .
= = = " Kropotkin Vodka " = = =
Later that month the group re @-@ emerged , with several members playing " Kropotkin Vodka " on the roof of an automobile display unit in a luxury @-@ store district and in the windows of fashion boutiques , while another member discharged a fire extinguisher into the air . The song takes its title from Russian anarcho @-@ communist Peter Kropotkin , and metaphorically concerns the assassination of " Kremlin bastards " by fatal poisoning .
= = = " Death to Prison , Freedom to Protests " = = =
On December 14 , 2011 , the group performed atop a garage beside the Moscow Detention Center No. 1 prison , where opposition activists were being held among the prisoners . Political activists Alexey Navalny and Ilya Yashin had been arrested one week earlier at a mass protest against the results of the State Duma elections . Pussy Riot played their song " Smert tyurme , svobodu protestu " ( " Death To Prison , Freedom To Protests " ) , and were applauded by the prisoners watching from inside the bars of the jail cell windows .
= = = " Putin Zassal " = = =
On January 20 , 2012 , in what the Associated Press described as their " breakthrough performance " , eight members of the group performed a song on the Lobnoye Mesto in Red Square , entitled " Putin Zassal " . The title has been variously translated by English language media as " Putin has Pissed Himself " , " Putin Chickened Out " , " Putin Got Scared " and " Putin is Wetting Himself " . The song called for a popular revolt against the Russian government and an occupation of Red Square . According to a Pussy Riot member identified as " Shayba " , the song was inspired by the events of December 24 , 2011 , during which approximately 100 @,@ 000 people attended anti @-@ Putin rallies in central Moscow . She told the Financial Times : " We saw how troops were moving around Moscow , there were helicopters in the sky , the military was put on alert . The regime just wet its pants on that day . And the symbol of the regime is Putin . " During the performance a member ignited a smoke bomb , which led to Pussy Riot members being arrested and briefly detained on administrative charges , a Russian legal term similar to a summary offence or misdemeanor . A judge found two members of the group , Galkina and Schebleva , " guilty under article 20 @.@ 2 of the Administrative Code ( violation of the rules for conducting rallies and pickets ) and imposed a fine of 500 rubles on each . "
= = = " Mother of God , Drive Putin Away " = = =
On February 21 , 2012 , as part of a protest movement against the re @-@ election of Vladimir Putin , five women from the group entered the Cathedral of Christ the Savior of the Russian Orthodox Church in Moscow . There was no church service in session at the time , and only a few people were in the cathedral . Removing their winter clothes , they put on colorful balaclavas , walked up the steps leading to the altar , and began to jump around , punching the air . After less than a minute , they were escorted outside the building by guards . Film of the performance was later combined with footage shot at a different church , identified by Russian Orthodox Church spokesman Vsevolod Chaplin as the Epiphany Cathedral in Yelokhovo , to create a video clip for the song , which they entitled " Punk Prayer : Mother of God Drive Putin Away " .
The song , which they described as a punk moleben ( supplicatory prayer ) , borrowed its opening melody and refrain from Sergei Rachmaninoff 's " Bogoroditse Devo , Raduisya " ( Ave Maria ) , from the All Night Vigil . In the song , they invoked the name of the Virgin Mary , urging her to get rid of Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and to " become a feminist " , claiming that she would support them in their protests . They alluded to close ties between the church and the KGB ( " Black robes , golden epaulettes " ) , criticized the subservience of many Russians to the church ( " Parishioners crawl bowing " ) and attacked the church 's traditionalist views on women ( " So as not to offend His Holiness , women must bear children and love " ) . They used the crude epithet " Sran Gospodnya " , which has been used to translate " holy shit " in Hollywood movies , but is rarely used in idiomatic Russian ; it literally translates as " shit of the Lord " . They later explained " It is an idiomatic expression , related to the previous verse – about the fusion of Moscow patriarchy and the government . ' Holy shit ' is our evaluation of the situation in the country . " They referred to Russian Orthodox Patriarch Kirill I , as a " suka " ( bitch ) and accused him of believing more in Putin than in God .
Growing ties between church and state in Russia have been a target of criticism and protest . The Russian Patriarch , Kirill , had openly supported Putin 's 2012 re @-@ election , calling Putin a " miracle from God " , who had " rectified the crooked path of history " . After the cathedral performance , members of Pussy Riot said the church is a " weapon in a dirty election campaign " and called Putin " a man who is as far as can be from God 's truth " . This performance led to the arrest and prosecution of three of their members .
= = = " Putin Lights Up the Fires " = = =
Pussy Riot released a single in August 2012 as the court case against three of their members drew to a close . It was called " Putin zazhigayet kostry " ( " Putin Lights Up The Fires " ) , and had lyrics referring to issues around the case . Among other demands , the lyrics request that " Seven years [ imprisonment ] is not enough , give us eighteen ! "
= = Arrest and prosecution = =
On February 26 , a criminal case was opened against the band members who had participated in the February 21 , 2012 Moscow cathedral performance . On March 3 , Maria Alyokhina and Nadezhda Tolokonnikova , two alleged members of Pussy Riot , were arrested by the Russian authorities and accused of hooliganism . Both women at first denied being members of the group and started a hunger strike in protest against being held in jail away from their young children . The defendants were held without bail . On March 16 , another woman , Yekaterina Samutsevich , who had earlier been questioned as a witness in the case , was similarly arrested and charged .
Defense attorney Nikolai Polozov said that both Tolokonnikova and Samutsevich were also members of the Voina group , and both had previously staged disruptive protests in the Tagansky Court building , where they would be judged . He argued that their two previous attempts to disrupt proceedings would bias the judge , and preclude a fair outcome at that location . " I believe that the judge will certainly remember my clients , and could easily take offense to it , and therefore could not make an objective decision " . The three detained members of Pussy Riot were declared political prisoners by the Union of Solidarity with Political Prisoners ( SPP ) . On March 25 , Amnesty International named them prisoners of conscience due to " the severity of the response of the Russian authorities " .
Speaking at a liturgy in Moscow 's Deposition of the Robe Church on March 21 , Patriarch Kirill condemned Pussy Riot 's actions as blasphemous , saying that the " Devil has laughed at all of us … We have no future if we allow mockery in front of great shrines , and if some see such mockery as a sort of bravery , an expression of political protest , an acceptable action or a harmless joke . " The church 's membership varied in its opinions on the case ; a petition calling for the women to be forgiven was signed by approximately 5 @,@ 000 lay members . Patriarch Kirill spoke of " his heart breaking with bitterness " when he heard that some Orthodox Christians sought mercy and forgiveness for the women .
Formal charges against the group were presented on June 4 , the indictment running to 2 @,@ 800 pages . By late June 2012 , disquiet over the trio 's detention without setting a trial date and concern over what was regarded as excessive and arbitrary treatment , led to the writing of an open letter . It was signed by leading opposition figures , as well as by director Fyodor Bondarchuk , a supporter of Putin , and actors Chulpan Khamatova and Yevgeny Mironov , both of whom had appeared in campaign videos supporting Putin 's re @-@ election . Singer Alla Pugachyova appealed on the women 's behalf , stating that they should be ordered to perform community service rather than imprisoned . Meanwhile , Nikita Mikhalkov , head of the Russian Cinematographers ' Union , stated that he would gladly sign an open letter against them .
On July 4 , the defendants were informed that they would have to finish preparing their defense by July 9 . They announced a hunger strike in response , saying that two working days was inadequate time to finish preparing their trial defense . On July 21 , the court extended their pre @-@ trial detention by a further six months .
= = Trial , conviction , and sentencing = =
The trial of the three women started in Moscow 's Khamovniki District Court on July 30 , 2012 . Charged with " premeditated hooliganism performed by an organized group of people motivated by religious hatred or hostility , " they faced possible sentences of up to seven years in prison . In early July , a poll conducted in Moscow found that half of the respondents opposed the trial while 36 percent supported it ; the rest being undecided . Putin stated that while he saw " nothing good " about the band 's protest , " Nonetheless , I don 't think that they should be judged so harshly for this . "
The defendants pleaded not guilty , saying that they had not meant their protest to be offensive . " We sang part of the refrain ' Holy shit ' , " Tolokonnikova said in court . " I am sorry if I offended anyone with this . It is an idiomatic expression , related to the previous verse — about the fusion of Moscow patriarchy and the government . ' Holy shit ' is our evaluation of the situation in the country . This opinion is not blasphemy . " Their lawyers stated that the circumstances of the case had revived the Soviet @-@ era tradition of the show trial . On August 15 , 20 protesters wearing balaclavas gathered in support of Pussy Riot at Christ the Savior Cathedral , and held up placards reading " Blessed are the merciful " . Cathedral guards quickly moved against the protesters , trying to detain them and taking off their balaclavas .
Pussy Riot said their protest was a political statement , but prosecutors said the band was trying to " incite religious hatred " against the Orthodox Church . In " Putin Zassal " , Pussy Riot had stated " The Orthodox Religion is a hardened penis / Coercing its subjects to accept conformity " , among other examples of the group 's antagonism to the Church as an organization , which it views as corrupt . Thus central issues of the case were the definition of " hatred " against a religion , and whether blasphemy can exist in a secular state . Pavel Chikov , Chairman of the Agora Human Rights Association , said that defense lawyers were able to maximize publicity by creating " a huge public outcry over the case " , but at the expense of defendants ' liability .
All three were convicted by the judge and sentenced to two years in a penal colony on August 17 , 2012 . The judge stated that they had " crudely undermined the social order " with their protest , showing a " complete lack of respect " for believers . Mark Feygin , a lawyer for the trio , stated that they would appeal the verdict , but that " Under no circumstances will the girls ask for a pardon [ from Putin ] … They will not beg and humiliate themselves before such a bastard " . Tolokonnikova stated that " Our imprisonment serves as a clear and unambiguous sign that freedom is being taken away from the entire country . "
Both supporters and critics of the band demonstrated at their sentencing hearing . Opposition leader Sergei Udaltsov , who was protesting in support of the band , was detained by police . Former world chess champion and long standing opposition member Garry Kasparov , who tried to attend the reading of the verdict , was arrested and beaten .
Former Finance Minister Alexei Kudrin described the verdict as " yet another blow to the court system and citizens ' trust in it " , harming the country 's international image . Putin responded that religious organizations should be protected , because " the country has very grave memories of the initial period of Soviet rule , when a huge number of priests suffered . Many churches were destroyed and all our traditional faiths suffered huge damage . "
= = = Appeal to the Moscow City Court = = =
On October 1 , 2012 , an appellate hearing was postponed in the Moscow City Court ( a regional court , similar to the supreme court of a republic ) after Samutsevich informed a panel of three judges that she wished to terminate the representation of her defense attorneys as " My position in the criminal case does not coincide with their position . "
In an interview for his 60th birthday broadcast on October 7 , shortly before the appeal was heard , Putin said that Pussy Riot had " undermined the moral foundations " of the country and that they " got what they asked for " . In response , Pussy Riot lawyer Violetta Volkova accused Putin of putting pressure on the court .
On October 10 , Samutsevich 's new lawyer , Irina Khrunova , argued that her client had not in fact committed the acts of hooliganism in the church as she was prevented from accessing the soleas by church security . The court appeared to accept this argument , and released Samutsevich on two years ' probation . However , the judges rejected the appeals of Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina , upholding their convictions and sentences .
Writing for The New Republic , Russian @-@ American journalist Julia Ioffe commented that by arguing that Samutsevich was innocent because she had not participated , Khrunova 's defense had implied that Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina had in fact committed a crime , and had cut off " the one path to redemption that the group actually had : ignoring the court ’ s proceedings and denying its legitimacy " . Some commentators saw Samutsevich 's unexpected release as a divide and rule tactic on the part of the authorities . Details later emerged of an alleged Nasedka ( " mother hen " ) , a prisoner who spies on fellow inmates and manipulates them into co @-@ operating with the authorities in return for privileges and early parole . A convicted fraudster named Irina Orlova was placed in the same cell as Samutsevich , where she apparently gained her trust and persuaded her to change lawyers . Any alleged agreement with authorities would have required Samutsevich to publicly denounce her former lawyers .
= = = Imprisonment = = =
Initial reports had suggested that the women would serve their sentence in one of three provinces . The decision upon a general @-@ security women 's corrective labor colony ( the most common type of prison in Russia ) in the Republic of Mordovia , approximately 400 kilometers from Moscow , was later confirmed by Tolokonnikova 's husband . The women asked authorities to let them serve their sentence at the pre @-@ trial detention facility in Moscow . Their request was denied , and Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina were then dispatched to penal colonies in Mordovia and Perm Oblast , respectively .
The IK @-@ 2 and IK @-@ 14 penal colonies in Yavas , Zubovo @-@ Polyansky District , Mordovia , are the most common destinations for women prisoners sentenced in Moscow . It is the former location of the Dubravlag labor camp complex of the Gulag system . Tolokonnikova was incarcerated in IK @-@ 14 , whereas Alyokhina was sent to IK @-@ 32 in Perm . The latter is a colony for first @-@ time offenders , which houses a sewing factory , and an experimental vocational program to re @-@ train women prisoners to become digital cartoon animators . Conditions in IK @-@ 32 are relatively favorable , and neither prisoners nor human rights monitors have filed complaints about its conditions . Meanwhile , IK @-@ 14 has a harder reputation .
In November 2012 , Alyokhina requested to be voluntarily placed in solitary confinement , citing " strained relations " with her fellow prisoners . Tolokonnikova also has experienced friction with inmates at IK @-@ 14 , who have regarded her " at best with contempt , at worst with hostility " , according to a report by Aleksey Baranovsky , Coordinator of the Human Rights Center " Russian Verdict " .
On September 23 , 2013 Tolokonnikova announced that she was staging a hunger strike in protest at alleged human rights violations in the prison . A translation of her letter describing the prison conditions was published in The Guardian . On September 27 , 2013 , she was placed in the medical ward after not eating for five days .
= = Trial reactions = =
In response to questions posed by The Guardian and handed to the band via their lawyer , Pussy Riot accused Putin and the Russian Orthodox Church of orchestrating the case . Samutsevich said in December 2012 that " more than anything , what many people didn 't see during the trial were those moments when our ' right to defence ' was violated . It 's not that we were helpless , it was a situation of despair . " In an interview with The Guardian , she continued : " The trial was built in such a way that we couldn 't defend ourselves . They didn 't listen to us . We could have sat downstairs , where you wait till you 're taken to the courtroom , and not go in at all and everything would 've gone the same way . The fact that we took part physically [ in the trial ] didn 't actually change anything . "
Russian human rights activist Lyudmila Alexeyeva called the judgment politically motivated and " not in line with the law , common sense or mercy " . Opposition activist Alexey Navalny described Pussy Riot as " fools who commit petty crimes for the sake of publicity " , but opposed the verdict , which he believed had been " written by Vladimir Putin " as " revenge " , for a stunt not socially dangerous enough to justify keeping the women behind bars . Russian fiction writer Boris Akunin attended the protests on the day of the conviction and said , " Putin has doomed himself to another year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half of international shame and humiliation . " Irina Yarovaya , a parliamentary deputy of Putin 's United Russia party , praised the conviction , stating that " they deserved it " . On September 13 , 2012 , Russian Prime Minister Dmitri Medvedev called for the women 's early release , saying that the time they had already served awaiting trial was sufficient punishment , and further incarceration would be " counterproductive " . On November 2 , he said that he would not have sent the three Pussy Riot members to prison , reiterating that their pre @-@ trial detention was enough , but stressed that setting free the two remaining prisoners was a matter for the courts .
The foreign ministries of the United States and of European Union nations called the sentence " disproportionate " . President Barack Obama expressed disappointment , and the White House stated that it had " serious concerns about the way that these young women have been treated by the Russian judicial system . "
According to BBC Monitoring , in the European and American press there was " almost universal condemnation " of the two @-@ year sentence imposed on the three members of the group . While many newspaper editorials and opinion columns were critical of the performance in the Cathedral , very few thought a two @-@ year prison sentence was an appropriate punishment , arguing that the action should have been treated as a public order crime and punished by a fine or community service .
Simon Jenkins of The Guardian argued the West was being hypocritical , in that excessively harsh prison terms are by no means unknown in Western countries . Some in the media also raised concerns that a place of worship is not an appropriate venue for any form of protest , and that Pussy Riot 's cause did not morally justify their actions . The Roman Catholic Pope Benedict XVI expressed his solidarity with the position of the Russian Orthodox Church on the “ acts of vandalism " at the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour , and expressed surprise at the reaction of some media organizations to those events .
= = Trial aftermath = =
On June 30 , 2013 Vladimir Putin signed a bill imposing jail terms and fines for insulting people 's religious feelings , which some have seen as a response to the " punk prayer " performed by the Pussy Riot in a Moscow cathedral . In a " Live TV " ( Russian : " Прямой Эфир " ) show aired on September 30 , 2013 by Rossiya 1 TV channel , Maria Alyokhina pledged to do no more shows at churches . " We 've paid attention to the fact that , as it turns out , since 2013 this has been a criminal offense , and we 've repeatedly heard opinions from people whom we take seriously . This is basically the reason why we wouldn 't go to the Cathedral of Christ the Savior again – or , unquestionably , to any other church for that matter , " Alyokhina said .
Though they were due for release in March , 2014 , on December 19 , 2013 Russian President Vladimir Putin announced that Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina would be freed under a general amnesty . Putin said the amnesty was not drafted with Pussy Riot in mind but to mark the 20th anniversary of Russia 's post @-@ Soviet constitution . The announcement of amnesty came during a Putin press conference in which he revealed plans to release several other high @-@ profile political prisoners in Russia , such as Mikhail Khodorkovsky and members of Greenpeace .
= = = Internal disputes = = =
In a letter from prison after their sentences were upheld , Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina disowned the actions of Tolokonnikova 's husband , Verzilov , accusing him of having co @-@ opted Pussy Riot by acting as its frontman without their consent : " His statements are lies , in the name of giving himself the status of the founder and legal representative of Pussy Riot , when in fact , he is not . Actually , Pyotr Verzilov has occupied Pussy Riot through this strange , quasi @-@ fraudulent activity . As a representative of the group , I am outraged . " Samutsevich expressed surprise at the letter , while Verzilov declined to comment , saying " I do not understand it . We are going to find out what happened " . The previous week , Verzilov himself had released a statement to the Echo of Moscow radio station , stating that he was neither a member nor a representative of Pussy Riot .
A trademark dispute arose in October and November 2012 , when it was discovered that the group 's defense attorney , Mark Feygin , had attempted to register " Pussy Riot " as a trademarked brand name in Russia . On April 6 , 2012 , Feygin applied to Rospatent without the knowledge of his clients , seeking to assign the brand to a company owned by his wife , Natalia Kharitanova @-@ Feygin . This would give them exclusive rights to produce Pussy Riot @-@ branded products . Furthermore , Kharitanova @-@ Feygin has already received an advance payment of 30 @,@ 000 euros to produce a film about the Pussy Riot trial , with an additional 170 @,@ 000 euros payable upon completion of the contract , and 40 percent of the profits of worldwide sales of videos . The trademark application was rejected by Rospatent , leaving the ultimate fate of the Pussy Riot brand , estimated without promotion to be worth USD $ 1 million , undecided .
On 19 November , Feygin and the two other original lawyers for Pussy Riot withdrew from the case prior to Tolokonnikova 's appeal , stating that they felt the court would be more likely to grant the appeal if the three were no longer a part of the defense . Samutsevich criticized the original legal team for allegedly using the trial for personal publicity rather than securing the release of the defendants . On 21 November , Samutsevich 's lawyer told the press that Samutsevich was considering requesting that Feygin and the other original lawyers be disbarred for failing to return her passport and other belongings . Feygin responded via Twitter that Samutsevich was part of a " defamation campaign organized by the authorities " , while another member of the legal team , Violeta Volkova , responded that the claims were " part of an agreement that allowed her to break free of the case " . On 21 January 2013 , Feygin , Volkova , and Nicholas Polozov filed suit against Khrunova and Kommersant for defamation .
In a letter dated February 1 , 2013 and published by her father on the Echo of Moscow web site , Tolokonnikova distanced herself from Samutsevich , saying " Samutsevich hasn 't written to me for two months . That 's it , to me she is already dead . There will be no more talk of collaborating after this . "
= = = Public opinion in Russia = = =
The court 's decision aroused " little sensation " domestically . Many Russians were outraged by Pussy Riot 's church protest and supported " the right of the majority to worship in peace " . The Soviet government had destroyed the Christ the Savior Cathedral in the 1930s ( it was rebuilt in the 1990s ) , adding to the location 's significance to believers . At the conclusion of the trial , a series of Levada Center polls showed that , of 1600 Russians surveyed in 45 cities nationwide , 42 % also believed Pussy Riot had been arrested for insulting the shrines and beliefs of the Orthodox Church . Meanwhile , 29 % saw it as a case of general hooliganism , while only 19 % saw it as a political protest against Putin . Overall opinion was for the most part negative or indifferent . Only 6 % sympathised with Pussy Riot , while 41 % felt antipathy towards them . 44 % believed the trial was " fair and impartial " , while 17 % believed it was not . Of those following the case , 86 % favored some form of punishment , ranging from prison to forced labor or fines , while 5 % said they should not have been punished at all . A prison sentence of 2 to 7 years was seen as appropriate by 33 % , whereas 43 % saw two or more years as excessive , and a further 15 % said the defendants should not have been prosecuted in court . A research assessment by the Exovera company noted that , in online discussion forums , " there was clearly an awareness of being judged by the global community , whose response was referred to in some cases as ' hysterical ' and unfair " .
The conservatism of the public has been criticized by some Russian commentators . Levada Center director Lev Gudkov commented on the results , stating that most Russians get their information from television , and therefore perceive events in accordance with the state 's " official version " .
In the statement published after the sentence had been announced , the Russian Orthodox Church stated that while the actions of Pussy Riot were offensive to " millions of people , " the Church called " on the state authorities to show mercy to the people convicted within the framework of the law , in the hope that they will refrain from repeating blasphemous actions . " Vsevolod Chaplin , chairman of the Synodal Department for the Cooperation of Church and Society of the Moscow Patriarchate , accused Pussy Riot of blasphemy , insulting believers and " kindling hatred between believers and atheists " .
= = = Pussy Riot and Voina = = =
The connection between Pussy Riot and the political performance art group Voina has been highlighted by some of the group 's critics , and was called an " aggravating moral circumstance " in the eyes of the conservative public ( which constitutes about 60 per cent of Russians ) . Pussy Riot members Nadezhda Tolokonnikova and Yekaterina Samutsevich were members of Voina from 2007 until the group split in 2009 , and participated in a number of Voina 's provocative art performances .
Tolokonnikova was part of a performance in which couples were photographed having sex in the Timiryazev State Biology Museum in Moscow in February 2008 . This exhibitionist act was intended as a satire of Dmitry Medvedev 's call to increase the birth rate in Russia , but was typically described as an " orgy " by the media . President Putin , in an interview about whether the prison sentence was justified , also invoked the defendants ' prior actions in Voina stunts : " They had a group sex session in a public place . They then uploaded it onto the Internet . The authorities should have looked into this , too . "
Some critics made little or no distinction between Pussy Riot and Voina , incorrectly attributing past actions of Voina to Pussy Riot . In particular , a notorious performance by Voina in St. Petersburg , in which a woman stole a chicken from a supermarket by stuffing it in her vagina , is sometimes cited by detractors of Pussy Riot . However , there is no evidence that members of Moscow @-@ based Pussy Riot participated in this action .
= = = International support = = =
During the trial , the three women became an international cause célèbre due to their treatment . Many international artists , politicians , and musicians voiced support for the release of Pussy Riot , or expressed concern about the fairness of their trial , including Madonna , who openly expressed her support at a Moscow concert , Björk , who dedicated her song " Declare Independence " to their cause and invited them to join her on stage to perform the song with her , Paul McCartney , and Aung San Suu Kyi . While acknowledging the support , members of Pussy Riot distanced themselves from Western artists , and reiterated their opposition to the capitalist model of art as commodity : One of them , identified as Orange , said :
We ’ re flattered , of course , that Madonna and Björk have offered to perform with us . But the only performances we ’ ll participate in are illegal ones . We refuse to perform as part of the capitalist system , at concerts where they sell tickets .
French singer Mireille Mathieu , who has frequently performed in Russia , was one of the few western entertainers to speak out against Pussy Riot , saying they had committed a sacrilege . Nevertheless , she asked for “ indulgence ” ( lenience or pardon ) for the three women .
From 2012 to 2014 , The Voice Project coordinated donations through an international legal defense and support fund for Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina of during their imprisonment , which supported the women 's legal expenses , supplied them with provisions while in the prison camps and child care , in addition to safety monitoring by local Russian lawyers . The Voice Project also conducted a number of viral campaigns in advocacy for the women during their imprisonment , such as the " Where is Nadya ? " campaign , during Tolokonnikova 's 26 @-@ day disappearance following her hunger strike , during which she was transferred to a Krasnoyarsk prison hospital . During Tolokonnikova 's imprisonment , The Voice Project also made an urgent appeal to United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture Juan E. Méndez , requesting that the UN pressure the Russian Federation to enforce international laws on human rights and torture in regards to minimum standards set by UN protocols and the European Convention on Human Rights .
A letter of support from 120 members of the German parliament , the Bundestag , was sent to the Russian Ambassador to Germany , Vladimir Grinin . It described proceedings against the women as disproportionate and draconian . On August 9 , 2012 , 200 Pussy Riot supporters in Berlin marched , wearing colored balaclavas , in a show of support for the group . Attending the trial , British MP and Shadow Foreign Office Minister for Human Rights , Kerry McCarthy , also backed the group , describing proceedings as “ surreal ” . Lech Wałęsa criticised the church performance as “ tasteless ” , but nevertheless wrote to Putin urging him to pardon the women .
Amnesty International called the conviction “ a bitter blow for freedom of expression ” . Hugh Williamson , of Human Rights Watch , stated that the “ charges and verdict … distort both the facts and the law .... These women should never have been charged with a hate crime and should be released immediately . ” ARTICLE 19 , Freedom House , and the International Federation for Human Rights also issued statements condemning the sentence . On September 21 , 2012 , the Feminist Press published an e @-@ book entitled Pussy Riot ! A Punk Prayer for Freedom to raise funds for the legal defense team .
On September 22 , Yoko Ono awarded the band the biennial LennonOno Grant for Peace , stating that she intended to work for the group ’ s immediate release . In October 2012 , Pussy Riot was announced as a finalist for the European Parliament ’ s Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought , named for Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov . The prize ultimately went to Iranian human rights lawyer Nasrin Sotoudeh and filmmaker Jafar Panahi . The city of Wittenberg , where Martin Luther nailed his Ninety Five Theses to the church door , nominated Pussy Riot for its annual Martin Luther “ Fearless Speech ” prize . The nomination provoked opposition from many theology experts , including leadership of the Evangelical Church in Germany ( EKD ) . In November the prize was awarded to a group of Regensburg restaurateurs for an anti @-@ Nazi campaign .
While attending the Women in the World Summit in New York on 4 April 2014 , Hillary Clinton posed with band members Nadezhda Tolokonnikova and Maria Alekhina for a picture she later posted on Twitter . Clinton referred to Pussy Riot as a group of " strong and brave young women " who " refuse to let their voices be silenced . "
= = = Protests and peripheral events = = =
Protests were held around the world after the sentence was announced . Amnesty International declared August 17 " Pussy Riot Global Day " for activists . People gathered in New York City , where actress Chloë Sevigny , Karen Finley and others read statements by the convicted members of the band . In Bulgaria , people put masks , similar to those worn by Pussy Riot , on a Soviet sculpture . About 100 people protested outside the Russian consulate in Toronto . In Edinburgh , Scotland , Fringe performers read trial testimony . In Serbia , the far @-@ right activist group Nasi released a video game in which members of Pussy Riot were targets ; the group spoke in support of the trio 's imprisonment . Meanwhile , Estonian programmers launched an imitation of the Internet game " Angry Birds " , poking fun at Russian authorities .
In Kiev , Inna Shevchenko , a topless feminist activist from the group FEMEN , used a chainsaw to destroy a four @-@ meter wooden sculpture of Christ on the cross , on a hill overlooking the city center . The cross had been erected during the Orange Revolution of 2004 – 2005 , to commemorate victims of Stalin 's repression . The desecration of the cross was repudiated by Maria Alyokhina of Pussy Riot , who said " Their surprise displays and protests against authoritarianism are similar to us , but we look at feminism differently , especially the form of speech . We wouldn 't take our clothes off , and will not . Their latest action , the sawing of the cross , does not create a feeling of solidarity , unfortunately . "
In August , at the Embassy of Russia in Washington , D.C. there was a protest and concert by punk bands . On August 19 , two men and a woman dressed as Pussy Riot staged a protest during a service in Germany 's Cologne Cathedral . The trio yelled slogans and held up a banner reading " Free Pussy Riot and all prisoners " in English . They were taken out by cathedral officials and then were charged with disturbing a religious service and breaching the peace . Kölner Stadt @-@ Anzeiger , a local newspaper , reported that " disturbing a religious establishment " could result in a fine or up to three years imprisonment ; they were eventually given suspended fines of 1200 Euros and 3 months probation . Assault charges were dropped . One of the three , identified as " Patrick H. " , appealed his conviction and sentence ; the court upheld his conviction and replaced his sentence with a fine of 150 Euros .
Crosses were also cut down in at least four locations in Russia . A United Russia MP stated that the incidents were inspired by Pussy Riot , calling the actions " true Satanism " . Conservative Orthodox activists staged counter @-@ demonstrations , bursting into a pro @-@ Pussy Riot event at a theatre , and shouting slogans such as " Repent " , and " Why do you hate the Russian people ? " An art museum curated by gallerists who had supported Pussy Riot was also invaded .
In early September 2012 , unidentified vandals drew a " feminist caricature " of Saint Nino on Qvashveti Church in Tbilisi , Georgia , accompanied by the English @-@ language words " Free Pussy Riot ! " On September 16 , Yuri Pyotrovsky , a 62 @-@ year @-@ old St. Petersburg native residing in Germany , poured ink over an icon in the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in support of Pussy Riot . He was charged under the article of the Criminal Code for hooliganism . Maria Alyokhina explicitly condemned cutting down crosses and splashing ink on icons during her unsuccessful appeal against her sentence on October 10 .
On October 31 , 2012 , Comedy Central aired the South Park episode " A Scause for Applause " , which ends with Jesus ripping open his robe to reveal the slogan " Free Pussy Riot " . The episode explores the need for people to believe in a cause greater than themselves and our tendency to abandon good sense in support of these causes .
In August 2013 , there was a Pussy Riot Solidarity Concert , outside the Russian Embassy in Washington , D.C.
= = = Pussy Riot ! A Punk Prayer for Freedom = = =
On September 21 , 2012 the Feminist Press released an eBook entitled Pussy Riot ! A Punk Prayer for Freedom compiling writings about the punk collective . The book is a compilation of the band 's lyrics and poetry along with collected letters and material from the trial . Tributes by figures such as Yoko Ono , Eileen Myles , Johanna Fateman , Karen Finley , Justin Vivian Bond , and JD Samson are also included . The Press collaborated closely with the band 's members , and proceeds from the book 's sales were given in support of Pussy Riot 's legal defense . The book was released in print in February 2013 . Containing statements from the October 10 appeal , the print version also includes new tributes by Bianca Jagger , Peaches & Simonne Jones , Tobi Vail , Barbara Browning , and Vivien Goldman .
= = = Documentary films = = =
In January 2013 a film on the Pussy Riot case was released by British documentary film making company Roast Beef Productions . The working title was Show Trial : The Story of Pussy Riot ; subsequently it was released as Pussy Riot : A Punk Prayer . It was directed by Mike Lerner and Maksim Pozdorovkin , and featured publicly available footage of the court proceedings and interviews with the families of the band members , but no interviews with the band members themselves . It debuted at the 2013 Sundance film festival , after which Pussy Riot 's Yekaterina Samutsevich fielded questions from the audience via Skype . Among other things she reiterated that she had no intention of turning Pussy Riot into a commercial venture . The film won a World Cinema Documentary Special Jury Award for " Punk Spirit " at the festival . The HBO network subsequently bought the U.S. television rights to the film despite lukewarm critical reviews . The BBC showed the film in October 2013 ; the British newspaper reviews were favourable . The film was among 15 documentaries short listed for a 2014 Academy Award , however it did not make the final list of nominees .
Pussy versus Putin is a 2013 documentary film chronicling the history of the group , directed by the Russian film collective , Gogol 's Wives . The film received the NTR IDFA Award for Best Mid @-@ Length Documentary at the 2013 International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam .
= = Subsequent court cases and other events = =
= = = Claims for moral damages = = =
In August 2012 Novosibirsk resident Irina Ruzankina filed a claim for 30 @,@ 000 rubles ( about $ 1 @,@ 000 ) for moral damages , claiming that a Pussy Riot video had caused her headaches and increased blood pressure . The claim was rejected by the Kuntsevo District Court in Moscow on September 7 , 2012 . Similar claims by Berdsk resident Yuri Zadoy and Novosibirsk resident Ivan Krasnitsky were dismissed by the same court on October 3 , as was a subsequent appeal by Ruzankina to the Moscow City Court on February 18 , 2013 .
= = = Extremist videos decision = = =
In early November 2012 prosecutors applied under anti @-@ extremism legislation to Zamoskvoretsky District Court to ban several Pussy Riot videos , including the video of the group 's performance in the Cathedral of Christ the Savior . Materials found to be extremist by a court are added to the Federal List of Extremist Materials maintained by the Ministry of Justice , potentially making it a criminal offense to disseminate them within Russia . After a hearing on November 29 , four Pussy Riot videos , including the " punk prayer " , were declared extremist . The ruling restricted access to the videos and to Pussy Riot 's LiveJournal blog and other websites .
Damir Gainutdinov of the Agora human rights group argued that the anti @-@ extremism laws were being applied inappropriately , saying " Everyone says that the [ Cathedral of Christ the Savior ] video hurt the feelings of religious people , but it didn 't contain any calls for extremist actions , so it cannot be extremist " . Yekaterina Samutsevich called the ruling a " direct recognition of artistic censorship " in Russia .
= = = Requests for sentence deferment = = =
In the case of mothers of young children , Russian law allows for deferment of a prison sentence until the child reaches the age of 14 . Such a request was controversially granted in 2011 to Anna Shavenkova , who had been sentenced to two years and six months prison for vehicular manslaughter . It was alleged that her request was granted due to her family connections .
On 19 October 2012 , the Khamovniki District Court in Moscow rejected an appeal for deferment of sentence filed by Violetta Volkova on behalf of Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina , on the grounds that the case did not fall within its jurisdiction . Tolokonnikova subsequently filed an appeal with the Zubovo @-@ Polyansky District Court in Mordovia , where she was imprisoned , and Alyokhina with the Berezniki District Court in Perm . Alyokhina 's appeal was rejected on January 16 , 2013 , the judge stating that the presence of her child was already taken into account during her original sentence .
On 24 July 2013 , a Russian court turned down an appeal by Maria Alyokhina against a previous court ruling that denied her an early release on parole .
= = = Release from prison = = =
On December 19 , 2013 , the state Duma approved a general amnesty for various prisoners ; among those who qualified for amnesty were those in prison for non @-@ violent offences and mothers of young children . It was expected that Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina would be among those who were released . Their release was confirmed on December 23 , 2013 .
Following her release , Alyokhina went to meet with human rights activists . " We didn 't ask for any pardon . I would have sat here until the end of my sentence because I don 't need mercy from Putin , " Maria Alyokhina told the New York Times after her release . " I think this is an attempt to improve the image of the current government , a little , before the Sochi Olympics — particularly for the Western Europeans . But I don 't consider this humane or merciful . This is a lie . " Tolokonnikova also said , " Whether one likes it or not , going to the Olympics in Russia is an acceptance of the internal political situation in Russia , an acceptance of the course taken by a person who is interested in the Olympics above all else — Vladimir Putin . "
The two said that they would not be performing in shows but were starting an organization to work for better conditions for prison inmates and that they still wanted Putin removed from government . Both said that Soviet dissident Vladimir Bukovsky is their role model , a man whom Tolokonnikova said is a " human rights champion undeterred by fear . "
= = = Amnesty International concert and membership controversy = = =
Nadezhda Tolokonnikova and Maria Alyokhina participated in the February 6 , 2014 Amnesty International concert in Barclays Center , Brooklyn , New York City . They were invited to the stage by Madonna . The same day a group of anonymous participants of the Pussy Riot group who avoided prosecution for their performance published an open letter protesting Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina calling themselves members of Pussy Riot . The letter claimed that :
In response Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina stated that :
When we were jailed , Pussy Riot immediately became very popular and widely known , and it turned from just a group to essentially an international movement . Anybody can be Pussy Riot , you just need to put on a mask and stage an active protest of something in your particular country , wherever that may be , that you consider unjust . And we ’ re not here as the leaders of Pussy Riot or determining what Pussy Riot is and what it does or what it says . We are just two individuals that spent two years in jail for taking part in a Pussy Riot protest action .
= = = Presence at the Sochi Winter Olympics = = =
Tolokonnikova , Alyokhina , and three unidentified women planned to perform a song called " Putin Will Teach You to Love the Motherland " as Pussy Riot during the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi . The action was supposed to be concerned with the prisoners in the Bolotnaya Square case , corrupt Olympic officials , the plight of the arrested environmentalist Yevgeny Vitishko and suppressed freedoms in Russia . On February 18 , 2014 they were detained in Sochi together with a group of 12 @-@ 15 people including Yevgeny Feldman , a Novaya Gazeta journalist . The authorities explained that the arrest was in connection with a theft at a hotel in Sochi . In a few hours they were released from an Adler police station . According to BBC correspondent Rafael Saakov the five women left the police station in balaclavas singing their song " Putin Will Teach You to Love the Motherland " on the streets of Adler .
On February 19 , 2014 during the second attempt to film " Putin Will Teach You to Love the Motherland " near the building of Sochi Seaport the group was beaten by uniformed Cossacks working in a security capacity for the Olympics . The same day a representative of the International Olympic Committee urged Pussy Riot not to perform at Sochi Olympic Park stating that it would be inappropriate . He also stated that the arrest of Pussy Riot in Sochi is not connected to the Olympic Games . An attorney for the band members stated they were treated at a hospital for injuries received during the attack .
The video of the performance was published on YouTube on 19 February 2014 by the group .
= = = Assault in Nizhny Novgorod = = =
On March 6 , 2014 , during a visit to Nizhny Novgorod as part of a campaign for prisoners ' rights , a group of unknown men wearing Ribbon of Saint George medals doused group members Nadezhda Tolokonnikova , Maria Alyokhina , and Taisia Krugovykh with green @-@ coloured chemicals or paint , allegedly damaging their eyes . Alyokhina also suffered a concussion after being hit with a jar containing the paint or chemical .
= = = European Court of Human Rights = = =
In 2014 , Maria Alyokhina and Nadezhda Tolokonnikova brought suit in the European Court of Human Rights , for their arrest and detention .
In May 2015 Maria Alyokhina and Nadezhda Tolokonnikova together with Tolokonnikova 's husband Pyotr Verzilov , Krasnodar artist Lusine Dzhanyan and activist Alexey Nekrasov brought another suit in the European Court of Human Rights over police inaction and refusal to prosecute Cossacks who attacked Pussy Riot during their video shoot at the Sochi Winter Olympics ( " Putin Will Teach You to Love the Motherland " ) .
= = In popular culture = =
Pussy Riot members Nadezhda Tolokonnikova and Maria Alyokhina appeared in House of Cards season 3 , episode 3 as themselves . The episode also features Pussy Riot concert footage .
Nadezhda Tolokonnikova appeared in artist Fawn Rogers ' " I Love You And That Makes Me God " .
In 2016 the Norwegian songrwiter Moddi releases a cover version in English of the song Punk Prayer by Pussy Riot in his album Unsongs .
|
= Karlheinz Stockhausen =
Karlheinz Stockhausen ( German pronunciation : [ kaʁlˈhaɪnts ˈʃtɔkhaʊzn ̩ ] ; 22 August 1928 – 5 December 2007 ) was a German composer , widely acknowledged by critics as one of the most important ( Barrett 1988 , 45 ; Harvey 1975b , 705 ; Hopkins 1972 , 33 ; Klein 1968 , 117 ) but also controversial ( Power 1990 , 30 ) composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries . Another critic calls him " one of the great visionaries of 20th @-@ century music " ( Hewett 2007 ) . He is known for his groundbreaking work in electronic music , aleatory ( controlled chance ) in serial composition , and musical spatialization .
He was educated at the Hochschule für Musik Köln and the University of Cologne , later studying with Olivier Messiaen in Paris and with Werner Meyer @-@ Eppler at the University of Bonn . One of the leading figures of the Darmstadt School , his compositions and theories were and remain widely influential , not only on composers of art music , but also on jazz and popular music . His works , composed over a period of nearly sixty years , eschew traditional forms . In addition to electronic music — both with and without live performers — they range from miniatures for musical boxes through works for solo instruments , songs , chamber music , choral and orchestral music , to a cycle of seven full @-@ length operas . His theoretical and other writings comprise ten large volumes . He received numerous prizes and distinctions for his compositions , recordings , and for the scores produced by his publishing company .
His notable compositions include the series of nineteen Klavierstücke ( Piano Pieces ) , Kontra @-@ Punkte for ten instruments , the electronic / musique @-@ concrète Gesang der Jünglinge , Gruppen for three orchestras , the percussion solo Zyklus , Kontakte , the cantata Momente , the live @-@ electronic Mikrophonie I , Hymnen , Stimmung for six vocalists , Aus den sieben Tagen , Mantra for two pianos and electronics , Tierkreis , Inori for soloists and orchestra , and the gigantic opera cycle Licht .
He died of sudden heart failure at the age of 79 , on 5 December 2007 at his home in Kürten , Germany .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Stockhausen was born in Burg Mödrath , the " castle " of the village of Mödrath . The village , located near Kerpen in the Cologne region , was displaced in 1956 to make way for lignite strip mining , but the castle itself still stands . Despite its name , the building is not actually a castle at all , but rather was a manor house built in 1830 by a local businessman named Arend . Because of its imposing size , locals began calling it Burg Mödrath ( Mödrath Castle ) . From 1925 to 1932 it was the maternity home of the Bergheim district , and after the war it served for a time as a shelter for war refugees . In 1950 , the owners , the Düsseldorf chapter of the Knights of Malta , turned it into an orphanage , but it has subsequently returned to private ownership and is today a private residence again ( Anon. n.d. ; Anon . 1950 ) .
His father , Simon Stockhausen , was a schoolteacher , and his mother Gertrud ( née Stupp ) was the daughter of a prosperous family of farmers in Neurath in the Cologne Bight . A daughter , Katherina , was born the year after Karlheinz , and a second son , Hermann @-@ Josef ( " Hermännchen " ) followed in 1932 . Gertrud played the piano and accompanied her own singing but , after three pregnancies in as many years , experienced a mental breakdown and was institutionalized in December 1932 , followed a few months later by the death of her younger son , Hermann ( Kurtz 1992 , 8 , 11 , 13 ) .
From the age of seven , Stockhausen lived in Altenberg , where he received his first piano lessons from the Protestant organist of the Altenberg Cathedral , Franz @-@ Josef Kloth ( Kurtz 1992 , 14 ) . In 1938 his father remarried . His new wife , Luzia , had been the family 's housekeeper . The couple had two daughters ( Kurtz 1992 , 18 ) . Because his relationship with his new stepmother was less than happy , in January 1942 Karlheinz became a boarder at the teachers ' training college in Xanten , where he continued his piano training and also studied oboe and violin ( Kurtz 1992 , 18 ) . In 1941 he learned that his mother had died , ostensibly from leukemia , although everyone at the same hospital had supposedly died of the same disease . It was generally understood that she had been a victim of the Nazi policy of killing " useless eaters " ( Stockhausen 1989a , 20 – 21 ; Kurtz 1992 , 19 ) . The official letter to the family falsely claimed she had died 16 June 1941 , but recent research by Lisa Quernes , a student at the Landesmusikgymnasium in Montabaur , has determined that she was gassed along with 89 other people at the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre in Hesse @-@ Nassau on 27 May 1941 ( Anon . 2014 ) . Stockhausen dramatized his mother 's death in hospital by lethal injection , in Act 1 scene 2 ( " Mondeva " ) of the opera Donnerstag aus Licht ( Kurtz 1992 , 213 ) . In the autumn of 1944 , he was conscripted to serve as a stretcher bearer in Bedburg ( Kurtz 1992 , 18 ) . In February 1945 , he met his father for the last time in Altenberg . Simon , who was on leave from the front , told his son , " I 'm not coming back . Look after things " . By the end of the war , his father was regarded as missing in action , and may have been killed in Hungary ( Kurtz 1992 , 19 ) . A comrade later reported to Karlheinz that he saw his father wounded in action ( Maconie 2005 , 19 ) . Fifty @-@ five years after the fact , a journalist writing for the Guardian newspaper stated unequivocally , though without offering any fresh evidence , that Simon Stockhausen was killed in Hungary in 1945 ( O 'Mahony 2001 ) .
= = = Education = = =
From 1947 to 1951 , Stockhausen studied music pedagogy and piano at the Hochschule für Musik Köln ( Cologne Conservatory of Music ) and musicology , philosophy , and Germanics at the University of Cologne . He had training in harmony and counterpoint , the latter with Hermann Schroeder , but he did not develop a real interest in composition until 1950 . He was admitted at the end of that year to the class of Swiss composer Frank Martin , who had just begun a seven @-@ year tenure in Cologne ( Kurtz 1992 , 28 ) . At the Darmstädter Ferienkurse in 1951 , Stockhausen met Belgian composer Karel Goeyvaerts , who had just completed studies with Olivier Messiaen ( analysis ) and Darius Milhaud ( composition ) in Paris , and Stockhausen resolved to do likewise ( Kurtz 1992 , 34 – 36 ) . He arrived in Paris on 8 January 1952 and began attending Messiaen 's courses in aesthetics and analysis , as well as Milhaud 's composition classes . He continued with Messiaen for a year , but he was disappointed with Milhaud and abandoned his lessons after a few weeks ( Kurtz 1992 , 45 – 48 ) . In March 1953 , he left Paris to take up a position as assistant to Herbert Eimert at the newly established Electronic Music Studio of Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk ( NWDR ) ( from 1 January 1955 , Westdeutscher Rundfunk , or WDR ) in Cologne ( Kurtz 1992 , 56 – 57 ) . In 1963 , he succeeded Eimert as director of the studio ( Morawska @-@ Büngeler 1988 , 19 ) . From 1954 to 1956 , he studied phonetics , acoustics , and information theory with Werner Meyer @-@ Eppler at the University of Bonn ( Kurtz 1992 , 68 – 72 ) . Together with Eimert , Stockhausen edited the journal Die Reihe from 1955 to 1962 ( Grant 2001 , 1 – 2 ) .
= = = Career and adult life = = =
= = = = Family and home = = = =
On 29 December 1951 , in Hamburg , Stockhausen married Doris Andreae ( Kurtz 1992 , 45 ; Maconie 2005 , 47 ) . Together they had four children : Suja ( b . 1953 ) , Christel ( b . 1956 ) , Markus ( b . 1957 ) , and Majella ( b . 1961 ) ( Kurtz 1992 , 90 ; Tannenbaum 1987 , 94 ) . They were divorced in 1965 ( Rathert 2013 ) . On 3 April 1967 , in San Francisco , he married Mary Bauermeister , with whom he had two children : Julika ( b . 22 January 1966 ) and Simon ( b . 1967 ) ( Kurtz 1992 , 141 , 149 ; Tannenbaum 1987 , 95 ) . They were divorced in 1972 ( Rathert 2013 ; Stockhausen @-@ Stiftung [ 2013 ] ) .
Four of Stockhausen 's children became professional musicians ( Kurtz 1992 , 202 ) , and he composed some of his works specifically for them . A large number of pieces for the trumpet — from Sirius ( 1975 – 77 ) to the trumpet version of In Freundschaft ( 1997 ) — were composed for and premièred by his son Markus ( Kurtz 1992 , 208 ; M. Stockhausen 1998 , 13 – 16 ; Tannenbaum 1987 , 61 ) . Markus , at the age of 4 years , had performed the part of The Child in the Cologne première of Originale , alternating performances with his sister Christel ( Maconie 2005 , 220 ) . Klavierstück XII and Klavierstück XIII ( and their versions as scenes from the operas Donnerstag aus Licht and Samstag aus Licht ) were written for his daughter Majella , and were first performed by her at the ages of 16 and 20 , respectively ( Maconie 2005 , 430 , 443 ; Stockhausen Texte , 5 : 190 , 255 , 274 ; Stockhausen Texte , 6 : 64 , 373 ) . The saxophone duet in the second act of Donnerstag aus Licht , and a number of synthesizer parts in the Licht operas , including Klavierstück XV ( " Synthi @-@ Fou " ) from Dienstag , were composed for his son Simon ( Kurtz 1992 , 222 ; Maconie 2005 , 480 , 489 ; Stockhausen Texte , 5 : 186 , 529 ) , who also assisted his father in the production of the electronic music from Freitag aus Licht . His daughter Christel is a flautist who performed and gave a course on interpretation of Tierkreis in 1977 ( Stockhausen Texte , 5 : 105 ) , later published as an article ( C. Stockhausen 1978 ) .
In 1961 , Stockhausen acquired a parcel of land in the vicinity of Kürten , a village east of Cologne , near Bergisch Gladbach in the Bergisches Land . He had a house built there , which was designed to his specifications by the architect Erich Schneider @-@ Wessling , and he resided there from its completion in the autumn of 1965 ( Kurtz 1992 , 116 – 17 , 137 – 38 ) .
= = = = Teaching = = = =
After lecturing at the Internationale Ferienkurse für Neue Musik at Darmstadt ( first in 1953 ) , Stockhausen gave lectures and concerts in Europe , North America , and Asia ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 2 , 14 – 15 ) . He was guest professor of composition at the University of Pennsylvania in 1965 and at the University of California , Davis in 1966 – 67 ( Kramer 1998 ; Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 2 – 3 ) . He founded and directed the Cologne Courses for New Music from 1963 to 1968 , and was appointed Professor of Composition at the Hochschule für Musik Köln in 1971 , where he taught until 1977 ( Kurtz 1992 , 126 – 28 , 194 ; Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 3 ) . In 1998 , he founded the Stockhausen Courses , which are held annually in Kürten ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 6 – 9 , 15 ) .
= = = = Publishing activities = = = =
From the mid @-@ 1950s onward , Stockhausen designed ( and in some cases arranged to have printed ) his own musical scores for his publisher , Universal Edition , which often involved unconventional devices . The score for his piece Refrain , for instance , includes a rotatable ( refrain ) on a transparent plastic strip . Early in the 1970s , he ended his agreement with Universal Edition and began publishing his own scores under the Stockhausen @-@ Verlag imprint ( Kurtz 1992 , 184 ) . This arrangement allowed him to extend his notational innovations ( for example , dynamics in Weltparlament [ the first scene of Mittwoch aus Licht ] are coded in colour ) and resulted in eight German Music Publishers Society Awards between 1992 ( Luzifers Tanz ) and 2005 ( Hoch @-@ Zeiten , from Sonntag aus Licht ) ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 12 – 13 ) . The score of Momente , published just before the composer 's death in 2007 , won this prize for the ninth time ( Deutscher Musikeditionspreis 2009 ) .
In the early 1990s , Stockhausen reacquired the licenses to most of the recordings of his music he had made to that point , and started his own record company to make this music permanently available on Compact Disc ( Maconie 2005 , 477 – 78 ) .
= = = Death = = =
Stockhausen died of sudden heart failure on the morning of 5 December 2007 in Kürten , North Rhine @-@ Westphalia . Just the night before , he had finished a work ( then recently commissioned ) for performance by the Mozart Orchestra of Bologna ( Bäumer 2007 ) . He was 79 years old .
= = Compositions = =
Stockhausen wrote 370 individual works . He often departs radically from musical tradition and his work is influenced by Olivier Messiaen , Edgard Varèse , and Anton Webern , as well as by film ( Stockhausen 1996b ) and by painters such as Piet Mondrian ( Stockhausen 1996a , 94 ; Stockhausen Texte , 3 : 92 – 93 ; Toop 1998 ) and Paul Klee ( Maconie 2005 , 187 ) .
= = = 1950s = = =
Stockhausen began to compose in earnest only during his third year at the conservatory ( Kurtz 1992 , 26 – 27 ) . His early student compositions remained out of the public eye until , in 1971 , he published Chöre für Doris , Drei Lieder for alto voice and chamber orchestra , Choral for a cappella choir ( all three from 1950 ) , and a Sonatine for Violin and Piano ( 1951 ) ( Maconie 1990 , 5 – 6 , 11 ) .
In August 1951 , just after his first Darmstadt visit , Stockhausen began working with a form of athematic serial composition that rejected the twelve @-@ tone technique of Schoenberg ( Felder 1977 , 92 ) . He characterized many of these earliest compositions ( together with the music of other , like @-@ minded composers of the period ) as punktuelle ( " punctual " or " pointist " music , commonly mistranslated as " pointillist " ) Musik , though one critic concluded after analysing several of these early works that Stockhausen " never really composed punctually " ( Sabbe 1981 ) . Compositions from this phase include Kreuzspiel ( 1951 ) , the Klavierstücke I – IV ( 1952 — the fourth of this first set of four Klavierstücke , titled Klavierstück IV , is specifically cited by the composer as an example of " punctual music " ( Stockhausen Texte , 2 : 19 ) ) , and the first ( unpublished ) versions of Punkte and Kontra @-@ Punkte ( 1952 ) ( Stockhausen Texte , 2 : 20 ) . However , several works from these same years show Stockhausen formulating his " first really ground @-@ breaking contribution to the theory and , above all , practice of composition " , that of " group composition " , found in Stockhausen 's works as early as 1952 and continuing throughout his compositional career ( Toop 2005 , 3 ) . This principle was first publicly described by Stockhausen in a radio talk from December 1955 , titled " Gruppenkomposition : Klavierstück I " ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 63 – 74 ) .
In December 1952 , he composed a Konkrete Etüde , realized in Pierre Schaeffer 's Paris musique concrète studio . In March 1953 , he moved to the NWDR studio in Cologne and turned to electronic music with two Electronic Studies ( 1953 and 1954 ) , and then introducing spatial placements of sound sources with his mixed concrète and electronic work Gesang der Jünglinge ( 1955 – 56 ) . Experiences gained from the Studies made plain that it was an unacceptable oversimplification to regard timbres as stable entities ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 56 ) . Reinforced by his studies with Meyer @-@ Eppler , beginning in 1955 , Stockhausen formulated new " statistical " criteria for composition , focussing attention on the aleatoric , directional tendencies of sound movement , " the change from one state to another , with or without returning motion , as opposed to a fixed state " ( Decroupet and Ungeheuer 1998 , 98 – 99 ) . Stockhausen later wrote , describing this period in his compositional work , " The first revolution occurred from 1952 / 53 as musique concrète , electronic tape music , and space music , entailing composition with transformers , generators , modulators , magnetophones , etc ; the integration of all concrete and abstract ( synthetic ) sound possibilities ( also all noises ) , and the controlled projection of sound in space " ( Stockhausen 1989b , 127 , reprinted in Schwartz , Childs , and Fox 1998 , 374 ) . His position as " the leading German composer of his generation " ( Toop 2001 ) was established with Gesang der Jünglinge and three concurrently composed pieces in different media : Zeitmaße for five woodwinds , Gruppen for three orchestras , and Klavierstück XI ( Kohl 1998a , 61 ) . The principles underlying the latter three compositions are presented in Stockhausen 's best @-@ known theoretical article , " . . . wie die Zeit vergeht . . . " ( " . . . How Time Passes . . . " ) , first published in 1957 in vol . 3 of Die Reihe ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 99 – 139 ) .
His work with electronic music and its utter fixity led him to explore modes of instrumental and vocal music in which performers ' individual capabilities and the circumstances of a particular performance ( e.g. , hall acoustics ) may determine certain aspects of a composition . He called this " variable form " ( Wörner 1973 , 101 – 105 ) . In other cases , a work may be presented from a number of different perspectives . In Zyklus ( 1959 ) , for example , he began using graphic notation for instrumental music . The score is written so that the performance can start on any page , and it may be read upside down , or from right to left , as the performer chooses ( Stockhausen Texte , 2 , 73 – 100 ) . Still other works permit different routes through the constituent parts . Stockhausen called both of these possibilities " polyvalent form " ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 241 – 51 ) , which may be either open form ( essentially incomplete , pointing beyond its frame ) , as with Klavierstück XI ( 1956 ) , or " closed form " ( complete and self @-@ contained ) as with Momente ( 1962 – 64 / 69 ) ( Kaletha 2004 , 97 – 98 ) .
In many of his works , elements are played off against one another , simultaneously and successively : in Kontra @-@ Punkte ( " Against Points " , 1952 – 53 ) , which , in its revised form became his official " opus 1 " , a process leading from an initial " point " texture of isolated notes toward a florid , ornamental ending is opposed by a tendency from diversity ( six timbres , dynamics , and durations ) toward uniformity ( timbre of solo piano , a nearly constant soft dynamic , and fairly even durations ) ( Stockhausen Texte , 2 , 20 – 21 ) . In Gruppen ( 1955 – 57 ) , fanfares and passages of varying speed ( superimposed durations based on the harmonic series ) are occasionally flung between three full orchestras , giving the impression of movement in space ( Maconie 2005 , 486 ) .
In his Kontakte for electronic sounds ( optionally with piano and percussion ) ( 1958 – 60 ) , he achieved for the first time an isomorphism of the four parameters of pitch , duration , dynamics , and timbre ( Stockhausen 1962 , 40 ) .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1960 , Stockhausen returned to the composition of vocal music ( for the first time since Gesang der Jünglinge ) with Carré for four orchestras and four choirs ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 18 ) . Two years later , he began an expansive cantata titled Momente ( 1962 – 64 / 69 ) , for solo soprano , four choir groups and thirteen instrumentalists ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 18 ) . In 1963 , Stockhausen created Plus @-@ Minus , " 2 × 7 pages for realisation " containing basic note materials and a complex system of transformations to which those materials are to be subjected in order to produce an unlimited number of different compositions ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 20 ; Toop 2005 , 175 – 78 ) . Through the rest of the 1960s , he continued to explore such possibilities of " process composition " in works for live performance , such as Prozession ( 1967 ) , Kurzwellen , and Spiral ( both 1968 ) , culminating in the verbally described " intuitive music " compositions of Aus den sieben Tagen ( 1968 ) and Für kommende Zeiten ( 1968 – 70 ) ( Fritsch 1979 ; Kohl 1981 , 192 – 93 , 227 – 51 ; Kohl 1998b , 7 ; ( Toop 2005 , 191 – 92 ) ) . Some of his later works , such as Ylem ( 1972 ) and the first three parts of Herbstmusik ( 1974 ) , also fall under this rubric ( Maconie 2005 , 254 , 366 – 68 ) . Several of these process compositions were featured in the all @-@ day programmes presented at Expo 70 , for which Stockhausen composed two more similar pieces , Pole for two players , and Expo for three ( Kohl 1981 , 192 – 93 ; Maconie 2005 , 323 – 24 ) . In other compositions , such as Stop for orchestra ( 1965 ) , Adieu for wind quintet ( 1966 ) , and the Dr. K Sextett , which was written in 1968 – 69 in honour of Alfred Kalmus of Universal Edition , he presented his performers with more restricted improvisational possibilities ( Maconie 2005 , 262 , 267 – 68 , 319 – 20 ) .
He pioneered live electronics in Mixtur ( 1964 / 67 / 2003 ) for orchestra and electronics ( Kohl 1981 , 51 – 163 ) , Mikrophonie I ( 1964 ) for tam @-@ tam , two microphones , two filters with potentiometers ( 6 players ) ( Maconie 1972 ; Maconie 2005 , 255 – 57 ) , Mikrophonie II ( 1965 ) for choir , Hammond organ , and four ring modulators ( Peters 1992 ) , and Solo for a melody instrument with feedback ( 1966 ) ( Maconie 2005 , 262 – 65 ) . Improvisation also plays a part in all of these works , but especially in Solo ( Maconie 2005 , 264 ) . He also composed two electronic works for tape , Telemusik ( 1966 ) and Hymnen ( 1966 – 67 ) ( Kohl 2002 ; Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 21 ) . The latter also exists in a version with partially improvising soloists , and the third of its four " regions " in a version with orchestra ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 21 ) . At this time , Stockhausen also began to incorporate pre @-@ existent music from world traditions into his compositions ( Kohl 1981 , 93 – 95 ; Stockhausen Texte , 4 , 468 – 76 ) . Telemusik was the first overt example of this trend ( Kohl 2002 , 96 ) .
In 1968 , Stockhausen composed the vocal sextet Stimmung , for the Collegium Vocale Köln , an hour @-@ long work based entirely on the overtones of a low B @-@ flat ( Toop 2005 , 39 ) . In the following year , he created Fresco for four orchestral groups , a Wandelmusik ( " foyer music " ) composition ( Maconie 2005 , 321 ) . This was intended to be played for about five hours in the foyers and grounds of the Beethovenhalle auditorium complex in Bonn , before , after , and during a group of ( in part simultaneous ) concerts of his music in the auditoriums of the facility ( Maconie 2005 , 321 – 23 ) . The overall project was given the title Musik für die Beethovenhalle ( Maconie 2005 , 296 ) . This had precedents in two collective @-@ composition seminar projects that Stockhausen gave at Darmstadt in 1967 and 1968 : Ensemble and Musik für ein Haus ( Gehlhaar 1968 ; Ritzel 1970 ; Iddon 2004 ; Maconie 2005 , 321 ) , and would have successors in the " park music " composition for five spatially separated groups , Sternklang ( " Star Sounds " ) of 1971 , the orchestral work Trans , composed in the same year and the thirteen simultaneous " musical scenes for soloists and duets " titled Alphabet für Liège ( 1972 ) ( Maconie 2005 , 334 – 36 , 338 , 341 – 43 ) .
= = = " Space music " and Expo ' 70 = = =
Since the mid @-@ 1950s , Stockhausen had been developing concepts of spatialization in his works , not only in electronic music , such as the 5 @-@ channel Gesang der Jünglinge ( 1955 – 56 ) and Telemusik ( 1966 ) , and 4 @-@ channel Kontakte ( 1958 – 60 ) and Hymnen ( 1966 – 67 ) . Instrumental / vocal works like Gruppen for three orchestras ( 1955 – 57 ) and Carré for four orchestras and four choirs ( 1959 – 60 ) also exhibit this trait ( Stockhausen Texte 2 : 71 – 72 , 49 – 50 , 102 – 103 ; Stockhausen 1989 , 105 – 108 ; Cott 1973 , 200 – 201 ) . In lectures such as " Music in Space " from 1958 ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 152 – 75 ) , he called for new kinds of concert halls to be built , " suited to the requirements of spatial music " . His idea was
a spherical space which is fitted all around with loudspeakers . In the middle of this spherical space a sound @-@ permeable , transparent platform would be suspended for the listeners . They could hear music composed for such standardized spaces coming from above , from below and from all points of the compass . ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 153 )
In 1968 , the West German government invited Stockhausen to collaborate on the German Pavilion at the 1970 World Fair in Osaka and to create a joint multimedia project for it with artist Otto Piene . Other collaborators on the project included the pavilion 's architect , Fritz Bornemann , Fritz Winckel , director of the Electronic Music Studio at the Technical University of Berlin , and engineer Max Mengeringhausen . The pavilion theme was " gardens of music " , in keeping with which Bornemann intended " planting " the exhibition halls beneath a broad lawn , with a connected auditorium " sprouting " above ground . Initially , Bornemann conceived this auditorium in the form of an amphitheatre , with a central orchestra podium and surrounding audience space . In the summer of 1968 , Stockhausen met with Bornemann and persuaded him to change this conception to a spherical space with the audience in the centre , surrounded by loudspeaker groups in seven rings at different " latitudes " around the interior walls of the sphere ( Kurtz 1992 , 166 ; Föllmer 1996 ) .
Although Stockhausen and Piene 's planned multimedia project , titled Hinab @-@ Hinauf , was developed in detail ( Stockhausen Texte , 3 : 155 – 74 ) , the World Fair committee rejected their concept as too extravagant and instead asked Stockhausen to present daily five @-@ hour programs of his music ( Kurtz 1992 , 178 ) . Stockhausen 's works were performed for 5 ½ hours every day over a period of 183 days to a total audience of about a million listeners ( Wörner 1973 , 256 ) . According to Stockhausen 's biographer , Michael Kurtz , " Many visitors felt the spherical auditorium to be an oasis of calm amidst the general hubbub , and after a while it became one of the main attractions of Expo 1970 " ( Kurtz 1992 , 179 ) .
= = = 1970s = = =
Beginning with Mantra for two pianos and electronics ( 1970 ) , Stockhausen turned to formula composition , a technique which involves the projection and multiplication of a single , double , or triple melodic @-@ line formula ( Kohl 1983 – 84a ; Kohl 1990 ; Kohl 2004 ) . Sometimes , as in Mantra and the large orchestral composition with mime soloists , Inori , the simple formula is stated at the outset as an introduction . He continued to use this technique ( e.g. , in the two related solo @-@ clarinet pieces , Harlekin [ Harlequin ] and Der kleine Harlekin [ The Little Harlequin ] of 1975 , and the orchestral Jubiläum [ Jubilee ] of 1977 ) through the completion of the opera @-@ cycle Licht in 2003 ( Blumröder 1982 ; Conen 1991 ; Kohl 1983 – 84a ; Kohl 1990 ; Kohl 1993 ; Kohl 2004 ; Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 10 ) . Some works from the 1970s did not employ formula technique — e.g. , the vocal duet " Am Himmel wandre ich " ( In the Sky I am Walking , one of the 13 components of the multimedia Alphabet für Liège , 1972 , which Stockhausen developed in conversation with the British biophysicist and lecturer on mystical aspects of sound vibration Jill Purce ) , " Laub und Regen " ( Leaves and Rain , from the theatre piece Herbstmusik ( 1974 ) , the unaccompanied @-@ clarinet composition Amour , and the choral opera Atmen gibt das Leben ( Breathing Gives Life , 1974 / 77 ) — but nevertheless share its simpler , melodically oriented style ( Conen 1991 , 57 ; Kurtz 1992 , 192 – 93 ) . Two such pieces , Tierkreis ( " Zodiac " , 1974 – 75 ) and In Freundschaft ( In Friendship , 1977 , a solo piece with versions for virtually every orchestral instrument ) , have become Stockhausen 's most widely performed and recorded compositions ( Anon . 2007a ; Deruchie 2007 ; Nordin 2004 ) .
This dramatic simplification of style provided a model for a new generation of German composers , loosely associated under the label neue Einfachheit or New Simplicity ( Andraschke 1981 ) . The best @-@ known of these composers is Wolfgang Rihm , who studied with Stockhausen in 1972 – 73 . His orchestral composition Sub @-@ Kontur ( 1974 – 75 ) quotes the formula of Stockhausen 's Inori ( 1973 – 74 ) , and he has also acknowledged the influence of Momente on this work ( Frobenius 1981 , 53 + note 59 – 60 ) .
Other large works by Stockhausen from this decade include the orchestral Trans ( 1971 ) and two music @-@ theatre compositions utilizing the Tierkreis melodies : Musik im Bauch ( " Music in the Belly " ) for six percussionists ( 1975 ) , and the science @-@ fiction " opera " Sirius ( 1975 – 77 ) for eight @-@ channel electronic music with soprano , bass , trumpet , and bass clarinet , which has four different versions for the four seasons , each lasting over an hour and a half ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 24 – 25 ) .
= = = 1977 – 2003 = = =
Between 1977 and 2003 , Stockhausen composed seven operas in a cycle titled Licht : Die sieben Tage der Woche ( " Light : The Seven Days of the Week " ) ( Maconie 2005 , 403 – 544 ) . The Licht cycle deals with the traits associated in various historical traditions with each weekday ( Monday |
= birth and fertility , Tuesday =
conflict and war , Wednesday |
= reconciliation and cooperation , Thursday =
traveling and learning , etc . ) and with the relationships between three archetypal characters : Michael , Lucifer , and Eve ( Kohl 1983 – 84b , 489 ; Stockhausen Texte , 6 : 152 – 56 , 175 , 200 – 201 ) . Each of these characters dominates one of the operas ( Donnerstag [ Thursday ] , Samstag [ Saturday ] , and Montag [ Monday ] , respectively ) , the three possible pairings are foregrounded in three others , and the equal combination of all three is featured in Mittwoch ( Wednesday ) ( Kohl 1990 , 274 ) .
Stockhausen 's conception of opera was based significantly on ceremony and ritual , with influence from the Japanese Noh theatre ( Stockhausen , Conen , and Hennlich 1989 , 282 ) , as well as Judeo @-@ Christian and Vedic traditions ( Bruno 1999 , 134 ) . In 1968 , at the time of the composition of Aus den sieben Tagen , Stockhausen had read a biography by Satprem about the Bengali guru Sri Aurobindo ( Guerreri 2009 ) , and subsequently he also read many of the published writings by Aurobindo himself . The title of Licht owes something to Aurobindo 's theory of " Agni " ( the Hindu and Vedic fire deity ) , developed from two basic premises of nuclear physics ; Stockhausen 's definition of a formula and , especially , his conception of the Licht superformula , also owes a great deal to Sri Aurobindo 's category of the " supramental " ( Peters 2003 , 227 ) . Similarly , his approach to voice and text sometimes departed from traditional usage : Characters were as likely to be portrayed by instrumentalists or dancers as by singers , and a few parts of Licht ( e.g. , Luzifers Traum from Samstag , Welt @-@ Parlament from Mittwoch , Lichter @-@ Wasser and Hoch @-@ Zeiten from Sonntag ) use written or improvised texts in simulated or invented languages ( Kohl 1983 – 84b , 499 ; Moritz 2005 ; Stockhausen 1999 , 18 – 25 ; Stockhausen 2001b , 20 ; Stockhausen 2003 , 20 ) .
The seven operas were not composed in " weekday order " but rather starting ( apart from Jahreslauf in 1977 , which became the first act of Dienstag ) with the " solo " operas and working toward the more complex ones : Donnerstag ( 1978 – 80 ) , Samstag ( 1981 – 83 ) , Montag ( 1984 – 88 ) , Dienstag ( 1977 / 1987 – 91 ) , Freitag ( 1991 – 94 ) , Mittwoch ( 1995 – 97 ) , and finally Sonntag ( 1998 – 2003 ) ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 3 – 7 , 26 – 48 ) .
Stockhausen had dreams of flying throughout his life , and these dreams are reflected in the Helikopter @-@ Streichquartett ( the third scene of Mittwoch aus Licht ) , completed in 1993 . In it , the four members of a string quartet perform in four helicopters flying independent flight paths over the countryside near the concert hall . The sounds they play are mixed together with the sounds of the helicopters and played through speakers to the audience in the hall . Videos of the performers are also transmitted back to the concert hall . The performers are synchronized with the aid of a click track , transmitted to them and heard over headphones ( Stockhausen 1996c , 215 ) .
The first performance of the piece took place in Amsterdam on 26 June 1995 , as part of the Holland Festival ( Stockhausen 1996c , 216 ) . Despite its extremely unusual nature , the piece has been given several performances , including one on 22 August 2003 as part of the Salzburg Festival to open the Hangar @-@ 7 venue ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 7 ) , and the German première on 17 June 2007 in Braunschweig as part of the Stadt der Wissenschaft 2007 Festival ( Stockhausen @-@ Stiftung 2007 ) . The work has also been recorded by the Arditti Quartet .
In 1999 he was invited by Walter Fink to be the ninth composer featured in the annual Komponistenporträt of the Rheingau Musik Festival .
In 1999 , BBC producer Rodney Wilson asked Stockhausen to collaborate with Stephen and Timothy Quay on a film for the fourth series of Sound on Film International . Although Stockhausen 's music had been used for films previously ( most notably , parts of Hymnen in Nicolas Roeg 's Walkabout in 1971 ) , this was the first time he had been asked to provide music specially for the purpose . He adapted 21 minutes of material taken from his electronic music for Freitag aus Licht , calling the result Zwei Paare ( Two Couples ) , and the Brothers Quay created their animated film , which they titled In Absentia , based only on their reactions to the music and the simple suggestion that a window might be an idea to use ( Anon . 2001 ) . When , at a preview screening , Stockhausen saw the film , which shows a madwoman writing letters from a bleak asylum cell , he was moved to tears . The Brothers Quay were astonished to learn that his mother had been " imprisoned by the Nazis in an asylum , where she later died . … This was a very moving moment for us as well , especially because we had made the film without knowing any of this " ( Aita 2001 ) .
= = = 2003 – 2007 = = =
After completing Licht , Stockhausen embarked on a new cycle of compositions , based on the hours of the day , entitled Klang ( " Sound " ) . Twenty @-@ one of these pieces were completed before the composer 's death ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 49 – 50 ) . The first four works from this cycle are First Hour : Himmelfahrt ( Ascension ) , for organ or synthesizer , soprano and tenor ( 2004 – 2005 ) ; Second Hour : Freude ( Joy ) for two harps ( 2005 ) ; Third Hour : Natürliche Dauern ( Natural Durations ) for piano ( 2005 – 2006 ) ; and Fourth Hour : Himmels @-@ Tür ( Heaven 's Door ) for a percussionist and a little girl ( 2005 ) ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 49 ) . The Fifth Hour , Harmonien ( Harmonies ) , is a solo in three versions for flute , bass clarinet , and trumpet ( 2006 ) ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 49 ) . The Sixth through Twelfth hours are chamber @-@ music works based on the material from the Fifth Hour ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 49 ) . The Thirteenth Hour , Cosmic Pulses , is an electronic work made by superimposing 24 layers of sound , each having its own spatial motion , among eight loudspeakers placed around the concert hall ( Stockhausen 2007a ) . Hours 14 through 21 are solo pieces for bass voice , baritone voice , basset @-@ horn , horn , tenor voice , soprano voice , soprano saxophone , and flute , respectively , each with electronic accompaniment of a different set of three layers from Cosmic Pulses ( Stockhausen @-@ Verlag 2010 , 50 ) . The twenty @-@ one completed pieces were first performed together as a cycle at the Festival MusikTriennale Köln on 8 – 9 May 2010 , in 176 individual concerts ( Gimpel 2010 ) .
= = Theories = =
In the 1950s and early 1960s , Stockhausen published a series of articles that established his importance in the area of music theory . Although these include analyses of music by Mozart , Debussy , Bartók , Stravinsky , Goeyvaerts , Boulez , Nono , Johannes Fritsch , Michael von Biel , and , especially , Webern ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 24 – 31 , 39 – 44 , 75 – 85 , 86 – 98 ; Stockhausen Texte , 2 : 136 – 39 , 149 – 66 , 170 – 206 ; Stockhausen Texte , 3 : 236 – 38 ; Stockhausen Texte , 4 : 662 – 63 ) , the items on compositional theory directly related to his own work are regarded as the most important generally . " Indeed , the Texte come closer than anything else currently available to providing a general compositional theory for the postwar period " ( Morgan 1975 , 16 ) . His most celebrated article is " ... wie die Zeit vergeht ... " ( " . . . How Time Passes . . . " ) , first published in the third volume of Die Reihe ( 1957 ) . In it , he expounds a number of temporal conceptions underlying his instrumental compositions Zeitmaße , Gruppen , and Klavierstück XI . In particular , this article develops ( 1 ) a scale of twelve tempos analogous to the chromatic pitch scale , ( 2 ) a technique of building progressively smaller , integral subdivisions over a basic ( fundamental ) duration , analogous to the overtone series , ( 3 ) musical application of the concept of the partial field ( time fields and field sizes ) in both successive and simultaneous proportions , ( 4 ) methods of projecting large @-@ scale form from a series of proportions , ( 5 ) the concept of " statistical " composition , ( 6 ) the concept of " action duration " and the associated " variable form " , and ( 7 ) the notion of the " directionless temporal field " and with it , " polyvalent form " ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 99 – 139 ) .
Other important articles from this period include " Elektronische und Instrumentale Musik " ( " Electronic and Instrumental Music " , 1958 , Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 140 – 51 ; Stockhausen 2004 ) , " Musik im Raum " ( " Music in Space " , 1958 , Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 152 – 75 ) , " Musik und Graphik " ( " Music and Graphics " , 1959 , Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 176 – 88 ) , " Momentform " ( 1960 , Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 189 – 210 ) , " Die Einheit der musikalischen Zeit " ( " The Unity of Musical Time " , 1961 , Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 211 – 21 ; Stockhausen 1962 ) , and " Erfindung und Entdeckung " ( " Invention and Discovery " , 1961 , ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 222 – 58 ) ) , the last summing up the ideas developed up to 1961 . Taken together , these temporal theories
suggested that the entire compositional structure could be conceived as " timbre " : since " the different experienced components such as colour , harmony and melody , meter and rhythm , dynamics , and form correspond to the different segmental ranges of this unified time " [ Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 120 ] , the total musical result at any given compositional level is simply the " spectrum " of a more basic duration — i.e. , its " timbre , " perceived as the overall effect of the overtone structure of that duration , now taken to include not only the " rhythmic " subdivisions of the duration but also their relative " dynamic " strength , " envelope , " etc .
…
Compositionally considered , this produced a change of focus from the individual tone to a whole complex of tones related to one another by virtue of their relation to a " fundamental " — a change that was probably the most important compositional development of the latter part of the 1950s , not only for Stockhausen 's music but for " advanced " music in general . ( Morgan 1975 , 6 )
Some of these ideas , considered from a purely theoretical point of view ( divorced from their context as explanations of particular compositions ) drew significant critical fire ( Backus 1962 , Fokker 1968 , Perle 1960 ) . For this reason , Stockhausen ceased publishing such articles for a number of years , as he felt that " many useless polemics " about these texts had arisen , and he preferred to concentrate his attention on composing ( Stockhausen Texte , 4 : 13 ) .
Through the 1960s , although he taught and lectured publicly ( Stockhausen Texte , 3 : 196 – 211 ) , Stockhausen published little of an analytical or theoretical nature . Only in 1970 did he again begin publishing theoretical articles , with " Kriterien " , the abstract for his six seminar lectures for the Darmstädter Ferienkurse ( Stockhausen ' Texte , 3 : 222 – 29 ) . The seminars themselves , covering seven topics ( " Micro- and Macro @-@ Continuum " , " Collage and Metacollage " , " Expansion of the Scale of Tempos " , " Feedback " , " Spectral Harmony — Formant Modulation " , " Expansion of Dynamics — A Principle of Mikrophonie I " , and " Space Music — Spatial Forming and Notation " ) were published only posthumously ( Stockhausen 2009 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Musical influence = = =
Stockhausen 's two early Electronic Studies ( especially the second ) had a powerful influence on the subsequent development of electronic music in the 1950s and 1960s , particularly in the work of the Italian Franco Evangelisti and the Poles Andrzej Dobrowolski and Włodzimierz Kotoński ( Skowron 1981 , 39 ) . The influence of his Kontra @-@ Punkte , Zeitmasse and Gruppen may be seen in the work of many composers , including Igor Stravinsky 's Threni ( 1957 – 58 ) and Movements for piano and orchestra ( 1958 – 59 ) and other works up to the Variations : Aldous Huxley In Memoriam ( 1963 – 64 ) , whose rhythms " are likely to have been inspired , at least in part , by certain passages from Stockhausen 's Gruppen " ( Neidhöfer 2005 , 340 ) . Though music of Stockhausen 's generation may seem an unlikely influence , Stravinsky said in a 1957 conversation :
I have all around me the spectacle of composers who , after their generation has had its decade of influence and fashion , seal themselves off from further development and from the next generation ( as I say this , exceptions come to mind , Krenek , for instance ) . Of course , it requires greater effort to learn from one 's juniors , and their manners are not invariably good . But when you are seventy @-@ five and your generation has overlapped with four younger ones , it behooves you not to decide in advance " how far composers can go , " but to try to discover whatever new thing it is makes the new generation new . ( Stravinsky and Craft 1980 , 133 )
Amongst British composers , Sir Harrison Birtwistle readily acknowledges the influence of Stockhausen 's Zeitmaße ( especially on his two wind quintets , Refrains and Choruses and Five Distances ) and Gruppen on his work more generally ( Cross 2000 , 48 ; Cross 2001 ; Hall 1984 , 3 , 7 – 8 ; ( Hall 1998 , 99 , 108 ) ; ( Pace 1996 , 27 ) ) . Brian Ferneyhough says that , although the " technical and speculative innovations " of Klavierstücke I – IV , Kreuzspiel and Kontra @-@ Punkte escaped him on first encounter ( Ferneyhough 1988 ) , they nevertheless produced a " sharp emotion , the result of a beneficial shock engendered by their boldness " ( Ferneyhough 1988 ) and provided " an important source of motivation ( rather than of imitation ) for my own investigations " ( Ferneyhough 1988 ) . While still in school , he became fascinated upon hearing the British première of Gruppen , and
listened many times to the recording of this performance , while trying to penetrate its secrets — how it always seemed to be about to explode , but managed nevertheless to escape unscathed in its core — but scarcely managed to grasp it . Retrospectively , it is clear that from this confusion was born my interest for the formal questions which remain until today . ( Ferneyhough 1988 )
With respect to Stockhausen 's later work , he said ,
I have never subscribed ( whatever the inevitable personal distance ) to the thesis according to which the many transformations of vocabulary characterizing Stockhausen 's development are the obvious sign of his inability to carry out the early vision of strict order that he had in his youth . On the contrary , it seems to me that the constant reconsideration of his premises has led to the maintenance of a remarkably tough thread of historical consciousness which will become clearer with time . . . . I doubt that there has been a single composer of the intervening generation who , even if for a short time , did not see the world of music differently thanks to the work of Stockhausen . ( Ferneyhough 1988 )
In a short essay describing Stockhausen 's influence on his own work , Richard Barrett concludes that " Stockhausen remains the composer whose next work I look forward most to hearing , apart from myself of course " and names as works that have had particular impact on his musical thinking Mantra , Gruppen , Carré , Klavierstück X , Inori , and Jubiläum ( Barrett 1998 ) .
French composer and conductor Pierre Boulez once declared , " Stockhausen is the greatest living composer , and the only one whom I recognize as my peer " ( Anon . 1967 ; Anon . 1971 ) . Boulez also acknowledged the influence of performing Stockhausen 's Zeitmaße on his subsequent development as a conductor ( Boulez 1976 , 79 – 80 ) . Another French composer , Jean @-@ Claude Éloy , regards Stockhausen as the most important composer of the second half of the 20th century , and cites virtually " all his catalog of works " as " a powerful discoveration [ sic ] , and a true revelation " ( Éloy 2008 ) .
Dutch composer Louis Andriessen acknowledged the influence of Stockhausen 's Momente in his pivotal work Contra tempus of 1968 ( Schönberger 2001 ) . German composer Wolfgang Rihm , who studied with Stockhausen , was influenced by Momente , Hymnen , and Inori ( Williams 2006 , 382 ) .
At the Cologne ISCM Festival in 1960 , the Danish composer Per Nørgård heard Stockhausen 's Kontakte as well as pieces by Kagel , Boulez , and Berio . He was profoundly affected by what he heard and his music suddenly changed into " a far more discontinuous and disjunct style , involving elements of strict organization in all parameters , some degree of aleatoricism and controlled improvisation , together with an interest in collage from other musics " ( Anderson 2001 ) .
Jazz musicians such as Miles Davis ( Bergstein 1992 ) , Cecil Taylor , Charles Mingus , Herbie Hancock , Yusef Lateef ( Feather 1964 ; Tsahar 2006 ) , and Anthony Braxton ( Radano 1993 , 110 ) cite Stockhausen as an influence .
Stockhausen was influential within pop and rock music as well . Frank Zappa acknowledges Stockhausen in the liner notes of Freak Out ! , his 1966 debut with The Mothers of Invention . On the back of The Who 's second LP released in the US , " Happy Jack " , their primary composer and guitarist Pete Townshend , is said to have " an interest in Stockhausen " . Rick Wright and Roger Waters of Pink Floyd also acknowledge Stockhausen as an influence ( Macon 1997 , 141 ; Bayles 1996 , 222 ) . San Francisco psychedelic groups Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead are said to have done the same ( Prendergast 2000 , 54 ) ; Stockhausen himself says the former band included students of Luciano Berio , and the Grateful Dead were " well orientated toward new music " ( Stockhausen Texte , 4 : 505 ) . Founding members of Cologne @-@ based experimental band Can , Irmin Schmidt and Holger Czukay , both studied with Stockhausen at the Cologne Courses for New Music ( Stockhausen Texte , 3 : 196 , 198 , 200 ) . German electronic pioneers Kraftwerk also say they studied with Stockhausen ( Flur 2003 , 228 ) , and Icelandic vocalist Björk has acknowledged Stockhausen 's influence ( Heuger 1998 , 15 ; Björk 1996 ; Ross 2004 , 53 & 55 ) .
= = = Wider cultural renown = = =
Stockhausen , along with John Cage , is one of the few avant @-@ garde composers to have succeeded in penetrating the popular consciousness ( Anon . 2007b ; Broyles 2004 ; Hewett 2007 ) . The Beatles included his face on the cover of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( Guy and Llewelyn @-@ Jones 2004 , 111 ) . This reflects his influence on the band 's own avant @-@ garde experiments as well as the general fame and notoriety he had achieved by that time ( 1967 ) . In particular , " A Day in the Life " ( 1967 ) and " Revolution 9 " ( 1968 ) were influenced by Stockhausen 's electronic music ( Aldgate , Chapman , and Marwick 2000 , 146 ; MacDonald 1995 , 233 – 34 ) . Stockhausen 's name , and the perceived strangeness and supposed unlistenability of his music , was even a punchline in cartoons , as documented on a page on the official Stockhausen web site ( Stockhausen Cartoons ) . Perhaps the most caustic remark about Stockhausen was attributed to Sir Thomas Beecham . Asked " Have you heard any Stockhausen ? " , he is alleged to have replied , " No , but I believe I have trodden in some " ( Lebrecht 1983 , 334 , annotated on 366 : " Apocryphal ; source unknown " ) .
Stockhausen 's fame is also reflected in works of literature . For example , he is mentioned in Philip K. Dick 's 1974 novel Flow My Tears , the Policeman Said ( Dick 1993 , 101 ) and in Thomas Pynchon 's 1966 novel The Crying of Lot 49 . The Pynchon novel features " The Scope " , a bar with " a strict electronic music policy " . Protagonist Oedipa Maas asks " a hip graybeard " about a " sudden chorus of whoops and yibbles " coming out of " a kind of jukebox . " He replies , " That 's by Stockhausen ... the early crowd tends to dig your Radio Cologne sound . Later on we really swing " ( Pynchon 1999 , 34 ) .
The French writer Michel Butor acknowledges that Stockhausen 's music " taught me a lot " , mentioning in particular the electronic works Gesang der Jünglinge and Hymnen ( Santschi 1982 , 204 ) .
Later in his life , Stockhausen was portrayed by at least one journalist , John O 'Mahony of the Guardian newspaper , as an eccentric , for example being alleged to live an effectively polygamous lifestyle with two women , to whom O 'Mahoney referred as his " wives " , while at the same time stating he was not married to either of them ( O 'Mahoney 2001 ) . In the same article , O 'Mahony claims Stockhausen said he was born on a planet orbiting the star Sirius . In the German newspaper Die Zeit , Stockhausen stated that he was educated at Sirius ( see Controversy below ) .
= = = Criticism = = =
Robin Maconie finds that , " Compared to the work of his contemporaries , Stockhausen 's music has a depth and rational integrity that is quite outstanding ... His researches , initially guided by Meyer @-@ Eppler , have a coherence unlike any other composer then or since " ( Maconie 1989 , 177 – 78 ) . Maconie also compares Stockhausen to Beethoven : " If a genius is someone whose ideas survive all attempts at explanation , then by that definition Stockhausen is the nearest thing to Beethoven this century has produced . Reason ? His music lasts " ( Maconie 1988 ) , and " As Stravinsky said , one never thinks of Beethoven as a superb orchestrator because the quality of invention transcends mere craftsmanship . It is the same with Stockhausen : the intensity of imagination gives rise to musical impressions of an elemental and seemingly unfathomable beauty , arising from necessity rather than conscious design " ( Maconie 1989 , 178 ) .
Christopher Ballantine , while comparing and contrasting the categories of experimental and avant @-@ garde music , concludes that
Perhaps more than any other contemporary composer , Stockhausen exists at the point where the dialectic between experimental and avant @-@ garde music becomes manifest ; it is in him , more obviously than anywhere else , that these diverse approaches converge . This alone would seem to suggest his remarkable significance . ( Ballantine 1977 , 244 )
Igor Stravinsky expressed great , but not uncritical , enthusiasm for Stockhausen 's music in the conversation books with Robert Craft ( e.g. , Craft and Stravinsky 1960 , 118 ) and for years organised private listening sessions with friends in his home where he played tapes of Stockhausen 's latest works ( Stravinsky 1984 , 356 ; Craft 2002 , 141 ) . In an interview published in March 1968 , however , he says of an unidentified person ,
I have been listening all week to the piano music of a composer now greatly esteemed for his ability to stay an hour or so ahead of his time , but I find the alternation of note @-@ clumps and silences of which it consists more monotonous than the foursquares of the dullest eighteenth @-@ century music . ( [ Craft ] 1968 , 4 )
The following October , a report in Sovetskaia Muzyka ( Anon . 1968 ) translated this sentence ( and a few others from the same article ) into Russian , substituting for the conjunction " but " the phrase " Ia imeiu v vidu Karlkheintsa Shtokkhauzena " ( " I am referring to Karlheinz Stockhausen " ) . When this translation was quoted in Druskin 's Stravinsky biography , the field was widened to all of Stockhausen 's compositions and Druskin adds for good measure , " indeed , works he calls unnecessary , useless and uninteresting " , again quoting from the same Sovetskaia Muzyka article , even though it had made plain that the characterization was of American " university composers " ( Druskin 1974 , 207 ) .
Early in 1995 , BBC Radio 3 sent Stockhausen a package of recordings from contemporary artists Aphex Twin , Richie Hawtin ( Plastikman ) , Scanner and Daniel Pemberton , and asked him for his opinion on the music . In August of that year , Radio 3 reporter Dick Witts interviewed Stockhausen about these pieces for a broadcast in October , subsequently published in the November issue of the British publication The Wire asking what advice he would give these young musicians . Stockhausen made suggestions to each of the musicians , who were then invited to respond . All but Plastikman obliged ( Witts 1995 ) .
= = = Controversy = = =
Throughout his career , Stockhausen excited controversy . One reason for this is that his music displays high expectations about " shaping and transforming the world , about the truth of life and of reality , about the creative departure into a future determined by spirit , " so that Stockhausen 's work " like no other in the history of new music , has a polarizing effect , arouses passion , and provokes drastic opposition , even hatred " ( Ulrich 2001 , 25 ) . Another reason was acknowledged by Stockhausen himself in a reply to a question during an interview on the Bavarian Radio on 4 September 1960 , reprinted as a foreword to his first collection of writings :
I have often been reproached — especially recently — for being too candid , and through this making not a few enemies for myself — being undiplomatic . … It must be admitted : I am not gifted as an esotericist , not as a mystic or a hermit , and not as a diplomat ; it corresponds that my love of my fellow humans expresses itself in candour … I hope my enemies will not on this account destroy me ; I also hope my enemies find forms of retort that I can find richly fanciful , witty , pertinent , instructive — that grant me respect through a noble and truly humane form of enmity . ( Stockhausen Texte , 1 : 12 – 13 )
After the student revolts in 1968 , musical life in Germany became highly politicized , and Stockhausen found himself a target for criticism , especially from the leftist camp who wanted music " in the service of the class struggle " . Cornelius Cardew and Konrad Boehmer denounced their former teacher as a " servant of capitalism " . In a climate where music mattered less than political ideology , some critics held that Stockhausen was too élitist , while others complained he was too mystical ( Kurtz 1992 , 188 – 89 ) .
= = = = Scandal at the Fresco premiere = = = =
As reported in the German magazine Der Spiegel , the première ( and only performance to date ) on 15 November 1969 of Stockhausen 's work Fresco for four orchestral groups ( playing in four different locations ) was the scene of a scandal . The rehearsals were already marked by objections from the orchestral musicians questioning such directions as " glissandos no faster than one octave per minute " and others phoning the artists union to clarify whether they really had to perform the Stockhausen work as part of the orchestra . In the backstage warm @-@ up room at the premiere a hand @-@ lettered sign could be seen saying : " We 're playing , otherwise we would be fired " . During the première the parts on some music stands suddenly were replaced by placards reading things like " Stockhausen @-@ Zoo . Please don 't feed " , that someone had planted . Some musicians , fed up with the monkeyshines , left after an hour , though the performance was planned for four to five hours . Stockhausen fans protested , while Stockhausen foes were needling the musicians asking : " How can you possibly participate in such crap ? " ( " Wie könnt ihr bloß so eine Scheiße machen ! " ) . At one point someone managed to switch off the stand lights , leaving the musicians in the dark . After 260 minutes the performance ended with nobody participating any more ( Anon . 1969 ) .
= = = = Sirius star system = = = =
In an obituary in the German newspaper Die Zeit , Karlheinz Stockhausen was quoted as having said :
I was educated at Sirius and want to return to there , although I am still living in Kürten near Cologne . ( Reier 2007 )
On hearing about this , conductor Michael Gielen stated : " When he said he knew what was happening at Sirius , I turned away from him in horror . I haven 't listened to a note since " , and called Stockhausen 's statements " hubris " and " nonsense " , while at the same time defending his own belief in astrology : " Why should these large celestial bodies exist if they do not stand for something ? I cannot imagine that there is anything senseless in the universe . There is much we do not understand " ( Hagedorn 2010 ) .
= = = = September 11 attacks = = = =
In a press conference in Hamburg on 16 September 2001 , Stockhausen was asked by a journalist whether the characters in Licht were for him " merely some figures out of a common cultural history " or rather " material appearances " . The composer replied , " I pray daily to Michael , but not to Lucifer . I have renounced him . But he is very much present , like in New York recently " ( Stockhausen 2002 , 76 ) . The same journalist then asked how the events of 11 September had affected him , and how he viewed reports of the attack in connection with the harmony of humanity represented in Hymnen . He answered :
Well , what happened there is , of course — now all of you must adjust your brains — the biggest work of art there has ever been . The fact that spirits achieve with one act something which we in music could never dream of , that people practise ten years madly , fanatically for a concert . And then die . [ Hesitantly . ] And that is the greatest work of art that exists for the whole Cosmos . Just imagine what happened there . There are people who are so concentrated on this single performance , and then five thousand people are driven to Resurrection . In one moment . I couldn 't do that . Compared to that , we are nothing , as composers . [ ... ] It is a crime , you know of course , because the people did not agree to it . They did not come to the " concert " . That is obvious . And nobody had told them : " You could be killed in the process . " ( Stockhausen 2002 , 76 – 77 )
( To see how the excerpt appeared out of its context , and in English translation , see Tommasini 2001 . For a translation of a larger context of the exchange , see Hänggi 2011 . The full text of the press conference , in German , is printed as Stockhausen 2002 . )
As a result of the reaction to the press report of Stockhausen 's comments , a four @-@ day festival of his work in Hamburg was canceled . In addition , his pianist daughter announced to the press that she would no longer appear under the name " Stockhausen " ( Lentricchia and McAuliffe 2003 , 7 ) .
In a subsequent message , he stated that the press had published " false , defamatory reports " about his comments , and clarified as follows :
At the press conference in Hamburg , I was asked if Michael , Eve and Lucifer were historical figures of the past and I answered that they exist now , for example Lucifer in New York . In my work , I have defined Lucifer as the cosmic spirit of rebellion , of anarchy . He uses his high degree of intelligence to destroy creation . He does not know love . After further questions about the events in America , I said that such a plan appeared to be Lucifer 's greatest work of art . Of course I used the designation " work of art " to mean the work of destruction personified in Lucifer . In the context of my other comments this was unequivocal . ( Stockhausen 2001a )
= = Honours = =
Amongst the numerous honours and distinctions that were bestowed upon Stockhausen are :
1964 German gramophone critics award ;
1966 and 1972 SIMC award for orchestral works ( Italy ) ;
1968 Grand Art Prize for Music of the State of North Rhine @-@ Westphalia ; Grand Prix du Disque ( France ) ; Member of the Free Academy of the Arts , Hamburg ;
1968 , 1969 , and 1971 Edison Prize ( Netherlands ) ;
1970 Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music ;
1973 Member of the Academy of Arts , Berlin ;
1974 Federal Cross of Merit , 1st class ( Germany ) ;
1977 Member of the Philharmonic Academy of Rome ;
1979 Member of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters ;
1980 Member of the European Academy of Science , Arts and Letters ;
1981 Prize of the Italian music critics for Donnerstag aus Licht ;
1982 German gramophone prize ( German Phonograph Academy ) ;
1983 Diapason d 'or ( France ) for Donnerstag aus Licht ;
1985 Commandeur de l 'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres ( France ) ;
1986 Ernst von Siemens Music Prize ;
1987 Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music , London ;
1988 Honorary Citizen of the Kuerten community ( Gemeinde Kürten website ( archive from 10 December 2008 ; accessed 18 March 2016 ) ) ;
1989 Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences ;
1990 Prix Ars Electronica , Linz , Austria ;
1991 Honorary Fellow of the Royal Irish Academy of Music ; Accademico Onorario of the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Caecilia , Rome ; Honorary Patron of Sound Projects Weimar ;
1992 IMC @-@ UNESCO Picasso Medal ; Distinguished Service Medal of the German state North Rhine @-@ Westphalia ; German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Luzifers Tanz ( 3rd scene of Saturday from Light ) ;
1993 Patron of the European Flute Festival ; Diapason d 'or for Klavierstücke I – XI and Mikrophonie I and II ;
1994 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score Jahreslauf ( Act 1 of Tuesday from Light ) ;
1995 Honorary Member of the German Society for Electro @-@ Acoustic Music ; Bach Award of the city of Hamburg ;
1996 Honorary doctorate ( Dr. phil. h. c . ) of the Free University of Berlin ; Composer of the European Cultural Capital Copenhagen ; Edison Prize ( Netherlands ) for Mantra ; Member of the Free Academy of the Arts Leipzig ; Honorary Member of the Leipzig Opera ; Cologne Culture Prize ;
1997 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Weltparlament ( 1st scene of Wednesday from Light ) ; Honorary member of the music ensemble LIM ( Laboratorio de Interpretación Musical ) , Madrid ;
1999 Entry in the Golden Book of the city of Cologne ;
2000 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Evas Erstgeburt ( Act 1 of Monday from Light ) ;
2000 – 2001 The film In Absentia made by the Quay Brothers ( England ) to concrete and electronic music by Karlheinz Stockhausen won the Golden Dove ( first prize ) at the International Festival for Animated Film in Leipzig . More awards : Special Jury Mention , Montreal , FCMM 2000 ; Special Jury Award , Tampere 2000 ; Special Mention , Golden Prague Awards 2001 ; Honorary Diploma Award , Cracow 2001 ; Best Animated Short Film , 50th Melbourne International Film Festival 2001 ; Grand Prix , Turku Finland 2001 ;
2001 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score Helicopter String Quartet ( 3rd scene of Wednesday from Light ) ; Polar Music Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of the Arts ;
2002 Honorary Patron of the Sonic Arts Network , England ;
2003 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Michaelion ( 4th scene of Wednesday from Light ) ;
2004 Associated member of the Academie Royale des Sciences , des Lettres & des Beaux @-@ arts ( Belgium ) ; Honorary doctorate ( Dr. phil. h. c . ) of the Queen 's University in Belfast ; German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Stop and Start for 6 instrumental groups ;
2005 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Hoch @-@ Zeiten for choir ( 5th scene of Sunday from Light ) .
2006 Honorary member of the Accademia Filarmonica di Bologna
2008 On 22 August , Stockhausen 's birthday , the Rathausplatz in his home town of Kürten was renamed Karlheinz @-@ Stockhausen @-@ Platz in his honour ( Bäumer 2008 ) .
2008 On 10 October , the Studio for Electronic Music of the Royal Conservatory of The Hague in the Netherlands changed its name to Karlheinz Stockhausen Studio .
2009 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of Momente for solo soprano , four choral groups , and 13 instrumentalists .
2010 The municipality of Kürten adopts the designation " Stockhausengemeinde " in honour of the late composer ( Landschoof 2010 ) .
= = Notable students = =
|
= Battle of Chochiwon =
The Battle of Chochiwon was an early engagement between United States and North Korean forces during the Korean War , taking place in the villages of Chonui and Chochiwon in western South Korea on July 10 – 12 , 1950 . After three days of intense fighting , the battle ended in a North Korean victory .
The United States Army 's 21st Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division was assigned to delay two advancing North Korean People 's Army divisions following communist victories at Osan , Pyongtaek , and Chonan earlier in the month . The regiment deployed along roads and railroads in between the two villages , attempting to slow the advance as much as possible .
Aided by air strikes , U.S. Army units were able to inflict substantial damage on the North Korean armor and other vehicles , but were overwhelmed by North Korean infantry . The two understrength U.S. battalions fought in several engagements over the three @-@ day period and suffered massive losses in personnel and equipment , but were able to delay the North Korean forces for several days , allowing the remainder of the 24th Infantry Division to set up blocking positions along the Kum River near the city of Taejon .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
On the night of June 25 , 1950 , 10 divisions of the North Korean People 's Army launched a full @-@ scale invasion on the nation 's neighbor to the south , the Republic of Korea . Advancing with 89 @,@ 000 men in six columns , the North Koreans caught the South Korean Army by surprise , resulting in a disastrous rout for the South Koreans who were disorganized , ill @-@ equipped , and unprepared for war . Numerically superior , North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance , pushing steadily down the peninsula against the South Koreans who could muster just 38 @,@ 000 men to the front @-@ line to oppose them . The majority of the South Korean forces retreated in the face of the invasion , and by June 28 the North Koreans had captured the capital Seoul , and forced the government and its shattered forces to withdraw further southwards .
Meanwhile , the United Nations Security Council voted to send assistance to the collapsing country and United States President Harry S. Truman subsequently ordered ground troops into the nation . However , U.S. forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier . At the time , the closest force was the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , stationed in Japan under the command of William F. Dean . Tellingly , the division was under strength and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Yet in spite of these deficiencies the division was ordered into South Korea , tasked with taking the initial " shock " of the North Korean advances until the rest of the Eighth Army could arrive and establish a defense .
= = = Early engagements = = =
The plan was to airlift one battalion of the 24th Infantry Division into South Korea via C @-@ 54 Skymaster transport aircraft and quickly block advancing North Korean forces while the remainder of the division was transported on ships . The 21st Infantry Regiment was identified as the most combat @-@ ready of the 24th Infantry Division 's three regiments , and the 21st Infantry 's 1st Battalion was selected because its commander , Lieutenant Colonel Charles B. Smith , was the most experienced , having commanded a battalion at the Battle of Guadalcanal during World War II . On July 5 , Task Force Smith engaged North Korean forces at the Battle of Osan , delaying over 5 @,@ 000 North Korean infantry for seven hours before being routed and forced back .
During that time , the U.S. 34th Infantry Regiment set up a line between the villages of Pyongtaek and Ansong , 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Osan , to fight the next delaying action against the advancing North Korean forces . The 34th Infantry Regiment was similarly unprepared for a fight ; in the ensuing action , most of the regiment withdrew to Chonan without engaging the enemy . The 1st Battalion , left alone against the North Koreans resisted their advance in the brief and disastrous Battle of Pyongtaek . The 34th Infantry was unable to stop North Korean armor . After a 30 @-@ minute fight , the 34th mounted a disorganized retreat in which many soldiers abandoned equipment and retreated without resisting the North Korean forces . The Pyongtaek — Ansong line was unable to delay the North Korean force significantly or inflict heavy casualties on them .
The regiment subsequently retreated to Chonan , where , the next night the 3rd Battalion was heavily engaged in another delaying action . The 34th Infantry lost its commander , Colonel Robert R. Martin as well as two thirds of its 3rd Battalion 's strength . The exhausted 34th Infantry Regiment retreated to the Kum River , near the 24th Infantry Division 's headquarters . The 24th Infantry Division would make one final delaying action before it would be forced to make its final stand around Taejon , the only major defensible city left before the Pusan Perimeter being established by the Eighth Army .
= = Battle = =
Having pushed back U.S. forces at Osan , Pyongtaek , and Chonan , the North Korean 4th Infantry Division , supported by elements of the 105th Armored Division , continued its advance down the Osan — Chonan road , up to 12 @,@ 000 men strong under division commander Lee Kwon Mu in two infantry regiments supported by dozens of tanks . Behind it , the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division had yet to engage the American forces .
= = = Airstrikes = = =
By July 7 , the 21st Infantry Regiment had been established at Chochiwon , one of two roads to the Kum River and Taejon . The regiment was ordered to keep the road through the region open so supplies and ammunition could flow through it to the 34th Infantry Regiment on the front lines . The Americans spent several days unloading supplies from locomotives in the village . After blowing up all bridges north of the town , 1st Battalion was established on the Chochiwon road at Chonui , 12 miles ( 19 km ) south of Chonan . Supporting it were one battery of 155 @-@ mm howitzers from the 11th Field Artillery Battalion and A Company of the 78th Heavy Tank Battalion with M24 Chaffee light tanks , as well as B Company of the 3rd Engineer Combat Battalion which was assigned to construct roadblocks and prepare bridges for demolition .
Around mid @-@ afternoon on July 9 , observers with the 1st Battalion , 21st Infantry spotted a column of 200 vehicles led by 11 North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks , subsequently calling for an airstrike . For the next few hours the U.S. Air Force ravaged the North Korean column with repeated bombings and strafing , and by sunset half of the vehicles were destroyed or burning and a large portion of the infantry had also been killed . The next day , a similar airstrike by B @-@ 26 Invaders , F @-@ 80 and F @-@ 82 Twin Mustang aircraft of the Fifth Air Force took place around Pyongtaek , with 38 North Korean tanks , seven half @-@ tracks and 117 other trucks destroyed , in addition to a large number of infantry . Much of the village of Chonui was left burning , although it had already been abandoned by South Korean soldiers and civilians . In addition , the airstrikes caused some of the largest losses of North Korean armor of the war , and were a major blow against the T @-@ 34 tanks which had been so successful during previous encounters .
= = = Fight at Chonui = = =
Meanwhile , the 1st Battalion , 21st Infantry back at Chonui remained understrength . Half of the force had constituted Task Force Smith at Osan . B and C Companies were thus still refitting at Chochiwon , leaving A and D Companies to hold the line with a handful of replacements to fill the extra positions . The battalion numbered around 500 men in total . The 1st Battalion emplaced on hills overlooking the south road of Chonui , northwest of Chochiwon and prepared to meet and delay the advancing North Korean forces , while the 3rd Battalion emplaced behind it in reserve . Around 0555 on July 10 , the Americans began to detect North Korean movement through the morning fog . Fifteen minutes after daybreak , a whistle blew , immediately followed by small arms fire on the American positions . American forces at first fired indiscriminately into the fog until the regimental commander , Richard W. Stephens , stopped them . At 0700 the 1st Battalion then came under heavy mortar fire , and A Company on the leftmost ridge was assailed with fire from higher ground by North Korean forces of the 4th Infantry Division . The American forces began using 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch mortars on the North Korean positions in order to prevent them from advancing directly on their positions . Around 0800 the fog began to lift , and the Americans spotted four T @-@ 34 tanks in the village and subsequently called for another airstrike .
North Korean forces , meanwhile , flanked the American positions under cover of fog . The Koreans passed around the Americans ' right flank and attacked the mortar positions in the rear . T @-@ 34 tanks also joined in the fight , and also passed around the American flanks while obscured by the fog . Around 0900 the North Korean forces in Chonui initiated a frontal assault on the 1st Battalion , 21st Infantry 's positions . An observer with the unit called in artillery and pushed back the North Korean infantry inflicting heavy casualties on the assaulting force . By 1100 , the North Korean infantry , supported by several T @-@ 34s , was pressing on A Company 's position , which was undermanned . At 1125 the requested airstrike came in ; American aircraft rocketed the T @-@ 34s to no effect while strafing the Korean forces attacking A Company . The aircraft were able to push back the attack for several minutes before running out of ammunition and being forced to leave . The North Korean troops immediately resumed their assault .
One of A Company 's platoons , under the command of Lieutenant Ray Bixler , faced most of the pressure of the North Korean assault . Tank fire had destroyed the American wire communications to their artillery , which began to fall on their own positions in the belief that they had been overrun with North Koreans , before Stephens was able to call it off . In the meantime , at 1135 Bixler 's platoon was surrounded and destroyed , most of the men of the platoon were killed in their foxholes by the North Korean infantry . Following this , men on the right flank began deserting their positions regardless of Stephens ' efforts to keep them there . Finally at 1205 , Stephens ordered his men to withdraw . American forces had great difficulty retreating through the wet rice paddies , and a disorganized retreat followed as they attempted to pull back . During the retreat , several U.S. aircraft returned and , mistaking the soldiers of the 1st Battalion , 21st Infantry for North Koreans , began to strafe them . The aircraft inflicted no casualties , but the battalion overall had suffered 20 percent casualties with 33 killed and 35 wounded during the engagement , as well as 14 killed in the mortar company .
= = = American counterattack = = =
As 1st Battalion retreated , Stephens ordered 3rd Battalion to counterattack the North Koreans on the ridge to regain the position . The American attack was aggressive and 3rd Battalion was able to regain most of the ground , rescuing 10 Americans captured in the first attack in the process . During the attack , the 3rd Battalion uncovered evidence of North Korean war crimes ; six men from 1st Battalion 's heavy mortar company were discovered executed , with their hands tied behind their backs . Several M24 Chaffee light tanks , newly arrived from Pusan , were brought in 3rd Battalion 's assault , the first use of U.S. armor in the war . The M24s disabled a T @-@ 34 while suffering two destroyed throughout the day . During this time , the North Korean 4th Division pressed on south , bypassing Chonui to the west . Following it was the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division , one day behind , granting the Americans time to rest and prepare new defenses . The 3rd Battalion held the position until just before 2400 , when it withdrew to its previous position with most of the equipment that had been lost by 1st Battalion earlier in the day . At that position , the men discovered North Korean forces occupying its old foxholes , and K Company engaged in a one @-@ hour firefight to drive them off . Meanwhile , 1st Battalion withdrew south to new blocking positions 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) outside of Chochiwon .
At 0630 on July 11 , four T @-@ 34s advanced on 3rd Battalion 's position , passing through a minefield without suffering any casualties . Following the tanks , about 1 @,@ 000 North Korean infantry of the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division conducted a double envelopment of the battalion , setting up roadblocks in its rear to prevent resupply and evacuation of wounded . Simultaneously , heavy mortar fire struck the battalion 's command post , destroying its communications center and ammunition stocks , and inflicting heavy casualties . American forward observers were unable to communicate with the artillery due to the lack of communications equipment . The attack by the North Koreans was well coordinated , and it is likely that North Korean forces driven from the position in the night had been able to gather intelligence about the battalion 's position . In the ensuing fight , American forces were overwhelmed again , fighting in desperate hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat .
North Korean machine guns continued to assault the American lines , and Americans who had expended their ammunition were forced to use their weapons as clubs . Of 667 men in 3rd Battalion , over 60 percent became casualties , including the battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel Carl Jensen , and much of the battalion staff . Shattered , 3rd Battalion was forced to withdraw in small groups , many of its soldiers already captured or forced to escape on foot through the countryside back to American lines . Most of the retreating men were also captured . Remaining soldiers formed a provisional company of 150 for the retreat . In total 90 percent of the battalion 's equipment , including weapons and helmets , was lost . Another four of the M24 tanks were also destroyed without disabling any of the North Korean T34s .
= = = Chochiwon falls = = =
Under Smith , 1st Battalion emplaced on hills overlooking the road into Chochiwon , resting the night of July 11 with no contact from the North Koreans until the next day . Just after dawn on July 12 , the American battalion first encountered North Korean patrols followed by an attack on their left flank by a North Korean force estimated as battalion sized at 0930 . Soon afterward , some 2 @,@ 000 North Koreans began a direct assault on 1st Battalion 's position , supported by heavy artillery . Stephens decided the understrength battalion , with its large percentage of replacements , could not hold its position long and ordered it to withdraw . Smith subsequently moved the battalion from the line one company at a time and the retreat was orderly . By nightfall , the entire regiment had moved by truck to a blocking position at Taepyong @-@ ni , across the Kum River close to Taejon . In the meantime , U.S. forces on the westerly Kongju road fought a series of minor engagements to delay North Korean forces traveling down that road before retreating across the Kum river .
= = Aftermath = =
The U.S. 21st Infantry Regiment suffered 228 killed , 61 wounded , 215 captured , and 27 missing in the battle ; a total of 531 casualties . Of those , 130 of the captured and 20 of the missing died . Additionally , 23 other American units engaged in the region suffered 31 killed , 79 wounded , 15 captured and 9 missing ; in total a further 134 casualties . This brought the total number of casualties for the three @-@ day period to 665 and made Chochiwon the bloodiest battle for American forces yet in the conflict ; greater than the casualty counts at Osan , Pyongtaek and Chonan combined . The loss of materiel was also great with the 21st Infantry Regiment losing enough equipment and materiel to outfit two rifle battalions , and enough clothing to equip 975 men . Against these losses North Korean casualties could not be estimated due to a lack of communication among fighting units , which limited the value of American signals intelligence .
Despite these losses the U.S. 21st Infantry Regiment was praised for its efforts to defend Chochiwon and Chonui . Roy Appleman , a historian for the U.S. Army called it " the most impressive performance yet of American troops in Korea . " Indeed , the regiment was able to successfully delay North Korean forces for three days in the fighting , despite suffering heavily in casualties and equipment losses , and in doing so the action bought enough time for the rest of the 24th Infantry Division to set up defenses around Taejon . The 21st Infantry Regiment subsequently joined the 34th Infantry Regiment and the 19th Infantry Regiment in setting up positions along the Kum River near Taejon , and the entire 24th Infantry Division would make its stand there during the Battle of Taejon over the next week . In that fight , the division would be overrun and forced to retreat again . However , the delaying actions of the division would give the U.S. forces in Pusan time to set up the Pusan Perimeter , where the North Korean and UN forces would fight for several months in the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , eventually defeating the North Korean Army .
|
= Georgina Kenaghan =
Georgina Kenaghan ( born 1984 ) is an Australian goalball coach and psychologist . She won the 2012 NSW / ACT Inspiration Medal in the Pride of Australia Awards . As the coach of the Australia women 's national goalball team , she led the team at the 2010 World Championships in Great Britain , the first time the national team had competed internationally in three years . She coached the team at the 2011 IBSA Goalball Continental Championships and Paralympic Qualifier , and was the national team coach for Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics , where the team did not win a single game .
= = Personal = =
Kenaghan is a psychologist but took leave from her job to prepare for the 2012 Paralympics when she was 28 years old . Her father is Terry Kenaghan , the man who helped bring goalball to Australia in 1980 . In 2012 , Peter Corr nominated her for an Inspiration Medal in the Pride of Australia Awards . She won the NSW / ACT Award . Her father accepted the award on her behalf as she was in London at the time , coaching the national team .
= = Goalball = =
Kenaghan coaches the Australia women 's national goalball team . The Daily Telegraph called her " one of Australia 's most successful sports coaches " .
She coached the team at the 2010 World Championships in Great Britain , the first time the national team had played in three years . In 2011 , she represented goalball as part of a " Come & Try Day " sporting event in Western Australia . She used the 2011 Australian National Goalball competition as an opportunity to evaluate national team players . In 2011 , she coached the Australian side at the IBSA Goalball Continental Championships and Paralympic Qualifier and guided the team to a 6 @-@ 2 win over the New Zealand women 's national goalball team to secure Paralympic qualification . She coached the team in their win against Israel that was part of the competition .
Kenaghan was the head coach of the Aussie Belles going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics . The team qualifying for the Games was a surprise as the Australian Paralympic Committee had been working on player development with an idea of the team qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics . An Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics when they earned an automatic selection as hosts and the team finished last in the competition . The country has not medalled in the event since 1976 . Players she coached on the national team included Meica Christensen . Her team lost all three games and did not advance out of the group stage . In the team 's game against Canada , she substituted players in order to improve the team 's chance of winning .
|
= Pillars of Eternity =
Pillars of Eternity is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Paradox Interactive . It was released for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux on March 26 , 2015 . The game is a spiritual successor to the Baldur 's Gate and Icewind Dale series , along with Planescape : Torment . Obsidian started a crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter for it in September 2012 . The campaign raised over US $ 4 million , which was the highest funded video game at the time . The game uses the Unity engine .
The game takes place in the fantasy world of Eora , mainly inside the nation of Dyrwood . The infants in the Dyrwood are plagued by a recent phenomenon in which they become " hollowborn " upon birth , meaning they are born with no soul . During the beginning of the game , the protagonist experiences an awakening of power due to a disastrous supernatural event , discovering they are a " Watcher " : a person who can see past lives and interact with souls . The objective of the game is to find out what caused their awakening and how to solve the hollowborn problem .
Pillars of Eternity received critical acclaim upon its release ; many critics praised the game for its world and immersive writing , along with the strategic combat , and also said that it is a worthy successor to the games it was inspired by . The game also won various awards and accolades , including best RPG of 2015 . A two @-@ part expansion pack , Pillars of Eternity : The White March was released in August 2015 and February 2016 , respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
Pillars of Eternity is a role @-@ playing game that features a party @-@ based real @-@ time @-@ with @-@ pause tactical gameplay , fixed isometric user interface for the game @-@ world with two @-@ dimensional pre @-@ rendered backdrops , in a similar vein as its spiritual predecessors Baldur 's Gate , Icewind Dale series and Planescape : Torment . As the player 's characters explore an area map , it is unveiled . There is a fog of war effect on areas the player has already explored and has moved away from . The character classes and game mechanics are similar to Dungeons & Dragons , but are a proprietary system created for the game . The game does not reward experience points for killing enemies , but for completing quests and discovering new areas .
The game starts with a character creation screen where the player can choose items for their playable character , such as their physical appearance , race and creed . The player can choose to play as one of the eleven available classes : fighter , barbarian , paladin , ranger , wizard , druid , monk , priest , rogue , chanter and cipher . Each of them make the gameplay different ; for example , the cipher can use the soul of an enemy in order to attack them , and druids can shapeshift into a beast and cast spells . The protagonist 's class can also influence the number of available dialogue options . The player may adventure with up to five other characters out of a total of eight that they can pick up on their travels . These are fleshed out characters with unique personalities and appearances . Additionally , the protagonist can hire party members which the player creates in local taverns , but at a monetary cost .
The game has optional side quests that do not advance the main plot , which feature fleshed out supporting characters and multiple outcomes . According to a writer for Digital Spy , most of these are not " fetch quests " . During the game , the protagonist can build up a reputation depending on their actions . Non @-@ playable characters will react differently to him or her depending on this , and it can also affect the outcome of certain events in the game . The game features a scouting mode in which the party can sneak , which allows the player to avoid being seen by enemies . During scouting , the party can spot hidden items and traps , which the player can disarm and use against enemies .
Damage from enemies to the player 's characters affect an endurance and health pool . While endurance regenerates after combat , health can only be restored by resting . The party can either set up camp , or rest in an inn . If a character in the party have their endurance drained , they are knocked out until the end of combat . If a companion has their health reduced to zero then they become permanently dead .
The player can choose from five skills to beat situations : Stealth , Athletics , Lore , Mechanics and Survival . As the player fights more creatures , then more information is added to their bestiary . This helps the player to find out information about how to attack them effectively . Early in the game , the protagonist will take over a stronghold , that acts as the party 's fortress which can be upgraded .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting = = =
The story takes place in the world of Eora , in a region placed in the southern hemisphere called the Eastern Reach , an area roughly the size of Spain . The Eastern Reach contains several nations , including the Free Palatinate of Dyrwood – a former colony of the mighty Aedyr Empire that won its independence through a revolutionary war – the Vailian Republics – a confederation of sovereign city @-@ states – and the Penitential Regency of Readceras – a quasi @-@ theocratic state ruled by priests of the god Eothas .
Technologically and socially , most of the civilizations in Eora are in what roughly corresponds to the early stages of the Renaissance . Firearms are still a relatively new invention and are quite cumbersome to use , and as a result their use is not very widespread . They have , however , proven quite effective against magic users .
A factor of great conflict all over Eora is the recent scientific discovery that souls are not mere metaphysical abstractions , but quantifiable , measurable objects that can be transferred , stored , or molded . Souls are the basis of magic , as accessing their power is what allows certain people to use it . Souls leave the body upon death , and go through a largely unknown process before reincarnating into a newborn body . Every soul does , however , have embedded memories from their previous lives , and through certain processes a person 's soul can be " Awakened " , meaning they gain awareness of these past lives . Though the study of souls , called Animancy , is still a young field of science , the implications for society at large has been vast , and lead to rapid advances in technology and caused several rifts and clashes in the different religious communities , which has marked the era as a time of great turmoil .
= = = Characters = = =
The player character can be male or female and one of six available races , and the game typically refers to him or her as " The Watcher " . Over the course of the adventure , the player can recruit up to eight secondary characters as companions . Available companions include : Edér , a fighter and worshiper of one of the game 's gods , Eothas ; Aloth , a wizard and child of parents who served nobility ; Durance , a priest and follower of Magran , a goddess of war and fire ; Sagani , a ranger who is on a quest to search for an elder from her village ; Grieving Mother , a strange cipher who can not normally be fully seen by other people , and has a personal connection to the hollowborn problem ; Pallegina , a paladin who works for the Vailian Republics ; Kana Rua , a chanter who was sent by his people to recover a book of sacred text ; and Hiravias , a druid who has been banished from his tribe .
= = = Plot = = =
The player is a foreigner who arrives in the Dyrwood . Their caravan is hit by a mysterious storm that kills everyone but them . Taking refuge in a cave , the player character witnesses some cultists perform a ritual on a machine that can strip souls from their bodies . Exposed to these energies , the player character becomes a Watcher , a person able to read souls . The player character also becomes Awakened , able to access memories of their past lives . This curses the Watcher with waking visions and an inability to sleep . In time , the Watcher will go mad from this , so they set out to track down the cultists and reverse the curse .
Dyrwood is cursed by the Hollowborn Plague : children are being born without souls , leaving them unresponsive like vegetables . Many people blame animancers , the scientists who study and manipulate souls . Investigating the curse , the Watcher discovers that the Hollowborns ' souls have in fact been stolen by a cult known as the Leaden Key , led by a priest named Thaos , and that Thaos is framing animancers for the Plague . This campaign culminates in a riot where animancers are lynched and their college is destroyed .
The Watcher and his companions pursue Thaos to Twin Elms , where they finally learn the truth behind Thaos ' actions . The gods are synthetic beings created by ancient animancers to serve as a civilizing force for the world . Thaos is the last survivor of their order , and his eternal mission is to ensure that nobody ever discovers the gods ' secret . To this end , he works to discredit and suppress animancy wherever it flourishes . He stole the souls of the Hollowborn to empower the goddess Woedica , who hates animancy and would see it destroyed . Though the other gods have an interest in protecting their secret , they do not want Woedica to dominate them , and so aid the Watcher in confronting Thaos .
The Watcher slays Thaos in his lair . The ending varies depending on the Watcher 's choices in the game .
= = Development = =
Pillars of Eternity was developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Paradox Interactive . The game uses a modified version of the Unity game engine made specifically for Pillars of Eternity . The game was directed by Josh Sawyer . There were multiple competing pitches for Pillars of Eternity 's storyline within the studio , and the one worked on by Eric Fenstermaker and George Ziets ultimately won , after which Fenstermaker , who previously worked as a writer on the company 's Fallout : New Vegas , was designated the game 's lead narrative designer . Also involved in production are Adam Brennecke , Chris Avellone and Tim Cain . The audio director of Pillars of Eternity is Justin Bell , who also composed the game . Bell stated he was inspired by the music of Baldur 's Gate and Icewind Dale when composing the game 's music .
On September 10 , 2012 , Obsidian 's webpage began teasing about a brand new game ( entitled " Project X " ) , it initially was a number 4 encircled by an Ouroboros . The next day it was revealed to be a countdown . On September 14 , 2012 , the Kickstarter campaign went live revealing further details of the project . It completed its 1 @.@ 1 million dollars objective in just over 24 hours , and the first set of " stretch goals " were announced . Pillars of Eternity surpassed the $ 1 @.@ 6 million mark five days after the fund @-@ raising began . It was announced an OS X version of the game would be provided together with a DRM @-@ free option through GOG.com. A Linux version was announced on September 21 , 2012 . It passed the $ 2 million mark on September 26 , 2012 . On October 8 , 2012 , it was announced that Wasteland 2 would be offered to backers who pledged US $ 165 ( and above ) . In the last day of the campaign , Pillars of Eternity surpassed Double Fine Adventure as Kickstarter 's most @-@ funded videogame at the time .
Feargus Urquhart , Obsidian 's CEO , explained why they chose to use a crowd funding model for Pillars of Eternity instead of the traditional developer and publisher arrangement : " What Kickstarter does is let us make a game that is absolutely reminiscent of those great games , since trying to get that funded through a traditional publisher would be next to impossible . " In an interview , Josh Sawyer said that being free of the limitations of a publisher would enable them to " delve into more mature subject matter [ ... ] slavery , hostile prejudice ( racial , cultural , spiritual , sexual ) , drug use and trade , and so on will all help flesh out the story " . Obsidian was said to be inspired by InXile Entertainment 's success of using Kickstarter to fund Wasteland 2 . Chris Avellone said during the project 's announcement that if the campaign were to succeed , Pillars of Eternity would become a franchise . He also ruled out a possible console port of the game , saying , " Those [ console ] limitations affect RPG mechanics and content more than players may realize ( especially for players who 've never played a PC RPG and realize what 's been lost over the years ) , and often doesn 't add to the RPG experience . " Additionally , he has pledged to write a novella set in the game world .
On October 16 , 2012 , Pillars of Eternity 's Kickstarter funding campaign concluded with a total of $ 3 @,@ 986 @,@ 929 , becoming the most highly funded video game on the Kickstarter platform at the time . Together with further funds collected via PayPal , its budget rose to $ 4 @,@ 163 @,@ 208 . In December 2013 , Obsidian announced that the official title for the game would be Pillars of Eternity , dropping the working title Project Eternity . They also launched a poll asking backers whether or not they would support further fundraising .
In March 2014 , it was announced that Paradox Interactive would publish the game . It was stated that Paradox 's role would be taking care of marketing and distribution of the game , while Obsidian still retains the rights to the intellectual property . On March 11 , 2015 , a preview video of the documentary series , titled Road to Eternity , was released . It has been revealed that the money Obsidian Entertainment raised for the game through its Kickstarter campaign saved it from closure , as it had been suffering from financial problems following its cancellation of a game for the " next @-@ generational consoles " in 2012 .
= = Release = =
On March 17 , 2015 , Obsidian confirmed that Pillars of Eternity went gold , indicating it was being prepared for production and release . The game was released for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux on March 26 , 2015 . Several editions of the game were released , including a Champion Edition which has a campaign almanac , a map of the game , the soundtrack of the game , wallpapers , and ringtones , and a Royal Edition which includes the Champion Edition items along with a strategy guide , concept art , and a novella which was written by Chris Avellone .
= = = Expansion pack = = =
A two @-@ part expansion , Pillars of Eternity : The White March , was announced by Obsidian at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015 . Part I was released on August 25 , 2015 , and Part II was released on February 16 , 2016 . It extended the game , raised the level cap , and added new party members and abilities . Part I and II currently hold a score of 76 % and 79 % on Metacritic respectively , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
= = Reception = =
Pillars of Eternity was met with positive reviews upon its release ; it is currently listed on Metacritic with a score of 89 / 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " according to the site . The Escapist wrote that while it caters to a nostalgic fan base , it is an " excellent " role @-@ playing game on its own merit , and also said that is the best isometric role @-@ playing game to come out " in years " . PC Gamer said that Obsidian made their best game thus far with Pillars of Eternity , and also wrote that it is a worthy successor to the games it was inspired by . IGN praised the game , saying that it is a representation of what is good about old school role @-@ playing games . Digital Spy lauded Pillars of Eternity , writing that it is a " masterclass in role @-@ playing game development " .
Game Revolution said that Pillars of Eternity 's combat is " deep and engaging " ; similarly , Metro wrote that the combat is " highly complex " . GameSpot said that the combat is the game 's best component , and also gave praise to the battle music . Gameplanet praised the game for its strategic combat and level @-@ based progression . Game Informer noted the combat 's customizability in the game , including the ability to change the difficulty and set options for auto @-@ pausing . However , the review criticized the pathfinding in the game .
Pillars of Eternity 's graphics and artwork were well received . Gameplanet called the art design in the game " excellent " . Game Informer said that the game 's maps are " thoughtfully crafted " , and that the detail on the characters and their equipment is " incredible " . Metro noted the game 's higher resolution than older isometric games such as Baldur 's Gate , saying that it benefits its " gorgeous " artwork . The review also praised the game 's lighting and particle effects . The Escapist said that the spell effects in the game are " quite visually impressive " and that the character models are an improvement from traditional isometric games ; however , the reviewer said that the backgrounds are not as impressive as " some of the more picturesque older titles " . IGN criticized the game 's art style , calling it " dated " . Gameplanet found the game 's voice acting to be " excellent " , saying that none of it is over acted . Game Informer echoed this statement , and also wrote that the game 's sound and music is " delicate and beautiful " .
GameSpot called Pillars of Eternity 's writing " lovely " . Particular praise was given by the reviewer to the character of the Grieving Mother , whose personal story he said was intriguing and " mysterious " . PC Gamer also praised the writing , saying that it is " rich " and " evocative " . Destructoid praised the plot and the world 's reactivity to the player , writing , " the main plot is packed with twists and surprises with staggering ramifications for a world players will feel they have become part of . " IGN said that characters in the game , both major and minor , have elaborate characterization , but found the fact that only some characters have voice acting to be an annoyance . Eurogamer criticized the game 's lack of humor , with the writer of the review saying that he wanted characters in the same vein as Minsc from Baldur 's Gate and Morte from Planescape : Torment in Pillars of Eternity to " lighten the mood " . The writer further said that he found the quests in the game to be " fairly stock " and the characters " forgettable " .
As of February 2016 , the game has sold over 700 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Awards = = =
|
= 2005 FIFA Club World Championship Final =
The 2005 FIFA Club World Championship Final was a football match played between São Paulo of Brazil , the CONMEBOL club champions , and Liverpool of England , the UEFA club champions , on 18 December 2005 at the International Stadium , Yokohama , Japan . It was the final match of the 2005 FIFA Club World Championship , a competition for the winners of the primary cup competitions of FIFA 's continental members . The Club World Championship replaced the Intercontinental Cup , which both teams had competed in before . São Paulo had won the Intercontinental Cup twice in 1992 and 1993 , while Liverpool had lost twice in 1981 and 1984 .
The teams qualified for the championship by winning their continent 's primary cup competition . São Paulo won the 2005 Copa Libertadores , defeating Brazilian team Atlético Paranaense 5 – 1 . Liverpool won the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League , defeating Italian team Milan 3 – 2 in a penalty shootout after the match had finished 3 – 3 . Both teams played one match in the championship en route to the final . São Paulo beat 2005 AFC Champions League winners Al @-@ Ittihad 3 – 2 , while Liverpool beat 2005 CONCACAF Champions ' Cup winners Deportivo Saprissa 3 – 0 .
Watched by a crowd of 66 @,@ 821 , São Paulo took the lead in the first half when Mineiro scored . Liverpool missed a number of chances to equalise in the first half . In the second half they had the majority of the possession and also had three goals disallowed . Despite all their chances they were unable to score against São Paulo who held on to win the match 1 – 0 .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
São Paulo qualified for the FIFA Club World Championship as the reigning Copa Libertadores winners . They had won the 2005 Copa Libertadores beating Atlético Paranaense 5 – 1 over two @-@ legs in the final . It would be São Paulo 's first appearance in the competition , although they had won the forerunner to the competition , the Intercontinental Cup twice , in 1992 and 1993 .
Liverpool had qualified for the Club World Championship as a result of winning the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League . They beat Italian team Milan 3 – 2 in a penalty shootout after the match had finished 3 – 3 . Like São Paulo , Liverpool were competing in the competition for the first time , although they had appeared twice in the Intercontinental Cup , losing in 1981 and 1984 .
Both teams entered the competition in the semi @-@ finals . São Paulo 's opponents were the winners of the 2005 AFC Champions League , Al @-@ Ittihad . A 3 – 2 victory with two goals from Amoroso and a penalty from goalkeeper Rogério Ceni ensured São Paulo 's progression to the final . Liverpool faced 2005 CONCACAF Champions ' Cup winners Deportivo Saprissa . They won the match 3 – 0 , Peter Crouch scored twice and Steven Gerrard also scored as Liverpool reached the final .
Both teams were well into their respective domestic competitions . São Paulo 's domestic season had finished two weeks before the final . They finished the 2005 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A in 11th position after 42 games , they won and lost 16 games each and drew 10 . Liverpool were in the middle of their domestic season , they were competing in the 2005 – 06 Premier League . They were second in the table and won their last match before the competition 2 – 0 , against Middlesbrough . The victory meant Liverpool had gone 10 matches without conceding a goal , which equalled a club record .
São Paulo manager Paulo Autuori was adamant that his team would have to improve on their performance in the semi @-@ final if they were to win the match : " We 're going to have to improve certain aspects of our play if we want to win the final . " Autouri was not worried about Liverpool 's aerial threat , but was expecting them to keep the ball during the match : " English teams are well known for their aerial excellence , But Liverpool are a side that can keep the ball very well too as they proved when winning the Champions League . "
Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez would take control of the team for the final , despite the death of his father earlier in the week . Benitez was confident that his Liverpool team would be capable of beating São Paulo : " We are playing with confidence and strength . I think we can beat anyone . " Liverpool Striker Crouch who scored twice in the semi @-@ final was as adamant as his manager about winning the competition . Adding that " We 've not travelled all the way to Japan to go sightseeing . "
= = = Summary = = =
Before the start of the match , a minute 's silence was held , in memory of Rafa Benítez 's father Francesco who died of heart failure on the Wednesday before the final . Both teams took the pitch wearing black armbands as a mark of respect . The match was delayed further when a fan invaded the pitch , he headed for one of the goals and got stuck in the goal before being caught . São Paulo lined up in a 3 – 5 – 2 formation , while Liverpool opted for a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation . Liverpool had the first chance of the match inside the opening 79 seconds . Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard 's cross into the penalty area was met by Fernando Morientes , but the striker headed wide of the goal . Liverpool created more chances with Luis García missing the goal twice from headers . São Paulo had only created one chance , a shot from striker Amoroso , but they began to grow in confidence . They pressed forward after Amoroso 's shot and defender Cicinho nearly scored with a lob from the halfway line which just went over the crossbar .
São Paulo 's pressure resulted in them taking the lead in the 27th minute . A chipped pass from Aloísio to Mineiro found the midfielder in space who put the ball beyond Liverpool goalkeeper Pepe Reina to give the Brazilians a 1 – 0 lead . It was the first goal Liverpool had conceded in over 1 @,@ 041 minutes of play . Immediately afterwards , Liverpool had a corner , which almost resulted in a goal . Xabi Alonso took the corner which found García , but his shot hit the woodwork . Liverpool had another chance 30 minutes into the match , but again he failed to score with a header . Gerrard had a chance to equalise five minutes later , but he put his shot wide after Harry Kewell had passed him the ball . Liverpool continued to create chances and in the 39th minute García saw his header into the far corner saved by São Paulo goalkeeper Rogério Ceni . From the resulting corner Liverpool defender Sami Hyypiä shot straight at Ceni . He had another chance late in the first half , but his header was saved by Ceni .
Liverpool had the first scoring opportunity of the half , six minutes into the second half . Liverpool were awarded a free @-@ kick 25 yards from the goal . Gerrard 's subsequent shot was saved by Ceni . Ceni made another save soon afterwards when he tipped a cross from Kewell onto the crossbar . Liverpool did score on the hour mark , but the goal was disallowed . García 's headed goal was ruled out for offside . Soon afterwards Morientes had another chance to score , but his overhead kick went over the crossbar . Liverpool had another goal disallowed soon afterwards . Alonso 's corner from which Hyypiä was adjudged to have drifted out of play before the defender scored .
São Paulo made the first substitution of the match in the 75th minute when striker Grafite replaced Aloísio . Liverpool made two substitutions four minutes later in an attempt to equalise . John Arne Riise and Florent Sinama Pongolle replaced Stephen Warnock and Mohamed Sissoko . They made their final substitution in the 85th minute when Peter Crouch replaced Morientes . Liverpool had a third goal disallowed in the 89th minute ; substitute Sinama Pongolle 's goal was disallowed after the assistant referee had flagged García as being offside in the build @-@ up to the goal . Liverpool had a final chance before the end of the match , but García put his shot wide . No further goals were scored and the referee blew for full @-@ time with the final score 1 – 0 to São Paulo .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Much of the talk after the match centred on Liverpool 's three disallowed goals . Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez was incensed by the referee 's decisions and remonstrated with the officials after the final whistle . Benitez was clear that at least one of the goals should not have been disallowed : " We knew that one of the goals was a goal , clear . " He also questioned the competency of the officials stating : " You wouldn 't get a Mexican referee and a Canadian linesman in the final of the World Cup . " Midfielder Luis García , who had a goal disallowed , summed up the feeling in the Liverpool : " We feel cheated . "
São Paulo goalkeeper Rogério Ceni was named as man of the match and also won the Golden Ball as the best player of the competition . Ceni was gracious in receiving the awards stating : " The awards are nice to have but the win was not just about me " Ceni dedicated the awards to those at the club saying : " When I look in these awards I see the faces of my team @-@ mates , the coach and everyone involved at the club . " São Paulo manager was delighted with his team after the victory and agreed with Ceni that the victory was a team effort : " It was a collective victory " he also said that it was " a great achievement for the club . " Goalscorer Mineiro was equally overjoyed with the victory stating : " It is the happiest moment in my career . "
|
= Plymouth Colony =
Plymouth Colony ( sometimes New Plymouth or Plymouth Bay Colony ) was an English colonial venture in North America from 1620 to 1691 . The first settlement of the Plymouth Colony was at New Plymouth , a location previously surveyed and named by Captain John Smith . The settlement served as the capital of the colony , and is the modern town of Plymouth , Massachusetts . At its height , Plymouth Colony occupied most of the southeastern portion of the modern state of Massachusetts .
Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of Separatists initially known as the Brownist Emigration and Anglicans , who came to be known as the Pilgrims . It was one of the earliest successful colonies to be founded by the English in North America , along with Jamestown and other settlements in Virginia , and the first sizable permanent English settlement in the New England region . The colony was able to establish a treaty with Chief Massasoit which helped to ensure its success ; in this , they were aided by Squanto , a Native American of the Patuxet people . It played a central role in King Philip 's War ( 1675 @-@ 1678 ) , one of the earliest of the Indian Wars . Ultimately , the colony was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other territories in 1691 to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay .
Despite the colony 's relatively short existence , Plymouth holds a special role in American history . A significant proportion of the citizens of Plymouth were fleeing religious persecution and searching for a place to worship as they saw fit , rather than being entrepreneurs like many of the settlers of Jamestown . The social and legal systems of the colony became closely tied to their religious beliefs , as well as English custom . Many of the people and events surrounding Plymouth Colony have become part of American folklore , including the North American tradition known as Thanksgiving and the monument known as Plymouth Rock .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of people ( separatists ) who later came to be known as the " Pilgrims . " The core group ( roughly 40 % of the adults and 56 % of the family groupings ) was part of a congregation of Christian separatists ( Congregationalists ) led by William Bradford . The congregation began to feel the pressures of religious persecution while still in the English village of Scrooby , near East Retford , Nottinghamshire . In 1607 , Archbishop Tobias Matthew raided homes and imprisoned several members of the congregation . The congregation then left England in 1609 and emigrated to the Netherlands , first to Amsterdam and then to Leiden .
In Leiden , the congregation gained the freedom to worship as they chose , but Dutch society was unfamiliar to them . Scrooby had been an agricultural community , whereas Leiden was a thriving industrial center , and the pace of life was hard on the Separatists . The community remained close @-@ knit , but their children began adopting Dutch language and customs , and some were also going into the Dutch Army . The Separatists were also still not free from the persecutions of the English Crown . English authorities came to Leiden to arrest William Brewster in 1618 , after he published comments highly critical of the King of England and the Anglican Church . Brewster escaped arrest , but the events spurred the congregation to move even farther from England .
The Congregation obtained a land patent from the London Virginia Company in June 1619 , after declining the opportunity to settle south of Cape Cod in New Netherland because of their desire to avoid the Dutch influence . This land patent allowed them to settle at the mouth of the Hudson River . They then sought financing through the Merchant Adventurers , a group of businessmen who principally viewed the colony as a means of making a profit . Upon arriving in America , the Pilgrims began working to repay their debts .
Using the financing secured from the Merchant Adventurers , the Colonists bought provisions and obtained passage on two ships : the Mayflower and the Speedwell . They had intended to leave early in 1620 , but they were delayed several months due to difficulties in dealing with the Merchant Adventurers , including several changes in plans for the voyage and in financing . The Congregation and the other colonists finally boarded the Speedwell in July 1620 in the Dutch port of Delfshaven .
= = = Mayflower voyage = = =
The " Speedwell " was re @-@ rigged with larger masts before leaving Holland and setting out to meet the " Mayflower " in Southampton , England , around the end of July 1620 . ( The Mayflower was purchased in London . ) The original captains were Captain Reynolds for the Speedwell and Captain Christopher Jones for the Mayflower . Other passengers joined the group in Southampton , including William Brewster , who had been in hiding for the better part of a year , and a group of people known to the Leiden congregation as " The Strangers . " This group was largely made up of people recruited by the Merchant Adventurers to provide practical assistance to the colony and additional hands to work for the colony 's ventures . The term was also used for many of the indentured servants .
Among the Strangers were Myles Standish , who was the colony 's military leader , Christopher Martin , who had been designated by the Merchant Adventurers to act as shipboard governor during the trans @-@ Atlantic trip , and Stephen Hopkins , a veteran of a failed colonial venture that may have been the inspiration for Shakespeare 's The Tempest . The group that later became the Leiden Leaders after the merging of ships included John Carver , William Bradford , Edward Winslow , William Brewster , and Isaac Alberton .
The departure of the Mayflower and Speedwell for America was beset by delays . Further disagreements with the Merchant Adventurers held up the departure in Southampton . A total of 120 passengers finally departed on August 5 — 90 on the Mayflower and 30 on the Speedwell . Leaving Southampton , the Speedwell experienced significant leakage , which required the ships to immediately put in at Dartmouth . The leakage was partly caused by being over masted and being pressed too much with sail . Repairs were completed , then a further delay ensued awaiting favorable winds . The two ships finally set sail on August 23 and made it only two hundred miles beyond Land 's End before another major leak in the Speedwell forced the expedition to return again to England , this time to the port of Plymouth . The Speedwell was found to be unseaworthy ; some passengers abandoned their attempt to emigrate , while others joined the Mayflower , crowding the already heavily burdened ship . Later , it was speculated that the crew of the Speedwell had intentionally sabotaged the ship to avoid having to make the treacherous trans @-@ Atlantic voyage . The delays had significant consequences ; the cost of the repairs and port fees required that the colonists sell some of their invaluable provisions , but , more importantly , the delays meant that everyone had to spend the entire winter on board the Mayflower off Cape Cod in what could only be described as squalid conditions .
The Mayflower departed Plymouth , England , on September 6 , 1620 , with 102 passengers and about 30 crew members in the small , 106 foot @-@ long ship . The seas were not severe during the first month in the Atlantic but , by the second month , the ship was being hit by strong north @-@ Atlantic winter gales , causing it to be badly shaken with water leaks from structural damage . There were many obstacles throughout the trip , including multiple cases of seasickness and the bending and cracking of a main beam of the ship . One death occurred , that of William Button .
After two months at sea , land was sighted on November 9 off the coast of Cape Cod . They attempted to sail south to the designated landing site at the mouth of the Hudson but ran into trouble in the region of Pollack Rip , a shallow area of shoals between Cape Cod and Nantucket Island . With winter approaching and provisions running dangerously low , the passengers decided to return north to Cape Cod Bay and abandon their original landing plans .
= = = Prior exploration and settlements = = =
The Pilgrims were not the first people in the area . Besides the indigenous tribes , there had been nearly a century of exploration , fishing , and settlement by Europeans . John Cabot 's discovery of Newfoundland in 1497 had laid the foundation for the extensive English claims over the east coast of North America . One of the earliest maps of New England was produced c . 1540 by cartographer Giacomo Gastaldi and erroneously identified Cape Breton with the Narragansett Bay . The resulting map completely omits most of the New England coast . European fishermen had been plying the waters off the New England coast for much of the 16th and 17th centuries .
Frenchman Samuel de Champlain had explored the area extensively in 1605 . He had specifically explored Plymouth Harbor , which he called " Port St. Louis , " and made an extensive and detailed map of it and the surrounding lands . Patuxet , the native village upon which the town of Plymouth was later built , was shown by Champlain as a thriving settlement . However , an epidemic wiped out up to 90 % of the Native Americans along the Massachusetts coast in 1617 – 1619 , including the Patuxet , before the arrival of the Mayflower . The epidemic has traditionally been thought to be smallpox , but a recent analysis has concluded that it may have been a lesser @-@ known disease called leptospirosis . The absence of any serious native opposition to settlement by the Pilgrims may have been a pivotal event to their success and to English colonization in the Americas .
Popham Colony , also known as Fort St. George , was organized by the Plymouth Company ( unrelated to Plymouth Colony ) and founded in 1607 . It was settled on the coast of Maine and was beset by internal political struggles , sickness , and weather problems . It was abandoned in 1608 .
Captain John Smith of Jamestown fame had explored the area in 1614 and is credited with naming the region of New England . He named many locations using approximations of Native American words . The future site of the Pilgrim 's first settlement was originally named " Accomack " by Smith . In consultation with Prince Charles , son of King James , Smith changed " Accomack " to New Plymouth . A map published in his 1616 work A Description of New England clearly shows the site of the future Pilgrim settlement named " New Plimouth . "
In the Mayflower settlers ' first explorations of Cape Cod , they came across evidence that Europeans had previously spent extensive time there . They discovered remains of a European fort and uncovered a grave that contained the remains of both an adult European male and a Native American child .
= = = Landings at Provincetown and Plymouth = = =
The Mayflower anchored at Provincetown Harbor on November 11 , 1620 . The Pilgrims did not have a patent to settle this area ; thus , some passengers began to question their right to land , complaining that there was no legal authority to establish a colony . In response to this , a group of colonists drafted and ratified the first governing document of the colony , the Mayflower Compact , while still aboard the ship as it lay off @-@ shore . The intent of the compact was to establish a means of governing the colony , though it did little more than confirm that the colony would be governed like any English town . It did , however , serve the purpose of relieving the concerns of many of the settlers . This social contract was written and signed by 41 Separatist men . It was modeled on the church covenants that Congregationalists used to form new congregations . It made clear that the colony should be governed by " just and equal laws , " and those who signed it promised to keep these laws .
The group remained on board the ship through the next day , a Sunday , for prayer and worship . The immigrants finally set foot on land at what became Provincetown on November 13 . The first task was to rebuild a shallop , a shallow draft boat that had been built in England and disassembled for transport aboard the Mayflower . It would remain with the Pilgrims while the Mayflower returned to England . On November 15 , Captain Myles Standish led a party of sixteen men on an exploratory mission , during which they disturbed a Native American grave and located a buried cache of Indian corn . The following week , Susanna White gave birth to son Peregrine White on the Mayflower . He was the first English child born to the Pilgrims in the New World . The shallop was finished on November 27 , and a second expedition was undertaken using it , under the direction of Mayflower master Christopher Jones . Thirty @-@ four men went , but the expedition was beset by bad weather ; the only positive result was that they found a Native burial ground and corn that had been intended for the dead , taking the corn for future planting . A third expedition along Cape Cod left on December 6 ; it resulted in a skirmish with local Native Americans known as the " First Encounter " near modern @-@ day Eastham , Massachusetts . The colonists decided to look elsewhere , having failed to secure a proper site for their settlement , and fearing that they had angered the local Native Americans by robbing their corn stores and firing upon them . The Mayflower left Provincetown Harbor and set sail for Plymouth Harbor .
The Mayflower dropped anchor in Plymouth Harbor on December 16 and spent three days looking for a settlement site . They rejected several sites , including one on Clark 's Island and another at the mouth of the Jones River , in favor of the site of a recently abandoned Native American settlement named Patuxet . The location was chosen largely for its defensive position . The settlement would be centered on two hills : Cole 's Hill , where the village would be built , and Fort Hill , where a defensive cannon would be stationed . Also important in choosing the site was that the prior Native villagers had cleared much of the land making agriculture relatively easy . Fresh water for the colony was provided by Town Brook and Billington Sea . There are no contemporaneous accounts to verify the legend , but Plymouth Rock is often hailed as the point where the colonists first set foot on their new homeland .
The area where the colonists settled had been identified as " New Plymouth " in maps by John Smith published in 1614 . The colonists elected to retain the name for their own settlement , in honor of their final point of departure from England : Plymouth , Devon .
= = = First winter = = =
On December 21 , 1620 , the first landing party arrived at the site of what later became the settlement of Plymouth . Plans to immediately begin building houses , however , were delayed by inclement weather until December 23 . As the building progressed , twenty men always remained ashore for security purposes , while the rest of the work crews returned each night to the Mayflower . Women , children , and the infirm remained on board the Mayflower ; many had not left the ship for six months . The first structure was a " common house " of wattle and daub , and took two weeks to complete in the harsh New England winter . In the following weeks , the rest of the settlement slowly took shape . The living and working structures were built on the relatively flat top of Cole 's Hill , and a wooden platform was constructed atop nearby Fort Hill to support the cannon that would defend the settlement .
During the winter , the Mayflower colonists suffered greatly from lack of shelter , diseases such as scurvy , and general conditions onboard ship . Many of the able @-@ bodied men were too infirm to work ; 45 out of 102 immigrants died and were buried on Cole 's Hill . Thus , only seven residences ( of a planned nineteen ) and four common houses were constructed during the first winter . By the end of January , enough of the settlement had been built to begin unloading provisions from the Mayflower . In mid @-@ February , after several tense encounters with local Native Americans , the male residents of the settlement organized themselves into military orders ; Myles Standish was designated as the commanding officer . By the end of the month , five cannons had been defensively positioned on Fort Hill . John Carver was elected governor to replace Governor Martin .
On March 16 , 1621 , the first formal contact occurred with the Indians ( or Native Americans ) . A Native American named Samoset , originally from Pemaquid Point in modern Maine , walked boldly into the midst of the settlement and proclaimed , " Welcome , Englishmen ! " He had learned some English from interacting with English fishermen and trappers ( most probably from Bristol ) operating in the region . It was during this meeting that the Pilgrims learned how the previous residents of the Native American village of Patuxet had died of an epidemic thought to be smallpox . They also discovered that the supreme leader of the region was a Wampanoag Native American sachem ( chief ) by the name of Massasoit ; and they learned of the existence of Squanto ( also known by his full Massachusett name of Tisquantum ) , a Native American originally from Patuxet . Squanto had spent time in Europe and spoke English quite well . Samoset spent the night in Plymouth and agreed to arrange a meeting with some of Massasoit 's men .
Massasoit and Squanto were apprehensive about the Pilgrims . In Massasoit 's first contact with the English , several men of his tribe had been killed in an unprovoked attack by English sailors . He also knew of the Pilgrims ' theft of the corn stores in their landings at Provincetown . Squanto had been abducted in 1614 by English explorer Thomas Hunt and had spent five years in Europe , first as a slave for a group of Spanish monks , then in England . He had returned to New England in 1619 , acting as a guide to explorer Capt. Robert Gorges . Massasoit and his men had massacred the crew of the ship and had taken in Squanto .
Samoset returned to Plymouth on March 22 with a delegation from Massasoit that included Squanto ; Massasoit joined them shortly thereafter . After an exchange of gifts , Massasoit and Governor Carver established a formal treaty of peace . This treaty ensured that each people would not bring harm to the other , that Massasoit would send his allies to make peaceful negotiations with Plymouth , and that they would come to each other 's aid in a time of war .
On April 5 , 1621 , after being anchored for almost four months in Plymouth Harbor , the Mayflower set sail for England . Nearly half of the original 102 passengers had died during the first winter . As William Bradford wrote , " of these one hundred persons who came over in this first ship together , the greatest half died in the general mortality , and most of them in two or three months ' time " . By November 1621 , only 53 pilgrims were alive to celebrate the harvest feast which modern Americans know as " The First Thanksgiving " . Of the 18 adult women , 13 died the first winter while another died in May . Only four adult women were left alive for the Thanksgiving .
Several of the graves on Cole 's Hill were uncovered in 1855 ; their bodies were disinterred and moved to a site near Plymouth Rock .
= = = " First Thanksgiving " = = =
The autumn celebration in late 1621 that has become known as " The First Thanksgiving " was not known as such to the Pilgrims . The first " Thanksgiving " as the Pilgrims would have called it ( referring to solemn ceremony of praise and thanks to God for a congregation 's good fortune ) did not occur until 1623 , in response to the good news of the arrival of additional colonists and supplies . That event probably occurred in July and consisted of a full day of prayer and worship and probably very little revelry .
The event now commemorated in the United States at the end of November each year is more properly described as a harvest festival . The original festival was probably held in early October 1621 and was celebrated by the 53 surviving Pilgrims , along with Massasoit and 90 of his men . Three contemporaneous accounts of the event survive : Of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford ; Mourt 's Relation probably written by Edward Winslow ; and New England 's Memorial by Plymouth Colony Secretary ( and Bradford 's nephew ) Capt. Nathaniel Morton . The celebration lasted three days and featured a feast that included numerous types of waterfowl , wild turkeys and fish procured by the colonists , and five deer brought by the Native Americans .
= = = Early relations with the Native Americans = = =
After the departure of Massasoit and his men , Squanto remained in Plymouth to teach the Pilgrims how to survive in New England , for example using dead fish to fertilize the soil . For the first few years of colonial life , the fur trade was the dominant source of income , buying furs from Native Americans and selling to Europeans , beyond subsistence farming . Shortly after the departure of the Mayflower , Governor Carver suddenly died . William Bradford was elected to replace him and went on to lead the colony through much of its formative years .
As promised by Massasoit , numerous Native Americans arrived at Plymouth throughout the middle of 1621 with pledges of peace . On July 2 , a party of Pilgrims led by Edward Winslow ( who later became the chief diplomat of the colony ) set out to continue negotiations with the chief . The delegation also included Squanto , who acted as a translator . After traveling for several days , they arrived at Massasoit 's capital , the village of Sowams near Narragansett Bay . After meals and an exchange of gifts , Massasoit agreed to an exclusive trading pact with the English ; thus , the French were no longer welcome , though they were also frequent traders in the area . Squanto remained behind and traveled throughout the area to establish trading relations with several tribes .
In late July , a boy named John Billington became lost for some time in the woods around the colony . It was reported that he was found by the Nauset , the same group of Native Americans on Cape Cod from whom the Pilgrims had unwittingly stolen corn seed the prior year upon their first explorations . The English organized a party to return Billington to Plymouth . The Pilgrims agreed to reimburse the Nauset for the corn which they had taken in return for the Billington boy . This negotiation did much to secure further peace with the Native Americans in the area .
During their dealings with the Nausets over the release of John Billington , the Pilgrims learned of troubles that Massasoit was experiencing . Massasoit , Squanto , and several other Wampanoags had been captured by Corbitant , sachem of the Narragansett tribe . A party of ten men under the leadership of Myles Standish set out to find and execute Corbitant . While hunting for Corbitant , they learned that Squanto had escaped and Massasoit was back in power . Several Native Americans had been injured by Standish and his men and were offered medical attention in Plymouth . They had failed to capture Corbitant , but the show of force by Standish had garnered respect for the Pilgrims and , as a result , nine of the most powerful sachems in the area signed a treaty in September , including Massasoit and Corbitant , pledging their loyalty to King James .
In May 1622 , a vessel named the Sparrow arrived carrying seven men from the Merchant Adventurers whose purpose was to seek out a site for a new settlement in the area . Two ships followed shortly thereafter carrying sixty settlers , all men . They spent July and August in Plymouth before moving north to settle in modern Weymouth , Massachusetts at a settlement which they named Wessagussett . The settlement of Wessagussett was short @-@ lived , but it provided the spark for an event that dramatically changed the political landscape between the local Native American tribes and the English settlers . Reports reached Plymouth of a military threat to Wessagussett , and Myles Standish organized a militia to defend them . However , he found that there had been no attack . He therefore decided on a pre @-@ emptive strike , an event which historian Nathaniel Philbrick calls " Standish 's raid " . He lured two prominent Massachusett military leaders into a house at Wessagussett under the pretense of sharing a meal and making negotiations . Standish and his men then stabbed and killed the two unsuspecting Native Americans . The local sachem named Obtakiest was pursued by Standish and his men but escaped with three English prisoners from Wessagussett , whom he then executed . Within a short time , Wessagussett was disbanded , and the survivors were integrated into the town of Plymouth .
Word quickly spread among the Native American tribes of Standish 's attack ; many Native Americans abandoned their villages and fled the area . As noted by Philbrick : " Standish 's raid had irreparably damaged the human ecology of the region .... It was some time before a new equilibrium came to the region . " Edward Winslow reports in his 1624 memoirs Good News from New England that " they forsook their houses , running to and fro like men distracted , living in swamps and other desert places , and so brought manifold diseases amongst themselves , whereof very many are dead " . Lacking the trade in furs provided by the local tribes , the Pilgrims lost their main source of income for paying off their debts to the Merchant Adventurers . Rather than strengthening their position , Standish 's raid had disastrous consequences for the colony , as attested by William Bradford in a letter to the Merchant Adventurers : " [ W ] e had much damaged our trade , for there where we had [ the ] most skins the Indians are run away from their habitations " . The only positive effect of Standish 's raid seemed to be the increased power of the Massasoit @-@ led Wampanoag tribe , the Pilgrims ' closest ally in the region .
= = = Growth of Plymouth = = =
A second ship arrived in November 1621 named the Fortune , sent by the Merchant Adventurers one year after the Pilgrims first set foot in New England . It arrived with 37 new settlers for Plymouth . However , the ship had arrived unexpectedly and also without many supplies , so the additional settlers put a strain on the resources of the colony . Among the passengers of the Fortune were several additional people of the original Leiden congregation , including William Brewster 's son Jonathan , Edward Winslow 's brother John , and Philip Delano ( the family name was earlier " de la Noye " ) whose descendants include President Franklin Delano Roosevelt . The Fortune also carried a letter from the Merchant Adventurers chastising the colony for failure to return goods with the Mayflower that had been promised in return for their support . The Fortune began its return to England laden with £ 500 worth of goods ( equivalent to £ 78 thousand in 2010 , or $ 119 thousand at PPP ) , more than enough to keep the colonists on schedule for repayment of their debt . However , the Fortune was captured by the French before she could deliver her cargo to England , creating an even larger deficit for the colony .
In July 1623 , two more ships arrived : the Anne , under the command of Captain " Master " William Peirce and Master John Bridges ; and the Little James , under the command of Captain Emanuel Altham . These ships carried 96 new settlers , among them Leideners , including William Bradford 's future wife Alice , and William and Mary Brewster 's daughters Patience and Fear . Some of the passengers who arrived on the Anne were either unprepared for frontier life or undesirable additions to the colony and returned to England the next year . According to Gleason Archer , " those who remained were not willing to join the colony under the terms of the agreement with the Merchant Adventurers . They had embarked for America upon an understanding with the Adventurers that they might settle in a community of their own , or at least be free from the bonds by which the Plymouth colonists were enslaved . A letter addressed to the colonists and signed by thirteen of the merchants recited these facts and urged acceptance of the new comers on the specified terms . " The new arrivals were allotted land in the area of the Eel River , known as Hobs Hole , which became Wellingsley , a mile south of Plymouth Rock .
In September 1623 , another ship arrived carrying settlers destined to refound the failed colony at Weymouth , and they stayed temporarily at Plymouth . In March 1624 , a ship arrived bearing a few additional settlers and the first cattle . A 1627 division of cattle lists 156 colonists divided into twelve lots of thirteen colonists each . Another ship arrived in August 1629 , also named the Mayflower , with 35 additional members of the Leiden congregation . Ships arrived throughout the period between 1629 and 1630 carrying new settlers , though the exact number is unknown ; contemporaneous documents claimed that , by January 1630 , the colony had almost 300 people . In 1643 , the colony had an estimated 600 males fit for military service , implying a total population of about 2 @,@ 000 . By 1690 , on the eve of the dissolution of the colony , the estimated total population of Plymouth County , the most populous , was 3 @,@ 055 people . It is estimated that the entire population of the colony at the point of its dissolution was around 7 @,@ 000 . For comparison , it is estimated that more than 20 @,@ 000 settlers had arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony between 1630 and 1640 ( a period known as the Great Migration ) , and the English population of all New England was estimated to be about 60 @,@ 000 by 1678 . Plymouth was the first colony in the region but , by the time of its annexation , it was much smaller than Massachusetts Bay Colony .
= = = Military history = = =
= = = = Myles Standish = = = =
Myles Standish was the military leader of Plymouth Colony from the beginning . He organized and led the first party to set foot in New England , an exploratory expedition of Cape Cod upon arrival in Provincetown Harbor . He also led the third expedition , during which Standish fired the first recorded shot by the Pilgrim settlers in an event known as the First Encounter . Standish had training in military engineering from the University of Leiden , and it was he who decided the defensive layout of the settlement when they finally arrived at Plymouth . Standish also organized the able @-@ bodied men into military orders in February of the first winter . During the second winter , he helped design and organize the construction of a large palisade wall surrounding the settlement . Standish led two early military raids on Indian villages : the raid to find and punish Corbitant for his attempted coup , and the killing at Wessagussett called " Standish 's raid " . The former had the desired effect of gaining the respect of the local Indians ; the latter only served to frighten and scatter them , resulting in loss of trade and income .
= = = = Pequot War = = = =
The first major war in New England was the Pequot War of 1637 . The war 's roots go back to 1632 , when a dispute arose between Dutch fur traders and Plymouth officials over control of the Connecticut River Valley near modern Hartford , Connecticut . Representatives from the Dutch East India Company and Plymouth Colony both had deeds which claimed that they had rightfully purchased the land from the Pequots . A sort of land rush occurred as settlers from Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies tried to beat the Dutch in settling the area ; the influx of English settlers also threatened the Pequot . Other confederations in the area sided with the English , including the Narragansetts and Mohegans , who were the traditional enemies of the Pequots . The event that sparked formal hostilities was the capture of a boat and the murder of its captain John Oldham in 1636 , an event blamed on allies of the Pequots . In April 1637 , a raid on a Pequot village by John Endicott led to a retaliatory raid by Pequot warriors on the town of Wethersfield , Connecticut , where some 30 English settlers were killed . This led to a further retaliation , where a raid led by Captain John Underhill and Captain John Mason burned a Pequot village to the ground near modern Mystic , Connecticut , killing 300 Pequots . Plymouth Colony had little to do with the actual fighting in the war .
When it appeared that the war would resume , four of the New England colonies ( Massachusetts Bay , Connecticut , New Haven , and Plymouth ) formed a defensive compact known as the United Colonies of New England . Edward Winslow was already known for his diplomatic skills , and he was the chief architect of the United Colonies . His experience in the United Provinces of the Netherlands during the Leiden years was key to organizing the confederation . John Adams later considered the United Colonies to be the prototype for the Articles of Confederation , which was the first attempt at a national government .
= = = = King Philip 's War = = = =
King Philip was the younger son of Massasoit and the heir of Massasoit 's position as sachem of the Pokanoket and supreme leader of the Wampanoag . ( He was also known as Metacomet and other variations on that name . ) He became sachem upon the sudden death of his older brother Wamsutta , also known as Alexander , in 1662 .
The cause of the war stems from the increasing numbers of English colonists and their demand for land . As more land was purchased from the Native Americans , they were restricted to smaller territories for themselves . Native American leaders such as King Philip resented the loss of land and looked for a means to slow or reverse it . Of specific concern was the founding of the town of Swansea , which was located only a few miles from the Wampanoag capital at Mount Hope . The General Court of Plymouth began using military force to coerce the sale of Wampanoag land to the settlers of the town .
The proximate cause of the conflict was the death of a Praying Indian named John Sassamon in 1675 . Sassamon had been an advisor and friend to King Philip ; however , Sassamon 's conversion to Christianity had driven the two apart . Accused in the murder of Sassamon were some of Philip 's most senior lieutenants . A jury of twelve Englishmen and six Praying Indians found the Native Americans guilty of murder and sentenced them to death . To this day , some debate exists whether King Philip 's men actually committed the murder .
Philip had already begun war preparations at his home base near Mount Hope where he started raiding English farms and pillaging their property . In response , Governor Josiah Winslow called out the militia , and they organized and began to move on Philip 's position . King Philip 's men attacked unarmed women and children in order to receive a ransom . One such attack resulted in the capture of Mary Rowlandson . The memoirs of her capture provided historians with much information on Native American culture during this time period .
The war continued through the rest of 1675 and into the next year . The English were constantly frustrated by the Native Americans ' refusal to meet them in pitched battle . They employed a form of guerilla warfare that confounded the English . Captain Benjamin Church continuously campaigned to enlist the help of friendly Native Americans to help learn how to fight on an even footing with Philip 's warrior bands , but he was constantly rebuffed by the Plymouth leadership who mistrusted all Native Americans , thinking them potential enemies . Eventually , Governor Winslow and Plymouth military commander Major William Bradford ( son of the late Governor William Bradford ) relented and gave Church permission to organize a combined force of English and Native Americans . After securing the alliance of the Sakonnet , he led his combined force in pursuit of Philip , who had thus far avoided any major battles in the war that bears his name . Throughout July 1676 , Church 's band captured hundreds of Native American warriors , often without much of a fight , though Philip eluded him . Church was given permission to grant amnesty to any captured Native Americans who would agree to join the English side , and his force grew immensely . Philip was killed by a Pocasset Indian , and the war soon ended as an overwhelming English victory .
Eight percent of the English adult male population is estimated to have died during the war , a rather large percentage by most standards . The impact on the Native Americans was far higher , however . So many were killed , fled , or shipped off as slaves that the entire Native American population of New England fell by sixty to eighty percent .
= = = Final years = = =
In 1686 , the entire region was reorganized under a single government known as the Dominion of New England ; this included the colonies of Plymouth , Rhode Island , Massachusetts Bay , Connecticut , and New Hampshire . In 1688 , New York , West Jersey , and East Jersey were added . The President of the Dominion Edmund Andros was highly unpopular , and the union did not last . The union was dissolved after news of the Glorious Revolution reached Boston in April 1689 , and the citizens of Boston rose up and arrested Andros . When news of these events reached Plymouth , its magistrates reclaimed power .
The return of self @-@ rule for Plymouth Colony was short @-@ lived , however . A delegation of New Englanders led by Increase Mather went to England to negotiate a return of the colonial charters that had been nullified during the Dominion years . The situation was particularly problematic for Plymouth Colony , as it had existed without a formal charter since its founding . Plymouth did not get their wish for a formal charter ; instead , a new charter was issued , combining Plymouth Colony , Massachusetts Bay Colony , and other territories . The official date of the proclamation was October 17 , 1691 , ending the existence of Plymouth Colony , though it was not put into force until the arrival of the charter of the Province of Massachusetts Bay on May 14 , 1692 , carried by the new royal governor Sir William Phips . The last official meeting of the Plymouth General Court occurred on June 8 , 1692 .
= = Life = =
= = = Religion = = =
The most important religious figure in the colony was John Robinson , an original pastor of the Scrooby congregation and religious leader of the separatists throughout the Leiden years . He never actually set foot in New England , but many of his theological pronouncements shaped the nature and character of the Plymouth church . For example , Robinson stated that women and men have different social roles according to a law of nature , though neither was lesser in the eyes of God . Robinson taught that men and women have distinct but complementary roles in church , home , and society as a whole . He referred to women as the " weaker vessel " . In matters of religious understanding , he proclaimed that it was the man 's role to educate and " guide and go before " women . He also said that women should be " subject " to their husbands . Robinson also dictated the proper methods of child rearing — he prescribed a strict upbringing with a strong emphasis on corporal punishment . He believed that a child 's natural inclination towards independence was a manifestation of original sin and should thus be repressed .
The Pilgrims themselves were a subset of an English religious movement known as Puritanism , which sought to " purify " the Anglican Church of its " Catholic " trappings . The movement sought to return the church to its original state and to practice Christianity as was done in the times of the Apostles . Following Martin Luther 's and John Calvin 's Reformation , Puritans believed that the Bible was the only true source of religious teaching and that any additions made to Christianity had no place in Christian practice , especially with regard to church traditions , such as clerical vestments or the use of Latin in church services . In particular , they were strongly opposed to the Anglicans ' episcopal form of church government . They believed that the church was a community of Christians who made a covenant with God and with one another . Their congregations had a democratic structure . Ministers , teachers , and lay church elders were elected by and responsible to the entire congregation ( Calvinist Federalism ) . Each congregation was independent of all the others and directly subject to God 's ( or Christ 's ) government ( theocracy ) , hence the name Congregationalism . The Pilgrims distinguished themselves from the Puritans in that they sought to " separate " themselves from the Anglican Church , rather than reform it from within . It was this desire to worship from outside of the Anglican Communion that led them first to the Netherlands and ultimately to New England .
Each town in the colony was considered a single church congregation ; in later years , some of the larger towns split into two or three congregations . Church attendance was mandatory for all residents of the colony , while church membership was restricted to those who had converted to the faith . In Plymouth Colony , it seems that a simple profession of faith was all that was required for acceptance . This was a more liberal doctrine than some other New England congregations , such as those of the Massachusetts Bay Colony , where it was common to subject those seeking formal membership to strict and detailed cross @-@ examinations . There was no central governing body for the churches . Each individual congregation was left to determine its own standards of membership , hire its own ministers , and conduct its own business .
The church was undoubtedly the most important social institution in the colony . The Bible was the primary religious document of the society , and it also served as the primary legal document . Church attendance was not only mandatory , but membership was socially vital . Education was carried out for almost purely religious purposes . The laws of the colony specifically asked parents to provide for the education of their children , " at least to be able duly to read the Scriptures " and to understand " the main Grounds and Principles of Christian Religion " . It was expected that the male head of the household would be responsible for the religious well @-@ being of all its members , children and servants alike .
Most churches used two acts to sanction its members : censure and excommunication . Censure was a formal reprimand for behavior that did not conform with accepted religious and social norms , while excommunication involved full removal from church membership . Many perceived social evils , from fornication to public drunkenness , were dealt with through church discipline rather than through civil punishment . Church sanctions seldom held official recognition outside church membership and seldom resulted in civil or criminal proceedings . Nevertheless , such sanctions were a powerful tool of social control .
The Pilgrims practiced infant baptism . The public baptism ceremony was usually performed within six months of birth .
Marriage was considered a civil ceremony , rather than a religious one . Such an arrangement may have been a habit that had developed during the Leiden years , as civil marriage was common in the Netherlands . However , the Pilgrims saw this arrangement as biblical , there being no evidence from Scripture that a minister should preside over a wedding .
Besides the theology espoused by their religious leaders , the people of Plymouth Colony had a strong belief in the supernatural . Richard Greenham was a Puritan theologian whose works were known to the Plymouth residents , and he counseled extensively against turning to magic or wizardry to solve problems . The Pilgrims saw Satan 's work in nearly every calamity that befell them ; the dark magical arts were very real and present for them . They believed in the presence of malevolent spirits who brought misfortune to people . For example , in 1660 , a court inquest into the drowning death of Jeremiah Burroughs determined that a possessed canoe was to blame . Massachusetts Bay Colony experienced an outbreak of witchcraft scares in the 17th century , but there is little evidence that Plymouth was engulfed in anything similar . Witchcraft was listed as a capital crime in the 1636 codification of the laws by the Plymouth General Court , but there were no actual convictions of witches in Plymouth Colony . The court records only show two formal accusations of witchcraft . The first , of Goodwife Holmes in 1661 , never went to trial . The second , of Mary Ingram in 1677 , resulted in trial and acquittal .
= = = Marriage and family life = = =
Edward Winslow and Susanna White both lost their spouses during the harsh winter of 1620 – 1621 , and the two became the first couple to be married in Plymouth . Governor Bradford presided over the civil ceremony .
In Plymouth Colony , " courtships were usually initiated by the young people themselves , but as a relationship progressed toward something more permanent , the parents became more directly involved . " Parents were concerned with the moral and religious qualities of the proposed spouse , as well as the financial means of each party 's family . The first step toward marriage was generally a betrothal or pre @-@ contract , a ceremony carried out before two witnesses in which the couple pledged to wed in due time . Several weeks or months after the betrothal was contracted , the couple 's intentions were published . " A betrothed couple was considered to have a special status , not married but no longer unmarried either . " Sexual contact was prohibited between a betrothed couple , but the penalty for it was one @-@ fourth of what it was for single persons , and records indicate a relatively high number of babies born less than nine months after a wedding ceremony .
Marriage was considered the normal state for all adult residents of the colony . Most men first married in their mid @-@ twenties and women around age 20 . Second marriages were not uncommon , and widows and widowers faced social and economic pressures to remarry . On average , most widows and widowers remarried within six months to a year . Most adults who reached marriageable age lived into their sixties , so effectively two @-@ thirds of a person 's life was spent married .
Women in Plymouth Colony had more extensive legal and social rights compared to 17th @-@ century European norms . Women were considered equal to men before God from the perspective of the Church . God 's grace was available equally to all professed Christians . Women were , however , expected to take traditionally feminine roles , such as child @-@ rearing and maintaining the household , in Puritan families .
Plymouth women enjoyed extensive property and legal rights , unlike in Europe where women had few rights . A wife in Plymouth could not be legally " written out " of her husband 's will and was guaranteed a full third of the family 's property upon his death . Women were parties to contracts in Plymouth , most notably prenuptial agreements . It was common for brides @-@ to @-@ be ( and not , notably , their fathers ) to enter into contractual agreements on the consolidation of property upon marriage . In some cases , especially in second marriages , women were given exclusive right to retain control of their property separately from their husbands . Women were also known to occasionally sit on juries in Plymouth , a remarkable circumstance in seventeenth century legal practice . Historians James and Patricia Scott Deetz cite a 1678 inquest into the death of Anne Batson 's child , where the jury was composed of five women and seven men .
Family size in the colony was large by modern American standards , though childbirth was often spaced out , with an average of two years between children . Most families averaged five to six children living under the same roof , though it would not be uncommon for one family to have grown children moving out before the mother had finished giving birth . Maternal mortality rates were fairly high ; one birth in thirty resulted in the death of the mother , resulting in one in five women dying in childbirth . However , " the rate of infant mortality in Plymouth seems to have been relatively low . In the case of a few families for which there are unusually complete records , only about one in five children seems to have died before the age of twenty @-@ one . Furthermore , births in the sample [ of about 90 families ] come for the most part with relatively few ' gaps ' which might indicate a baby who did not survive . All things considered , it appears that the rate of infant and child mortality in Plymouth was no more than 25 per cent " .
= = = Childhood , adolescence , and education = = =
Children generally remained in the direct care of their mothers until the age of about eight years old , after which time it was not uncommon for the child to be placed in the foster care of another family . There were any number of reasons for a child to be " put @-@ out " in this manner . Some children were placed into households to learn a trade , others to be taught to read and write . It seems that there was a theological reason for fostering children , as with almost every decision in the colony . It was assumed that children 's own parents would love them too much and would not properly discipline them . By placing children in the care of another family , there was little danger of them being spoiled .
Adolescence was not a recognized phase of life in Plymouth colony , and there was not a single rite of passage that marked transition from youth to adulthood . Several important transitions occurred at various ages , but none marked a single " coming of age " event . As early as eight years old , children were expected to begin learning their adult roles in life by taking on some of the family work or by being placed in foster homes to learn a trade . Most children experienced religious conversion around the age of eight as well , thus becoming church members . Orphaned children were given the right to choose their own guardians at age 14 . At 16 , males became eligible for military duty and were also considered adults for legal purposes , such as standing trial for crimes . Age 21 was the youngest at which a male could become a freeman , though for practical purposes this occurred some time in a man 's mid @-@ twenties . Twenty @-@ one was the assumed age of inheritance , as well , although the law respected the rights of the deceased to name an earlier age in his will .
Actual schools were rare in Plymouth colony . The first true school was not founded until 40 years after the foundation of the colony . The General Court first authorized colony @-@ wide funding for formal public schooling in 1673 , but only the town of Plymouth made use of these funds at that time . By 1683 , though , five additional towns had received this funding .
Education of the young was never considered to be the primary domain of schools , even after they had become more common . Most education was carried out by a child 's parents or foster parents . Formal apprenticeships were not the norm in Plymouth ; it was expected that a foster family would teach the children whatever trades they themselves practiced . The church also played a central role in a child 's education . As noted above , the primary purpose of teaching children to read was so that they could read the Bible for themselves .
= = Government and laws = =
= = = Organization = = =
Plymouth Colony did not have a royal charter authorizing it to form a government , yet some means of governance was needed . The Mayflower Compact was the colony 's first governing document , signed by the 41 able @-@ bodied Separatists aboard the Mayflower upon their arrival in Provincetown Harbor on November 21 , 1620 . Formal laws were not codified until 1636 . The colony 's laws were based on a hybrid of English common law and religious law as laid out in the Bible . The colonial authorities were deeply influenced by Calvinist theology , and were convinced that democracy was the form of government mandated by God .
The colony offered nearly all adult males potential citizenship . Full citizens , or " freemen " , were accorded full rights and privileges in areas such as voting and holding office . To be considered a freeman , adult males had to be sponsored by an existing freeman and accepted by the General Court . Later restrictions established a one @-@ year waiting period between nominating and granting of freeman status , and also placed religious restrictions on the colony 's citizens , specifically preventing Quakers from becoming freemen . Freeman status was also restricted by age ; the official minimum age was 21 , although in practice most men were elevated to freeman status between the ages of 25 and 40 , averaging somewhere in their early thirties .
The colony 's most powerful executive was its Governor , who was originally elected by the freemen , but was later appointed by the General Court in an annual election . The General Court also elected seven " Assistants " to form a cabinet to assist the governor . The Governor and Assistants then appointed " Constables " who served as the chief administrators for the towns , and " Messengers " who were the main civil servants of the colony . They were responsible for publishing announcements , performing land surveys , carrying out executions , and a host of other duties .
The General Court was both the chief legislative and judicial body of the colony . It was elected by the freemen from among their own number and met regularly in Plymouth , the capital town of the colony . As part of its judicial duties , it would periodically call a Grand Enquest , which was a grand jury of sorts , elected from the freemen , who would hear complaints and swear out indictments for credible accusations . The General Court , and later lesser town and county courts , would preside over trials of accused criminals and over civil matters , but the ultimate decisions were made by a jury of freemen .
The General Court , as the legislative and judicial bodies , and the Governor , as the chief executive of the colony , constituted a political system of division of power . It followed a recommendation in John Calvin 's political theory to set up several institutions which complement and control each other in a system of checks and balances in order to avoid , or at least to minimize , the misuse of political power . In 1625 , the settlers had repaid their debts and thus gained complete possession of the colony . The colony was de facto a republic , since neither an English company nor the King and Parliament exerted any influence — a representative democracy governed on the principles of the Mayflower Compact ( " self @-@ rule " ) .
= = = Laws = = =
As a legislative body , the General Court could make proclamations of law as needed . These laws were not formally compiled anywhere in the early years of the colony ; they were first organized and published in the 1636 Book of Laws . The book was reissued in 1658 , 1672 , and 1685 . These laws included the levying of " rates " or taxes and the distribution of colony lands . The General Court established townships as a means of providing local government over settlements , but reserved for itself the right to control specific distribution of land to individuals within those towns . When new land was granted to a freeman , it was directed that only the person to whom the land was granted was allowed to settle it . It was forbidden for individual settlers to purchase land from Native Americans without formal permission from the General Court . The government recognized the precarious peace that existed with the Wampanoag , and wished to avoid antagonizing them by buying up all of their land .
The laws also set out crimes and their associated punishment . There were several crimes that carried the death penalty : treason , murder , witchcraft , arson , sodomy , rape , bestiality , adultery , and cursing or smiting one 's parents . The actual exercise of the death penalty was fairly rare ; only one sex @-@ related crime resulted in execution , a 1642 incidence of bestiality by Thomas Granger . Edward Bumpus was sentenced to death for " striking and abusing his parents " in 1679 , but his sentence was commuted to a severe whipping by reason of insanity . Perhaps the most notable use of the death penalty was in the execution of the Native Americans convicted of the murder of John Sassamon ; this helped lead to King Philip 's War . Though nominally a capital crime , adultery was usually dealt with by public humiliation only . Convicted adulterers were often forced to wear the letters " A.D. " sewn into their garments , much in the manner of Hester Prynne in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's novel The Scarlet Letter .
Several laws dealt with indentured servitude , a legal status whereby a person would work off debts or be given training in exchange for a period of unrecompensed service . The law required that all indentured servants had to be registered by the Governor or one of the Assistants , and that no period of indenture could be less than six months . Further laws forbade a master from shortening the length of time of service required for his servant , and also confirmed that any indentured servants whose period of service began in England would still be required to complete their service while in Plymouth .
= = = Official Seal = = =
The seal of the Plymouth Colony was designed in 1629 and is still used by the town of Plymouth . It depicts four figures within a shield bearing St George 's Cross , apparently in Native @-@ American style clothing , each carrying the burning heart symbol of John Calvin . The seal was also used by the County of Plymouth until 1931 .
= = Geography = =
= = = Boundaries = = =
Without a clear land patent for the area , the settlers settled without a charter to form a government and , as a result , it was often unclear in the early years what land was under the colony 's jurisdiction . In 1644 , " The Old Colony Line " — which had been surveyed in 1639 — was formally accepted as the boundary between Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth .
The situation was more complicated along the border with Rhode Island . Roger Williams settled in the area of Rehoboth in 1636 , near modern Pawtucket . He was forcibly evicted in order to maintain Plymouth 's claim to the area . Williams moved to the west side of the Pawtucket River to found the settlement of Providence , the nucleus for the colony of Rhode Island , which was formally established with the " Providence Plantations Patent " of 1644 . Various settlers from both Rhode Island and Plymouth began to settle along the area , and the exact nature of the western boundary of Plymouth became unclear . The issue was not fully resolved until the 1740s , long after the dissolution of Plymouth Colony itself . Rhode Island had received a patent for the area in 1693 , which had been disputed by Massachusetts Bay Colony . Rhode Island successfully defended the patent , and a royal decree in 1746 transferred the land to Rhode Island along the eastern shore of the Narragansett Bay , including the mainland portion of Newport County and all of modern Bristol County , Rhode Island . The border itself continued to be contested by Massachusetts , first as a colony and later as a state , until as late as 1898 , when the boundary was settled and ratified by both states .
= = = Counties and towns = = =
For most of its history , the town was the primary administrative unit and political division of the colony . Plymouth Colony was not formally divided into counties until June 2 , 1685 , during the reorganization that led to the formation of the Dominion of New England . Three counties were composed of the following towns .
Barnstable County on Cape Cod :
Barnstable , the shire town ( county seat ) of the county , first settled in 1639 and incorporated 1650 .
Eastham , site of the " First Encounter " , first settled 1644 and incorporated as the town of Nauset in 1646 , name changed to Eastham in 1651 .
Falmouth , first settled in 1661 and incorporated as Succonesset in 1686 .
Rochester , settled 1638 , incorporated 1686 .
Sandwich , first settled in 1637 and incorporated in 1639 .
Yarmouth , incorporated 1639 .
Bristol County along the shores of Buzzards Bay and Narragansett Bay ; part of this county was later ceded to Rhode Island :
Taunton , the shire town of the county , incorporated 1639 .
Bristol , incorporated 1680 and including the former locations of Sowams and Montaup ( Mount Hope ) , which were Massasoit 's and King Philip 's capitals , respectively . Ceded to Rhode Island in 1746 and is now part of Bristol County , Rhode Island .
Dartmouth , incorporated 1664 . Dartmouth was the site of a significant massacre by the Indian forces during King Philip 's War . It was also the location of a surrender of a group of some 160 of Philip 's forces who were later sold into slavery .
Freetown , incorporated 1683 , originally known as " Freemen 's Land " by its first settlers .
Little Compton , incorporated as Sakonnet in 1682 , ceded to Rhode Island in 1746 and is now part of Newport County , Rhode Island .
Rehoboth , first settled 1644 and incorporated 1645 . Nearby to , but distinct from the Rehoboth settlement of Roger Williams , which is now the town of Pawtucket , Rhode Island .
Swansea , founded as the township of Wannamoiset in 1667 , incorporated as town of Swansea in 1668 . It was here that the first English casualty occurred in King Philip 's War .
Plymouth County , located along the western shores of Cape Cod Bay :
Plymouth , the shire town of the county and capital of the colony . This was the original 1620 settlement of the Mayflower Pilgrims , and continued as the largest and most significant settlement in the colony until its dissolution in 1691 .
Bridgewater , purchased from Massasoit by Myles Standish , and originally named Duxburrow New Plantation , it was incorporated as Bridgewater in 1656 .
Duxbury , founded by Myles Standish , it was incorporated in 1637 . Other notable residents of Duxbury included John Alden , William Brewster , and Governor Thomas Prence .
Marshfield , settled 1632 , incorporated 1640 . Home to Governor Edward Winslow . Also home to Josiah Winslow , who was governor of the colony during King Philip 's War , and to Peregrine White , the first English child born in New England .
Middleborough , incorporated 1669 as Middleberry . Named for its location as the halfway point on the journey from Plymouth to Mount Hope , the Wampanoag capital .
Scituate , settled 1628 and incorporated 1636 . The town was the site of a major attack by King Philip 's forces in 1676 .
= = Demographics = =
= = = English = = =
The English in Plymouth Colony fit broadly into three categories : Pilgrims , Strangers , and Particulars . The Pilgrims were a Protestant group that closely followed the teachings of John Calvin , like the Puritans who later founded Massachusetts Bay Colony to the north . ( The Puritans wished to reform the Anglican church from within , whereas the Pilgrims saw it as a morally defunct organization , and sought to remove themselves from it . ) The name " Pilgrims " was actually not used by the separatists themselves . William Bradford used the term " pilgrims " to describe the group , but he was using the term generically to define the group as travelers on a religious mission . The Pilgrims referred to themselves as the Saints , First Comers , Ancient Brethren , or Ancient Men . They used such terms to indicate their place as God 's elect , as they subscribed to the Calvinist belief in predestination . " The First Comers " was a term more loosely used in their day to refer to any of the Mayflower passengers .
There were also a number of indentured servants among the colonists . Indentured servants were mostly poor children whose families were receiving church relief and " many homeless waifs from the streets of London sent as laborers " .
In addition to the Pilgrims , the Mayflower carried non @-@ Pilgrim settlers ( " Strangers " ) . This group included the non @-@ Pilgrim settlers placed on the Mayflower by the Merchant Adventurers , and later settlers who came for other reasons throughout the history of the colony and who did not necessarily adhere to the Pilgrim religious ideals . A third group known as the " Particulars " consisted of later settlers who paid their own " particular " way to America , and thus were not obliged to pay the colony 's debts .
The presence of outsiders such as the Strangers and the Particulars was a considerable annoyance to the Pilgrims . As early as 1623 , a conflict broke out between the Pilgrims and the Strangers over the celebration of Christmas , a day of no particular significance to the Pilgrims . Furthermore , a group of Strangers founded the nearby settlement of Wessagussett and the Pilgrims were highly strained , both emotionally and in terms of resources , by their lack of discipline . They looked at the eventual failure of the Wessagussett settlement as Divine Providence against a sinful people .
The residents of Plymouth used terms to distinguish between the earliest settlers of the colony and those that came later . The first generation of settlers , generally thought to be those that arrived before 1627 , called themselves the Old Comers or Planters . Later generations of Plymouth residents referred to this group as the Forefathers .
A fairly comprehensive demographic study was done by historian John Demos for his seminal 1970 work on the Pilgrims A Little Commonwealth . He reports that the colony 's average household grew from 7 @.@ 8 children per family for first @-@ generation families to 8 @.@ 6 children for second @-@ generation families , and to 9 @.@ 3 for third @-@ generation families . Child mortality also decreased over this time , with 7 @.@ 2 children born to first @-@ generation families living until their 21st birthday . That number increased to 7 @.@ 9 children by the third generation . Life expectancy was higher for men than for women . Of the men who survived until the age of 21 , the average life expectancy was 69 @.@ 2 years . Over 55 percent of these men lived past 70 ; less than 15 percent died before the age of 50 . For women , the numbers are much lower , owing to the difficulties inherent in childbearing . The average life expectancy of women at the age of 21 was only 62 @.@ 4 years . Of these women , less than 45 percent lived past 70 , and about 30 percent died before the age of 50 .
During King Philip 's War , Plymouth Colony alone lost eight percent of its adult male population . By the end of the war , one @-@ third of New England 's approximately 100 towns had been burned and abandoned . This represented a sizable demographic effect on the English population of New England .
= = = Native Americans = = =
The Native Americans in New England were organized into loose tribal confederations , sometimes called " nations " . Among these confederations were the Nipmucks , the Massachusett , the Narragansett , the Niantics , the Mohegan , and the Wampanoag . Several significant events dramatically altered the demographics of the Native American population in the region . The first was " Standish 's raid " on Wessagussett , which frightened Native American leaders to the extent that many abandoned their settlements , resulting in many deaths through starvation and disease . The second , the Pequot War , resulted in the dissolution of the Pequot tribe and a major shift in the local power structure . The third , King Philip 's War , had the most dramatic effect on local populations , resulting in the death or displacement of as much as 80 % of the total number of Native Americans of southern New England and the enslavement and removal of thousands of Native Americans to the Caribbean and other locales .
= = = Black slaves = = =
Some of the wealthier families in Plymouth Colony owned black slaves which were considered the property of their owners , unlike indentured servants , and passed on to heirs like any other property . Slave ownership was not widespread and very few families possessed the wealth necessary to own slaves . In 1674 , the inventory of Capt. Thomas Willet of Marshfield includes " 8 Negroes " at a value of £ 200 . Other inventories of the time also valued slaves at £ 24 – 25 each ( equivalent to £ 2 @.@ 81 thousand in 2010 , or $ 4 @,@ 300 at PPP ) , well out of the financial ability of most families . A 1689 census of the town of Bristol shows that , of the 70 families that lived there , only one had a black slave . So few were black slaves in the colony that the General Court never saw fit to pass any laws dealing with them .
= = Economy = =
The largest source of wealth for Plymouth Colony was the fur trade . The disruption of this trade caused by Myles Standish 's raid at Wessagussett created great hardship for the colonists for many years to come , and was directly cited by William Bradford as a contributing factor to the colonists ' economic difficulties in their early years . The colonists attempted to supplement their income by fishing ; the waters in Cape Cod bay were known to be excellent fisheries . However , they lacked any skill in this area , and it did little to relieve their economic hardship . The colony traded throughout the region , establishing trading posts as far away as Penobscot , Maine . They were also frequent trading partners with the Dutch at New Amsterdam .
The economic situation improved with the arrival of cattle in the colony . It is unknown when the first cattle arrived , but the division of land for the grazing of cattle in 1627 represented one of the first moves towards private land ownership in the colony . Cattle became an important source of wealth in the colony ; the average cow could sell for £ 28 in 1638 ( £ 3 @,@ 400 in 2010 , or $ 5 @,@ 200 at PPP ) . However , the flood of immigrants during the Great Migration drove the price of cattle down . The same cows sold at £ 28 in 1638 were valued in 1640 at only £ 5 ( £ 700 @.@ 00 in 2010 , or $ 1 @,@ 060 at PPP ) . Besides cattle , there were also pigs , sheep , and goats raised in the colony .
Agriculture also made up an important part of the Plymouth economy . The colonists adopted Native American agricultural practices and crops . They planted maize , squash , pumpkins , beans , and potatoes . Besides the crops themselves , the Pilgrims learned productive farming techniques from the Native Americans , such as proper crop rotation and the use of dead fish to fertilize the soil . In addition to these native crops , the colonists also successfully planted Old World crops such as turnips , carrots , peas , wheat , barley , and oats .
Overall , there was very little cash in Plymouth Colony , so most wealth was accumulated in the form of possessions . Trade goods such as furs , fish , and livestock were subject to fluctuations in price and were unreliable repositories of wealth . Durable goods such as fine wares , clothes , and furnishings represented an important source of economic stability for the residents .
= = Legacy = =
The events surrounding the founding and history of Plymouth Colony have had a lasting effect on the art , traditions , mythology , and politics of the United States of America , despite its short history of fewer than 72 years .
= = = Art , literature , and film = = =
The earliest artistic depiction of the Pilgrims was actually done before their arrival in America ; Dutch painter Adam Willaerts painted a portrait of their departure from Delfshaven in 1620 . The same scene was repainted by Robert Walter Weir in 1844 , and hangs in the Rotunda of the United States Capitol building . Numerous other paintings have been created memorializing various scenes from the life of Plymouth Colony , including their landing and the " First Thanksgiving " , many of which have been collected by Pilgrim Hall , a museum and historical society founded in 1824 to preserve the history of the Colony .
Several contemporaneous accounts of life in Plymouth Colony have become both vital primary historical documents and literary classics . Of Plimoth Plantation by William Bradford and Mourt 's Relation by Bradford , Edward Winslow , and others are both accounts written by Mayflower passengers that provide much of the information which we have today regarding the trans @-@ Atlantic voyage and early years of the settlement .
Benjamin Church wrote several accounts of King Philip 's War , including Entertaining Passages Relating to Philip 's War , which remained popular throughout the 18th century . An edition of the work was illustrated by Paul Revere in 1772 . The Sovereignty and Goodness of God provides an account of King Philip 's War from the perspective of Mary Rowlandson , an Englishwoman who was captured and spent some time in the company of Native Americans during the war . Later works , such as " The Courtship of Miles Standish " by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , have provided a romantic and partially fictionalized account of life in Plymouth Colony .
There are also numerous films about the Pilgrims , including the several film adaptations of " The Courtship of Miles Standish " ; the 1952 film Plymouth Adventure starring Spencer Tracy ; and Desperate Crossings : The True Story of the Mayflower , a 2006 television documentary produced by the History Channel .
In 1970 , the United States Postal Service issued a three hundred and fiftieth year commemorative stamp recognizing the English dissenters first landing at the modern day settlement of Provincetown , Massachusetts in 1620 .
= = = Thanksgiving = = =
Each year , the United States celebrates a holiday known as Thanksgiving on the fourth Thursday of November . It is a federal holiday and frequently involves a family gathering with a large feast , traditionally featuring a turkey . Civic recognitions of the holiday typically include parades and football games . The holiday is meant to honor the First Thanksgiving , which was a harvest feast held in Plymouth in 1621 , as first recorded in the book New England 's Memorial by Nathaniel Morton , secretary of Plymouth Colony and nephew of Governor William Bradford .
The annual Thanksgiving holiday is a fairly recent creation . Throughout the early 19th century , the U.S. government had declared a particular day as a national day of Thanksgiving , but these were one @-@ time declarations meant to celebrate a significant event , such as victory in a battle . The northeastern states began adopting an annual day of Thanksgiving in November shortly after the end of the War of 1812 . Sarah Josepha Hale , editor of Boston 's Ladies ' Magazine , wrote editorials beginning in 1827 which called for the nationwide expansion of this annual day of thanksgiving to commemorate the Pilgrim 's first harvest feast . After nearly 40 years , Abraham Lincoln declared the first modern Thanksgiving to fall on the last Thursday in November in 1863 . Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Congress ultimately moved it to the fourth Thursday in November . After some sparring as to the date , the holiday was recognized by Congress as an official federal holiday in 1941 .
Some of the modern traditions which have developed alongside the Thanksgiving holiday are the National Football League 's Thanksgiving Day games and the annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City .
= = = Plymouth Rock = = =
One of the enduring symbols of the landing of the Pilgrims is Plymouth Rock , a large granodiorite boulder that was near their landing site at Plymouth . However , none of the contemporary accounts of the actual landing makes any mention that the Rock was the specific place of landing . The Pilgrims chose the site for their landing , not for the rock , but for a small brook nearby that was a source of fresh water and fish .
The first identification of Plymouth Rock as the actual landing site was in 1741 by 90 @-@ year @-@ old Thomas Faunce , whose father had arrived in Plymouth in 1623 , three years after the supposed event . The rock was later covered by a solid @-@ fill pier . In 1774 , an attempt was made to excavate the rock , but it broke in two . The severed piece was placed in the Town Square at the center of Plymouth . In 1880 , the intact half of the rock was excavated from the pier , and the broken piece was reattached to it . Over the years , souvenir hunters have removed chunks from the rock , but the remains are now protected as part of the complex of living museums . These include the Mayflower II , a recreation of the original ship ; Plimoth Plantation , a historical recreation of the original 1620 settlement ; and the Wampanoag Homesite , which recreates a 17th @-@ century Indian village .
= = = Political legacy = = =
The democratic setup of Plymouth Colony had strong influences on the shaping of democracy in both England and America . William Bradford 's History of Plimoth Plantation was widely read in the motherland . It influenced the political thought of Presbyterian politician and poet John Milton , assistant to Oliver Cromwell , and philosopher John Locke . For example , Locke referred to the Mayflower Compact in his Letters Concerning Toleration . In America , Plymouth Colony initiated a democratic tradition that was soon followed by Massachusetts Bay Colony ( 1628 ) , Connecticut ( 1636 ) , Rhode Island ( 1636 ) , New Jersey , and Pennsylvania ( 1681 ) . In the latter four colonies , founded by Thomas Hooker , Roger Williams , and William Penn , respectively , religious freedom was added to democratic constitutions . These territories became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities . There were strong links between 17th @-@ century Puritanism and the political ideas of the 18th century . On the one hand , there was the congregational democracy practiced now by all Protestant churches , including to a large extent the Anglicans . On the other hand , most of the political concepts of the generation that carried out the Revolution were taken over from the radical Whig party in England ( Commonwealthmen ) , which fed on the liberal political theories of Milton , Locke , and other writers . As children the Revolutionaries had experienced the Great Awakening ( c . 1740 ) . In the words of historian Robert Middlekauff : " The Awakening recalled a generation to the standards of reformed Protestantism , which had prevailed at the time of the founding of America . [ ... ] Radical Whig perceptions of politics attracted widespread support in America because they revived the traditional concerns of a Protestant culture that had always verged on Puritanism . That moral decay threatened free government could not come as a surprise to a people whose fathers had fled England to escape sin . The importance of virtue , frugality , industry , and calling was at the heart of their moral code . [ ... ] Radical Whiggery of the eighteenth century convinced Americans because it had been pervasive in their culture since the seventeenth . "
= = = The Mayflower Society = = =
The General Society of Mayflower Descendants , or The Mayflower Society , is a genealogical organization of individuals who have documented their descents from one or more of the 102 passengers who arrived on the Mayflower in 1620 . The Society , founded at Plymouth in 1897 , claims that tens of millions of Americans descend from these passengers , and it offers research services to people seeking to document such descents .
= = = Locations related to Plymouth Colony = = =
Alexander Standish House
Burial Hill , site of the first fort at New Plymouth , originally known as Fort Hill
Cole 's Hill , contained the original cemetery at New Plymouth , later moved to Burial Hill
First Parish Church in Plymouth , the modern descendant of the Scrooby congregation that founded Plymouth Colony
First Parish Church ( Duxbury , Massachusetts ) , another early congregation founded by the Pilgrims
Harlow Old Fort House , a private house built in 1677 in Plymouth , partially out of timbers of the original fort built in 1621
Jabez Howland House
Jenney Grist Mill
John and Priscilla Alden Family Sites
Leyden Street , claimed to be the first street in Plymouth Colony
Myles Standish Burial Ground contains remains of several important Pilgrims , including Myles Standish
Plymouth Village Historic District
Town Brook Historic and Archeological District
= = = Monuments and other commemorations = = =
Myles Standish Monument State Reservation
National Monument to the Forefathers
Pilgrim Hall Museum
Pilgrim Monument
Plimoth Plantation
Plymouth Antiquarian Society
Plymouth Rock
|
= Backbreaker ( video game ) =
Backbreaker is an American football video game , developed by British technology developer NaturalMotion , and released on 1 June 2010 in North America and on 25 June 2010 in Europe . One of its highlights is the use of Euphoria , a game animation engine that determines animations dynamically rather than depending on canned animations . Backbreaker does not use teams from the National Football League ( NFL ) because Electronic Arts has an exclusive license to produce NFL games in its Madden series . The game relies on an extensive logo editor and team builder that was called " one of its silver linings " . NaturalMotion announced Backbreaker in August 2007 , with a targeted release date of late 2008 . The game ended up being delayed until mid @-@ 2010 .
Backbreaker received mixed reviews . While it was praised for the Euphoria animation system , realistic physical gameplay , and the logo editor , it was also criticized for its weak online play , poor passing game , and lack of depth in single @-@ player modes . After the reviews , the passing game was adjusted by the greathouse patch . The Xbox 360 version of the game received an overall rating of 54 % from review aggregator Metacritic , while the PlayStation 3 version received a 58 % . The iOS and Android version was given a rating of 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars by Touch Arcade . A patch released on August 6 , 2010 , alleviated many of the issues critics had with the game upon release and included upgrades such as : improved AI , new play books and an enhanced replay feature .
= = Gameplay = =
Backbreaker is a simulation @-@ style American football game , which allows the player to take control of a team of football players and compete against the CPU or another player in a variety of game modes . The game features 56 built @-@ in teams plus three unlockable teams , and also allows the player to create 32 additional ones for a total of 91 possible teams . It lacks any licensing from the National Football League , due to the fact that they were not able to negotiate a licensing agreement with the NFL or NFLPA Because of this , the developers emphasized the game 's customization tools .
Backbreaker relies on the Euphoria engine , a real time animation engine developed by NaturalMotion that has been used in games such as Grand Theft Auto IV , Star Wars : The Force Unleashed , and Red Dead Redemption . This allows animations for tackles and blocking to be created on the spot instead of using a limited set of canned animations . Due to this , developers pushed to advertise that " no two tackles are the same " in an attempt to draw players to what they called a more physically realistic football game than its competitors . The physics system was rated well by the reviewers , who commented that the integration of realistic physics created a very lifelike interaction between the players on the field .
Along with the Euphoria engine , Backbreaker also features a create @-@ a @-@ team tool and logo creator similar to the editor found in Forza Motorsport 2 . Players can create their own team or modify an existing team . Players are allowed to take their custom teams online , but are restricted from using the names of existing NFL teams and players .
= = = Singleplayer = = =
Backbreaker features several game modes , some that players can play quickly and others that may be played over a long period of time . In " Training Camp " , new players can learn the game 's controls and experienced players can practice certain skills and situations . Different tutorials for offense , defense , and special teams are included in the Training Camp . This is helpful to players , as the controls in Backbreaker are different than most current football games . In " Exhibition Mode " , a player can play a single game with custom rules against either another local player or the CPU . Players can use any of the teams in the game , including ones that they have created .
Another game mode included in Backbreaker is the mini @-@ game " Tackle Alley " . In this game , the player controls a running back who starts in their own endzone . The player then attempts to score a touchdown by running up the field and evading a wave of defenders to score points . Special moves such as jukes and spins create a " combo chain " , which multiply the player 's score by an amount depending on the length of the combo chain . After a player scores , they advance to the next wave of defenders and must repeat the process . If a player is tackled before reaching the endzone , they must start over the wave and lose a " life " . The game ends when all of the player 's lives are depleted or the player passes all 100 of the waves , which become harder as the mode progresses . According to NaturalMotion , only 0 @.@ 88 percent of all Backbreaker players have managed to clear all 100 levels of " Tackle Alley " . Game producer Rob Donald states that the mini @-@ game was meant to add an arcade feel to the game . " It was meant to be a complete diversion from the more realistic main game , a complete arcade challenge ... Everything about it was meant to replicate the pressure and the frustration of playing a cabinet that you know is stacked against you , " said Donald in an interview .
Backbreaker also features two different franchise @-@ style modes . The first , " Season Mode " , allows a player to create a custom league of either 8 , 16 , or 32 teams and insert custom @-@ made and / or default teams into it . Season mode features a scouting and drafting system , but lacks trades and free agent signings . Players can play for an unlimited number of seasons , building a team through scouting college players and drafting them onto their team . The other franchise mode included is titled " Road to Backbreaker " . This mode allows the player to take a custom or default team into a league structured along the lines of the English Football League including promotion and relegation . The player 's team begins with a low rating in an 8 @-@ team league . By winning games , the player earns credits , which can be used to purchase the contracts of free agents . By finishing high in the 8 @-@ team league , the player 's team advances to a 16 @-@ team league and eventually a 32 @-@ team league . The player improves their team by periodically signing free agents , as the competition is tougher in each league . The player wins the mode after winning a playoff tournament in the 32 @-@ team league . Afterwards , they may continue if they wish .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Several game modes in Backbreaker can also be played as local or online multi @-@ player over the Internet . In Exhibition mode , a second player can join the game and can play either against or with the first player . Two players may also compete against one another in Tackle Alley for the most points . Games against other players are played in splitscreen format as opposed to the usual single @-@ camera view of other football game series . This is due to Backbreaker 's " on the field " camera angle , set close to the players , making it difficult for a single @-@ camera two @-@ player setup . Although this setup differs from most modern football games , the developers believe it would add realism to the player 's experience . " One of the benefits of having this down @-@ on @-@ the @-@ field camera view is that it really makes playing as the quarterback like the passing mechanic feel really natural , " said producer Rob Donald .
Players are also able to play games against other players online through the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live hosting services . Online , players are able play Quick Games and Tackle Alley , but two players can not play on the same team . Players are allowed to use their custom created teams online ; others are not able to see their created logos unless they are on each other 's friends lists . Otherwise , a generic " Home Team " or " Away Team " logo is displayed in place of the helmet , midfield , and endzone logos . In addition , an online leaderboard system for ranking players is included .
= = Development = =
NaturalMotion officially announced Backbreaker on 22 August 2007 with the release of a short video trailer showcasing some of the aspects of the Euphoria engine . Along with this , a press release from NaturalMotion CEO Torsten Reil stated " By utilizing our motion synthesis engine , Euphoria , players will never make the same tackle twice , giving them an intensely unique experience every time they play the game . " The targeted release date for the game was late 2008 , according to the aforementioned press release . In mid @-@ 2008 , still without any release date planned , another trailer was released for the game . This trailer revealed the Tackle Alley mini @-@ game mode . At the 2009 Electronic Entertainment Expo , Backbreaker was showcased to the media for the first time . Along with this , a third trailer was released showing actual gameplay footage from an Exhibition game . Again , no release date was revealed .
Backbreaker was developed by the British NaturalMotion Games , Ltd. and published by 505 Games . The game 's development heads were Todd Gibbs and Dave Proctor , and the lead producers were Rob Donald and Matt Sherman . Development began in Summer 2007 , and ended in June 2010 . A game demo was released on 21 May 2010 for Xbox LIVE gold players and 28 May 2010 for silver players . When announcing the release date for the PlayStation 3 demo , the developers only commented that it would be released " soon " . However , communication errors with Sony 's PlayStation Network caused the demo to be delayed until 15 June 2010 , two weeks after the North American release .
NaturalMotion also released a version of BackBreaker for iOS and Android mobile platforms . This version of the game , called Backbreaker Football : Tackle Alley , featured the Tackle Alley minigame found in the full game , sans the Euphoria Engine and with toned @-@ down graphics . The iOS version was released on 29 September 2009 , while a version for the iPad named BackBreaker HD was released on 4 February 2010 . The Android version of the game was released on 5 May 2010 .
= = Reception = =
Backbreaker received mixed reviews from critics . While Backbreaker was praised for its realistic physics , it was also criticized for weak online play , lack of single @-@ player gameplay depth , and poor passing play . Review aggregator Metacritic rated the game at 54 % for the Xbox 360 version and 58 % for the PlayStation 3 version , calling it " a fast @-@ paced , gritty gameplay experience that 's more Burnout than Madden , " . Backbreaker also received an aggregate score of 57 @.@ 31 % on GameRankings , based upon 21 different media reviews . The game 's Euphoria animation system was well liked by reviewers . PlayStation LifeStyle 's Joseph Peterson commented that " Realism is a major plus in Backbreaker . Running with the ball feels lifelike and better than any other football game on the market ... The fact that the game really tries to make you feel what the player is feeling is probably the game ’ s crowning achievement ... literally every tackle is completely different , " while Jay Acevedo of GameFocus added " ... while the game does not scream perfection , it delivers the promise of a realistic and exhilarating experience , " in his review .
Although developers billed a realistic atmosphere , reviewers criticized that aspect of the game . " I understand the emphasis for this game is on the gameplay . However , a little more effort could have been made with the visuals and particularly in the audio department . Crowds will applaud your great plays and touchdowns , but the essence of a football game revolves around atmosphere . Here , it ’ s completely lacking , " said Acevedo in his review . The game was also criticized for its lack of play @-@ by @-@ play and poor audio . " There 's no witty banter between a play @-@ by @-@ play announcer and color commentator ( although some would argue that Madden 's audio presentation 's been seriously lacking the past few iterations ) , there 's no stadium music aside from “ Boom ” by P.O.D. being played during kickoffs ( it gets old pretty fast ) , and the stadium crowds are basically an afterthought , " added Doug Aamoth of Techland . After the patch , the song only comes up for the first kick @-@ off and the kick @-@ off of the second half .
Backbreaker 's close " on the field " camera was also panned by critics . " Because the camera places you right on the field , all of the hits carry even more weight than if you were zoomed farther back , but the positive aspects are overshadowed by an inability to see the entire field , " said GameSpot 's review of Backbreaker , while GameZone added that " Backbreaker uses a tight third @-@ person view that brings the player closer to the action . The results are visually interesting , but the mechanics are mismanaged . While the game strives to be as simple and as straightforward as possible , the camera often gets in the way . "
The game was nominated for Best New IP at the 2010 Develop Awards , but lost to Quantic Dream 's Heavy Rain .
Backbreaker 's mobile editions fared well , selling over 1 @.@ 5 million copies of their application . The iOS and Android versions also received positive reviews from critics . " Backbreaker is a fun mini game with cool graphics and animations , " said Eli Hodapp in his review of the application . " There isn 't anything overly technical about the gameplay , but it has a strangely compelling aspect to it , especially as you 're high stepping to the end zone , " he added .
|
= Australia =
Australia ( / əˈstreɪliə / , / ɒ- / , / -jə / ) , officially the Commonwealth of Australia , is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent , the island of Tasmania , and numerous smaller islands . It is the world 's sixth @-@ largest country by total area . Neighbouring countries include Papua New Guinea , Indonesia and East Timor to the north ; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north @-@ east ; and New Zealand to the south @-@ east .
For about 50 @,@ 000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century , Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians , who spoke languages grouped into roughly 250 language groups . After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606 , Australia 's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788 . The population grew steadily in subsequent decades ; the continent was explored and an additional five self @-@ governing crown colonies were established . On 1 January 1901 , the six colonies federated , forming the Commonwealth of Australia . Since federation , Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories . The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern states and on the coast .
Australia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world , with the world 's 12th @-@ largest economy . In 2014 Australia had the world 's fifth @-@ highest per capita income . Australia 's military expenditure is the world 's 13th @-@ largest . With the second @-@ highest human development index globally , Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance , such as quality of life , health , education , economic freedom , and the protection of civil liberties and political rights . Australia is a member of the United Nations , G20 , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development ( OECD ) , World Trade Organization , Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Pacific Islands Forum .
= = Name = =
The name Australia ( pronounced [ əˈstɹæɪljə , -liə ] in Australian English ) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ( " southern land " ) a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times . The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in " A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo , written by Sir Richard Hakluyt " , published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus , a corruption of the original Spanish name " Austrialia del Espíritu Santo " ( Southern Land of the Holy Spirit ) for an island in Vanuatu . The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia ( Jakarta ) in 1638 , to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south . The first time that the name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Matthew Flinders ' charts of Australia . On 12 December 1817 , Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted . In 1824 , the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42 @,@ 000 and 48 @,@ 000 years ago , possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea @-@ crossings from what is now Southeast Asia . These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians . At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century , most Indigenous Australians were hunter @-@ gatherers , with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime . The Torres Strait Islanders , ethnically Melanesian , were originally horticulturists and hunter @-@ gatherers . The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia .
= = = European arrival = = =
The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland , and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent , are attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon . He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606 , and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York . The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent " New Holland " during the 17th century , but made no attempt at settlement . William Dampier , an English explorer and privateer , landed on the north @-@ west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip . In 1770 , James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast , which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain . With the loss of its American colonies in 1783 , the British Government sent a fleet of ships , the " First Fleet " , under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip , to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales . A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove , Port Jackson , on 26 January 1788 , a date which became Australia 's national day , Australia Day , although the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788 . The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney , and the exploration and settlement of other regions .
A British settlement was established in Van Diemen 's Land , now known as Tasmania , in 1803 , and it became a separate colony in 1825 . The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Western Australia ( the Swan River Colony ) in 1828 . Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales : South Australia in 1836 , Victoria in 1851 , and Queensland in 1859 . The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia . South Australia was founded as a " free province " — it was never a penal colony . Victoria and Western Australia were also founded " free " , but later accepted transported convicts . A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony ; the last convict ship arrived in 1848 .
The indigenous population , estimated to have been between 750 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 1788 , declined for 150 years following settlement , mainly due to infectious disease . Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers . A government policy of " assimilation " beginning with the Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities — often referred to as the Stolen Generations — a practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population . The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum . Traditional ownership of land — aboriginal title — was not recognised until 1992 , when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland ( No 2 ) overturned the legal doctrine that Australia had been terra nullius ( " land belonging to no one " ) before the European occupation .
= = = Colonial expansion = = =
A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience . Between 1855 and 1890 , the six colonies individually gained responsible government , managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire . The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters , notably foreign affairs , defence , and international shipping .
= = = Nationhood = = =
On 1 January 1901 , federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning , consultation and voting . This established the Commonwealth of Australia as a dominion of the British Empire . The Federal Capital Territory ( later renamed the Australian Capital Territory ) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra . Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed . The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911 . In 1914 , Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I , with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party . Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front . Of about 416 @,@ 000 who served , about 60 @,@ 000 were killed and another 152 @,@ 000 were wounded . Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZACs ) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation — its first major military action . The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation @-@ defining event during World War II .
Britain 's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK . Australia adopted it in 1942 , but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II . The shock of the United Kingdom 's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector . Since 1951 , Australia has been a formal military ally of the US , under the ANZUS treaty . After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe . Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy , immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted . As a result , Australia 's demography , culture , and self @-@ image were transformed . The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986 , ending any British role in the government of the Australian States , and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London . In a 1999 referendum , 55 % of voters and a majority in every state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two @-@ thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament . Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972 , there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations , while maintaining close ties with Australia 's traditional allies and trading partners .
= = Government = =
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia , a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms . The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor @-@ General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level , who by convention act on the advice of her ministers . The most notable exercise to date of the Governor @-@ General 's reserve powers outside the Prime Minister 's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975 .
The federal government is separated into three branches :
The legislature : the bicameral Parliament , defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the Queen ( represented by the Governor @-@ General ) , the Senate , and the House of Representatives ;
The executive : the Federal Executive Council , which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet , comprising the prime minister and ministers of state who advise the Governor @-@ General ;
The judiciary : the High Court of Australia and other federal courts , whose judges are appointed by the Governor @-@ General on advice of the Federal Executive Council .
In the Senate ( the upper house ) , there are 76 senators : twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories ( the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory ) . The House of Representatives ( the lower house ) has 150 members elected from single @-@ member electoral divisions , commonly known as " electorates " or " seats " , allocated to states on the basis of population , with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats . Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously ; senators have overlapping six @-@ year terms except for those from the territories , whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house ; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution .
Australia 's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which , along with the Senate and most state upper houses , combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote . Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction , as is enrolment ( with the exception of South Australia ) . The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister . In cases where no party has majority support , the Governor @-@ General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and , if necessary , dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament .
There are two major political groups that usually form government , federally and in the states : the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner , the National Party . Within Australian political culture , the Coalition is considered centre @-@ right and the Labor Party is considered centre @-@ left . Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments , mostly in upper houses .
The most recent federal election was held on 7 September 2013 and resulted in a majority government for the Coalition . Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott was sworn into office as Prime Minister by the Governor @-@ General of Australia on 18 September . In September 2015 , Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged Abbott for leadership of the Coalition , and was sworn in as the 29th Prime Minister of Australia .
= = States and territories = =
Australia has six states — New South Wales ( NSW ) , Queensland ( QLD ) , South Australia ( SA ) , Tasmania ( TAS ) , Victoria ( VIC ) and Western Australia ( WA ) — and two major mainland territories — the Australian Capital Territory ( ACT ) and the Northern Territory ( NT ) . In most respects these two territories function as states , but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments . By contrast , federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution ; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers , including those over schools , state police , the state judiciary , roads , public transport and local government , since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51 .
Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament — unicameral in the Northern Territory , the ACT and Queensland , and bicameral in the other states . The states are sovereign entities , although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution . The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly ( the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania ) ; the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council . The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister . The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor ; and in the Northern Territory , the Administrator . In the Commonwealth , the Queen 's representative is the Governor @-@ General .
The federal parliament directly administers the following territories :
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
Australian Antarctic Territory
Christmas Island
Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands
Coral Sea Islands
Heard Island and McDonald Islands
Jervis Bay Territory , a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales
The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the Queen . In 2015 , the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self @-@ government , integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council .
Macquarie Island is administered by Tasmania , and Lord Howe Island by New South Wales .
= = Foreign relations and military = =
Over recent decades , Australia 's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact , and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific , particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum . In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia , and in 2011 attended the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia . Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co @-@ operation .
Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation . It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation . Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development and the World Trade Organization , and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements , most recently the Australia – United States Free Trade Agreement and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand , with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China — the Australia – China Free Trade Agreement — and Japan , South Korea in 2011 , Australia – Chile Free Trade Agreement , and as of November 2015 has put the Trans @-@ Pacific Partnership before parliament for ratification .
Along with New Zealand , the United Kingdom , Malaysia and Singapore , Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements , a regional defence agreement . A founding member country of the United Nations , Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance . The 2005 – 06 budget provides A $ 2 @.@ 5 billion for development assistance . Australia ranks fifteenth overall in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index .
Australia 's armed forces — the Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) — comprise the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , in total numbering 81 @,@ 214 personnel ( including 57 @,@ 982 regulars and 23 @,@ 232 reservists ) as of November 2015 . The titular role of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief is vested in the Governor @-@ General , who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government . Day @-@ to @-@ day force operations are under the command of the Chief , while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence .
In the 2015 – 16 budget , defence spending was A $ 31 @.@ 9 billion or 1 @.@ 92 % of GDP , representing the 13th largest defence budget . Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping , disaster relief and armed conflict , including the 2003 invasion of Iraq ; it currently has deployed about 2 @,@ 241 personnel in varying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including Iraq and Afghanistan .
= = Geography and climate = =
Australia 's landmass of 7 @,@ 617 @,@ 930 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 941 @,@ 300 sq mi ) is on the Indo @-@ Australian Plate . Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans , it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas , with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast , and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand . The world 's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area , Australia — owing to its size and isolation — is often dubbed the " island continent " , and is sometimes considered the world 's largest island . Australia has 34 @,@ 218 kilometres ( 21 @,@ 262 mi ) of coastline ( excluding all offshore islands ) , and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8 @,@ 148 @,@ 250 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 146 @,@ 060 sq mi ) . This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory . Apart from Macquarie Island , Australia lies between latitudes 9 ° and 44 ° S , and longitudes 112 ° and 154 ° E.
The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest coral reef , lies a short distance off the north @-@ east coast and extends for over 2 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 240 mi ) . Mount Augustus , claimed to be the world 's largest monolith , is located in Western Australia . At 2 @,@ 228 metres ( 7 @,@ 310 ft ) , Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland . Even taller are Mawson Peak ( at 2 @,@ 745 metres or 9 @,@ 006 feet ) , on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island , and , in the Australian Antarctic Territory , Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies , at 3 @,@ 492 metres ( 11 @,@ 457 ft ) and 3 @,@ 355 metres ( 11 @,@ 007 ft ) respectively .
Australia 's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes , with tropical rainforests in the north @-@ east , mountain ranges in the south @-@ east , south @-@ west and east , and dry desert in the centre . It is the flattest continent , with the oldest and least fertile soils ; desert or semi @-@ arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land . The driest inhabited continent , its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm . The population density , 2 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square kilometre , is among the lowest in the world , although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south @-@ eastern coastline .
Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range , which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland , New South Wales and much of Victoria . The name is not strictly accurate , because parts of the range consist of low hills , and the highlands are typically no more than 1 @,@ 600 metres ( 5 @,@ 249 ft ) in height . The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains , while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland . These include the western plains of New South Wales , and the Einasleigh Uplands , Barkly Tableland , and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland . The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical @-@ rainforested Cape York Peninsula .
The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Country — with their tropical climate — include forest , woodland , wetland , grassland , rainforest and desert . At the north @-@ west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley , and below that the Pilbara . To the south of these and inland , lie more areas of grassland : the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands . At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia . Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru ( also known as Ayers Rock ) , the famous sandstone monolith , and the inland Simpson , Tirari and Sturt Stony , Gibson , Great Sandy , Tanami , and Great Victoria deserts , with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast .
The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents , including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño – Southern Oscillation , which is correlated with periodic drought , and the seasonal tropical low @-@ pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia . These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year . Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical , predominantly summer @-@ rainfall ( monsoon ) climate . The south @-@ west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate . Much of the south @-@ east ( including Tasmania ) is temperate .
= = Environment = =
Although most of Australia is semi @-@ arid or desert , it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests , and is recognised as a megadiverse country . Fungi typify that diversity ; an estimated 250 @,@ 000 species — of which only 5 % have been described — occur in Australia . Because of the continent 's great age , extremely variable weather patterns , and long @-@ term geographic isolation , much of Australia 's biota is unique . About 85 % of flowering plants , 84 % of mammals , more than 45 % of birds , and 89 % of in @-@ shore , temperate @-@ zone fish are endemic . Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country , with 755 species .
Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species , particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions ; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts . Among well @-@ known Australian animals are the monotremes ( the platypus and echidna ) ; a host of marsupials , including the kangaroo , koala , and wombat , and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra . Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world . The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE . Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement , including the Australian megafauna ; others have disappeared since European settlement , among them the thylacine .
Many of Australia 's ecoregions , and the species within those regions , are threatened by human activities and introduced animal , chromistan , fungal and plant species . All these factors have led to Australia having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world . The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species . Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia 's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems ; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention , and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established . Australia was ranked 3rd out of 178 countries in the world on the 2014 Environmental Performance Index .
= = = Environmental issues = = =
Protection of the environment is a major political issue in Australia . In 2007 , the First Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol . Nevertheless , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world , lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 – 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s .
According to the Bureau of Meteorology 's 2011 Australian Climate Statement , Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Niña weather pattern ; however , " the country 's 10 @-@ year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures , with 2002 – 2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10 @-@ year periods on record for Australia , at 0 @.@ 52 ° C ( 0 @.@ 94 ° F ) above the long @-@ term average " . Furthermore , 2014 was Australia 's third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910 . Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought . Throughout much of the continent , major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought , flushing out inland river systems , overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains , as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010 , 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought .
A carbon tax was introduced in 2012 and helped to reduce Australia 's emissions but was scrapped in 2014 under the Liberal Government . Since the carbon tax was repealed , emissions have again continued to rise .
Australian biota has been severely impacted by changes occurring since European settlement began in 1788 , with more than 10 % of mammal species lost in the past 225 years . There have also been 23 bird species or subspecies , 4 amphibians and more than 60 plant species known to be lost during this period . The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 was designed to minimise further impacts on ecological communities in Australia and its territories .
= = Economy = =
Australia is a wealthy country ; it generates its income from various sources including mining @-@ related exports , telecommunications , banking and manufacturing . It has a market economy , a relatively high GDP per capita , and a relatively low rate of poverty . In terms of average wealth , Australia ranked second in the world after Switzerland in 2013 , although the nation 's poverty rate increased from 10 @.@ 2 % to 11 @.@ 8 % , from 2000 / 01 to 2013 . It was identified by the Credit Suisse Research Institute as the nation with the highest median wealth in the world and the second @-@ highest average wealth per adult in 2013 .
The Australian dollar is the currency for the nation , including Christmas Island , Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands , and Norfolk Island , as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati , Nauru , and Tuvalu . With the 2006 merger of the Australian Stock Exchange and the Sydney Futures Exchange , the Australian Securities Exchange became the ninth largest in the world .
Ranked third in the Index of Economic Freedom ( 2010 ) , Australia is the world 's twelfth largest economy and has the fifth highest per capita GDP ( nominal ) at $ 66 @,@ 984 . The country was ranked second in the United Nations 2011 Human Development Index and first in Legatum 's 2008 Prosperity Index . All of Australia 's major cities fare well in global comparative livability surveys ; Melbourne reached top spot for the fourth year in a row on The Economist 's 2014 list of the world 's most liveable cities , followed by Adelaide , Sydney , and Perth in the fifth , seventh , and ninth places respectively . Total government debt in Australia is about $ 190 billion – 20 % of GDP in 2010 . Australia has among the highest house prices and some of the highest household debt levels in the world .
An emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactured goods has underpinned a significant increase in Australia 's terms of trade since the start of the 21st century , due to rising commodity prices . Australia has a balance of payments that is more than 7 % of GDP negative , and has had persistently large current account deficits for more than 50 years . Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3 @.@ 6 % for over 15 years , in comparison to the OECD annual average of 2 @.@ 5 % . Australia was the only advanced economy not to experience a recession due to the global financial downturn in 2008 – 2009 . However , the economies of six of Australia 's major trading partners have been in recession , which in turn has affected Australia , significantly hampering its economic growth in recent years . From 2012 to early 2013 , Australia 's national economy grew , but some non @-@ mining states and Australia 's non @-@ mining economy experienced a recession .
The Hawke Government floated the Australian dollar in 1983 and partially deregulated the financial system . The Howard Government followed with a partial deregulation of the labour market and the further privatisation of state @-@ owned businesses , most notably in the telecommunications industry . The indirect tax system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10 % Goods and Services Tax ( GST ) . In Australia 's tax system , personal and company income tax are the main sources of government revenue .
In May 2012 , there were 11 @,@ 537 @,@ 900 people employed ( either full- or part @-@ time ) , with an unemployment rate of 5 @.@ 1 % . Youth unemployment ( 15 – 24 ) stood at 11 @.@ 2 % . Data released in mid @-@ November 2013 showed that the number of welfare recipients had grown by 55 % . In 2007 228 @,@ 621 Newstart unemployment allowance recipients were registered , a total that increased to 646 @,@ 414 in March 2013 . According to the Graduate Careers Survey , full @-@ time employment for newly qualified professionals from various occupations has declined since 2011 but it increases for graduates three years after graduation .
Since 2008 , inflation has typically been 2 – 3 % and the base interest rate 5 – 6 % . The service sector of the economy , including tourism , education , and financial services , accounts for about 70 % of GDP . Rich in natural resources , Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products , particularly wheat and wool , minerals such as iron @-@ ore and gold , and energy in the forms of liquified natural gas and coal . Although agriculture and natural resources account for only 3 % and 5 % of GDP respectively , they contribute substantially to export performance . Australia 's largest export markets are Japan , China , the US , South Korea , and New Zealand . Australia is the world 's fourth largest exporter of wine , and the wine industry contributes $ 5 @.@ 5 billion per year to the nation 's economy .
= = Demographics = =
Until the Second World War , the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles , and a majority of Australians have some British or Irish ancestry . In the 2011 Australian census , the most commonly nominated ancestries were English ( 36 @.@ 1 % ) , Australian ( 35 @.@ 4 % ) , Irish ( 10 @.@ 4 % ) , Scottish ( 8 @.@ 9 % ) , Italian ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) , German ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) , Chinese ( 4 @.@ 3 % ) , Indian ( 2 @.@ 0 % ) , Greek ( 1 @.@ 9 % ) , and Dutch ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) .
Australia 's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I , much of this increase from immigration . Following World War II and through to 2000 , almost 5 @.@ 9 million of the total population settled in the country as new immigrants , meaning that nearly two out of every seven Australians were born in another country . Most immigrants are skilled , but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees . By 2050 , Australia 's population is currently projected to reach around 42 million . Nevertheless , its population density , 2 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square kilometre , remains among the lowest in the world . As such , Australians have more living space per person than the inhabitants of any other nation .
In 2011 , 24 @.@ 6 % of Australians were born elsewhere and 43 @.@ 1 % of people had at least one overseas @-@ born parent ; the five largest immigrant groups were those from the United Kingdom , New Zealand , China , India , and Vietnam . Following the abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973 , numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism . In 2005 – 06 , more than 131 @,@ 000 people emigrated to Australia , mainly from Asia and Oceania . The migration target for 2012 – 13 is 190 @,@ 000 , compared to 67 @,@ 900 in 1998 – 99 .
The Indigenous population — Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders — was counted at 548 @,@ 370 ( 2 @.@ 5 % of the total population ) in 2011 , a significant increase from 115 @,@ 953 in the 1976 census . The increase is partly due to many people with Indigenous heritage previously having been overlooked by the census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status had not been recorded on the form . Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment , lower levels of education , and life expectancies for males and females that are , respectively , 11 and 17 years lower than those of non @-@ indigenous Australians . Some remote Indigenous communities have been described as having " failed state " -like conditions .
In common with many other developed countries , Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population , with more retirees and fewer people of working age . In 2004 , the average age of the civilian population was 38 @.@ 8 years . A large number of Australians ( 759 @,@ 849 for the period 2002 – 03 ; 1 million or 5 % of the total population in 2005 ) live outside their home country .
= = = Language = = =
Although Australia has no official language , English has always been entrenched as the de facto national language . Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon , and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling . General Australian serves as the standard dialect . According to the 2011 census , English is the only language spoken in the home for close to 81 % of the population . The next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) , Italian ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) , Arabic ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) , Cantonese ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) , Greek ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) , and Vietnamese ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) ; a considerable proportion of first- and second @-@ generation migrants are bilingual . A 2010 – 2011 study by the Australia Early Development Index found the most common language spoken by children after English was Arabic , followed by Vietnamese , Greek , Chinese , and Hindi .
Over 250 Indigenous Australian languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact , of which less than 20 are still in daily use by all age groups . About 110 others are spoken exclusively by older people . At the time of the 2006 census , 52 @,@ 000 Indigenous Australians , representing 12 % of the Indigenous population , reported that they spoke an Indigenous language at home . Australia has a sign language known as Auslan , which is the main language of about 5 @,@ 500 deaf people .
= = = Religion = = =
Australia has no state religion ; Section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the federal government from making any law to establish any religion , impose any religious observance , or prohibit the free exercise of any religion . In the 2011 census , 61 @.@ 1 % of Australians were counted as Christian , including 25 @.@ 3 % as Roman Catholic and 17 @.@ 1 % as Anglican ; 22 @.@ 3 % of the population reported having " no religion " ; 7 @.@ 2 % identify with non @-@ Christian religions , the largest of these being Buddhism ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , followed by Islam ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) , Hinduism ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) and Judaism ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) . The remaining 9 @.@ 4 % of the population did not provide an adequate answer .
Before European settlement , the animist beliefs of Australia 's indigenous people had been practised for many thousands of years . Mainland Aboriginal Australians ' spirituality is known as the Dreamtime and it places a heavy emphasis on belonging to the land . The collection of stories that it contains shaped Aboriginal law and customs . Aboriginal art , story and dance continue to draw on these spiritual traditions . The spirituality and customs of Torres Strait Islanders , who inhabit the islands between Australia and New Guinea , reflected their Melanesian origins and dependence on the sea . The 1996 Australian census counted more than 7000 respondents as followers of a traditional Aboriginal religion .
Since the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships in 1788 , Christianity has grown to be the major religion practised in Australia . Christian churches have played an integral role in the development of education , health and welfare services in Australia . For much of Australian history the Church of England ( now known as the Anglican Church of Australia ) was the largest religious denomination . However , multicultural immigration has contributed to a decline in its relative position , and the Roman Catholic Church has benefitted from recent immigration to become the largest group . Similarly , Islam , Buddhism , Hinduism and Judaism have all grown in Australia over the past half @-@ century .
Australia has one of the lowest levels of religious adherence in the world . In 2001 , only 8 @.@ 8 % of Australians attended church on a weekly basis .
= = = Education = = =
School attendance , or registration for home schooling , is compulsory throughout Australia . Education is the responsibility of the individual states and territories so the rules vary between states , but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16 . In some states ( e.g. , Western Australia , the Northern Territory and New South Wales ) , children aged 16 – 17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training , such as an apprenticeship .
Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99 % in 2003 . However , a 2011 – 12 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50 % . In the Programme for International Student Assessment , Australia regularly scores among the top five of thirty major developed countries ( member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development ) . Catholic education accounts for the largest non @-@ government sector .
Australia has 37 government @-@ funded universities and two private universities , as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level . The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university . There is a state @-@ based system of vocational training , known as TAFE , and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople . About 58 % of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications , and the tertiary graduation rate of 49 % is the highest among OECD countries . The ratio of international to local students in tertiary education in Australia is the highest in the OECD countries . In addition , 38 percent of Australia 's population has a university or college degree , which is among the highest percentages in the world .
= = = Health = = =
Australia has the third and seventh highest life expectancy of males and females respectively in the world . Life expectancy in Australia in 2010 was 79 @.@ 5 years for males and 84 @.@ 0 years for females . Australia has the highest rates of skin cancer in the world , while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease , responsible for 7 @.@ 8 % of the total mortality and disease . Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7 @.@ 6 % , with obesity third at 7 @.@ 5 % . Australia ranks 35th in the world and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults and nearly two thirds ( 63 % ) of its adult population is either overweight or obese .
Total expenditure on health ( including private sector spending ) is around 9 @.@ 8 % of GDP . Australia introduced universal health care in 1975 . Known as Medicare , it is now nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy , currently set at 1 @.@ 5 % . The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services , while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme ( subsidising the costs of medicines ) and general practice .
= = Culture = =
Since 1788 , the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo @-@ Celtic Western culture , with some Indigenous influences . The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture . Since the mid @-@ 20th century , American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia , particularly through television and cinema . Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries , and through large @-@ scale immigration from non @-@ English @-@ speaking nations .
= = = Arts = = =
The rock art of Australia 's Indigenous peoples is the oldest and richest in the world , dating as far back as 60 @,@ 000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites . Traditional designs , patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art , " the last great art movement of the 20th century " ; its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye . During the first century of European settlement , colonial artists , trained in Europe , showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land . The naturalistic , sun @-@ filled works of Arthur Streeton , Tom Roberts and others associated with the 19th @-@ century Heidelberg School — the first " distinctively Australian " movement in Western art — gave expression to a burgeoning Australian nationalism in the lead @-@ up to Federation . While the school remained influential into the new century , modernists such as Margaret Preston , and , later , Sidney Nolan and Arthur Boyd , explored new artistic trends . The landscape remained a central subject matter for Fred Williams , Brett Whiteley and other post @-@ World War II artists whose works , eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian , moved between the figurative and the abstract . The National Gallery of Australia and state galleries maintain collections of Australian and international art . Australia has one of the world 's highest attendances of art galleries and museums per head of population .
Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions , many of which have since been recorded in writing , are much older . 19th @-@ century writers such as Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary . Their works are still very popular ; Paterson 's bush poem " Waltzing Matilda " ( 1895 ) is regarded as Australia 's unofficial national anthem . Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia 's most prestigious literary prize , awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life . Its first recipient , Patrick White , went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973 . Australian winners of the Booker Prize include Peter Carey , Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan . Author David Malouf , playwright David Williamson and poet Les Murray are also renowned literary figures .
Many of Australia 's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government 's Australia Council . There is a symphony orchestra in each state , and a national opera company , Opera Australia , well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland . At the beginning of the 20th century , Nellie Melba was one of the world 's leading opera singers . Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies . Each state has a publicly funded theatre company .
= = = Media = = =
The Story of the Kelly Gang ( 1906 ) , the world 's first feature length film , spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era . After World War I , Hollywood monopolised the industry , and by the 1960s Australian film production had effectively ceased . With the benefit of government support , the Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films , many exploring themes of national identity , such as Wake in Fright and Gallipoli , while " Crocodile " Dundee and the Ozploitation movement 's Mad Max series became international blockbusters . In a film market flooded with foreign content , Australian films delivered a 7 @.@ 7 % share of the local box office in 2015 . The AACTAs are Australia 's premier film and television awards , and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush , Nicole Kidman , Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger .
Australia has two public broadcasters ( the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service ) , three commercial television networks , several pay @-@ TV services , and numerous public , non @-@ profit television and radio stations . Each major city has at least one daily newspaper , and there are two national daily newspapers , The Australian and The Australian Financial Review . In 2010 , Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 18th on a list of 178 countries ranked by press freedom , behind New Zealand ( 8th ) but ahead of the United Kingdom ( 19th ) and United States ( 20th ) . This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia ; most print media are under the control of News Corporation and Fairfax Media .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter @-@ gatherer diet of native fauna and flora , otherwise called bush tucker . The first settlers introduced British food to the continent , much of which is now considered typical Australian food , such as the Sunday roast . Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine ; post @-@ World War II European migrants , particularly from the Mediterranean , helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture , and the influence of Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of their staple foods , such as the Chinese @-@ inspired dim sim and Chiko Roll . Vegemite , pavlova , lamingtons and meat pies are regarded as iconic Australian foods . Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern , cooler parts of the country .
= = = Sport and recreation = = =
About 24 % of Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities . At an international level , Australia has excelled at cricket , field hockey , netball , rugby league and rugby union . The majority of Australians live within the coastal zone , making the beach a popular recreation spot and an integral part of the nation 's identity . Australia is a powerhouse in water @-@ based sports , such as swimming and surfing . The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia , and the volunteer lifesaver is one of the country 's icons . Nationally , other popular sports include Australian rules football , horse racing , basketball , surfing , soccer , and motor racing . The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race attract intense interest .
Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era , and has hosted the Games twice : 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney . Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games , hosting the event in 1938 , 1962 , 1982 , 2006 and will host the 2018 Commonwealth Games . Australia made its inaugural appearance at the Pacific Games in 2015 . As well as being a regular FIFA World Cup participant , Australia has won the OFC Nations Cup four times and the AFC Asian Cup once – the only country to have won championships in two different FIFA confederations . The country regularly competes among the world elite basketball teams as it is among the global top three teams in terms of qualifications to the Basketball Tournament at the Summer Olympics . Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament , international cricket matches , and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix . The highest @-@ rating television programs include sports telecasts such as the Summer Olympics , FIFA World Cup , The Ashes , Rugby League State of Origin , and the grand finals of the National Rugby League and Australian Football League . Skiing in Australia began in the 1860s and snow sports take place in the Australian Alps and parts of Tasmania .
|
= Dwight 's Speech =
" Dwight 's Speech " is the seventeenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's twenty @-@ third episode overall . Written by Paul Lieberstein , and directed by Charles McDougall , the episode first aired in the United States on March 2 , 2006 on NBC .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) helps Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) with an important speech that he is going to give . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) plans a vacation to avoid Pam Beesley 's ( Jenna Fischer ) wedding .
The speech scene employed over 500 extras , an unusual occurrence for the series . Much of Dwight 's speech is based upon a real speech by infamous Italian leader Benito Mussolini . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . In its original broadcast , " Dwight 's Speech " earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 4 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) is named Northeastern Pennsylvania Salesman of the Year and must make a speech at an association meeting at the Radisson Lackawanna Station Hotel , getting some assistance from Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) . Before he leaves , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , in retaliation for Dwight 's cocky attitude , gives him tips on how to give public speeches . Unknown to Dwight , Jim 's tips are taken from a speech by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini , the fascist dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943 . When Michael and Dwight make it to the convention , Dwight gets cold feet and Michael goes up and tries to relive his glory days of winning Salesman of the Year two years in a row , but ends up bombing . Dwight finally works up the nerve to give his speech and , using Jim 's advice , wins over the crowd with a passionate yet unorthodox speech ( which Angela videotapes from the back ) . Michael ends up leaving the convention room and later entertains Dwight with his tales at the bar .
Meanwhile , back in the office , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) begins to write invitations for her approaching wedding with help from Ryan and Kelly . Kelly talks about her dreams of getting married someday and is visibly hurt when Ryan responds to her flirtatious question about future weddings by saying he doesn 't think he 'll ever tie the knot ; when Kelly leaves the room , Pam advises Ryan to be considerate of Kelly 's feelings but Ryan curtly notes " I know what I said . " Jim makes plans for a vacation anywhere away from Scranton . While that is going on , the other employees subtly duel over the thermostat . At the end of the episode , Jim tells Pam that he will be going to Australia and unfortunately , he will be missing her wedding because of it .
= = Production = =
" Dwight 's Speech " was directed by Charles McDougall , making it his second directing credit after the earlier second season episode " Christmas Party " . " Dwight 's Speech " was written by Paul Lieberstein , who plays human resources director Toby Flenderson . Lieberstein later revealed that Jim never went on his trip to Australia , noting " The whole Pam thing took him by surprise , he transferred and then wasn ’ t really up for vacation . Unless , of course , we find a good joke in his vacation . ”
During the earlier scenes when Dwight is in Michael 's office , Pam can be seen in the background talking to Meredith . According to actress Jenna Fischer , she and Kate Flannery stayed in character and acted out mundane talking scenes . Although they were not recorded , the dialogue was very detailed . In a guest post written for TV Guide , Fischer described several of the conversations , which ranged from Pam and Meredith discussing " the problems with the new quality @-@ assurance computer @-@ input program " , that the computers don 't " accept both alpha and numeric characters " , " backlog [ of ] receipts dating to 2001 " , and that Dunder Mifflin " changed to all @-@ numeric product codes in 2004 and the computer system does not allow for the earlier records . "
The speech scene employed over 500 extras , which was unusual for The Office , and was hectic for the crew to organize . Jim claims that he stole pieces of Dwight 's speech from Mussolini . The first line of Dwight 's speech , " Blood alone moves the wheels of history " , is paraphrased from a speech Mussolini gave in Parma on December 13 , 1914 , advocating Italian entry into World War I. The actual quote is , " It is blood which moves the wheels of history ! "
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Dwight coming to work wearing sunglasses , Michael criticizing Dwight 's speaking skills , Dwight trying to tell another joke to the office , Ryan bringing the wrong type of stamps for Pam 's wedding invitations , and an extended scene of Michael 's unfunny and extremely awkward speech .
= = Cultural references = =
In order to practice his public speaking skills , Dwight tries to convince the office that Brad Pitt was in a car accident . Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) then states that it " is karma because of what he did to Jennifer Aniston . " During the meeting in the break room Dwight references Good Morning , Vietnam . Michael later references the movie at the actual convention when he is filling time for Dwight . When Jim asks the office where he should go for vacation , Kevin tells him he should go to Hedonism Resorts , describing it as " Club Med , only everything is naked . " Toby tells him he should go to Amsterdam , while Creed informs him that he should go to Hong Kong . Dwight later reveals that he will be going to New Zealand to " walk the Lord of the Rings trail to Mordor and I will hike Mount Doom . "
= = Reception = =
" Dwight 's Speech " originally aired on NBC on the March 2 , 2006 . The episode received a 4 @.@ 4 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers , and retained 88 percent of its lead @-@ in My Name Is Earl audience . An encore presentation of the episode on August 15 received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 6 percent share and was viewed by over 4 @.@ 6 million viewers and retained 100 percent of its lead @-@ in audience .
" Dwight 's Speech " received mostly positive reviews . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad wrote that he wonders if the Jim @-@ Pam " will reach some sort of resolution or become a season @-@ ending cliffhanger " . Sciannamea also noted that " you know you 're living in a Bizarro World when Dwight wins Dunder Mifflin 's salesman of the year award . " M. Giant of Television Without Pity graded the episode with an " A – . " Francis Rizzo III of DVD Talk felt that Dwight 's enlarged role was great , but noted that the episode was not as funny as his " strange behavior " in " The Injury . " Betsy Bozdech of DVD Journal described " Dwight 's Speech " as an instant classic . Not all reviews were so glowing . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict felt that " Dwight 's Speech " was " one of the few misfires " of the season , noting that it " certainly has laughs " , but that " its humor is a bit too absurd compared to the show 's usual riffs on office ennui " . He ultimately gave the episode a " B – " , but wrote that " Dwight 's Speech " being the worst episode of the season was a " testament to the show 's excellence . "
IGN ranked the scene with Dwight making his speech as its third @-@ best moment in the first two seasons , and called Wilson 's performance a " hilariously spot @-@ on impersonation of Mussolini 's crazed arm movements . " In addition , Rolling Stone named the same scene the eighteenth @-@ funniest scene in the first three seasons of The Office .
|
= Eurovision Song Contest 2014 =
The Eurovision Song Contest 2014 was the 59th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest . It took place in Copenhagen , Denmark , following Emmelie de Forest 's win at the 2013 contest in Malmö , Sweden with the song " Only Teardrops " . This was the third time that Denmark hosted the contest , the most recent previous occasion being in 2001 . The two semi @-@ finals took place on 6 May and 8 May 2014 , and the final on 10 May 2014 . The shows were presented by Lise Rønne , Nikolaj Koppel and Pilou Asbæk .
The show organisers from Copenhagen all in all spent 112 million Danish kroner on the contest ; three times more than what was expected and were furthermore highly accused of cases of nepotism within the organisation . The host broadcaster , DR , chose the B & W Hallerne as the host venue after considering several bids from cities and venues across Denmark .
Thirty @-@ seven countries participated ; this includes the return of Poland after a two @-@ year absence and Portugal after a one @-@ year absence . Overall , there were two fewer countries competing compared to the previous year , making thirty @-@ seven participants , the smallest number since 2006 . Bulgaria , Croatia , Cyprus and Serbia announced their withdrawal from the 2014 Contest . San Marino and Montenegro both qualified for the final for the first time . The winner was Conchita Wurst with the song " Rise Like a Phoenix " , written by Charley Mason , Joey Patulka , Ali Zuckowski , and Julian Maas for Austria . This was Austria 's first win in the competition since 1966 . Jokes made about Wurst had sparked controversy , whilst Russia were booed several times during the contest . The Netherlands and Sweden finished second and third respectively with the former achieving their best result since their victory in the 1975 Contest . Armenia finished fourth , which equals their best result to date , while Hungary finished fifth , achieving its best result since its fourth place in 1994 . Of the " Big Five " , only Ruth Lorenzo of Spain achieved a place in the top ten .
A new record of 195 million viewers for the Eurovision Song Contest was reported . The official compilation album of the 2014 Contest was released by Universal Music Group on 14 April 2014 , and featured all 37 songs from the contest , including the official # JoinUs theme performed during the interval act of the grand final . The host broadcaster , DR , and the EBU won the International TV Award at the Ondas Awards for their production of the contest .
= = Location = =
On 2 September 2013 , Danish public broadcaster DR announced that it had chosen Copenhagen as the host city for the 2014 contest . The contest was held at the former shipyard Refshaleøen , in the B & W Hallerne , with the social networking hashtag " # JoinUs " as the motto . The location had been refurbished to accommodate the event , with the surrounding area transformed into " Eurovision Island " — an Olympic Park @-@ inspired complex housing the event venue , press centre , and other amenities .
The mayor of Copenhagen , Frank Jensen , declared in late August that the city would contribute to the budget with 40 million ( Danish Kroner ) ( € 5 @.@ 36 million ) . He also announced that the aim was to make the Eurovision 2014 into the greenest contest to date since Copenhagen had been elected European Green Capital for 2014 .
= = = Bidding phase = = =
Five cities had been considered as host city of the contest , including Herning and Copenhagen , both favourites to be the next host . The Parken Stadium , located in Copenhagen , which hosted the 2001 contest and Jyske Bank Boxen in Herning , which hosted the Dansk Melodi Grand Prix 2013 final , were the first venues to join the bidding phase . Later , Fredericia and Aalborg entered the phase with the Messe C and Gigantium venues , respectively . The fifth city to join the phase was Horsens , with the venue being the courtyard of the former Horsens State Prison . In the event that Horsens had been chosen to host the contest , the courtyard would have been covered by a permanent glass roof . The contest was provisionally set to take place on 13 , 15 and 17 May 2014 , however , the dates were later brought forward a week in order to accommodate the candidate cities .
On 17 June 2013 , the municipality executive of Aalborg decided not to bid for hosting the contest due to the city 's lack of sufficient hotel capacity . While DR required the host city to have at least 3 @,@ 000 hotel rooms , the city of Aalborg had only 1 @,@ 600 hotel rooms , more than half of which had been booked for other events taking place at the same time as the Eurovision Song Contest . On 18 June 2013 , DR announced that formal bids on hosting the contest had been received by the municipalities of Copenhagen , Herning and Horsens , and that the Municipality of Fredericia had confirmed its intention to place a formal bid , too .
On 19 June 2013 , the deadline for placing bids on hosting the contest , it was reported that Wonderful Copenhagen , the official convention , event and visitors bureau of the Greater Copenhagen area , had proposed three different venues in its bid on hosting the contest : The Parken Stadium , a large tent on the grounds of DR Byen and the B & W Hallerne . On 25 June 2013 , the Municipality of Fredericia announced that the Triangle Region had withdrawn its bid on hosting the contest , due to the lack of a suitable venue . DR required the hosting venue to have no pillars blocking any views and an interior height of at least 16 metres . However , no venues in the region met those requirements and , therefore , Fredericia was no longer in the running for becoming host city of the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest . On 28 June 2013 , Anders Hørsholt , CEO of Parken Sport & Entertainment , stated that the Parken Stadium was no longer in the running for hosting the contest due to several football matches having already been scheduled to take place at the stadium in the weeks leading up to the contest .
Key Host venue
= = Format = =
The competition consisted of two semi @-@ finals and a final , a format which has been in use since 2008 . The ten countries with the highest scores in each semi @-@ final qualified to the final where they joined the host nation Denmark and the five main sponsoring nations ( known as the Big Five ) : France , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom .
Each participating country had their own national jury , which consisted of five professional members of the music industry . Each member of a respective nation 's jury was required to rank every song , except that of their own country . The voting results from each member of a particular nation 's jury were combined to produce an overall ranking from first to last place . Likewise , the televoting results were also interpreted as a full ranking , taking into account the full televoting result rather than just the top ten . The combination of the jury 's full ranking and the televote 's full ranking produced an overall ranking of all competing entries . The song which scored the highest overall rank received 12 points , while the tenth @-@ best ranked song received 1 @-@ point . In the event of a televoting ( insufficient amount of votes / technical issues ) or jury failure ( technical issue / breach of rules ) , only a jury / televoting was used by each country
On 20 September 2013 , the EBU released the official rules for the 2014 contest , which introduced rule changes regarding the jury voting . The rules aimed at providing more transparency regarding each five member national jury by releasing the names of all jurors on 1 May 2014 prior to the start of the contest and providing each juror 's full ranking results after the conclusion of the contest . In addition , jury members on a particular nation 's jury can only serve as a juror if they have not already participated as such in one of the preceding two contest editions .
= = = Semi @-@ final allocation draw = = =
The draw that determined the semi @-@ final allocation was held on 20 January 2014 at the Copenhagen City Hall . Prior to the allocation draw , on 24 November 2013 it was announced that Norway and Sweden would perform in different semi @-@ finals in order to maximise the availability of tickets for visitors from both countries . A draw at the EBU headquarters determined that Sweden would perform in the first semi @-@ final , while Norway would perform in the second semi @-@ final . The EBU also allocated Israel to the second semi @-@ final after a request from the delegation in order to avoid complications with a national holiday coinciding with the date of the first semi @-@ final . The remaining participating countries , excluding the automatic finalists ( Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom ) , were split into six pots , based on voting patterns from the previous ten years .
The pots were calculated by the televoting partner Digame and were as follows :
= = = Running order = = =
As in 2013 , the host broadcaster DR and their producers determined the running order for each show with only the starting position of the host nation being determined by draw . A draw which took place during the heads of delegation meeting on 17 March 2014 in Copenhagen determined that Denmark would perform 23rd in the final . On 24 March 2014 , the running order for the two semi @-@ finals was released . Prior to the creation of the running order for the final , an allocation draw was held during the semi @-@ final winners press conferences following the conclusion of each semi @-@ final and during the individual press conferences on 6 May 2014 for the Big Five ( France , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom ) . The draw determined whether the country would perform in the first or second half of the final . The producers published the final running order shortly before 0200 CEST on 9 May 2014 . Ukraine were drawn to perform first , whilst the United Kingdom were drawn to perform last .
= = = Crimea = = =
The contest was held in the immediate aftermath of the 2014 Ukrainian revolution , Russian military intervention in Ukraine , and the crisis in Crimea , in which Crimea was annexed by Russia . Votes cast through Ukrainian telecom providers which service Crimea were counted towards Ukraine 's votes .
= = = Graphic design = = =
The graphic design of the contest was revealed by the EBU on 18 December 2013 . The theme art comprises a blue and purple diamond , within it the generic Eurovision Song Contest logo featuring the Danish flag as well as the hashtag and slogan " # JoinUs " at the centre of the diamond .
The postcards used to introduce a country and their participants were shot in their respective countries and featured the artists using unique ways to create their country 's flag , e.g. the postcard for the United Kingdom features Molly creating the Union Flag from Routemaster buses , Royal Mail vans , and people wearing blue raincoats along with strips of red and white paper , and the postcard for Denmark featuring Basim and his singers using old furniture and red and white paint to paint the Danish flag . The postcards then ended with the act taking a picture on a camera or phone and a close up of the resulting artwork was shown onscreen . The flag created by the artist ( s ) is then captured into a diamond and it transitions to the official flag . It then swirls round for the before @-@ hand details of the artist / composer . For example , the entry for San Marino features the painting of the flag that Valentina Monetta ( the artist ) created , transitioning into the official flag for San Marino .
= = = National host broadcaster = = =
Pernille Gaardbo was appointed by DR 's Director General , Maria Rørbye Rønn , as the Executive Producer for the contest , three @-@ days after Denmark 's victory at the 2013 contest . Maria Rørbye Rønn stated in an interview that " By choosing Penille Gaardbo , we have a person who has all the necessary leadership skills , which are essential in order to run a project of this magnitude , and the technical insight for such a large TV @-@ production , which the Eurovision Song Contest is " . Gaardbo has worked for the host broadcaster for 17 years , 12 of which was in the role of supervisor of the DR Medieservice .
Danish Royal Family members Crown Prince Frederik and his wife , Crown Princess Mary , attended the final as invited guests of the host broadcaster DR. In March 2014 , the host broadcaster DR invited Jessica Mauboy to perform during the interval act of the second semifinal on 8 May 2014 , part of DR 's recognition of Australia 's loyalty to the Eurovision Song Contest . Mauboy performed the song " Sea of Flags " during the interval act .
= = Participating countries = =
Thirty @-@ seven countries participated in the 2014 Contest . Bulgarian broadcaster Bulgarian National Television ( BNT ) , Croatian broadcaster Hrvatska radiotelevizija ( HRT ) , Cypriot broadcaster Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation ( CyBC ) and Serbian broadcaster Radio Television of Serbia ( RTS ) withdrew from the 2014 contest . Other absent countries that previously have participated are Andorra , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Czech Republic , Luxembourg , Monaco , Morocco , Slovakia and Turkey . Portugal have also in the past withdrew from the contest . Poland returned after last participating in 2011 .
= = = Returning artists = = =
Valentina Monetta represented San Marino for a third and final consecutive year , having previously represented the microstate at the 2012 and 2013 contests . This makes Monetta the fourth main singer to compete in three consecutive contests ( and the only one of amongst them never to win in one of these occasions ) , following Lys Assia and Corry Brokken , who both competed in the 1956 , 1957 and 1958 contests , and Udo Jürgens , who competed in 1964 , 1965 and 1966 . Paula Seling and Ovi returned as a duo , having previously represented Romania in 2010 . The Tolmachevy Sisters , who represented Russia , previously participated in and won the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2006 . Macedonian backing vocalist Tamara Todevska previously represented Macedonia in 2008 . Martina Majerle , who represented Slovenia in 2009 and provided backing vocals numerous times for Croatia ( 2003 ) , Montenegro ( 2008 ) and Slovenia ( 2007 , 2011 , 2012 ) , returned as a backing vocalist for Montenegro .
= = Results = =
Full semi @-@ final results including televoting and results from the individual jury members were released shortly after the final .
= = = Semi @-@ final 1 = = =
Spain , France , and Denmark also voted in this semi @-@ final . The ten songs that are marked in orange qualified to the final .
= = = Semi @-@ final 2 = = =
Germany , Italy , and the United Kingdom also voted in this semi @-@ final . The ten songs that are marked in orange qualified to the final .
= = = Final = = =
As in the 2013 contest , the winner was announced as soon as it was mathematically impossible to catch up . In this case , the winner had been determined by the 34th vote , which came from Ukraine .
1 . ^ The song is in French ; however , there is one sentence in English and one sentence in Spanish .
2 . ^ The song is completely in Italian ; however the last line was sung in English at the contest .
= = Scoreboard = =
= = = Semi @-@ final 1 = = =
= = = = 12 points = = = =
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the first semifinal :
Below is a summary of the split number one selection , by respectively each country 's jury and televoters in the First Semi Final :
Albania , Montenegro , San Marino and Moldova used juries due to vote in Televote
= = = Semi @-@ final 2 = = =
= = = = 12 points = = = =
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the second semifinal :
Below is a summary of the split number one selection , by respectively each country 's jury and televoters in the Second Semi Final :
Georgia and Macedonia used juries due to either technical issues with the televoting or an insufficient amount of votes cast during the televote period .
= = = Final = = =
= = = = 12 points = = = =
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the Grand Final :
Below is a summary of the split number one selection , by respectively each country 's jury and televoters in the Grand Final :
= = Other countries = =
For a country to be eligible for potential participation in the Eurovision Song Contest , it needs to be an active member of the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) . The EBU issued an invitation of participation for the 2014 Contest to all 56 active members . Thirty @-@ seven countries confirmed their participation . Lebanon , Tunisia , and five other EBU members , however , did not publish their reasons for declining , whilst the following list of countries declined stating their reasons as shown below .
= = = Active EBU members = = =
Andorra – The Andorran broadcaster Ràdio i Televisió d 'Andorra ( RTVA ) informed a Eurovision news website that due to financial reasons and budget constraints , Andorra would not return to the contest in 2014 .
Bosnia and Herzegovina - Despite the Bosnian broadcaster Radio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( BHRT ) initially stating their intention to participate in the contest , on 18 December 2013 it was announced that they would not be taking part due to a lack of sponsorship .
Bulgaria – Despite initial indications that Bulgarian broadcaster Bulgarian National Television ( BNT ) had planned to participate in the 2014 contest , on 22 November 2013 , BNT announced their withdrawal from the competition , citing an expensive participation fee and limited funds due to budget cuts as reasons for this decision .
Croatia – Croatian broadcaster Croatian Radiotelevision ( HRT ) announced on 19 September 2013 that they are withdrawing from the 2014 contest , citing the European financial crisis , as well as a string of poor results between 2010 and 2013 influencing their decision to take a year break . The last time Croatia qualified for the grand final before 2016 was in 2009 .
Cyprus – On 3 October 2013 , the Cypriot broadcaster Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation ( CyBC ) announced their withdrawal from the 2014 contest , citing public opinion regarding the 2012 – 13 Cypriot financial crisis and budget restrictions as factors that influenced this decision .
Czech Republic – The Czech broadcaster Česká televize ( ČT ) confirmed on 30 September 2013 , that they would not return to the contest in 2014 , citing low viewing figures and poor results as their reason .
Luxembourg – The chief executive officer of RTL Télé Lëtzebuerg , Alain Berwick , stated that Luxembourg would not return to the contest , citing the potential financial burden of hosting the contest and a lack of public interest as reasons for this decision . The broadcaster further confirmed on 24 July 2013 , that Luxembourg would not be participating in the 2014 contest .
Monaco – The Monegasque broadcaster Télé Monte Carlo ( TMC ) informed a Eurovision news website that Monaco would not be returning to the contest in 2014 .
Morocco – On 11 September 2013 , Moroccan broadcaster Société Nationale de Radiodiffusion et de Télévision ( SNRT ) informed and confirmed to a Eurovision news website that they have not ruled out the possibility of making a comeback in the near future , but currently have no plans to make their return at the 2014 contest .
Serbia – On 22 November 2013 , Serbian broadcaster Radio Television of Serbia ( RTS ) announced that it would withdraw from the 2014 contest due to financial difficulties and a lack of available sponsorship for a potential Serbian entry .
Slovakia – Slovakian broadcaster Rozhlas a televízia Slovenska ( RTVS ) announced through their the official Twitter feed on 1 September 2013 that Slovakia would not participate in the 2014 contest . The non @-@ participation was further confirmed on 9 September 2013 .
Turkey – On 14 September 2013 , the general director of Türkiye Radyo ve Televizyon Kurumu ( TRT ) , İbrahim Şahin , stated that there are no plans to return to the contest under the current conditions . Dissatisfaction with the introduction of a mixed jury / televote voting system and the current status of the " Big Five " were once again cited as reasons for this decision . The non @-@ participation was further confirmed on 7 November 2013 .
= = = Require active EBU membership = = =
Kosovo – While Kosovan broadcaster Radio Television of Kosovo ( RTK ) did not voice any intention regarding the 2014 contest , Kosovo 's Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs Petrit Selimi told the Swedish television programme Korrespondenterna that he thought Kosovo , whose status is disputed , would be granted EBU membership and acceptance into the Eurovision in time for the 2014 edition . However , Kosovo has not been recognized as an independent country by the International Telecommunications Union , which is a requirement for full membership in the EBU .
Liechtenstein – Broadcaster 1 Fürstentum Liechtenstein Television ( 1FLTV ) had originally intended to participate in the 2013 contest , pending subsidies being sought from the Liechtenstein government in order to join the EBU . However such financial offerings were never granted . The broadcaster at the time had stated that they would try again with the aim to make their debut in 2014 . On 10 September 2013 , 1FLTV announced that they will not be present at any foreseeable Eurovision Song Contest until such financial support has been granted by the government of Liechtenstein .
= = Incidents = =
= = = Armenian contestant 's statements = = =
On the week of the contest , Armenian contestant Aram Mp3 commented on Conchita Wurst 's image by saying that her lifestyle was " not natural " and that she needed to decide to be either a woman or a man . The statement sparked controversy , following which Aram Mp3 apologised and added that what he said was meant to be a joke . Wurst accepted the apology , by stating , " I have to say that if it 's a joke it 's not funny ... but he apologised and that 's fine for me . "
= = = Georgia jury votes = = =
Georgia 's jury votes in the Grand Final were all declared invalid , as all the jury members had voted exactly the same from 3 points up to 12 points . According to EBU , this constitutes a statistical impossibility . Therefore , only Georgia 's televoting result was used for the distribution of the Georgian points in the Grand Final .
= = = Lithuanian spokesperson 's commentary = = =
Lithuanian spokesperson Ignas Krupavičius , just before announcing that ten points of his country 's vote had been assigned to Conchita Wurst , said referring to Wurst 's beard , " Now it is time to shave " , then pulled out a razor and pretended to shave his own face , before giggling at the joke . Host Nikolaj Koppel replied to that by saying , " Time to shave ? I think not . " BBC commentator Graham Norton also expressed his frustration at the joke and supported Koppel 's reply .
= = = Reaction to Russia 's performance = = =
Russia 's Tolmachevy Sisters were the subject of booing from the audience , during the semifinal and when they qualified into final . Russia 's act were also booed during the grand final ; and when the Russian spokesperson delivered their top @-@ three votes . The booing was also heard when countries awarded Russia votes , including neighbouring countries such as Armenia and Belarus .
= = = Internet activist security breach = = =
After Conchita Wurst had won and performed the song again , and shortly before the end of the television broadcast , press photographers crowded around Wurst for pictures . During the photo session , Estonian " Free Anakata " activist Meelis Kaldalu managed to breach security and approach Wurst , giving her flowers and a Danish flag . She accepted the flowers , and Kaldalu knelt before her ; what he said could not be heard . As security personnel realised Kaldalu was not supposed to be there , they began to drag him away , and Kaldalu produced a piece of paper , which he had hidden under his shirt , reading " # free anakata " .
= = Other awards = =
The Marcel Bezençon Awards , the OGAE voting poll and the Barbara Dex Awards are awards that were contested by the entries competing at the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 , in addition to the main winner ’ s trophy . In contrast , the Ondas Awards have honoured the production of the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 itself in one of their categories .
= = = Marcel Bezençon Awards = = =
The Marcel Bezençon Awards were first handed out during the Eurovision Song Contest 2002 in Tallinn , Estonia , honouring the best competing songs in the final . Founded by Christer Björkman ( Sweden 's representative in the 1992 Eurovision Song Contest and the current Head of Delegation for Sweden ) and Richard Herrey ( a member of the Herreys and the Eurovision Song Contest 1984 winner from Sweden ) , the awards are named after the creator of the annual competition , Marcel Bezençon . The awards are divided into three categories : Press Award , Artistic Award , and Composer Award .
= = = OGAE = = =
Organisation Générale des Amateurs de l 'Eurovision ( more commonly known as OGAE ) is an international organisation that was founded in 1984 in Savonlinna , Finland by Jari @-@ Pekka Koikkalainen . The organisation consists of a network of 40 Eurovision Song Contest fan clubs across Europe and beyond , and is a non @-@ governmental , non @-@ political , and non @-@ profit company . In what has become an annual tradition for the OGAE fan clubs , a voting poll was opened allowing members from forty clubs to vote for their favourite songs of the 2014 contest . Below is the top five overall results , after all the votes had been cast .
= = = Barbara Dex Award = = =
The Barbara Dex Award has been annually awarded by the fan website House of Eurovision since 1997 , and is a humorous award given to the worst dressed artist each year in the contest . It is named after the Belgian artist , Barbara Dex , who came last in the 1993 contest , in which she wore her own self designed dress .
= = = Ondas Awards = = =
The Ondas Awards ( Spanish : Premios Ondas ) is an award ceremony organised by Radio Barcelona , a subsidiary of Cadena SER , since 1954 . They are awarded in recognition of professionals in the fields of radio and television broadcasting , the cinema , and the music industry . The 61st Ondas Award recipients were announced on 6 November 2014 , where Danish broadcaster , Danmarks Radio and the European Broadcasting Union received the International Television Award , for their production of the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest . The award will be handed over during the awards ceremony that will take place on 25 November 2014 at the Liceu in Barcelona .
= = International broadcasts and voting = =
It was reported by the EBU that the 2014 Contest was viewed by a worldwide television audience of a record breaking 195 million viewers .
= = = Voting and spokespersons = = =
The order in which each country announced their votes was determined in a draw following the jury results from the final dress rehearsal . An algorithm implemented by NRK , based on jury vote , was used to generate as much suspense as possible . The spokespersons are shown alongside each country .
= = = Commentators = = =
Non @-@ participating countries
Australia – Julia Zemiro and Sam Pang ( SBS One , all shows )
Canada – Adam Rollins and Tommy D. ( OUTtv , broadcast the three shows between 20 – 22 June 2014 )
Croatia – Aleksandar Kostadinov ( HRT 1 and HR2 , final )
Cyprus – Melina Karageorgiou ( RIK 1 , all shows )
Faroe Islands – TBC ( Kringvarp Føroya , all )
Kazakhstan – Diana Snegina and Kaldybek Zhaysanbay ( Khabar , all shows )
New Zealand – TBC ( BBC UKTV , all shows )
Serbia – Silvana Grujić ( RTS1 , RTS SAT and RTS HD , all shows ) , Dragan Ilić ( RTS1 , RTS SAT and RTS HD , final )
= = Official album = =
Eurovision Song Contest : Copenhagen 2014 was the official compilation album of the 2014 Contest , put together by the European Broadcasting Union and released by Universal Music Group on 14 April 2014 . The album featured all 37 songs that entered in the 2014 contest , including the semi @-@ finalists that failed to qualify into the grand final . It also featured as a bonus track , the official # JoinUs theme , " Rainmaker " , performed by the 2013 contest winner , Emmelie de Forest .
|
= Toy Story =
Toy Story is a 1995 American computer @-@ animated adventure buddy comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Directed by John Lasseter at his directorial debut , Toy Story was the first feature @-@ length computer @-@ animated film and the first theatrical film produced by Pixar . Toy Story follows a group of anthropomorphic toys who pretend to be lifeless whenever humans are present , and focuses on the relationship between Woody , a pullstring cowboy doll ( voiced by Tom Hanks ) , and Buzz Lightyear , an astronaut action figure ( voiced by Tim Allen ) . The film was written by John Lasseter , Andrew Stanton , Joel Cohen , Alec Sokolow , and Joss Whedon , and featured music by Randy Newman . Its executive producers were Steve Jobs and Edwin Catmull . It was released in theatres November 22 , 1995 .
Pixar , which produced short animated films to promote their computers , was approached by Disney to produce a computer @-@ animated feature after the success of the short film , Tin Toy ( 1988 ) , which is told from a small toy 's perspective . Lasseter , Stanton , and Pete Docter wrote early story treatments which were thrown out by Disney , who pushed for a more edgy film . After disastrous story reels , production was halted and the script was re @-@ written , better reflecting the tone and theme Pixar desired : that " toys deeply want children to play with them , and that this desire drives their hopes , fears , and actions . " The studio , then consisting of a relatively small number of employees , produced the film under minor financial constraints .
The top @-@ grossing film on its opening weekend , Toy Story went on to earn over $ 361 million worldwide . Reviews were positive , praising both the animation 's technical innovation and the screenplay 's wit and sophistication , and it is now widely considered by many critics to be one of the best animated films ever made . The film received three Academy Award nominations , including Best Original Screenplay , Best Original Score , and Best Original Song for " You 've Got a Friend in Me " , as well as winning a Special Achievement Academy Award . It was inducted into the National Film Registry as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " in 2005 , its first year of eligibility . In addition to home media releases and theatrical re @-@ releases , Toy Story @-@ inspired material has run the gamut from toys , video games , theme park attractions , spin @-@ offs , merchandise , and two sequels — Toy Story 2 ( 1999 ) and Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) — both of which also garnered massive commercial success and critical acclaim , with a third sequel , Toy Story 4 , slated for a 2018 release .
= = Plot = =
In a world where toys are living things who pretend to be lifeless when their owners are present , a group of toys owned by a six @-@ year @-@ old boy , Andy Davis ( John Morris ) , are caught off @-@ guard when Andy 's birthday party is moved up a week , as Andy , his single mother ( Laurie Metcalf ) and infant sister Molly are preparing to move the following week . The toys ' leader and Andy 's favorite toy , an old fashioned cowboy doll named Sheriff Woody ( Tom Hanks ) organizes the other toys , including Bo Peep the shepherdess ( Annie Potts ) , Mr. Potato Head ( Don Rickles ) , Rex the Dinosaur ( Wallace Shawn ) , Hamm the Piggy Bank ( John Ratzenberger ) and Slinky Dog ( Jim Varney ) , into a scouting mission . Green army men , led by Sarge ( R. Lee Ermey ) , spy on the party and report the results to the others via baby monitors . The toys are relieved when the party appears to end with none of them having been replaced , but then Andy receives a surprise gift – an electronic toy space ranger action figure named Buzz Lightyear ( Tim Allen ) , who believes that he is an actual space ranger .
Buzz impresses the other toys with his various features , and Andy begins to favor him , making Woody feel left out . As Andy prepares for a family outing at Pizza Planet , his mother allows him to bring only one toy along . Fearing Andy will choose Buzz , Woody attempts to trap him behind a desk , but ends up knocking him out a window instead , resulting in the other toys accusing Woody of murdering Buzz out of jealousy . Before they can exact punishment , Andy takes Woody instead and leaves for Pizza Planet . When the family stops for gas , Woody finds that Buzz has hitched a ride on the car as well , and the two fight , only to find the family has left without them . They manage to make their way to the restaurant by stowing away on a pizza delivery truck , where Buzz , still believing he is a real space ranger despite Woody 's attempts to convince him otherwise , gets himself stuck in a crane game , where he is picked out by Andy 's destructive neighbor Sid Phillips ( Erik von Detten ) .
Buzz attempts to escape from Sid 's house , but fails , and , finally discovering he is a toy , sinks into despondence . Sid plans to launch Buzz on a firework rocket , but his plans are delayed by a thunderstorm . Woody tells Buzz about the joy he can bring to Andy as a toy , restoring his confidence . The next morning , Woody and Sid 's mutant toy creations rescue Buzz just as Sid is about to launch the rocket and scare Sid into no longer abusing toys by coming to life in front of him . Woody and Buzz then leave Sid 's house just as Andy and his family drive away toward their new home .
The duo try to make it to the moving truck , but Sid 's dog , Scud , sees them and gives chase . Woody tries rescuing Buzz with Andy 's RC car , but the other toys , thinking Woody eliminated RC as well , attack and toss him off the truck . Having evaded Scud , Buzz and RC pick up Woody and continue after the truck . Upon seeing Woody and Buzz together on RC , the other toys realize their mistake and try to help them get back aboard but RC 's batteries become depleted , stranding them . Woody ignites the rocket on Buzz 's back and manages to throw RC into the truck before they soar into the air . Buzz opens his wings to free himself from the rocket before it explodes , gliding with Woody to land safely into a box in the van , right next to Andy .
On Christmas Day , at their new house , Woody and Buzz stage another reconnaissance mission to prepare for the new toy arrivals . As Woody jokingly asks what might be worse than Buzz , they discover Andy 's new gift is a puppy , and the two share a worried smile .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
Tom Hanks as Sheriff Woody , a cowboy pull @-@ string doll .
Tim Allen as Buzz Lightyear , a space ranger action figure and Woody 's rival , who later becomes his best friend .
Don Rickles as Mr. Potato Head , a potato shaped doll with put together pieces on his body .
Jim Varney as Slinky Dog , a dachshund slink toy .
Wallace Shawn as Rex , a cowardly green Tyrannosaurus rex .
John Ratzenberger as Hamm , a piggy bank
Annie Potts as Bo Peep , a shepherdess and Woody 's love interest .
John Morris as Andy Davis , Woody and Buzz 's owner .
Erik von Detten as Sid Phillips , Andy 's next door neighbor and a ten @-@ year @-@ old bully , who tortures toys for his own amusement .
Laurie Metcalf as Mrs. Davis , Andy 's single mother .
R. Lee Ermey as Sarge , a green plastic figure soldier , and the leader of the other green soldiers .
Sarah Freeman as Hannah Phillips , Sid 's younger sister .
= = = Additional voices = = =
Penn Jillette as TV announcer
Hannah Unkrich as Molly Davis , Andy 's baby sister
Jack Angel as Shark / Rocky Gibraltar
Greg Berg as Minesweeper Soldier
Debi Derryberry as Squeeze toy aliens / Pizza Planet Intercom
Mickie McGowan as Ms. Phillips , Sid 's mother
Ryan O 'Donohue as kid in Buzz Lightyear commercial
Jeff Pidgeon as Squeeze toy aliens / Mr. Spell / Robot
Phil Proctor as Pizza Planet guard / bowling announcer
Joe Ranft as Lenny
Andrew Stanton as Buzz Lightyear commercial chorus
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director John Lasseter 's first experience with computer animation was during his work as an animator at Walt Disney Feature Animation , when two of his friends showed him the lightcycle scene from Tron . It was an eye @-@ opening experience which awakened Lasseter to the possibilities offered by the new medium of computer @-@ generated animation . Lasseter tried to pitch the idea of a fully computer @-@ animated film to Disney , but the idea was rejected and Lasseter was fired . He then went on to work at Lucasfilm and later as a founding member of Pixar , which was purchased by entrepreneur and Apple Inc. founder Steve Jobs in 1986 . At Pixar , Lasseter created short , computer @-@ animated films to show off the Pixar Image Computer 's capabilities , and Tin Toy ( 1988 ) — a short told from the perspective of a toy , referencing Lasseter 's love of classic toys — would go on to claim the 1988 Academy Award for animated short films , the first computer @-@ generated film to do so .
Tin Toy gained Disney 's attention , and the new team at The Walt Disney Company — CEO Michael Eisner and chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg in the film division — began a quest to get Lasseter to come back . Lasseter , grateful for Jobs ' faith in him , felt compelled to stay with Pixar , telling co @-@ founder Ed Catmull , " I can go to Disney and be a director , or I can stay here and make history . " Katzenberg realized he could not lure Lasseter back to Disney and therefore set plans into motion to ink a production deal with Pixar to produce a film . Disney had always made all their movies in @-@ house , and refused to change this . But when Tim Burton , who used to work at Disney , wanted to buy back the rights to The Nightmare Before Christmas , Disney struck a deal allowing him to make it as a Disney movie outside the studio . This opened the door for Pixar to make their movies outside Disney .
Both sides were willing . Catmull and fellow Pixar co @-@ founder Alvy Ray Smith had long wanted to produce a computer @-@ animated feature . In addition , Disney had licensed Pixar 's Computer Animation Production System ( CAPS ) , and that made it the largest customer for Pixar 's computers . Jobs made it apparent to Katzenberg that although Disney was happy with Pixar , it was not the other way around : " We want to do a film with you , " said Jobs . " That would make us happy . " At this same time , Peter Schneider , president of Walt Disney Feature Animation , was potentially interested in making a feature film with Pixar . When Catmull , Smith and head of animation Ralph Guggenheim met with Schneider in the summer of 1990 , they found the atmosphere to be puzzling and contentious . They later learned that Katzenberg intended that if Disney were to make a film with Pixar , it would be outside Schneider 's purview , which aggravated Schneider . After that first meeting , the Pixar contingent went home with low expectations and were surprised when Katzenberg called for another conference . Catmull , Smith and Guggenheim were joined by Bill Reeves ( head of animation research and development ) , Jobs , and Lasseter . They brought with them an idea for a half @-@ hour television special called A Tin Toy Christmas . They reasoned that a television program would be a sensible way to gain experience before tackling a feature film .
They met with Katzenberg at a conference table in the Team Disney building at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank . Catmull and Smith considered it would be difficult to keep Katzenberg interested in working with the company over time . They considered it even more difficult to sell Lasseter and the junior animators on the idea of working with Disney , who had a bad reputation for how they treated their animators , and Katzenberg , who had built a reputation as a micromanaging tyrant . Katzenberg asserted this himself in the meeting : " Everybody thinks I 'm a tyrant . I am a tyrant . But I 'm usually right . " He threw out the idea of a half @-@ hour special and eyed Lasseter as the key talent in the room : " John , since you won 't come work for me , I 'm going to make it work this way . " He invited the six visitors to mingle with the animators — " ask them anything at all " — and the men did so , finding they all backed up Katzenberg 's statements . Lasseter felt he would be able to work with Disney and the two companies began negotiations . Pixar at this time was on the verge of bankruptcy and needed a deal with Disney . Katzenberg insisted that Disney be given the rights to Pixar 's proprietary technology for making 3 @-@ D animation , but Jobs refused . In another case , Jobs demanded Pixar would have part ownership of the film and its characters , sharing control of both video rights and sequels , but Katzenberg refused . Disney and Pixar reached accord on contract terms in an agreement dated May 3 , 1991 , and signed on in early July . Eventually the deal specified that Disney would own the picture and its characters outright , have creative control , and pay Pixar about 12 @.@ 5 % of the ticket revenues . It had the option ( but not the obligation ) to do Pixar 's next two films and the right to make ( with or without Pixar ) sequels using the characters in the film . Disney could also kill the film at any time with only a small penalty . These early negotiations would become a point of contention between Jobs and Eisner for many years .
An agreement to produce a feature film based on Tin Toy with a working title of Toy Story was finalized and production began soon thereafter .
= = = Writing = = =
The original treatment for Toy Story , drafted by Lasseter , Andrew Stanton , and Pete Docter , had little in common with the eventual finished film . It paired Tinny , the one @-@ man band from Tin Toy with a ventriloquist 's dummy and sent them on a sprawling odyssey . Under studio head Jeffrey Katzenberg , Woody was the main villain , abusing the other toys until they rallied against him ; however after Disney executive saw the storyboards they relinquished creative control to Pixar . The core idea of Toy Story was present from the treatment onward , however : that " toys deeply want children to play with them , and that this desire drives their hopes , fears , and actions . " Katzenberg felt the original treatment was problematic and told Lasseter to reshape Toy Story as more of an odd @-@ couple buddy picture , and suggested they watch some classic buddy movies , such as The Defiant Ones and 48 Hrs . , in which two characters with different attitudes are thrown together and have to bond . Lasseter , Stanton , and Docter emerged in early September 1991 with the second treatment , and although the lead characters were still Tinny and the dummy , the outline of the final film was beginning to take shape .
The script went through many changes before the final version . Lasseter decided Tinny was " too antiquated " , and the character was changed to a military action figure , and then given a space theme . Tinny 's name changed to Lunar Larry , then Tempus from Morph , and eventually Buzz Lightyear ( after astronaut Buzz Aldrin ) . Lightyear 's design was modeled on the suits worn by Apollo astronauts as well as G.I. Joe action figures . In addition , the green and purple color scheme on Lightyear 's suit was inspired by Lasseter and his wife , Nancy , whose favorite colors were green and purple respectively . Woody , the second character , was inspired by a Casper the Friendly Ghost doll that Lasseter had when he was a child . Originally , Woody was a ventriloquist 's dummy with a pull @-@ string ( hence the name Woody ) . However , character designer Bud Luckey suggested that Woody could be changed to a cowboy ventriloquist dummy . John Lasseter liked the contrast between the Western and the science fiction genres and the character immediately changed . Eventually all the ventriloquist dummy aspects of the character were deleted , because the dummy was designed to look " sneaky and mean . " However they kept the name Woody to pay homage to the Western actor Woody Strode . The story department drew inspiration from films such as Midnight Run and The Odd Couple , and Lasseter screened Hayao Miyazaki 's Castle in the Sky ( 1986 ) for further influence .
Toy Story 's script was strongly influenced by the ideas of screenwriter Robert McKee . The members of Pixar 's story team — Lasseter , Stanton , Docter and Joe Ranft — were aware that most of them were beginners at writing for feature films . None of them had any feature story or writing credits to their name besides Ranft , who had taught a story class at CalArts and did some storyboard work prior . Seeking insight , Lasseter and Docter attended a three @-@ day seminar in Los Angeles given by McKee . His principles , grounded in Aristotle 's Poetics , dictated that a character emerges most realistically and compellingly from the choices that the protagonist makes in reaction to his problems . Disney also appointed Joel Cohen , Alec Sokolow and , later , Joss Whedon to help develop the script . Whedon found that the script wasn 't working but had a great structure , and added the character of Rex and sought a pivotal role for Barbie . The story team continued to touch up the script as production was underway . Among the late additions was the encounter between Buzz and the alien squeaky toys at Pizza Planet , which emerged from a brainstorming session with a dozen directors , story artists , and animators from Disney .
= = = Casting = = =
Katzenberg gave approval for the script on January 19 , 1993 , at which point voice casting could begin . Lasseter always wanted Tom Hanks to play the character of Woody . Lasseter claimed Hanks " has the ability to take emotions and make them appealing . Even if the character , like the one in A League of Their Own , is down @-@ and @-@ out and despicable . " Paul Newman , who subsequently accepted the role of Doc Hudson in another Pixar success , Cars , was considered for the role of Woody . Billy Crystal was approached to play Buzz , but turned down the role , which he later regretted , and subsequently accepted the role of Mike Wazowski in another Pixar success , Monsters , Inc .. In addition to Crystal , Bill Murray , Chevy Chase and Jim Carrey were also considered for Buzz . Lasseter took the role to Tim Allen , who was appearing in Disney 's Home Improvement , and he accepted .
To gauge how an actor 's voice would fit with a character , Lasseter borrowed a common Disney technique : animate a vocal monologue from a well @-@ established actor to meld the actor 's voice with the appearance or actions of the animated character . This early test footage , using Hanks ' voice from Turner & Hooch , convinced Hanks to sign on to the film . Toy Story was both Hanks ' and Allen 's first animated film role .
= = = Production shutdown = = =
Every couple of weeks , Lasseter and his team would put together their latest set of storyboards or footage to show Disney . In early screen tests , Pixar impressed Disney with the technical innovation but convincing Disney of the plot was more difficult . At each presentation by Pixar , Katzenberg would tear much of it up , giving out detailed comments and notes . Katzenberg 's big push was to add more edginess to the two main characters . Disney wanted the film to appeal to both children and adults , and asked for adult references to be added to the film . After many rounds of notes from Katzenberg and other Disney execs , the general consensus was that Woody had been stripped of almost all charm . Tom Hanks , while recording the dialogue for the story reels , exclaimed at one point that the character was a jerk . Lasseter and his Pixar team had the first half of the movie ready to screen , so they brought it down to Burbank to show to Katzenberg and other Disney executives on November 19 , 1993 , an event they later dubbed " The Black Friday Incident . " The results were disastrous , and Schneider , who was never particularly enamored of Katzenberg 's idea of having outsiders make animation for Disney , declared it a mess and ordered that production be stopped immediately . Katzenberg asked colleague Thomas Schumacher why the reels were bad . Schumacher replied bluntly : " Because it 's not their movie anymore , it 's completely not the movie that John set out to make . "
Lasseter was embarrassed with what was on the screen , later recalling , " It was a story filled with the most unhappy , mean characters that I 've ever seen . " He asked Disney for the chance to retreat back to Pixar and rework the script in two weeks , and Katzenberg was supportive . Lasseter , Stanton , Docter and Ranft delivered the news of the production shutdown to the production crew , many of whom had left other jobs to work on the project . In the meantime , the crew would shift to television commercials while the head writers worked out a new script . Although Lasseter kept morale high by remaining outwardly buoyant , the production shutdown was " a very scary time , " recalled story department manager BZ Petroff . Schneider had initially wanted to shutdown production altogether and fire all recently hired animators . Katzenberg put the film under the wing of Walt Disney Feature Animation . The Pixar team was pleased that the move would give them an open door to counsel from Disney 's animation veterans . Schneider , however , continued to take a dim view of the project and would later go over Katzenberg 's head to urge Eisner to cancel it . Stanton retreated into a small , dark , windowless office , emerging periodically with new script pages . He and the other story artists would then draw the shots on storyboards . Whedon came back to Pixar for part of the shutdown to help with revising , and the script was revised in two weeks as promised . When Katzenberg and Schneider halted production on Toy Story , Steve Jobs kept the work going with his own personal funding . Jobs did not insert himself much into the creative process , respecting the artists at Pixar and instead managing the relationship with Disney .
The Pixar team came back with a new script three months later , with the character of Woody morphed from being a tyrannical boss of Andy 's other toys to being their wise and caring leader . It also included a more adult @-@ oriented staff meeting amongst the toys rather than a juvenile group discussion that had existed in earlier drafts . Buzz Lightyear 's character was also changed slightly " to make it more clear to the audience that he really doesn 't realize he 's a toy . " Katzenberg and Schneider approved the new approach , and by February 1994 the film was back in production . The voice actors returned in March 1994 to record their new lines . When production was greenlit , the crew quickly grew from its original size of 24 to 110 , including 27 animators , 22 technical directors , and 61 other artists and engineers . In comparison , The Lion King , released in 1994 , required a budget of $ 45 million and a staff of 800 . In the early budgeting process , Jobs was eager to produce the film as efficiently as possible , impressing Katzenberg with his focus on cost @-@ cutting . Despite this , the $ 17 million production budget was proving inadequate , especially given the major revision that was necessary after Katzenberg had pushed them to make Woody too edgy . Jobs demanded more funds to complete the film right , and insisted that Disney was liable for the cost overruns . Katzenberg was not willing , and Ed Catmull , described as " more diplomatic than Jobs , " was able to reach a compromise .
= = = Animation = = =
Recruiting animators for Toy Story was brisk ; the magnet for talent was not the pay , generally mediocre , but rather the allure of taking part in the first computer @-@ animated feature . Lasseter said that on the challenges of the computer animation in the film " We had to make things look more organic . Every leaf and blade of grass had to be created . We had to give the world a sense of history . So the doors are banged up , the floors have scuffs . " The film began with animated storyboards to guide the animators in developing the characters . 27 animators worked on the film , using 400 computer models to animate the characters . Each character was either created out of clay or was first modeled off of a computer @-@ drawn diagram before reaching the computer animated design . Once the animators had a model , articulation and motion controls were coded ; this would allow each character to move in a variety of ways , such as talking , walking , or jumping . Out of all the characters , Woody was the most complex , as he required 723 motion controls , including 212 for his face and 58 for his mouth . The first piece of animation , a 30 @-@ second test , was delivered to Disney in June 1992 , when the company requested a sample of what the film would look like . Lasseter wanted to impress Disney with a number of things in the test that could not be done in traditional , hand @-@ drawn animation , such as Woody 's yellow plaid shirt with red stripes , the reflections in Buzz 's helmet and the decals on his space suit , or venetian blind shadows falling across Andy 's room .
Every shot in the film passed through the hands of eight different teams . The art department gave each shot its color scheme and general lighting . Under Craig Good , the layout department then placed the models in the shot , framed it by setting the location of the virtual camera , and programmed any camera movement . To make the medium feel as familiar as possible , they sought to stay within the limits of what might be done in a live @-@ action film with real cameras , dollies , tripods , and cranes . Headed by directing animators Rich Quade and Ash Brannon , each shot went to the animation department from layout . Lasseter opted against Disney 's approach of assigning an animator to work on a character throughout a film , but made certain exceptions in scenes where he thought acting was particularly critical . The animators used the Menv program to set each character in a desired pose . Once a sequence of hand @-@ built poses ( or " keyframes " ) was created , the software would build poses for the frames in @-@ between . The animators studied videotapes of the actors for inspiration , and Lasseter rejected automatic lip @-@ syncing . To sync the characters ' mouths and facial expressions to the actors ' recorded voices , animators spent a week per 8 seconds of animation .
Afterward , the animators would compile the scenes , and develop a new storyboard with the computer @-@ animated characters . They then added shading , lighting , visual effects , and finally used 300 computer processors to render the film to its final design . Under Tom Porter , the shading team used RenderMan 's shader language to create shader programs for each of a model 's surfaces . A few surfaces in Toy Story came from real objects : a shader for the curtain fabric in Andy 's room used a scan of actual cloth . Under Galyn Susman and Sharon Calahan , the lighting team orchestrated the final lighting of the shot after animation and shading . Each completed shot then went into rendering on a " render farm " of 117 Sun Microsystems computers that ran 24 hours a day . Finished animation emerged in a steady drip of around three minutes a week . Depending on its complexity , each frame took from 45 minutes up to 30 hours to render . The film required 800 @,@ 000 machine hours and 114 @,@ 240 frames of animation in total . There are over 77 minutes of animation spread across 1 @,@ 561 shots . A camera team , aided by David DiFrancesco , recorded the frames onto film stock . Toy Story was rendered at a mere 1 @,@ 536 by 922 pixels , with each of them corresponding to roughly a quarter inch of screen area on a typical cinema screen . During post @-@ production , the film was sent to Skywalker Sound , where the sound effects were mixed with the music score .
= = = Music = = =
Disney was concerned with Lasseter 's position on the use of music . Unlike other Disney films of the time , Lasseter did not want the film to be a musical , saying it was a buddy film featuring " real toys . " Joss Whedon agreed saying , " It would have been a really bad musical , because it 's a buddy movie . It 's about people who won 't admit what they want , much less sing about it . ... Buddy movies are about sublimating , punching an arm , ' I hate you . ' It 's not about open emotion . " However , Disney favored the musical format , claiming " Musicals are our orientation . Characters breaking into song is a great shorthand . It takes some of the onus off what they 're asking for . " Disney and Pixar reached a compromise : the characters in Toy Story would not break into song , but the film would use songs over the action , as in The Graduate , to convey and amplify the emotions that Buzz and Woody were feeling . Disney and Lasseter tapped Randy Newman to compose the film . The edited Toy Story was due to Newman and Gary Rydstrom in late September 1995 for their final work on the score and sound design , respectively .
Lasseter claimed " His songs are touching , witty , and satirical , and he would deliver the emotional underpinning for every scene . " Newman developed the film 's signature song " You 've Got a Friend in Me " in one day .
= = = Editing and pre @-@ release = = =
It was difficult for crew members to perceive the film 's quality during much of the production process , when the finished footage was in scattered pieces and lacked elements like music and sound design . Some animators felt the film would be a significant disappointment commercially , but felt animators and animation fans would find it interesting . According to Lee Unkrich , one of the original editors of Toy Story , a scene was cut out of the original final edit . The scene features Sid , after Pizza Planet , torturing Buzz and Woody violently . Unkrich decided to cut right into the scene where Sid is interrogating the toys because the creators of the movie thought the audience would be loving Buzz and Woody at that point . Another scene , where Woody was trying to get Buzz 's attention when he was stuck in the box crate , was shortened because the creators felt it would lose the energy of the movie . Peter Schneider had grown optimistic about the film as it neared completion , and announced a United States release date of November , coinciding with Thanksgiving weekend and the start of the winter holiday season .
Sources indicate that executive producer Steve Jobs lacked confidence in the film during its production , and he had been talking to various companies , ranging from Hallmark to Microsoft , about selling Pixar . However , as the film progressed , Jobs became ever more excited about it , feeling that he might be on the verge of transforming the movie industry . As scenes from the movie were finished , he watched them repeatedly and had friends come by his home to share his new passion . Jobs decided that the release of Toy Story that November would be the occasion to take Pixar public . A test audience near Anaheim in late July 1995 indicated the need for last @-@ minute tweaks , which added further pressure to the already frenetic final weeks . Response cards from the audience were encouraging , but were not top of the scale , adding further question as to how audiences would respond . The film ended with a shot of Andy 's house and the sound of a new puppy . Michael Eisner , who attended the screening , told Lasseter afterward that the film needed to end with a shot of Woody and Buzz together , reacting to the news of the puppy .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for Toy Story was produced by Walt Disney Records and was released on November 22 , 1995 , the week of the film 's release . Scored and written by Randy Newman , the soundtrack has received praise for its " sprightly , stirring score " . Despite the album 's critical success , the soundtrack only peaked at number 94 on the Billboard 200 album chart . A cassette and CD single release of " You 've Got a Friend in Me " was released on April 12 , 1996 , to promote the soundtrack 's release . The soundtrack was remastered in 2006 . After it went out of print , the album was made available for purchase digitally in retailers such as iTunes . The soundtrack , along with Newman 's complete unreleased score for the film was reissued on July 17 , 2015 as part of the Walt Disney Records : The Legacy Collection series .
Track listing
All songs written and composed by Randy Newman .
Charts
= = Release = =
There were two premieres of Toy Story in November 1995 . Disney organized one at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles , and built a fun house , Totally Toy Story , next door featuring the characters . Jobs did not attend and instead rented the Regency , a similar theater in San Francisco , and held his own premiere the next night . Instead of Tom Hanks and Tim Allen , the guests were Silicon Valley celebrities , such as Larry Ellison and Andy Grove . The dueling premieres highlighted a festering issue between the companies : whether Toy Story was a Disney or a Pixar film . " The audience appeared to be captivated by the film , " wrote David Price in his 2008 book The Pixar Touch . " Adult @-@ voiced sobs could be heard during the quiet moments after Buzz Lightyear fell and lay broken on the stairway landing . " Toy Story opened on 2 @,@ 281 screens in the United States on November 22 , 1995 ( before later expanding to 2 @,@ 574 screens ) . It was paired alongside a reissue of a Roger Rabbit short called Rollercoaster Rabbit , while select prints contained The Adventures of André and Wally B ..
The film was also shown at the Berlin International Film Festival out of competition from February 15 to 26 , 1996 . Elsewhere , the film opened in March 1996 .
= = = Marketing = = =
Marketing for the film included $ 20 million spent by Disney for advertising as well as advertisers such as Burger King , PepsiCo , Coca @-@ Cola , and Payless ShoeSource paying $ 125 million in tied promotions for the film . A marketing consultant reflected on the promotion : " This will be a killer deal . How can a kid , sitting through a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour movie with an army of recognizable toy characters , not want to own one ? " Despite this , Disney Consumer Products was slow to see the potential of Toy Story early on . When the Thanksgiving release date was announced in January 1995 , many toy companies were accustomed to having eighteen months to two years of runway time , and passed on the project . In February 1995 , Disney took the idea to Toy Fair , a toy industry trade show in New York . There , a Toronto @-@ based company with a factory based in China , Thinkway Toys , became interested . Although Thinkway was a small player in the industry , mainly producing toy banks in the form of film characters , it was able to scoop up the worldwide master license for Toy Story toys simply because no one else wanted it . Walt Disney Home Video put a trailer for the film on seven million copies of the VHS re @-@ release of Cinderella ; the Disney Channel ran a television special on the making of Toy Story ; Walt Disney World in Florida held a daily Toy Story parade at Disney @-@ MGM Studios .
It was screenwriter Joss Whedon 's idea to incorporate Barbie as a character who would rescue Woody and Buzz in the film 's final act . The idea was dropped after Mattel objected and refused to license the toy . Producer Ralph Guggenheim claimed that Mattel did not allow the use of the toy as " They [ Mattel ] philosophically felt girls who play with Barbie dolls are projecting their personalities onto the doll . If you give the doll a voice and animate it , you 're creating a persona for it that might not be every little girl 's dream and desire . " Hasbro likewise refused to license G.I. Joe ( mainly because Sid was going to blow one up ) , but they did license Mr. Potato Head . The only toy in the movie that was not in production was Slinky Dog , which was discontinued since the 1970s . When designs for Slinky were sent to Betty James ( Richard James 's wife ) she said that Pixar had improved the toy and that it was " cuter " than the original .
= = = 3 @-@ D re @-@ release = = =
On October 2 , 2009 , the film was re @-@ released in Disney Digital 3 @-@ D. The film was also released with Toy Story 2 as a double feature for a two @-@ week run which was extended due to its success . In addition , the film 's second sequel , Toy Story 3 , was also released in the 3 @-@ D format . Lasseter commented on the new 3 @-@ D re @-@ release :
The Toy Story films and characters will always hold a very special place in our hearts and we 're so excited to be bringing this landmark film back for audiences to enjoy in a whole new way thanks to the latest in 3 @-@ D technology . With Toy Story 3 shaping up to be another great adventure for Buzz , Woody and the gang from Andy 's room , we thought it would be great to let audiences experience the first two films all over again and in a brand new way .
Translating the film into 3 @-@ D involved revisiting the original computer data and virtually placing a second camera into each scene , creating left @-@ eye and right @-@ eye views needed to achieve the perception of depth . Unique to computer animation , Lasseter referred to this process as " digital archaeology . " The process took four months , as well as an additional six months for the two films to add the 3 @-@ D. The lead stereographer Bob Whitehill oversaw this process and sought to achieve an effect that affected the emotional storytelling of the film :
When I would look at the films as a whole , I would search for story reasons to use 3 @-@ D in different ways . In Toy Story , for instance , when the toys were alone in their world , I wanted it to feel consistent to a safer world . And when they went out to the human world , that 's when I really blew out the 3 @-@ D to make it feel dangerous and deep and overwhelming .
Unlike other countries , the United Kingdom received the films in 3 @-@ D as separate releases . Toy Story was released on October 2 , 2009 . Toy Story 2 was instead released January 22 , 2010 . The re @-@ release performed well at the box office , opening with $ 12 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in its opening weekend , placing at the third position after Zombieland and Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs . The double feature grossed $ 30 @,@ 714 @,@ 027 in its five @-@ week release .
= = = Home media = = =
Toy Story was released by Walt Disney Home Video on VHS and LaserDisc on October 29 , 1996 with no bonus material . In the first week of this release , VHS rentals totaled $ 5 @.@ 1 million , debuting Toy Story as the week 's No. 1 video . Over 21 @.@ 5 million VHS copies were sold the first year . A deluxe edition widescreen LaserDisc 4 @-@ disc box set was released on December 18 , 1996 . On January 11 , 2000 , the film was re @-@ released on VHS , but this time as the first video to be part of the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection with the bonus short film Tin Toy . This release sold two million copies . The film was released on DVD on October 17 , 2000 in a two @-@ pack with its first sequel Toy Story 2 . The same day , a 3 @-@ disc " Ultimate Toy Box " set was released , featuring Toy Story , Toy Story 2 , and a third disc of bonus materials . The twin @-@ pack release was later released individually on March 20 , 2001 . The DVD two @-@ pack , the Ultimate Toy Box set , the Gold Classic Collection VHS and DVD , and the original DVD were all put in the Disney Vault on May 1 , 2003 . On September 6 , 2005 , a 2 @-@ disc " 10th Anniversary Edition " was released featuring much of the bonus material from the " Ultimate Toy Box " , including a retrospective special with John Lasseter , a home theater mix , as well as a new picture . This DVD went back in the Disney Vault on January 31 , 2009 along with Toy Story 2 . The 10th Anniversary release was the last version of Toy Story to be released before taken out of the Disney Vault lineup along with Toy Story 2 . Also on September 6 , 2005 , a bare @-@ bones UMD of Toy Story was released for the Sony PlayStation Portable .
The film was available for the first time on Blu @-@ ray in a Special Edition Combo Pack that included two discs , the Blu @-@ ray , and the DVD versions of the film . This combo @-@ edition was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on March 23 , 2010 , along with its sequel . There was a DVD @-@ only re @-@ release on May 11 , 2010 . Another " Ultimate Toy Box " , packaging the Combo Pack with those of both sequels , became available on November 2 , 2010 . On November 1 , 2011 , along with the DVD and Blu @-@ ray release of Cars 2 , Toy Story and the other two films were released on each DVD / Blu @-@ ray / Blu @-@ ray 3D / Digital Copy combo pack ( four discs each for the first two films , and five for the third film ) . They were also released on Blu @-@ ray 3D in a complete trilogy box set .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Toy Story received widespread critical acclaim . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval 100 % rating based on 78 reviews , with an average score of 9 / 10 . The website 's consensus reads , " Entertaining as it is innovative , Toy Story reinvigorated animation while heralding the arrival of Pixar as a family @-@ friendly force to be reckoned with . " At Metacritic , which uses a normalized rating system , the film earned a " universal acclaim " level rating of 92 / 100 based on 16 reviews by mainstream critics . Reviewers hailed the film for its creative computer animation , voice cast , and ability to appeal to numerous age groups .
Leonard Klady of Variety commended the animation 's " ... razzle @-@ dazzle technique and unusual look " and that " the camera loops and zooms in a dizzying fashion that fairly takes one 's breath away . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times compared the film 's innovative animation to Disney 's Who Framed Roger Rabbit , saying that " both movies take apart the universe of cinematic visuals and put it back together again , allowing us to see in a new way . " Due to the film 's creative animation , Richard Corliss of TIME claimed that it was " ... the year 's most inventive comedy . "
The voice cast was also praised by various critics . Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today approved of the selection of Hanks and Allen for the lead roles . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times stated that " Starting with Tom Hanks , who brings an invaluable heft and believability to Woody , Toy Story is one of the best voiced animated features in memory , with all the actors ... making their presences strongly felt . " Several critics also recognized the film 's ability to appeal to various age groups , specifically children and adults . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote " It has the purity , the ecstatic freedom of imagination , that 's the hallmark of the greatest children 's films . It also has the kind of spring @-@ loaded allusive prankishness that , at times , will tickle adults even more than it does kids . "
In 1995 , Toy Story was ranked eighth in TIME ' s list of the " Best 10 films of 1995 " . In 2011 , TIME named it one of the " 25 All @-@ TIME Best Animated Films " . It also ranks at number 99 in Empire magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Films of All Time " and as the " highest @-@ ranked animated movie " .
In 2003 , the Online Film Critics Society ranked the film as the greatest animated film of all time . In 2007 , the Visual Effects Society named the film 22nd in its list of the " Top 50 Most Influential Visual Effects Films of All Time " . In 2005 ( 10 years after its theatrical release ) , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry , one of five films to be selected in its first year of eligibility . The film is ranked 99th on the AFI 's list of the " 100 greatest American Films of All @-@ Time " . It was one of the only two animated films on that list , the other being Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) . It was also the sixth best in the animation genre on AFI 's 10 Top 10 .
Director Terry Gilliam would praise the film as " a work of genius . It got people to understand what toys are about . They 're true to their own character . And that 's just brilliant . It 's got a shot that 's always stuck with me , when Buzz Lightyear discovers he 's a toy . He 's sitting on this landing at the top of the staircase and the camera pulls back and he 's this tiny little figure . He was this guy with a massive ego two seconds before ... and it 's stunning . I 'd put that as one of my top ten films , period . "
= = = Box office performance = = =
Before the film 's release , executive producer and Apple Inc. co @-@ founder Steve Jobs stated " If Toy Story is a modest hit — say $ 75 million at the box office , we 'll [ Pixar and Disney ] both break even . If it gets $ 100 million , we 'll both make money . But if it 's a real blockbuster and earns $ 200 million or so at the box office , we 'll make good money , and Disney will make a lot of money . " Upon its release on November 22 , 1995 , Toy Story managed to gross more than $ 350 million worldwide . Disney chairman Michael Eisner stated " I don 't think either side thought Toy Story would turn out as well as it has . The technology is brilliant , the casting is inspired , and I think the story will touch a nerve . Believe me , when we first agreed to work together , we never thought their first movie would be our 1995 holiday feature , or that they could go public on the strength of it . " The film 's first five days of domestic release ( on Thanksgiving weekend ) earned it $ 39 @,@ 071 @,@ 176 . The film placed first in the weekend 's box office with $ 29 @,@ 140 @,@ 617 and maintained the No. 1 position at the domestic box office for the next two weekends . Toy Story became the highest @-@ grossing domestic film of 1995 , beating Batman Forever , Apollo 13 ( also starring Tom Hanks ) , Pocahontas , Casper , Waterworld , and GoldenEye . At the time of its release , it was the third highest @-@ grossing animated film of all time , after The Lion King ( 1994 ) and Aladdin ( 1992 ) . When not considering inflation , Toy Story is No. 96 on the list of the highest @-@ grossing domestic films of all time . The film had gross receipts of $ 191 @,@ 796 @,@ 233 in the U.S. and Canada and $ 170 @,@ 162 @,@ 503 in international markets for a total of $ 361 @,@ 958 @,@ 736 worldwide . At the time of its release , the film ranked as 17th highest @-@ grossing film ( unadjusted ) domestically and it was the 21st highest @-@ grossing film worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
The film won and was nominated for various other awards including a Kids ' Choice Award , MTV Movie Award , and a British Academy Film Award , among others . John Lasseter received an Academy Special Achievement Award in 1996 " for the development and inspired application of techniques that have made possible the first feature @-@ length computer @-@ animated film . " Additionally , the film was nominated for three Academy Awards , two to Randy Newman for Best Music — Original Song , for " You 've Got a Friend in Me " , and Best Music — Original Musical or Comedy Score . It was also nominated for Best Original Screenplay for the work by Joel Cohen , Pete Docter , John Lasseter , Joe Ranft , Alec Sokolow , Andrew Stanton and Joss Whedon , making Toy Story the first animated film to be nominated for an Academy Award writing category .
Toy Story won eight Annie Awards , including " Best Animated Feature " . Animator Pete Docter , director John Lasseter , musician Randy Newman , producers Bonnie Arnold and Ralph Guggenheim , production designer Ralph Eggleston , and writers Joel Cohen , Alec Sokolow , Andrew Stanton , and Joss Whedon all won awards for " Best Individual Achievement " in their respective fields for their work on the film . The film also won " Best Individual Achievement " in technical achievement .
Toy Story was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards , one for Best Motion Picture — Comedy or Musical , and one for Best Original Song — Motion Picture for Newman 's " You 've Got a Friend in Me " . At both the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards and the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards , the film won " Best Animated Film " . Toy Story is also among the top ten in the BFI list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14 , and the highest @-@ placed ( at No. 99 ) animated film in Empire magazine 's list of " 500 Greatest Movie of All Time " . In 2005 , Toy Story , along with Toy Story 2 was voted the 4th greatest cartoon in Channel 4 's 100 Greatest Cartoons poll , behind The Simpsons , Tom and Jerry and South Park .
= = Impact and legacy = =
Toy Story had a large impact on the film industry with its innovative computer animation . After the film 's debut , various industries were interested in the technology used for the film . Graphics chip makers desired to compute imagery similar to the film 's animation for personal computers ; game developers wanted to learn how to replicate the animation for video games ; and robotics researchers were interested in building artificial intelligence into their machines that compared to the film 's lifelike characters . Various authors have also compared the film to an interpretation of Don Quixote as well as humanism . In addition , Toy Story left an impact with its catchphrase " To Infinity and Beyond " , sequels , and software , among others .
= = = " To Infinity and Beyond " = = =
Buzz Lightyear 's classic line " To Infinity and Beyond " has seen usage not only on themed merchandise , but among philosophers and mathematical theorists as well . In 2008 , during STS @-@ 124 astronauts took an action figure of Buzz Lightyear into space on the Discovery Space Shuttle as part of an educational experience for students while stressing the catchphrase . The action figure was used for experiments in zero @-@ g . It was reported in 2008 that a father and son had continually repeated the phrase to help them keep track of each other while treading water for 15 hours in the Atlantic Ocean . The phrase occurs in the lyrics of Beyoncé 's 2008 song " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , during the bridge .
= = Sequels , shows , and spin @-@ offs = =
Toy Story has spawned three sequels : Toy Story 2 ( 1999 ) , Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) , and Toy Story 4 , to be released in 2018 . Initially , the first sequel to Toy Story was going to be a direct @-@ to @-@ video release , with development beginning in 1996 . However , after the cast from Toy Story returned and the story was considered to be better than that of a direct @-@ to @-@ video release , it was announced in 1998 that the sequel would see a theatrical release . Toy Story 's first sequel Toy Story 2 was released in theatres November 24 , 1999 and saw the return of the majority of the voice cast from Toy Story , and the film focuses on Andy 's toys going to rescue Woody after he is stolen at a yard sale by a greedy toy collector voiced by Wayne Knight . The film was equally well received by critics , many of whom thought it was even better than the first installment , earning a rare 100 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes , based on 163 reviews . At Metacritic , the film earned a favorable rating of 88 / 100 based on 34 reviews . The film 's widest release was 3 @,@ 257 theaters and it grossed $ 485 @,@ 015 @,@ 179 worldwide , becoming the second @-@ most successful animated film after The Lion King at the time of its release .
The second sequel Toy Story 3 was released in theatres June 18 , 2010 and centers on Andy 's toys being accidentally donated to a day @-@ care center when Andy , now a teenager , is preparing to go to college . Again , the majority of the cast from the prior two films returned . It was the first film in the franchise to be released in 3 @-@ D for its first run , though the first two films , which were originally released in 2 @-@ D , were re @-@ released in 3 @-@ D in 2009 as a double feature . Like its predecessors , Toy Story 3 received enormous critical acclaim , earning a 99 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes . It also grossed more than $ 1 billion worldwide , making it the highest @-@ grossing animated film until the release of 2013 's Frozen .
In November 1996 , the Disney on Ice : Toy Story ice show opened which featured the cast 's voices as well as Randy Newman 's music . In April 2008 , the Disney Wonder cruise ship launched Toy Story : The Musical shows on its cruises .
Toy Story also led to a spin @-@ off direct @-@ to @-@ video animated film , Buzz Lightyear of Star Command : The Adventure Begins , as well as the animated television series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command . The film and series followed Buzz Lightyear and his friends at Star Command as they uphold justice across the galaxy . Although the film was criticized for not using the same animation as in Toy Story and Toy Story 2 , it sold three million VHS and DVDs in its first week of release . The television series brought further commercial and critical acclaim , winning a Daytime Emmy in 2001 for Outstanding Sound Editing . The series ran for a total of 65 episodes .
Following the release of Toy Story 3 , a series of Toy Story short films have been shown in theaters in front of other Disney features : Hawaiian Vacation ( shown before Cars 2 ) , centering on Barbie and Ken on vacation in Bonnie 's room , Small Fry ( shown before The Muppets ) , centering on Buzz being left in a fast @-@ food restaurant , and Partysaurus Rex ( shown before the 3D re @-@ release of Finding Nemo ) , centering on Rex partying with Bonnie 's bath toys .
In January 2013 , a fan @-@ made live @-@ action version of the film was posted on YouTube that received more than 15 million views before being taken down by Disney for copyright of the audio . In February 2016 , the video returned to YouTube .
In October 2013 , ABC aired Toy Story of Terror ! , promoting it as Pixar 's first television special . In the special , Mr. Potato Head disappears and Woody , Buzz and Rex have to find him .
On December 2 , 2014 , ABC aired Toy Story That Time Forgot . In the story , Woody , Buzz , Rex and Trixie ( one of the toy characters introduced in Toy Story 3 ) are trapped in room with a group of humanoid dinosaur warrior toys called Battlesaurs who do not know that they are toys and must escape .
A third sequel , Toy Story 4 , will be released on June 15 , 2018 . It will be directed by John Lasseter , and will focus on the romance between Woody and Bo Peep .
= = = Software and merchandise = = =
Disney 's Animated Storybook : Toy Story and Disney 's Activity Center : Toy Story were released for Windows and Mac . Disney 's Animated Storybook : Toy Story was the best selling software title of 1996 , selling over 500 @,@ 000 copies . Two console video games were released for the film : the Toy Story video game , for the Sega Genesis , Super Nintendo Entertainment System , Game Boy , and PC as well as Toy Story Racer , for the PlayStation ( which contains elements from Toy Story 2 ) . Pixar created original animations for all of the games , including fully animated sequences for the PC titles .
Toy Story had a large promotion before its release , leading to numerous tie @-@ ins with the film including images on food packaging . A variety of merchandise was released during the film 's theatrical run and its initial VHS release including toys , clothing , and shoes , among other things . When an action figure for Buzz Lightyear and Sheriff Woody was created it was initially ignored by retailers . However , after over 250 @,@ 000 figures were sold for each character before the film 's release , demand continued to expand , eventually reaching over 25 million units sold by 2007 .
= = = Theme park attractions = = =
Toy Story and its sequels have inspired multiple attractions at the theme parks of Walt Disney World and Disneyland :
Buzz Lightyear 's Space Ranger Spin at the Magic Kingdom casts theme park guests as cadets in Buzz 's Space Ranger Corps . Guests ride through various scenes featuring Emperor Zurg 's henchmen , firing " laser cannons " at their Z symbols , scoring points for each hit .
Buzz Lightyear 's Astro Blasters at Disneyland , is similar to Space Ranger Spin , except that the laser cannons are hand @-@ held rather than mounted to the ride vehicle .
Buzz Lightyear 's Astroblasters at Walt Disney World 's DisneyQuest , despite the nearly identical name to the Disneyland attraction , is a bumper car style attraction in which guests compete against each other not only by ramming their ride vehicles into each other , but also by firing " asteroids " ( playground balls ) at each other .
Toy Story Mania at both Walt Disney World 's Disney 's Hollywood Studios and Disneyland 's Disney California Adventure features a series of interactive carnival @-@ type games hosted by the Toy Story characters . Guests ride in vehicles while wearing 3 @-@ D glasses , and using a pull @-@ string cannon to launch virtual rings , darts , baseballs , etc . Disney announced an update to the attraction to add characters from Toy Story 3 several months before the film 's release date .
World of Color at Disney California Adventure is a large night time water and light show . Some of the scenes projected on the water screens feature animation from the Toy Story films .
Toy Story Playland at Disneyland Paris and Hong Kong Disneyland , opening in August 2010 and 2011 respectively . The area is designed to create the illusion of " shrinking the guest " down to the size of a toy , and to play in Andy 's backyard in several themed rides .
Toy Story Character Greetings are located at almost all Disney Parks . Three of the main characters , Buzz Lightyear , Woody and Jessie are normally the characters you would meet . Sometimes you can even meet Bullseye , the Green Army Men and Mr. Potato Head .
= = = Other influences = = =
Toy Story 's cast of characters forms the basis for the naming of the releases of the Debian computer operating system , from buzz in 1996 to stretch , the version currently ( in 2015 ) being prepared for release .
In 2013 Pixar designed a " Gromit Lightyear " sculpture based on the Aardman Animations character Gromit for Gromit Unleashed which sold for £ 65 @,@ 000 .
|
= Susie Bootja Bootja Napaltjarri =
Susie Bootja Bootja Napaltjarri ( also referred to as Susie Bootja Bootja Napangardi , Napangarti , or Napangati ) ( c . 1935 – 16 January 2003 ) was an Indigenous artist from Australia 's Western Desert region . Born south @-@ west of Balgo , Western Australia , in the 1950s Susie Bootja Bootja married artist Mick Gill Tjakamarra , with whom she had a son , Matthew Gill Tjupurrula ( also an artist ) .
Susie Bootja Bootja 's painting career followed the establishment of Warlayirti Artists , an Indigenous art centre at Balgo . One of the area 's strongest artists , her work was characterised by an expressive style , and has been acquired by major Australian galleries , including the Art Gallery of New South Wales and National Gallery of Victoria . She died in 2003 .
= = Life = =
Susie Bootja Bootja was born circa 1935 near Kurtal , or Helena Spring , south @-@ west of Balgo , Western Australia ; the country is called Kaningarra in her own language , a name that appears as the title of one of her art works . The ambiguity around the year of birth is in part because Indigenous Australians operate using a different conception of time , often estimating dates through comparisons with the occurrence of other events . While sources vary as to Susie 's skin name ( some indicating Napangarti , others Napaltjarri ) , the similar birth dates , locations , and work history indicate that all are referring to the one individual .
'Napaljarri ' ( in Warlpiri ) or ' Napaltjarri ' ( in Western Desert dialects ) is a skin name , one of sixteen used to denote the subsections or subgroups in the kinship system of central Australian Indigenous people . These names define kinship relationships that influence preferred marriage partners and may be associated with particular totems . Although they may be used as terms of address , they are not surnames in the sense used by Europeans . Thus ' Susie Bootja Bootja ' is the element of the artist 's name that is specifically hers .
Susie Bootja Bootja was of the Kukatja language group . She married artist Mick Gill Tjakamarra at Old Balgo in the 1950s , and they had a son , Matthew Gill Tjupurrula ( born 1960 ) , who also became an artist . Susie Bootja Bootja died on 16 January 2003 .
= = Art = =
= = = Background = = =
Contemporary Indigenous art of the western desert began when Indigenous men at Papunya began painting in 1971 , assisted by teacher Geoffrey Bardon . Their work , which used acrylic paints to create designs representing body painting and ground sculptures , rapidly spread across Indigenous communities of central Australia , particularly following the commencement of a government @-@ sanctioned art program in central Australia in 1983 . By the 1980s and 1990s , such work was being exhibited internationally . The first artists , including all of the founders of the Papunya Tula artists ' company , had been men , and there was resistance amongst the Pintupi men of central Australia to women painting . However , there was also a desire amongst many of the women to participate , and in the 1990s large numbers of them began to create paintings . In the western desert communities such as Kintore , Yuendumu , Balgo , and on the outstations , people were beginning to create art works expressly for exhibition and sale . Art centres were important to this widespread creation of art works .
= = = Career = = =
The Balgo community did not establish an art centre for more than ten years after their colleagues at Papunya , with artistic activities commencing when an adult education centre was opened in 1981 . However once Warlayirti Artists was set up , the community went on to become one of Australia 's most successful Indigenous art centres . Painting at the centre is a sociable , communal activity , and Susie Bootja Bootja would reguarlly collaborate with other painters , including her husband .
Susie Bootja Bootja was represented by Warlayirti artists at Balgo , where she was living and working in the 1990s . She was one of the strongest painters at Balgo . The work of Balgo artists such as Susie Bootja Bootja , and her fellow artists including Sunfly Tjampitjin and Wimmitji Tjapangarti , are characterised by an expressive style , involving " linked dotting and blurred forms and edges " .
Works by Susie Bootja Bootja are held by the Art Gallery of New South Wales , the National Gallery of Victoria , and the Flinders University Art Museum Collection . She is also represented in major private collections , such as Nangara ( also known as the Ebes Collection ) , the Holmes à Court Collection and the Morven Estate . Works by both Susie Bootja Bootja and her husband were included in a 1991 exhibition ' Yapa : Peintres Aborigenes de Balgo et Lajamanu ' in Paris , and in ' Daughters of the Dreaming ' at the Art Gallery of Western Australia in 1997 . Her paintings feature in Christine Watson 's 2003 book , Piercing the Ground : Balgo Women 's Image Making and Relationship to Country .
Susie Bootja Bootja helped choose the site for , and participated in , a major ceremony for a 1993 Australian Broadcasting Corporation documentary film , Milli Milli . The ceremony , called Wati Kutjarra ( Two men ) Dreaming , was performed with others including fellow artist Peggy Rockman Napaljarri .
= = Collections = =
Art Gallery of New South Wales
Flinders University Art Museum Collection
National Gallery of Victoria
Holmes à Court collection
|
= Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus =
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses ( EEHV ) or Elephantid herpesvirus 1 ' is a type of herpesvirus , which can cause a highly fatal hemorrhagic disease when transmitted to young Asian elephants . In African elephants , related forms of these viruses , which have been identified in wild populations , are generally benign , occasionally surfacing to cause small growths or lesions . However , some types of EEHV can cause a highly fatal disease in Asian elephants , which kills up to 80 % of severely affected individuals . The disease can be treated with the rapid application of antiviral drugs , but this has only been effective in around a third of cases .
The first case of a fatal form of the disease was documented in 1995 , though tissue samples from as early as the 1980s have since tested positive for the virus , and localized skin lesions in wild African elephants were recorded in the 1970s . Since 1995 , there have been over fifty documented disease cases in North America and Europe , of which only nine have been successfully cured . Those affected are mostly young animals born in captivity , though a small number of older wild @-@ born adults held in zoos have died , and a number of cases caused by the same pathogenic type of EEHV have been identified in both orphan and wild calves in Asian elephant populations .
= = Virus and transmission = =
The EEHVs are members of the Proboscivirus genus , a novel clade most closely related to the mammalian betaherpesviruses that have been responsible for as many as 70 deaths of both zoo and wild Asian elephants worldwide , especially in young calves . There are currently six known species / types of the probosciviruses , and the most commonly encountered and most pathogenic form EEHV1 also has two chimeric subtypes , 1A and 1B . , as well as numerous distinct strains .
EEHV1A ( originally just known as EEHV1 ) was the first species / type identified , which causes an acute hemorrhagic disease with a very high mortality rate in Asian elephants . This form of the virus was originally believed to occur naturally in African elephants ( occasionally producing skin nodules ) , and to be transmitted to Asian elephants within captivity , but more extensive studies have since largely disproved this concept because several other species / types of EEHV ( e.g. EEHV2 , EEHV3 and EEHV6 ) instead have been identified in African elephants . A second lethal subtype , EEHV1B , was identified in Asian elephants in 2001 . EEHV3 , EEHV4 and EEHV5 have also each been responsible for the deaths of at least one Asian elephant calf .
EEHV2 has caused hemorrhagic disease in several African elephants as reported by . Along with EEHV3 and EEHV6 it has also been found in pulmonary lymph nodes of several autopsied wild and zoo African elephants .
There are a further five or six species / types and varieties of elephant gammaherpesvirus ( EGHVs ) found in eye and genital secretions of many healthy Asian and African zoo elephants - e.g. EGHV1 , EGHV2 , EGHV3A , EGHV3B , EGHV4 and EGHV5 ( also called Elephantid herpesviruses EIHV3 , EIHV4 , EIHV5 , EIHV6 , ElHV9 and ElHV10 - which are gamma herpesviruses . But these are neither closely related to the EEHVs , nor the known cause of any disease symptoms .
Studies have also detected both EEHV1A and EEHV1B as being shed in trunk wash secretions by healthy asymptomatic Asian zoo elephant herdmates of calves that previously had disease. and similarly for EEHV5 . Thus , similar to saliva for most human and animal herpesviruses , the trunk secretions may be a source of transmission for EEHVs . Because of concerns about the origins of EEHV1 and evidence of cross @-@ species transmission for EEHV3 , long @-@ term contact between Asian and African elephants has been discouraged , along with avoiding new contacts between young captive @-@ born Asian elephants and wild @-@ born Asian elephants , as the latter may be carriers of the disease . An analysis of a number of North American cases , which ruled out the direct transmission of the virus between any of the affected facilities studied , strongly supported the idea of a significant Asian carrier population . This is supported by the fact that some of the deceased calves had no possible contact with any African elephants . Artificial insemination is not believed to be a transmission factor , notes that when multiple calves of a single bull or cow elephant died at different times ( even at the same facility ) they nearly all had distinct strains of the virus , yet when two calves died or became infected at the same time at the same facility the pairs have always had identical virus strains . A program of enzyme @-@ linked immunosorbent assay testing began in 2005 , aiming to test blood samples from around a thousand elephants for antibodies to the virus in order to help identify carriers and possible transmission patterns .
= = Effects and treatment = =
In benign infections found in some wild and captive African elephants , these viruses can affect either the skin or the pulmonary system . In the former case , it produces small pinkish nodules on the head and trunk in juveniles , which appear for a few weeks and then regress , suggesting an intermittently reactivated localized infection that mostly remains dormant . In the second case , it has been found in small white pulmonary nodules on necropsy of many asymptomatic adults . These are both characteristic of EEHV2 , EEHV3 and EEHV6 .
In a fatal attack , however , it manifests very quickly . In a number of cases , death has occurred within 24 hours of the onset of the infection , while other cases do not last longer than around five days . The virus attacks endothelial cells , rupturing capillaries and causing blood loss and haemorrhaging ; once this reaches the heart , the haemorrhage kills quickly through shock . Symptoms include lethargy and an unwillingness to eat , a rapid heartbeat , and decreased blood @-@ cell count , as well as cyanosis of the tongue , mouth ulcers , and oedema of the head and trunk .
Rapid treatment with famciclovir , sustained for around a month , has appeared to cure eight calves infected with EEHV1 ; however , this treatment is very expensive , only partially effective , and relies on early identification of the infection .
A polymerase chain reaction test on a blood sample from affected animals will confirm a suspected case by identifying the viral DNA , though it is now common to start famciclovir treatment at the earliest possible moment rather than waiting for confirmation of the case . Prior to the development of the test , or in circumstances where it is not available , the disease may be misdiagnosed as any of a number of other conditions which have a quick onset leading to rapid death , including encephalomyocarditis and salmonellosis .
= = History = =
The virus has been identified in the pulmonary nodules of African elephants as far back as the 1970s . The first recognised fatal case of EEHV in an Asian elephant was identified at the National Zoo in Washington , D.C. , in 1995 ; testing on stored tissue samples was able to identify a number of earlier deaths as being due to the same virus . These cases have so far been identified as early as 1983 . Since this date , there have been a total of 54 more cases in North America and Europe , nine of which were successfully treated . The May 2009 deaths of two calves at Whipsnade Zoo were not included in this calculation . This gives a fatality rate of over 80 % among known symptomatic disease cases . In cases where antiviral medication was applied , treatment was effective in about one in three cases . As of 2005 , there were twelve cases where famciclovir had been used , eight of which were fatal . As a fraction of the overall population , it has been calculated that of the 78 Asian elephants born in captivity in North America between 1978 and 2007 , 19 are known to have died of EEHV , and five more were successfully treated with antiviral medication .
The affected animals are mostly young Asian elephants that had been born in captivity , with half the cases in North America being between the ages of one and four years ( and three @-@ quarters between one and eight years old ) . Some cases have affected newborns or adult elephants born in the wild ( oldest aged 40 years ) , and three recorded cases have affected African elephants . The first documented fatal case for African elephants was Kijana , an eleven @-@ month @-@ old male in 1996 . Since 2008 , a number of cases have been attributed to EEHV1 among wild Asian elephants .
The first suspected case in Asia was in 1997 , though it was not until the fifth suspected case that the presence of the virus could be confirmed . This case was reported in 2006 , with the death of a young wild @-@ born female calf at an elephant sanctuary in Cambodia . The virus was identified as part of the EEHV1 group , the same as previously identified in the North American and European captive populations . In 2013 , nine lethal cases from India were extensively characterized and found to consist of a wide variety of genetically diverged strains of EEHV1A and EEHV1B matching the subtypes and genetic range of nearly all those found previously in Europe and North America . Cases attributed to EEHV1A and EEHV4 have also been reported in Thailand and there is both confirmed and anecdotal evidence for similar hemorrhagic disease deaths of between 16 and 30 more calves in Asian countries including Thailand , India , Nepal , Myanmar and Indonesia within the past five years . Thus , this is not just a disease of captive elephants , but is endogenous to and possibly rampant in Asian elephants in the wild also . Further research has been noted as " urgently required " to study the situation in regions with wild Asian elephant populations .
|
= Love Somebody ( Maroon 5 song ) =
" Love Somebody " is a song recorded by American pop rock band Maroon 5 . The song was released on May 14 , 2013 , as the fourth and final single from their fourth studio album , Overexposed ( 2012 ) . It was written by Adam Levine , Nathaniel Motte , Ryan Tedder , and Noel Zancanella ; the latter two are also the producers . " Love Somebody " is a dance @-@ pop song that lyrically equates love and physical intimacy and explores " salvation on the dance floor " .
Upon release , the song was a respectable success on the charts and became the fourth top ten hit from the album on the Billboard Hot 100 . Despite its success , the single received mixed reviews from music critics who praised its composition , linking it to the works by Coldplay , but criticized its production and Levine 's vocals . Following the release of the album , due to strong digital downloads , the song peaked at number nine on the singles chart in South Korea .
= = Background and production = =
In mid @-@ 2011 , Maroon 5 started working on their fourth studio album . One of the members of the band , James Valentine spoke to Billboard and revealed their plans to release their fourth studio album in early 2012 . On March 22 , 2012 , the band posted a video on YouTube featuring numerous scenes from the band in the studio , recording the album . On June 26 , 2012 , the album was released under the title Overexposed .
The band 's lead singer Adam Levine co @-@ wrote " Love Somebody " with 3OH ! 3 singer Nathaniel Motte , Noel Zancanella , and OneRepublic 's Ryan Tedder . The latter two also produced it and provided programming and keys . Tedder and Zancanella also co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced another song for Overexposed titled " Lucky Strike " . " Love Somebody " was engineered by Smith Carlson at the Patriot Studios in Denver and Noah " Mailbox " Passovoy at the Conway Studios in Los Angeles ; Eric Eylands served as the engineering assistant . Serban Ghenea mixed the song at the Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach . John Hanes served as engineer for mix , while Phil Seaford as mixing assistant .
= = Composition = =
" Love Somebody " is a dance @-@ pop song with a length of three minutes and forty @-@ nine seconds . It is written in the key of D ♭ major and its instrumentation consists of piano and guitar . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone described the song 's synth hook as the Sly Stone @-@ meets @-@ Eurythmics . According to Chris Payne of Billboard , Tedder and Zancanella 's influence is all over the song and inches through the verses " before bubbling over just before the chorus kicks in . " Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly in a review of the album , wrote that the song together with " Daylight " have " thickly " produced choruses . Lyrically , " Love Somebody " equates love and physical intimacy , with Levine singing : " I really wanna love somebody [ ... ] I really wanna touch somebody " . Nate Chinen of The New York Times described the lyrical theme of the song as " a plea for salvation on the dance floor or some other horizontal surface " .
= = Critical reception = =
Suzanne Byrne of RTÉ.ie wrote that " Love Somebody " alongside " Daylight " , " The Man Who Never Lied " and " Lucky Strike " are potential single releases . Brittany Frederick of StarPulse called the song " earnest " , while Cameron Adams of Herald Sun described it as Coldplay " trying to be " Katy Perry . Similarly as Adams , PopMatters ' Evan Sawdey wrote that " Love Somebody " is the group 's " sky @-@ scraping Coldplay moment " . Jeremy Thomas of 411 Mania labeled the song as one of the more emotional tracks on Overexposed and a " rare moment where the overhanging production tricks ease up just enough to make for an honest @-@ to @-@ God song with emotion and not just a laser scope aimed at the Billboard charts .
In a review of the album , Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music wrote that the band had left " the strutting cockerel heat " of their 2004 single " This Love " for the " saturated rave bliss " of " Love Somebody " or " The Man Who Never Lied " . According to him that ’ s an effect of the market they have chosen to contribute on . Billboard 's Chris Payne thought that the song fades into the background of the other stronger tracks on Overexposed . Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly was more critical towards Levine 's vocals on " Love Somebody " and wrote that the singer 's voice is processed in a high disaffected whine — " like a male Rihanna or an android castrato " , which according to him , it 's ideal for tracing the contours of a pop hook .
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Overexposed , due to strong digital downloads , " Love Somebody " debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number eight on June 24 , 2012 , with sales of 35 @,@ 892 digital copies . The next week , it fell to number 15 and sold an additional 16 @,@ 752 copies . It stayed on the chart 's top 100 for total of eight weeks . The song debuted at number 54 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and peaked at number 10 , making Overexposed Maroon 5 's first studio album to produce four Top 10 singles . As of June 2014 , the song has sold 1 @,@ 694 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
= = Music video = =
The music video was released on Vevo on May 21 , 2013 . The video was directed by Rich Lee . The video features Levine and Emily Ratajkowski as his love interest , as well as the members of the band , covered in grey paint . Levine initially paints himself out of a purely white background and then paints Ratajowski in front of him . The last scenes feature the band member 's instruments spraying paint when played continually , a girl dancing seductively , and Levine and his love interest passionately embracing - all while covered in grey paint . In the very last scene , Levine reverses what he has done , removing all the paint from the scene , leaving no trace of them behind .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Engineering and mixing
Engineered at Patriot Studios , Denver , Colorado ; Conway Studios , Los Angeles , California ; mixed at Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Overexposed , A & M / Octone Records .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Thrice =
Thrice is an American rock band from Irvine , California , formed in 1998 . The group was founded by guitarist / vocalist Dustin Kensrue and guitarist Teppei Teranishi while they were in high school .
Early in their career , the band was known for fast , hard music based in heavily distorted guitars , prominent lead guitar lines , and frequent changes in complex time signatures . This style is exemplified on their second album , The Illusion of Safety ( 2002 ) and their third album The Artist in the Ambulance ( 2003 ) . Their fourth album Vheissu ( 2005 ) made significant changes by incorporating electronic beats , keyboards , and more experimental and nuanced songwriting . Their fifth effort was a double album entitled The Alchemy Index ( 2007 / 2008 ) , released as two sets of two CDs that together make a 4 @-@ part , 24 @-@ song cycle . Each of the four 6 @-@ song EPs of the Alchemy Index features significantly different styles , based on different aspects of the band 's musical aesthetic which reflect the elemental themes of fire , water , air and earth , both lyrically and musically . The band 's sixth album , entitled Beggars , was released on August 11 , 2009 , and their seventh , Major / Minor on September 20 , 2011 . The most recent albums feature a refined combination of the band 's different experiments and explorations . On May 27 , 2016 , Thrice released their ninth studio album , To Be Everywhere Is to Be Nowhere . Ten days earlier , they released the album 's only current single , " black honey " .
Each album released by Thrice has had a portion of its sales proceeds donated to a new charitable organization .
= = History = =
= = = First Impressions and Identity Crisis ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = =
Dustin Kensrue and Teppei Teranishi knew each other from school and had played in a band called Chapter 11 . Teppei recruited his skate park friend Eddie Breckenridge to play bass , who then brought his brother Riley on as a drummer . In 1998 , before their first show , they realized they needed a name . Hard @-@ pressed for time , they decided to go with the name ' Thrice ' out of desperation . Thrice was initially an inside joke between the band members , and they were going to use it only temporarily for their first show . However , they began to gain fans with the name , and people started to associate them with it , so they were forced to keep it .
In 1999 , the band self @-@ released an EP titled First Impressions which was the product of a two @-@ day session at A @-@ Room Studios with Brian Tochilin . Only 1 @,@ 000 copies were made and the band members sold them out of their cars . Working with Death by Stereo 's Paul Miner , the quartet recorded 12 tracks , and by April 2000 , the group had released Identity Crisis on Greenflag Records . A portion of the album 's proceeds were donated to a local charity called Crittenton Services for Children and Families . More support gigs and local buzz followed , and Thrice sparked the interest of Hopeless / Sub City 's Louis Posen . In 2001 , Posen signed with the band , reissued Identity Crisis , and sent the group out on tour with Samiam . Tours with Midtown and Hot Rod Circuit followed .
= = = The Illusion of Safety ( 2002 ) = = =
Thrice re @-@ entered the studio with producer Brian McTernan to record its Hopeless / Sub City debut , The Illusion of Safety . The album was released in February 2002 and the band toured extensively to support it , opening for Further Seems Forever and Face to Face before embarking on its first headlining tour later that year . The band again donated a portion of the album 's proceeds , this time choosing a non @-@ profit youth shelter in South Central Los Angeles , A Place Called Home . The band 's donations were matched by their label .
The album received generally positive reviews and garnered the attention of several major labels . The band eventually signed with Island Records , who had agreed to match Thrice 's charitable donations in the same manner that Hopeless / Sub City had . That fall , the band toured with Hot Water Music and Coheed and Cambria before returning to the studio .
= = = The Artist in the Ambulance ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = =
In 2003 , the band released its Island Records debut , The Artist in the Ambulance . The album 's title is in reference to Burn Collector by Al Burian and is meant to reflect the band 's desire to do more than make music and contribute to society through their charitable donations . A portion of the album 's proceeds were this time donated to the Syrentha Savio Endowment , a financial aid organization for breast cancer patients . First pressings of the album were packaged in a digipak @-@ style case with postcards containing lyrics and notes from the band .
The album spawned two singles , " All That 's Left " and " Stare at the Sun . " Both songs , and their accompanying videos , received modest airplay , with " Stare at the Sun " being featured in the video game SSX 3 , published through EA Sports BIG Electronic Arts , and the band found themselves playing at larger venues as the year progressed . A co @-@ headlining fall tour with labelmates Thursday and opener Coheed and Cambria sold out across the United States , as well as a stint on the Honda Civic Tour with Dashboard Confessional , The Get Up Kids , and Hot Water Music . The song " The Artist In The Ambulance " was featured in the video game Test Drive Eve Of Destruction .
Throughout 2004 , the band continued to tour in support of The Artist in the Ambulance . Island Records issued a promotional disc ( that features an alternate version of " The Artist in the Ambulance " ) in early 2004 that would become the basis for If We Could Only See Us Now , a CD / DVD package outlining the group 's career . Named after a lyric from " So Strange I Remember You , " the CD portion contained live tracks from a performance at the Apple Store and various B @-@ sides . A slot to promote the CD / DVD came on the 2004 Vans Warped Tour .
= = = Vheissu ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
Thrice spent much of the first half of 2005 working with producer Steve Osborne on the follow @-@ up to The Artist in the Ambulance . Thrice released Vheissu in October 2005 with " Image of the Invisible " as the first single . The album 's title was taken from the Thomas Pynchon novel V. , and featured a wider variety of instrumentation than used in the band 's previous albums , including the use of strings , electronics , and a Rhodes Piano . Many of the album 's lyrics also feature biblical , spiritual , and abstract themes .
For the band 's donations related to this album 's sales proceeds , Thrice chose novelist Dave Eggers 's charity 826 Valencia , a tutorial program for underprivileged children , which promotes literacy and aids teens in developing creative writing skills . In return , Eggers created the cover art for Vheissu .
The band toured extensively in support of the album , including headlining the 2006 Taste of Chaos tour and performing " Image of the Invisible " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . In April 2006 , the band released " Red Sky " as the second single from the album . The accompanying video was directed by Tim Hope , who had previously directed videos for Coldplay and Jimmy Eat World . Instead of releasing just a single , Thrice opted to release the Red Sky EP in support of the single , which included two previously unreleased tracks and four live tracks .
= = = The Alchemy Index ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = =
In September 2006 , the band announced plans for a new album ( later titled The Alchemy Index ) on their official website . The album was conceived as a series of 4 EPs , each of which represents an element of nature : fire , water , air , and earth . The band maintained a studio blog titled " Alchemy Index " throughout the recording process .
During the recording process , the band announced that they were leaving Island Records , citing a difference of opinion on the band 's future direction as the reason for the split . The band joined Vagrant Records on August 9 , 2007 .
On October 12 , 2007 , Thrice released the first two songs from the Alchemy Index in their entirety through the band 's MySpace page . The Alchemy Index Vols . I & II was released on October 16 , 2007 and sold 28 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It debuted at number 24 on the Billboard 200 chart , and it topped at number five on the iTunes top @-@ selling albums . To promote the new album , Thrice toured with the bands MewithoutYou and Brand New , and followed with a series of Canadian shows with bands Say Anything and Attack in Black . The second half of the project , The Alchemy Index Vols . III & IV - Earth & Air , was released on April 15 , 2008 .
The final song on each disc is written in the form of a sonnet , depicting the relationship of man with each of the particular elements . Each of these songs is in iambic pentameter , with a concluding rhyming couplet . These final couplets also contain the same vocal melody and chord progression as each other , although they are in different keys .
Thrice toured with Circa Survive and Pelican in Spring 2008 to support The Alchemy Index , which had now been released in full . The third @-@ to @-@ last show of this tour — the May 28 , 2008 show at the House of Blues in Anaheim — was filmed for a live CD / DVD titled Live at the House of Blues . The live album spans 2 CDs and a DVD with live footage and an exclusive interview in which the band answers fan @-@ submitted questions . In Fall 2008 , they embarked on a tour supporting Rise Against , along with Alkaline Trio and The Gaslight Anthem .
= = = Beggars ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
On January 4 , 2009 , the band announced on its website that writing had begun for the follow @-@ up to The Alchemy Index , with the title announced as Beggars on June 15 , 2009 . A July update to the band 's website revealed the release date to be October 13 , 2009 . However , after the album was leaked several months in advance , the band announced on their website on July 23 , 2009 that the album would be released exclusively to iTunes on August 11 . The physical CD was released on September 15 , 2009 . Bonus content included two b @-@ sides from the Beggars sessions , two remixes , and a studio rendition of their cover of The Beatles ' " Helter Skelter " .
Feeling that the band 's previous two projects ( The Alchemy Index and Vheissu ) had a " sleepy feeling " to them , Thrice wanted to make a record that was " a little more upbeat and energetic . " Thrice 's members also hoped to save money and spend more time with their families by building a recording studio in guitarist Teppei Teranishi 's home . Originally , the band expressed interest in tracking the record live ( i.e. recording the full band all at once , instead of each instrument individually and mixing together at a later time ) in the home studio ; however Thrice later abandoned the idea of recording this way . Instead , the band recorded songs with " similar vibe [ s ] musically , and tonally " in the same session . Several wooden devices were constructed by the band for the home studio to make the recordings " sound better . " The self @-@ produced album was released through Vagrant Records .
Thrice played The Bamboozle Left festival in April , and played selected dates on the summer 's Warped Tour . Throughout the Warped Tour shows , Thrice played " All the World is Mad , " " At the Last " and " The Weight . "
The song " All the World is Mad " is featured in the Vagrant Song Pack for Guitar Hero , which was released on July 23 , 2009 . " Deadbolt " appears on Guitar Hero 5 .
On July 29 , Brand New announced that Thrice would be playing on select dates of their Fall North American tour . Multiple shows were sold out , and the band notably performed a cover of The Beatles 's " Helter Skelter " . After this leg of the tour , Thrice began a tour with The Dear Hunter , but they had to play without guitarist Teppei Teranishi who left due to a family emergency .
In 2009 , while on the Vans Warped Tour in Houston , TX , the band autographed a Gibson Guitar for the non @-@ profit Music Saves Lives and assisted in their goal of raising the nation 's blood supply .
Thrice posted a poll for fans to vote for which song from Beggars to use for a music video . " All the World is Mad " , " The Weight " , " Circles " and " In Exile " were the choices for the poll , with " In Exile " narrowly beating " The Weight " even after some voters hacked into the system to try to choose the winner . The live @-@ themed , black and white music video premiered on MySpace Music on Thanksgiving Day , November 26 , 2009 , their first live video since 2002 's " Deadbolt . "
Thrice 's Spring ( 2010 ) tour with Manchester Orchestra was unfortunately cut short on April 23 when Dustin Kensrue had to leave because of an illness in the family .
= = = Major / Minor and hiatus ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = =
In an interview with Blare Magazine on June 16 , 2010 , Kensrue revealed that each member had been writing music for a new Thrice album individually , and that " pretty soon " the band would enter the studio to write and record the album collectively .
On April 20 , 2011 Thrice announced on their website that their next album was ready to go and studio bound . The album was recorded in May 2011 at Red Bull Studios , with most of the parts being recorded there and the band adding overdubs and " tweaking " a few things in Teppei 's home recording studio ( New Grass Studios ) in the days after recording at Red Bull Studios .
The new album , titled Major / Minor , was released on September 20 , 2011 through Vagrant Records .
Following Thrice 's spring 2012 tour , the band went on hiatus . In the group 's public statement , Kensrue stated that " Thrice is not breaking up , " but that the band would be " taking a break from being a full @-@ time band . "
Thrice , accompanied by Animals as Leaders and O 'Brother , began their farewell tour on May 4 , 2012 in San Diego and ended it with a 33 @-@ song solo show on June 19 , 2012 in Santa Ana . The tour 's setlist song pool was determined by a fan vote on their entire song catalog ( excluding First Impressions ) . Thrice 's second live album , Anthology , was released on October 30 , 2012 on two CDs and as a quadruple 180 gram LP box set limited to 3000 copies , and features 24 songs recorded at select shows along the tour .
Thrice 's last interview aired on June 18 , 2012 just one day after the band wrapped up their farewell tour . JC from theFIVE10 Radio spoke with Eddie and Teppei .
= = = Hiatus activities ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
Riley Breckenridge plays drums in a grindcore side project called Puig Destroyer with Ian Miller ( KWC ) , Jon Howell ( KWC , Tigon ) , and Mike Minnick ( Curl Up and Die ) . Their self @-@ titled demo is composed of six songs clocking in at about six minutes , which is the number of Yasiel Puig ( 66 ) of the Los Angeles Dodgers , whom the six song demo is inspired by . The name is a reference to both Puig and grindcore band Pig Destroyer . The demo was released on a 7 " 45rpm vinyl by The Ghost Is Clear Records .
Eddie Breckenridge joined the alternative rock band Angels & Airwaves in June 2014 , which also features current / former members of Blink @-@ 182 , Nine Inch Nails and Hazen Street .
= = = Reunion and To Be Everywhere Is to Be Nowhere ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On December 22 , 2014 , the band posted an image on its website showing the view from behind the mixing desk , facing the band performing , overlaid with the text " Thrice 2015 . " Two months later , Thrice began announcing their inclusion in several 2015 music festivals , including New Jersey 's Skate and Surf Fest in May ; Montebello , Quebec 's Amnesia Rockfest in June ; Folkestone , UK 's Hevy Music Festival in August ; and three sites for Riot Fest , Denver in August as well as Chicago and Toronto in September . On October 3 , Thrice performed at Taste of Chaos in San Bernardino , CA .
On November 23 , 2015 , Thrice announced that they would be releasing a new album in 2016 . On March 22 , 2016 , its title has been announced as To Be Everywhere Is to Be Nowhere , with a release date of May 27 , 2016 . The first single , " Blood on the Sand " , was released a few days later . In April 2016 , Thrice released their second song from To Be Everywhere Is to Be Nowhere , titled " Black Honey " and announced several summer tour dates throughout the US and Europe . On May 17th , ten days before the release of the album , Thrice released the official music video for their song " Black Honey . " It features all of the members of the band , and was directed and edited by Y2K and Produced by Jason Lester .
= = Solo activities = =
Dustin Kensrue released his first solo album on Equal Vision Records on January 23 , 2007 , titled Please Come Home . The album opened at 142 on the Billboard 200 with 5 @,@ 800 copies sold . The follow @-@ up was released in 2008 , and was called This Good Night Is Still Everywhere . This album featured two original Christmas songs and various covers of Christmas carols .
Dustin Kensrue revived his solo career by gathering Lee Neujahr ( drums ) , Phil Neujahr ( Bass ) , and Jonny Sandu ( synth ) in order to form The Modern Post . The Modern Post released their first EP in 2012 called Grace Alone . Next , Kensrue released a worship album under his own name , entitled The Water & the Blood , on September 30 , 2013 . On November 24 , 2014 , Kensrue 's band The Modern Post released a Christmas EP titled Lowborn King that featured various Christmas songs and an alternate version of Kensrue 's song , " This Is War " . Kensrue 's next release was on April 21 , 2015 , called Carry the Fire . Lastly , on March 18 , 2016 , Kensrue released an album of live covers of popular songs , entitled Thoughts That Float On A Different Blood .
Teppei Teranishi is in a side project with Chris Jones called Black Unicorn . Chris Jones also played drums and electric guitar on Dustin 's solo album .
Dustin Kensrue provided guest vocals and Teppei Teranishi played guitar / provided production on The Out Circuit 's album Pierce The Empire With a Sound .
= = Band members = =
Dustin Kensrue – lead vocals , rhythm guitar , synthesizers , percussion
Teppei Teranishi – lead guitar , synthesizer , backing vocals , piano , glockenspiel
Eddie Breckenridge – bass , synthesizer , backing vocals , occasional guitars
Riley Breckenridge – drums , programming
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Identity Crisis ( 2000 )
The Illusion of Safety ( 2002 )
The Artist in the Ambulance ( 2003 )
Vheissu ( 2005 )
The Alchemy Index Vols . I & II ( 2007 )
The Alchemy Index Vols . III & IV ( 2008 )
Beggars ( 2009 )
Major / Minor ( 2011 )
To Be Everywhere Is to Be Nowhere ( 2016 )
|
= Banksiamyces =
Banksiamyces is a genus of fungi in the order Helotiales , with a tentative placement in the family Helotiaceae . The genus contains four species , which grow on the seed follicles of the dead infructescences or " cones " of various species of Banksia , a genus in the plant family Proteaceae endemic to Australia . Fruit bodies of the fungus appear as small ( typically less than 10 mm diameter ) , shallow dark cups on the follicles of the Banksia fruit . The edges of dry fruit bodies fold inwards , appearing like narrow slits . The first specimens of Banksiamyces , known then as Tympanis toomansis , were described in 1887 . Specimens continued to be collected occasionally for almost 100 years before becoming examined more critically in the early 1980s , leading to the creation of a new genus to contain what was determined to be three distinct species , B. katerinae , B. macrocarpus , and B. toomansis . A fourth species , B. maccannii , was added in 1984 .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1887 , English mycologists Miles Joseph Berkeley and Christopher Edmund Broome described a species of fungus they named Tympanis toomansis , collected from dead infructescences ( " cones " ) of Banksia growing on the banks of the Tooma River in southern New South Wales , Australia . Its generic placement was a result of its resemblance to Tympanis , a genus in the family Helotiaceae of the Ascomycota .
Additional collections , then still believed to be T. toomansis , were made from South Australia in 1952 , again on dead cones of unspecified Banksia , and also in 1956 on dead cones of Banksia marginata . In 1957 and 1958 , R. W. G. Dennis redescribed the species , and after consultation with Canadian mycologist James Walton Groves , who had earlier completed a monograph on the genus Tympanis , transferred the taxon to the genus Encoelia ( family Sclerotiniaceae ) . Encoelia species are small , tough , brownish discomycetes that typically grow in clusters on hardwood or woody substrates . Because the original collections were incomplete and certain microscopic features inadequately described , various collections made from Australia were presumed to be variations of the original 1887 collection .
In the 1980s , the availability of fresh specimens of the fungus — collected by Australian mycologist Bruce A. Fuhrer from the cones of Banksia spinulosa — prompted Gordon Beaton and Gretna Weste to reexamine the previous collections . Various apparent and microscopic differences were found which suggested that three distinct species were represented in the collections , and further , the species differed enough from other Encoelia species to warrant the creation of a new genus , which Beaton and Weste named Banksiamyces . The three Banksiamyces species they described in 1982 were the original B. toomansis ( those initially named T. toomansis ) , as well as B. macrocarpus and B. katerinae . A fourth species , B. maccannii , was added to the genus by the same authors in 1984 . A 2006 study identified two additional taxa that did not quite meet the description for previously published species ; these have been called Banksiamyces aff. macrocarpus and Banksiamyces aff. toomansis . Some existing species were found on other banksia species , so evidence strengthened that the individual Banksiamyces fungi did not exclusively parasitize only one banksia species , a suggestion proposed by Beaton and Weste in 1982 .
Banksiamyces is classified in the Helotiaceae , a widespread but poorly known family of fungi , many species of which are saprobic on herbaceous or woody tissues . The placement in the Helotiaceae is tentative , and no molecular analysis has yet been performed that might clarify the phylogenetic relationships of Banksiamyces to other taxa in the Helotiales order . Based on physical similarity , Wen @-@ Ying Zhuang included Banksiamyces under Encoelia in his 1998 study of the Encoelioideae subfamily of the Helotiaceae . He conceded , however , that he had not examined any specimens .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies , or apothecia , of Banksiamyces species are cup @-@ shaped receptacles borne on a stipe ( stalk ) , colored dark brown to black with a dark grey center . When dry , the apothecia are covered with a whitish powder . The edges of the cup may be rolled inwards ( especially when dry ) , or be twisted and somewhat flattened . Both the outermost tissue layer ( the ectal excipulum ) and the tissue of the stalk are made of fungal cells with brown pigments that can be variously thick- or thin @-@ walled , covered with small particles ( granules ) , and spherical to ellipsoid . The middle tissue layer ( the medullary excipulum ) of both the cup and the internal tissue layer ( the medulla ) of the stalk contain a layer of tissue made of hyphae similar to the ectal excipulum . A second layer of tissue is made of hyphae that are translucent and gelatinous ; this layer may be present in either the medullary excipulum , the medulla , or both .
The asci are elongated reproductive structures that bear ascospores , in groups of eight . Banksiamyces species have asci that are cylindrical to club @-@ shaped , and contain a plug at their extreme tips that will absorb color when stained with iodine . The ascospores may be arranged in one or two rows ( uniseriate and biseriate , respectively ) , or rarely , irregular . The ascospores are ellipsoid , translucent , have a slight curve and may be tapered ; most ascospores contain two oil drops . When in the ascus , the ascospores are covered with a translucent mucilage that is highly refractive to light . Paraphyses are filamentous hyphal cells present in the fertile spore @-@ bearing tissue , distributed amongst the asci . The free ends of the paraphyses fork and branch , combining with the tips of the asci to form a translucent to brown pigmented layer of tissue .
= = Species = =
B. katerinae is named after G. Beaton 's wife , the senior author of the 1982 protologue . It was first discovered in 1964 , growing on the seed follicles of dead cones of Banksia ornata in the Mount Zero Area in the Grampians in northwestern Victoria .
B. maccannii , first described in 1984 , was found on dead Banksia saxicola cones . The specific epithet was chosen to honor Ian McCann , for his " discovery of the type collection and ... his years of ecological , educational and conservation work in the Victorian Grampians . " The fungus is distinguished from the other Banksiamyces species by its larger asci , larger spores , and tapering paraphyses tips . Further , the type collection was found fruiting in December and January , compared to winter and autumn for other Banksiamyces .
B. macrocarpus grows on the dead cones of Banksia spinulosa , and was first collected near Tonimbuk , Victoria in 1981 . It is the type species of Banksiamyces .
B. toomansis is the species originally described and illustrated by Berkeley and Broome . The type collection was found on a cone of Banksia marginata on the banks of the Tooma River of New South Wales . It has also been recovered from a cone of Banksia sphaerocarpa from near Busselton in Western Australia , B. nutans , B. pulchella , B. speciosa , and B. occidentalis , all from Mount Merivale , 20 km ( 12 mi ) east of Esperance , B. baxteri cultivated at Cranbourne Botanic Gardens , B. integrifolia from the Blue Mountains , and B. marginata from Kangaroo Island . Synonyms include Tympanis toomansis Berk . & Br . , and Encoelia toomansis ( Berk . & Br . ) . Its ascospores can range in shape from elliptical to cylindrical , and have dimensions of 6 – 10 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 µm .
|
= Who 's That Girl World Tour =
Who 's That Girl World Tour was the second concert tour by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . The tour supported her third studio album , True Blue ( 1986 ) , as well as the soundtrack Who 's That Girl ( 1987 ) . It was Madonna 's first world tour , reaching Asia , North America and Europe . Madonna 's 1987 film Who 's That Girl was a box office failure , but its soundtrack proved to be a commercial success . Warner Bros. felt that they could encache on Madonna 's success further and they sent her on a world tour . Musically and technically superior to her previous Virgin Tour , the Who 's That Girl Tour incorporated multimedia components to make the show more appealing .
Madonna trained herself physically with aerobics , jogging and weight @-@ lifting , to cope with the choreography and the dance routines . For the costumes , she collaborated with designer Marlene Stewart , expanding on the idea of bringing her popular video characters to life onstage , reworking scenes from videos such as " True Blue " , " Open Your Heart " , " Papa Don 't Preach " and " La Isla Bonita " . The stage was huge , with four video screens , multimedia projectors and a flight of stairs in the middle . Patrick Leonard , who was the music director , encouraged Madonna to go with the idea of rearranging her older songs and presenting them in a new format . The title Who 's That Girl came to Madonna 's mind when during rehearsals one @-@ day when she looked at a gigantic image of herself , projected on a screen on the stage .
The show consisted of seven costume changes , with song @-@ and @-@ dance routines , theatrics , addressing social causes — during " Papa Don 't Preach " — as well as an encore , consisting of " La Isla Bonita " , the Who 's That Girl film title song and " Holiday " . The tour was critically appreciated , who commented on the extravagant nature of the concert and complimented Madonna for her dancing , costume changes and dynamic pacing . Who 's That Girl was a commercial success , grossing in total of US $ 25 million ( $ 52 @.@ 07 million in 2016 dollars ) by playing in front of 1 @.@ 5 million audience . According to Pollstar , it was the second top female concert tour of 1987 , behind Tina Turner 's Break Every Rule Tour .
Who 's That Girl was broadcast in a number of international television channels and was released in VHS titled Ciao Italia : Live from Italy . Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli commented that " Many female artists behave like a diva for a period when they reach superstar status , and the ' Who 's That Girl ? ' tour marked the beginning of Madonna 's . " It is also noted for giving rise to the term " new Madonna " , a stronger and more intelligent sexual image of her former self which had given rise to the term Madonna wannabe . A statue of Madonna , wearing conical bra was elected in her name , at the center of the town of Pacentro in Italy , where her ancestors used to live .
= = Background = =
Madonna 's 1987 film Who 's That Girl was a box office failure , reason being Madonna trying to do many different things together in the film . According to Taraborrelli , Madonna appropriated a Judy Holliday voice , along with Marilyn Monroe 's hair and make @-@ up for the film , which — according to critics — was somehow designed for actress Carole Lombard , and hence it failed . However , the soundtrack of the film proved to be a big success . The album consisted of four Madonna songs , along with tracks by obscure Warner Bros. Records ' acts like Club Nouveau , Scritti Politti and Michael Davidson . Three of Madonna 's songs were released as singles , namely : " Who 's That Girl " , " Causing a Commotion " and " The Look of Love " , all of them were successful .
The album , released before the film , sold a million copies in the United States , and five million worldwide . Taraborrelli felt that at that moment , riding on Madonna 's coattails proved profitable for everyone involved , including Warner Bros. Records , which notched up big sales with a compilation soundtrack album that was basically a showcase for its marginal artists . But still they wanted to " milk @-@ in " the success of Madonna , a view shared by Peter Guber and Jon Peters , executive producers of the film . Hence they felt a worldwide concert tour was the appropriate thing to do , since it would promote both the soundtrack and the film , as well as Madonna 's successful third studio album True Blue , released the year before . As Madonna 's first world tour , Who 's That Girl ended up being a resounding success , although by its end , Madonna declared that she did not want to hear any of her songs again and she did not know whether she would ever write another one . " I returned feeling so burned out and I was convinced that I wouldn 't go near music for quite a while " , she said .
= = Development = =
The Who 's That Girl World Tour was musically and technically superior to Madonna 's Virgin Tour , because she incorporated multimedia components to make the show more compelling . As the tour was confirmed , Madonna and her team started planning for it . Madonna wanted a show which consisted of theatrics , drama , dance and choreography in " full @-@ force " . Her publicist Liz Rosenberg commented , " She wants a visual impact that would knock people out . She was very determined about this . And she 's the type that makes decisions quickly ; If something doesn 't work , she starts over . You 'll see a different look this year , but it 's still Madonna , still bigger than life . " In order to engage herself completely and handle the grueling dance routines , she started attending aerobics classes at Hollywood health centre The Sports Connection . By the time the tour drew nearer , she hired a personal trainer , and her daily routine involved jogging , weight @-@ lifting , dancing , gymnastics , trampoline , swimming and cycling . She started eating vegetarian food with plenty of protein and carbohydrate and avoided the sun . British funk band Level 42 was the supporting act of the tour . Madonna 's image was that of a blond girl with soft curls , making a striking contrast with the firm , almost hard lines of her eye make @-@ up and lipstick ; the idea of her friend actress Debi Mazar .
For the costumes , Madonna collaborated with designer Marlene Stewart . She expanded on the idea of bringing her popular video characters to life onstage , reworking scenes from " True Blue " , " Open Your Heart " , " Papa Don 't Preach " and " La Isla Bonita " . For " Open Your Heart " , Madonna reused the Stewart designed black bustier worn by her in the video , complete with tassels , golden tips and ribbing with fishnets on leg . Stewart 's other designs included a Spanish style dress for " La Isla Bonita " and a gold lamé jacket for the " White Heat " sequence . The last dress of the show was visually amusing and , according to Madonna , was for " anyone that takes me too seriously , or imagined and I take myself too seriously . " Inspired by Dame Edna Everage , the dress consisted of a hat strewn with fake fruits , flowers and feathers , jeweled batwing spectacles with heavy , black frames , a ruffled skirt and a bodice covered with objects such as watches and dolls and fishnets . The knickers were inscribed with the word " Kiss " . Continuing her tradition of message clothes , she spelt out the phrase " You Can Dance " on her jacket , using the letter U , a can of soup and the word " dance " at the back .
Calling the show a " theatrical multimedia spectacular " , Madonna wanted a huge stage with a central platform from which a flight of stairs descended . The central platform was flanked by two lower platforms , which housed the band and the musicians . A large video screen was suspended above the stairs , which descended during the show . Two projectors were situated at the front of the stage , which projected images of The Pope and President Ronald Reagan during the show . Patrick Leonard , who had produced True Blue , joined as the musical director for the shows . Instead of following every note on the records , Leonard encouraged the musicians to come up with new ideas for the songs . Hence a number of the old songs were rearranged , including introducing a medley of " Dress You Up " , " Material Girl " and " Like a Virgin " — which contained a sample from the Four Tops song " I Can 't Help Myself ( Sugar Pie Honey Bunch ) " . American choreographer Shabba Doo was signed to choreograph the show . 13 @-@ year @-@ old Christopher Finch was signed to play the part of the small boy from the " Open Your Heart " video , since Felix Howard , who played the original part , did not get a working license , and hence could not join the tour . Madonna wanted three backup singers , a team of male dancers and a succession of costume changes . She took inputs from her then husband , actor Sean Penn saying , " I really respect Sean 's opinion . He has great taste and is a very brilliant man . When I was putting my tour together , it was always in the back of my mind : ' I wonder what Sean will think of this ? ' He 's extremely opinionated and has really high standards , and that sometimes pushed me into making decisions I wouldn 't have otherwise made . " The title " Who 's That Girl Tour " came to Madonna 's mind during rehearsals one @-@ day when she looked at a gigantic image of herself , projected on a screen on the stage . She commented ,
" Oh god , what have I done ? What have I created ? Is that me , or is this me , this small person standing down here on the stage ? That 's why I call the tour ' Who 's That Girl ? ' ; because I play a lot of characters , and every time I do a video or a song , people go , ' Oh , that 's what she 's like . ' And I 'm not like any of them . I 'm all of them . I 'm none of them . You know what I mean . ? "
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show started with a performance by Level 42 . As their performance ended , the lights started blinking all around the stadium and Finch appears on stage , looking for Madonna . He is followed by two other dancers , who jump around the stage and disappear . Then Madonna 's silhouette is visible behind a screen which has paintings by Tamara de Lempicka on it . She performs dance moves behind the screen , which starts going up slowly . She wore a black pointy corset and fishnets like the costume in the music video of " Open Your Heart " . After dancing on the stairs , using a chair as a prop , Madonna descends and starts singing the song . Later Finch joins her again and they dance together till the song ends . This was followed by the performance of " Lucky Star " during which a disco ball spun above the stage ; as Madonna and her dancers moved around it , the light from the ball flickered on them like a star . For " True Blue " , Madonna came up on the stage wearing a blue , silk taffeta dress over her corset and a blue scarf hidden in her bosom . The stage had a similar blue setting like the original music video . Madonna is backed up by her singers who play her girlfriends . At the end of the song Madonna is asked to dance again by the dancer playing her man in the performance . During " Papa Don 't Preach " Madonna wore a black leather jacket over her dress and walked around the stage while singing . The screen in the background showed portraits of Pope John Paul II and then @-@ President of the U.S. Ronald Reagan , along with scenes of John Perry III 's short film , The Nightmare , ending with the words " Safe Sex " , as Madonna finished the song . She dedicated the song to the Pope , marking her first conflict with the Vatican , as Pope John Paul II urged Italian fans to boycott her concerts .
During " White Heat " — which featured dialogues from the 1949 James Cagney film of the same name — a video screen displayed a scene from the film , with Cagney saying the dialogue : " A copper ... a copper fellas " . The video screen moves up and Madonna appears , wearing a lamé jacket and holding a plastic gun in her right hand . A large cut out of Cagney appears in the middle and Madonna finishes singing the song , while pointing the revolver towards her dancers and pretending to fire at them , as sounds of gunshots are heard . She followed it with " Causing a Commotion " which ended with Madonna pointing to her dancers and musicians across stage and uttering the line " He / She 's got the moves baby " numerous times . For " The Look of Love " the spotlight was focused on her . The introductory music of the song started and Madonna roamed around the stage , pretending that she was lost . She wanted to portray her Who 's That Girl film character Nikki , when she was lost in a similar sequence in the film . After she finished singing the song , Madonna pretended to walk forward by pushing through the air , as the conveyor belt took her backwards , ultimately taking her away from the stage . Then a red phone booth appears on the stage , in which Madonna 's silhouette appears to be changing costume . She emerges from the booth wearing the Edna Everage inspired costume and starts singing " Dress You Up " . Then she sang " Material Girl " , while stretching her legs on stage and showing her underwear and followed by " Like a Virgin " , during which she took off her outfit piece by piece , until she was standing in the same outfit from the beginning of the show , and ended the performance while flirting with a young male dancer who played her bridegroom .
A backdrop then started showing the newspaper reports on Madonna 's 1985 Playboy nude picture release . The backdrop moves up as Madonna appears , wearing a loose @-@ fitted black pant and top , with bejeweled glasses , for singing " Where 's the Party " . For " Into the Groove " Finch joins her on stage to dance alongside . Madonna then wore a pink bolero jacket which had the can of soup and the words " U " and " DANCE " flanking it . At the end she is joined by her backup singers and dancers . Together they take a bow to the audience and finish the performance . Next Madonna sang " La Isla Bonita " as a part of the encore , wearing the same red flamenco dress she had worn in the video . For " Who 's That Girl " , Madonna — flanked by Finch and a male dancer — strutted around the stage , asking the audience to join her on the chorus . Lastly , Madonna performed an energetic version of " Holiday " , signaling the celebratory and wholesome nature of the song 's theme . The song featured a new arrangement , with a guitar solo in the intermediate portion added by Leonard . She sang the final chorus twice , then asked the audience for a comb so that she could fix her hair and finished the performance , after taking a bow with her dancers to the audience .
= = Critical reception = =
Biographer Taraborrelli commented , " Madonna had more confidence in her stage presence , her music was showing a deeper maturity , her voice was fuller , and the show was expertly choreographed with complex numbers . J. D. Considine from The Baltimore Sun commented , " I 've seen the Springsteen stadium tour , I 've seen Dylan and the [ Grateful ] Dead , and I was at Live Aid . Out of all those shows , Madonna 's is the only one I want to see again . You need a larger @-@ than @-@ life show if you want to come off in a stadium , and Madonna does . She 's not that large physically , but she holds your attention . " Ann Ayers , assistant entertainment editor of USA Today felt that the show was high on glitz and low on emotional quotient . " Madonna 's going for a certain kind of show : a Broadway , show @-@ biz , song @-@ and @-@ dance spectacle . In that context it 's hard to make a connection with the audience , and I 'd have to say that she didn 't . " Peter Goddard from Toronto Star reviewed the concert in CNE Stadium and said , " Madonna proved that she may be a lost girl in the roads of life , like her film , but she ain 't lost when she is singing . Especially during songs like ' Papa Don 't Preach ' , her vocal prowess was substantially notable . " Scott A Zamost and Elizabeth Snead , writing for Chicago Tribune , felt that " For the most part , the premiere concert on Madonna 's Who 's That Girl tour was a success , an extravaganza of multiple videos , flashing lights and precision dancing . If the high @-@ tech accoutrements and inferior sound system made it difficult to hear the singer , one hopes that will be refined as the tour continues across the United States . [ ... ] As a dancer , Madonna is supreme on stage . Her trademark skip to a funky beat highlighted the constant acrobatics . One minute she was stage left , another minute stage right . She ran up a wide staircase center stage to party with her three back @-@ up singers , then scooted down to the stage floor , swinging her hips , accompanied by other dancers . "
Deborah Wilker from The Day commented that " Madonna 's got an almost rabid energy about her , which she maintains for the duration of 90 minutes . In fact she rarely leaves the stage — preferring to change costumes in a phone booth instead . Boy can she change . One minute she 's a 50 's teenager in a party dress , next she 's playing a speak @-@ easy chanteuse . It 's almost difficult to believe that a career as young as Madonna 's could contain so much popular material that on stage the star can barely get to half of it . " Don McLeese from Chicago Sun @-@ Times reviewed the performance at Soldier Field stadium said that " ' Shine ' seems like a dim possibility for her Soldier Field performance this month , because Madonna invariably takes the stage after dusk has turned to dark and brings back the sun again for the two hours that she played . " In another review , McCleese commented : " [ Madonna ] proceeded to show Soldier Field a few moves that would gain Walter Payton some yardage , while putting a whole new twist on the term ' backfield in motion ' . The girl really knows how to cause a commotion . " Richard Harrington from The Washington Post felt that the tour " would have played better to a full house at the Capital Centre or Merriweather Post Pavilion . But to her credit , Madonna performed last night as if the house was full , and the show is splendid pop theater . Madonna has described it as ' Broadway in a stadium ' , and with her nonstop dancing , costume changes , mini @-@ dramas and dynamic pacing , it is sort of a ' Liza With an M. ' " Jon Pareles from The New York Times reviewed the concert at Madison Square Garden in New York and felt that " For all its effort and professionalism , the concert wasn 't exactly moving ; Madonna had to ask the audience to get up and dance twice . But as shallow , kitschy , pop entertainment — no big messages , no revelations , familiar sounds and images , plenty of catchy tunes — the show was easy to enjoy . [ ... ] The tunes stick to her limited vocal range and usually use short phrases — the better to keep her from running out of breath as she dances across the stage . And her band knocked the songs out with solid precision , recreating the gleaming sound of her records .
= = Commercial response = =
After the tour was announced , the first two shows at Wembley Stadium in London sold @-@ out at a then record @-@ breaking time of 18 hours and 9 minutes for 144 @,@ 000 tickets . However around 10 @,@ 000 concert tickets were still left unsold for her Leeds concert . Madonna 's concert in Paris in front of 130 @,@ 000 fans remains to this date , her biggest concert audience ever and largest crowd of any concert in French history . A concert was also planned in Basel , Switzerland for August 31 , 1987 , but negotiations between Madonna 's management and local organizers failed due to the high fee of one million ( $ 2 @.@ 08 million in 2016 dollars ) that Madonna 's camp demanded . As a result , Nice , France was booked in the itinerary . But when a local mayor threatened to cancel the concert , citing crowd problems , Jacques Chirac , then Mayor of Paris , stepped in to overrule him . Her first @-@ ever Italian concert in Turin , was presented by the Italian state broadcaster RaiUno and broadcast around the world . Just in Italy , the show was watched by around 14 million households . The show at Turin was watched by 65 @,@ 000 fans and was a record there .
In Japan , a thousand troops had to restrain a crowd of 25 @,@ 000 fans seeking to greet Madonna at the airport . When severe storms forced the cancellation of her first shows , despondent fans nearly rioted , and Madonna was confronted with out @-@ of @-@ control teenagers soaking themselves in the rain outside the stadium . Promoters had no choice but to refund U.S. $ 7 million to ticket @-@ buyers . Madonna 's Madison Square Garden show in New York City was an AIDS benefit with all the proceeds from the show going to American Foundation for AIDS Research ( AmFAR ) . She dedicated her performance of " Live to Tell " to her late friend Martin Burgoyne , the designer of her 1983 " Burning Up " single cover sleeve . Upon completion , the tour was the second top female concert tour of 1987 , behind Tina Turner 's Break Every Rule Tour , earning in total of US $ 25 million ( $ 52 @.@ 07 million in 2016 dollars ) according to Pollstar and playing in front of 1 @.@ 5 million audience all over the world .
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
The concert at Korakuen Stadium , Tokyo was broadcast on June 22 , 1987 in Japan only . It was later released on VHS and Laserdisc as Who 's That Girl : Live In Japan . It was the first television broadcast using Dolby Surround Sound and was promoted by Mitsubishi , as Madonna had previously starred in television commercials for their video recorders . On September 4 , 1987 , Madonna 's concert special , Madonna in Concerto , filmed at the Comunale Stadium in Turin , Italy was broadcast live on TV in Italy ( RAI ) , France ( TF1 ) , Germany ( SAT1 ) , Austria ( ORF ) and Spain ( TVE ) . Other countries including Australia and The Netherlands broadcast this show in 1987 . The concert was released commercially in 1988 as Ciao Italia : Live from Italy and was later available on Laserdisc and DVD . The video contains the full Who 's That Girl show , produced using footage from three different shows : Tokyo June 22 , 1987 , Turin September 4 , 1987 , and Florence September 6 , 1987 . Heather Phares from Allmusic said : " Madonna 's Ciao Italia : Live from Italy captures a performance from her 1988 world tour and features hits like ' Lucky Star ' , ' True Blue ' , ' La Isla Bonita ' , ' Like a Virgin ' , and ' Material Girl ' . A much simpler , less choreographed performance than her later extravaganzas like The Girlie Show World Tour , Ciao Italia is still entertaining in its own right , and will definitely please fans nostalgic for some old @-@ school Madonna hits . " Mark Knopher from the Los Angeles Daily News commented that " Ciao Italia shows the glitz and the glamor that made this tour so remarkable . " It charted at the top of the Billboard music DVD chart on for six weeks and ranked at two on the " 1988 Year @-@ end Top Ranked Tapes " . Ciao Italia also charted at number three on the Finnish DVD chart in 2009 .
= = Legacy = =
According to Taraborrelli , " Many female artists behave like a diva for a period when they reach superstar status , and the ' Who 's That Girl ? ' tour marked the beginning of Madonna 's . " For instance , she would not allow crew members to talk directly to her ; they had to talk to her representatives , lest they distract her from the business at hand . She also forbade her dancers from speaking to her and her musicians were not permitted to even look at her unless they were onstage with her . Moreover , when coming on and off the stage , Madonna demanded that road managers hold sheets around her in order to shield her from the eyes of " those who couldn 't help but stare " . DeMann commented : " She has a way of demanding that compels you to give her your undivided attention " , to which Taraborrelli felt that such behavior actually was an indication of how successful and strong Madonna was . " You don 't behave like a bitch until you are that successful . The tour sure helped cement her star status " , he commented .
The tour was also notable for giving rise to the term " new Madonna " , a stronger and more intelligent sexual image of her former self which had given rise to the term Madonna wannabe . Considine felt that " the important thing Madonna did on the tour was to demonstrate how female sexuality can be a source of strength . Traditionally in pop culture , there are two roles that a woman can play — the good girl and the bad girl , and the bad girl is never taken seriously . But Madonna shows up the trappings of a bad girl , and demanded to be taken up seriously because she just doesn 't roll over . I got more sense of the strength and power that was under her image all along . " Another important fact noted in the tour by scholars is the extensive use of multimedia technique to its maximum potential . Says Mark Bego , author of Madonna : Blonde Ambition , that " Madonna transformed the concept of a concert tour being focused on the songs . She turned her Who 's That Girl ? tour into a ubiquitous multimedia blitz technique by including songs , dancing , choreography , videos , big screens , backdrops — not to mention the subtle preaching and messages — that made singing a secondary quality for concert goers . Evident from the people that thronged to see the tour , they were there for the spectacle — and not see Madonna standing in front of the microphone and singing .
While in Italy , Madonna met some of her relatives from Pacentro , the village in which her grandfather and grandmother , Gaetano and Michelina Ciccone had been married . However , it was not the glorious home coming that she had expected ; some of her relatives made it very clear that they were scandalized by her appearance and behavior . One good thing came from the visit , there were talks of making her an honorary citizen of the town . Ultimately , a statue of Madonna , wearing conical bra was elected in her name , at the center of the town . The Vatican was outraged by the plans of erecting the statue , with the Pope 's spokesperson commenting : " The statue would be too sexy and might corrupt the morals of Italy 's fine young people . "
= = Opening Act = =
Level 42
= = Set list = =
" Open Your Heart "
" Lucky Star "
" True Blue "
" Papa Don 't Preach "
" White Heat "
" Causing a Commotion "
" The Look of Love "
Medley :
" Dress You Up "
" Material Girl "
" Like a Virgin " ( contains excerpts from " I Can 't Help Myself ( Sugar Pie Honey Bunch ) " )
" Where 's the Party "
" Live to Tell "
" Into the Groove "
" La Isla Bonita "
" Who 's That Girl "
" Holiday "
Set list per official DVD track listing .
= = Shows = =
= = Personnel = =
|
= SM U @-@ 68 =
SM U @-@ 68 was a Type U 66 submarine or U @-@ boat for the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during the First World War . She had been laid down in December 1913 as U @-@ 9 of the U @-@ 7 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u. K. Kriegsmarine ) but was sold to Germany , along with the others in her class , in November 1914 . Under German control , the class became known as the U 66 type and the boats were renumbered ; U @-@ 9 became U @-@ 68 , and was redesigned and reconstructed to German specifications . She was launched in June 1915 and commissioned in August .
Six days into her first war patrol , on 22 March 1916 , U @-@ 68 was sunk by Farnborough , a British Q @-@ ship , with all hands . U @-@ 68 sank no ships in her brief career . A post @-@ war German study found fault with U @-@ 68 's captain for not following established procedures for avoiding decoy ships .
= = Design and construction = =
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy had competitively evaluated three foreign submarine designs , it selected the Germaniawerft 506d design , also known as the Type UD , for its new U @-@ 7 class of five submarines . The Navy ordered five boats on 1 February 1913 .
The U @-@ 7 class was seen by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as an improved version of its U @-@ 3 class , which was also a Germaniawerft design . As designed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the boats were to displace 695 tonnes ( 684 long tons ) on the surface and 885 tonnes ( 871 long tons ) while submerged . The doubled @-@ hulled boats were to be 69 @.@ 50 metres ( 228 ft ) long overall with a beam of 6 @.@ 30 metres ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 3 @.@ 79 metres ( 12 @.@ 4 ft ) . The Austrian specifications called for two shafts with twin diesel engines ( 2 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 269 bhp ; 1 @,@ 692 kW ) total ) for surface running at up to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and twin electric motors ( 1 @,@ 240 PS ( 1 @,@ 220 shp ; 910 kW ) total ) for a maximum of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) when submerged . The boats were designed with five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; four located in the bow , one in the stern . The boats ' armament was to also include a single 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 26 deck gun .
U @-@ 9 was laid down on 31 December 1913 , the third of the U @-@ 7 boats . Her construction was slated to be complete within 29 to 33 months . Neither U @-@ 9 nor any of her sister boats were complete when World War I began in August 1914 . With the boats under construction at Kiel , the Austrians became convinced that it would be impossible to take delivery of the boats , which would need to be towed into the Mediterranean past Gibraltar , a British territory . As a result , U @-@ 9 and her four sisters were sold to the Imperial German Navy on 28 November 1914 .
U @-@ 9 was renumbered by the Germans as U @-@ 68 when her class was redesignated as the Type U 66 . The Imperial German Navy had the submarines redesigned and reconstructed to German standards , which increased the surface displacement by 96 tonnes ( 94 long tons ) and the submerged by 48 tonnes ( 47 long tons ) . The torpedo load was increased by a third , from 9 to 12 , and the deck gun was upgraded from the 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) gun originally specified to an 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) one .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 68 was launched on 1 June 1915 . On 17 August , SM U @-@ 68 was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ludwig Güntzel , a new submarine commander . On 29 November , U @-@ 68 was assigned to the IV . U @-@ Halbflotille .
U @-@ 68 departed the Ems on 16 March 1916 to begin her first war patrol . Headed to her assigned operating area off Britain 's west coast , Güntzel and U @-@ 68 came across Farnborough , a British Q @-@ ship — in appearance unarmed — under the command of Gordon Campbell . At approximately 07 : 00 , U @-@ 68 fired a torpedo at Farnborough and narrowly missed the ship 's bow . Farnborough continued the deception and continued on at her same speed and course . At 07 : 20 , U @-@ 68 surfaced about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) astern of Farnborough , moved to the ship 's port quarter , and fired a shot across the Q @-@ ship 's bow .
Farnborough stopped , blew off steam , and launched a boat to simulate a surrender . As U @-@ 68 closed to 800 yards ( 730 m ) , Farnborough raised the White Ensign , uncovered her guns and opened fire with three of her five 12 pounder ( 76 mm ) guns . The British gunners scored several hits on the U @-@ boat out of 21 rapidly fired rounds . As U @-@ 68 began to sink , Campbell steered Farnborough over U @-@ 68 's location and dropped a depth charge that blew the bow of the submarine out of the water . As U @-@ 68 began going down by the stern , Farnborough 's gunners scored another five hits on the U @-@ boat 's conning tower . U @-@ 68 sank with the loss of all 38 men at position 51 ° 54 ′ N 10 ° 53 ′ W off Dingle in southern Ireland . U @-@ 68 sank no ships during her brief service career .
A post @-@ war German study faulted U @-@ 68 's commander , Kptlt . Güntzel , for failing to follow established procedures for dealing with neutral @-@ flagged vessels in order to avoid decoy ships like Farnborough . According to the report , Güntzel had broken almost all the rules when approaching Farnborough . However , Kommodore Hermann Bauer , the commander of the German High Seas Fleet U @-@ boats , in his post @-@ war memoirs , reports Güntzel was an inexperienced captain and had not , contrary to usual practice , been first sent to sea under a more experienced U @-@ boat captain to gain knowledge .
|
= The Boat Race 1829 =
The 1st Boat Race took place at Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames on 10 June 1829 . The race came about following a challenge laid down to the University of Oxford by University of Cambridge " to row a match at or near London , each in an eight @-@ oared boat during the ensuing Easter vacation " . Oxford wore dark blue jerseys while Cambridge wore " white with pink waistbands " . In front of a crowd estimated to be around 20 @,@ 000 , and according to the official record , Oxford won the race " easily " in a time of 14 minutes 30 seconds . The Boat Race became an annual fixture , and as of 2015 , has been contested 161 times .
= = Background = =
Coxed eight rowing had been popular at the University of Oxford for a number of years before a club was established at the University of Cambridge around 1827 . At a meeting of the Cambridge University Boat Club in February 1829 , it was decided to challenge Oxford " to row a match at or near London , each in an eight @-@ oared boat during the ensuing Easter vacation " . The race was deferred to the summer , as rowing did not start at Oxford until after Easter , and scheduled for 10 June 1829 for a prize of 500 guineas . During the pre @-@ race betting , Cambridge were the favourites to win the race .
Oxford wore a dark blue check outfit for the race , while Cambridge wore white with pink waistbands . The two boats were said to be " very handsome , and wrought in a superior style of workmanship " by The Morning Post ; Oxford 's green boat was built by Stephen Davies and Isaac King of Oxford , and was slightly the shorter , measuring 44 feet ( 13 m ) . Cambridge 's pink boat was 18 inches ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) longer , and built by Searle of Westminster . The umpires for the race were Mr. Cyril Page ( for Oxford ) and Mr John Stuart Roupell ( for Cambridge ) . Should the umpires disagree about any aspect of the race , they had recourse to consult the referee , whose name was not recorded .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 1 @.@ 75 lb ( 70 @.@ 5 kg ) ; as the records for the Oxford crew are incomplete , no average weight can be calculated .
= = Race = =
The course for the race was a 2 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) stretch of the River Thames between Hambleden Lock and Henley Bridge . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start on the Berkshire side of the river , handing the Buckinghamshire side to Oxford . According to the author William Fisher MacMichael , " it was as fine a day as our climate allows a June day to be . " The race had originally been scheduled to start at 6 : 00 p.m. but this was altered to 7 : 00 p.m. and was further delayed . Upon the start of the race , by which time around 20 @,@ 000 people were reckoned to be in attendance to watch , the Oxford boat was steered close to the Cambridge boat , forcing it to row close to the shore . This drew complaints from the Cambridge crew , who insisted that the race be restarted . The Oxford crew relented , and the race began for the second time at 7 : 55 p.m. In the early stages of the race , the two crews were evenly matched , but after they passed an island in the river , Oxford drew ahead .
Once they had passed the island , and were in the main flow of the river , the Oxford crew demonstrated their strength . The Morning Post report of the race records that both crews " put out the strength of their arms in excellent style " , and although the Cambridge boat maintained a higher stroke rate , Oxford maintained their lead throughout the rest of the race . Their margin of victory is variously reported as being between two and four lengths ( although is recorded officially as " easily " ) , in a time reported variously between 14 minutes and 14 minutes 30 seconds .
= = Legacy = =
The event , subsequently referred to as The Boat Race , or the University Boat Race , was held for a second time seven years later , in 1836 on the River Thames . It was then held intermittently until the 1856 race after which it became an annual event , interrupted only by the First and Second World Wars . As of 2016 , 162 Boat Races have been contested ; Cambridge lead overall with 82 victories to Oxford 's 79 , excluding the one " dead heat " recorded in the 1877 race .
|
= SMS Kaiser ( 1874 ) =
SMS Kaiser was the lead ship of the Kaiser @-@ class ironclads ; SMS Deutschland was her sister ship . Named for the title " Kaiser " ( German : Emperor ) , held by the leader of the then newly created German Empire , the ship was laid down in the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London in 1871 . The ship was launched in March 1874 and commissioned into the German fleet in February 1875 . Kaiser mounted a main battery of eight 26 cm ( 10 in ) guns in a central battery amidships .
Kaiser served with the fleet from her commissioning until 1896 , though she was frequently placed in reserve throughout her career . The ship was a regular participant in the annual fleet training maneuvers conducted with the exception of the mid @-@ 1880s , when she was temporarily replaced by newer vessels . She participated in several cruises in the Baltic and Mediterranean , often escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II on official state visits . Kaiser was rebuilt in the early 1890s as an armored cruiser , though she was too slow to perform satisfactorily in this role . Nevertheless , she spent several years as the flagship of the East Asia Squadron before returning to Germany in 1899 . She was used in secondary roles after 1904 , until after the end of World War I in 1919 , when she was broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Kaiser was ordered by the Imperial Navy from the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London , UK ; her keel was laid in 1871 . Kaiser and her sister Deutschland were ordered shortly after the end of the Franco @-@ Prussian War , under the assumption that the French would quickly attempt a war of revenge . The ship was launched on 19 March 1874 and commissioned into the German fleet on 13 February 1875 . Kaiser cost the German government 8 @,@ 226 @,@ 000 gold marks .
The ship was 89 @.@ 34 meters ( 293 @.@ 1 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 19 @.@ 10 m ( 62 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 39 m ( 24 @.@ 2 ft ) forward . Kaiser was powered by one 2 @-@ cylinder single expansion engine , which was supplied with steam by eight coal @-@ fired trunk boilers . The ship 's top speed was 14 @.@ 6 knots ( 27 @.@ 0 km / h ; 16 @.@ 8 mph ) , at 5 @,@ 779 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 309 kW ) . She was also equipped with a full ship rig . Her standard complement consisted of 32 officers and 568 enlisted men .
She was armed with eight 26 cm ( 10 in ) L / 20 guns mounted in a central battery amidships . As built , the ship was also equipped with a single 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 22 gun . After being rebuilt in 1891 – 1895 , her armament was increased by six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 22 and one 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 30 guns , four and later twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) auto @-@ cannons , and five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the ship 's hull . Kaiser 's armor was made of wrought iron and backed with teak . The armored belt was 127 to 254 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 to 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick ; this was backed with 90 to 226 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 9 in ) of teak .
= = Service history = =
After commissioning in February 1875 , Kaiser spent the spring working up her engines to be ready for the annual summer training cruise . She joined the older ironclads Kronprinz and König Wilhelm and the new Hansa , under the command of Vice Admiral Ludwig von Henk . The four @-@ ship squadron remained in German waters for the entirety of the cruise , which finished with a review of the flotilla in Rostock by Kaiser Wilhelm I in September . The squadron was reactivated the next spring ; Rear Admiral Carl Ferdinand Batsch replaced Henk as the squadron commander . Kaiser served as the flagship of Batsch 's squadron , which also included Kaiser 's sister Deutschland , Kronprinz , and Friedrich Carl .
At around the time Batch 's squadron was working up for the summer cruise , Henry Abbott , the German consul in Salonika , then in the Ottoman Empire , was murdered . Further attacks on German citizens living in the area were feared , and so Batsch was ordered to sail to the Mediterranean Sea to stage a naval demonstration in June 1876 . After arriving with the four ironclads , he was reinforced by three unarmored vessels . After the threat of violence subsided in August , Batsch departed with Kaiser and Deutschland ; the other two ironclads remained in the Mediterranean for the rest of the summer .
Kaiser joined the 1877 summer squadron , composed of Deutschland , Friedrich Carl , and the new turret ironclad Preussen . The squadron was again sent to the Mediterranean , in response to unrest in the Ottoman Empire related to the Russo @-@ Turkish War ; the violence threatened German citizens living there . The squadron , again under the command of Batsch , steamed to the ports of Haifa and Jaffa in July 1877 , but found no significant tensions ashore . Batsch then departed and cruised the Mediterranean for the remainder of the summer , returning to Germany in October . The newly commissioned Friedrich der Grosse and Grosser Kurfürst , sister ships of Preussen , replaced Kaiser and Deutschland in the 1878 maneuvers , during which Grosser Kurfürst was accidentally rammed and sank with great loss of life .
Kaiser and her sister Deutschland remained in reserve for the next six years . They were reactivated in the spring of 1883 for the summer maneuvers under the command of Wilhelm von Wickede . Due to their long period out of service , their engines proved troublesome during the training cruise . Regardless , the 1883 cruise was the first year the German navy completely abandoned the use of sails on its large ironclads . Kaiser went into reserve during the 1884 maneuvers , which were conducted by a homogenous squadron composed of the four Sachsen @-@ class ironclads . The ship did not see active duty again until August 1887 , when she joined König Wihelm and Oldenburg as the I Squadron for three weeks of maneuvers with the rest of the fleet .
In May 1888 , Kaiser represented Germany at Barcelona 's World Fair , which held a naval review . During the summer of 1889 , Kaiser joined the fleet that steamed to Great Britain to celebrate the coronation of Kaiser Wilhelm II ; the ship joined her sister Deutschland and the turret ships Preussen and Friedrich der Grosse in the II Division . The fleet then held training maneuvers in the North Sea under command of Rear Admiral Friedrich Hollmann . Kaiser and the rest of the II Division became the training squadron for the fleet in 1889 – 1890 , the first year the Kaiserliche Marine maintained a year @-@ round ironclad force . The squadron escorted Wilhelm II 's imperial yacht to the Mediterranean ; the voyage included state visits to Italy and the Ottoman Empire . The squadron remained in the Mediterranean until April 1890 , when it returned to Germany .
Kaiser participated in the ceremonial transfer of the island of Helgoland from British to German control in the summer of 1890 . She was present during the fleet maneuvers in September , where the entire eight @-@ ship armored squadron simulated a Russian fleet blockading Kiel . The II Division , including Kaiser , served as the training squadron in the winter of 1890 – 1891 . The squadron again cruised the Mediterranean , under the command of Rear Admiral Wilhelm Schröder . Between 1891 and 1895 , Kaiser was rebuilt in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven . The ship was converted into an armored cruiser ; her heavy guns were removed and replaced with lighter weapons , including one 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , six 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) , and nine 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Her entire rigging equipment was removed and two heavy military masts were installed in place of the rigging . Despite the modernization , she remained quite slow . Deutschland and König Wilhelm were similarly converted .
= = = Service in East Asia = = =
In 1895 , Kaiser reinforced the East Asia Squadron , which also included the cruisers Irene and Prinzess Wilhelm and several smaller vessels . During the period of diplomatic tension between Britain and Germany caused by the Kruger telegram sent by Wilhelm II , Kaiser and several other overseas cruisers were ordered to return to German waters . This order was quickly reversed , as it was decided it would be seen as an act of weakness by Britain . In April 1896 , while entering the port of Amoy , Kaiser struck an uncharted rock . Only minor damage was done to the hull , but the ship was still out of service for twenty @-@ two days for repairs in Hong Kong . Kaiser served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Otto von Diederichs during his tenure as the squadron commander . Diederichs was tasked with locating a suitable concession to be used as the main port of the East Asia Squadron ; after surveying a number of sites aboard Kaiser , Diederichs settled on Kiautschou Bay . In the wake of two violent incidents against Germans in China , Wilhelm II gave Diederichs permission to seize Kiautschou by force in November 1897 .
After dusk on 10 November , Kaiser left Shanghai and headed toward Kiautschou . Prinzess Wilhelm and Cormoran were to leave the following day to allay suspicion . The three ships rendezvoused on the 12th at sea ; Diederichs intended to steam into Kiautschou on the 14th and seize the port . At 06 : 00 on the 14th , Cormoran steamed into the bay to bring the Chinese forts under fire , while Kaiser and Prinzess Wilhelm sent a landing force of some 700 men ashore . In the span of two hours , Diederichs 's forces had captured the central and outlying forts and destroyed the Chinese telegraph , preventing them from notifying their superiors of the German attack . After negotiating with General Chang , the commander of the Kiautschou garrison , Diederichs succeeded in forcing the Chinese concession of Kiautschou to Germany , which he proclaimed at 14 : 20 . Diederichs was promoted to Vice Admiral following the successful seizure of the port .
In May 1898 , Diederichs sent Kaiser to Nagasaki for periodic maintenance . The Spanish – American War , which saw action in the Philippines at the Battle of Manila Bay , necessitated a German naval presence in the area to protect German nationals . Kaiser was still in Nagasaki undergoing repairs , so Diederichs ordered her and Prinzess Wilhelm , also in dock for maintenance , to meet him in Manila as soon as was possible . Crew transfers during the repair process necessitated Irene and Cormoran to meet in Manila as well ; this concentration of five warships in the Philippines caused a serious crisis with the American Navy . Rear Admiral George Dewey objected to the size of the German force and to a meeting between Diederichs and Governor General Augustin , the Spanish governor of the Philippines . The German naval forces left the Philippines after the fall of Manila in August , though tensions with the United States continued for some time after .
Following his departure from Manila in August 1898 , Diederichs took Kaiser south to the Dutch East Indies . There , the ship represented Germany during celebrations for the coronation of Queen Wilhelmina . The ship then returned to Hong Kong via Singapore , before proceeding to Fuchow for gunnery practice . While steaming into the bay , however , the ship ran aground on an uncharted rock . Arcona and Cormoran arrived to tow Kaiser off the rocks , after which Diederichs sent her back to Hong Kong for repairs . Kaiser remained overseas until 1899 , when she returned to Germany . She was reduced to a harbor ship on 3 May 1904 and renamed Uranus on 12 October 1905 . The ship was stricken from the naval register on 21 May 1906 and used as a barracks ship for Württemberg in Flensburg . Uranus was ultimately broken up in 1920 in Harburg .
|
= Community Transit =
Community Transit ( CT ) is the public transit authority of Snohomish County , Washington , United States , excluding the city of Everett , in the Seattle metropolitan area . It operates local bus , paratransit and vanpool service within Snohomish County , as well as commuter buses to Downtown Seattle and the University of Washington campus . CT is publicly funded , financed through sales taxes , farebox revenue and subsidies , with an operating budget of $ 133 @.@ 2 million . The entire agency carried more than 10 million passengers in 2015 , placing it fourth among transit agencies in the Puget Sound region . The city of Everett , which serves as the county seat , is served by Everett Transit , a municipal transit system .
Community Transit , officially the Snohomish County Public Transportation Benefit Area Corporation ( SCPTBA ) , operates a fleet of 225 accessible buses , 54 paratransit vehicles , and 412 vanpool vans , maintained at two bus bases located in the Paine Field industrial area in Everett . Service is provided year @-@ round at 1 @,@ 500 stops on 46 routes throughout the county public transportation benefit area ( PTBA ) . CT began operation as SCPTBA Public Transit on October 4 , 1976 , four months after the third attempt to establish public transit in Snohomish County was approved . Renamed to Community Transit in 1979 , the agency expanded service in its first decades of existence , later taking over King County Metro commuter routes to Seattle in 1989 and adding several cities into its PTBA in the 1980s and 1990s . CT service hours fell during two funding crises in the 2000s , after the passage of Initiative 695 in 1999 and during a severe recession from 2010 to 2012 . Despite the cuts , which forced service hours to fall short of rising demand , the agency debuted the state 's first bus rapid transit line , Swift , as well as introducing " Double Tall " double @-@ decker buses on its commuter routes to Seattle .
= = History = =
= = = 1970s = = =
Snohomish County established its public transportation benefit area ( PTBA ) , the first in the state , after municipal corporations for public transportation were added to the Revised Code of Washington by the Washington State Legislature in 1975 . The PTBA plan for a countywide bus system was approved during a general election on June 1 , 1976 , funded by a three @-@ tenths increase of the sales tax rate in member cities . Two previous attempts to establish a bus system , under the Snohomish County Transportation Authority ( SNOTRAN ) in 1974 , were rejected by voters from the entirety of Snohomish County . Heavy opposition came from the residents of Everett because of the high sales tax rate and planned absorption of Everett Transit , acquired by the city in 1969 , forcing the SCPTBA to exclude Everett in its successful attempt at creating a bus system . SCPTBA Public Transit began operating in the cities of Brier , Edmonds , Lynnwood , Marysville , Mountlake Terrace , Snohomish and Woodway on October 4 , 1976 , using 18 leased GMC buses on seven routes carrying 6 @,@ 414 passengers without fares during the first week .
SCPTBA Public Transit , nicknamed the " Blue Bus " for its blue livery , carried 951 @,@ 200 passengers in its first year of service on 15 local routes and 16 commuter express routes to Downtown Seattle and Northgate , contracted through King County Metro as a continuation of service provided by the Metropolitan Transit Corporation to southern Snohomish County prior to its merger with Seattle Transit System in 1973 . The buses ran for 16 hours a day , charging a base fare of 20 cents ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 00 in 2016 ) . Among the most popular lines was Route R14 , accounting for 21 percent of system ridership in the first three months , running from the Edmonds waterfront to Lynnwood and the Boeing Everett Factory . The agency acquired its first federal subsidies from the Urban Mass Transit Administration for the 1978 fiscal year , to be used on the purchase of 18 new buses as well as bus stop amenities , such as stop signs and shelters .
= = = 1980s = = =
Community Transit was selected as the official name of the agency on June 19 , 1979 , recommended by Seattle @-@ based public relations firm McConnell Company ahead of the winners of a public contest held by SCPTBA two years prior . CT continued to grow through the end of the decade , annexing the cities of Arlington , Lake Stevens , Monroe , Granite Falls , Mukilteo , Stanwood and Sultan into the PTBA by 1980 ; the bus system had the largest growth in ridership within the state in 1980 , with local routes gaining 68 @.@ 3 percent more riders and Metro @-@ operated " Cream Buses " to Seattle gaining 21 @.@ 4 percent more riders . Metro altered their numbering scheme for Snohomish County routes in 1981 , creating the 400 @-@ series of routes , after the opening of the state 's largest park and ride in Lynnwood . The annexations of outlying communities in northern and eastern Snohomish County and the completion of park and rides in Edmonds and Mountlake Terrace saw ridership rise to over 3 million passengers by 1983 . Community Transit took over the remaining commuter routes to Seattle in 1989 , after commuter service was subcontracted to American Transportation Enterprises in 1986 . The move to a private carrier was opposed by both Metro and the Amalgamated Transit Union , but the introduction of 49 air conditioned coaches by ATE led to a 25 percent increase in ridership by January 1987 . Commuter express service via Interstate 405 from CT park and rides in South Snohomish County to the Eastside cities of Bellevue and Redmond began in 1988 and 1990 , respectively , while Seattle service was expanded with weekend service in 1990 . The agency dedicated its own 20 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) bus base at Kasch Park in 1985 , replacing shared operations with the Edmonds School District and Everett Transit , at a cost of $ 4 @.@ 8 million ( equivalent to $ 106 million in 2016 ) that was mostly subsidized by the Urban Mass Transit Administration .
= = = 1990s and 2000s = = =
= = = = Fraud investigation = = = =
CT was involved in a criminal investigation conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) in the mid @-@ 1990s of Ed 's Transmission , a transmission shop in Everett used by the agency for bus parts . Detectives from the FBI and Snohomish County Sheriff seized records from both parties and began a two @-@ month audit of Community Transit management . The auditors released a report that criticized the management style of Executive Director Ken Graska and his department heads , leading to the former 's resignation in December 1993 after nine years at his position . Federal prosecutors accused Ralph Woodall , the 50 @-@ year @-@ old co @-@ owner of the shop , of 15 counts of mail fraud after intentionally overbilling for transmission repairs . Community Transit Maintenance Director Michael Lynn resigned after confessing that he had accepted gifts from Woodall in exchange for sending all of CT 's transmissions to Ed 's Transmissions without going through competitive bidding . A U.S. District Court jury found Woodall guilty of 15 counts of mail fraud in December 1996 , with Judge John C. Coughenour sentencing him to 2 @.@ 5 years in federal prison the following May , along with Ed 's Transmission being forced to pay a $ 825 @,@ 000 settlement after a civil suit was filed .
= = = = Proposed consolidations with Everett Transit = = = =
Attempted mergers of Community Transit with Everett Transit have been proposed by the Washington State Legislature and the CT Board since the formation of SNOTRAN in 1974 . The relative success of Community Transit in the late 1970s and 1980s prompted the Community Transit Board to propose consolidation with Everett Transit in 1988 , though long @-@ term planning under SNOTRAN for both agencies worked under the assumption that there would be no merger by 2000 . In 1990 , a second proposal was rejected by the Everett City Council after consultants determined that a merger would only save $ 350 @,@ 000 per year in deadheading for Community Transit and that both staffs would need to be retained because of the lack of service duplication between the two agencies . Throughout the 1990s , successive legislative bills proposing a merger were passed through the House Transportation Committee , but failed to gain support elsewhere because of successful lobbying from the City of Everett . State voters approved Referendum 49 in November 1998 , including state motor @-@ vehicle excise tax revenue for city @-@ run transit in Everett and Yakima . While Everett Transit gained $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 6 @.@ 53 million in 2016 ) in new annual funding , CT was set to lose $ 1 million ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 45 million in 2016 ) over the next five years in addition to the $ 2 million ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 9 million in 2016 ) used to operate service within Everett annually . The large cuts brought on by the passing of Initiative 695 and subsequent loss of excise tax revenue forced both agencies to consider merging in 2000 , with savings of an estimated $ 1 @.@ 7 million per year ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 27 million in 2016 ) according to a study commissioned by Community Transit . As a result of the failed mergers , CT proposed truncating its routes at Everett city limits , but ultimately decided to provide limited @-@ stop service on its routes through Everett to the newly constructed Everett Station in 2002 . Community Transit and Everett Transit signed their first partnership agreement in 2007 , with Everett helping fund Swift bus rapid transit through its service area and allowing CT to operate the route in exchange for the expansion of ET service into unincorporated areas surrounding Everett . The two agencies further collaborated with Sound Transit and the Washington State Department of Transportation in the construction of the South Everett Freeway Station the following year .
= = = = Fleet expansions and new services = = = =
In their most recent expansion in 1997 , the Snohomish County PTBA annexed the Eastmont and Silver Firs census @-@ designated places between Everett and Mill Creek , as well as the Tulalip Indian Reservation west of Marysville . During the same year , CT awarded its $ 31 @.@ 8 million ( equivalent to $ 46 @.@ 9 million in 2016 ) commuter service contract to Grosvenor Bus Lines , which would later fold into First Transit , replacing their first subcontractor , Ryder / ATE Management . The agency introduced the first low @-@ floor articulated buses in the United States into its fleet in 1999 , purchasing 17 60 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 18 m ) buses from New Flyer to improve accessibility for older and disabled riders . Service improvements throughout the 1990s , including raising service hours to over 11 million , led to ridership peaking at 8 @.@ 8 million by the end of the decade and the agency 's 100 millionth rider being celebrated in April 2000 . The passage of Initiative 695 in 1999 , which capped the state motor @-@ vehicle excise tax at $ 30 , forced transit agencies throughout the state to cut service in anticipation of lower revenue . Facing the loss of $ 18 million ( equivalent to $ 24 @.@ 7 million in 2016 ) , or 30 percent of its annual operating budget , Community Transit eliminated all weekend service and increased fares on its routes in February 2000 . With the service cuts , CT began its VanGO program to donate its retired paratransit minibuses to nonprofit organizations in Snohomish County instead of auctioning them off . Saturday service was reinstated in September 2000 , using emergency funds approved by the CT Board , while Sunday service returned in 2001 after the passage of a 0 @.@ 3 percentage @-@ point tax increase by voters in the PTBA . Further restoration of service came in 2003 , with increased frequency and the replacement of 50 buses in the agency 's fleet made possible by a budget surplus and the sales tax increase approved in 2002 , and in 2005 , with increased fares .
Community Transit introduced its current logo and slogan in 2005 , replacing an older one in use since 1986 and retaining its blue @-@ and @-@ white color scheme , as part of the roll @-@ out of the first New Flyer Invero buses in the United States . CT began a three @-@ month pilot project in September 2005 that brought Wi @-@ Fi access to buses on its longest route , Route 422 between Stanwood and Seattle , with hopes of attracting customers and partial @-@ telecommuters to its routes . The pilot project was deemed a success and expanded into the " Surf and Ride " program on all Route 422 trips in 2006 , as well as select trips on Routes 406 and 441 from Edmonds to Seattle and Overlake on the Eastside , respectively ; the Wi @-@ Fi program was canceled in 2010 , with the removal of equipment in buses brought on by low customer response , budget constraints and the adoption of improved cellular networks that support mobile browsing on smartphones .
CT and First Transit signed their third and most recent contract in 2007 , continuing the latter 's operation of CT commuter service to Seattle . Community Transit debuted the first double @-@ decker buses in the Puget Sound region during a year @-@ long test in 2007 , eventually buying its own fleet of Alexander Dennis Enviro500s for its " Double Tall " fleet to be used on commuter services . A PTBA expansion into the unincorporated areas of Cathcart , Clearview and Maltby was attempted during the 2008 general elections , but failed to gain a majority vote . In November 2009 , after three years of planning and a year of construction , Community Transit debuted the first bus rapid transit line in Washington , Swift . The service replaced Route 100 on State Route 99 between Aurora Village in Shoreline and Everett Station , featuring 12 @-@ minute headways , off @-@ board fare payment and transit signal priority .
= = = Service cuts and restoration = = =
The Great Recession of the late 2000s and subsequent loss of an estimated $ 180 million ( equivalent to $ 195 million in 2016 ) in sales tax revenue in Snohomish County forced CT to cut service by 15 percent in June 2010 , including the elimination of all service on Sundays and major holidays , to save $ 16 million ( equivalent to $ 17 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) until 2012 . A second cut , with 20 percent of service eliminated , took place in February 2012 ; the CT Board rejected a major restructure that would have truncated its northern and eastern express service to Seattle at Lynnwood Transit Center during this cut , instead opting to preserve its commuter service . Despite the decline in service hours , Community Transit and Sound Transit had record ridership for Snohomish County routes during the Super Bowl XLVIII parade in Downtown Seattle in February 2014 , carrying a total of 22 @,@ 500 passengers on 50 extra trips into Seattle . In March , the 2014 Oso mudslide destroyed a portion of State Route 530 and forced CT to re @-@ route its service to Darrington through Skagit County , offering one @-@ seat service to Smokey Point and Everett Station in the interim as Route 231 . The partial reopening of State Route 530 in June and full reopening in September restored the original Route 230 on its original route , now extended to Smokey Point .
Community Transit began restoring cut service in September 2014 , adding 13 percent of its former bus hours primarily to improve midday service . In June 2015 , CT restored its Sunday and holiday service as part of a 27 @,@ 000 @-@ hour expansion , representing 20 percent of the 2010 reduction , funded by recovering sales tax revenue and a 25 @-@ cent increase in fares the following month . The agency was given approval from the state legislature in July 2015 to increase sales taxes by an additional 0 @.@ 3 % , dependent on voter approval via a ballot measure during the November 2015 election that was eventually won , to fund a new Swift line as well as local service expansion .
= = = Regional projects with Sound Transit = = =
Community Transit and Everett Transit agreed to break away from SNOTRAN , which served as their planning and administrative body in addition to disbursing federal subsidies , after CT complained of a " lack of communication " between the three agencies . The county agency formally disbanded on December 31 , 1994 , replaced by the Joint Regional Policy Committee ( JRPC ) that formed four years prior to coordinate transit planning for the entire Puget Sound region . A regional transit agency was formed in 1993 under the JRPC , organizing a $ 6 @.@ 7 billion ( equivalent to $ 10 @.@ 4 billion in 2016 ) plan for regional transit that was put to a vote on March 14 , 1995 , failing to pass outside of Seattle , Mercer Island and Shoreline . The plan included a commuter rail line on the BNSF Scenic Subdivision between Everett , Mukilteo , Edmonds and King Street Station in Seattle , a light rail line from Lynnwood to Seattle following Interstate 5 , and express bus service to light rail stations . The following November , the smaller " Sound Move " plan was approved at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 9 billion ( equivalent to $ 5 @.@ 88 billion in 2016 ) , including commuter rail from Everett to Seattle and express buses on Interstate 5 from Everett and Lynnwood to Seattle and Bellevue .
The regional transit agency , renamed to Sound Transit the following year , began operating its Sound Transit Express buses under contract with Community Transit in September 1999 . The new express buses connected park and rides in southwestern Snohomish County , the only part of Community Transit 's service area within the Sound Transit taxing district , to Downtown Seattle , including the newly opened , 1 @,@ 000 @-@ stall Ash Way Park & Ride in northern Lynnwood . Sound Transit funded several capital projects to improve bus service on the Interstate 5 corridor , including direct access ramps from HOV lanes to Lynnwood and Ash Way park and rides that opened in 2004 and 2005 , respectively . In 2011 , the existing Mountlake Terrace park and ride was expanded with an 890 @-@ stall parking garage and bus platforms in the median of I @-@ 5 connected by a pedestrian bridge .
Commuter rail service to Snohomish County on the Sounder North Line began in December 2003 with a single round @-@ trip connecting Everett and Edmonds to King Street Station in Seattle during rush hour . Service was expanded to a second round @-@ trip in June 2005 and a third round @-@ trip in September 2007 , while an infill station opened at Mukilteo in May 2008 , also bringing additional service in the form of a fourth round @-@ trip the following September .
An expansion of the Link Light Rail system in the " Sound Transit 2 " package was approved in November 2008 , including 54 % of southwestern Snohomish County voters , funding the extension of light rail to Lynnwood . The 8 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) light rail line will run along Interstate 5 from Northgate Transit Center in Seattle to Lynnwood Transit Center and is scheduled to begin construction in 2018 and open for service in 2023 . Sound Transit has also begun exploring a possible light rail extension to Everett via Paine Field , anticipated to be included in the " Sound Transit 3 " ballot measure in 2016 .
= = Administration = =
Community Transit is administered by a nine @-@ member board , composed of two members of the Snohomish County Council , two elected officials from PTBA cities with populations of 30 @,@ 000 or more , three elected officials from cities with between 10 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 , and two elected officials from cities with less than 10 @,@ 000 , that meets monthly at their headquarters in Everett . The board is led by a non @-@ voting chief executive officer , a position held by Emmett Heath since he was promoted from interim CEO in March 2015 . CT adopted an operating budget of $ 133 @.@ 2 million for 2015 ; 65 to 70 percent of revenue is provided by a 0 @.@ 9 percent sales tax within the PTBA , the maximum authorized for transit agencies under state law , while a combination of fares and federal subsidies comprise the remainder . The agency employs 579 full @-@ time equivalent persons , divided into eight departments .
CT is headquartered at their Merrill Creek Operating Base at 7000 Hardeson Road in the Paine Field industrial area of South Everett , located northeast of the Boeing Everett Factory . The 87 @,@ 065 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 8 @,@ 088 @.@ 6 m2 ) Merrill Creek administrative building opened in 1997 and is the primary bus base for the agency 's fleet of buses and vans . Additional administrative buildings and fleet parking lots are located at the Kasch Park Operating Base south of the Boeing Freeway .
= = Services = =
Community Transit operates fixed bus routes throughout the 1 @,@ 308 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 390 km2 ) Snohomish County PTBA , serving 47 percent of its 542 @,@ 000 people and 76 percent of its 254 @,@ 000 jobs . The 46 bus routes serve 1 @,@ 584 bus stops , of which 257 have a bus shelter — the rest consist of a standalone sign or a sign with a bench . The bus routes are divided into three types of service , numbered according to destination : frequent bus rapid transit on the unnumbered Swift , 24 local routes in the 100s for southern Snohomish County and 200s for northern and eastern Snohomish County , and 22 weekday peak @-@ only commuter express routes from park and rides to the Boeing Everett Factory numbered as the 2X7s , Downtown Seattle in the 400s , and the University of Washington campus in the 800s . CT and their subcontractor First Transit also operate all @-@ day , all @-@ week Sound Transit Express service to Seattle and Bellevue on six routes numbered in the 500s . Typically , service changes occur in February and September , in response to ridership and requests from the community .
Commuter bus routes to Boeing in Everett , Downtown Seattle and the University District originate at one of the 24 Community Transit park and rides and transit centers located throughout Snohomish County , with a total capacity of 8 @,@ 500 automobiles and 172 bicycles . The largest facilities , primarily located in southwest Snohomish County , include weatherproof bicycle lockers in addition to automobile parking . The majority of park and rides are owned by the Washington State Department of Transportation and maintained by Community Transit and other service providers .
In addition to bus service , CT operates a vanpool program with a fleet of 366 vans originating from the Kasch Park operating base in Everett . The fleet comes in configurations with 7 , 12 , or 15 seats , with two special vans equipped with wheelchair lifts . Community Transit reports that there are 361 active vanpools using their service , providing 908 @,@ 488 rides in 2015 , the 12th largest vanpool program in the United States that year . CT leases vanpool lots , called " park and pool lots " , from local churches and other private parties at 15 locations with a total capacity of 482 parking stalls .
Dial @-@ a @-@ ride transportation ( DART ) service is also offered by Community Transit , contracted through Senior Services of Snohomish County since 1981 . DART paratransit is available for a fare of $ 2 for qualifying customers within 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) of local CT routes during regular operating hours . As of 2014 , CT has 4 @,@ 100 registered DART users that take an average of 700 trips per day .
= = = Fares = = =
Fares on Community Transit buses are priced into three groups : adult , youth , and reduced . Adult fare is charged for passengers between the ages of 19 and 64 , youth fare is charged for passengers between the ages of 6 and 18 , and the reduced fare is charged for passengers over the age of 65 or those with disabilities or Medicare card holders . Up to two children under the age of 5 ride free with a chaperone paying full or reduced fare for themselves . Fares also change based on service level , with local service within Snohomish County costing the least and commuter service to Seattle being more expensive ; commuter service from southern Snohomish County and Everett is also less costly compared to commuter service from northern and eastern Snohomish County . The last fare increase occurred on July 1 , 2015 , raising the adult and DART fares by 25 cents .
The regional ORCA card was introduced as an integrated smart card for transit agencies in the Puget Sound region on April 20 , 2009 , allowing users to load monthly passes and value through an e @-@ purse web interface . The card also allowed free transfers within a two @-@ hour period between transit agencies of equal value , with the difference for higher fare subtracted from the e @-@ purse or prompting for cash . While initially available for no fee , effective March 1 , 2010 a $ 5 cost was added when ordering a standard adult or youth ORCA card . CT removed their paper transfers on January 1 , 2010 after the ORCA card made them obsolete .
Community Transit also offers monthly passes through local higher education institutions , including Edmonds Community College , the University of Washington , Cascadia College , and the Lynnwood Campus of Central Washington University .
Dial @-@ a @-@ ride transportation , a type of paratransit service operated by Community Transit , has a flat fare of $ 2 @.@ 25 without discounts or separate categories . ORCA cards are not accepted on DART , replaced by tickets and monthly passes for frequent users .
= = Fleet = =
As of January 2014 , CT maintains and operates a fleet of 696 vehicles from its operating bases at Kasch Park and Merrill Creek . The 227 @-@ bus fleet has been reduced from 291 vehicles in 2010 because of major service cuts in 2010 and 2012 , forcing Community Transit to downsize in order to comply with the spare ratio policies set by the Federal Transit Administration . The fleet is composed of 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) and 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) vehicles , as well as specialized 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) articulated buses and 42 @-@ foot ( 13 m ) double @-@ decker buses . Buses typically are powered by diesel engines , with the exception of the 15 hybrid diesel @-@ electric Swift articulated buses and 15 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) hybrid buses .
Since 1995 , all Community Transit buses are low @-@ floored and equipped with a hydraulic or pneumatic " kneeling " device in addition to wheelchair lifts for 6 @-@ wheeled motorized wheelchairs . CT buses have also feature two bicycle racks located in front of the windshield since 1996 ; Swift bus rapid transit buses have three bike racks located inside the vehicle for reduced dwell times .
In addition to its bus fleet , Community Transit maintains 412 vans for its vanpool program and 54 DART paratransit minibuses equipped with wheelchair lifts . Retired vanpool and DART vehicles are donated to local non @-@ profit organizations through the VanGO program , which has gifted 106 vans since its establishment in 2000 .
= = = Double Tall = = =
Community Transit has a fleet of double @-@ decker buses used on commuter routes from park and rides to Downtown Seattle , named the " Double Tall " in reference to the double tall cup size at Starbucks , a coffee chain founded and headquartered in Seattle . The Alexander Dennis Enviro500 was introduced during a one @-@ year pilot project in 2007 , on lease from Alexander Dennis for $ 15 @,@ 000 per month . The 42 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 13 m ) , 14 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 4 m ) Enviro500 seated 77 , with standing room for 20 additional passengers , replacing the capacity of the standard articulated buses used on the commuter routes in a smaller footprint . Prior to the end of the trial in 2008 , CT placed an order of 23 Enviro500s , scheduled to be delivered and put into service in 2010 ; the initial order was not fulfilled until 2011 , when manufacturing was moved to an ElDorado plant in Riverside , California to meet federal Buy America Act requirements . A second order of 17 Enviro500s , to replace older articulated buses , was made in 2013 and went into service in late 2015 .
Sound Transit introduced five of its own double @-@ decker buses in 2015 for use on their Snohomish County routes under contract with Community Transit . Sound Transit plans to eventually replace its entire Snohomish County fleet with double @-@ deckers , beginning with 32 buses by 2021 .
The fleet of 45 double @-@ decker buses operated directly by Community Transit is , As of 2015 , the second @-@ largest double @-@ decker fleet of any public transit agency in the United States , behind RTC Transit of Las Vegas , Nevada and ahead of Unitrans of Davis , California and Antelope Valley Transit Authority of Antelope Valley , California .
= = = Current bus fleet = = =
As of March 2016
|
= Simon Wormull =
Simon James Wormull ( born 1 December 1976 ) is an English former footballer who is head coach of Isthmian League club Three Bridges .
As a junior , Wormull played for Tottenham Hotspur in the final of the 1995 FA Youth Cup and in the Intertoto Cup . Although he made a few appearances in the lower divisions of the Football League for Brentford and Rushden & Diamonds , the majority of his playing career was spent in non @-@ league football in the south @-@ east of England . He was capped seven times for the National Game XI , the team that represents England at semi @-@ professional level .
After retirement as a player , Wormull joined the coaching staff of Isthmian League club Lewes , where he was first @-@ team manager from January 2012 to the end of the 2012 – 13 season . He spent a few months as manager of Crawley Down Gatwick before returning to Three Bridges first as academy head , then as first @-@ team coach .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Wormull was born in Crawley , West Sussex , and played for the under @-@ 15 team at local club Three Bridges before beginning his football career as a schoolboy with Brighton & Hove Albion . He joined Tottenham Hotspur while still a junior , and at the age of 15 became one of the youngest players ever to appear for their reserve team . In 1995 , he played in the final of the FA Youth Cup against Manchester United youth team , scoring the opening goal in the first leg , which Tottenham won 2 – 1 . By the time the second leg went to a losing penalty shootout , Wormull had been substituted by Stephen Clemence . The closest he came to first @-@ team football in six years at the club was in the Intertoto Cup , a competition in which Tottenham fielded extremely weak sides , including that which lost 8 – 0 to FC Cologne .
Released by Tottenham at the end of the 1996 – 97 season , Wormull joined Second Division club Brentford on a free transfer , marking his debut in the Football League by missing the best chance of the match . He fell out of favour , and following a trial in Brighton & Hove Albion 's reserves , was given a month 's contract by manager Brian Horton , who described the player as someone who " uses the ball well , ... gets forward and is quite aggressive " . Injury prevented him playing for the first team during that period , or during another month at the start of the 1998 – 99 season ; much to Horton 's displeasure , Wormull rejected the offer of a further month , preferring to drop down to the Conference with Dover Athletic .
= = = Dover Athletic = = =
He scored twice in 30 Conference games in his first season with Dover , and his performance earned him international selection , chosen for England 's National Game XI for the first time in March 1999 . He maintained the standard the following season ; Dover 's best player against rivals Rushden & Diamonds , he was eventually stretchered off with a damaged Achilles tendon after three opponents were booked for fouling him . Sidelined for a month due to injuries sustained in that match , Wormull returned to play 20 minutes as a substitute before joining Rushden for a fee of £ 50 @,@ 000 later that same week . BBC Sport 's 2000 – 01 Football Conference preview said that Dover would miss him , a view later echoed by then assistant manager Clive Walker , who described the 1999 – 2000 season as " a year when we had players like Simon Wormull , Joe Dunne and Dave Clarke in the team . In all honesty , we weren 't far away from having a side good enough to win the division . We needed perhaps two more players to compete at the top – but sadly we ended up selling Dunne and Wormull halfway through the season . "
= = = Rushden & Diamonds = = =
He helped Rushden to runners @-@ up spot in the Conference in 2000 , and retained his place in England 's semi @-@ professional side . In the 2000 – 01 season , his appearances were infrequent , and in December 2000 , Dover made an unsuccessful attempt to buy him back . He played his part in Rushden 's Conference title , and consequent promotion to the Football League . After five games for the club in Division Three , manager Brian Talbot sold Wormull together with striker Jean @-@ Michel Sigere to Conference club Stevenage Borough for " a five @-@ figure sum " .
= = = Stevenage Borough = = =
Wormull helped Stevenage to reach the final of the FA Trophy in 2002 , which they lost 2 – 0 to full @-@ time professional club Yeovil Town . While with the club he won his seventh international cap , and maintained his reputation as a good crosser of the ball who was willing to shoot ; in his first two seasons with the club he contributed more shots than any of his team @-@ mates , and in his second and third seasons he made most assists . Stevenage began to move towards full @-@ time status before the 2002 – 03 season . At the end of that season , Wormull submitted a transfer request , because he was struggling to balance work and football commitments . Manager Graham Westley rejected the request , but in April 2004 his contract was cancelled by mutual consent , citing the player 's injury record and his difficulties adjusting to the demands of full @-@ time football .
= = = Hornchurch and Crawley Town = = =
Home @-@ town club Crawley Town 's manager Francis Vines hoped to sign Wormull , describing him as a good all @-@ round player who " can play in the middle or wide right and passes the ball well , as well as being useful with set @-@ pieces . He is also good in the tackle " , capable of strengthening an already strong midfield . They were unable to match the offer – believed to be £ 800 a week – from Conference South club Hornchurch , dubbed the " Chelsea of the Conference " because they had a well @-@ paid full @-@ time professional squad despite playing only in the sixth tier of English football . A back injury restricted his Hornchurch appearances , and he had not played for several weeks when , in November 2004 , the owner 's business collapsed , the players ' pay cheques were stopped , and most of the squad left .
Wormull returned home to join Crawley , on much reduced wages , but he failed his medical examination ; the club initially offered him a short @-@ term deal while he proved his fitness . At the end of the 2004 – 05 season he agreed a two @-@ year contract . He turned down offers of full @-@ time football , preferring to stay near home and combine his playing role with running the club 's new youth coaching scheme in local schools . A succession of managerial changes following the club 's takeover resulted in Wormull acting as caretaker manager for four matches in November 2005 , a role in which he made a positive start . During this period he agreed a new contract , but the offer was later withdrawn , and he was given permission to speak to other clubs . Unwilling to leave the Sussex area , he decided to stay with Crawley , but when the club halved the players ' wages , thereby breaching their contracts and allowing them to leave on free transfers , Wormull chose to join Conference South club Lewes .
= = = Lewes = = =
In his first full season with Lewes , Wormull was used in a number of different positions , but in 2007 – 08 , he usually played in central midfield , and felt that the continuity helped his performance . He scored the winning goal against Sutton United in the third qualifying round of the FA Cup , and made an assist for one goal and was involved in the second in the fourth qualifying round , to take the club through to the first round proper for the second year running . Wormull contributed five goals from midfield towards his club winning the Conference South title , though an injured ankle meant he missed the last few weeks of the season .
Following the departure of manager Steve King , the vast majority of the title @-@ winning side left the club . Despite new Lewes manager Kevin Keehan 's view that " if I could have had only one player I could keep from last season , it would be Simon " being reflected in the club offering him better terms than did Eastbourne Borough , Wormull , together with team @-@ mate Jean @-@ Michel Sigere , joined their local rivals in June 2008 .
= = = Eastbourne Borough = = =
Wormull and Sigere made their debuts in the opening @-@ day defeat to former club Rushden & Diamonds , making Eastbourne the fifth club – following Rushden , Stevenage , Hornchurch and Lewes – where they played alongside each other . After just one season with the club , in which he scored six goals from 37 appearances in all competitions , Wormull 's contract was cancelled by mutual consent . He did leave with a winners ' medal , earned as an unused substitute in the Sussex Senior Cup final in May 2009 , in which Eastbourne beat a Brighton & Hove Albion reserve team 1 – 0 .
= = = Farnborough and after = = =
Wormull promptly signed a two @-@ year deal with Farnborough , where he linked up with Steve King , his former manager at Lewes , and , for the sixth time in his career , with Jean @-@ Michel Sigere , though only briefly , as Sigere was released a few days later . Wormull helped Farnborough win the 2009 – 10 Southern League title , playing 39 games in all competitions ( 20 in the league ) , before cancelling his contract by mutual consent at the end of that first season . He rejoined Lewes a few days later , staying with them until December , when he joined Sussex County League side Three Bridges , preferring for family reasons to play for a club nearer his home . According to Three Bridges ' manager , the club were " absolutely chuffed to pieces to have such a magnificent player playing for us " . Wormull tore knee ligaments in April 2011 , and retired from competitive football at the end of the season .
= = Coaching career = =
Wormull then returned to Lewes , to join Steve King 's management team in the role of under @-@ 18 team manager with support coaching involvement with the first team . When King was suspended by the club in January 2012 , Wormull was " asked to assist with First Team Management duties " . and the following week , after King 's departure , he was appointed caretaker manager until the end of the season . He registered as a player , and made his third debut for Lewes from the substitutes ' bench as his team lost 2 – 1 at home to Canvey Island in the Isthmian League Premier Division . In April , with Lewes on the verge of the play @-@ offs , Wormull 's appointment was made permanent . The club 's directors said he had " impressed everybody with his combination of professionalism , diligence and approachability " , and that " his new regime of training and insightful , value for money signings has transformed the team " . In his second season , Lewes narrowly avoided relegation . The board 's view was that " being involved in a relegation battle was extremely disappointing " , and an experience that was " particularly difficult " in context of the club 's hard work towards " creat [ ing ] a platform from which to start building again " , and Wormull was dismissed at the end of the season . He was " devastated " by the decision , believing he had " buil [ t ] a good foundation " for the future , despite being " decimated with injuries " and working to what he described as " a huge reduction in the budget " .
Wormull took over as manager of Isthmian League Division One South club Crawley Down Gatwick in June 2013 . Wormull led the team to the top of the table with five wins and a draw from their first six matches , a performance that earned him the Isthmian South Manager of the Month award for August . They had fallen to sixth by early November , when he resigned his post for what were described as " personal and family reasons " .
In February 2014 , Wormull returned to football as head of the youth academy at one of his former employers , fellow Isthmian South club Three Bridges . At the end of the season , he was appointed head first @-@ team coach , to work with manager Paul Faili .
= = Honours = =
Tottenham Hotspur
FA Youth Cup finalist : 1995
Rushden & Diamonds
Football Conference : 2000 – 01
Football Conference runners @-@ up : 1999 – 2000
Stevenage Borough
FA Trophy finalist : 2002
Lewes
Conference South : 2007 – 08
Eastbourne Borough
Sussex Senior Cup : 2008 – 09
Farnborough
Southern League Premier Division : 2009 – 10
|
= The Monster ( novella ) =
The Monster is an 1898 novella by American author Stephen Crane ( 1871 – 1900 ) . The story takes place in the small , fictional town of Whilomville , New York . An African @-@ American coachman named Henry Johnson , who is employed by the town 's physician , Dr. Trescott , becomes horribly disfigured after he saves Trescott 's son from a fire . When Henry is branded a " monster " by the town 's residents , Trescott vows to shelter and care for him , resulting in his family 's exclusion from the community .
The fictional town of Whilomville , which is used in 14 other Crane stories , was based on Port Jervis , New York , where Crane lived with his family for a few years during his youth . It is thought that he took inspiration from several local men who were similarly disfigured , although modern critics have made numerous connections between the story and the 1892 lynching in Port Jervis of an African @-@ American man named Robert Lewis . A study of prejudice , fear and isolation in a small town , the novella was first published in Harper 's Magazine in August 1898 . A year later it was included in The Monster and Other Stories — the last collection of Crane 's work to be published during his lifetime .
Written in a more exact and less dramatic style than two of his previous major works ( Maggie : A Girl of the Streets and The Red Badge of Courage ) , The Monster differs from the other Whilomville stories in its scope and length . Its themes include the paradoxical study of monstrosity and deformity , as well as race and tolerance . Both the novella and collection received mixed reviews from critics , although The Monster is now considered one of Crane 's best works .
= = Background and writing = =
Crane began writing The Monster in June 1897 while living in Oxted , England with his longtime partner Cora Taylor . Despite his previous success — The Red Badge of Courage had gone through 14 printings in the United States and six in England — Crane was running out of money . To survive financially , he worked at a feverish pitch , writing prolifically for both the English and the American markets . He later remarked that he wrote The Monster " under the spur of great need " , as he desperately required funds . In August of that year , Crane and Cora were injured in a carriage accident while visiting friend Harold Frederic and his mistress Kate Lyon in Homefield , Kenley ; after a week of recuperation , they followed the couple on vacation to Ireland , where Crane finished the story .
The Monster was Crane 's first story to feature the fictional town of Whilomville ; it would eventually serve as the setting of 14 stories , 13 of which would appear in the 1900 anthology Whilomville Stories . The town was based on Port Jervis , New York , where the author lived from the age of six to eleven . Although Crane and his mother relocated to Asbury Park , New Jersey , in 1880 , until 1896 he frequently stayed with his older brother and Port Jervis resident William Howe Crane . Crane admitted to his publishers that while he readily used Port Jervis as inspiration while writing The Monster , he was anxious to ensure that the residents of his previous hometown did not recognize themselves in the fictional Whilomville . While Crane biographer Thomas Beer claimed to trace the prototype of Henry Johnson to a Port Jervis teamster named Levi Hume , Crane 's niece , Edna Crane Sidbury , believed the character and his disfigurement were influenced by a local waste collector whose face was damaged by cancer . In Black Frankenstein : The Making of an American Metaphor , author Elizabeth Young theorized that Crane may also have been inspired by popular freak show attractions such as Zip the Pinhead , whose real name was William Henry Johnson , and Joseph Merrick , the Elephant Man . It is also possible that Crane found thematic inspiration in Henrik Ibsen 's An Enemy of the People ; although first published in 1882 , the play — about a physician who finds himself ostracized by his community — first became popular in the United States in the mid @-@ 1890s .
Modern critics have connected the novella 's themes of racial division to a violent episode in Port Jervis ' history . On June 2 , 1892 , an African @-@ American man named Robert Lewis was lynched for allegedly assaulting a local white woman . On his way to the Port Jervis jail , Lewis was set upon by a mob of several hundred men who dragged him through the town , beat him and hanged him from a tree . William Howe Crane lived within sight of where the lynching took place and was one of the few men , together with the chief of police , who attempted to intervene . Although Stephen Crane was not present , there were detailed accounts published in both the Port Jervis Gazette and the New York Tribune , and Crane contributed to the Tribune at the time . The Gazette marked the day of Lewis ' lynching as " one of the most disgraceful scenes that was ever enacted in Port Jervis " , and activist Ida B. Wells launched a campaign to investigate the murder as well as the widespread theory that Lewis was set up . Of the 1 @,@ 134 reported lynchings throughout the United States between 1882 and 1899 , Lewis was the only black man to be lynched in New York .
Crane initially sent his a manuscript of more than 21 @,@ 000 words to McClure 's , along with several other works including " The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky " , but it remained unpublished for nearly a year . After McClure 's eventual rejection , The Monster appeared in the August 1898 issue of Harper 's Magazine with illustrations by Peter Newell . A year later , it was published in the United States by Harper & Brothers Publishers in a collection titled The Monster and Other Stories , which included two other works by Crane , " The Blue Hotel " and " His New Mittens " . The first British edition , which added an additional four stories , was published in 1901 .
= = Plot summary = =
After being admonished by his father , Dr. Ned Trescott , for damaging a peony while playing in his family 's yard , young Jimmie Trescott visits his family 's coachman , Henry Johnson . Henry , who is described as " a very handsome negro " , " known to be a light , a weight , and an eminence in the suburb of the town " , is friendly toward Jimmie . Later that evening Henry dresses smartly and saunters through town — inciting catcalls from friends and ridicule from the local white men — on his way to call on the young Bella Farragut , who is extremely taken with him .
That same evening , a large crowd gathers in the park to hear a band play . Suddenly , the nearby factory whistle blows to alert the townspeople of a fire in the second district of the town ; men gather hose @-@ carts and head toward the blaze that is quickly spreading throughout Dr. Trescott 's house . Mrs. Trescott is saved by a neighbor , but cannot locate Jimmie , who is trapped inside . Henry appears from the crowd and rushes into the house in search of the boy , finding him unharmed in his bedroom . Unable to retreat the way he came , Henry carries Jimmie , wrapped in a blanket , to the doctor 's laboratory and the hidden stairway that leads outside . He discovers the fire has blocked this way out as well and collapses beside Dr. Trescott 's desk . A row of nearby jars shatters from the heat , spilling molten chemicals upon Henry 's upturned face .
Dr. Trescott returns home to find his house ablaze ; after he is told by his hysterical wife that Jimmie is still inside , he rushes into the house by way of the laboratory 's hidden passageway . He finds Jimmie still wrapped in the blanket and carries him outside . Hearing that Henry is inside the house , Dr. Trescott attempts to re @-@ enter , but is held back . Another man goes into the house and returns with the badly burned " thing " that used to be Henry Johnson . The injured men and boy are taken to Judge Denning Hagenthorpe 's house across the street to be treated , but while it is thought that Dr. Trescott and Jimmie will survive their injuries , Henry is pronounced as good as dead ; he is mourned as a hero by the town .
Henry Johnson survives , however , under the watchful eye of Dr. Trescott , who treats the injured man out of gratitude for saving his son 's life . Hagenthorpe , a leading figure in town , urges Trescott to let Henry die , stating that he " will hereafter be a monster , a perfect monster , and probably with an affected brain . No man can observe you as I have observed you and not know that it was a matter of conscience with you , but I am afraid , my friend , that it is one of the blunders of virtue . " Ultimately Trescott decides to move Henry , who has sustained disfiguring injuries to his face and psyche , to a local negro household , but Henry 's presence proves troubling for the family 's well @-@ being , and he is moved to another . One night Henry absconds , visiting various people around town and leaving terrified neighbors in his wake , including Bella Farragut , who he attempts to court as if no time has passed since they last met . Not welcome anywhere else , Henry is eventually moved to the carriage @-@ house in the newly built Trescott home . Despite Dr. Trescott 's protection , Henry is branded a monster by the townspeople , who avoid the Trescotts as a result . Although previously Henry 's friend , Jimmie now mocks him , daring his friends to approach the disfigured man . Once the leading doctor in Whilomville , Trescott 's reputation suffers greatly , as does that of his wife , who no longer receives visitors .
= = Style = =
The story is told from the point of view of a selectively omniscient narrator who seemingly chooses whether or not to divulge plot points as they occur , causing " a pattern of expectation " on the part of the reader . Although the novella is separated into 24 chapters , some critics — among them Charles B. Ives , Thomas Gullason and Marston LeFrance — believe these chapters are further divided into two parts : chapters 1 – 9 lead up to Henry 's injury , whereas chapters 10 – 24 map the town 's response . Critic David Halliburton wrote in his 1989 book The Color of the Sky : A Study of Stephen Crane that The Monster displayed a more " chastened " and exact style than Crane 's earlier works , which were often a mixture of clever bawdiness and epic dramatics — both of which are seen respectively in Maggie : A Girl of the Streets and The Red Badge of Courage .
Edwin H. Cady believed The Monster is the best indication of the writer Crane may have become had he lived longer , showcasing a style that is " technically proficient , controlled , and broadly insightful . " The Monster relies heavily on Crane 's signature use of imagery and symbolism . Frequent images and metaphors dealing with sight appear several times in the story , especially in regard to the townspeople 's lack of vision , both literally and morally . The townspeople are similarly depicted using imagery of either animals or machines , characterizing them as both bestial and mindless . Color imagery is also prevalent . For example , fire — both literal and symbolic — features prominently throughout the story . While critics as early as Edward Garnett in 1921 pointed to Crane 's heavy use of irony in The Monster , other critics such as Michael D. Warner question whether Crane intended the story to be read as ironic , or if this is the result of the author 's " oddly contradictory attitude toward his characters . "
In his introduction to 1921 's Men , Women and Boats , one of the first Crane anthologies , Vincent Starrett noted the difference in tone between The Monster and the 14 other tales that Crane set in the fictional Whilomville . He wrote , " The realism is painful ; one blushes for mankind . But while this story really belongs in the volume called Whilomville Stories , it is properly left out of that series . The Whilomville stories are pure comedy , and The Monster is a hideous tragedy . " Critic William M. Morgan noted the stories ' similar fascination with " pure animal spirits " and " meanings of boyhood " , but differentiated The Monster 's focus on " a larger , more mature , and modernizing community . " Paul Sorrentino also pointed to the style differences , noting the story 's focus on the adult characters rather than the children , as well as the overall length of the story ; at more than 21 @,@ 000 words , it dwarfs the other Whilomville tales . However , there is disagreement among critics as to whether The Monster should be considered a short story or a novella . Crane called it a " novelette " , and the Library of America edition refers to it as a novella .
= = Themes = =
The question of morality plays a large role in The Monster , especially in terms of compassion and tolerance . Several critics have pointed to the novella 's non @-@ absolute stance on these themes , mainly in regard to Dr. Trescott 's ethical dilemma in his devotion to Henry , a black man and his son 's savior . As author Patrick Dooley points out , " What is at stake in The Monster is that if Trescott is a moral man , Crane has rejected common @-@ sense morality . If Trescott 's actions are supererogative and saintly , however , he is to be applauded and admired , but the ordinary moral behavior of average people and the competence of everyday heroes will not have been expunged . " Crane scholar Stanley Wertheim also noted the duplicitous morality depicted by the town of Whilomville , which exhibits " prejudice , fear and isolation in an environment traditionally associated with neighborliness and goodwill . "
Various critics have written about the story 's paradoxical themes of deformity and monstrosity . Not only does Henry Johnson suffer a literal and physical defacement that brands him a monster , but the Trescotts ' suffer metaphorical loss of face when they are cast out by society . The trope of monstrosity takes on a second meaning when it becomes clear that the townspeople 's actions make them more monstrous than the man they shun for his deformity ; as professor and critic Lee Clark Mitchell asked in his essay , " Face , Race , and Disfiguration in Stephen Crane 's ' The Monster ' " , " Is ' the monster ' the disfigured black man or is it the town that comes to dis @-@ figure him ? " Similarly , Harold Bloom called The Monster an example of the " invasion myth " , made worse by the fact that the " monster " is born from within the townspeople 's collective mind . Henry @-@ the @-@ monster is therefore " generated by its fears of social instability , its prejudices about appearance ( including racism ) , and its all @-@ consuming passion for gossip and drama . " Trescott , the only man in town not to see Henry as an invader , also becomes ostracized by the frenzied small @-@ town mentality .
Race is a polarizing theme throughout the story . As William M. Morgan wrote , while the white characters are largely depicted as cold and humorless , and the black characters as warm and amusing , the town 's racial hierarchy is omnipresent . Slavery is referred to several times throughout the story , as critic Nan Goodman noted ; as a post @-@ Civil War work , The Monster revisits slavery 's legacy , as well as its effects on modern African Americans like Henry Johnson . At the beginning of the story , it is made clear that the white townspeople tolerate Henry because he " behaves himself " and " knows his place " as a black man . Later , when Henry struggles through the burning house to save Jimmie , it is said that " he was submitting , submitting because of his fathers , bending his mind in a most perfect slavery to this conflagration . " However , while his suffering is tantamount to the story , Henry Johnson is never really fleshed out as a character ; before the fire , he " strikes in quick succession the minstrel 's poses of an old @-@ time , happy @-@ go @-@ lucky Negro " , who charms children and women alike . Despite his heroism , Morgan stated , Henry does not stray far from a racial stereotype . Critics such as Lillian Gilkes and John R. Cooley have noted Crane 's lack of racial sensitivity while writing The Monster , although they note that the author was simply exhibiting " unconscious racism " in order to fulfill literary conventions of the late 19th century . In his 2002 essay , " Blunders of Virtue : The Problem of Race in Stephen Crane 's ' The Monster ' " , John Clemen sums up the critics ' tendency to either " ignore the evidence of Crane 's racism , to dismiss it as a cultural influence irrelevant to his larger purposes , or to reconfigure it within his irony in such a way as to enable the story and its author to achieve an unintended racial insight . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Monster received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Before its publication , Crane 's friend Joseph Conrad wrote while responding to a partial draft : " the damned story has been haunting me .... I think it must be fine . " William Dean Howells , an early champion of Crane , proclaimed the novella to be " the greatest short story ever written by an American " . The Spectator concluded that The Monster alone would have cemented Crane 's literary reputation ; its reviewer wrote , " If Mr. Crane had never written anything else , he would have earned the right of remembrance by this story alone . "
The reviewer for The Critic dismissed it as " an unpleasant story .... There is humor in the telling , but it is humor of a rather grim character . " Julian Hawthorne , son of author Nathaniel Hawthorne , also ultimately disliked the novella , calling it " an outrage on art and humanity " . He did , however , point to the similarities between Crane 's " monster " and Victor Frankenstein 's creation in Mary Shelley 's most famous work , stating that Crane , like Shelley before him , successfully depicted an innocent outsider being tormented by townspeople who are themselves made monstrous by their irrational fears . Other critics have since echoed the comparison between Shelley 's character and Henry Johnson ; Elizabeth Young explained the parallels in that , similar to Frankenstein 's narrative — in which " a male body is hideously transformed in a scientist 's laboratory and brought back by the scientist from the dead — Johnson 's disfigurement takes place in a doctor 's laboratory , and it is Trescott that ultimately saves him .
The Monster and Other Stories was the last collection of Crane 's work to be published during his lifetime . In the mid @-@ 20th century , the novella received a resurgence of critical attention , especially in regard to studies of race relations in late 19th @-@ century New York . Critic Chester L. Wolford wrote that the story " reveals truths not socially accepted for almost another hundred years . The story is , indeed , an excoriation of social conditions for the blacks , but more important ... it is an excoriation of all communities , all societies , in all places and all times . " African @-@ American author Ralph Ellison called The Monster , alongside Mark Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , " one of the parents of the modern American novel " . In a 1999 article , critic James Nagel stated that " no other work of short fiction in the decade was more important thematically , and nothing until William Faulkner 's " The Bear " so enriched the genre of the United States . Screenwriter and director Albert Band adapted Crane 's novella for the 1959 film Face of Fire , starring Cameron Mitchell as Dr. Trescott and James Whitmore as Johnson . Unlike in the original story , Johnson was depicted as white , and his first name was changed from Henry to Monk .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.