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= Dorothy Parker = Dorothy Parker ( August 22 , 1893 – June 7 , 1967 ) was an American poet , short story writer , critic , and satirist , best known for her wit , wisecracks and eye for 20th @-@ century urban foibles . From a conflicted and unhappy childhood , Parker rose to acclaim , both for her literary output in publications such as The New Yorker and as a founding member of the Algonquin Round Table . Following the breakup of the circle , Parker traveled to Hollywood to pursue screenwriting . Her successes there , including two Academy Award nominations , were curtailed when her involvement in left @-@ wing politics led to a place on the Hollywood blacklist . Dismissive of her own talents , she deplored her reputation as a " wisecracker . " Nevertheless , her literary output and reputation for sharp wit have endured . = = Early life and education = = Also known as Dot or Dottie , Parker was born Dorothy Rothschild to Jacob Henry and Eliza Annie Rothschild ( née Marston ) at 732 Ocean Avenue in Long Branch , New Jersey , where her parents had a summer beach cottage . Dorothy 's mother was of Scottish descent , and her father was of German Jewish descent . Parker wrote in her essay " My Hometown " that her parents got her back to their Manhattan apartment shortly after Labor Day so she could be called a true New Yorker . Her mother died in West End in July 1898 , when Parker was a month shy of turning five . Her father remarried in 1900 to a woman named Eleanor Francis Lewis . Parker hated her father and stepmother , accusing her father of being physically abusive and refusing to call Eleanor either " mother " or " stepmother " , instead referring to her as " the housekeeper " . She grew up on the Upper West Side and attended a Roman Catholic elementary school at the Convent of the Blessed Sacrament on West 79th Street with sister Helen , despite having a Jewish father and Protestant stepmother . ( Mercedes de Acosta was a classmate . ) Parker once joked that she was asked to leave following her characterization of the Immaculate Conception as " spontaneous combustion " . Her stepmother died in 1903 , when Parker was nine . Parker later went to Miss Dana 's School , a finishing school in Morristown , New Jersey . She graduated from Miss Dana 's School in 1911 , at the age of 18 . Following her father 's death in 1913 , she played piano at a dancing school to earn a living while she worked on her verse . She sold her first poem to Vanity Fair magazine in 1914 and some months later was hired as an editorial assistant for another Condé Nast magazine , Vogue . She moved to Vanity Fair as a staff writer after two years at Vogue . In 1917 , she met and married a Wall Street stockbroker , Edwin Pond Parker II ( 1893 – 1933 ) , but they were separated by his army service in World War I. She had ambivalent feelings about her Jewish heritage given the strong antisemitism of that era and joked that she married to escape her name . = = Algonquin Round Table years = = Her career took off while she was writing theatre criticism for Vanity Fair , which she began to do in 1918 as a stand @-@ in for the vacationing P. G. Wodehouse . At the magazine , she met Robert Benchley , who became a close friend , and Robert E. Sherwood . The trio began lunching at the Algonquin Hotel on a near @-@ daily basis and became founding members of the Algonquin Round Table . The Round Table numbered among its members the newspaper columnists Franklin Pierce Adams and Alexander Woollcott . Through their re @-@ printing of her lunchtime remarks and short verses , particularly in Adams ' column " The Conning Tower " , Dorothy began developing a national reputation as a wit . One of her most famous comments was made when the group was informed that famously taciturn former president Calvin Coolidge had died ; Parker remarked , " How could they tell ? " Parker 's caustic wit as a critic initially proved popular , but she was eventually terminated by Vanity Fair in 1920 after her criticisms began to offend powerful producers too often . In solidarity , both Benchley and Sherwood resigned in protest . When Harold Ross founded The New Yorker in 1925 , Parker and Benchley were part of a " board of editors " established by Ross to allay concerns of his investors . Parker 's first piece for the magazine appeared in its second issue . Parker became famous for her short , viciously humorous poems , many about the perceived ludicrousness of her many ( largely unsuccessful ) romantic affairs and others wistfully considering the appeal of suicide . The next 15 years were Parker 's greatest period of productivity and success . In the 1920s alone she published some 300 poems and free verses in Vanity Fair , Vogue , " The Conning Tower " and The New Yorker as well as Life , McCall 's and The New Republic . Parker published her first volume of poetry , Enough Rope , in 1926 . The collection sold 47 @,@ 000 copies and garnered impressive reviews . The Nation described her verse as " caked with a salty humor , rough with splinters of disillusion , and tarred with a bright black authenticity " . Although some critics , notably the New York Times reviewer , dismissed her work as " flapper verse " , the volume helped cement Parker 's reputation for sparkling wit . Parker released two more volumes of verse , Sunset Gun ( 1928 ) and Death and Taxes ( 1931 ) , along with the short story collections Laments for the Living ( 1930 ) and After Such Pleasures ( 1933 ) . Not So Deep as a Well ( 1936 ) collected much of the material previously published in Rope , Gun and Death and she re @-@ released her fiction with a few new pieces in 1939 under the title Here Lies . She collaborated with playwright Elmer Rice to create Close Harmony , which ran on Broadway in December 1924 . The play was well received in out @-@ of @-@ town previews and was favorably reviewed in New York but closed after a run of just 24 performances . It did , however , become a successful touring production under the title The Lady Next Door . Some of Parker 's most popular work was published in The New Yorker in the form of acerbic book reviews under the byline " Constant Reader " ( her response to the whimsy of A. A. Milne 's The House at Pooh Corner : " Tonstant Weader fwowed up . " ) . Her reviews appeared semi @-@ regularly from 1927 to 1933 , were widely read , and were later published in a collection under the name Constant Reader in 1970 . Her best @-@ known short story , " Big Blonde " , published in The Bookman magazine , was awarded the O. Henry Award as the best short story of 1929 . Her short stories , though often witty , were also spare and incisive , and more bittersweet than comic . She eventually separated from her husband , divorcing in 1928 , and had a number of affairs . Her lovers included reporter @-@ turned @-@ playwright Charles MacArthur and the publisher Seward Collins . Her relationship with MacArthur resulted in a pregnancy , about which Parker is alleged to have remarked , " how like me , to put all my eggs into one bastard . " She had an abortion , and fell into a depression that culminated in her first attempt at suicide . It was toward the end of this period that Parker began to become politically aware and active . What would become a lifelong commitment to activism began in 1927 with the pending executions of Sacco and Vanzetti . Parker travelled to Boston to protest the proceedings . She and fellow Round Tabler Ruth Hale were arrested , and Parker eventually pleaded guilty to a charge of " loitering and sauntering " , paying a $ 5 fine . Parker was claimed to be a patron of Polly Adler bordello or brothel in New York . = = Hollywood = = In 1934 , she married Alan Campbell , an actor with aspirations to become a screenwriter . Like Parker , he was half @-@ Jewish and half @-@ Scottish . He was reputed to be bisexual — indeed , Parker claimed in public that he was " queer as a billy goat " . The pair moved to Hollywood and signed ten @-@ week contracts with Paramount Pictures , with Campbell ( who was also expected to act ) earning $ 250 per week and Parker earning $ 1 @,@ 000 per week . They would eventually earn $ 2 @,@ 000 and in some instances upwards of $ 5 @,@ 000 per week as freelancers for various studios . She and Campbell worked on more than 15 films . In 1936 , she contributed lyrics for the song " I Wished on the Moon " , with music by Ralph Rainger . The song was introduced in The Big Broadcast of 1936 by Bing Crosby . With Robert Carson and Campbell , she wrote the script for the 1937 film A Star is Born , for which they were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Writing — Screenplay . She wrote additional dialogue for The Little Foxes in 1941 and received another Oscar nomination , with Frank Cavett , for 1947 's Smash @-@ Up , the Story of a Woman , starring Susan Hayward . After the United States entered the Second World War , Parker and Alexander Woollcott collaborated to produce an anthology of her work as part of a series published by Viking Press for servicemen stationed overseas . With an introduction by Somerset Maugham the volume compiled over two dozen of Parker 's short stories along with selected poems from Enough Rope , Sunset Gun , and Death and Taxes . It was released in the United States in 1944 under the title The Portable Dorothy Parker . Parker 's is one of only three of the Portable series ( the other two being William Shakespeare and The Bible ) to remain continuously in print . During the 1930s and 1940s , Parker became an increasingly vocal advocate of causes like civil liberties and civil rights , and a frequent critic of those in authority . She reported on the Loyalist cause in Spain for the Communist magazine The New Masses in 1937 . At the behest of Otto Katz , a covert Soviet Comintern agent and operative of German Communist Party agent Willi Muenzenberg , Parker helped to found the Hollywood Anti @-@ Nazi League in 1936 ( which was suspected by the FBI of being a Communist Party front ) . The Hollywood Anti @-@ Nazi League 's membership eventually grew to some 4 @,@ 000 strong . Its often wealthy members ' contributions ( probably not intended to support Communism ) were , in the words of David Caute , " able to contribute as much to [ Communist ] Party funds as the whole American working class " . Parker also served as chair of the Joint Anti @-@ Fascist Rescue Committee . She organized Project Rescue Ship to transport Loyalist veterans to Mexico , headed Spanish Children 's Relief and lent her name to many other left @-@ wing causes and organizations . Her former Round Table friends saw less and less of her , with her relationship with Robert Benchley being particularly strained ( although they would reconcile ) . Parker met S. J. Perelman at a party in 1932 , and despite a rocky start ( Perelman called it " a scarifying ordeal " ) — they remained friends for the next 35 years , even becoming neighbors when the Perelmans helped Parker and Campbell buy a run @-@ down farm in Bucks County , Pennsylvania . Parker was listed as a Communist by the publication Red Channels in 1950 . The FBI compiled a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ page dossier on her because of her suspected involvement in Communism during the McCarthy era . As a result , she was placed on the Hollywood blacklist by the movie studio bosses . Her final screenplay was The Fan , a 1949 adaptation of Oscar Wilde 's Lady Windermere 's Fan , directed by Otto Preminger . Her marriage to Campbell was tempestuous , with tensions exacerbated by Parker 's increasing alcohol consumption and Campbell 's long @-@ term affair with a married woman while he was in Europe during World War II . They divorced in 1947 , then remarried in 1950 . Parker moved back to New York in 1952 , living at the Volney residential hotel at 23 East 74th Street on the Upper East Side . From 1957 to 1962 , she wrote book reviews for Esquire , though these pieces were increasingly erratic owing to her continued abuse of alcohol . She returned to Hollywood in 1961 and reconciled with Campbell . In the next two years , they worked together on a number of unproduced projects . Campbell committed suicide by drug overdose in 1963 . = = Later life and death = = Following Campbell 's death , Parker returned to New York City and the Volney residential hotel . In her later years , she would come to denigrate the group that had brought her such early notoriety , the Algonquin Round Table : These were no giants . Think who was writing in those days — Lardner , Fitzgerald , Faulkner and Hemingway . Those were the real giants . The Round Table was just a lot of people telling jokes and telling each other how good they were . Just a bunch of loudmouths showing off , saving their gags for days , waiting for a chance to spring them ... There was no truth in anything they said . It was the terrible day of the wisecrack , so there didn 't have to be any truth ... Parker was heard occasionally on radio , including Information Please ( as a guest ) and Author , Author ( as a regular panelist ) . She wrote for the Columbia Workshop , and both Ilka Chase and Tallulah Bankhead used her material for radio monologues . Parker died on June 7 , 1967 , of a heart attack at the age of 73 . In her will , she bequeathed her estate to Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . Following King 's death , her estate was passed on to the NAACP . Her executor , Lillian Hellman , bitterly but unsuccessfully contested this disposition . Her ashes remained unclaimed in various places , including her attorney Paul O 'Dwyer 's filing cabinet , for approximately 17 years . = = Posthumous honors = = In 1988 , the NAACP claimed Parker 's remains and designed a memorial garden for them outside their Baltimore headquarters . The plaque reads , Here lie the ashes of Dorothy Parker ( 1893 – 1967 ) humorist , writer , critic . Defender of human and civil rights . For her epitaph she suggested , ' Excuse my dust ' . This memorial garden is dedicated to her noble spirit which celebrated the oneness of humankind and to the bonds of everlasting friendship between black and Jewish people . Dedicated by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People . October 28 , 1988 . On August 22 , 1992 , the 99th anniversary of Parker 's birth , the United States Postal Service issued a 29 ¢ U.S. commemorative postage stamp in the Literary Arts series . The Algonquin Round Table , as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged there , helped earn the Algonquin Hotel its status as a New York City Historic Landmark . The hotel was so designated in 1987 . In 1996 the hotel was designated a National Literary Landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA based on the contributions of Parker and other members of the Round Table . The organization 's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel . Her birthplace was also designated a National Literary Landmark by Friends of Libraries USA in 2005 and a bronze plaque marks the spot where the home once stood . In 2014 , Parker was elected to the New Jersey Hall of Fame . = = In popular culture = = Parker was the inspiration for a number of fictional characters in several plays of her day . These included " Lily Malone " in Philip Barry 's Hotel Universe ( 1932 ) , " Mary Hilliard " ( played by Ruth Gordon ) in George Oppenheimer 's Here Today ( 1932 ) , " Paula Wharton " in Gordon 's 1944 play Over Twenty @-@ one ( directed by George S. Kaufman ) , and " Julia Glenn " in the Kaufman @-@ Moss Hart collaboration Merrily We Roll Along ( 1934 ) . Kaufman 's representation of her in Merrily We Roll Along led Parker , once his Round Table compatriot , to despise him . She also appeared as " Daisy Lester " in Charles Brackett 's 1934 novel Entirely Surrounded . She is mentioned in the original introductory lyrics in Cole Porter ' song Just One of Those Things from the 1935 Broadway musical Jubilee which have been retained in the standard interpretation of the song when it became part of the Great American Songbook . Parker appears as a character in the novel The Dorothy Parker Murder Case by George Baxt ( 1984 ) , in a series of " Algonquin Round Table Mysteries " by J.J. Murphy ( 2011 – ) , and in Ellen Meister 's novel Farewell , Dorothy Parker ( 2013 ) . She is the main character in a short story , " Love For Miss Dottie , " by Larry N Mayer , which was selected by Mary Gaitskill for the collection Best New American Voices 2009 ( Harcourt ) . She has been portrayed on film and television by Dolores Sutton in F. Scott Fitzgerald in Hollywood ( 1976 ) , Rosemary Murphy in Julia ( 1977 ) , Bebe Neuwirth in Dash and Lilly ( 1999 ) and Jennifer Jason Leigh in Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle ( 1994 ) . Neuwirth was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance , and Leigh received a number of awards and nominations , including a Golden Globe nomination . Parker , along with other figures of the era including Ira Gershwin and George Gershwin , is featured as a character in Act 1 , Scene 12 of the stage musical version of Thoroughly Modern Millie , " Muzzy 's Party Scene " . Television creator Amy Sherman @-@ Palladino named her production company ' Dorothy Parker Drank Here Productions ' in tribute to Parker . Standup comedian Jen Kirkman portrayed Dorothy Parker in an edition of the Dead Authors Podcast at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in Los Angeles in 2011 . A one @-@ woman show , Dorothy Parker 's Room Enough For Two starring Terrie Frankel , was produced in July 1993 at the Groundlings Theatre in Hollywood , California . Prince features a song entitled " The Ballad of Dorothy Parker " , on his 1987 album Sign o ' the Times . The Wild Colonials song , " Vicious Circle " from Life As We Know It EP ( 2007 ) is about Dorothy Parker . The chorus lyrics are , " I know how Dorothy Parker felt with someone in her way . " In the 1999 film Girl , Interrupted , the character Lisa recites Parker 's poem " Resume " . The Thrilling Adventure Hour podcast has Dorothy Parker as a recurring character ( as played by Annie Savage ) and member of the Algonquin Four . After being struck by a comet , the group gained powers parodying The Fantastic Four . Parker gained rock @-@ like skin as a self @-@ proclaimed " rock man " , and is the dim @-@ witted muscle of the team . Her catchphrase is " Dorothy Parker smash ! " Tucson actress Lesley Abrams wrote and performed the one @-@ woman show Dorothy Parker 's Last Call in 2009 in Tucson , Arizona at the Winding Road Theater Ensemble and reprised the role at the Live Theatre Workshop in Tucson in 2014 . The play was also selected to be part of the Capital Fringe Festival in DC in 2010 . Her poem " Threnody " was recorded by Annifrid Lyngstad , of ABBA fame . Lyrics taken from her book of poetry Not So Deep as a Well were , with the authorization of the NAACP , used by Canadian singer Myriam Gendron to create a folk album of the same name .
= 2015 Chinese Grand Prix = The 2015 Chinese Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2015 Formula 1 Chinese Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race that was held on 12 April 2015 at the Shanghai International Circuit in Shanghai , China . The race was the third round of the 2015 season , and marked the twelfth time that the Chinese Grand Prix has been run as a round of the Formula One World Championship . Lewis Hamilton was the defending race winner and went into the weekend with a three @-@ point lead in the world championship over Sebastian Vettel , who had surprised the field by taking victory in the previous round at Malaysia . Hamilton took pole position during Saturday 's qualifying , the 41st of his career and the third in a row . He went on to win the race from his team mate Nico Rosberg . = = Report = = = = = Background = = = After Sebastian Vettel 's surprise victory two weeks prior in Malaysia , eyes were on Ferrari whether they would be able to continue their good race pace in China and challenge the Mercedes for the win . As lower track temperatures were expected for the race , a serious competitiveness of Ferrari was cast into doubt , as they had benefited from lower tyre degradation in the heat of Malaysia . All ten teams taking part in the championship participated in the race , with Manor Marussia hoping to finally be able to run both cars continually , after Will Stevens had failed to start in Malaysia . As in 2014 , Pirelli announced they would be supplying teams with the white @-@ banded medium compound tyre as the prime selection and the yellow @-@ banded soft compound as the option selection for the event . = = = Free practice = = = Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were held , two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . World champion Lewis Hamilton took a clean sweep and topped the time sheets in all three sessions by a considerable margin . The first session saw Lotus test driver Jolyon Palmer participate in place of regular Romain Grosjean . He finished six tenths of a second behind his team mate Pastor Maldonado and was one of several drivers to have off track experiences during the session . Both Mercedes drivers ran wide on different parts of the track , as did Felipe Massa , who spun his Williams in turn 14 towards the end of the session . Hamilton was over half a second clear of his team mate Nico Rosberg on Friday morning , with the Ferraris more than a second behind . Hamilton continued his strong performance during the second session on Friday afternoon , beating Malaysia winner Sebastian Vettel for the top spot , Vettel finishing almost half a second down . Most teams ran with both dry tyre compounds . Mercedes appeared more dominant on the harder tyres , one second ahead of the rest of the grid . Red Bull continued to struggle with the same brake problems they had endured in Malaysia two weeks before . The left rear brake of Daniil Kvyat started to smoke after a pit stop , leading the team to investigate the matter further . Felipe Massa spun yet again in turn 14 , hitting the barrier with his front wing meaning the session was red @-@ flagged for a while . The session was further disrupted by the appearance of a local man running across the main straight , jumping into pit lane before being stopped by security after entering the Ferrari garage , where he apparently stated he wanted to " try a car " . Hamilton was once again fastest during third practice on Saturday morning , even while suffering from overheating under his seat . The two Mercedes cars were separated by two tenths of a second with the two Ferraris of Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen behind , another half a second down . Red Bull had a slight upturn in fortune , with Daniel Ricciardo and Daniil Kvyat finishing fifth and sixth respectively . McLaren @-@ Honda had another problematic session as Fernando Alonso stopped the car just after starting his installation lap . Team mate Jenson Button was called into the pits as well , citing a similar problem with the engine , but was able to continue later in the session . Felipe Massa experienced smoke in his cockpit both on Friday and Saturday , apparently caused by the new titanium plates underneath the cars which also create sparks when driving over bumps on the track . = = = Qualifying = = = Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . In the session , which started at 15 : 00 local time ( UTC + 8 ) on Saturday afternoon , Lewis Hamilton took the third out of three possible pole positions of the season , narrowly beating his team mate by 0 @.@ 04 seconds . Nico Rosberg was frustrated about the result , lamenting that his team had put unnecessary pressure on him by telling him to go faster during his last warm @-@ up lap , saying " [ w ] e need to look at that as that was not ideal to put me under pressure like that " . Mercedes were the only team to use the medium tyre in the first qualifying session ( Q1 ) , with all other teams using the faster soft tyre . Five drivers were eliminated in Q1 , four of them being the two Manors and the McLarens , all of which had yet failed to go through to Q2 . They were joined by the Force India of Nico Hülkenberg , who was to start 16th on the grid . The second session saw Hamilton post the fastest time , even though his car lost contact to pit lane and his seat overheating once more . He was three tenths clear of his team mate Rosberg , with Sebastian Vettel in third . Daniil Kvyat suffered engine problems and failed to make it into Q3 , as did the second Force India of Sergio Pérez , both Toro Rossos and the Lotus of Pastor Maldonado . During Q3 , contested by the top ten , Hamilton just beat his team mate to pole position , with a time set during his first timed lap . Both Ferraris ran their first lap on used tyres in order to save one set for the race . In their second outing , Vettel was able to get ahead of the two Williams cars of Felipe Massa and Valtteri Bottas , while team mate Kimi Räikkönen struggled with the handling of his car in the first part of the track to finish sixth on the grid . = = = Race = = = When the race started at 14 : 00 local time ( UTC + 8 ) , Kimi Räikkönen managed to pass both Williams cars on the first lap to move up to fourth , while Nico Rosberg was able to fend off Sebastian Vettel for second . On the second lap , Carlos Sainz , Jr. spun his Toro Rosso and dropped down the order . Nico Hülkenberg became the first retirement on lap ten , when he parked his Force India in the gravel after his gearbox failed . During the pit stops , Ferrari attempted an undercut by pitting Sebastian Vettel early on lap 13 , a strategy in which a car running behind is pitting early in order to use a fast out @-@ lap on fresh tyres to jump ahead of a rival without having to overtake them on track . However this was unsuccessful as Mercedes reacted by pitting Rosberg the following lap , allowing Rosberg to maintain track position over Vettel . On lap 17 , Daniil Kvyat retired from the race when his Red Bull started to smoke . After the first pit stops , the Mercedes drivers had to manage their tyres in order to cover from a possible attack by Ferrari , who had an extra set of fresh tyres saved from qualifying . Rosberg however complained over the radio about Hamilton in front of him driving too slow , which caused him to back into the charging Ferraris . He was unable to risk driving too close behind Hamilton , because dispersed air from the back of the car was accelerating tyre degradation . Hamilton was therefore asked by the team to pick up the pace . The top three began to spread out in the second half of the race , and by lap 54 Lewis Hamilton was leading Rosberg by 10 @.@ 06 seconds , with Vettel a further 12 @.@ 12 seconds behind Rosberg . However , due to Ferrari 's earlier attempt to undercut Rosberg by pitting Vettel early , Räikkönen 's tyres were 4 laps fresher than his teammate 's , and he closed in on Vettel over the final stint . Having emerged from his final pit stop 4 @.@ 84 seconds behind Vettel on lap 35 , Räikkönen had closed the gap to 1 @.@ 37 seconds by lap 54 . However , the chance of a battle between the Ferrari teammates was extinguished after a transmission failure on Max Verstappen 's Toro Rosso , who was stranded on the start / finish @-@ straight , brought out the safety car for the final two laps , meaning that the race ended under safety car conditions . Hamilton crossed the line to win his second race of the season , with Rosberg following him home in 2nd and Vettel completing the podium with 3rd . Pastor Maldonado had an eventful race . On lap 33 , while running in seventh position ahead of teammate Romain Grosjean , he missed the pit entry and lost time , dropping several positions . He then proceeded to spin his car on lap 39 as he attempted to make up for lost time , and on lap 48 he had a collision with Jenson Button following a long battle for position , damaging his car and retiring with rear brake failure a few laps later . The stewards later deemed Button to be at fault for the incident . = = = Post @-@ race = = = At the podium interview , conducted by former track and field athlete Edwin Moses , race winner Lewis Hamilton acknowledged " a fantastic job by the team " and expressed disappointment over the late safety car , calling it " kind of an anti @-@ climax when you have a good race like that " . During the press conference after the race , Nico Rosberg accused his team mate of deliberately slowing down during the middle stint of the race and compromising his race in the process . Hamilton declared , when asked about the radio message telling him to speed up , that he " wasn 't controlling his [ Nico 's ] race , I was controlling my own race " . Rosberg reacted to that statement by saying : " It 's just now interesting to hear from you , Lewis , that you were just thinking about yourself with the pace in front , and necessarily that was compromising my race . " Hamilton was subsequently backed up by Mercedes non @-@ executive chairman Niki Lauda , who said : " Sure , everyone drives selfish . [ ... ] What do you think these guys are here to do ? I call them egocentric bastards . That is the only way to win and the only way to win the Championship , they are all the same . " = = Classification = = = = = Qualifying = = = = = = Race = = = Notes ^ 1 – Jenson Button originally finished thirteenth but received a five @-@ second time penalty after the race following a collision with Pastor Maldonado . ^ 2 – Roberto Merhi received a five @-@ second time penalty after the race for failing to stay above the required lap time under the safety car . ^ 3 – Max Verstappen was classified because he completed over 90 % of the race distance . = = = Championship standings after the race = = = Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= SS Dakotan = SS Dakotan was a cargo ship built in 1912 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company that served as a transport ship in the United States Army Transport Service in World War I , and then was transferred to the Soviet Union under Lend @-@ Lease in World War II before being finally scrapped in 1969 . During World War I , she was taken over by the United States Army as USAT Dakotan . Near the end of that war she was transferred to the United States Navy and commissioned as USS Dakotan ( ID @-@ 3882 ) . During World War II , the ship was transferred to the Soviet Union and renamed SS Zyrianin ( or Зырянин in Cyrillic ) . Dakotan was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened . During World War I , as USAT Dakotan , the ship carried cargo and animals to France . Dakotan was in the first American convoy to sail to France after the United States entered the war in April 1917 . In Navy service , USS Dakotan carried cargo to France and returned over 8 @,@ 800 American troops after the Armistice . After her Navy service ended in 1919 , she was returned to her original owners and resumed relatively uneventful cargo service over the next twenty years . Dakotan ran aground off the coast of Mexico in 1923 but was freed and towed to port for repairs . Early in World War II , the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and transferred to the Soviet Union under the terms of Lend @-@ Lease in December 1942 . Sailing as SS Zyrianin , the ship remained a part of the Soviet merchant fleet into the late 1960s . = = Design and construction = = In September 1911 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for four new cargo ships — Minnesotan , Dakotan , Pennsylvanian , and Montanan . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , but with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 per ship . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash with nine monthly installments for the balance . The deal had provisions that allowed some of the nine installments to be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Dakotan , including financing costs , was $ 66 @.@ 00 per deadweight ton , which totaled just under $ 672 @,@ 000 . Dakotan ( Maryland Steel yard no . 125 ) was the second ship built under the original contract . She was launched on 10 August 1912 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian in November . Dakotan was 6 @,@ 537 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 428 feet 9 inches ( 130 @.@ 68 m ) in length and 53 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 31 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 175 LT DWT and a storage capacity of 492 @,@ 519 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 946 @.@ 6 m3 ) . A single steam engine with oil @-@ fired boilers driving a single screw propeller provided her power ; her speed was 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . The steamer had accommodations for 18 officers , 40 crewmen , and could carry up to 16 passengers . = = Early career = = When Dakotan began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route arrived at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos for westbound cargo — and traversed the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were general in nature . Dakotan sailed in this service on the east side of North America . At the time of the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 , Dakotan was in port at Coatzacoalcos . There she loaded 127 American refugees from sugar plantations in the area and steamed to Veracruz . As a consequence of the American action , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . In early May , The New York Times reported that Dakotan had sailed to Cristóbal to pick up a cargo of sugar that had been originally slated for transport via Tehuantepec . According to the article , the sugar was to be carried on barges through the still @-@ unopened Panama Canal , then loaded onto Dakotan . There was no indication in the newspaper whether this mission was completed or not , but it is known that American @-@ Hawaii returned to its historic route of sailing cargo around South America via the Straits of Magellan after Tehuantepec was closed but before the canal opened . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to using the canal . In early September , American @-@ Hawaiian announced that Dakotan would sail on a route from New York via the canal to San Francisco and on to either Seattle or Tacoma . When landslides closed the canal in October 1915 , all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Dakotan , returned to the Straits of Magellan route . In 1916 , Dakotan was one of several American @-@ Hawaiian cargo ships chartered by the DuPont Nitrate Company to carry sodium nitrate from Chile to the United States . Dakotan and the other cargo ships in this South American service would typically deliver loads of coal , gasoline , or steel in exchange for the sodium nitrate . In May , The Christian Science Monitor reported on what may have been a typical delivery for Dakotan . The ship had left Tocopilla with 91 @,@ 872 bags — about 9 @,@ 000 long tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) — of sodium nitrate for use in making explosives , and , after transiting the newly reopened Panama Canal , arrived in Philadelphia . = = World War I = = After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , the United States Army , needing transports to move its men and materiel to France , convened a select committee of shipping executives who pored over registries of American shipping to evaluate transport capabilities . The committee selected Dakotan , her sister ship Montanan , and twelve other American @-@ flagged ships that were sufficiently fast , could carry enough fuel in their bunkers for transatlantic crossings , and , most importantly , were in port or not far at sea . After Dakotan discharged her last load of cargo , she was officially handed over to the Army on 29 May . Before troop transportation began , all of the ships were hastily refitted . Of the fourteen ships , four , including Dakotan and Montanan , were designated to carry animals and cargo ; the other ten were designated to carry human passengers . Ramps and stalls were built on the four ships chosen to carry animals . Gun platforms were installed on each ship before it docked at the Brooklyn Navy Yard , where the guns were put in place . All the ships were manned by merchant officers and crews but carried military personnel : two U.S. Navy officers , Navy gun crews , quartermasters , signalmen , and wireless operators . The senior Navy officer on board would take control if a ship came under attack . The American convoy carrying the first units of the American Expeditionary Force was separated into four groups ; Dakotan was in the fourth group with her sister ship Montanan , Army transports El Occidente and Edward Luckenbach , and accompanied by the group 's escorts : cruiser St. Louis , U.S. Navy transport Hancock , and destroyers Shaw , Ammen , and Flusser . Dakotan departed with her group on the morning of 17 June for Brest , France , steaming at an 11 @-@ knot ( 20 km / h ) pace . A thwarted submarine attack on the first convoy group , and reports of heavy submarine activity off of Brest resulted in a change in the convoy 's destination to Saint @-@ Nazaire . Dakotan departed Saint @-@ Nazaire on 14 July in the company of her convoy mates El Occidente , Montanan , and Edward Luckenbach . Joining the return trip were Army transport Momus , Navy armed collier Cyclops , Navy oiler Kanawha , and cruiser Seattle , the flagship of Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves , the head of the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force . Sources do not reveal Dakotan 's movements over the next months , but on 6 September 1917 , the Naval Armed Guardsmen aboard Dakotan shelled a German submarine after its periscope had been sighted . On 29 January 1919 , Dakotan was transferred to the Navy and commissioned the same day , with Lieutenant Commander J. Simmons , USNRF , in command . Outfitted for service as a troop transport to return American servicemen from Europe , Dakotan made five transatlantic roundtrips to France as part of the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force between 15 February and 20 July . Eastbound journeys delivered cargo to Saint @-@ Nazaire and Bordeaux for the Army of Occupation ; westbound trips returned soldiers to the United States . Dakotan carried a total of 8 @,@ 812 troops on her five westbound voyages . Dakotan returned from her final voyage on 20 July , was decommissioned at New York on 31 July , and returned to American @-@ Hawaiian the same day . = = Interwar years = = Dakotan resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Although the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes , Dakotan continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal in a relatively uneventful manner over the next twenty years . One incident of note occurred on 20 August 1923 when Dakotan issued distress calls after she ran aground at Cabo San Lázaro on the Pacific coast of Mexico . The Navy transport ship Henderson and the Standard Oil tanker Charles Pratt responded to Dakotan 's calls . Charles Pratt successfully freed Dakotan , which had suffered damage to her rudder post in the accident . The American @-@ Hawaiian ship Nevadan arrived and towed Dakotan to Los Angeles for repairs . In 1933 , two members of Dakotan 's crew had medical emergencies that received news coverage . The first , in February , involved a seaman with an abdominal disorder . He was transferred from the eastbound Dakotan to the Dollar Line ocean liner President Hayes which carried him to Los Angeles to receive medical attention . The second occurred in July when Dakotan 's quartermaster came down with appendicitis near Balboa . Radio calls for assistance brought the U.S. Navy 's Destroyer Division 7 to Dakotan 's aid . The destroyer unit 's medical officer boarded Dakotan and performed an appendectomy on the man , who was too ill to be moved off the ship . = = World War II and later career = = After the United States entered World War II , in 1941 - though most of Europe had been involved since summer 1939 - Dakotan was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) , but continued to be operated by American @-@ Hawaiian . In December 1942 , Dakotan was transferred to the Soviet Union under Lend @-@ Lease , and renamed Zyrianin ( Зырянин Russian pronunciation : [ zɨˈrʲanʲɪn ] ) . Throughout the rest of the war , Dakotan made at least one trip to the United States , being photographed in port at San Francisco in August 1943 . Near the end of World War II , the WSA offered a payment of $ 670 @,@ 210 to American @-@ Hawaiian for the former Dakotan as part of a $ 7 @.@ 2 million settlement for eleven American @-@ Hawaiian ships that had been requisitioned by the WSA . Zyrianin remained a part of the Soviet merchant fleet through the 1960s , and was listed in Lloyd 's Register until the 1970 – 71 edition . Zyrianin was operated by the Far East Shipping Company ( FESCO ) from 1943 to 1957 . From 1957 , she was operated by the Black Sea Shipping Company . The ship was written off and scrapped at Split , Yugoslavia in 1969 .
= Rachel Bilson = Rachel Sarah Bilson ( born August 25 , 1981 ) is an American actress . Bilson grew up in a California show business family , made her television debut in 2003 , and then landed the role of Summer Roberts on the prime @-@ time drama series The O.C. Bilson made her film debut in the 2006 film The Last Kiss and starred in the 2008 action / science fiction film Jumper . From 2011 to 2015 , she starred as Dr. Zoe Hart on The CW 's Hart of Dixie . = = Early life = = Bilson was born in Los Angeles , the daughter of Janice Stango , a sex therapist , and Danny Bilson , a writer , director , and producer . She has an older brother and two younger half @-@ sisters . Her mother is an Italian @-@ American who was raised Catholic , and her father is Jewish . Bilson 's father comes from a show business family : Her paternal grandfather is producer @-@ director Bruce Bilson , she has a producer aunt who worked with Errol Morris on Fog of War , a great @-@ grandfather , George Bilson , born in Leeds , UK , who ran the movie @-@ trailer department at RKO Pictures , and a screenwriter great @-@ grandmother , Hattie , whose credits include Pal , Canine Detective ( 1950 ) . = = Career = = Bilson attended Grossmont College , a community college in a suburb of San Diego , but dropped out after one year , taking her father 's advice to pursue a professional acting career . She then made several appearances in commercials , including advertisements for Subway restaurants , Raisin Bran and Pepto @-@ Bismol . She made her screen acting debut in early 2003 , appearing in one episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer and 8 Simple Rules for Dating My Teenage Daughter . Bilson was subsequently cast in The O.C. , which debuted in August 2003 . Her character , Summer Roberts , was initially intended to appear in only a few episodes , but became a series regular after a successful run , as Bilson 's on @-@ screen romance with Seth Cohen ( Adam Brody ) became a noted aspect of the series . At the 2005 Teen Choice Awards , Bilson collected three awards : " Choice Hottie Female " , " Choice TV Actress ( Drama ) " and " Best Onscreen TV Chemistry " ( jointly won with Adam Brody ) . In 2005 , Maxim magazine named her sixth in their annual " Hot 100 List " ; in 2006 , the publication awarded her # 14 . The UK edition of FHM Magazine named her 28th in the 2006 100 Sexiest Women in the World list , while the US Edition Ranked her 77th in 2005 . Bilson was also named one of People magazine 's " 100 Most Beautiful People " in 2006 . Before appearing in Maxim , Bilson had turned down requests to appear seminude in men 's magazines , specifying that she feels that her body " is sacred " and " not there for the whole world to see . " Bilson 's first film role was in The Last Kiss , a romantic comedy @-@ drama also starring Zach Braff in 2006 . She played a college student who seduces Braff 's character . It was reported that she called for a body double during the sex scenes because she was uncomfortable being nude in front of the camera . One review of the film noted that Bilson played the role with " surprising depth " , although another critic described her role as " Glenn Close in Fatal Attraction as an airhead valley girl with a hot bod " . In September 2006 , Bilson refuted rumors she had been cast to star in a film version of the comic book character Wonder Woman ; In late 2006 , Bilson was cast in the film Doug Liman 's thriller Jumper , as the replacement for actress Teresa Palmer ; the film was released on February 14 , 2008 . She also appeared in a two @-@ episode arc on The O.C. creator Josh Schwartz 's NBC comedy , Chuck , and in the film New York , I Love You , and appeared in the 100th episode of How I Met Your Mother ( " Girls Versus Suits " ) as Ted Mosby 's latest love interest . In September 2008 , she started shooting the indie romantic film Waiting For Forever , directed by James Keach . In September 2009 Rachel appeared as a celebrity guest judge in the third episode of Project Runway ( season 6 ) . Bilson starred in the 2011 indie film L ! fe Happens next to Krysten Ritter and Kate Bosworth . Bilson also launched a shoe range in 2011 . In 2011 , Bilson began starring in the The CW series Hart of Dixie , executive produced by The O.C. creator Josh Schwartz . She played Dr. Zoe Hart , a New Yorker who , after her dreams of becoming a heart surgeon fall apart , accepts an offer to work as a general practitioner in the fictional Gulf Coast town of Bluebell , Alabama . On May 7 , 2015 , the CW officially canceled the show after four seasons . Bilson also filmed a comedy exclusive for the website Funny or Die , titled , " Rachel Bilson 's Deleted Sex Scene " in 2009 . = = Fashion design = = Bilson has been recognized by several media sources as being a " fashion junkie " . She has described herself as having a " vintage " sense of style , and has noted Kate Moss and Diane Keaton as inspirations . She approached DKNY Jeans in late 2007 with a view to design a clothing line with the fashion brand . Together they created Edie Rose . The collection was launched in September 2008 . It consisted of mainly black and white separates with a splash of yellow that could easily work with an existing wardrobe . Her idea was to keep fashionable items accessible to young women by keeping the prices of each piece under $ 100 . An advertising image was released in July 2008 which featured Bilson modelling her Edie Rose collection . She said she wanted to keep her fashion line " as separate as possible from Rachel Bilson the actress . I 'm hoping people will appreciate it for the clothes , not the person behind them . " Much of her fashion collection was lost when her home was burglarized in May 2009 . Bilson 's fashions and sense of style made her the unwitting target of the Bling Ring , who burglarized her home on several occasions . In 2011 , Bilson collaborated with her personal stylist Nicole Chavez , and shoe industry leader Steve Madden , to launch the footwear destination , ShoeMint , an " online customized shoe shopping experience " . In 2013 Bilson designed a shirt for Invisible Children . = = Personal life = = Bilson and Adam Brody , her co @-@ star on The O.C. , dated for three years , ending in 2006 . The following year , she met Hayden Christensen on the set of Jumper and they became engaged in 2008 . In mid @-@ 2010 , the couple split up but were dating again a few months later . Bilson and Christensen had their first child , daughter Briar Rose , on October 29 , 2014 . = = Filmography = =
= James L. Brooks = James Lawrence " Jim " Brooks ( born May 9 , 1940 ) is an American director , producer and screenwriter . Growing up in North Bergen , New Jersey , Brooks endured a fractured family life and passed the time by reading and writing . After dropping out of New York University , he got a job as an usher at CBS , going on to write for the CBS News broadcasts . He moved to Los Angeles in 1965 to work on David L. Wolper 's documentaries . After being laid off he met producer Allan Burns who secured him a job as a writer on the series My Mother the Car . Brooks wrote for several shows before being hired as a story editor on My Friend Tony and later created the series Room 222 . Grant Tinker hired Brooks and Burns at MTM Productions to create The Mary Tyler Moore Show in 1970 . The show , one of the first to feature an independent working woman as its lead character , was critically acclaimed and won Brooks several Primetime Emmy Awards . Brooks and Burns then created two successful spin @-@ offs from Mary Tyler Moore in the shape of Rhoda ( a comedy ) and Lou Grant ( a drama ) . Brooks left MTM Productions in 1978 to co @-@ create the sitcom Taxi which , despite winning multiple Emmys , suffered from low ratings and was canceled twice . Brooks moved into feature film work when he wrote and co @-@ produced the 1979 film Starting Over . His next project was the critically acclaimed film Terms of Endearment , which he produced , directed and wrote , winning an Academy Award for all three positions . Basing his next film , Broadcast News , on his journalistic experiences , the film earned him a further two Academy Award nominations . Although his 1994 work I 'll Do Anything was hampered by negative press attention due to the cutting of all of its recorded musical numbers , As Good as It Gets ( co @-@ written with Mark Andrus ) earned further praise . It was seven years until his next film , 2004 's Spanglish . His sixth film , How Do You Know , was released in 2010 . Brooks also produced and mentored Cameron Crowe on Say Anything ... ( 1989 ) and Wes Anderson and Owen Wilson on Bottle Rocket ( 1996 ) . In 1984 , Brooks founded the television and film company , Gracie Films . Although he did not intend to do so , Brooks returned to television in 1987 as the producer of The Tracey Ullman Show . He hired cartoonist Matt Groening to create a series of shorts for the show , which eventually led to The Simpsons in 1989 . The Simpsons won numerous awards and is still running . Brooks also co @-@ produced and co @-@ wrote the 2007 film adaptation of the show , The Simpsons Movie . In total , Brooks has received 47 Emmy nominations , winning 20 of them . = = Early life = = Brooks was born James Lawrence Brooks on May 9 , 1940 in Brooklyn , New York , United States , and raised in North Bergen , New Jersey . His parents , Dorothy Helen ( née Sheinheit ) and Edward M. Brooks , were both salespeople ( his mother sold children 's clothes ; his father furniture ) . The Brooks family was Jewish ; Edward Brooks changed his surname from Bernstein and claimed to be Irish . Brooks ' father abandoned his mother when he found out she was pregnant with him , and lost contact with his son when Brooks was twelve . During the pregnancy , Brooks ' father sent his wife a postcard stating that " If it 's a boy , name him Jim . " His mother died when he was 22 . He has described his early life as " tough " with a " broken home , [ and him being ] poor and sort of lonely , that sort of stuff " , later adding : " My father was sort of in @-@ and @-@ out and my mother worked long hours , so there was no choice but for me to be alone in the apartment a lot . " He has an older sister , Diane , who helped look after him as a child and to whom he dedicated As Good As It Gets . Brooks spent much of his childhood " surviving " and reading numerous comedic and scripted works , as well as writing ; he sent comedic short stories out to publishers and occasionally got positive responses although none were published , and he did not believe he could make a career as a writer . Brooks attended Weehawken High School but was not a high achiever . He was on his high school newspaper team and frequently secured interviews with celebrities including Louis Armstrong . He lists some of his influences as Sid Caesar , Jack Benny , Lenny Bruce , Mike Nichols and Elaine May , as well as writers Paddy Chayefsky and F. Scott Fitzgerald . = = Career = = = = = Television = = = In 1987 , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described Brooks ' career as " a non @-@ stop crescendo . " Although he dropped out of a New York University public relations course , Brooks ' sister got him a job as a host at CBS in New York City , a job usually requiring a college education , as she was friends with a secretary there . He held it for two and a half years . For two weeks he filled in as a copywriter for CBS News and was given the job permanently when the original employee never returned . Brooks went on to become a writer for the news broadcasts , joining the Writers Guild of America and writing reports on events such as the assassination of President Kennedy . He moved to Los Angeles in 1965 , to write for documentaries being produced by David L. Wolper , something he " still [ hasn 't ] quite figured out how [ he ] got the guts to do , " as his job at CBS was secure and well @-@ paid . He worked as an associate producer on series such as Men in Crisis but after sixth months he was laid off as the company were trying to cut back on expenses . Brooks did occasionally work for Wolper 's company again , including on a National Geographic insect special . Failing to find another job at a news agency , he met producer Allan Burns at a party . Burns got him a job on My Mother the Car where he was hired to rewrite a script after pitching some story ideas . Brooks then went on to write episodes of That Girl , The Andy Griffith Show and My Three Sons before Sheldon Leonard hired him as a story editor on My Friend Tony . In 1969 he created for ABC the series Room 222 , which lasted until 1974 . Room 222 was the second series in American history to feature a black lead character , in this case high school teacher Pete Dixon played by Lloyd Haynes . The network felt the show was sensitive and so attempted to change the pilot story so that Dixon helped a white student rather than a black one , but Brooks prevented it . On the show Brooks worked with Gene Reynolds who taught him the importance of extensive and diligent research , which he conducted at Los Angeles High School for Room 222 , and he used the technique on his subsequent works . Brooks left Room 222 as head writer after one year to work on other pilots and brought Burns in to produce the show . Brooks and Burns were hired by CBS programming executive Grant Tinker to create a series together with MTM Productions for Tinker 's wife Mary Tyler Moore which became The Mary Tyler Moore Show . Drawing on his own background in journalism , Brooks set the show in a newsroom . Initially the show was unpopular with CBS executives who demanded Tinker fire Brooks and Burns . However the show was one of the beneficiaries of network president Fred Silverman 's " rural purge " ; executive Bob Wood also liked the show and moved it into a better timeslot . Brooks and Burns hired all of the show 's staff themselves and eventually ended it of their own accord . The Mary Tyler Moore Show became a critical and commercial success and was the first show to feature an independent @-@ minded , working woman , not reliant on a man , as its lead . Geoff Hammill of the Museum of Broadcast Communications described it as " one of the most acclaimed television programs ever produced " in US television history . During its seven @-@ year period it received high praise from critics and numerous Primetime Emmy Awards including for three years in a row Outstanding Comedy Series . In 2003 , USA Today called it " one of the best shows ever to air on TV " . In 1997 , TV Guide selected a Mary Tyler Moore Show episode as the best TV episode ever and in 1999 , Entertainment Weekly picked Mary 's hat toss in the opening credits as television 's second greatest moment . With Mary Tyler Moore going strong , Brooks produced and wrote the TV film Thursday 's Game , before creating the short @-@ lived series Paul Sand in Friends and Lovers in 1974 . He and Burns moved on to Rhoda , a spin @-@ off of Mary Tyler Moore , taking Valerie Harper 's character Rhoda Morgenstern into her own show . It was well received , lasting four years and earning Brooks several Emmys . The duo 's next project came in 1977 in the shape of Lou Grant , a second Mary Tyler Moore spin @-@ off , which they created along with Tinker . Unlike its source however , the series was a drama starring Edward Asner as Grant . James Brown of the Museum of Broadcast Communications said it " explore [ d ] a knotty issue facing media people in contemporary society , focusing on how investigating and reporting those issues impact on the layers of personalities populating a complex newspaper publishing company . " The show was also critically acclaimed , twice winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series and also a Peabody Award . Brooks left MTM Productions in 1978 and formed the John Charles Walters Company along with David Davis , Stan Daniels and Ed Weinberger . They decided to produce Taxi , a show about a New York taxi company , which unlike the other MTM Productions focused on the " blue @-@ collar male experience " . Brooks and Davis had been inspired by the article " Night @-@ Shifting for the Hip Fleet " by Mark Jacobson , which appeared in the September 22 , 1975 issue of New York magazine . The show began on ABC in 1978 airing on Tuesday nights after Three 's Company which generated high ratings and after two seasons it was moved to Wednesday . Its ratings fell and in 1982 it was canceled ; NBC picked it up , but the ratings remained low and it was dropped after one season . Despite its ratings , it won three consecutive Outstanding Comedy Series Emmys . Brooks ' last TV show produced before he began making films was The Associates ( 1979 – 1980 ) for ABC . Despite positive critical attention , the show was quickly canceled . Alex Simon of Venice Magazine described Brooks as " [ bringing ] realism to the previously overstated world of television comedy . Brooks ' fingerprints can now be seen in shows such as Seinfeld , Friends , Ally McBeal and numerous other shows from the 1980 's and 90 's . " Brooks ' sitcoms were some of the first with a " focus on character " using an ensemble cast in a non @-@ domestic situation . = = = Film = = = In 1978 , Brooks began work on feature films . His first project was the 1979 film Starting Over which he wrote and co @-@ produced with Alan J. Pakula . He adapted the screenplay from a novel by Dan Wakefield into a film The Washington Post called " a good @-@ humored , heartening update of traditional romantic comedy " unlike the " drab " novel . Brooks ' next project came in 1983 , when he wrote , produced and directed Terms of Endearment , adapting the screenplay from Larry McMurtry 's novel of the same name . It cost $ 8 @.@ 5 million and took four years to film . Brooks won the Academy Awards for Best Picture , Director and Adapted Screenplay . Brooks was fearful of the attention Oscar success would bring as he would be " deprived of a low profile " , finding it " hard to work with the spotlight shining in your eyes . " He added : " There 's a danger of being seduced into being self @-@ conscious , of being aware of your ' career ' . That can be lethal . " He also grew more concerned of the " threatening " corporate influence into the film industry at the expense of " the idea of the creative spirit " . He channeled this ambivalence into Broadcast News . As a romantic comedy , Brooks felt he could say " something new ... with that form " adding " One of the things you 're supposed to do every once in a while as a filmmaker is capture time and place . I was just glad there was some way to do it in a comedy . " He cast William Hurt , Holly Hunter and Albert Brooks in the three main roles . He wished to set the film in a field he understood and opted for broadcast journalism . After talking with network journalists at the 1984 Republican National Convention , Brooks realised it had " changed so much since I had been near it " , and so " did about a year and a half of solid research , " into the industry . When he began writing the screenplay , Brooks felt he " didn 't like any of the three [ main ] characters " , but decided not to change them and after two months had reversed his original opinion . Brooks stated that this also happens to the audience : " You 're always supposed to arc your characters and you have this change and that 's your dramatic purpose . But what I hope happens in this film is that the audience takes part in the arc . So what happens is that the movie doesn 't select its own hero . It plays differently with each audience . The audience helps create the experience , depending on which character they hook onto . " He did not decide on the ending of the film until the rest of it had been completed . Brooks was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay for Broadcast News . At the 38th Berlin International Film Festival , the film was nominated for the Golden Bear and Holly Hunter won the Silver Bear for Best Actress . His 1994 film I 'll Do Anything , starring Nick Nolte , was conceived and filmed by Brooks as an old @-@ fashioned movie musical and parody of " Hollywood lifestyles and movie clichés " , costing $ 40 million . It featured songs by Carole King , Prince , and Sinéad O 'Connor , among others , with choreography by Twyla Tharp . When preview audience reactions to the music were overwhelmingly negative , all production numbers from the film were cut and Brooks wrote several new scenes , filming them over three days and spending seven weeks editing the film down to two hours . Brooks noted : " Something like this not only tries one 's soul – it threatens one 's soul . " While it was not unusual for Brooks to edit his films substantially after preview screenings on this occasion he was " denied any privacy " because the media reported the negative reviews before its release and " it had to be good enough to counter all this bad publicity . " It was a commercial failure , and Brooks attempted to produce a documentary about it four years later but was scuppered by failing to obtain the rights to Prince 's song . Brooks agreed to produce and direct Old Friends , a screenplay by Mark Andrus . Andrus ' script " needed you to suspend disbelief " but Brooks realised " my style when directing is that I really don 't know how to get people to suspend disbelief . " Brooks spent a year reworking the screenplay : " There were changes made and the emphasis was changed but it 's the product , really , of a very unusual writing team , " and the project became As Good as It Gets , taking a year to produce after funding had been secured . According to The New York Times , Brooks " was constantly experimenting , constantly reshooting , constantly re @-@ editing " the film , changing its ending five times and allowing the actors to improvise the film 's tone . The film garnered more praise than I 'll Do Anything and Brooks was again nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay . As Good as It Gets received a total of seven Academy Award nominations , winning two , both for Best Actor for Jack Nicholson and Best Actress for Helen Hunt . Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader labelled it Brooks ' best film , stating " what Brooks manages to do with [ the characters ] as they struggle mightily to connect with one another is funny , painful , beautiful , and basically truthful — a triumph for everyone involved . " It also ranked 140 in Empire 's 2008 list of " The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time " . Brooks cast Jack Nicholson in both Terms of Endearment and As Good as It Gets with the actor taking an Academy Award for each role . Brooks did not direct and write a film again for seven years until 2004 's Spanglish . Filming took six months , ending in June with three days of additional filming in October ; Brooks produced three endings for the film , shooting several scenes in " 15 to 25 takes " as he did not feel the film was tonally complete , although the script did not change much during filming . He opted to cast Adam Sandler in a more dramatic role than his usual goofball comedy parts based on his performance in Punch @-@ Drunk Love and Sandler 's relationship with his family . Describing the length of production , Brooks said : " It 's amazing how much more perverse you are as a writer than as a director . I remember just being so happy that I 'd painted myself into some corners [ while writing ] . I thought that would make it interesting . When I had to wrestle with that as a director , it was a different story . " Brooks 's directing style " drove [ the cast ] bats " , especially Téa Leoni , with Cloris Leachman ( who replaced an ill Anne Bancroft a month into filming ) describing it as " free @-@ falling . You 're not going for some result . It 's just , throw it in the air and see where it lands . " The film was poorly received and was a box @-@ office failure . His next film , entitled How Do You Know , was released December 17 , 2010 ; Brooks produced , directed and wrote it . The film stars Reese Witherspoon as a professional softball player involved in a love triangle . Brooks began work on the film in 2005 , wishing to create a film about a young female athlete . While interviewing numerous women for hundreds of hours in his research for the film he also become interested in " the dilemmas of contemporary business executives , who are sometimes held accountable by the law for corporate behavior of which they may not even be aware . " He created Paul Rudd and Jack Nicholson 's characters for this concept . Filming finished in November 2009 , although Brooks later reshot the film 's opening and ending . The New York Times described it as " perhaps the most closely guarded of Columbia 's movies this year . " Brooks was paid $ 10 million for the project , which cost $ 100 million . The film was negatively received . Patrick Goldstein wrote in the Los Angeles Times that " the characters were stick figures , the jokes were flat , the situations felt scarily insular . " He felt the film showed Brooks had " finally lost his comic mojo " concluding " his films used to have a wonderfully restless , neurotic energy , but How Do You Know feels like it was phoned in from someone resting uncomfortably on his laurels . " Variety 's Peter Debruge also felt the film showed Brooks had lost his " spark " . Richard Corliss of Time was more positive , writing " without being great , it 's still the flat @-@ out finest romantic comedy of the year , " while " Brooks hasn 't lost his gift for dreaming up heroes and heroines who worry amusingly . " Brooks started his own film and television production company , Gracie Films , in 1984 . He produced Big ( 1988 ) and The War of the Roses ( 1989 ) . Brooks mentored Cameron Crowe and was the executive producer of Crowe 's directorial debut Say Anything ... ( 1989 ) and produced his later film Jerry Maguire ( 1996 ) . Brooks also helped Owen Wilson and Wes Anderson after their feature @-@ length script and short film version of Bottle Rocket ( 1996 ) were brought to his attention . Brooks went to Wilson and Anderson 's apartment in Dallas after agreeing to produce the film . Wilson stated : " I think he felt kind of sorry for us " . Despite having " the worst [ script ] reading [ Brooks ] had ever heard " , Brooks kept faith in the project . Brooks produced and directed Brooklyn Laundry , his first theatrical production , in 1990 . It starred Glenn Close , Woody Harrelson and Laura Dern . In 2007 , Brooks appeared — along with Nora Ephron , Carrie Fisher and others in Dreams on Spec , a documentary about screenwriting in Hollywood . = = = Return to television = = = Although Brooks " never meant " to return to television , he was helping Tracey Ullman start The Tracey Ullman Show and when she could not find another producer , he stepped in . On the suggestion of friend and colleague Polly Platt , who gave Brooks the nine panel Life in Hell cartoon entitled " The Los Angeles Way of Death " which hangs outside Brooks ' Gracie Films office , Brooks asked Life in Hell cartoonist Matt Groening to pitch an idea for a series of animated shorts to appear on The Tracey Ullman Show . Groening initially intended to present an animated version of his Life in Hell series . However , when Groening realized that animating Life in Hell would require the rescinding of publication rights for his life 's work , he chose another approach and formulated his version of a dysfunctional family in the lobby of Brooks ' office . After the success of the shorts , the Fox Broadcasting Company in 1989 commissioned a series of half @-@ hour episodes of the show , now called The Simpsons , which Brooks produced alongside Groening and Sam Simon . Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show 's content . According to writer Jon Vitti , Brooks contributed more to the episode " Lisa 's Substitute " than to any other in the show 's history . The Simpsons garnered critical and commercial acclaim , winning numerous awards and is still producing original content after 20 years . In a 1998 issue celebrating the 20th century 's greatest achievements in arts and entertainment , Time magazine named The Simpsons the century 's best television series . In 1997 , Brooks was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame . In 1995 , Brooks and Groening were involved in a public dispute over the episode " A Star Is Burns " . Groening felt that the episode was a thirty @-@ minute advertisement for Brooks ' show The Critic ( which had moved to Fox from ABC for its second season ) , and was created by former The Simpsons showrunners Al Jean and Mike Reiss , and whose lead character Jay Sherman appears in the episode . He hoped Brooks would pull the episode because " articles began to appear in several newspapers around the country saying that [ Groening ] created The Critic " , and removed his names from the credits . In response , Brooks said " I am furious with Matt , he 's been going to everybody who wears a suit at Fox and complaining about this . When he voiced his concerns about how to draw The Critic into the Simpsons ' universe he was right and we agreed to his changes . Certainly he 's allowed his opinion , but airing this publicly in the press is going too far . [ ... ] He is a gifted , adorable , cuddly ingrate . But his behavior right now is rotten . " The Critic was short @-@ lived , broadcasting ten episodes on Fox before its cancellation . A total of only 23 episodes were produced , and it returned briefly in 2000 with a series of ten internet broadcast webisodes . The series has since developed a cult following thanks to reruns on Comedy Central and its complete series release on DVD . His early 1990s shows Sibs and Phenom , both produced as part of a multi @-@ show deal with ABC , and the 2001 show What About Joan for the same network , were all similarly short @-@ lived . Brooks co @-@ produced and co @-@ wrote the 2007 feature @-@ length film adaptation of The Simpsons , The Simpsons Movie . He directed the voice cast for the first time since the television show 's early seasons . Dan Castellaneta found the recording sessions " more intense " than recording the television series , and " more emotionally dramatic " . Some scenes , such as Marge 's video message to Homer , were recorded over one hundred times , leaving the voice cast exhausted . Brooks conceived the idea for , co @-@ produced and co @-@ wrote the Maggie @-@ centric short film The Longest Daycare , which played in front of Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 . It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 2013 . = = Personal life = = Brooks was married twice . He was married to Marianne Catherine Morrissey and has one daughter with her , Amy Lorraine Brooks ; they divorced in 1964 . Marianne Brooks has donated over $ 175 @,@ 000 to Democratic Party candidates . He was married to Holly Beth Holmberg from 1978 to 1999 ; they had three children together , daughter Chloe and sons Cooper and Joseph . He is also a member of Alpha Epsilon Pi . = = Filmography = = = = = Films = = = = = = Television = = =
= Judgment Day ( 2005 ) = Judgment Day ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was the seventh annual event of the same name and took place on May 22 , 2005 , at the Target Center in Minneapolis , Minnesota . It was presented by Clearasil . The event featured wrestlers and other talent that performed on the SmackDown ! program . The main event was an " I Quit " match featuring two wrestlers fighting until one stated " I Quit . " WWE Champion John Cena defeated John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) to retain his championship . Two featured bouts were scheduled on the undercard . In respective standard wrestling matches , Rey Mysterio defeated Eddie Guerrero and Booker T defeated Kurt Angle . Judgment Day grossed over $ 500 @,@ 000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 9 @,@ 500 , and received 220 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . This event helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 4 @.@ 7 compared to the previous year . = = Background = = The event featured seven professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match . The name of a wrestler 's character was not always the person 's birth name , as wrestlers often use a stage name to portray their character . All wrestlers were from the SmackDown ! brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being Raw . The main event at Judgment Day was between John Cena and John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) over the WWE Championship in an " I Quit " match . The previous month at WrestleMania 21 , Cena defeated JBL to win the WWE Championship . On the April 7 episode of SmackDown ! , authority figure Theodore Long , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer , scheduled a series of number one contenders matches , after JBL , Eddie Guerrero , ( Rey Mysterio ) , The Big Show , Booker T , and Kurt Angle all demanded a WWE Championship match . The first match that Long announced was between JBL and Rey Mysterio . Mysterio was disqualified , after Eddie Guerrero interfered and attacked JBL , which resulting in JBL winning the match . The following week on SmackDown ! , Guerrero and Kurt Angle were scheduled for the second contender 's match . Angle advanced to the finals , as he went on to defeat Guerrero . Later during the program , Cena unveiled a spinner version of the WWE championship . Before the unveiling , however , JBL came out wearing the original WWE championship . On the April 21 episode of SmackDown ! , Booker T and Big Show were booked in another contenders match . After the match ended in a double disqualification , Long booked JBL , Angle , Booker T , and Big Show in a standard wrestling match involving four wrestlers , dubbed as a Fatal Four @-@ Way match , for the following week . JBL won the match , after he pinned Angle and having the right to face Cena at Judgment Day with the championship on the line . On the May 5 episode of SmackDown ! , Cena proposed that he would defend the championship against JBL in an " I Quit " match . Two weeks later , on the May 19 episode of SmackDown ! , JBL faced Scotty 2 Hotty , which Scotty 2 Hotty won after JBL was disqualified . After the match , however , JBL attacked Scotty and demanded that he say " I quit . " JBL further the assault , choking him with a leather belt , Scotty said " I quit . " That same night , Cena defeated The Basham Brothers ( Doug and Danny ) in a handicap match , a match consisting of one wrestler or team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with numerical superiority such as two against one , or three against two . During the duration of the match , JBL , who was at ringside , yelled at Cena , telling him to say " I quit . " One of the featured preliminary matches was Rey Mysterio versus Eddie Guerrero in a singles match . Two months prior to Judgment Day , at WrestleMania 21 , Rey Mysterio defeated Eddie Guerrero . In the weeks that followed , Guerrero and Mysterio were challenged by MNM ( Joey Mercury , Johnny Nitro , and Melina ) to defend the WWE Tag Team Championship , which Guerrero and Mysterio accepted . MNM defeated Guerrero and Mysterio to win the WWE Tag Team title after Guerrero walked out in the middle of the match . On the April 28 episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero and Mysterio were given a rematch for the Tag Team championship . During the match , however , Mysterio accidentally performed a flying body press on Guerrero which led to Guerrero abandoning Mysterio , but returned as the fans urged Guerrero to come back . MNM retained the belt after pinning Mysterio for the win . The following week , Teddy Long booked a Street Fight match , a match without disqualifications and where scoring conditions can occur anywhere , between Mysterio and Guerrero 's nephew , Chavo Guerrero . Mysterio came out as the winner of the match . After the match , Mercury and Nitro attacked Mysterio , which prompted Guerrero to come out and clear the ring . Guerrero , however , attacked Mysterio . The assault led to Guerrero lifting Mysterio off the ground and driving Mysterio 's back on the ring steps . This angle saw Guerrero turn into a villain . As a result , the following week , Long promoted a match between Guerrero and Mysterio at Judgment Day . The other featured preliminary match was Kurt Angle versus Booker T in a singles match . On an episode of SmackDown ! , Angle , Booker T , Big Show and JBL took part in a Fatal four @-@ way match to determine the number one contender to the WWE championship , which JBL won . The following week , Angle challenged Booker T to a match at Judgment Day , which Booker accepted . Prior to that , Angle had insulted Booker T 's wife , Sharmell , which led to Booker T attacking and accepting Angle 's challenge . On the May 12 episode of SmackDown ! , Angle admitted he would like to have " perverted sex " with Sharmell . That same night , Angle and Booker T were scheduled in a match , which led to Angle leaving the ring and going backstage to Sharmell . Booker T went backstage and found Sharmell on the floor crying . This led to Angle attacking Booker T from behind and pushing him towards a pair of steel lockers . The following week , Long was scripted to suspend Angle and demanded that Angle apologize for his actions . Angle apologized , but admitted that he actually kissed Sharmell and let her fondle his " private parts " before Booker T made his way to the locker room . = = Event = = Before the Judgment Day event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Nunzio defeated Akio in a match that aired on Sunday Night Heat . = = = Preliminary matches = = = After Sunday Night Heat , the pay @-@ per @-@ view began with a tag team match where MNM ( Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro ) ( with Melina ) defended the WWE Tag Team Championship against the team of Hardcore Holly and Charlie Haas . The match started off with Nitro and Haas in the ring . Haas took the advantage in the match and was able to tag in Holly . There was back and forth action between the two teams , as all of the superstars were able to participate in the match . Mercury threw Haas upwards in the air , as he fell , Nitro placed him in a facelock and all three fell but Haas ' face hit the mat , a move MNM called the Snapshot . Mercury pinned Haas , which resulted in MNM retaining the WWE Tag Team title . The second wrestling match on the pay @-@ per @-@ view was The Big Show versus Carlito , who was accompanied by Matt Morgan . For the duration of the match , Big Show used his body size to his advantage as he squashed , or easily and quickly performed moves on Carlito . The momentum changed , when Carlito gained control part way through the match . This saw Carlito hit a low blow on Big Show 's groin area . Carlito won the match and gained the successful pinfall after Morgan lifted Big Show on his shoulders and threw him in a spinning motion . The next match was a standard match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship , in which Paul London defended the title against Chavo Guerrero . After back and forth action between the two , London was able to perform a 450 ° splash , a move in which involves flipping forward to 450 degree from a raised platform and landing on the opponent in the splash position . London then pinned Guerrero to retain the WWE Cruiserweight title . The final preliminary match was Kurt Angle versus Booker T. After Booker T backed Angle into the ring ropes and executed a shoulder charge , Angle began to bleed from the mouth . The match saw exchange offense from both Angle and Booker T. The match came to an end when Angle tried to lift and twist Booker T 90 degrees to slam him down , but Booker T grabbed Angle 's leg and rolled him into a pinfall victory . = = = Main event matches = = = The first featured match was for the WWE United States Championship , where Orlando Jordan defended the title against Heidenreich . As the match began , Jordan was able to perform a dropkick sending Heidenreich through the ropes to the outside . Heidenreich , however , would gain the advantage after countering Jordan 's attack from the top rope into a suplex . Afterwards , Jordan drove Heidenreich 's head into the mat and pinned Heidenreich to retain the United States title . The next match was Eddie Guerrero versus Rey Mysterio in a standard match . In the match , Mysterio tried to counter Guerrero 's offense , but Guerrero blocked all of Mysterio 's attempts . Mysterio gained the advantage when he was able to execute a flying headbutt to Guerrero . One part of the match saw Mysterio perform a 619 . Mysterio won the match after Guerrero was disqualified for hitting him with a steel chair . The main event was the " I Quit " match for the WWE Championship , in which John Cena defended his title against John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) . Cena came out on the flatbed of a semi truck with a DJ on a turntable mixing his theme song . During the match , both Cena and JBL were able to get in offense . One part of the match saw Cena backdrop JBL through the announce table after telling him to " kiss my ass . " Shortly after , JBL hit Cena with a steel chair which caused Cena to bleed from his forehead . Later in the match , up the ramp area , Cena threw JBL face first through a television monitor . The match ended when JBL said " I quit " , as Cena prepared to hit him with an exhaust pipe , which came from the semi truck that was at the ramp area . As a result , Cena retained the WWE Championship . Despite the match being over , Cena then hit JBL with the exhaust pipe . = = Aftermath = = On the June 6 episode of Raw , one of WWE 's primary television programs , John Cena 's SmackDown ! tenure came to an end when he became the first wrestler selected by Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff in the draft lottery , a mock sports draft lottery in which wrestlers switched programs . Cena immediately entered a staged rivalry with Eric Bischoff after when he refused to participate in Bischoff 's " war " against the upcoming Extreme Championship Wrestling reunion show . Cena went on to resume his feud with Christian , as they had an encounter at the Royal Rumble in January . During the feud , Chris Jericho was involved as well , as he protested Bischoff 's actions of scheduling a WWE championship match between Cena and Christian at Vengeance . After defeating Christian and Tyson Tomko in a tag team match , Jericho betrayed Cena . Convinced with the outcome of the events , Bischoff changed the original match between Christian and Cena to a standard wrestling match involving three wrestlers , involving Jericho for the WWE Championship at Vengeance . At the event , Cena retained the WWE Championship . On the June 30 episode of SmackDown ! , a match between six wrestlers for a new top @-@ tier SmackDown ! championship was held . JBL , one of the participants , was victorious in the match , but Theodore Long announced that he was still not the champion . Instead he had won the right to a match against the World Heavyweight champion , Batista , who was SmackDown ! ' s final 2005 draft pick , making the World Heavyweight Championship exclusive to SmackDown ! . The following week , it was announced Batista would meet JBL at The Great American Bash with the World Heavyweight championship on the line . At the Great American Bash , Batista was disqualified for attacking JBL with a chair and JBL was declared the winner . In WWE , a title cannot be won by disqualification , but only by pinfall or submission ( the normal scoring conditions in professional wrestling matches ) . As a result , Batista retained the title . On the June 13 episode of Raw , Kurt Angle 's tenure with SmackDown ! came to an end , as he was also drafted to the Raw brand . There , he immediately continued his feud with Shawn Michaels . At the start of the year , Angle and Michaels both participated in the Royal Rumble match at the January pay @-@ per @-@ view event . During the match , Michaels eliminated Angle . In retaliation , Angle returned to the match and eliminated Michaels and then attacked him outside the ring . The two engaged in a feud , which led to an Interpromotional match at WrestleMania 21 , as Angle was part of the SmackDown ! roster and Michaels belonged to the Raw roster . At WrestleMania 21 , Angle got the win over Michaels by forcing him to submit to an ankle lock submission hold . The same evening Angle was drafted , Michaels challenged Angle to a WrestleMania 21 rematch at Vengeance , in which Angle accepted . At Vengeance , the rematch saw Michaels defeat Angle . The angle between Eddie Guerrero and Rey Mysterio continued . On an episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero threatened to reveal a secret concerning Mysterio 's son Dominick . This led the families of both Guerrero and Mysterio pleading with Guerrero not to reveal the secret . At the Great American Bash , Mysterio defeated Guerrero in a match where if Guerrero lost , he could not reveal the secret . On the July 28 episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero , however , revealed the secret , claiming he was Dominick 's scripted biological father . The storyline also went on that Guerrero knew Mysterio was having trouble starting his own family , so Guerrero left Dominick to be raised by Mysterio 's family . In subsequent weeks , Guerrero threatened to take custody of Dominick , drawing up custody papers and having his lawyer present them to Mysterio . This led to a Ladder match , a match where the objective was to climb a ladder and reach an object hanging above the ring , between the two for the custody of Dominick at SummerSlam , which Mysterio won . = = = Reception = = = The Target Center had a maximum capacity of 20 @,@ 000 , which was reduced for the event . This event grossed over $ 500 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 9 @,@ 500 , the maximum allowed . It also received 220 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . Judgment Day helped WWE earn $ 21 @.@ 6 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 16 @.@ 9 million the previous year , which was later confirmed by Linda McMahon on September 7 , 2005 in a quarterly result . Canadian Online Explorers professional wrestling section rated the event a 5 out of 10 stars . The rating was lower than the Judgment Day event in 2006 , which was said to be an entertaining pay @-@ per @-@ view to watch . The " I Quit " match between John Cena and JBL was rated an eight out of 10 stars . Additionally , the match between Orlando Jordan and Heidenreich was rated a 4 out of 10 stars . The event was released on DVD on June 21 , 2005 by Sony Music Entertainment . = = Results = =
= Marc Overmars = Marc Overmars ( Dutch : [ ˈmɑrk ˈoːvərmɑrs ] , born 29 March 1973 ) is a Dutch former footballer who is the director of football at Ajax . Throughout his footballing career , he played as a winger and was renowned for his speed . Overmars was born in Emst and was passionate about football at an early age . He began his playing career at SV Epe , before joining Go Ahead Eagles ' youth team in 1987 . He secured a place in the first team by the 1990 – 91 season , but joined Willem II in time for the following season . His stay at the club was short ; after 31 appearances he signed for Ajax in 1992 . He established himself as a key member of the team that won three Eredivisie titles from between 1994 and 1996 and the UEFA Champions League in 1995 . In December 1995 , Overmars sustained a cruciate ligament injury which ruled him out of playing for eight months . In 1997 , he joined Arsenal ; his performances at the club were indifferent to begin with and attracted criticism from football pundits and fans alike . By the end of his first season , Overmars became a focal point of Arsenal 's league and cup double success . He scored the winning goal against league rivals Manchester United which set his team on their way to securing the Premier League title and opened the scoring against Newcastle United in the 1998 FA Cup Final . In 2000 , he moved to Barcelona in a deal worth £ 25 million and became the most expensive player in Dutch football history . The club failed to win silverware during his stay and numerous managerial changes made him a peripheral player . A persistent knee injury prompted Overmars to announce his retirement in 2004 , but he reversed his decision in 2008 and went on to play one season for Go Ahead Eagles before retiring again . In 2012 , he was named as Ajax 's director of football . Overmars represented the Netherlands national football team for eleven years . He made his debut in 1993 against Turkey , a match in which he scored in , and was a member of the Netherlands squads for four major tournaments , the 1994 and 1998 FIFA World Cups , and 2000 and 2004 European Championships . = = Early life = = Overmars was born in Emst , in the province of Gelderland . He grew up on a family farm , with his parents , and assisted his grandfather with the potato harvest each year . There were no machines or tractors , so when the time came to extract the potatoes , his family tied a rope around Overmars ' waist , connected it to a cart and made him run while they pulled the crop out . His father Ben described him as a " clumsy " child , whose main interest was playing football : " He used to come down 24 stairs to breakfast bouncing a ball on his head . " This had an effect on his schoolwork ; Overmars was uninterested in school , but did pass " a couple of GCEs . " Ben did not know whether he made the effort to take his exams just to please him . As a teenager , Overmars did weight @-@ training which improved his speed . He also attributed his pace to his mother who was quick , but " had no time for sports . " = = Club career = = = = = Early career = = = Overmars began his playing career at local club SV Epe . In 1987 , he joined Go Ahead Eagles at the age of 14 . After making his breakthrough into the first team , he joined Willem II for ƒ500,000 . = = = Ajax = = = After one season at Willem II , Overmars signed for Ajax in July 1992 . Both clubs settled on a transfer fee of ƒ2.5 million , after Ajax 's initial bid of ƒ1.5 million was rejected . Manager Louis van Gaal was very fond of Overmars beforehand and described him as a " multi @-@ functional player " . Overmars ' debut came in a 3 – 0 win against FC Dordrecht on 16 August 1992 . His first goal for Ajax was away to RKC Waalwijk in October and he scored a further seven goals in the 1992 – 93 season . Several teams chose to combat Overmars ' threat with heavy tackles ; he detested this , adding : " I do not fall on purpose , but if they keep kicking , I would sometimes give something back in return . " Ajax finished the campaign third in the league ; their form in the final few months was described as " maddening " by football writer David Winner , as they defeated eventual champions Feyenoord by five goals , but dropped points to " minnows like MVV Maastricht . " The team lost to Auxerre in the quarter @-@ finals of the UEFA Cup , but did not end the season trophyless – they beat Heerenveen 6 – 2 to win the KNVB Cup . Overmars scored two goals in the final . Ajax began the 1993 – 94 season with a 4 – 0 defeat of Feyenoord to lift the Dutch Supercup ; Overmars scored the team 's fourth goal . In August 1993 , he was awarded the Dutch Golden Shoe , as voted for by Dutch journalists . Overmars was happy with how his career progressed and said it was a " dream " to play for Ajax . Although he featured in 42 matches – five fewer matches than in the previous season , his goal count was much improved . He scored 12 goals in total , all of which came in the Eredivisie . His goals helped Ajax win the league ; the team ended the campaign 25 points clear of second place Feyenoord . Overmars enjoyed further success in the 1994 – 95 season . Ajax retained the league and won the UEFA Champions League , beating Milan in the final . He scored against Bayern Munich at the semi @-@ final stage of the latter competition . In later years Overmars criticised the expansion of the Champions League to include non league champions : " When I won it with Ajax it was only the teams who finished first who took part . It 's not special any more . I think the Champions ' League is just a starter for what they want to do in the future , create a European League . " Overmars ' exposure to European football had prompted him to be a sought @-@ after player in England . He knew of Arsenal 's interest , but was puzzled as to why a move " didn 't work out . " In the summer of 1995 , he was linked with a move to Manchester United , but said : " No thanks I want to stay with Ajax for two more seasons . " In December 1995 , Overmars injured himself during Ajax 's match against De Graafschap . Close examination showed the player had torn ligaments on his left knee , which was " completely severed " . He therefore missed the remainder of the 1995 – 96 season and advised Ajax to purchase a new striker to make up their loss . The club however signed left winger Peter Hoekstra in January 1996 . Ajax played a second consecutive Champions League final in May 1996 , but lost to Juventus by a penalty shoot @-@ out . They did however retain the league for a third season . The introduction of the Bosman ruling in 1995 had negative consequences for Ajax in the 1996 – 97 season . The club lost several players , and reinvested poorly according to Winner . Injuries also affected their challenge for honours ; many players were exhausted as a result of Euro 1996 and the short summer break that came with it . Chairman Michael van Praag was determined to keep the club 's players and revealed Overmars had signed a four @-@ year contract in 1996 . He added , " We are not going to allow them to break their contracts so they are not leaving . " On the pitch , Overmars made his return from injury against AZ on 28 August 1996 . He had his least productive season for Ajax , scoring two goals . The club finished the season in fourth position . = = = Arsenal = = = Overmars signed for Arsenal in June 1997 . The fee was reported to be between £ 5 million and £ 7 million , with the player on a five @-@ year contract , paid £ 18 @,@ 000 per week . Overmars relished the challenge of playing in England : " I like English football because there is more pace . With my speed and quality I think it will be good for me here . " Arsène Wenger , the manager of Arsenal believed Overmars had his " best years ahead of him " and met his criteria of a player " used to the pressures of playing for a big club and everything that goes with it . " He opined that Arsenal lost the Premier League at home the previous season – " we were maybe the best away team , " and commented on their inability to play expansive football . Wenger felt the signing of Overmars would rectify that problem . Overmars made his competitive debut for Arsenal against Leeds United in a 1 – 1 draw on 9 August 1997 . Two weeks later , he scored his first goal for the club , away to Southampton . Arsenal went to the top of the league table on goal difference in September 1997 , after a 4 – 0 win against West Ham United . Overmars , who scored two goals in the match , had now " run into devastating form " according to Brian Glanville . His impact however waned in the subsequent months and so did Arsenal 's form ; a 3 – 1 defeat to Blackburn Rovers on 13 December 1997 meant the club dropped to fifth place . The turn of the year saw improvement to Overmars ' game , which coincided with " the more general rejuvenation of the whole team . " He scored both of Arsenal 's goals in their win over Leeds United on 11 January 1998 . Overmars up until this point was subject to criticism from commentators and fans . Wenger emphasised that this was his first year in England and there was more to come from him . He said Overmars was a " positive buy " and pointed out that his goalscoring record was " not bad for a winger . " Arsenal caught up with league leaders Manchester United by the time both clubs played each other at Old Trafford in March 1998 . Overmars was a constant threat in the match and scored in the 80th minute . He received the ball from Nicolas Anelka and ran with it , before managing to flick it beyond the goalkeeper , Peter Schmeichel . Arsenal went on to win , which put them six points behind Manchester United , with three games in hand . Overmars afterwards said : " This was a great result for us . But you don 't win the Premier League against Manchester United ; you have to beat the other clubs . " Arsenal overtook Manchester United in April 1998 , and won the league after beating Everton on 3 May 1998 ; Overmars scored two goals in the match . The team later faced Newcastle United in the 1998 FA Cup Final and it was Overmars who scored the opening goal , in the 23rd minute . Anelka 's goal in the second half ensured victory and completed a league and cup double for Arsenal . Wenger praised Overmars after the final : " All Europe thought Overmars was dead because of his damaged knee , but in every important game we have had this season , he has scored . He has got great mental strength . He is a world @-@ class player . " Overmars began the 1998 – 99 season for Arsenal in good form ; he scored against Manchester United in the 1998 FA Charity Shield and in the team 's opening game of the league campaign , at home to Nottingham Forest . Arsenal participated in the Champions League , but their time in the competition was brief . The team did not make it past the group stage , and in the decisive game against Dynamo Kyiv which they lost , Overmars was ruled out with an abdominal injury . In February 1999 , he scored a " controversial " winning goal against Sheffield United in the FA Cup fifth round . Nwankwo Kanu failed to return the ball to the opposition , in order to allow one of their players to receive treatment for an injury . Due to the controversial circumstances in which the game was won , Wenger immediately offered a replay . His proposal was accepted by The Football Association and Arsenal went on to win the replayed match 2 – 1 , where the opening goal was scored by Overmars . Arsenal exited the competition in the semi @-@ final stage against Manchester United , who went on to win the league . In November 1999 , he scored his first hat @-@ trick for Arsenal , at home to Middlesbrough . His performance was lauded by journalist Lynne Truss , who wrote in The Times : " Overmars was in top Jack Russell form , bounding after the ball and prepared to savage anybody who tried to take it away from him . " He twisted his ankle in action for Arsenal against Sheffield Wednesday in January 2000 and was out of action for six weeks . Unlike the previous two seasons , Arsenal never did pose a serious threat to Manchester United , who went on to retain the league in 1999 – 2000 . Overmars had suggested before the campaign that Arsenal were as strong as their rivals , " especially in attack where we now have so many more options . " Arsenal ended the league season strongly , winning eight games in a row between March and May to move from fifth to second place . In April 2000 , Overmars scored the winning goal against Everton and was the standout performer in the game . His final game for Arsenal was the 2000 UEFA Cup Final against Galatasaray , which they lost 4 – 1 on penalties after a goalless draw . In 2008 , Overmars was voted as the twelfth @-@ greatest player in Arsenal 's history by the club 's supporters . = = = Barcelona = = = After the Netherlands ' exit at Euro 2000 , Overmars was asked whether he would stay at Arsenal . He replied : " I really don 't want to talk about it at the moment but you never know . There are some meetings with the club going on , we will talk over the next week . " Lazio and Barcelona were reportedly interested in signing Overmars ; the latter club hastened their efforts once Joan Gaspart was elected as president . Overmars was " flattered " by Barcelona 's interest and said moving to such a club would " excite any player . " Gaspart travelled to London to open negotiations with Arsenal and eventually reached an agreement to sign Overmars and his teammate Emmanuel Petit for a combined fee of around £ 32 million in July 2000 . Overmars cost £ 25 million , making him the most expensive player in Dutch football history . The announcement of his transfer was unconventional ; he publicised it on his personal website before informing the media . His site garnered 250 @,@ 000 hits in one day , highlighting the internet 's " potential for exponential growth " in regards to football . Overmars was delighted with the move , saying : " I can 't wait to pull on the famous shirt and play my first game . " Overmars made his debut for Barcelona against Arsenal in the Amsterdam Tournament in August 2000 . He lasted 45 minutes and was substituted after sustaining an ankle injury . His first competitive start came at home to Málaga on 8 September 2000 . His performance in the match started off well , then faded before coming back in the second half , opined Andrés Astruells in El Mundo Deportivo . He scored his first goal for the club at home to Racing Santander on 23 September 2000 ; it involved him dribbling the ball around the goalkeeper . Barcelona made an indifferent start to the 2000 – 01 season and by February 2001 , journalist Sid Lowe commented it looked improbable that Lorenzo Serra Ferrer would remain as manager of the club . Wenger was touted as his replacement after reportedly meeting with Gaspart . Overmars believed his former manager was going to leave Arsenal and revealed that " Barcelona have asked for lots of information about Wenger . I think something could happen soon . " In the league , Overmars scored the team 's seventh goal in their 7 – 0 win against Athletic Bilbao in March 2001 ; his performance was rated four stars out of five by El Mundo Deportivo . Barcelona exited the semi @-@ final stage of the UEFA Cup to Liverpool in April 2001 . Serra Ferrer was sacked a week later and replaced by Carles Rexach . As the season drew to a close , Overmars turned into an influential player for Barcelona . Lowe labelled him as " Barça 's only decent player in recent weeks " and was surprised he started on the bench against Real Valladolid in June 2001 . When Overmars came on , he scored the equaliser to earn Barcelona a 2 – 2 draw . The team ended the campaign in fourth place after a dramatic 3 – 2 win against Valencia . In the 2001 – 02 season , Barcelona once more finished fourth in the league . Petit left the club to join Chelsea before the season commenced , as he had found his first team opportunities limited . While on international duty with the Netherlands in September 2001 , Overmars suffered a bruised knee and as a result did not play for Barcelona for a month . In November 2001 , he scored Barcelona 's third goal against Liverpool in the Champions League , which came after 29 uninterrupted passes . It was described by the Daily Mirror as " arguably the greatest team goal ever scored . " Compared to the previous season , Overmars was used more sparingly in matches . Rexach had changed the team 's formation to accommodate new signing Javier Saviola and promoted Xavi as a first @-@ team regular . Overmars made an impact as a substitute against Galatasaray in December 2001 ; he set up Saviola twice to earn Barcelona a 2 – 2 draw . Mircea Lucescu , the manager of Galatasaray complimented Overmars afterwards : " When we were 2 – 0 up I told my players at half @-@ time to maintain the result , but Overmars is a great player . We did not have a solution to him and it threw our game off balance . " Overmars was subject to transfer speculation in early 2002 because of his limited role in the first team , but he revealed he was happy to stay at Barcelona : " My priority now is that the team wins . Personal issues are not important . I 'm here for whatever you need me . " In the Champions League , he started in the semi @-@ final first leg against Real Madrid ; the team lost 2 – 0 and were defeated 3 – 1 on aggregate . In May 2002 , Rexach was dismissed and replaced by Van Gaal , who was managing the club for a second time . Overmars was wary of the appointment beforehand , saying : " Van Gaal is a good manager , but I do not know if his return would be good for Barcelona . " He underwent surgery on his right knee at the end of the season and was out of action for six months . The 2002 – 03 season saw Barcelona make their worst ever start to a league season ; the club was two points off a relegation spot after defeat to Sevilla in December 2002 . Van Gaal departed the club in January 2003 and following a board meeting , Gaspart resigned as president a month later . Radomir Antić presided as manager for the remainder of the season . He encouraged the team to play with more width and made minimal changes ; for instance he switched Overmars from a left winger to a right one . Overmars tore a muscle in his thigh during a Copa del Rey match against Terrassa in May 2003 and was sidelined for a month . In his final season for Barcelona , the club appointed Frank Rijkaard as manager and elected Joan Laporta as president . The club finished second in the league and were knocked out of the UEFA Cup by Celtic in the fourth round . Overmars made 29 appearances in the first team , three fewer than in the previous campaign . He was prolific in the Copa del Rey , a competition he scored twice in three matches . His performance against Ciudad de Murcia earnt him recognition in El Mundo Deportivo , who wrote " frequent injuries have prevented him from consolidating his [ position ] as indisputable . " Due to a persistent knee injury , he announced his retirement from football in July 2004 and left Barcelona without compensation . = = = Go Ahead Eagles = = = In July 2008 , Overmars played in Jaap Stam 's testimonial match in a team of " former Stam @-@ mates " against Ajax . His performance , which saw him trouble defender George Ogararu , earned him invitations from Dutch and German clubs to make his professional comeback . He declined the offers at first , but in August 2008 announced he was to come out of retirement to play again for Go Ahead Eagles . Overmars ' comeback lasted only one season as his knee continued to give him discomfort . = = International career = = Overmars ' first call @-@ up to the Netherlands senior national squad came in February 1993 for a 1994 World Cup qualifier against Turkey . He scored five minutes into his debut , after good play from Wim Jonk . The team went on to win 3 – 1 and Overmars said the goal was good for his confidence . Dick Advocaat , the manager of the Netherlands was complimentary of the debutant 's performance . In April 1993 , Overmars earnt the national team a penalty against England after Des Walker fouled him . Peter van Vossen converted the spot kick to complete a comeback for the Netherlands , who had been 2 – 0 down after 24 minutes . The national team qualified for the 1994 FIFA World Cup in November 1993 . Advocaat selected Overmars for the tournament and he featured in all of the Netherlands ' five matches . Against the Republic of Ireland in the round of 16 , he took advantage of Terry Phelan 's header intended for goalkeeper Packie Bonner and sprinted away to set up Dennis Bergkamp to score . The Netherlands were eliminated in the quarter @-@ finals against Brazil ; Advocaat deployed Overmars as an extra attacker , but for much of the match he played as one of five in midfield . His corner in the 76th minute was met by Aron Winter and levelled the scores at 2 – 2 for a brief period – a goal from Branco resolved the match in favour of Brazil . Overmars ' performances in the competition led him to be named the best young player of the 1994 World Cup . In October 1995 , he scored a hat @-@ trick for the Netherlands in their Euro 1996 qualifier away to Malta . He was pleased with his performance – " things are getting better , " and felt he needed to practise his shooting and inward running technique . Overmars did not participate in the tournament finals as he was recuperating from his knee ligament injury . Sports writer Rob Hughes said the Netherlands draw against Scotland showed why " they sorely miss the speed and balance of Marc Overmars . " The player returned to international action for the 1998 World Cup qualifier against Wales in November 1996 . He believed his best position for the national team was up front , but manager Guus Hiddink wanted him to remain as a winger . Overmars was selected in the squad for the 1998 World Cup , staged in France . Before the tournament began , he scored two goals in a friendly against Paraguay . He was on the scoresheet in the national team 's 5 – 0 win against South Korea in the group stage . As the tournament progressed , Overmars felt the Netherlands were " getting better and better " and believed they could win the World Cup : " Believe me , we can do it . In the past , there has been so much talk about our side and a lot of pressure with people calling us favourites . This time , nobody seemed to expect anything . In fact , people would come up to me in the street and say we were only dark horses to win . " While training before the quarter @-@ final match against Argentina , he sustained an injury which seemingly ruled him out of contention . He did feature late into the game as a substitute , but aggravated his injury . He was subsequently forced to sit out the entire semi @-@ final against Brazil , which the Netherlands lost on penalties . Overmars suffered a minor setback prior to UEFA Euro 2000 with a sore thigh muscle . He however resumed training and was declared fit for the Netherlands opening match against Czech Republic , where he started on the bench . His introduction brought about the only goal of the match – a penalty scored the 89th minute . Ronald de Boer was adjudged to have had his shirt pulled whilst jumping to meet Overmars ' cross . In the quarter @-@ final stage , he scored twice in the team 's 6 – 1 win against Yugoslavia . The Netherlands went on to lose their semi @-@ final to Italy on penalties . Overmars played in eight of the national team 's ten 2002 World Cup qualifiers , but it was an unsuccessful campaign as they failed to qualify for the finals . After a year 's absence from international football due to injury , Overmars was recalled to the Netherlands squad for their friendly against Portugal in April 2003 . Two months later he came on as a substitute against Belarus in a UEFA Euro 2004 qualifier and scored the opening goal of the game . He was selected for the tournament held in Portugal , and was advised by Advocaat not to train more than once a day , so that his body would resist burn out . Overmars only started three matches in Euro 2004 , his final game was the Netherlands loss to Portugal in the semi @-@ final . In all , he played in 86 games for his national side , scoring 17 goals . = = Style of play = = Overmars in his prime was described as " the archetypal winger " , whose speed , vision , and dribbling ability meant he was able to get the better of most defenders and score goals . Indeed , pace and acceleration was an important part of his game and reflective of his nicknames " TGV " and " Roadrunner " . Former teammate Petit said his strength lay " ... in pushing the ball beyond his marker and darting past him into space to deliver crosses " . Former defender Gary Neville opined that Overmars was the best winger he came up against in his time at Manchester United , not least because of his versatility . Football pundit Alan Hansen believed Overmars benefited from a " strange feature of the modern English game " – defenders backing off and allowing him to run until he was in a shooting position . Despite his talent , Overmars was also known to be injury @-@ prone throughout his career . = = Post @-@ football career = = In February 2005 , Overmars became a shareholder of Go Ahead Eagles . Two months later he joined the club 's supervisory board to deal with technical matters . Hans de Vroome , chairman of Go Ahead Eagles said he was " more than satisfied " with Overmars ' arrival , adding : " The board needs someone with a solid football background . " In 2011 , Overmars took up a position as youth coach of Ajax for one day per week . At the end of the 2011 – 12 season , Overmars left his post at Go Ahead Eagles . He said : " I have been active on a voluntary basis at the club for seven years . That 's a big time in my life . " The club 's disappointing league form " accelerated " his decision . Overmars became director of football at Ajax in June 2012 . = = Personal life = = Overmars married his long @-@ term partner Chantal van Woensel in May 2013 . Prior to the wedding the couple had two sons : Frenkie and Nick , both of whom are footballers . He is a co @-@ owner of a restaurant in Epe , where he resides . The family business , Overmars Vastgoed bv was founded in the 1990s and continues to invest in , amongst other things , commercial and residential buildings . With his father Ben and brother Edwin , he also runs a car restoration service named " Overmars Classic Cars " . In 2002 , Overmars appeared in the Quote 500 richest Dutch people list for the first time , at number 441 . = = Honours = = = = = Club = = = Ajax Eredivisie : 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95 , 1995 – 96 KNVB Cup : 1992 – 93 Johan Cruijff Shield : 1993 UEFA Champions League : 1994 – 95 European Super Cup : 1995 Intercontinental Cup : 1995 Arsenal Premier League : 1997 – 98 FA Cup : 1997 – 98 FA Community Shield : 1998 Source : = = = Individual = = = Dutch Football Talent of the Year : 1992 Dutch Golden Shoe Winner : 1993 FIFA World Cup Best Young Player : 1994 AFC Ajax Player of the Year : 1996 = = Career statistics = = 1Includes cup competitions : the KNVB Cup , Football League Cup , FA Cup , Copa del Rey and Supercopa de España . The Dutch Supercup , FA Community Shield and Copa Catalunya are excluded . = = = International statistics = = = Source : = = = International goals = = = Scores and results list the Netherlands ' goal tally first .
= Román Baldorioty de Castro = Román Baldorioty de Castro ( February 23 , 1822 – September 30 , 1889 ) is noted as one of Puerto Rico 's foremost abolitionists and spokesman for the island 's right to self @-@ determination . He received his primary and secondary education in San Juan . He received a scholarship and moved to Spain , where he continued his studies at the University of Madrid . In 1853 , he returned to Puerto Rico and began working as a professor at the island 's School of Commerce and the Seminario Concilar . Baldorioty de Castro was selected to represent Puerto Rico at the 1867 Universal Fair , which was organized in Paris , France . In 1870 , he was elected as a deputy in the Cortes Generales , the Spanish parliament , where he promoted abolition of slavery . Baldorioty de Castro founded the Partido Autonomista in 1887 , but he was only able to work within it for a few months . He was tried and imprisoned in Fort San Felipe del Morro , after being accused of publishing propaganda that affected the Spanish government 's image . He was released after a brief period in jail , but his time in prison affected his health , which contributed to his death on September 30 , 1889 . = = Early years = = Baldorioty de Castro was born in Guaynabo to a poor family . His family moved to San Juan when he was young , where he received his primary education as a student of the noted educator , Rafael Cordero . After completing his elementary education , he enrolled in El Seminario Conciliar de Idelfonso , which at that time was the most organized institution in Puerto Rico . He spent most of his adolescent years studying , and finished with one of the best averages in his class . Baldorioty de Castro was granted a scholarship , which he used for further study in Spain . He collected the money necessary to travel and departed to Spain in the company of three fellow Puerto Ricans , two students and a professor . Before establishing a permanent residence in Madrid , the group traveled to several Spanish provinces , where they visited some of the country 's tourist sites . Among the places visited were locations in Cordoba , Seville , Andújar and Bailén where they met Alberto Lista , an educator from Spain . The three other students ( who traveled with Baldorioty de Castro ) contracted smallpox shortly after beginning their academic studies in the Central University of Madrid . Baldorioty de Castro cared for them , but two of the youths died from complications of the disease . Baldorioty de Castro was offered a chance to return to Puerto Rico but he declined . He continued his studies along with the only survivor and graduated with a degree in physics and mathematical sciences from the university . Dr. José Gualberto Padilla together with Román Baldorioty de Castro , founded the Puerto Rican chapter of the Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País and called it " La Sociedad de Amigos del País de Puerto Rico " ( the Economic Friends of Puerto Rico ) . In 1847 the Sociedad de Amigos del País de Puerto Rico named Baldorioty de Castro the organization 's correspondent in Spain . On March 21 , 1851 he was granted permission to transfer to France to continue his studies . Baldorioty de Castro moved to Paris , where he attended the Central School of Arts . = = Political and professional careers = = In 1853 , after seven years of study , Baldorioty de Castro returned to Puerto Rico and married Isabel Matilde Díaz y Ruiz , the granddaughter of Lieutenant Francisco Díaz , hero of the Battle of San Juan of 1797 . Upon his return , he noticed that there was political tension , because of the differences between the governor in office and the political and educational groups in Puerto Rico . Baldorioty de Castro began promoting the restructuring of the social , political and educational establishments . These contributions led Fernando Norzagaray , the colony 's incumbent governor to offer him the position of mayor of one of the island 's municipalities ( towns ) . Baldorioty de Castro declined the offer , based on his ideals . At the time , the government displayed no interest in promoting education among the Criollos of the island . Two years earlier , the governor had imposed the Reglamento del Jornalero , which promoted a more ample labor base by reducing the amount of unemployed citizens . However , this measure was criticized for its elements that were used to increase the wealth of employers . As a consequence , the merits of said law were reconsidered and a group led by Baldorioty de Castro was selected to decide its validity . In 1853 , he became a member of the Liberal Reform Party of Puerto Rico . Besides politics , Baldorioty de Castro also loved teaching . He taught Botany and Maritime Sciences at the School of Commerce , Agriculture and Maritime Studies in San Juan . In January 1854 , the Councilor Seminary selected Baldorioty de Castro as its botany professor . On November of that year , Puerto Rico 's Commerce and Foment Joint selected him to work as a professor in a Nautical School , where he taught Maritime Studies . The colonial government discovered that there was fertile terrain in the islands of Mona and Monito in 1856 . After the discovery , they selected Baldorioty de Castro as the supervisor of a series of experiments to determine the terrain 's components . In 1857 , the cattle industry in Puerto Rico began having difficulties , when the number of animals diminished significantly . To resolve this problem , the island 's Economic Society formed a commission composed of Baldorioty de Castro , José Julián Acosta and Juan Hernández Arbizu . Baldorioty de Castro proposed that geometry classes be included in the curriculum of elementary schools in Puerto Rico , which was accepted by the pertinent authority . On January 2 , 1858 , the Economic Society unanimously named him the Secretary of the Studies Commission . On June 4 , 1860 , the organization named him spokesman of a commission to promote conservation of the island 's natural resources . Later that year , Baldorioty de Castro represented Puerto Rico as a delegate in the Spanish Parliament , serving for five years until 1865 . On September 17 , 1864 , he was certified as an applied mechanics professor and worked for a salary of thirty @-@ five dollars a month . While working in the Spanish Parliament , he made the most of his position and encouraged the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico and Cuba , and drafting a constitution to guarantee Puerto Ricans more political rights . On November 4 , 1866 , he was named Puerto Rico 's representative to Paris ' 1867 Universal Exposition . He served as a critic and subsequently wrote a review titled Exposición Universal de París en 1967 . Memoria presentada a la Comisión Provincial de Puerto Rico . After completing his participation in Paris , Baldorioty de Castro returned to Puerto Rico . There were rising tensions between groups that supported the abolition of slavery in the island and the Spanish colonial government . This led to protests and demands by the local Criollo population and influenced several revolutionaries , which led to the Grito de Lares . Baldorioty de Castro did not promote the armed revolution ; instead he choose to debate the several conflicts and issues on diplomatic venues . After the revolution attempts , a new superior provisional government was established in the island . This government promoted a union between the conflicting parties in order to establish reforms in the government 's structure . In line with the proposed solution , Baldorioty de Castro proposed a conciliation of these groups , but the efforts to unify the opposing views was unsuccessful . After this , he traveled to Madrid , under political pressure , and presented the island 's status situation to the respective authorities . He began writing several documents that strongly criticized the colonial government and wrote a report listing the elements that he felt were being used by the administration that were affecting the island 's social and economic aspects . In January 1867 , Baldorioty de Castro received a communication from Puerto Rico 's Superior Instruction Juncture , notifying him that he was selected as a member of the Test Commission , where he was in charge of monitoring tests being issued in physics and the natural sciences . In 1870 , he was named deputy to the Spanish Parliament , after the governor in office had revoked his accreditation as an educator . There he continued to speak about his cause . Baldorioty de Castro became known as " The Father of Puerto Rican Autonomy " . On November 19 , 1872 , Ramon Baldorioty de Castro together with Luis Padial , Julio Vizcarrondo and the Spanish Minister of Overseas Affairs , Segismundo Moret , presented a proposal for the abolition of slavery . On March 22 , 1873 , the Spanish Government approved the proposal , which became known as the Moret Law . = = Final years and legacy = = Baldorioty de Castro returned to Puerto Rico in 1873 and went to live in the City of Ponce . There , he founded the newspaper El Derecho ( The Law ) . He was also the founder of a weekly paper called La Crónica , in which he expressed his ideas on autonomy for the island . In 1887 , Baldorioty de Castro co @-@ founded , along with José de Diego , the Autonomist Party of Puerto Rico . He named a young and upcoming politician , Antonio R. Barceló , the position of party Secretary . The Autonomist Party of Puerto Rico became one of Puerto Rico 's first political parties . Its credo was that Puerto Rico should pick its own government and should have a representative in the Spanish Parliament . The Spanish government , however , considered Baldorioty de Castro a dangerous person and a dissenter and had him jailed in Fort San Felipe del Morro in San Juan . Although he was not in jail for long and was soon released , his health suffered greatly during this imprisonment . Román Baldorioty de Castro died September 30 , 1889 in Ponce . He is buried in Ponce 's Cementerio Viejo cemetery which was renamed " Panteón Nacional Román Baldorioty de Castro " . The cities of Bayamón , Juana Díaz and San Germán have honored the memory of Baldorioty de Castro by naming plazas after him . Puerto Rico Highway 26 , called the Román Baldorioty de Castro Expressway , is the main highway to the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport . In Puerto Rico ’ s capital city , where the Baldorioty de Castro Expressway meets the Condado Lagoon in the Miramar neighborhood of Santurce , an obelisk was constructed in the center of the city park surrounding the lagoon . The obelisk is in honor of Baldorioty de Castro . A bronze statue of Baldority de Castro stands at the base of the statue as a gift of the people of Puerto Rico . There are schools named after him in other areas of Puerto Rico . The province of Azua de Compostela , Dominican Republic , honored him by naming one of the capital city 's secondary education institutions after him : Liceo de Estudios Secundarios Román Baldorioty de Castro .
= Jennifer Brunner = Jennifer Lee Brunner ( born February 5 , 1957 ) is an American politician of the Democratic Party who served as the Ohio Secretary of State ; Brunner was the first woman to serve in this capacity . She took office after sixteen years of Republican control , which included two four @-@ year terms by her predecessor J. Kenneth Blackwell , who oversaw the 2000 and 2004 United States elections . Prior to being elected Secretary of State , Brunner worked in the Ohio Secretary of State ’ s Office and served as a County Judge in Franklin County , Ohio . She also owned her own private practice ; during her private practice career , she focused on election law and campaign finance law . She represented a broad range of candidates , businesses , political parties and committees before the Ohio Elections Commission on quasi @-@ criminal matters . As Secretary of State , Brunner was actively involved in evaluating and adjusting statewide election systems . Her efforts focused on correcting the procedural election difficulties that Ohio was known for . She evaluated voting mechanisms and instituted policy changes . She argued policy regarding same day voting , privacy of social security information , and foreclosure @-@ related voter eligibility . In 2008 , she earned a Profiles in Courage Award for her reform of the voting systems . During the 2008 United States elections , Brunner was involved in several court cases in the Ohio State Supreme Court and United States Supreme Court regarding voter registration , provisional ballots and absentee ballots . On February 17 , 2009 , she announced that she would run for the 2010 United States Senate election in Ohio , coincident with the retirement of incumbent George Voinovich and the end of her term as Secretary of State . Lieutenant Governor Lee Fisher announced his candidacy on the same day and defeated her in the Democratic primary on May 4 , 2010 . Brunner announced on February 18 , 2014 , that she was certified by the Franklin County Board of Elections as the Democratic candidate for the Ohio Tenth District Court of Appeals . Brunner defeated incumbent Judge Amy O 'Grady in the general election . = = Career = = Brunner grew up in Springfield , Ohio . She earned a B.A. in sociology @-@ gerontology , cum laude , from Miami University in 1978 and a J.D. from Capital University Law School with honors in 1982 . Subsequently , Brunner worked in the Ohio Secretary of State ’ s Office as a deputy director and legislative counsel to the Ohio General Assembly during the administration of Sherrod Brown from 1983 – 87 . In four years of service under Brown , Brunner 's responsibilities included working with state legislators on finance @-@ reporting laws for campaign committees and laws for election procedures . = = = Private Practice = = = She then began a statewide law practice where she gained 12 years experience focusing on election law and campaign finance from 1988 – 2000 . She briefly worked for the Franklin County Board of Elections . In 1988 , Brunner represented the Ohio Pesticide Applicators for Responsible Regulation , when the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency held hearings about testing Ohio water supplies for pesticides that were not against federal regulations . She agreed that testing standards should be higher , but felt that such standards should not be mandated . She expressed an interest in public service when a seat on the Columbus City Council became available following the April 29 , 1988 death of John R. Maloney . The list of candidates who applied included at least 20 applicants . Brunner has litigated various ballot propositions . In 1988 , she represented a client who contested the validity of a ballot proposal to halt the sale of alcohol at the Cuyahoga Falls entertainment center . She was treasurer of a citizens group that attacked the financial reports related to a Westerville , Ohio school district tax levy on the November 1988 ballot . Later in 1989 , she represented property owners in a rezoning referendum . Brunner represented Ohioans Against Casino Gambling in its dispute over the wording of the 1990 ballot issue on " games of chances " . Brunner 's private practice was not exclusively about ballot issues . She served as treasurer of Choice ' 90 , a political action committee that ran television commercials about the abortion positions of 1990 Ohio 's gubernatorial candidates ( Anthony J. Celebrezze Jr . ( D ) and George Voinovich ( R ) ) but that was funded primarily by the Ohio Democratic Party . Brunner represented Ohio Democratic Party Chairman Eugene Branstool in battles with the Ohio Republican Robert Bennett and Canton , Ohio industrialist William R. Timken over the state redistricting following the 1990 Census . Brunner successfully brought a claim by Ohio House of Representatives Seventh District representative Rocco J. Colonna against Brook Park Mayor Thomas Coyne in 1991 for circulating campaign literature containing false statements . Brunner was also involved in a drawn out case involving the rights of Hamilton County bars to serve alcohol in glass containers . The bars she represented were effectively put out of business by neighborhood residents ' passage of an ordinance . Brunner challenged petition signatures on a similar matter in Franklin County . However , the case in Franklin County was dismissed . The Hamilton County plaintiffs were granted a stay preventing the Ohio Liquor Control Commission from receiving the certified May 7 results . This stay allowed their case to be heard . Meanwhile , Brunner won another related case in the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit . The case overturned a state law allowing liquor licenses to be revoked by popular referendum . This ruling bolstered the case of the other four bars she represented . In 1992 , Franklin County Democratic Party chairwoman Fran Ryan approached Brunner about becoming a judge , but Brunner declined . Brunner successfully defended Ohio House of Representatives member C.J. Prentiss when her position on the ballot was challenged in the May 1994 primary . In 1998 , she successfully represented House Rep. Charleta Tavares when her petition signatures were challenged during her candidacy to replace J. Kenneth Blackwell as Ohio Secretary of State . In 1994 , she represented the Delaware County Amphitheater Action Committee , a group that attempted to block the state Liquor Department from issuing a beer permit . When their case was dismissed , they appealed to the Ohio Supreme Court . At the same time , she represented vendors whose liquor licenses were about to be cancelled following a vote where poll workers allegedly acted with bias . Brunner got her clients a September 1994 ruling that the poll workers had , in fact , attempted to influence voters . That same month , she was unable to get a pair of liquor option questions removed from the November 1994 ballot . In 1994 , Brunner also represented neighbors of an adult video store that was being razed to make way for a McDonald 's store in an affluent neighborhood . She obtained a 14 @-@ day restraining order to halt issuance of a zoning certificate and demolition and building permits . The Bexley , OH neighborhood hosts the Ohio Governor 's Mansion and mansions once owned by Hustler publisher Larry Flynt and The Limited chairman Les Wexner . She got citizens to appear before the zoning appeals board to attempt to stop the construction . The Citizens were unsuccessful in convincing the Board of Zoning Appeals to change their earlier decisions . After the citizens were unsuccessful with the zoning board , they pursued remedy in the Franklin County Common Pleas Court . In addition to the court proceedings , the citizens sought the attention of the City Council in attempt to preserve the neighborhood by keeping the video store from being converted into a McDonald 's . On April 7 , 1995 , Brunner gained a verdict for her clients that in the interest of avoiding traffic congestion and pedestrian dangers , the McDonald 's would not be allowed to build . The developer attempted to appeal the decision by obtaining friend @-@ of @-@ the @-@ court briefs from surrounding municipalities . The Franklin County Appeals Court overturned the lower court ruling making way for the construction of the McDonald 's . Brunner 's clients appealed to the Ohio Supreme Court . However , the Supreme Court declined to hear the case . A few other cases against the developers remained in some lower courts . However , these were unsuccessful . After the lower court zoning victory , in May 1995 , she was hired to oppose a 259 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 m2 ) project . In 1995 , Brunner again applied for a vacant seat on the Columbus City Council . That year , Brunner represented the AFL @-@ CIO in their battle against proposed rule changes related to new Ohio campaign finance laws . Also , in 1995 , she was hired to handle several elections law cases . She successfully represented Franklin County Democratic Party Chairman Dennis White in a 1996 case about whether his primary campaign mailings violated Ohio election laws . She also was involved in a residency challenge in 1996 . She represented a Seneca County constituent of then State Representative ( current State Senator ) Karen Gillmor who felt the Franklin County home where Gillmor 's family resides is her true residence . The challenge failed . Brunner was involved in a hanging chad controversy when in a 14 @,@ 696 @-@ ballot November 4 , 1997 election in Licking County an income tax issue which had failed by four votes subsequently passed by thirteen on a November 26 automatic recount . Brunner was present for a court @-@ ordered second January 6 recount to evaluate whether chads remained hanging by one , two , or three hinges or whether they were sufficiently indented to count . Brunner represented the Save The Doves Committee , an animal rights group that attempted to ban the hunting of mourning doves in Ohio via a ballot initiative . The group had previously attempted to petition the state to have the doves removed from the state game list . Ohio had formerly had a history of protecting mourning doves dating back to 1917 , but hunting them was legalized starting in 1995 . The doves had an Ohio population of 5 million and were legal prey in 38 states . A pro hunting wildlife group , unsuccessfully challenged the committee 's petitions . The actual wording of the ballot issue , which became " No person shall take or hunt a mourning dove , " was contentious . Some found the issue wording confusing because a " Yes " vote meant support for " No hunting " . Television ads opposing the ballot issue also were hotly contested . This issue was the only statewide issue on the 1998 ballot . The ban proposal failed . Brunner represented pro @-@ gambling interests in an off @-@ track betting ballot issue in Stark County . After the Canton City Council allowed a new betting parlor , the Stark County Board of Elections deadlocked along party lines on whether to allow a county @-@ wide referendum against off @-@ track betting . Republican Secretary of State Taft , broke the tie allowing the referendum on September 14 . Brunner appealed the Board 's decision to allow the voters the chance to overrule the city council . In 1998 , she represented the Ohio Democratic Party when they challenged 1998 Ohio gubernatorial election candidate Bob Taft 's ad campaign . On various occasions , during the race she obtained probable cause determinations by the Ohio Elections Commission that there were improprieties in Taft 's television commercials . While the dispute was being resolved , one of Taft 's ads was ordered to be pulled off the air via a restraining order on October 10 . The restraining order was lifted three days later . On October 16 , the Ohio Elections Commission rebuked Taft for lying in his commercials . After the ruling , the candidates continued to contest other campaign ads for a few days . Then they signed a code of ethics . During the same election period , she represented Mark L. Mallory in a similar ad campaign battle when he unseated State Senator Janet Howard . In another campaign advertising case , she represented Richard Cordray who charged his opponent , Betty Montgomery with money laundering of campaign advertising funds . Brunner felt Montgomery should have been disqualified in the election . Brunner also represented a pair of judge candidates who were charged with misconduct during the 1998 elections . She was able to get charges dismissed against Judge Deborah P. O 'Neill of Franklin County Common Pleas Court . However , a disciplinary panel of the Ohio Supreme Court recommended Stark County Common Pleas judge candidate Elizabeth Burick to pay a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine for actions that " demeans the judiciary " . In 1999 , she represented a pair of individuals whose published election @-@ related literature was challenged . She represented Northland Mall owner in his attempts to block funding for roads to the planned Polaris Fashion Place mall . Her client was able to get a ballot issue placed to oppose the special financing . Television ad regarding this issue were hotly contested . The voters failed the proposal before the Franklin County prosecutors decided whether to take actions following the Ohio Election Commission 's determination that the ads were false . In one of her final cases in private practice , Brunner returned to represent interested parties in Bexley . Although she was campaigning for her own November 2000 election at the time , she represented a restaurant at risk of losing its Sunday liquor license . After several years of representing controversial parties in elections issues , Brunner , a principal of Brunner , Kirby & Jeffries Co . , ran a non @-@ controversial campaign . Brunner , who was making her first run for elective office , opposed incumbent John F. Bender who had been appointed by Governor Taft in April 2000 to replace the retiring James J. O 'Grady . The race was the only contested race in the general division of Franklin County Common Pleas Court . During the campaign , Bender outpaced Brunner in fundraising by a $ 76 @,@ 613 to $ 58 @,@ 145 margin . = = = Early elective career = = = In 2000 , Brunner was elected to an unexpired term on the Franklin County Common Pleas Court . She was reelected in 2002 . The Court of Common Pleas judges tested , approved and created a separate drug court to reduce addiction @-@ related recidivism . Judges recommend repeat offenders who have been charged with non @-@ violent felonies stemming from their drug or alcohol addictions for the program , which targets those repeatedly charged with theft , receiving stolen property , writing bad checks , prostitution or drug possession , which are all addiction related crimes . Brunner started the court in April 2004 after several years of research . In December 2001 , she approved a US $ 22 million settlement between Georgia @-@ Pacific and 6 @,@ 000 residents that resulted from a 1985 and a 1997 explosion . The settlement became controversial when several residents remained uncompensated nearly a year later . She handled cases ranging from a drug @-@ related firebomb death , a former @-@ Columbus Division of Policeman 's intramarital shooting and Interstate 71 highway chase , and an Ohio State University student Drive @-@ by shooting death , to an international kidnapping case , alcohol service suspensions , domestic abuse , a sex offender rights case , a federal fugitive case , and a state construction contract case . After Brunner 's May 30 ruling in the contract case , which involved the Ohio School Facilities Commission and their $ 2 billion school construction program , Ohio Governor Bob Taft forced the commission to review its contracts for a five @-@ year retroactive period . Brunner had ruled that a three @-@ person commission review contracts instead of just the commission 's director , Randall Fischer . Approximately 1 @,@ 800 contracts were reviewed . The 10th Ohio District Court of Appeals in Franklin County overturned her ruling . The Ohio State Supreme Court refused to hear appeals . Despite having been overturned , Brunner was supported by the Ohio Inspector General who found ethics violations . Brunner was also involved in a controversy for jailing a lawyer who she claimed was in contempt of court that resulted in op @-@ ed page debate . Brunner resigned from the Court on September 1 , 2005 to run for Secretary of State . She ran unopposed in the May 2 , 2006 Democratic Primary . On November 7 , 2006 , she defeated Republican Greg Hartmann in the 2006 general election by a 55 % – 40 % margin and took office on January 8 , 2007 . Since the office is one that serves as a keeper of public records , the histories of the two candidates ' vigilance against identity theft was an important issue . The campaign also included mudslinging . She also received significant support from the Secretary of State Project , which " helped me toward the election " . = = = Secretary of State = = = Ohio is notorious for its 2000 and 2004 Election Day problems . The state had hours @-@ long lines at polling places in its major cities in 2004 and a fraud scandal in Cuyahoga County , which includes Cleveland , that led to the convictions of two elections workers on rigging recounts and Ms. Brunner ’ s takeover of the county board of elections . In September 2007 , Brunner announced extensive efforts to identify and correct serious problems with the security and reliability of voting machines in time for the March 4 , 2008 Ohio Democratic and Republican primaries . In a US $ 1 @.@ 9 million federally financed study released December 14 , 2007 , Brunner reported the results of tests of all five voting systems used in Ohio . All systems had major flaws . The study focused on security ; reliability of the equipment and the systems ; the software configuration ; and procedures of the local officials . Security and procedures were seen to be serious problems . The security level of the computer equipment did not match the contemporaneous levels of security used in other information @-@ sensitive industries . She has advocated the replacement of all Ohio voting machines , including the direct @-@ recording electronic ( DRE ) touch @-@ screen ones used in more than 50 of Ohio 's 88 counties . Brunner supports a move to paper ballots , which would use optical scanning . As a result of the study , during the March 2008 primaries , paper ballots were supposed to be available at all polling places for voters who preferred them . The paper ballots also served as a backup for machine failures . Brunner mandated a paper ballot election for the November 2008 general election . This was due both to the study and problems faced during the 2007 election with touch screen electronic voting machines . However , the Republican @-@ controlled Ohio General Assembly has not addressed the subject of funding an all @-@ paper ballot . Consequently , Brunner focussed on addressing the procedures instead of the inherent lack of technical security . In January 2007 , Brunner proposed a plan that would allow counties to recruit poll workers by mail , who would then undertake two paid training days , and work a paid eight @-@ hour shift at the polls on Election Day . Brunner explained the plan in an interview : " In terms of Ohio and what happened in the 2004 presidential election , there has been a crisis in confidence in our election system in Ohio , both nationally and in our state . One of the quickest ways to repair that is to make sure that we have adequate numbers of poll workers . ... We suggested this as one tool that the boards of elections would have available to them for recruiting poll workers . We would be looking to do this similar to how we recruit jurors , only jurors are recruited for two weeks of service whereas we 'd only be asking for three days . It would also allow us to offer split shifts to poll workers . In Ohio the polling places are open for thirteen hours , so essentially a poll worker works at least fourteen hours ; with the average age of our poll workers at 72 , that 's a tough day for anyone , no matter what their age is . ... It 's an option , and we can even include a trigger , so that a county has to be deficient by a certain percentage of poll workers to even be able to use this . " In the initial proposal it was not yet decided what wages would be paid , and whether refusing recruitment would result in penalties . The proposal will be decided by the Ohio General Assembly . Brunner has established the Voting Right Institute ( VRI ) to improve voter access to elections in Ohio . The VRI has instituted a “ Grads Vote ” program which supplies voter registration forms to all graduating high school seniors . The VRI has also partnered with the U.S. Postal Service to include voter registration forms in government moving packets and with the Overseas Vote Foundation to improve online absentee ballot applications for overseas and military voters . She has also moved to shield social security information and other private information from public view for millions of online records and coordinated with the Ohio General Assembly to prevent the filing of private information . Brunner worked with Ohio 's 88 county boards of elections and thousands of poll workers to ensure record voter turnout in the March presidential primaries . Despite the record turnout , the primary was marred by paper ballot shortages , bomb threats , ice storms and power failures . In addition , flooding forced the relocation of some polling places in southeastern Ohio . 21 precincts in the Cleveland metropolitan area were held open for an extra 90 minutes due to paper ballot shortages . Brunner claimed that in Clermont and Summit Counties ballots ran out because of the number of Republicans who voted in the Democratic primary and that only Democratic ballots ran out . Brunner has spoken out against election officials taking voting machines home with them in the days before an election . Such actions could allow hacking even though it makes transport and delivery to the eventual polling place simpler . Some elections officials say they feel the system is better if elections officials keep an eye on machines the days before the elections . Brunner says poll workers have sometimes cast ballots on machines in their homes . She issued the following directive on the matter : " We want Ohio ’ s voters and the rest of the nation to see that we have prepared a transparent process of transporting voting equipment , ballots and supplies . That begins with security practices at boards of elections and polling places , documented chain of custody , and now procedures to make secure voting machine delivery . " She has ordered bipartisan transport teams and proscribed storage conditions such as humidity . The federal government will subsidize the cost of her mandate . = = = 2008 general election = = = = = = = Same @-@ day voter registration = = = = In 2008 Ohio experienced an unintended consequence of a new statute that resulted in a brief period of overlap voting , when absentee voting has started and before the close of voter registration . This period ran from September 30 until October 6 , due to the newly instituted early voting policy . On August 13 , 2008 , Brunner ordered county election board officials to establish procedures to enable voters who register to be immediately issued an absentee ballot . Because a voter could show up with only a cell phone bill , give any four digits and claim they were the last four digits of his or her Social Security Number , and then immediately vote and have such ballots put into the same pool as other votes with no procedure for more rigorous scrutiny of their validity , the Republican Party opposed the same day voting plan and fought it in several Ohio Courts . Ohio Republican Party officials and Republican voters argued in separate lawsuits that Ohio law requires voters to be registered for 30 days before they cast an absentee ballot . On September 29 , 2008 ( a day after lower state and federal courts overruled GOP objections to same @-@ day registration and voting or GOP requests for mandated ballot segregation and verification ) the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit in Cincinnati , Ohio rejected Republican efforts to stop the plan . United States district court judge James Gwin in Cleveland , Ohio also ruled against the Republicans and issued a restraining order to enforce Brunner 's plan . In Columbus , Ohio , U.S. District Judge George Smith declined to rule on another statewide challenge , deferring to the state Supreme Court 's decision . The rulings , which opened a window to register and vote on the same day until the absentee ballot deadline on October 6 , 2008 , was upheld by the Ohio Supreme Court in a 4 @-@ 3 decision in which two Republican jurists who were on the November 2008 ballot recused themselves and were replaced by one Republican and one Democrat by Chief Justice Thomas Moyer . The normal roster of Ohio Supreme Court jurists is all Republican and the lone Democrat replacement , William H. Wolff , Jr . , cast the tie @-@ breaking vote . The dissenters noted that Ohio 's Constitution requires that a person register to vote 30 days in before voting . Brunner ordered segregation of same @-@ day @-@ registration ballots and verification of them before counting them on Election Day , November 4 , 2008 . In related proceedings on September 30 , 2008 , Judge Smith of The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Ohio in Columbus had granted an Ohio Republican Party request for a restraining order that would mandate election observers during early voting . Brunner prevailed in the appellate court which ruled that the district court “ abused its discretion ” in granting the restraining order . The same @-@ day registration ballots are subject to the standard Ohio notification card protocol whereby a postcard is sent to the newly registered address to assist in determining the validity of the address . A card that comes back marked return to sender is questioned and marked on the voter rolls . Additionally , the boards of elections submit new voter registrations into a database in the office of the Ohio Secretary of State . The information is matched with driver 's licenses on an Ohio Bureau of Motor Vehicles database and failing a match there it is sent to the Social Security Administration to pursue a match . = = = = Help America Vote Act ( HAVA ) = = = = Ohio ( along with Colorado , Indiana , Michigan , Nevada and North Carolina ) is one of six states expected to be heavily affected by compliance with the 2002 Help America Vote Act , which mandates that states corroborate voter registration applications with government databases . Due to the disproportionate voter registration by Democrats it is anticipated that much of the confusion at the polling places will be for challenges to newly registered Democrats who have been delisted from the ranks of registered voters . It appears that Ohio is using social security information to verify new voter registration , even though " [ u ] nder federal law , election officials are supposed to use the Social Security database to check a registration application only as a last resort , if no record of the applicant is found [ within the state 's own ] databases , " according to a New York Times article . Michael J. Astrue , commissioner of the Social Security Administration , alerted the United States Department of Justice and sent letters to six states including Ohio to ensure compliance with federal law . Brunner has stated that the filing of paperwork by Republican officials may be an attempt to establish grounds for contesting ballots on Election Day . The paperwork requires use of provisional ballots by persons with discrepant registrations . On October 9 , 2008 , the Republicans also were granted an order against Brunner by Judge Smith requiring that Brunner must perform voter registration verification according to the Help America Vote Act . Matching new registrants ' information against Ohio Bureau of Motor Vehicles or the Social Security Administration databases is one of the requirements . Challenges to mismatched registrations , which force the use of provisional ballots , must be filed twenty days prior to the election . Legal expert Greta Van Susteren viewed the ruling as a significant breaking news story and interviewed Brunner on her show On the Record w / Greta Van Susteren the day it was made . Van Susteren interpreted the ruling as a statement that Brunner has not been taking sufficient steps to prevent voter fraud . Democracy Now ! also interviewed Brunner on that day , but they did so before the final verdict . Between January 1 , 2008 and mid @-@ October 2008 , over 666 @,@ 000 Ohioans registered to vote either for the first time or with updated voter information , and over 200 @,@ 000 of them provided driver 's licenses or Social Security numbers that do not match government records . Over 20 % of these voters are from Cuyahoga County , which is heavily Democratic . Also , many of the newly registered voters were the result of voter registration drives to register voters for Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton for the March 4 , 2008 Ohio Democratic primary . The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit , in a 9 @-@ 6 decision , ruled against Brunner on October 14 , 2008 in deciding that extra steps must be taken to authenticate these registrants and Jeffrey Sutton 's majority opinion suggested that these misregistered voters cast provisional ballots . Historically , 20 % of provisional ballots have been thrown out . As a result of the ruling , Brunner 's Office of the Ohio Secretary of State must provide each county with a list of registrants with mismatching information and provide direction on a proper course of action . There are federal laws barring purging voters from the election rolls within 90 days of an election . This issue is considered to be a partisan one with Republicans favoring greater scrutiny , and the justices voted almost along party lines based on the United States President that appointed them . On October 17 , 2008 , in Brunner v. Ohio Republican Party , 07A332 , the United States Supreme Court overturned the 6th Circuit Decision requiring Brunner to provide lists of improperly registered voters to each county election board . The ruling means that Brunner can instruct the 88 county boards of elections to ignore public record requests by the Ohio Republican Party made to challenge registrants with information mismatched between their registration and their driver 's license or social security number . The Republican Party claimed that the ruling was based on a technicality rather than the merits of the arguments . Bennett said that " The justices did not disagree with our argument that Jennifer Brunner has failed to comply with federal election law . They merely said we don 't have a right to bring a private challenge against her under this particular provision . " The McCain @-@ Palin campaign said " ... the United States Supreme Court does not address violations of the Help America Vote Act ( HAVA ) by Ohio Secretary of State Jennifer Brunner . Rather , the Court ruled that Congress had likely not authorized private individuals or political parties to bring suit under the section of HAVA requiring voter registration verification through data @-@ matching . " Since the ruling did not directly address the issues that the Republicans wanted determined , they filed a similar case in the Ohio Supreme Court . However , they withdrew the case . = = = = Other issues = = = = One month before the 2008 United States election , 5 % of Ohio mortgages were either severely delinquent or in foreclosure . There were 67 @,@ 658 foreclosure actions in the first half of 2008 . An editorial in The New York Times purported that Republicans may try to use foreclosure lists to block voters . Brunner warned all election boards that involvement in a foreclosure is not , by itself , sufficient basis for challenging enfranchisement . On entering office , Brunner took immediate action against Republican county elections officials , including Robert T. Bennett , Ohio Republican Party Chairman . At the time , while writing for The Cincinnati Enquirer , columnist Peter Bronson described Brunner as " the most partisan state official in Ohio " . More recently , she has been accused of partisanship by her former Secretary of State opponent in the 2008 general election . He claims that she set policy in order to throw out absentee ballots likely to be cast for the John McCain @-@ Sarah Palin ticket . The Ohio State Supreme Court supported the Republican argument . Other sources claim that ACORN advises and influences Brunner . The 2008 general election was expected to be marred by Diebold electronic voting machines that had malfunctioned on vote transfers from the local precinct machines to the county election board headquarters . Brunner is suing Diebold for other types of vote @-@ dropping malfunctions . Fifty @-@ three of eighty @-@ eight counties used the problematic touch screen electronic voting machines . The machines had also mysteriously crashed and their printers had jammed in the 2007 elections . Brunner feels that electronic machines should be avoided until they achieve the same security standards as the computer equipment in the banking and communications industries . She issued a report that both Premier Election Solutions ( a Diebold subsidiary ) and Hart and Election Systems & Software produce electronic voting systems with severe security flaws . Brunner has made several specific efforts to alleviate some of the past voting difficulties . 2008 was the first Ohio election that permits absentee voting as a matter of preference without any justification for need . This resulted in a record number of absentee ballots . Additionally , voting machine redistribution has been closely studied with the hope of alleviating long waits in problem areas . Redistribution is based on past turnout , new registrations , any recent purges under the National Voter Registration Act , and the number of ballot issues in the district . Each precinct has been supplied with sufficient paper ballots to accommodate 25 % number of voters who voted in the previous presidential election . Brunner has noted that only incarcerated convicted felons become ineligible to vote in Ohio . Thus , persons incarcerated for misdemeanors and persons detained in prisons awaiting new trials can vote directly from prison . In fall of 2008 , Brunner was challenged in a pair of cases involving the Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless . In September , in Project Vote ( on behalf of Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless ) v. Madison County Board of Elections , No. 1 : 08 @-@ cv @-@ 02266 ( N.D. Ohio ) , Judge Garvin enjoined the Madison County Board of Elections from adhering to its September 5 announcement that it would disregard Secretary Brunner ’ s directives to issue an absentee ballot to anyone who has not already been registered for 30 days . The Board had threatened an action that the judge determined would violate Section 202 of the Voting Rights Act causing irreparable injury to registered voters who will be unable to receive absentee ballots . On October 27 , 2008 in the case The Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless v. Brunner , Case No . C206- 896 , U.S. District Judge Edmund Sargus ruled that in concert with Ohio Revised Code § 3503 @.@ 02 ( I ) which states : " If a person does not have a fixed place of habitation , but has a shelter or other location at which the person has been a consistent or regular inhabitant and to which the person has the intention of returning , that shelter or other location shall be deemed the person 's residence for the purpose of registering to vote . " The order mandated that Brunner as Secretary of State " instruct the County Boards of Elections that provisional ballots may not be rejected for failing to list a building address on the provisional ballot envelope if the voter resides at a location that does not have an address . " This ruling states that all Ohio counties must allow homeless voters use non @-@ building locations such as park benches as their addresses . At the same time , the court ruled that poll worker error is not a valid reason to reject a provisional ballot . Time said that these rulings brought uniformity in handling provisional ballots to the counties that did not previously exist . On October 20 , 2008 Brunner had to temporarily shut down the Ohio Secretary of State website after it was hacked . The offense was placed under the jurisdiction of the Ohio State Highway Patrol . At the time of the announcement Ohio Governor Ted Strickland noted that Brunner has been the subject of threats and Brunner noted that her office has been assaulted with threats and actual delivery of abuse . In November 2008 , Brunner became involved in a legal battle against two Steve Stivers supporters that relates to the validity of a 1000 provisional ballots in the race for Ohio 's 15th congressional district that at the time of recounting had a 149 @-@ vote margin and 27 @,@ 000 absentee ballots to be counted . The case was consolidated with other cases in the United States District Court upon Brunner 's request . On December 5 , 2008 , Stivers ' supporters won a ruling in the Ohio Supreme Court that the 1 @,@ 000 provisional ballots that lacked signatures or had names and signatures in the wrong places be thrown out . = = = 2010 Campaign for U.S. Senate = = = Brunner 's term as Ohio Secretary of State ends in 2011 and was up for re @-@ election in 2010 along with other Ohio statewide offices . In January , rumors that were eventually confirmed began circulating that second term Republican United States Senator George Voinovich would not run for re @-@ election in 2010 . Brunner 's name was mentioned as a potential Democratic candidate for the seat . On January 23 , 2009 , Brunner and Ohio Lieutenant Governor Lee Fisher met to discuss the possibility that either of them would run , but did not confirm any decision or leanings to the media . On February 17 , 2009 , Brunner announced that she would be a candidate for the U.S. Senate in 2010 . She ran against Fisher for the Democratic nomination . As of February 2010 , she had significantly less cash on hand than Fisher or likely general election opponent Rob Portman ( who would eventually win the seat ) , but claimed , " I only need enough money to win , " adding , " And frankly , in this economic environment , it 's rather obscene when people start crowing about how many millions they have on hand . " Polling in late 2009 and January 2010 showed Brunner to be more competitive than Fisher in a general election matchup against Portman , while Fisher and Brunner were deadlocked in Democratic primary polling . Brunner lost to Fisher in the May 4 , 2010 party primary . = = = 2014 Campaign for Ohio Tenth District Court of Appeals = = = Brunner was certified as the sole Democratic candidate running for the Ohio Tenth District Court of Appeals seat occupied by incumbent judge Amy O 'Grady , who was appointed to the seat by Governor John Kasich in 2013 . The 2014 judicial elections are notable for the number of judges on the ballot , with The Columbus Dispatch stating that it was the first time 12 contested judicial seats would appear on the ballot in Franklin County , Ohio . She was the only Democratic nominee for the appellate seat , running against incumbent judge Amy O 'Grady . Brunner defeated O 'Grady and was elected to a two @-@ year term as Franklin County appeals judge unexpired term in the General Election . = = = International Work = = = Brunner worked with the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) of the US Department of State as a consultant on campaign finance , elections , and ballot issues in the Republic of Serbia during 2012 . Brunner also served as an adviser to Serbian misdemeanor court judges on outreach strategies to rebuild the public 's confidence in elections systems . The project , named Judicial Reform and Government Accountability , also aims to enable the Serbian government to better detect and prevent corruption in the government . She has been engaged to serve as an adviser through USAID four times , with a trip to Serbia in 2013 assisting the Serbian Minister of Justice with judicial reform . Brunner also served as an international election observer in Egypt for the 2014 Egyptian constitutional referendum . Judge Brunner is a Member of the Board of Advisors of the Berlin , Prague and Sydney @-@ based Global Panel Foundation - a respected NGO which works behind @-@ the @-@ scenes in conflict areas around the world . = = Personal = = Brunner is a resident of Columbus , Ohio . She and her husband , Rick , have been married since 1978 and have three adult children . They have also been foster parents to three children . Brunner is an alumna of Whetstone High School in Clintonville , Ohio . Brunner served on the Ohio Student Loan Commission , a nine @-@ member group that guarantees loans for college students , for a term that ended in 1992 . Republican Governor John Kasich appointed her to a Democratic seat the Ohio Cultural Facilities Commission in 2011 , which was legislated out of existence in 2013 . In October 2012 , Kasich also appointed her to the Ohio Counselor , Social Worker , Marriage and Family Therapist Board . Columbus Mayor Michael B. Coleman appointed Brunner to the Central Ohio Transit Authority Board in 2013 . In March 2008 , Brunner was given the Profile in Courage Award by the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum . She earned the award for challenging the reliability of electronic voting in order to protect the right to vote in Ohio . The award was announced on March 18 , 2008 . She received the award May 12 , 2008 . Brunner assumed office in 2007 and ordered paper ballots be provided to any voter who requested one in the March 2008 primary and called for the replacement of all the state 's electronic voting systems by the November 2008 presidential election . Her overhaul of the Ohio voting system was considered costly and reckless by some , but after the election her risk was heralded in the press as successful . = = General election results = =
= Katsuhiko Nakajima = Katsuhiko Nakajima ( 中嶋勝彦 , Nakajima Katsuhiko , born March 11 , 1988 ) is a Japanese professional wrestler , signed to Pro Wrestling Noah . He started his career in Kensuke Sasaki 's Kensuke Office / Diamond Ring dojo and agency . He has also wrestled for All Japan Pro Wrestling , where he is a former World Junior Heavyweight Champion . A successful karateka , his style is based upon strong , fast kicks and strikes . Having made his professional debut aged 15 in a mixed martial arts contest , Nakajima has already made a significant impact on puroresu , earning the nickname " Supernova " and facing Hall of Famers such as Kenta Kobashi , Satoru Sayama , Jushin Thunder Liger , and Tatsumi Fujinami . He has competed in several notable Japanese promotions , including New Japan Pro Wrestling , All Japan Pro Wrestling , Inoki Genome Federation , Pro Wrestling Zero1 , Michinoku Pro , Dragon Gate , and currently , Noah . He has set several age records over his short career , including being the youngest wrestler to compete in AJPW 's Champion Carnival tournament and the youngest to hold the World Junior Heavyweight Championship . He won the Tokyo Sports " Rookie of the Year " award in 2004 and the Fighting Spirit award in 2005 . Having worked for Noah for most of his career , both as a representative of Diamond Ring and as a freelancer , he officially signed with the promotion in December 2015 . = = Professional wrestling career = = = = = 2002 – 2004 = = = An accomplished karateka , Nakajima was hired by Riki Choshu 's World Japan promotion in December 2002 at the age of 14 . He debuted for World Japan ( WJ ) in September 2003 , facing American fighter Jason Leigh in an MMA fight , winning via knockout in one minute and thirty @-@ five seconds . His true professional wrestling debut came on the main event of World Japan 's " RESOLUTION " card on January 5 , 2004 , losing via submission to Tomohiro Ishii . Nakajima continued to wrestle for WJ for a short time , even wrestling the original Tiger Mask Satoru Sayama before signing with Kensuke Office in April . This led to his debut with New Japan Pro Wrestling , facing legendary junior heavyweight Jushin Thunder Liger in the Tokyo Dome on May 3 , 2004 . He made his debut with All Japan Pro Wrestling the next day , successfully teaming with Toshiaki Kawada in a six @-@ man tag team match . He continued to wrestle for both promotions extensively throughout 2004 , even competing in Block B of NJPW 's Best of the Super Juniors tournament , finishing with two points by defeating Curry Man and reaching the finals of the Young Lion Toukon ( fighting spirit ) tournament , losing to Ryusuke Taguchi . On June 12 , 2004 in AJPW , Nakajima received the first championship match of his career , teaming with Kensuke Sasaki to unsuccessfully challenge Masanobu Fuchi & Genichiro Tenryu for the All Asia Tag Team Championship . On September 17 , 2004 , Nakajima made his debut in Dragon Gate on their pay @-@ per @-@ view Gate of Sanctuary , losing to Masaaki Mochizuki . The following month , Nakajima entered the Osaka Pro Tenno @-@ zan single @-@ elimination tournament , losing to eventual winner Big Boss MA @-@ G @-@ MA in the first round . Nakajima and Sasaki teamed up in the World 's Strongest Tag Determination League in November and December 2004 , finishing with four points in Block B. = = = 2005 = = = Nakajima received his first opportunity at a singles championship on April 20 , 2005 , losing to World Junior Heavyweight Champion Taka Michinoku . His appearances in NJPW became much more sporadic around this time , with his final match to date taking place on April 24 , 2005 , a loss to 6 @-@ time IWGP Heavyweight Champion Tatsumi Fujinami . On May 7 , 2005 , Katsuhiko participated in the 2005 Differ Cup , a biennial cross @-@ promotional junior heavyweight tag team tournament , teaming with Osaka Pro 's Takehiro Murahama ; the two lost to Super Shisa and Tiger Emperor in the first round . He also teamed with Tomoaki Honma in a tournament throughout June 2005 to decide the vacant All Asia Tag Team Championship , making it to the finals before losing to Shuji Kondo & " brother " YASSHI . Just over one month later on July 26 , 2005 , Nakajima and Kensuke Sasaki defeated Kondo and YASSHI for the titles in their second defense , giving Nakajima his first championship . They would continue to defend the titles through 2005 , against such teams as Arashi & Ryuji Hijikata and Buchanan & D 'Lo Brown . On July 18 , 2005 , Nakajima made his debut in Pro Wrestling Noah , wrestling in a six @-@ man tag team match in the Tokyo Dome . He would continue by teaming with Kensuke Sasaki against Kenta Kobashi and his own protégé Go Shiozaki in an inter @-@ generation tag team match on November 5 , 2005 , with Sasaki pinning Shiozaki after a lariat . This match was rated 43 ⁄ 4 out of 5 stars by wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer , one of only eight NOAH matches to receive that or a higher rating . Nakajima made his debut for Pro Wrestling ZERO1 @-@ MAX on July 9 , 2005 , winning a six @-@ man junior tag team match . He went on to defeat Osamu Namiguchi on August 31 for his first singles title , the WWA World Junior Light Heavyweight Championship , though whether this can be considered part of the title 's official lineage is disputed . He held it until June 24 , 2006 , losing the title to premier ZERO1 @-@ MAX junior Tatsuhito Takaiwa . This is to date Nakajima 's last appearance with the promotion . = = = 2006 = = = On February 11 , 2006 at a Kensuke Office show celebrating Kensuke Sasaki 's 20th career anniversary , Nakajima teamed with Genichiro Tenryu against the " dream team " of Kenta Kobashi and Kensuke Sasaki , falling to a Sasaki lariat . On March 21 , 2006 , Nakajima won a three @-@ way elimination match in AJPW , defeating both Tomoaki Honma and NOSAWA Rongai to earn a spot in Block B of the prestigious 2006 Champion Carnival , becoming the youngest man to participate in the tournament . Nakajima finished in last place in the block with two points by defeating D 'Lo Brown . On April 19 , 2006 , Nakajima entered Big Mouth Loud ( BML ) , losing to company ace Katsuyori Shibata . The following month , Nakajima and Kensuke Sasaki battled in Big Japan Pro Wrestling ( BJW ) , defeating Big Japan 's Daisuke Sekimoto and Dramatic Dream Team 's ( DDT ) Daichi Kakimoto in a tag team match when Nakajima pinned Kakimoto . Nakajima then participated in the 2006 Junior League tournament from June 25 , 2006 to July 3 , 2006 , to decide a challenger for the Junior Heavyweight Championship ; Katsuhiko won his block with five points , before losing in the final to Kaz Hayashi . On July 2 , 2006 , Nakajima 's partner Kensuke Sasaki suffered a left eye fracture in a match against Katsuyori Shibata in BML , taking him out of action for the foreseeable future and forcing the team to vacate the All Asia Tag Team Championship on October 29 , 2006 after holding the titles since July 2005 . On October 15 , 2006 , Katsuhiko Nakajima and Kaz Hayashi were announced as one of seven teams in the 2006 World 's Strongest Tag Determination League , to take place in December 2006 . They had a strong showing in the tournament , defeating such teams as NOSAWA Rongai & Triple Crown Heavyweight Champion Minoru Suzuki and RO 'Z & Suwama and drawing with Taiyō Kea & TAKA Michinoku , finishing with 5 points overall . On November 14 , 2006 , Nakajima wrestled in the main event of the debut show of the Global Professional Wrestling Alliance , a cooperation of several different promotions , teaming with NOAH 's Go Shiozaki and El Dorado 's Takuya Sugawara to defeat ZERO1 @-@ MAX 's Ryouji Sai , Dramatic Dream Team 's HARASHIMA and Kaientai Dojo 's KAZMA . = = = 2007 = = = Kensuke Sasaki made his return from injury on January 2 , 2007 , teaming with Nakajima to defeat TARU & " brother " YASSHI . The following day Nakajima faced YASSHI in a match to determine Shuji Kondo 's next challenger for the Junior Heavyweight Championship , winning via disqualification when Kondo himself interfered . He made his challenge on February 17 , 2007 , defeating Kondo to end his 16 @-@ month reign , and becoming the youngest junior heavyweight champion in history . Nakajima made his first defense of the title on April 30 , 2007 , defeating Kondo 's Voodoo Murders partner " brother " YASSHI , as well as Ryuji Hijikata on May 27 , 2007 . Nakajima once again participated in the Junior League in June 2007 , finishing in third place for his block with four points , behind Hijikata and Kondo . The league was won by American wrestler Chris Sabin , setting up a title match between Sabin and Nakajima on August 26 , 2007 , in which Nakajima was victorious . On September 1 , 2007 , Nakajima challenged Pro Wrestling Noah 's Takeshi Morishima for his ROH World Championship in the main event of a Kensuke Office show , putting up a good fight but losing in the end . On September 19 , 2007 , Nakajima was pinned in a tag team match by visiting luchador Silver King , who then challenged Nakajima to a future junior heavyweight title match . The match was made official for October 18 , 2007 at All Japan 's 35th anniversary show ; on October 8 , 2007 , Nakajima suffered a fractured navicular bone in his right hand , forcing him off of several shows on the tour , though he defended the title as scheduled . When the match came , Nakajima and Silver King fought to a no contest , forcing PWF commissioner Hiroshi Hase to hold up the title belt , although Nakajima remained the official champion . Katsuhiko then took time off to nurse his injured hand . = = = 2008 = = = Nakajima returned from injury on February 11 , 2008 at Kensuke Office 's first anniversary show , defeating fellow Kensuke Sasaki protégé Ryuji Yamaguchi ; he would follow this up with victories over two more Kensuke trainees in Kento Miyahara and Takashi Okita on February 16 , 2008 and March 9 , 2008 respectively , held in the Kensuke Office exercise hall . On March 1 , 2008 , in a rematch from their October encounter , Nakajima lost to Silver King in a match to decide the vacant junior heavyweight title . Later that month , Nakajima teamed with Ryuji Hijikata to participate in the six @-@ team Junior Tag League , winning the tournament with six points by defeating the teams of Silver King and Shuji Kondo , MAZADA and NOSAWA Rongai , and T28 and KUSHIDA , as well as Kaz Hayashi and El Samurai in the final , who had defeated them in the group stage . On March 28 , 2008 , Nakajima faced and defeated Osaka Pro and Dragon Gate wrestler Magnitude Kishiwada on Kensuke Office 's first event in the Fukuoka region . In March and April 2008 , Nakajima and Sasaki participated in Pro Wrestling Noah 's Global Tag League , a 9 @-@ team round @-@ robin tag team tournament . The two finished tied in 5th place with 8 points , defeating the teams of Jun Akiyama and Takeshi Rikio , D 'Lo Brown and Buchanan , and Go Shiozaki and Akira Taue , and drawing with Takeshi Morishima and Muhammad Yone , and GHC Tag Team Champions Naomichi Marufuji and Takashi Sugiura . On May 25 , 2008 in AJPW , Nakajima and Sasaki lost to Taiyō Kea and Minoru Suzuki in a match to determine the # 1 contenders to the World Tag Team Championship . On June 13 , 2008 at Kensuke Office 's " Take the Dream Vol . 5 " , Nakajima faced NOAH 's Kenta , losing the contest after 27 minutes . The following night in NOAH , Sasaki and Nakajima faced Kenta Kobashi and Kenta , wrestling to a 30 @-@ minute time limit draw . On June 29 , 2008 , Nakajima wrestled what would be his last match in AJPW for the time being , teaming with Kaz Hayashi to defeat Ryuji Hijikata and T28 . Nakajima began to wrestle consistently with NOAH starting July 2 , 2008 , and it was announced the following week that he and the rest of Kensuke Office would be lending their support to NOAH instead of All Japan for the foreseeable future . Among Nakajima 's first matches in NOAH were singles contests against former GHC Heavyweight Champions Jun Akiyama and Mitsuharu Misawa on July 5 , 2008 and July 13 , 2008 respectively , losing both matches . In August and September 2008 , Nakajima entered NOAH 's annual NTV Cup junior heavyweight tag team league , teaming with DDT 's Kota Ibushi in the 8 @-@ team tournament . The two finished in fifth place with eight points , including a victory over 2007 winners , as well as the eventual 2008 winners , Kenta and Taiji Ishimori . Nakajima and Ibushi would team once more on September 8 , 2008 on a co @-@ production between DDT and SEM , NOAH 's offshoot promotion for younger wrestlers , against DDT 's HARASHIMA and Antonio Honda . The match originally went to a 20 @-@ minute time limit draw , but was restarted and Nakajima pinned Honda shortly thereafter . On September 14 , 2008 , Nakajima participated in American promotion Ring of Honor 's second tour of Japan , teaming with Naomichi Marufuji against Kenta and Kota Ibushi in a special tag match . The two teams went to a 30 @-@ minute time limit draw ; the match was restarted , but ended once more in a draw after an additional five minutes expired . The following week on September 20 , Nakajima wrestled his first match in the United States , challenging GHC Junior Heavyweight Champion Bryan Danielson at ROH 's Glory by Honor VII . Danielson would retain his title , making Nakajima submit to the Cattle Mutilation . = = = 2009 = = = Nakajima went to win the GHC Junior Heavyweight Championship from Kenta using his Death Roll at the February 11th Kensuke Office event . A notable fact is that this was the second time Nakajima and Sasaki held the Jr . Heavyweight and Heavyweight titles of the same promotion at the same time , the first being All Japan . He would then lose the GHC Junior Heavyweight Championship back to Kenta via a Go 2 Sleep at the March 1st Pro Wrestling Noah event ; coincidentally , Sasaki would lose the GHC Heavyweight Title later that night . On Nov. 13 Nakajima made his return to Ring of Honor in Novi , Michigan in a losing effort against Kenny Omega . The next night in Mississauga Ontario he was victorious against El Generico in a match that was hard hitting and fast paced . The fans in turn gave Nakajima the " please come back " chant . = = = 2011 – present = = = On September 23 , 2011 , Nakajima defeated Kotaro Suzuki to win the GHC Junior Heavyweight Championship for the second time . However , he was forced to vacate the title just nine days later , after undergoing surgery for acute appendicitis . Nakajima returned on November 27 and defeated Ricky Marvin in a decision match to regain the GHC Junior Heavyweight Championship . On May 9 , 2012 , Nakajima lost the GHC Junior Heavyweight Championship to Yoshinobu Kanemaru , ending his third reign at 164 days . Nakajima along with his mentor Kensuke Sasaki reached the Pro Wrestling Noah Global Tag League final in 2013 , but lost to the team of KENTA and Yoshihiro Takayama . Nakajima then took part in a brief feud with Maybach Taniguchi which culminated at NOAH " GREAT VOYAGE 2013 IN TOKYO " event . Also at the event Naomichi Marufuji recruited Nakajima into is faction " Brave " . On February 11 , 2014 , Nakajima earned his first win over his mentor Kensuke Sasaki in the main event of a show celebrating his tenth anniversary in professional wrestling . The match turned out to be Sasaki 's retirement match . On July 31 , 2015 , Nakajima left Diamond Ring . On December 24 , 2015 , Noah held a press conference announcing that Nakajima would be ending his days as a freelancer and officially joining the promotion on January 1 , 2016 . On February 24 , 2016 , Nakajima picked up the biggest win of his career by defeating Minoru Suzuki in the main event of Noah 's show in Korakuen Hall . As a result , Nakajima was granted a shot at the GHC Heavyweight Championship , but was defeated by Takashi Sugiura on March 19 . = = In wrestling = = Finishing moves Bridging German suplex , sometimes while hooking the opponent 's leg or while applying a straight jacket Diamond Bomb ( Fireman 's carry brainbuster ) – 2014 Multiple kick variations Death Roll ( Jumping spinning calf to back of the opponent 's head ) R @-@ 15 ( High @-@ angle reverse roundhouse to the opponent 's head ) Roundhouse to the opponent 's head Northern Lights Bomb ( Scoop brainbuster ) – adopted from Kensuke Sasaki and Akira Hokuto Twister ( Twisting brainbuster ) – adopted from Masaaki Mochizuki Twister II ( Twisting sitout suplex slam ) – adopted from Masaaki Mochizuki Vertical Spike ( Brainbuster ) Signature moves Ankle lock , sometimes while grapevining the opponent 's leg Lariat Moonsault Multiple kick variations Big boot Drop Jumping high Roundhouse Multiple suplex variations Belly @-@ to @-@ back Northern Lights Underhook Tiger Wheelbarrow Over the shoulder back @-@ to @-@ belly piledriver Nicknames " Young Volcano " " Kats " " The Aggression " Entrance themes " Genius of the Kick " = = Championships and accomplishments = = All Japan Pro Wrestling All Asia Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Kensuke Sasaki World Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) Junior Tag League ( 2008 ) – with Ryuji Hijikata January 3 Korakuen Hall Junior Heavyweight Battle Royal ( 2005 ) Samurai ! TV Cup Triple Arrow Tournament ( 2007 ) – with Kensuke Sasaki and Seiya Sanada Michinoku Pro Wrestling Tohoku Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Kensuke Sasaki New Japan Pro Wrestling Yuko Six Man Tag Team Tournament ( 2004 ) – with Blue Wolf and Shinsuke Nakamura New Wave Award ( 2004 ) Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI ranked him # 49 of the 500 best singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2006 Pro Wrestling Noah GHC Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times ) Leave Cup Scramble Battle Royal ( 2013 ) Global League Tournament Outstanding Performance Award ( 2014 ) Global Tag League Outstanding Performance Award ( 2013 ) – with Kensuke Sasaki Global Tag League Outstanding Performance Award ( 2014 ) – with Naomichi Marufuji Pro Wrestling Zero1 @-@ Max WWA World Junior Light Heavyweight Championship ( Disputed Branch ) ( 1 time ) Tenryu Project Tenryu Project International Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Satoshi Kajiwara Tokyo Sports Fighting Spirit Award ( 2005 ) Rookie of the Year ( 2004 )
= Medieval household = The medieval household was , like modern households , the center of family life for all classes of European society . Yet in contrast to the household of today , it consisted of many more individuals than the nuclear family . From the household of the king to the humblest peasant dwelling , more or less distant relatives and varying numbers of servants and dependents would cohabit with the master of the house and his immediate family . The structure of the medieval household was largely dissolved by the advent of privacy in early modern Europe . Variations were of course great , over an entire continent and a time span of about 1000 years . Yet it is still possible to speak of a classical model of the medieval household , particularly as it evolved in Carolingian France and from there spread over great parts of Europe . = = Aristocratic households = = = = = Historical background = = = Neither Greek nor Latin had a word corresponding to modern @-@ day " family " . The Latin familia must be translated to " household " rather than " family " . The aristocratic household of ancient Rome was similar to that of medieval Europe , in that it consisted – in addition to the paterfamilias , his wife and children – of a number of clients ( clientes ) , or dependents of the lord who would attend upon him , counsel him and receive rewards . Where it differed from its medieval equivalent was in the use of slaves rather than paid servants for the performance of menial tasks . Another difference was that , due to the relative security and peacefulness within the borders of the Roman Empire , there was little need for fortification . The aristocratic household of medieval Europe , on the other hand , was as much a military as a socio @-@ economic unit , and from the 9th century onwards the ideal residence was the castle . = = = Composition = = = As a result of the military nature of the medieval noble household , its composition was predominately male . Towards the end of the medieval period the ratio levelled out somewhat , but at an earlier date the feminine element of the household consisted only of the lady and her daughters , their attendants , and perhaps a few domestics to perform particular tasks such as washing . Many of the male servants were purely military personnel ; there would be a gatekeeper , as well as various numbers of knights and esquires to garrison the castle as a military unit . Yet many of these would also serve other functions , and there would be servants entirely devoted to domestic tasks . At the lower level , these were simply local men recruited from the localities . The higher level positions – in particular those attending on the lord – were often filled by men of rank : sons of the lord 's relatives , or his retainers . The presence of servants of noble birth imposed a social hierarchy on the household that went parallel to the hierarchy dictated by function . This second hierarchy had at its top the steward ( alternatively seneschal or majordomo ) , who had the overriding responsibility for the domestic affairs of the household . Taking care of the personal wellbeing of the lord and his family were the Chamberlain , who was responsible for the chamber or private living @-@ quarters , and the Master of the Wardrobe , who had the main responsibility for clothing and other domestic items . Of roughly equal authority as the steward was the marshal . This officer had the militarily vital responsibility for the stables and horses of the household ( the " marshalsea " ) , and was also in charge of discipline . The marshal , and other higher @-@ ranking servants , would have assistants helping them perform their tasks . These – called valet de chambres , grooms or pages , ranking from top to bottom in that order – were most often young boys , although in the larger royal courts the valet de chambres included both young noble courtiers , and often artists , musicians and other specialists who might be of international repute . Assigning these the office of valet was a way of regularising their position within the household . One of the most important functions of the medieval household was the procuration , storage and preparation of food . This consisted both in feeding the occupants of the residence on a daily basis , and in preparing larger feasts for guests , to maintain the status of the lord . The kitchen was divided into a pantry ( for bread , cheese and napery ) and a buttery ( for wine , ale and beer ) . These offices were headed by a pantler and a butler respectively . Depending on the size and wealth of the household , these offices would then be subdivided further . The following is a list of some of the offices one could expect to find in a large medieval aristocratic or royal household : In addition to these offices there was a need for servants to take care of the hunting animals . The master huntsman , or the veneur , held a central position in greater noble households . Likewise , the master falconer was a high @-@ ranking officer , often of noble birth himself . There were spiritual needs to be cared for , and a chapel was a natural part of every large household . These household chapels would be staffed by varying numbers of clerics . The chaplains , confessors and almoners could serve in administrative capacities as well as the religious ones . = = = Noble households = = = The households of medieval kings were in many ways simply aristocratic households on a larger scale : as the Burgundian court chronicler Georges Chastellain observed of the splendidly ordered court of the dukes of Burgundy , " after the deeds and exploits of war , which are claims to glory , the household is the first thing that strikes the eye , and which it is , therefore , most necessary to conduct and arrange well . " In some ways though , they were essentially different . One major difference was the way in which royal household officials were largely responsible for the governance of the realm , as well as the administration of the household . The 11th century Capetian kings of France , for instance , " ruled through royal officers who were in many respects indistinguishable from their household officers . " These officers – primarily the seneschal , constable , butler , chamberlain and chancellor – would naturally gain extensive powers , and could exploit this power for social advancement . One example of this is the Carolingians of France , who rose from the position of royal stewards – the Mayors of the Palace – to become kings in their own right . It was the father of Charlemagne , Pepin the Short , who gained control of government from the enfeebled Merovingian king Childeric III . Another example can be found in the royal House of Stuart in Scotland , whose family name bore witness to their background of service . Eventually the central positions of the royal household became little else than honorary titles bestowed upon the greatest families , and not necessarily even dependent on attendance at court . In Flanders , by the thirteenth century , the offices of constable , butler , steward and chamberlain had become the hereditary right of certain high noble families , and held no political significance . Finally , the royal household differed from most noble households in the size of their military element . If a king was able to muster a substantial force of household knights , this would reduce his dependence on the military service of his subjects . This was the case with Richard II of England , whose one @-@ sided dependence on his household knights – mostly recruited from the county of Cheshire – made him unpopular with his nobility and eventually contributed to his downfall . In England , the semi @-@ royal household of Edward of Carnarvon , later Edward II when Prince of Wales , is the earliest for which detailed knowledge can be obtained from sources . = = = Itineration = = = The medieval aristocratic household was not fixed to one location , but could be more or less permanently on the move . Greater nobles would have estates scattered over large geographical areas , and to maintain proper control of all their possessions it was important to physically inspect the localities on a regular basis . As the master of the horses , travel was the responsibility of the marshal . Everything in the noble household was designed for travel , so that the lord could enjoy the same luxury wherever he went . Particularly for kings , itineration was a vital part of governance , and in many cases kings would rely on the hospitality of their subjects for maintenance while on the road . This could be a costly affair for the localities visited ; there was not only the large royal household to cater for , but also the entire royal administration . It was only towards the end of the medieval period , when means of communication improved , that households , both noble and royal , became more permanently attached to one residence . = = = Regional variations = = = The aristocratic society centered on the castle originated , as much of medieval culture in general , in Carolingian France , and from there spread over most of Western Europe . In other parts of Europe , the situation was different . On the northern and western fringes of the continent , society was kin @-@ based rather than feudal , and households were organised correspondingly . In Ireland , the basis for social organisation was the " sept " , a clan that could comprise as many as 250 households , or 1250 individuals , all somehow related . In Viking @-@ age Scandinavia , housing arrangements were more humble than those of contemporary France or England , but also here the greater lords would own grand halls wherein they might entertain large numbers of guests . In the Byzantine Empire , slaves were employed until the end of the Empire , as were eunuchs . Little is known of the living arrangements of the Byzantines , as very few buildings remain . From historical and architectural evidence it is known that , even though castles were rare , the wealthy lived in palaces of varying magnitude , with chapels and gardens , and rich decorations of mosaics and frescoes . = = Common households = = = = = Rural = = = The households of medieval peasant families were naturally smaller than those of the aristocracy , and as such resembled modern households more . The patterns of marriage fluctuated greatly over the course of the Middle Ages . Even though most of the available evidence concerns the higher classes , and the source material for southern Europe is richer than for the rest , it is still possible to make some rough generalisations . It seems clear that the average age of marriage during the Early Middle Ages was comparatively high , in the early twenties , and quite equal for men and women . The reason for this can be found in traditions brought forward from the Germanic tribes , but equally in the fact that habitation was confined to small areas , a factor that enforced restrictions on population growth . As more land was won for cultivation , this trend changed . During the High and Late Middle Ages , women were increasingly married away in their teens , leading to higher birth rates . While women would be married once they reached reproductive age , men had to possess independent means of sustenance – to be able to provide for a family – before entering into marriage . For this reason , the average age of marriage for men remained high , in the mid- to late twenties . Even though peasant households were significantly smaller than aristocratic ones , the wealthiest of these would also employ servants . Service was a natural part of the cycle of life , and it was common for young people to spend some years away from home in the service of another household . This way they would learn the skills needed later in life , and at the same time earn a wage . This was particularly useful for girls , who could put the earnings towards their dowry . The houses of medieval peasants were of poor quality compared to modern houses . The floor was normally of earth , and there was very little ventilation or sources of light in the form of windows . In addition to the human inhabitants , a number of livestock animals would also reside in the house . Towards the end of the medieval period , however , conditions generally improved . Peasant houses became larger in size , and it became more common to have two rooms , and even a second floor . = = = Urban = = = The medieval world was a much less urban society than either the Roman Empire or the modern world . The fall of the Roman Empire had caused a catastrophic de @-@ population of the towns and cities that had existed within the Empire . Between the 10th and 12th centuries , however , a revival of the European city occurred , with an increase in the urbanisation of society . The practice of sending children away to act as servants was even more common in towns than in the countryside . The inhabitants of towns largely made their livelihood as merchants or artisans , and this activity was strictly controlled by guilds . The members of these guilds would in turn employ young people – primarily boys – as apprentices , to learn the craft and later take a position as guild members themselves . These apprentices made up part of the household – or " family " – as much as the children of the master . = = Later perspectives = = Towards the end of the Middle Ages , the functions and composition of households started to change . This was due primarily to two factors . First of all , the introduction of gunpowder to the field of warfare rendered the castle a less effective defence , and did away with the military function of the household . The result was a household more focused on comfort and luxury , and with a significantly larger proportion of women . The second factor that brought about change was the early modern ascendancy of the individual , and focus on privacy . Already in the later Middle Ages castles had begun to incorporate an increasing number of private chambers , for the use both of the lord and of his servants . Once the castle was discarded to the benefit of palaces or stately homes , this tendency was reinforced . This did not mean an end to the employment of domestic servants , or even in all cases a reduction in household staff . What it did mean , however , was a realignment whereby the family – in a genealogical sense – became the cornerstone of the household .
= Vladimír Remek = Vladimír Remek ( born 26 September 1948 ) is a Czech politician and diplomat as well as a former cosmonaut and military pilot . He flew aboard Soyuz 28 from 2 to 10 March 1978 , becoming the first Czechoslovak in space and the only Czech in space . As the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States , and with the entry of the Czech Republic into the European Union , Remek is considered to be the first astronaut from the European Union . Remek was a member of the European Parliament between 2004 and 2013 and , since 2014 , has been the Czech Ambassador to Russia . = = Early life and military career = = Remek was born on 26 September 1948 in the city of České Budějovice . He spent two years studying at the observatory in Kraví hora , Brno between 1962 and 1964 . Remek was influenced by his father , Jozef Remek , himself a military pilot . Remek was an active member both in the Pioneers and the Czechoslovak Union of Youth . He studied mathematics and physics at middle school in Čáslav where he earned awards in track running the 400 @-@ meter , 800 @-@ meter , and 1 @,@ 500 @-@ meter events . Remek graduated in 1966 and proceeded to Vyšší Letecké Učiliště , an aviation school in Košice , where he trained in an Aero L @-@ 29 Delfín . Remek graduated in 1970 and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Czechoslovak Air Force . Remek served as a fighter pilot , flying MiG @-@ 21s in the 1st Fighter Air Regiment . In the 1970s Remek married his first wife , Czech actress Hana Davidová , the daughter of politician Václav David . They had a daughter together , Anna , in 1980 . He had a second daughter , Jana , three years after the first , with his second wife , also called Jana . From 1972 to 1976 , Remek studied at the Gagarin Air Force Academy . Upon his return to Czechoslovakia in 1976 , he was promoted to captain and appointed deputy commander of his fighter regiment , after which Remek went back to Russia to train for the Soviet @-@ led space program . Following his return from space in March 1978 , Remek spent time in the Czechoslovak People 's Army ( ČSLA ) staff as the deputy director of the Flight Research Institute in Prague . In 1986 , Remek became the deputy commander of a flight division based in Čáslav . In 1988 he graduated from Voroshilov @-@ Staff Academy of Soviet Air Force and was appointed to his highest command , as deputy of the 2nd Air Defense Division stationed in Moravia . Following the Velvet Revolution in 1989 , Remek was relegated to a role as Director of the Museum for Aviation and Astronautics in Prague . Following his retirement from the air force in 1995 , Remek represented Czech firm CZ Strakonice and joint venture CZ – Turbo @-@ GAZ in Moscow . = = Intercosmos program = = Remek ( then a Captain ) joined the Intercosmos program in 1976 ; his backup was Oldřich Pelčák , the other Czechoslovak cosmonaut selected to participate with the program . During the flight , Remeck experimented with the Kristall furnace on board the capsule . The mission , coinciding with the 30th anniversary of the Soviet @-@ backed 1948 Czechoslovak coup d 'état , and including Remek , the son of a Czech mother and Slovak father , had propaganda value in stressing Czechoslovak @-@ Soviet cooperation . Remek himself has not denied this although he retains pride in his voyage regardless of the circumstances . He became the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States , and with the entry of the Czech Republic into the European Union , Remek is considered to be the first astronaut from the European Union . After Remek 's March 1978 flight , he was celebrated in his home country with a series of receptions at factories and other civil workplaces . He was also recognized at a ceremony at Prague Castle as a guest of Gustáv Husák , then the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia . On 16 March , Remek and Aleksei Gubarev , the other member of the crew , were awarded the medal Hero of the Soviet Union . Czechoslovak reaction to Remek 's flight included comments about the media 's inundation focused on Remek and the fact that he was only able to journey with a Soviet cosmonaut as if Remek needed a minder . One joke went : " Why didn 't the Soviets send up two Czechoslovak cosmonauts ? Because they would 've landed in West Germany . " Remek himself joked that his Soviet counterpart would slap Remek 's hands off of controls if he touched anything without permission . French astronaut Jean @-@ Loup Chrétien experienced this same behavior onboard Soyuz TM @-@ 7 in 1988 . = = Political career = = Due in part to his previous business contacts in Russia , Remek was appointed to the Czech Embassy in Moscow as a Trade and Economic Counselor . During the 2004 European Parliament election , Remek was a candidate for the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia and , being second on the list behind Miloslav Ransdorf , was elected into the European Parliament . During his first term ( 20 July 2004 to 13 July 2009 ) , Remek was a member of the Confederal Group of the European United Left – Nordic Green Left in the European Parliament . He was a vocal proponent of the EU 's Galileo satellite constellation warning that bureaucratic delay could cede opportunity to the BeiDou , a Chinese competitor . He was reelected in 2009 . When Petr Kolář resigned as the Czech Ambassador to Russia in December 2012 , the ambassadorship sat empty for a year until the President of the Czech Republic , Miloš Zeman , appointed Remek in January 2014 . The appointment met with controversy as it was against the wishes of Zeman 's Foreign Minister , Karel Schwarzenberg . Observers have noted Remek has a friendly history with the Russians and although his communist affiliations are a minority in Russia , his appointment represents Zeman 's pragmatic and pro @-@ Russia stance . = = In popular culture = = Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos discovered an asteroid in September 1978 and named it 2552 Remek after the cosmonaut . Remek is featured in a 2009 independent comedy film called Osadne about three residents from Osadné that seek out Remek at his office in Brussels to help tourism in their town . Sculptor Jan Bartoš created a statue of Remek and Gubarev , which is located at Háje metro station in Prague . Another statue of Remek is located in Košice , Slovakia .
= Cerro Tuzgle = Cerro Tuzgle is a dormant stratovolcano in the Susques Department of Jujuy Province in Argentina . Tuzgle is a prominent volcano of the back @-@ arc of the Andes and lies about 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) east of the main volcanic arc . Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes , it is 5 @,@ 486 metres ( 17 @,@ 999 ft ) high above sea level and was constructed during different stages over a caldera and lava domes . Some major lava flows emanate from the summit crater , and one confirmed and one possible flank collapse unit as well as an ignimbrite sheet are associated with this volcano . The first volcanic activity of Tuzgle occurred 650 @,@ 000 years ago and formed the Tuzgle Ignimbrite . Subsequently , lava domes were erupted and three lava flow units were named San Antonio , Azufre , and Tuzgle . The latest lava flows are dated at 17 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 5 Ma and volcanic activity may have continued into the Holocene . Several thermal springs are associated with the volcano , and some have been investigated for possible geothermal energy production . Sulfur was formerly mined on the mountain . Argentina 's National Route 40 runs along the foot of the volcano . = = Geology and geography = = = = = Regional setting = = = Volcanic activity as well as general tectonism in the Central Andes is caused by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American plate at a horizontal pace of 10 centimetres per year ( 3 @.@ 9 in / year ) or 65 millimetres per year ( 0 @.@ 081 in / Ms ) forming the Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) between latitude 16 and 28 ° south . Starting with activity in the Coastal Cordillera during the Jurassic ( La Negra formation ) , this has caused spatially complex patterns of volcanic activity as well as the formation of the Altiplano @-@ Puna highland with dimensions of 3 @,@ 000 by 200 by 3 @.@ 7 – 4 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 864 @.@ 1 mi × 124 @.@ 3 mi × 2 @.@ 3 mi – 2 @.@ 5 mi ) . Maximum deformation occurred during the late Miocene , with the formation of tectonic highs and lows . Small andesitic @-@ basaltic volcanic centres of Quaternary age are associated with faulting . Seismic activity is still ongoing at the edge of the Puna , indicating thrusting . The crust beneath the CVZ is 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) thick . A steepening of the subduction zone during the Late Miocene has been linked to an increase in volcanic activity and its westward migration , but it is unlikely that the pattern of activity in the southern Puna next to the Toro fault zone can be explained through this alone . A large low velocity and low seismic attenuation anomaly is found between 20 and 24 ° latitude south . Some geologic evidence , including geochemistry and geographic indicators , imply that lithospheric detachment did occur beneath the southern Puna . Several major fault zones run across the Puna in the area , the most important being the Toro lineament to the south of Tuzgle . On this lineament , which has been subject to left @-@ lateral displacement , are aligned several Pleistocene volcanoes , including Cordon Puntas Negras , Rincon , Tul Tul @-@ Del Medio @-@ Pocitos , Quevar , and Tastil ( from north to south ) ( as well as the Negra Muerta volcanic complex ) . A segment named the Chorrillos fault is located directly south of Tuzgle . The segment of the Toro fault closest to Tuzgle has been active recently . Based on displacements along two monogenetic volcanoes , slip rates of 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 16 millimetres per year ( 0 @.@ 000100 – 0 @.@ 000200 in / Ms ) have been estimated . The shoshonitic San Geronimo and Negro de Chorillos scoria cones and lava flows , as well as Antuco hot springs and travertine deposits ( 24 ° 10 ′ S 66 ° 40 ′ W ) , are also linked to the Toro fault zone and thermal waters flowing along it . Volcanic activity in the area occurred during two separate phases , the first one between 17 @.@ 15 mya and 5 @.@ 3 mya that generated a large number of volcanic centres , with a much more limited phase of activity since 1 @.@ 5 mya associated with the Diaguita phase of Andean deformation . = = = Local setting = = = Tuzgle is a dormant stratovolcano in the Susques Department of Jujuy Province in Argentina . It is a prominent back @-@ arc volcanic centre in the Andes located about 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) east of the main volcanic arc . Cerro Tuzgle lies within a geological depression in the Puna bordered by normal faults . The depression dates back to the Ordovician and slopes northward from 4 @,@ 400 metres ( 14 @,@ 400 ft ) altitude on the southern side to 4 @,@ 100 metres ( 13 @,@ 500 ft ) altitude on the northern side . A low gravity field anomaly is also found in the area . The basement consists of fractured rocks of Precambrian @-@ Ordovician age , known as the Puncoviscana Formation and Faja Eruptiva , respectively , overlain with an impermeable Cretaceous unit named the Pirgua Formation . Volcanism in the area has existed since the Miocene , involving lava domes , ignimbrite eruptions ( the 0 @.@ 6 mya Tuzgle ignimbrite ) and monogenetic volcanism . Volcanoes located south of Tuzgle are Aguas Calientes , Negro de Chorrillos and San Jeronimo . This region belongs to the back @-@ arc region of the Andes , and the formation of melts is dependent on the melting of a heated mantle , whereas melt generation under the arc proper is dependent on the interaction between fluids and mantle rocks , leading to a reduction in their melting point . There is tomographic evidence that lithospheric delamination is currently underway beneath Tuzgle . The highest unit of the Cerro Tuzgle volcano is the " Platform " unit , which covers a surface area of 0 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 19 sq mi ) and is capped off by a well @-@ preserved summit crater . It consists of well @-@ preserved blocky lava flows with maximum thicknesses of 30 metres ( 98 ft ) . These are the youngest stages of Tuzgle volcanism and are well preserved . Radiating away from the central summit of the volcano , another lava flow unit forms the so @-@ called Azufre synthem ; these lava flows reach maximum thicknesses of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) and are gray to brownish @-@ red with some evidence of hydrothermal alteration . On the northwestern and southern flanks , lava emission from one emission area down steep slopes form the San Antonio synthem ( unconformity bounded unit ) , with lava flows up to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) thick . These San Antonio stage lavas have been cut by a 1 @.@ 25 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 78 mi ) long fault scarp trending NNE @-@ SSW that may have been formed by a mass failure of the Tuzgle edifice , which was then rebuilt by the Azufre stage lavas . On the northern flank is found a volcaniclastic fan with a surface area of 12 square kilometres ( 4 @.@ 6 sq mi ) , a volume of 0 @.@ 5 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 12 cu mi ) and thicknesses of 30 – 40 metres ( 98 – 131 ft ) , presumably , considering its geochemical composition , formed by a mass failure of the San Antonio stage edifice . The scarp was probably formed by the same event but was not accompanied by explosive activity or a pyroclastic flow . This flank collapse may have been triggered by magma injection . A structure on the southern side of the volcano may also be a collapse scar , but no deposit is identifiable . A weakness zone running east @-@ west cuts across the Tuzgle edifice , and some volcanic features are aligned along this weakness . A 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) wide feeder dyke has been modelled and is associated with this weakness zone . The youngest- and best @-@ exposed lava flow of Cerro Tuzgle originated in a group of three depressions bordered by 1 – 2 metres ( 3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in ) scoria ridges . These depressions , presumably eruption fissures , are arranged in en echelon order . This youngest lava flow has a structure between block lava and aa lava . In non @-@ volcanic terms patterned ground is found resulting from pre @-@ glacial processes . Tuzgle is underpinned by a plateau formed by mostly unwelded ignimbrites , while the so @-@ called " Pre @-@ platform " , " Platform " , " Post @-@ platform " and " Young Flow " units make up the central volcano . The moderately crystal @-@ rich ignimbrite has a volume of 0 @.@ 5 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 12 cu mi ) and is 80 metres ( 260 ft ) thick , and was presumably emitted from a caldera now buried by the Cerro Tuzgle edifice . Circular lava domes ( 50 metres ( 160 ft ) thick at a maximum ) are found in the southeastern , eastern and northern sector of the volcano and may have formed along ring dykes associated with the caldera . A high electrical conductivity zone beneath Tuzgle may constitute a magma chamber embedded within porous material containing saline fluids with the bottom at a depth of at least 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) and the top at a depth of 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . Crustal silicic magmas gave rise to ignimbrites from depths of 15 – 18 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 2 mi ) . The magma chamber appears to be placed next to a crustal decollement at 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . Thermobarometric data also indicate a magma origin depth of 10 – 20 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 – 12 @.@ 4 mi ) . Beneath Tuzgle , a high seismic attenuation plume rises from an earthquake cluster at 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) depth up to the volcano and is probably linked to asthenospheric upwelling . In the ground beneath Tuzgle , seismic tomography has found a 18 @-@ kilometre ( 11 mi ) thick layer of low velocity , probably linked to a lower density of the rock , at a depth of 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) . Magnetotelluric analysis has found several deep ( 1 – 85 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 – 52 @.@ 82 mi ) ) conductive layers and one shallow one , possibly formed by the aquifers in the area . Another high conductivity body southeast of Tuzgle is associated with the Toro lineament and the Queva volcano and may also be hydrothermal in origin . = = = Composition and origin = = = The Tuzgle volcano proper is constructed from an older rhyodacite @-@ mafic series and a more recent series constructed from andesites alone . These and neighbouring shoshonitic centres are formed from magmas with crustal contamination . Isotope analysis of magmatic rocks have shown La / Nb ratios of 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 6 and Ba / Ta ratios of 160 – 260 , lower than in the main volcanic front . The overall chemical composition is potassium @-@ rich calc @-@ alkaline . Thermobarometry indicates that the older magmas crystallized at pressures of 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 gigapascals ( 36 @,@ 000 – 73 @,@ 000 psi ) while younger ones crystallized at 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 6 gigapascals ( 73 @,@ 000 – 87 @,@ 000 psi ) and temperatures of about 760 ° C ( 1 @,@ 400 ° F ) . These magma compositions indicate that the magmas are the result of complex mixing processes and also involve the transitional nature of the mantle beneath Tuzgle , where the more northern steep slab encounters the shallower southern subducting slab . Crystal fractionation and melting of upper crustal rocks further complicate the pattern . The lava domes which were erupted from the ground after the Tuzgle ignimbrite have volumes of 3 @.@ 5 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 84 cu mi ) , while the Platform and subsequent units have volumes of 0 @.@ 5 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 12 cu mi ) . The lava domes and San Antonio lava flows have porphyritic surfaces . San Antonio lavas contain large plagioclase xenocrystals and xenoliths . The ignimbrite contains Ordovician lithic fragments and 10 – 20 % pumice . Its eruption was presumably linked to high mantle melt rates ; the resulting mafic magmas induced the generation of large amounts of silicic melts . Lower mantle melt rates would form mafic melts that incorporate silicic melts before erupting . = = = Activity = = = The oldest activity is an ignimbrite erupted 0 @.@ 65 ± 0 @.@ 18 mya , called the Tuzgle ignimbrite . On the rim of the caldera left by this eruption is a lava dome complex named the Old Complex Unit . 0 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 1 mya ago effusive activity commenced with the Pre @-@ platform and Platform units that were then followed by a tectonic event that dissected these units . Afterwards , the Post @-@ platform and Young Flow Units were erupted . The youngest unit is latitic and was dated 0 @.@ 1 ± ( 0 @.@ 1 @-@ 0 @.@ 3 ) mya ago . This unit may be Holocene or Pleistocene – Holocene in age . It is possible that the continuing activity of the Chorrillos fault zone is compressing the magma chamber and feeder dyke of Tuzgle , thus impeding eruptive activity . The well @-@ preserved summit crater and youthful @-@ looking lava flows have been assigned Holocene ages . = = = Geothermal area and sulfur = = = The area around Cerro Tuzgle has a high geothermal gradient of 0 @.@ 4 degrees Celsius per metre ( 0 @.@ 22 ° F / ft ) , and geothermal studies indicate temperatures of over 400 ° C ( 752 ° F ) at depth . Hot springs ( with temperatures around 57 ° C ( 135 ° F ) ) are also found in the area . The Miocene ignimbritic Trinchera formation may be a geothermal reservoir and the later Miocene – Pliocene sedimentary Pastos Chicos Formation a seal above it . This geothermal reservoir is 50 – 300 metres ( 160 – 980 ft ) deep beneath the earth and 100 – 600 metres ( 330 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) thick . A deeper reservoir is also presumed to exist at a depth of 2 – 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 5 mi ) . Selected hot springs include Tuzgle – Agua Caliente ( 40 – 56 ° C ( 104 – 133 ° F ) , 24 ° 01 ′ 44 @.@ 46 ″ S 66 ° 31 ′ 24 @.@ 42 ″ W ) , Las Minas ( 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) ) Pompeya ( 24 ° 14 ′ 48 @.@ 12 ″ S 66 ° 21 ′ 45 @.@ 3 ″ W ) , Mina Betty ( 24 ° 06 ′ 31 @.@ 26 ″ S 66 ° 27 ′ 28 @.@ 92 ″ W ) and Tocomar ( 24 ° 11 ′ 18 @.@ 9 ″ S 66 ° 33 ′ 11 @.@ 76 ″ W ) . The water enters the geothermal system in ridges above 4 @,@ 500 metres ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) altitude which are not covered by impermeable layers . Two maars have been found in the Tocomar area . Further , the Antuco travertine and hot springs may be associated with heat flow from the Tuzgle volcanic system . The Tuzgle area has been identified as a possible site for geothermal energy production in Argentina with an energy potential of < 0 @.@ 1 megawatts ( 130 hp ) . These were explored in the 1980s and 1990s , yielding evidence of temperatures 133 – 142 ° C ( 271 – 288 ° F ) . In 2015 a company named Geotermina Andina had six concessions in the area for geothermal drilling . The location of a main power line between Chile and Argentina close to Tuzgle may assist in power generation , and some hot springs could be exploited for tourism . Sulfur deposits generated from hydrothermal alteration are found on Cerro Tuzgle . They are mostly associated with the Azufre synthem and were previously mined on the southern , eastern and western flanks of the volcano . The mines are now abandoned . Arsenic is also found in the groundwater and presumably comes from Tuzgle . = = Climate and vegetation = = The climate of the Puna is arid , with most precipitation originating in the Amazon basin . During the Last Glacial Maximum , a humid period occurred ( possibly directed by orbital changes and monsoon activity ) , whereas preceding glacial periods were associated with dry phases in travertine deposits at Antuco . Temperatures are usually less than 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) in the Puna with extremes of 16 – − 4 ° C ( 61 – 25 ° F ) . Winds usually blow from the west in the dry winter season , with wetter easterly winds arriving during summer . Precipitation in San Antonio de los Cobres ( 24 ° 13 ′ 32 ″ S 66 ° 19 ′ 9 ″ W ) southeast of Tuzgle amounts to 100 millimetres per year ( 0 @.@ 12 in / Ms ) . Vegetation is largely missing from the Puna plateau in the area of Tuzgle , which has facilitated the mapping of lava flows from Cerro Tuzgle . A steppe @-@ like vegetation dominated by herbs grows on the slopes of Tuzgle , containing taxa like Festuca , Poa and Stipa as elsewhere on the Puna .
= Save Our Children = Save Our Children , Inc. was a political coalition formed in 1977 in Miami , Florida to overturn a recently legislated county ordinance that banned discrimination in areas of housing , employment , and public accommodation based on sexual orientation . The coalition was publicly headed by celebrity singer Anita Bryant , who claimed the ordinance discriminated against her right to teach her children biblical morality . It was a well @-@ organized campaign that initiated a bitter political fight between unprepared gay activists and highly motivated Christian fundamentalists . When the repeal of the ordinance went to a vote , it attracted the largest response of any special election in Dade County 's history , passing by 70 % . Save Our Children was the first organized opposition to the gay rights movement , whose beginnings were traced to the Stonewall riots in 1969 . The defeat of the ordinance encouraged groups in other cities to attempt to overturn similar laws . In the next year voters in St. Paul , Minnesota , Wichita , Kansas , and Eugene , Oregon overturned ordinances in those cities , sharing many of the same campaign strategies that were used in Miami . Save Our Children was also involved in Seattle , Washington , where they were unsuccessful , and heavily influenced Proposition 6 — a proposed state law in California that would have made the firing of openly gay public school employees mandatory — that was rejected by California voters in 1978 . Historians have since connected the success of Save Our Children with the organization of conservative Christian participation in political processes . Although forceful Christian involvement had not taken a widespread role in politics in the United States since 1925 , within two years the Reverend Jerry Falwell developed a coalition of conservative religious groups named the Moral Majority that influenced the Republican Party to incorporate a social agenda in national politics . Homosexuality , the Equal Rights Amendment ( ERA ) , abortion , and pornography were among the issues most central to the Moral Majority 's priorities until it folded in 1989 . For many gay people , the surprise at the outcome of all the campaigns in 1977 and 1978 instilled a new determination and consolidated activism and communities in many cities where the gay community had not been politically active . = = Background = = On January 18 , 1977 , the Dade County Commission approved a law that would outlaw discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in employment , housing , and public services . Commissioner Ruth Shack proposed the bill on December 7 , 1976 at the request of a gay lobbying organization , named the Dade County Coalition for the Humanistic Rights of Gays , that was less than a year old . The group was headed by three gay activists : Jack Campbell , an owner of 40 gay bathhouses across the United States , political and gay activist Bob Basker , and Bob Kunst , a local publicist and enthusiast of the Human Potential Movement . = = = Homosexuality in Miami = = = The general attitude about homosexuality in Miami mirrored many other cities across the country . Though gay nightlife in the city had enjoyed the same boisterous existence as other forms of entertainment in the 1930s , by the 1950s , the city government worked to shut down as many gay bars as possible and enacted laws making homosexuality and cross @-@ dressing illegal . From 1956 to 1966 , the Johns Committee of the Florida Legislature actively sought to root out homosexuals in state employment and in public universities across the state , publishing the inflammatory " Purple Pamphlet , " which portrayed all homosexuals as predators and a dire threat to the children of Florida . In the 1960s The Miami Herald ran several stories implying the life of area homosexuals as synonymous with pimps and child molesters , and the local NBC television station aired a documentary entitled " The Homosexuals " in 1966 warning viewers that young boys were in danger from predatory men . The public image of homosexuals changed with liberalized social attitudes of the late 1960s . In 1969 , the Stonewall riots occurred in New York City , marking the start of the gay rights movement . Though gay life in Miami was intensely closeted , and bars were subject to frequent raids , Christ Metropolitan Community Church — a congregation for gay and lesbian Christians in Miami — was founded in 1970 as a religious outlet , attracting hundreds of parishioners . The 1972 Democratic National Convention was held in Miami , featuring , for the first time , a public speech about the rights of gay men and lesbians by openly gay San Francisco political activist Jim Foster . Jack Campbell opened the Miami branch of Club Baths in 1974 . When it was raided , he made sure that all charges against those arrested were dropped , filed a lawsuit against the Miami Police Department prohibiting further harassment , and received a formal apology from the police . Even the depiction of gay men and lesbians in the local newspaper had changed to that of a silent , oppressed minority . By 1977 , Miami was one of nearly 40 cities in the U.S. that had passed ordinances outlawing discrimination against gay men and lesbians . = = = Reaction to the ordinance = = = When the news of the ordinance proposal was reported in December 1976 , a small ripple of protest spread from local churches . Northwest Baptist Church announced it from the pulpit . The news worried one of the church members named Anita Bryant , who was a 36 @-@ year @-@ old singer celebrity . Bryant began her career as a local child star on a television show in Oklahoma City and on Arthur Godfrey 's Talent Scouts . Her young life was marked by frequent moves ; her parents divorced each other twice , and she often lived in poverty conditions , but she became a born again Christian at eight years old , and counted her faith and her participation at church as the stabilizing influences in her life . As a child , she asked God to make her a star . She was , by her own admission , remarkably driven and ambitious . In her older teens she became a beauty pageant contestant , winning Miss Oklahoma and second runner @-@ up as Miss America . In 1960 , she married a Miami disc jockey named Bob Green and became a professional singer , finding some success with three gold records featuring popular , patriotic , and Gospel standards . She performed with the Bob Hope Christmas tour , entertaining troops serving overseas , and sang at President Lyndon Johnson 's funeral in 1973 . Since 1969 she had been employed regionally by the Florida Citrus Commission endorsing Florida orange juice in television commercials . She also advertised for Coca @-@ Cola , Tupperware , Kraft Foods and Holiday Inns . Bryant 's talent agent was married to Ruth Shack ; Bryant had contributed $ 1 @,@ 000 to her campaign . Initially Bryant kept her concerns low @-@ key , despite her pastor 's pleadings to become involved . She wrote a letter to the county commission and called Ruth Shack , expressing her concerns . Her most significant objection to the ordinance was that it would allow homosexuals to work in parochial schools ; all four of Bryant 's children attended a local private Christian school . She admitted she was largely ignorant of any specific dangers homosexuals presented , but when she was sent graphic images of homosexual acts , and shown photos of child pornography by a local police sergeant visiting her church , she was horrified . Bryant credited her inspiration later to her 9 @-@ year @-@ old daughter suggesting God could assist with her cause ; then she decided to take a more public role . At the time of the commission 's vote in January , the boardroom was crowded with people who held some kind of interest in the issue . Busloads of churchgoers arrived from as far away as Homestead and picketed outside ; there was no corresponding organized show of support for the ordinance . Inside the boardroom , supporters and opposers took the entire allotted time to speak . Bryant reflected most of those opposing the law , telling the Dade County Commission , " The ordinance condones immorality and discriminates against my children 's rights to grow up in a healthy , decent community " . The few members of the Dade County Coalition for the Humanistic Rights of Gays who were present were stunned , as was Ruth Shack , at the number and force of the hundreds of protesters who filled the commission room , and held placards and pickets outside . But the ordinance passed by a 5 @-@ 3 vote . = = Dade County ordinance 77 @-@ 4 = = After the ordinance passed , over thirty conservative political professionals and ministers from various faiths met in Bryant and Green 's home to discuss a plan to raise publicity and attempt to get at least 10 @,@ 000 signatures on a petition to force the issue to be decided by a county voter referendum . They approved the name " Save Our Children , Inc . " , and voted Bryant their president , Bob Green treasurer and a man named Robert Brake — a devout Catholic with a record of civil rights participation , but increasingly concerned with the liberalization of Miami city politics — its secretary . With the assistance of a Republican @-@ affiliated advertising executive named Mike Thompson , the coalition eschewed subtlety . They held a press conference where Bryant held a pamphlet about homosexuality she claimed was being distributed at area high schools ( a statement she later retracted ) , and said Dade County homosexuals " are trying to recruit our children into homosexuality " . Far exceeding the required number of signatures , the coalition delivered more than 64 @,@ 000 signatures within six weeks demanding a referendum vote , which the commission set for June 7 , 1977 . = = = Strategy = = = Mike Thompson discovered in a poll taken in March 1977 that women in Dade County opposed repealing the measure two to one ; they saw their gay friends as relatively harmless . Save Our Children 's strategy , therefore , worked to prove that homosexuals were amoral , promiscuous , and defiant of traditional gender roles , and that they were a specific danger to children . Bryant took this strategy as a crusade , delivering speeches that intoned that Dade County 's passing of the ordinance " guts the law on the side of the unrighteous . If homosexuals are allowed to change the law in their favor , why not prostitutes , thieves , or murderers ? " She specifically connected homosexuals with child molesters , saying " Some of the stories I could tell you of child recruitment and child abuse by homosexuals would turn your stomach . " Bryant resented the media depiction of her as hateful , saying that her inspiration came " out of love — not only love for God 's commandment and His word , but love for my children and yours . Yes , and even love for all sinners — even homosexuals . " The Save Our Children campaign produced a local television commercial showing the " wholesome entertainment " of the Orange Bowl Parade ( which Bryant hosted ) , contrasting that with highly sexualized images of the San Francisco Gay Freedom Day Parade , including men in leather harnesses kissing each other , dancing drag queens , and topless women . The commercial 's announcer accused Miami 's gay community of trying to turn Miami into the " hotbed of homosexuality " that San Francisco had become . Full @-@ page newspaper ads were run in The Miami Herald , showing collections of headlines announcing teachers having sex with their students , children in prostitution rings , and homosexuals involved with youth organizations , followed by the question " Are all homosexuals nice ? ... There is no ' human right ' to corrupt our children . " Though Miami was not the first community to overturn a sexual orientation civil rights law , the Save Our Children campaign became a national political cause . Bryant became the focus of the campaign , as noted by her husband that she was the " first person with a name " to become vocal about homosexuality ; gay activists agreed , saying that other cities " haven 't had a major personality come out and create a witch hunt . People have lost sight of the issue ; the controversy has become personality oriented " . In opposition to her , Bob Kunst , who had experience as the publicist of the local municipal soccer team , the Miami Toros , was a familiar name to the local press . Kunst , however , remained determined to act as an individual , often taking opportunities to give his views to the press that were not condoned by the Dade County Coalition on the Humanistic Rights of Gays . He took the view that it was the sexually enlightened stance to pass the ordinance , and those who opposed it were uptight , including , near the end of the campaign , Florida Governor Reubin Askew . He gave interviews addressing sexual liberation for gay and straight people , in which he freely spoke about oral and anal sex . = = = Outside help = = = Homosexuals in Miami were not well @-@ connected or experienced enough to combat the coalition led by Bryant , so they invited two political organizers to the city : Ethan Geto from New York and Jim Foster from San Francisco , both of whom were gay . Foster and Geto faced battles not only with the Save Our Children campaign , but the disjointed and often closeted gay community in Miami . When organizations outside of Florida promoted boycotting Florida orange juice , Jack Campbell disagreed , worried that an economic backlash in the state would work against local gay men and lesbians . Ruth Shack saw the issue simply , as one of civil rights ; Geto and Foster agreed . Bob Kunst soon broke away from the campaign to promote the orange juice boycott , and his views were often printed in the newspapers to Geto 's alarm . Save Our Children also received help from outside the area . North Carolina senator Jesse Helms offered his staff and funding from the Congressional Club , and wrote in his column that he was proud of Bryant : " I have pledged my full support to her ... She is fighting for decency and morality in America — and that makes her , in my book , an all @-@ American lady " . Pastor Jerry Falwell from Lynchburg , Virginia lent his support during visits and with the appearance of B. Larry Coy , who served as a marriage counselor to Bryant and Green . Coy and Green took over management of Bryant 's ministries . Two months before the referendum vote , Bob Green , speaking for Bryant , vowed to lead her cause in all cities in the United States that protected sexual orientation from discrimination , saying that gay activists waged a " disguised attack on God " , and Bryant would " lead such a crusade to stop it as this country has not seen before " . As information was distributed against the referendum , as much literature was spread expressing local dissatisfaction with Bryant . T @-@ shirts and campaign buttons were produced , showing " Anita Bryant Sucks Oranges " and " Squeeze a fruit for Anita " . = = = Media = = = According to Florida Atlantic University Communications professor Fred Fejes , mainstream newspapers and magazines in the 1970s were hesitant to cover the issues of homosexuality or Christian fundamentalism in detail . Media prided themselves on objective reporting without Biblical judgment and at the same time , reporting was a homophobic profession that suppressed openly gay reporters and rarely addressed topics involving homosexuality . As a result , during the 1970s fundamentalist Christians began to develop broadcasting over radio and television in the forms of The 700 Club run by Pat Robertson , PTL Club hosted by Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker , and Jerry Falwell 's Old Time Gospel Hour . These shows originated as praise and worship @-@ oriented , but slowly incorporated political themes interspersed with messages of Christian faith . Bryant 's appearances on the 700 Club and the PTL Club netted the Save Our Children campaign $ 25 @,@ 000 in donations , and assured her a position as a national spokesperson for traditional Christian values . However , when addressing a secular audience , Bryant was not as successful . During debates with Kunst and Shack she rarely made points that went beyond Bible quotes , and prayed when pressed to provide statistics on homosexuals as child molesters . At another appearance , she broke into " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " to take up time after she had read a pre @-@ written statement . As California was experiencing a drought , Bryant connected it to their tolerance of liberals and homosexuals , and suggested that other morality laws should be enforced , such as those against adultery and cohabitation out of wedlock . Mike Thompson and Robert Brake soon restricted her to primarily religious shows . At the same time , the gay community promoted their causes using specialty magazines and newspapers . The Advocate , a bi @-@ weekly magazine , dedicated every issue starting in April 1977 to raising awareness of the battle taking place in Miami . It was run by David Goodstein , a friend of Jim Foster 's who had worked with Foster to create the first gay Democratic club in the U.S. in the Alice B. Toklas Memorial Democratic Club . Goodstein warned that the fight would not end in Miami if the gay community lost , as did the local gay @-@ focus newspapers of Boston 's Gay Community News and San Francisco 's Bay Area Reporter . Goodstein also suggested Bryant 's primary motivation in her actions was furthering her career , or the beginning of " an organized conspiracy to turn ( gays ) into America 's scapegoats " . Bryant 's star power and her extreme views were highlighted in national news stories . Mainstream news outlets such as The New York Times , Associated Press and Washington Post reported weekly updates on campaign progress , with smaller local newspapers across the country weighing in their editorial opinions on which side should prevail . Bryant appeared on Good Morning America and The Phil Donahue Show . Her tone and accusations united gay men and lesbians in cities all over the U.S. In the weeks before the vote , almost $ 55 @,@ 000 was raised outside of Florida to oppose Save Our Children . Foreshadowing the effectiveness of the Save Our Children campaign , on April 13 , 1977 , the Florida Legislature voted not to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment ( ERA ) , to the astonishment of those anticipating the vote . The connection between the ERA and ordinance 77 @-@ 4 was obvious to many . Florida Senator Dempsey Barron vocally opposed passing the ERA , fearing it would legalize same @-@ sex marriages , force people to use unisex bathrooms , and that it would harm laws meant to protect families . National Organization for Women founder and ERA proponent Betty Friedan expressed her disdain , saying " suddenly you have this red herring in Anita Bryant . Suddenly you have this wave of anti @-@ gay hysteria and then that was preempting the air waves behind the scenes " . Washington D.C. mayor Marion Barry , Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley , President Jimmy Carter all expressed support for the ordinance . In The Miami Herald , 51 members of Dutch Parliament , ministers , and civil rights advocates from the Netherlands ran a full @-@ page ad stating " We , from the land of Anne Frank , know where prejudices and discrimination can lead to " , advising the voters of Miami @-@ Dade to uphold the ordinance to protect the rights of homosexuals . California Assemblyman Willie Brown and San Francisco sheriff Richard Hongisto campaigned respectively for Miami 's black community and law enforcement . Hongisto returned to California saying that Save Our Children made an issue of the existence of San Francisco when Thompson referred to the city as " a cesspool of perversion gone rampant " and Bob Green expressed doubt that saving San Francisco was possible . Reverend Jerry Falwell spoke at a rally as the vote neared , telling the audience , " I want to tell you we are dealing with a vile and vicious and vulgar gang . They 'd kill you as quick as look at you . " = = = Community attitudes = = = Foster and Geto set the public tone of the campaign battling Save Our Children and were determined not to " get down in the gutter with them " , refusing to run an ad showing Bryant in a revealing outfit she had worn while performing in 1971 , nor run commercials to point out that child molesters were primarily heterosexual . However , they also encountered difficulty when local newspapers refused to run ads that were designed to appeal to Miami 's sizable Jewish community , equating Bryant 's rhetoric with the same language that many Miami citizens faced during the Holocaust . Twenty @-@ eight of Miami 's thirty @-@ four rabbis agreed with Bryant and her campaign – the president of the Miami Beach B 'nai B 'rith served as an officer of the Save Our Children coalition . Miami 's Cuban community came together as never before for the campaign , taking the opportunity to register thousands of voters who had never taken part in politics in the city . Bryant actively campaigned to the Cuban community , telling them at a rally , " You came here to get away from one sin ... and it breaks my heart that if Miami becomes another Sodom and Gomorrah you may have to leave here , too . " A Cuban social worker suggested the cause was representative of an older generation of Cuban emigres , worried that their children were being lost in the depravity of Miami . Miami 's archbishop wrote a letter against the gay rights ordinance , and ordered it to be read aloud in all Catholic churches . The response from Miami 's black community was more conflicted . The Miami Times , a widely respected black newspaper , called Bryant 's tactics " pure bullshit " and urged local blacks not to vote for anything that would discriminate against anyone . However , black audiences reacted angrily during an appearance featuring Bryant and another with Kunst and white ministers from the Metropolitan Community Church . Due to the intensely closeted nature of Miami 's gay community at that time , many voters who were not swayed by Bryant 's rhetoric were persuaded instead by her campaign 's point that the law was unnecessary ; they were unable to see the problem of discrimination . Unlike blacks or Cubans , gay men and lesbians were able to find jobs , although they faced dismissal upon their supervisors learning of their sexual orientation . In order to see a complaint through , they would have to remain out , and many lived in constant fear of exposure . Since the advent of second wave feminism earlier in the decade , many lesbians in the U.S. were unable to see themselves as part of the same community with gay men . Accusations from Save Our Children were almost all directed at the behavior of men . As a result , much of the response by gay men was angry and many lesbians took issue with the misogynistic tone gay men used . However , with Bryant representing a common adversary , for the first time in years , gay men and lesbians united to work together on the campaign . = = = Election results = = = The vote results in a special June election were overwhelming . It was the largest turnout in any special election in the history of Dade County . Voters supported repealing the gay rights ordinance by a margin of more than two to one . Bryant danced a jig when the response was announced , and told reporters " All America and all the world will hear what the people have said , and with God 's continued help , we will prevail in our fight to repeal similar laws throughout the nation which attempt to legitimize a life style that is both perverse and dangerous " . National Gay Task Force ( NGTF ) co @-@ director Jean O 'Leary said that the result was " all the evidence anyone could need of the extent and virulence of prejudice against lesbians and gay men in our society " . = = Response = = In New York City , Bella Abzug , who had introduced the first gay civil rights bill in U.S. Congress in 1974 , was awoken at 2 am by people in the street chanting her name . " It was hard not to feel sad for this crowd " , Abzug said of the several hundred people below her window . She was optimistic , telling them the defeat would develop a maturity and determination in gay activism . About the same time that evening , about 3 @,@ 000 gay men and lesbians spontaneously gathered in what had become the largest gay neighborhood in the United States — Castro Street in San Francisco — furious at the loss in Dade County . The crowd marched around the Castro District , chanting " We Are Your Children ! " pulling people out of gay bars to cheers . Local gay activist and future supervisor Harvey Milk led marchers through a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) course through the city , careful not to stop for too long lest rioting began . He addressed the crowd with a bullhorn : " This is the power of the gay community . Anita 's going to create a national gay force " . The day after the vote , Jean O 'Leary and NGTF co @-@ director Bruce Voeller said Bryant was doing " an enormous favor " for the gay community by focusing national media attention on discrimination against them . Several weeks later at the San Francisco Gay Freedom Day Parade , 250 @,@ 000 people attended , becoming the largest attendance at any gay event in U.S. history to that point . The largest group of the parade held large placards of Joseph Stalin , Adolf Hitler , Idi Amin , a burning cross , and Anita Bryant . Other cities also saw greater participation in Gay Pride events . People marching in New York 's Gay Pride observance shouted " No more Miamis " . Thousands of people attended events in Seattle , Boston , Cleveland , and Atlanta . Kansas City observed its first Gay Pride demonstration with 30 people . The largest gay newspaper in Australia used the Dade County vote as a warning advising gay men and lesbians there to " Get off Your Butts " . More than 300 people held a vigil at the American embassy in the Netherlands , accusing the U.S. government of failing to protect their citizens ' human rights . Four thousand marchers in Spain were dispersed by rubber bullets . Gay activists in Paris and London also warned that similar challenges could occur in their cities . In The New York Times , conservative columnist William Safire wrote that Miami 's gay activists had been justifiably defeated : " In the eyes of the vast majority , homosexuality is an abnormality , a mental illness , even — to use an old @-@ fashioned word — a sin . Homosexuality is not the ' alternative lifestyle ' the gay activists profess ; it may be tolerable , even acceptable — but not approvable . " Safire , however , tempered the column ( titled " Now Ease Up , Anita " ) cautioning against Bryant 's promised nationwide crusade designed to lead to further repeal of homosexuals ' " legitimate civil rights " . A Connecticut @-@ based charity for unprivileged children named Save the Children filed an injunction in July 1977 against the Miami coalition to prevent them from using the name , and Bryant from using it as a title for a book she was writing ; Save the Children lost donations due to the confusion between the names . Briefly , the coalition was known as " Protect the Children " and focused completely on moral legislation against militant homosexuality , pornography , and images of sex and violence on television . It was renamed to Anita Bryant Ministries . = = = Violence = = = Two weeks after the Dade County vote , a gardener who worked for the City of San Francisco named Robert Hillsborough was stabbed 15 times in his face and chest while his attackers chanted " Faggot " at him . Hillsborough 's mother and San Francisco mayor George Moscone blamed Bryant 's rhetoric for his death and 200 @,@ 000 San Francisco residents joined a memorial demonstration for him . Mrs. Hillsborough brought a $ 5 million civil suit against Anita Bryant claiming Hillsborough 's attackers said " Here 's one for Anita " . She said , " I didn 't think much about Anita Bryant 's campaign at first . Now that my son 's murder has happened , I think about the Bryant campaign a lot . Anyone who wants to carry on this kind of thing must be sick . My son 's blood is on her hands . " Bryant , Green , Mike Thompson and Save Our Children were dismissed from the suit in November 1977 . Several suicides were connected to the campaign , including a Cuban gay activist in Miami named Ovidio " Herbie " Ramos , who was stunned at the vehemence against homosexuals . He and several other Cuban gay activists participated in a radio call @-@ in show to hear people say homosexuals should be deported , forced into concentration camps , or executed . Ramos shot himself a few days later after telling a friend , " I didn 't know they hated us so much " . Another Cuban gay activist named Manolo Gomez was fired from his job and severely beaten , after which he decided to leave Miami . Gay activists in New Orleans tried to discourage Bryant 's performance with the New Orleans Pops orchestra by connecting local suicides to her campaign . Bryant responded to violence saying , " It made me sad and shocked me that anyone would think I had anything to do with it , but my conscience is clear . I can 't be responsible for how people react to what happened in Dade County . My stand was not taken out of homophobia , but of love for them . " = = = Economic retaliation = = = The economic response to the vote was swift and decisive . Bryant worked only twice during 1977 , and lost most of her paid appearances after that . She had recently finished an album named There 's Nothing Like the Love Between a Man and a Woman ; record companies chose to not distribute it . Singer Sewing Machines canceled negotiations for a television variety show . She was replaced after ten years of hosting the Orange Bowl Parade by Rita Moreno , who was older and who had recently performed in a gay @-@ themed film , The Ritz . Bryant and Green held a press conference and claimed Bryant was being blacklisted , and that a national conspiracy was underway by the nation 's homosexuals to deprive her of her livelihood . Time magazine called the charge " unlikely " , and network executives denied gay pressure was behind their decision . Bryant 's claim of being blacklisted brought a tide of condemnation against the perceived pressure by gay organizations . Three major newspapers supported Bryant 's right to free speech . Years later , she admitted that some of the statements made about her cancellations were exaggerated for effect , but that the tactic worked against her , as more organizations and companies canceled her performances . Bryant became the butt of jokes on television shows and film , even by former colleague Bob Hope . Everywhere she went in the days after the vote she was met with noisy protests : Norfolk , Virginia — where demonstrators interrupted her presentation so forcefully she began crying — Chicago , and dozens of other cities . The Ku Klux Klan appeared at one of Bryant 's appearances in Huntington , West Virginia claiming they were there to protect her . She attracted the largest gay demonstration in Canadian history when she appeared at a Toronto religious performance . Though she performed and spoke only at revivals and other religious shows , audiences were often less than half the expected number , and many would leave when she came on stage . In Houston Bryant was invited to perform for the Texas State Bar Association two weeks after the Dade County vote . With no cohesive political community , a few gay organizers invited people to protest her appearance at the Hyatt Regency . An organizer estimated for police that 500 people might participate , but guessed because no gay community had responded to a cause before ; police prepared for that number . However , thousands of people swarmed around the hotel chanting loudly enough to drown Bryant 's performance ; a conservative estimate of the participants ' numbers was 2 @,@ 000 . The audience inside could not hear Bryant , and at one point attorneys working with the American Civil Liberties Union walked out and joined the protesters . One of the organizers said that he had never seen so many gay people in one place before , and then made a speech thanking Bryant : " If God in his infinite wisdom had not created Anita Bryant , we would have had to invent her " . He claimed the protest had the same result in Houston as the Stonewall riots . The Florida Citrus Commission reiterated its commitment to Bryant by stating that it " wholeheartedly support ( ed ) " her right to free speech , praising her " courageous leadership on a moral issue that it is tearing up religious and other organizations which have become involved " . The commission received thousands of letters both supporting Bryant 's stance and condemning the commission ; at one point the U.S. Postal Service installed bomb detection equipment for the mail collected for delivery to the Florida Citrus Commission . The publicity director for the Florida Department of Citrus told a reporter from the Associated Press , " The whole Anita thing is a mess . No matter what we decide , we 're only going to lose . I wish she would just resign . " Although in 1979 the commission extended their $ 100 @,@ 000 annual contract with Bryant , they did not renew it in 1980 . = = Other locations = = In the weeks after the Dade County vote , Fort Lauderdale , Gainesville , and Palm Beach , Florida , and Austin , Texas , all rejected ordinances to outlaw discrimination based on sexual orientation . The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development overturned its own rules they had set earlier in the year to allow unmarried and same @-@ sex couples federally financed housing . Newsweek reported that a county government employee who had worked in her position for 15 years had been fired . An openly gay aide to future U.S. senator Paula Hawkins had also been dismissed . Despite the success of the Dade County campaign , activists worked quietly in liberal towns of Aspen , Colorado , Champaign @-@ Urbana , Illinois , Iowa City , Iowa , Wichita , Kansas , and the very liberal Eugene , Oregon to pass gay rights ordinances . = = = Minneapolis – St. Paul = = = Only three weeks before the voter referendum in Dade County , a state gay rights law to protect homosexuals from discrimination in employment , public services , and housing in Minnesota was defeated . The loss was due in large part to the efforts of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis , and once more , caught gay activists completely by surprise . The Twin Cities ' gay community was much more active than Miami 's ; both Minneapolis and St. Paul had passed gay rights laws three years before . State senator Allan Spear — the first openly gay man to be elected to public office in the U.S. — served in St. Paul . Spear called it a " victory for bigots " on the senate floor , then went into his office and cried . A group of guerrilla activists struck Archbishop John Roach a week after the vote by throwing a chocolate cream pie at him as he spoke to receive the National Brotherhood Award from the National Conference of Christians and Jews . Following the pie attack on the archbishop , two of Allan Spear 's colleagues invited Anita Bryant to come to St. Paul to overturn their three @-@ year @-@ old gay rights ordinance , and announced Save Our Children would be opening a branch there . Local activists did not think much of their chances ; a local gay political group invited gays and lesbians in Miami to live in Minneapolis — St. Paul . In an act representing Bryant 's diminished national public profile , in October 1977 Bryant and her husband were in Des Moines , Iowa , discussing an upcoming concert at a press conference when Thom Higgins , an activist affiliated with organizers in Minneapolis , walked up to her in front of cameras and mashed a strawberry rhubarb pie in her face . Bryant was stunned and bowed her head as she and Green held hands and prayed for Higgins . She quickly quipped " At least it 's a fruit pie . " An image of her covered with the pastry appeared on the front page of The New York Times the next day . In December 1977 , however , a petition drive was organized by Temple Baptist Church to put St. Paul 's ordinance to a city @-@ wide vote . Volunteers endured below freezing temperatures to collect more than 7 @,@ 000 signatures ; their leader , Richard Angwin , pastor of Temple Baptist reasoned , " I don 't want to live in a community that gives respect to homosexuals . " Angwin used the same strategy as the Miami campaign , tapping the resources of Bryant , Green , and their pastor in Miami . Jerry Falwell held a rally where Bryant was advertised to appear , but Green replaced her at the last minute . At the rally Angwin told the audience " Homosexuality is a murderous , horrendous , twisted act . It is a sin and a powerful , addictive lust . " Gay activists in St. Paul also borrowed from Miami , taking Jack Campbell 's donor list and some strategies . However , similar to Miami , many gays and lesbians in St. Paul were hesitant to come out and could not make a solid case for discrimination ; most of the activists were from Minneapolis . Gay activists were also split in strategy , much like in Miami . A more mainstream group named the St. Paul Citizens for Human Rights ( SPCHR ) opted to treat the issue as one of civil and human rights . A more radical group of gays named the Target City Coalition — those who had arranged the pieing of the archbishop — saw the issue as one of sexual liberation and grabbed the most media attention by highlighting some of the more flamboyant parts of the gay community . The Advocate wrote that they were " the most stoned @-@ out , off @-@ the @-@ wall , bona @-@ fide crackpots yet to appear in the gay rights cause . " The Target City Coalition invited Bob Kunst to St. Paul , where he spoke of sexual liberation and the need to reach out to gay youth . Allan Spear , supportive ministers , and other members of SPCHR went on local television to debate the civil rights issue . Reverend Angwin stumped Spear and his cohorts by showing them an advertisement placed by the Target City Coalition in a local gay paper appealing to gay teenagers , that offered them " free prostate rubs . " St. Paul 's special election day was April 25 , 1978 . Again , more than the usual number of voters appeared for a special election , who again , overturned the city 's gay rights ordinance by more than two to one . = = = Eugene , Oregon = = = The ordinance that had recently passed in Eugene was met with a different strategy of opposition . Eugene was a college town so liberal the Grateful Dead spent their summers there . A housewife named Lynne Greene rejected the Biblical rhetoric offered by Bryant and instead argued that since gays already had the protection they needed under the law further legislation was unnecessary . Since homosexuality was a chosen lifestyle , they reasoned , homosexuals were not a minority and needed no protection . Acknowledging the rights of gays would lead the law to give them rights to marry , and adopt children . Though gay rights advocates worked differently in Eugene , registering many new voters and seeing lesbians significantly working the campaign for the first time , their opposition worked steadily by canvassing neighborhoods . Most of their volunteers were members of conservative churches , and the message was similar to recent campaigns : " Keep it straight . Our children come first , " but the Eugene campaign lacked the sensational aspect as those in Miami and St. Paul . Once more in nearly a two to one margin , the gay rights ordinance was defeated in Eugene . A poll taken after the vote showed that liberal voters who were not gay simply declined to show up and vote , and those who opposed the ordinance were much more motivated . = = = Wichita , Kansas = = = Anita Bryant lent her support to the effort in Wichita , which was led by a minister named Ron Adrian . They used a similar strategy , printing a full @-@ page ad in The Wichita Eagle with newspaper clippings connecting gays to child molestation . They raised approximately $ 50 @,@ 000 and used the network of churches , local media , and a highly organized grassroots voter registration and mobilization drive . Campaign literature focused on the aspect gay visibility , and the dangers of gays as role models for children : " There is a real danger that homosexual teachers , social workers or counselors , simply by public acknowledgment of their lifestyles , can encourage sexual deviation in children . " In comparison , the very small and closeted gay community raised only $ 6 @,@ 000 ; the National Gay Task Force was so pessimistic they offered no assistance at all . Bryant attended a rally stating the law would give homosexuals " special rights ... and next you will have thieves , prostitutes and people who have relations with St. Bernards asking for the same rights " . The Wichita ordinance was defeated by a five to one margin leaving Ron Adrian ecstatic . = = = Seattle , Washington = = = Seattle in 1977 was a liberal city that had passed a gay rights ordinance in 1973 , and whose mayor had just declared a Gay Pride Week for June . When a police officer named David Estes learned of the mayor 's gesture , he decided to take action . Estes was a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints , and regarded gay men as " mentally disturbed " according to his religious opinion . Estes designed a ballot measure named Initiative Thirteen that would overturn the existing gay rights ordinance , but also allowed the mere accusation of homosexuality to be the basis for dismissal from a job or eviction from a residence . Also included in the proposed law was the prospect of shifting the responsibility of enforcing Initiative Thirteen to a city department already overtaxed with investigating claims of bias against blacks and women . Estes ' organization attracted a $ 3 @,@ 000 donation from Anita Bryant , and her pastor traveled to Seattle to give advice on Estes ' campaign . However , where Estes planned to use the network of conservative churches in the city , many members were discouraged from working with him because he was a Mormon . The tone of the advertising for the campaign was more dire than in Miami ; ads claimed homosexuals were responsible for half the murders and suicides in major cities and half the cases of syphilis . Perhaps the most significant factor of the campaign was Estes ' co @-@ chair , a police officer named Dennis Falk . Two months before election day , Falk shot and killed a suspect who turned out to be a black , mentally retarded , young boy . The black community was furious with Falk , and transferred their anger to Initiative Thirteen . The tone of the Seattle campaign against Initiative Thirteen was different from those in Miami and St. Paul ; it focused consistently on privacy and civil rights . Instead of educating the public about different subcultures in the gay community , they printed effective posters showing an eye peeping through a keyhole and a family living in a fishbowl . High @-@ profile liberal figures , labor unions , and other large organizations including the Church Council of Greater Seattle opposed Initiative Thirteen . David Estes did not have the enthusiasm and momentum modeled by Bryant and other communities though his campaign used many of their tactics . On election day , Initiative Thirteen was rejected by 63 % . = = = California = = = A day after the Dade County repeal , State Assemblyman Art Agnos , who represented portions of San Francisco with a very high population of gays and lesbians , decided not to submit a gay civil rights bill to the state legislature , reasoning that it no longer had any support . California state senator John Briggs , from Fullerton was in the crowd with Anita Bryant the night she and Save Our Children won the Dade County vote . Greatly impressed by the voter turnout , Briggs had designs to win the race for governor of California for 1978 . When he returned from Miami , since there was no gay rights law to overturn , he proposed a law to forbid employing openly gay public school teachers and other workers . The bill , Proposition 6 — nicknamed the Briggs Initiative — was written so broadly that it also allowed the dismissal of any public school employee for supporting gay rights including voting against Proposition 6 , regardless of their sexual orientation . He stated , " What I am after is to remove those homosexual teachers who through word , thought or deed want to be a public homosexual , to entice young impressionable children into their lifestyle " . Briggs announced the proposition on the steps of San Francisco City Hall , after notifying several local gay organizations of his intentions . The city had experienced an influx of so many gay people in the past ten years that they counted as a quarter of its voting population . Gay activists , newly alarmed at the threat to their rights , confronted vice president Walter Mondale at a political rally in San Francisco two weeks after the announcement of Proposition 6 . Mondale ran with Jimmy Carter in 1976 on a platform highlighting human rights as their first priority , and he was there to address the subject pertaining to Latin America . When gay activists interrupted him and demanded he address their issues , he quickly left without a response , and San Francisco Democratic organizers and liberal politicians were furious at the gay activists . Briggs named his organization California Defend Our Children ( CDOC ) to avoid legal problems with the Connecticut charity , and used the same strategies as Save Our Children : collages of newspaper headlines about child molesters , and because a proposition was on the ballot regarding the death penalty in California , CDOC campaign literature urged voters to " act now to help protect your family from vicious killers and defend your children from homosexual teachers " . Briggs placed minister Lou Sheldon in charge of CDOC . A significant difference between the community components in Miami and California was that both Los Angeles and San Francisco had very active and visible gay communities . Founder of Metropolitan Community Church Reverend Troy Perry , who began his career as a charismatic preacher in the Church of God of Prophecy but was rejected for being gay , went on a 16 @-@ day fast to raise $ 100 @,@ 000 and succeeded . Hollywood stars Bette Midler , Lily Tomlin , and Richard Pryor came out in force for the cause , raising another $ 100 @,@ 000 . In January 1978 Harvey Milk took office as a supervisor of San Francisco , and the first openly gay man to be elected to office in California . Briggs campaigned for the measure throughout the state , and held a series of public and televised debates with Milk who was very well received by the media , quick to quip and give print @-@ friendly comments . He often made the front page in newspapers in San Francisco with the outrageous things he said . Milk spoke to 350 @,@ 000 participants of 1978 's San Francisco Gay Freedom Day ; similar numbers were seen in Los Angeles . The strategies of gay activists were once again split . David Goodstein and other professional gay men paid an advertising agency to outline their message , which focused on the threat to privacy and the rights of teachers . In The Advocate , Goodstein urged gays not to live up to stereotypes and let the professionals try to win . However , grassroots efforts by longtime activists such as Morris Kight , who went on a walk across the state to promote voting down the Briggs Initiative , were also effective . Women were highly visible in the campaign , raising about the same amount of money as men . However , when California law was revealed to state that anyone who gave more than $ 50 to the campaign would have to release his or her name , most of the donations came in at $ 49 , including one by Rock Hudson . Due to the broad nature of the law , as it would have allowed the firing of public school employees for the way they voted or spoke their opinions in favor of gay rights , conservative Republican politicians spoke out against it . Primarily , former governor Ronald Reagan voiced his opinion , saying " Prop . 6 is not needed to protect our children . We have that legal protection now . It could be very costly to implement and has the potential for causing undue harm to people . " Reagan 's statement turned public opinion against the proposition almost overnight . Gay activists were not optimistic in light of the record of voter turnout against them in the previous year , but they were overwhelmed to learn that on election day more than a million voters turned out to strike down the proposition . = = Effects on Bryant = = The members of the gay community were not the only people adversely affected by the Save Our Children campaign . Bryant and Bob Green were divorced in May 1979 , in a dispute made public through newspapers . Bryant moved to Alabama and gave a candid interview to Ladies Home Journal in 1980 where she told the details of her marriage during the campaign . She claimed she had been " married for the wrong reasons " and that she and Green had fought regularly , often considering divorce . Green became her manager and she claimed exhaustion due to being booked for every event available , making $ 700 @,@ 000 ( $ 2910935 @.@ 67 in today 's dollars ) in 1976 . She had checked herself into a Christian psychiatric facility in 1973 , and regularly saw psychiatrists and marriage counselors . Her anxiety manifested itself in chest pains , tremors , difficulty swallowing food , and a bout with 24 @-@ hour paralysis during a trip to Israel with the Falwell family . Bryant revealed she had received severe criticism from Christians following her divorce . One Canadian pastor expressed doubt to her that she had " ever met the Lord " , to her humiliation . As a result of the backlash she received from Christians , Bryant had softened her stances on gay rights : " The church needs to be more loving , unconditionally , and willing to see these people as human beings , to minister to them and try to understand . If I had it to do over , I 'd do it again , but not in the same way , " and feminism : " The church needs to wake up and find some way to cope with divorce and women 's problems that are based on Biblical principles . I believe in the long run God will vindicate me . I 've about given up on the fundamentalists , who have become so legalistic and letter @-@ bound to the Bible . " Bryant 's career did not recover . She attempted to stage comebacks in Eureka Springs , Arkansas in 1992 , Branson , Missouri in 1994 ( " People who come to my performances are hungry for the truth . They thank me for reminding them of the importance of God and country . " ) , and Pigeon Forge , Tennessee in 1997 . However , at each venue her audiences dwindled and investors were non @-@ existent . By 2002 , Bryant and her second husband Charlie Dry had claimed bankruptcy in three states . As of 2006 Bryant was living in Oklahoma City . In 2007 Bob Green counted the campaign and its aftermath as factors in strengthening his faith . The breakdown of the marriage he attributed on the pressures put on Bryant , and blamed gays and lesbians for his emotional devastation after the divorce : " Their goal was to put ( Bryant ) out of business and destroy her career . And that 's what they did . It 's unfair . " However , Green said he would not have done it again if he had to : " It just wasn 't worth it ... The trauma , the battling we all got caught up in . I don 't want to ever go back to that . " = = Significance = = = = = Moral Majority = = = The Save Our Children campaign was an intensely focused effort by conservative forces , many of whom received inspiration from previous controversies in the 1970s . Not since the Scopes Trial about the legality of teaching evolution in public schools in 1925 had religious organizations made earnest attempts to influence politics on such a wide scale . Fred Fejes credits the Save Our Children campaign as a significant factor in the rise of conservative Christian activism , noting " This was the beginning of the culture wars " . Ruth Shack points to the connection between the rise of the New Right and the Save Our Children campaign : " Back in 1977 , there was no organized religious right per se . Anita Bryant was a pioneer . " In the late 1970s the Reverend Jerry Falwell moved from presiding over the megachurch Thomas Road Baptist Church in Lynchburg , Virginia and hosting the Old Time Gospel Hour , to being involved in politics . Falwell took credit for defeating the Dade County gay rights ordinance and the failure of the ERA in Florida . He developed a campaign called Clean Up America in 1977 that was a fundraising vehicle for his television show . Falwell sent letters asking for donations , which included questionnaires asking “ Do you approve of known practicing homosexuals teaching in public schools ? ” that he promised would be sent to politicians ; he distributed information about how to put together political groups to influence elections and lawmakers . In 1979 Falwell spearheaded a coalition of religious groups that included Catholics , fundamentalist Protestants , Mormons , and Orthodox Jews that he called the Moral Majority , which developed a branch dedicated to political action . Falwell declared in 1965 that he had no business in politics , but justified his involvement and the inevitable mix of religion and government with evidence that the social problems of abortion , pornography , sexual immorality , and drugs were bringing the United States to a dangerous precipice where communism would prevail over Christianity . Falwell claimed that the grassroots efforts of the Moral Majority — registering millions of voters , informing the public , and using the media — had been a significant factor in the election of President Ronald Reagan . By 1982 they had a budget of $ 1 million and millions of volunteers . Around the same time , gay men were being stricken with AIDS , desperate for money for research and services . Spokesmen for the Moral Majority connected it to God 's will , asserting the general public needed protection from " the gay plague " , and warned , " If homosexuals are not stopped they will infect the entire nation and America will be destroyed . " = = = Gay activism = = = Just as the Save Our Children campaign was a motivational force for conservative Christians , it was also one for gay and lesbian politics . Fejes writes , " While the Stonewall riots of 1969 may have marked the beginning of the modern lesbian and gay movement , the campaigns of 1977 and 1978 marked the emergence of a national politically self @-@ conscious lesbian and gay community " . The birth of a political life for gays and lesbians gave opportunities for national networking as Anita Bryant and those who followed her acted as a virtual lightning rod , attracting a collective anger . Thirty years after the campaign , the Stonewall Library & Archives sponsored an exhibition of the events surrounding the Save Our Children campaign and displayed it at the Broward County Public Library . According to the curator of the exhibit , Bryant is considered " the best thing to happen to the gay rights movement . She and her cohorts were so over the top that it just completely galvanized the gay rights movement " . San Francisco author Armistead Maupin was writing his installments of individual stories in a column for the San Francisco Chronicle titled Tales of the City in 1977 . He remembered , " I know what the battle did for me : It forced me to confront my own residual self @-@ loathing and stare it down once and for all by coming out . " Maupin used the next installment of Tales to have one of his gay characters come out to his parents who , by remarkable coincidence , Maupin had previously established as Florida citrus growers . Political activism in American gay communities was transformed by the arrival of AIDS in the early 1980s . When gay men tried in several desperate measures to follow established political channels to bring attention to a disease that afflicted the most cast out members of society only to meet silence from the government , some used direct action tactics . AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT UP ) , formed by Larry Kramer and others in 1987 , was a response not only to government forces that downplayed or ignored the seriousness of AIDS in the United States , but also to a timid gay community who were not militant enough . Their first act was to march on Wall Street in New York City to protest the high price of AZT and the lack of other drugs to address HIV . They blocked morning rush hour traffic , a civil disobedience action in which several protesters were arrested , and the fledgling organization received national news coverage for their demonstration . ACT UP inspired the establishment of direct action groups Queer Nation , Pink Panthers and the Lesbian Avengers , that concentrated on gay and lesbian rights and protection . While Save Our Children may have been a temporary setback for the gay community in Florida , LGBTs in Florida would go on to win numerous victories in the future , from the re @-@ enactment of the non @-@ discrimination ordinance in Miami @-@ Dade County , to the enactment of such ordinances elsewhere throughout the state , to the legalization of gay adoption to marriage equality .
= Future of the Earth = The biological and geological future of the Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long @-@ term influences . These include the chemistry at the Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long @-@ term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 – 10 km ( 3 @.@ 1 – 6 @.@ 2 mi ) or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100 @-@ light @-@ year radius of the Sun , called a Near @-@ Earth supernova . Other large @-@ scale geological events are more predictable . If the long @-@ term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 – 350 million years . Some time in the next 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at CO 2 concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long @-@ term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a " moist greenhouse " , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7 @.@ 5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit . = = Human influence = = Humans play a key role in the biosphere , with the large human population dominating many of Earth 's ecosystems . This has resulted in a widespread , ongoing mass extinction of other species during the present geological epoch , now known as the Holocene extinction . The large @-@ scale loss of species caused by human influence since the 1950s has been called a biotic crisis , with an estimated 10 % of the total species lost as of 2007 . At current rates , about 30 % of species are at risk of extinction in the next hundred years . The Holocene extinction event is the result of habitat destruction , the widespread distribution of invasive species , hunting , and climate change . In the present day , human activity has had a significant impact on the surface of the planet . More than a third of the land surface has been modified by human actions , and humans use about 20 % of global primary production . The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by close to 30 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution . The consequences of a persistent biotic crisis have been predicted to last for at least five million years . It could result in a decline in biodiversity and homogenization of biotas , accompanied by a proliferation of species that are opportunistic , such as pests and weeds . Novel species may also emerge ; in particular taxa that prosper in human @-@ dominated ecosystems may rapidly diversify into many new species . Microbes are likely to benefit from the increase in nutrient @-@ enriched environmental niches . No new species of existing large vertebrates are likely to arise and food chains will probably be shortened . There are multiple scenarios for known risks that can have a global impact on the planet . From the perspective of humanity , these can be subdivided into survivable risks and terminal risks . Risks that humanity pose to itself include climate change , the misuse of nanotechnology , a nuclear holocaust , warfare with a programmed superintelligence , a genetically engineered disease , or a disaster caused by a physics experiment . Similarly , several natural events may pose a doomsday threat , including a highly virulent disease , the impact of an asteroid or comet , runaway greenhouse effect , and resource depletion . There may also be the possibility of an infestation by an extraterrestrial lifeform . The actual odds of these scenarios are difficult if not impossible to deduce . Should the human race become extinct , then the various features assembled by humanity will begin to decay . The largest structures have an estimated decay half @-@ life of about 1 @,@ 000 years . The last surviving structures would most likely be open pit mines , large landfills , major highways , wide canal cuts , and earth @-@ fill flank dams . A few massive stone monuments like the pyramids at the Giza Necropolis or the sculptures at Mount Rushmore may still survive in some form after a million years . = = Random events = = As the Sun orbits the Milky Way , wandering stars may approach close enough to have a disruptive influence on the Solar System . A close stellar encounter may cause a significant reduction in the perihelion distances of comets in the Oort cloud — a spherical region of icy bodies orbiting within half a light year of the Sun . Such an encounter can trigger a 40 @-@ fold increase in the number of comets reaching the inner Solar System . Impacts from these comets can trigger a mass extinction of life on Earth . These disruptive encounters occur at an average of once every 45 million years . The mean time for the Sun to collide with another star in the solar neighborhood is approximately 3 × 1013 years , which is much longer than the estimated age of the Milky Way galaxy , at 1 – 2 × 1010 years . This can be taken as an indication of the low likelihood of such an event occurring during the lifetime of the Earth . The energy release from the impact of an asteroid or comet with a diameter of 5 – 10 km ( 3 @.@ 1 – 6 @.@ 2 mi ) or larger is sufficient to create a global environmental disaster and cause a statistically significant increase in the number of species extinctions . Among the deleterious effects resulting from a major impact event is a cloud of fine dust ejecta blanketing the planet , which lowers land temperatures by about 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) within a week and halts photosynthesis for several months . The mean time between major impacts is estimated to be at least 100 million years . During the last 540 million years , simulations demonstrated that such an impact rate is sufficient to cause 5 – 6 mass extinctions and 20 – 30 lower severity events . This matches the geologic record of significant extinctions during the Phanerozoic Eon . Such events can be expected to continue into the future . A supernova is a cataclysmic explosion of a star . Within the Milky Way galaxy , supernova explosions occur on average once every 40 years . During the history of the Earth , multiple such events have likely occurred within a distance of 100 light years . Explosions inside this distance can contaminate the planet with radioisotopes and possibly impact the biosphere . Gamma rays emitted by a supernova react with nitrogen in the atmosphere , producing nitrous oxides . These molecules cause a depletion of the ozone layer that protects the surface from ultraviolet radiation from the Sun . An increase in UV @-@ B radiation of only 10 – 30 % is sufficient to cause a significant impact to life ; particularly to the phytoplankton that form the base of the oceanic food chain . A supernova explosion at a distance of 26 light years will reduce the ozone column density by half . On average , a supernova explosion occurs within 32 light years once every few hundred million years , resulting in a depletion of the ozone layer lasting several centuries . Over the next two billion years , there will be about 20 supernova explosions and one gamma ray burst that will have a significant impact on the planet 's biosphere . The incremental effect of gravitational perturbations between the planets causes the inner Solar System as a whole to behave chaotically over long time periods . This does not significantly affect the stability of the Solar System over intervals of a few million years or less , but over billions of years the orbits of the planets become unpredictable . Computer simulations of the Solar System 's evolution over the next five billion years suggest that there is a small ( less than 1 % ) chance that a collision could occur between Earth and either Mercury , Venus , or Mars . During the same interval , the odds that the Earth will be scattered out of the Solar System by a passing star are on the order of one part in 105 . In such a scenario , the oceans would freeze solid within several million years , leaving only a few pockets of liquid water about 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) underground . There is a remote chance that the Earth will instead be captured by a passing binary star system , allowing the planet 's biosphere to remain intact . The odds of this happening are about one chance in three million . = = Orbit and rotation = = The gravitational perturbations of the other planets in the Solar System combine to modify the orbit of the Earth and the orientation of its spin axis . These changes can influence the planetary climate . = = = Glaciation = = = Historically , there have been cyclical ice ages in which glacial sheets periodically covered the higher latitudes of the continents . Ice ages may occur because of changes in ocean circulation and continentality induced by plate tectonics . The Milankovitch theory predicts that glacial periods occur during ice ages because of astronomical factors in combination with climate feedback mechanisms . The primary astronomical drivers are a higher than normal orbital eccentricity , a low axial tilt ( or obliquity ) , and the alignment of summer solstice with the aphelion . Each of these effects occur cyclically . For example , the eccentricity changes over time cycles of about 100 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 years , with the value ranging from less than 0 @.@ 01 up to 0 @.@ 05 . This is equivalent to a change of the semiminor axis of the planet 's orbit from 99 @.@ 95 % of the semimajor axis to 99 @.@ 88 % , respectively . The Earth is passing through an ice age known as the quaternary glaciation , and is presently in the Holocene interglacial period . This period would normally be expected to end in about 25 @,@ 000 years . However , the increased rate of carbon dioxide release into the atmosphere by humans may delay the onset of the next glacial period until at least 50 @,@ 000 – 130 @,@ 000 years from now . On the other hand , a global warming period of finite duration ( based on the assumption that fossil fuel use will cease by the year 2200 ) will probably only impact the glacial period for about 5 @,@ 000 years . Thus , a brief period of global warming induced through a few centuries worth of greenhouse gas emission would only have a limited impact in the long term . = = = Obliquity = = = The tidal acceleration of the Moon slows the rotation rate of the Earth and increases the Earth @-@ Moon distance . Friction effects — between the core and mantle and between the atmosphere and surface — can dissipate the Earth 's rotational energy . These combined effects are expected to increase the length of the day by more than 1 @.@ 5 hours over the next 250 million years , and to increase the obliquity by about a half degree . The distance to the Moon will increase by about 1 @.@ 5 Earth radii during the same period . Based on computer models , the presence of the Moon appears to stabilize the obliquity of the Earth , which may help the planet to avoid dramatic climate changes . This stability is achieved because the Moon increases the precession rate of the Earth 's spin axis ( that is , the precession motion of the ecliptic ) , thereby avoiding resonances between the precession of the spin and precession of the planet 's orbital plane relative to that of Jupiter . However , as the semimajor axis of the Moon 's orbit continues to increase , this stabilizing effect will diminish . At some point , perturbation effects will probably cause chaotic variations in the obliquity of the Earth , and the axial tilt may change by angles as high as 90 ° from the plane of the orbit . This is expected to occur between 1 @.@ 5 and 4 @.@ 5 billion years from now . A high obliquity would probably result in dramatic changes in the climate and may destroy the planet 's habitability . When the axial tilt of the Earth exceeds 54 ° , the yearly insolation at the equator is less than that at the poles . The planet could remain at an obliquity of 60 ° to 90 ° for periods as long as 10 million years . = = Geodynamics = = Tectonics @-@ based events will continue to occur well into the future and the surface will be steadily reshaped by tectonic uplift , extrusions , and erosion . Mount Vesuvius can be expected to erupt about 40 times over the next 1 @,@ 000 years . During the same period , about five to seven earthquakes of magnitude 8 or greater should occur along the San Andreas Fault , while about 50 magnitude 9 events may be expected worldwide . Mauna Loa should experience about 200 eruptions over the next 1 @,@ 000 years , and the Old Faithful Geyser will likely cease to operate . The Niagara Falls will continue to retreat upstream , reaching Buffalo in about 30 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 years . In 10 @,@ 000 years , the post @-@ glacial rebound of the Baltic Sea will have reduced the depth by about 90 m ( 300 ft ) . The Hudson Bay will decrease in depth by 100 m over the same period . After 100 @,@ 000 years , the island of Hawaii will have shifted about 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) to the northwest . The planet may be entering another glacial period by this time . = = = Continental drift = = = The theory of plate tectonics demonstrates that the continents of the Earth are moving across the surface at the rate of a few centimeters per year . This is expected to continue , causing the plates to relocate and collide . Continental drift is facilitated by two factors : the energy generation within the planet and the presence of a hydrosphere . With the loss of either of these , continental drift will come to a halt . The production of heat through radiogenic processes is sufficient to maintain mantle convection and plate subduction for at least the next 1 @.@ 1 billion years . At present , the continents of North and South America are moving westward from Africa and Europe . Researchers have produced several scenarios about how this will continue in the future . These geodynamic models can be distinguished by the subduction flux , whereby the oceanic crust moves under a continent . In the introversion model , the younger , interior , Atlantic ocean becomes preferentially subducted and the current migration of North and South America is reversed . In the extroversion model , the older , exterior , Pacific ocean remains preferentially subducted and North and South America migrate toward eastern Asia . As the understanding of geodynamics improves , these models will be subject to revision . In 2008 , for example , a computer simulation was used to predict that a reorganization of the mantle convection will occur over the next 100 million years , causing a supercontinent composed of Africa , Eurasia , Australia , Antarctica and South America to form around Antarctica . Regardless of the outcome of the continental migration , the continued subduction process causes water to be transported to the mantle . After a billion years from the present , a geophysical model gives an estimate that 27 % of the current ocean mass will have been subducted . If this process were to continue unmodified into the future , the subduction and release would reach an equilibrium after 65 % of the current ocean mass has been subducted . = = = = Introversion = = = = Christopher Scotese and his colleagues have mapped out the predicted motions several hundred million years into the future as part of the Paleomap Project . In their scenario , 50 million years from now the Mediterranean sea may vanish and the collision between Europe and Africa will create a long mountain range extending to the current location of the Persian Gulf . Australia will merge with Indonesia , and Baja California will slide northward along the coast . New subduction zones may appear off the eastern coast of North and South America , and mountain chains will form along those coastlines . To the south , the migration of Antarctica to the north will cause all of its ice sheets to melt . This , along with the melting of the Greenland ice sheets , will raise the average ocean level by 90 m ( 300 ft ) . The inland flooding of the continents will result in climate changes . As this scenario continues , by 100 million years from the present the continental spreading will have reached its maximum extent and the continents will then begin to coalesce . In 250 million years , North America will collide with Africa while South America will wrap around the southern tip of Africa . The result will be the formation of a new supercontinent ( sometimes called Pangaea Ultima ) , with the Pacific Ocean stretching across half the planet . The continent of Antarctica will reverse direction and return to the South Pole , building up a new ice cap . = = = = Extroversion = = = = The first scientist to extrapolate the current motions of the continents was Canadian geologist Paul F. Hoffman of Harvard University . In 1992 , Hoffman predicted that the continents of North and South America would continue to advance across the Pacific Ocean , pivoting about Siberia until they begin to merge with Asia . He dubbed the resulting supercontinent , Amasia . Later , in the 1990s , Roy Livermore calculated a similar scenario . He predicted that Antarctica would start to migrate northward , and east Africa and Madagascar would move across the Indian Ocean to collide with Asia . In an extroversion model , the closure of the Pacific Ocean would be complete in about 350 million years . This marks the completion of the current supercontinent cycle , wherein the continents split apart and then rejoin each other about every 400 – 500 million years . Once the supercontinent is built , plate tectonics may enter a period of inactivity as the rate of subduction drops by an order of magnitude . This period of stability could cause an increase in the mantle temperature at the rate of 30 – 100 ° C ( 54 – 180 ° F ) every 100 million years , which is the minimum lifetime of past supercontinents . As a consequence , volcanic activity may increase . = = = = Supercontinent = = = = The formation of a supercontinent can dramatically affect the environment . The collision of plates will result in mountain building , thereby shifting weather patterns . Sea levels may fall because of increased glaciation . The rate of surface weathering can rise , resulting in an increase in the rate that organic material is buried . Supercontinents can cause a drop in global temperatures and an increase in atmospheric oxygen . This , in turn , can affect the climate , further lowering temperatures . All of these changes can result in more rapid biological evolution as new niches emerge . The formation of a supercontinent insulates the mantle . The flow of heat will be concentrated , resulting in volcanism and the flooding of large areas with basalt . Rifts will form and the supercontinent will split up once more . The planet may then experience a warming period , as occurred during the Cretaceous period . = = = Solidification of the outer core = = = The iron @-@ rich core region of the Earth is divided into a 1 @,@ 220 km ( 760 mi ) radius solid inner core and a 3 @,@ 480 km ( 2 @,@ 160 mi ) radius liquid outer core . The rotation of the Earth creates convective eddies in the outer core region that cause it to function as a dynamo . This generates a magnetosphere about the Earth that deflects particles from the solar wind , which prevents significant erosion of the atmosphere from sputtering . As heat from the core is transferred outward toward the mantle , the net trend is for the inner boundary of the liquid outer core region to freeze , thereby releasing thermal energy and causing the solid inner core to grow . This iron crystallization process has been ongoing for about a billion years . In the modern era , the radius of the inner core is expanding at an average rate of roughly 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 in ) per year , at the expense of the outer core . Nearly all of the energy needed to power the dynamo is being supplied by this process of inner core formation . The growth of the inner core may be expected to consume most of the outer core by some 3 – 4 billion years from now , resulting in a nearly solid core composed of iron and other heavy elements . The surviving liquid envelope will mainly consist of lighter elements that will undergo less mixing . Alternatively , if at some point plate tectonics comes to an end , the interior will cool less efficiently , which may end the growth of the inner core . In either case , this can result in the loss of the magnetic dynamo . Without a functioning dynamo , the magnetic field of the Earth will decay in a geologically short time period of roughly 10 @,@ 000 years . The loss of the magnetosphere will cause an increase in erosion of light elements , particularly hydrogen , from the Earth 's outer atmosphere into space , resulting in less favorable conditions for life . = = Solar evolution = = The energy generation of the Sun is based upon thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium . This occurs in the core region of the star using the proton – proton chain reaction process . Because there is no convection in the solar core , the helium concentration builds up in that region without being distributed throughout the star . The temperature at the core of the Sun is too low for nuclear fusion of helium atoms through the triple @-@ alpha process , so these atoms do not contribute to the net energy generation that is needed to maintain hydrostatic equilibrium of the Sun . At present , nearly half the hydrogen at the core has been consumed , with the remainder of the atoms consisting primarily of helium . As the number of hydrogen atoms per unit mass decreases , so too does their energy output provided through nuclear fusion . This results in a decrease in pressure support , which causes the core to contract until the increased density and temperature bring the core pressure into equilibrium with the layers above . The higher temperature causes the remaining hydrogen to undergo fusion at a more rapid rate , thereby generating the energy needed to maintain the equilibrium . The result of this process has been a steady increase in the energy output of the Sun . When the Sun first became a main sequence star , it radiated only 70 % of the current luminosity . The luminosity has increased in a nearly linear fashion to the present , rising by 1 % every 110 million years . Likewise , in three billion years the Sun is expected to be 33 % more luminous . The hydrogen fuel at the core will finally be exhausted in five billion years , when the Sun will be 67 % more luminous than at present . Thereafter the Sun will continue to burn hydrogen in a shell surrounding its core , until the increase in luminosity reaches 121 % of the present value . This marks the end of the Sun 's main sequence lifetime , and thereafter it will pass through the subgiant stage and evolve into a red giant . By this time , the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies should be underway . Although this could result in the Solar System being ejected from the newly combined galaxy , it is considered unlikely to have any adverse effect on the Sun or planets . = = = Climate impact = = = Once the core hydrogen is exhausted in five billion years , the Sun will expand into a subgiant phase and slowly double in size over about half a billion years . It will then expand more rapidly over about half a billion years until it is over two hundred times larger than today . With the increased surface area of the Sun , the amount of energy emitted will increase . Unless Earth 's orbital radius increases significantly , the global temperature of the Earth will climb because of the rising luminosity of the Sun . As global surface temperatures continue to rise , more water will start to evaporate away into space . The current atmospheric escape rate of hydrogen in the oceans is approximately one meter of oceans every billion years , but as the Sun continues to warm , the rate will increase to at least one meter of ocean every million years . The gradual loss of Earth 's water will ultimately cause plate tectonics to gradually slow down and grind to a halt as water is a lubricant for tectonic activity and with all water gone , the crust will dry out and become too hard to be subducted into the mantle . With the cessation of plate tectonics , no more carbon will be released into the atmosphere via volcanic activity nor will be subducted into the ocean floor , therefore causing the carbon cycle to cease altogether . However , geoscientist James Kasting says the oceans may evaporate much earlier , in about a billion years . The rate of weathering of silicate minerals will increase as rising temperatures speed up chemical processes . This in turn will decrease the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , as these weathering processes convert carbon dioxide gas into solid carbonates . Within the next 600 million years from the present , the concentration of CO 2 will fall below the critical threshold needed to sustain C3 photosynthesis : about 50 parts per million . At this point , trees and forests in their current forms will no longer be able to survive , the last living trees being evergreen conifers . However , C4 carbon fixation can continue at much lower concentrations , down to above 10 parts per million . Thus plants using C4 photosynthesis may be able to survive for at least 0 @.@ 8 billion years and possibly as long as 1 @.@ 2 billion years from now , after which rising temperatures will make the biosphere unsustainable . Currently , C4 plants represent about 5 % of Earth 's plant biomass and 1 % of its known plant species . For example , about 50 % of all grass species ( Poaceae ) use the C4 photosynthetic pathway , as do many species in the herbaceous family Amaranthaceae . When the levels of carbon dioxide fall to the limit where photosynthesis is barely sustainable , the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is expected to oscillate up and down . This will allow land vegetation to flourish each time the level of carbon dioxide rises due to tectonic activity and animal life . However , the long term trend is for the plant life on land to die off altogether as most of the remaining carbon in the atmosphere becomes sequestered in the Earth . Some microbes are capable of photosynthesis at concentrations of CO 2 of a few parts per million , so these life forms would probably disappear only because of rising temperatures and the loss of the biosphere . Plants — and , by extension , animals — could survive longer by evolving other strategies such as requiring less CO 2 for photosynthetic processes , becoming carnivorous , adapting to desiccation , or associating with fungi . These adaptations are likely to appear near the beginning of the moist greenhouse ( see further ) . The loss of plant life will also result in the eventual loss of oxygen as well as ozone due to chemical reactions in the atmosphere and volcanic eruptions , meaning less attenuation of DNA @-@ damaging ultraviolet radiation , as well as the death of animals ; the first animals to disappear would be large mammals , followed by small mammals , birds , amphibians and large fish , reptiles and small fish , and finally invertebrates . In their work The Life and Death of Planet Earth , authors Peter D. Ward and Donald Brownlee have also argued that some form of animal life may continue even after most of the Earth 's plant life has disappeared . Ward and Brownlee use fossil evidence from the Burgess Shale in British Columbia , Canada , to determine the climate of the Cambrian Explosion , and use it to predict the climate of the future when rising global temperatures caused by a warming Sun and declining oxygen levels result in the final extinction of animal life , as well as comparing the rising and eventually falling diversity of complex life to a cannonball rising to its highest point when going to the present and falling back down again when going into the future . Initially , they expect that some insects , lizards , birds and small mammals may persist , along with sea life . Without oxygen replenishment by plant life , however , they believe that the animals would probably die off from asphyxiation within a few million years . Even if sufficient oxygen were to remain in the atmosphere through the persistence of some form of photosynthesis , the steady rise in global temperature would result in a gradual loss of biodiversity . As temperatures continue to rise , the last animal life will inevitably be driven back toward the poles , and possibly even underground . They would become primarily active during the polar night , aestivating during the polar day due to the intense heat . Much of the surface would become a barren desert and life would primarily be found in the oceans ; however , due also to a decrease of the amount or organic matter coming to the oceans from the land as well as oxygen in the water , life would disappear there too following a similar path to that on Earth 's surface with invertebrates being the last living animals , and of them those that do not depend on living plants such as termites or those near hydrothermal vents such as worms of the genus Riftia As a result of these processes , multi @-@ cellular lifeforms may be extinct in about 800 million years , and eukaryotes in 1 @.@ 3 billion years , leaving only the prokaryotes . = = = Loss of oceans = = = One billion years from now , about 27 % of the modern ocean will have been subducted into the mantle . If this process were allowed to continue uninterrupted , it would reach an equilibrium state where 65 % of the current surface reservoir would remain at the surface . Once the solar luminosity is 10 % higher than its current value , the average global surface temperature will rise to 320 K ( 47 ° C ; 116 ° F ) . The atmosphere will become a " moist greenhouse " leading to a runaway evaporation of the oceans . At this point , models of the Earth 's future environment demonstrate that the stratosphere would contain increasing levels of water . These water molecules will be broken down through photodissociation by solar ultraviolet radiation , allowing hydrogen to escape the atmosphere . The net result would be a loss of the world 's sea water by about 1 @.@ 1 billion years from the present . This will be a simple dramatic step in annihilating all life on Earth . There will be two variations of this future warming feedback : the " moist greenhouse " where water vapor dominates the troposphere while water vapor starts to accumulate in the stratosphere ( if the oceans evaporate very quickly ) , and the " runaway greenhouse " where water vapor becomes a dominant component of the atmosphere ( if the oceans evaporate too slowly ) that the Earth starts to undergo rapid warming that could send its surface temperature to over 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) as the atmosphere will be totally overwhelmed by water vapor , causing its entire surface to melt and killing all life , perhaps in about three billion years . In this ocean @-@ free era , there will continue to be reservoirs at the surface as water is steadily released from the deep crust and mantle , where it is estimated there is an amount of water equivalent to several times that currently present in the Earth 's oceans . Some water may be retained at the poles and there may be occasional rainstorms , but for the most part the planet would be a dry desert with large dunefields covering its equator , and a few salt flats on what was once the ocean floor , similar to the ones in the Atacama Desert in Chile , resembling how Saturn ’ s largest moon Titan looks today . Even in these arid conditions , the planet may retain some microbial and possibly even multi @-@ cellular life . Most of these microbes will be halophiles . However , the increasingly extreme conditions will likely lead to the extinction of the prokaryotes between 1 @.@ 6 billion years and 2 @.@ 8 billion years from now , with the last of them living in residual ponds of water at high latitudes and heights or in caverns with trapped ice ; underground life , however , could last longer . What happens next depends on the level of tectonic activity . A steady release of carbon dioxide by volcanic eruption could eventually cause the atmosphere to enter a " supergreenhouse " state like that of the planet Venus . But without surface water , plate tectonics would probably come to a halt and most of the carbonates would remain securely buried until the Sun became a red giant and its increased luminosity heated the rock to the point of releasing the carbon dioxide . The loss of the oceans could be delayed until two billion years in the future if the total atmospheric pressure were to decline . A lower atmospheric pressure would reduce the greenhouse effect , thereby lowering the surface temperature . This could occur if natural processes were to remove the nitrogen from the atmosphere . Studies of organic sediments has shown that at least 100 kilopascals ( 0 @.@ 99 atm ) of nitrogen has been removed from the atmosphere over the past four billion years ; enough to effectively double the current atmospheric pressure if it were to be released . This rate of removal would be sufficient to counter the effects of increasing solar luminosity for the next two billion years . By 2 @.@ 8 billion years from now , the surface temperature of the Earth will have reached 422 K ( 149 ° C ; 300 ° F ) , even at the poles . At this point , any remaining life will be extinguished due to the extreme conditions . If the Earth loses its surface water by this point , the planet will stay in the same conditions until the Sun becomes a red giant . If this scenario doesn 't happen , then in about 3 – 4 billion years the amount of water vapour in the lower atmosphere will rise to 40 % and a moist greenhouse effect will commence once the luminosity from the Sun reaches 35 – 40 % more than its present @-@ day value . A " runaway greenhouse " effect will ensue , causing the atmosphere to heat up and raising the surface temperature to around 1 @,@ 600 K ( 1 @,@ 330 ° C ; 2 @,@ 420 ° F ) . This is sufficient to melt the surface of the planet . However , most of the atmosphere will be retained until the Sun has entered the red giant stage . = = = Red giant stage = = = Once the Sun changes from burning hydrogen at its core to burning hydrogen around its shell , the core will start to contract and the outer envelope will expand . The total luminosity will steadily increase over the following billion years until it reaches 2 @,@ 730 times the Sun 's current luminosity at the age of 12 @.@ 167 billion years . Most of Earth 's atmosphere will be lost to space and its surface will consist of a lava ocean with floating continents of metals and metal oxides as well as icebergs of refractory materials , with its surface temperature reaching more than 2 @,@ 400 K ( 2 @,@ 130 ° C ; 3 @,@ 860 ° F ) . The Sun will experience more rapid mass loss , with about 33 % of its total mass shed with the solar wind . The loss of mass will mean that the orbits of the planets will expand . The orbital distance of the Earth will increase to at most 150 % of its current value . The most rapid part of the Sun 's expansion into a red giant will occur during the final stages , when the Sun will be about 12 billion years old . It is likely to expand to swallow both Mercury and Venus , reaching a maximum radius of 1 @.@ 2 AU ( 180 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) . The Earth will interact tidally with the Sun 's outer atmosphere , which would serve to decrease Earth 's orbital radius . Drag from the chromosphere of the Sun would also reduce the Earth 's orbit . These effects will act to counterbalance the effect of mass loss by the Sun , and the Earth will probably be engulfed by the Sun . The drag from the solar atmosphere may cause the orbit of the Moon to decay . Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of 18 @,@ 470 km ( 11 @,@ 480 mi ) , it will cross the Earth 's Roche limit . This means that tidal interaction with the Earth would break apart the Moon , turning it into a ring system . Most of the orbiting ring will then begin to decay , and the debris will impact the Earth . Hence , even if the Earth is not swallowed up by the Sun , the planet may be left moonless . The ablation and vaporization caused by its fall on a decaying trajectory towards the Sun may remove Earth 's crust and mantle , then finally destroy it after at most 200 years . Following this event , Earth 's sole legacy will be a very slight increase ( 0 @.@ 01 % ) of the solar metallicity . § IIC Alternatively , should the Earth survive being engulfed to the Sun , the ablation and vaporization mentioned before may strip both its crust and mantle leaving just its core . = = = Post red @-@ giant stage = = = After fusing helium in its core to carbon , the Sun will begin to collapse again , evolving into a compact white dwarf star after ejecting its outer atmosphere as a planetary nebula . In 50 billion years , if the Earth and Moon are not engulfed by the Sun , they will become tidelocked , with each showing only one face to the other . Thereafter , the tidal action of the Sun will extract angular momentum from the system , causing the lunar orbit to decay and the Earth 's spin to accelerate . Over time intervals of around 30 trillion years , the Sun will undergo a close encounter with another star . As a consequence , the orbits of their planets can become disrupted , potentially ejecting them from the system entirely . If Earth is not destroyed by the expanding red giant Sun in 7 @.@ 6 billion years and not ejected from its orbit by a stellar encounter , its ultimate fate will be that it collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via gravitational radiation , in 1020 ( 100 quintillion ) years .
= Tablighi Jamaat = Tablighi Jamaat deoband ( Urdu : تبلیغی جماعت , Tablīghī Jamā ‘ at ; Arabic : جماعة التبليغ , Jamā ‘ at at @-@ Tablīgh ; Bengali : তাবলীগ জামাত ; Hindi : तबलीग ़ ी जमात ; English : Society for spreading faith ) is a global deyoband Islamic proselytizing and revivalist movement that focuses on urging Muslims to return to orthodox Sunni Islam , and particularly in matters of ritual , dress , and personal behavior . The organisation is estimated to have between 12 million and 150 million adherents ( the majority living in South Asia ) , and a presence in somewhere between 150 and 213 countries . It has been called " one of the most influential religious movements in 20th century Islam " . The movement was started in 1927 by Muhammad Ilyas al @-@ Kandhlawi in India . Its stated primary aim is spiritual reformation of Islam by reaching out to Muslims across social and economic spectra and working at the grass roots level , to bring them in line with the group 's understanding of Islam . The teachings of Tabligh Jamaat are expressed in " Six Principles " ( Kalimah , Salat , Ilm , Ikraam @-@ e @-@ Muslim , Ikhlas @-@ e @-@ Niyyat , Dawat @-@ o @-@ Tableegh ) . Tablighi Jamaat believes that Muslims are in a constant state of spiritual Jihad in the sense of fight against evil , the weapon of choice is Dawah ( proselytization ) and that battles are won or lost in the " hearts of men . " Tablighi Jamaat began as an offshoot of the Deobandi movement , and a response to perceived deteriorating moral values and a supposed negligence of aspects of Islam . It expanded from a local to a national to an international movement . Tablighi Jamaat denies any affiliation in politics and fiqh ( jurisprudence ) , focusing instead on the Quran and Hadith , and states that it rejects violence as a means for evangelism , ( although some have complained that adherents have become involved in politics in Pakistan and recruited for terrorist acts in France , Britain , Spain and the US ) . Tablighi Jamaat has claimed to avoid electronic media and in favor of personal communication for proselytising , although prominent Tablighi personalities such as Tariq Jameel are featured on an extensive range of Internet videos and often appear on TV . Tablighi Jamaat attracted significant public and media attention when it announced plans for the largest mosque in Europe to be built in London , United Kingdom . = = History = = The emergence of Tablighi Jamaat represented the intensification of individual reformation aspects of the original Deobandi movement . It was also a continuation of the broader trend of Islamic revival in India in the wake of the collapse of Muslim political power to the Maratha Empire and the subsequent consolidation of the British rule . The emergence of Tablighi Jamaat also coincided closely with the rise of various Hindu proselytizing movements ( such as Shuddhi ( purification ) and Sanghatan ( consolidation ) ) which launched massive efforts in the early twentieth century to reconvert Hindus who had converted to Islam and Christianity . = = = Origin = = = Muhammad Ilyas , the founder of Tablighi Jamaat , wanted to create a movement that would ' enjoin good and forbid evil ' as the Qur 'an decreed , and as his teacher Rasheed Ahmad Gangohi dreamed of doing . The inspiration for this came during his second pilgrimage to Mecca in 1926 . What he lacked in scholarly learning , presence , charisma or speaking ability , he made up for in zeal . He initially tried to establish a network of mosque @-@ based religious schools to educate the Mewati Muslims about Islamic beliefs and practices . Shortly afterwards , he was disappointed with the reality that these institutions were producing religious functionaries , but not preachers . Ilyas abandoned his teaching post at Madrasah Mazahir Uloom in Saharanpur and became a missionary . He relocated to Nizamuddin near Delhi , where this movement was formally launched in 1926 , or 1927 . When setting the guidelines for the movement , he sought inspiration from the practices adopted by Muhammad at the dawn of Islam . Muhammad Ilyas put forward the slogan , Urdu : " ! اﮮ مسلمانو ! مسلمان بنو " , " O Muslims , become Muslims ! " . This expressed the central focus of Tablighi Jamat : their aim to renew Muslims socially by uniting them in embracing the lifestyle of Muhammad . The movement gained a following in a relatively short period and nearly 25 @,@ 000 people attended the annual conference in November 1941 . At the time , some Muslim Indian leaders feared that Muslims were losing their religious identity to the majority Hindu culture . The movement was never given any name officially , but Ilyas used to call it Tahrik @-@ i Imaan . The Mewat region where TJ started around Delhi was inhabited by the Meos , a Rajput ethnic group , some of whom had allegedly converted to Islam , and then re @-@ conversion to Hinduism when Muslim political power declined in the region , lacking the necessary acumen ( according to one author , Ballard ) required to resist the cultural and religious influence of Hindus , prior to the arrival of Tablighi Jamaat . = = = Expansion = = = The group began to expand its activities in 1946 . The initial expansion within South Asia happened immediately after the partition of India in 1947 , when the Pakistan Chapter was established in the hinterlands of Raiwind town near Lahore , Pakistan . The Pakistan Chapter remained the largest till Bangladesh became independent from Pakistan in 1971 . Today , the largest Chapter is Bangladesh followed by the second largest in Pakistan . Within two decades of its establishment , the group reached Southwest and Southeast Asia , Africa , Europe , and North America . The Tablighi Jamaat 's aversion to politics , and also its lack of any direct and practical economic @-@ political @-@ social viewpoints , like the occupation of Palestine , helped it enter and operate in societies , especially western countries and societies where politically active religious groups faced severe restrictions . = = = Foreign missions = = = The first foreign missions were sent to the Hejaz ( western Saudi Arabia ) and Britain in 1946 . The United States followed and during the 1970s and 1980s the Tablighi Jamaat also established a large presence in continental Europe . In France it was introduced in the 1960s , and grew significantly in the two decades following 1970 . In Europe Tablighi Jamaat focused on marginalized populations — " migrant workers deprived of any cultural access to European society , `lost` teens , drug addicts " . It peaked in popularity and numbers in Europe between the mid @-@ 1970s and mid 1980s , and declined thereafter ( in France it reportedly started to decline around 1989 ) as young people from Muslim families , educated in Europe , began to seek " a more intellectual framework for their faith " , and moved toward Salafi Islam . In France , as of 2004 , it was represented on the French Council of the Muslim Faith . During the first half @-@ decade of the 21st century Tablighi Jamaat went through a major revival in France , reaching 100 @,@ 000 followers by 2006 . However , the United Kingdom is the current focus of the movement in the Europe , primarily due to the large South Asian population that began to arrive there in the 1960s . By 2007 , Tablighi Jamaat members were situated at 600 of Britain 's 1 @,@ 350 mosques . After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 , the movement made inroads into Central Asia . As of 2007 , it was estimated that 10 @,@ 000 Tablighi Jamaat members could be found in Kyrgyzstan , that was largely driven by Pakistani members initially . The FBI estimates that nearly 50 @,@ 000 members of Tablighi Jamaat are active in the United States . As of 2008 , according to one estimate the organization had a presence in nearly 213 countries and a total following of between 100 and 150 million people . By some measures this made Tablighi Jamaat the largest Muslim movement in the World . The majority of the followers of the Tablighi Jamaat live in South Asia . Another source ( Pew Research Center ’ s Religion and Public Life project ) estimates there are between 12 and 80 million adherents , spread across more than 150 countries . = = Beliefs and objectives = = Members of TJ are allowed to follow their own fiqh as long as it does not deviate from Sunni Islam . Tablighi Jamaat defines its objective with reference to the concept of Dawah , the proselytizing or preaching of Islam . Tablighi Jamaat interprets Dawah as enjoining good and forbidding evil only and defines its objective within the framework of two particular Qur 'anic verses which refer to this mission . Those two verses are : Who is better in speech than one who calls ( men ) to Allah , works righteousness , and says , " I am of the muslimeen ( those who submit to Allah ) " ? Let there arise out of you a band of people inviting to all that is good , enjoining what is right , and forbidding what is wrong : They are the ones to attain felicity . Tablighi Jamaat encourages everyone to fulfill the Islamic requirement of dawah even if the person falls short of strong religious intellect . This was different from the other Islamic movements which were mainly ulama @-@ led and extended their leadership roles to the religious scholars . Tablighi Jamaat also disagree with the prevailing idea that the highest standards of Islamic scholarship and ethical standards were prerequisites for proselytising , and promote dawah as a mechanism of self @-@ reform . Like Salafists , Tabligh seek a " separation in their daily life from the `impious` society that surrounded them " . The only objective of Tabligh Jamaat , overtly stated in most sermons , is that Muslims adopt and invite for the Islamic lifestyle , exemplified by Muhammad , in its perfection . This involves a detailed orthopraxy : " followers must dress like the Prophet , sleep as he did on the ground , on one 's right side " ; enter bathrooms leading with the left foot , but put pants on leading with the right foot ; do not use a fork when eating , instead use your index finger , middle finger and thumb ; men shave their upper lips , but let their beards grow ; their pants or robes should be above the ankle " because the prophet said letting clothes drag on the ground is a sign of arrogance " . The movement encourages Muslims to spend time out of their daily routine in the tablighi activities so that the rest of routine could be harmonised with Tablighi lifestyle . Adherents are also encouraged to enroll in Deobandi madrasses in Pakistan to deepen their faith . The method adopted by Muhammad Ilyas was to organise units ( called jamaats , Arabic : جماعاتِ meaning Assembly ) of at least ten persons and send them to various villages or neighborhoods to preach . These outings , Dawah tours ( see below ) , are now organized by TJ leaders . In these tours , emphasis is laid on " Ahadith about virtues of action " ( imitating Muhammad ) . In the ahadith ( reported sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ) of fazail ( virtues ) these has been called Eemaan ( faith ) and Ihtisab ( for the sake of Allah ) and TJ believes this is the most vital deriving force for reward in akhirah ( afterlife ) . TJ founder Ilyas preached that knowledge of virtues and A 'amalu @-@ Saliha ( Good Deeds and Actions ) takes precedence over the knowledge of Masa 'il ( jurisprudence ) . Knowing jurisprudence detail ( Fara 'id ( mandates ) and Sunan ( traditions ) of Salat ) is useful only if a person is ready to perform rituals such as offering Salat . They insist that the best way of learning is teaching and encouraging others , with the books prescribed by Tabligi Jamaat Movement in the light of Quran and Hadith stories of Prophets , Sahaba ( Companions of Prophet ) and Awlia Allah ( " Friends of Allah " ) . Even though there are publications associated with the movement , particularly by Zakariya Kandahalwi , the emphasis has never been on book learning , but rather on first @-@ hand personal communication . A collection of books , usually referred as Tablighi Nisaab ( Tablighi Curriculum ) , is recommended by Tabligh Jamaat elders for general reading . This set includes four books namely ( Hayatus Sahabah , Fazail @-@ e @-@ Amaal , Fazail @-@ e @-@ Sadqaat and Muntakhab Ahadith ) . Tablighi ethic discourages social engagement or participation with some non @-@ orthodox customary and ceremonial rituals which are usually extravagantly followed in South Asia . For example , marriages are performed en masse at annual congregations and other similar mass meetings , so that the costly celebrations common in South Asia are avoided . In its early days and in South Asia , the Tabligh movement aimed to return to orthodoxy and " purify " the Muslim religio @-@ cultural identity of heterodox or " borderline " Muslims who still practised customs and religious rites connected with Hinduism . Especially to counteract the efforts of Hindu proselytising movements who targeted these often recently converts from Hinduism . Unlike common proselytising movements , has TJ mostly focused on making Muslims ' better and purer ' and ideally " religiously perfect " , rather than preaching to the non @-@ Muslims . This is because ( it believes ) dawah to non @-@ Muslims will only be effective ( or will be much more effective ) when a Muslim reaches " perfection " . = = = Six principles = = = TJ jamaat visit a village or neighborhood , invite the local Muslims to assemble in the mosque and present their message in the form of Six Principles . These six principles were derived from the lives of the companions of Muhammad . It is said in one narration , " My Sahabah are like guiding stars , whosoever follows one of them will be guided . " Muhammad Ilyas articulated six demands in the form of Six Principles which are quintessential to Tablighi Jamaat 's teachings . These six principles are : Kalimah : " Imaan - An article of faith in which a Muslim accepts that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his last messenger " . Salat : " Prayer - Five daily prayers that are essential to spiritual elevation , piety , and a life free from the ills of the material world " Ilm and Zikr : " The knowledge and remembrance of Allah - conducted in sessions in which the congregation listens to preaching by the emir , performs prayers , recites the Quran and reads Hadith from the books comprising Riyadhu As @-@ Salehin " , Muntakhab Ahadith ( Collection of authentic Ahadith without commentary ) , Hayatus Sahaba and Fadhaa 'il @-@ e A 'maal Vol 1 & 2 and other books . Ikraam @-@ e @-@ Muslim : " Honoring a Muslim - The treatment of fellow Muslims with honor and deference " Ikhlas @-@ e @-@ Niyyat : " Sincerity of Intention - Reforming one ’ s life in supplication to Allah by performing every human action for the sake of Allah and toward the goal of self @-@ transformation " Dawat @-@ o @-@ Tableegh ( Dawah ) : " Inviting and Preaching - The sparing of time to live a life based on faith and learning its virtues , following in the footsteps of the Prophet Muhammad , and taking His message door to door for the sake of faith . " = = Organization = = Tablighi Jamaat follows an informal organizational structure and keeps an introvert institutional profile . It has been described as " a free @-@ floating religious movement with minimal dependence on hierarchy , leadership positions , and decision @-@ making procedures . " It keeps its distance from mass media and avoids publishing details about its activities and membership . The group also exercises complete abstinence from expressing opinions on political and controversial issues mainly to avoid the disputes which would accompany these endorsements . As an organisation , Tabligh Jamaat does not seek donations and is not funded by anyone , in fact members have to bear their own expenditures . Since there is no formal registration process and no official membership count has ever been taken , the exact membership statistics remain unknown . The movement discourages interviews with its elders and has never officially released texts , although there are publications associated with the movement ( usually referred as Tablighi Nisaab ( Tablighi Curriculum ) ) . The emphasis has never been on book learning , but rather on first @-@ hand personal communication . The organisation 's activities are coordinated through centres and headquarters called Markaz . Tablighi Jamaat maintains its international headquarters , called Nizamuddin Markaz , in the Nizamuddin West district of South Delhi , India , from where it originally started . It also has country headquarters in over 213 countries to co @-@ ordinate its activities . These headquarters organise volunteer , self @-@ funding people in groups ( called jamaats ) , averaging ten to twelve people , for reminding Muslims to remain steadfast on path of Allah . These jamaats and preaching missions are self funded by their respective members . = = = Leadership = = = Ameer is title of leadership in the Tabligh Jamaat and the attribute largely sought is the quality of faith , rather than the worldly rank . The ameer of Tabligh Jamaat is appointed for life by a central consultative council ( shu 'ara ' ) and elders of the Tabligh Jamaat . The first ameer , who was also the founder , was Maulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhalawi , the second was his son Maulana Muhammad Yusuf Kandhalawi and the third was Maulana Inaam ul Hasan . At present , there is a council of known scholars like Haji Abdul Wahhab and Maulana Saad Kandhalawi etc.Maulana Zubair Ul Hassan the son of Maulana Inamul Hasan died in Delhi on 18 March 2014 . He was the fourth Amir of Tableeghi Jamaat . = = Activities and traditions = = The activism of Tablighi Jamaat can be characterised by the last of the Six Principles . This principle , Tafrigh @-@ i @-@ Waqt ( English : sparing of time ) justifies the withdrawal from World , though temporarily , for travelling . Travel has been adopted as the most effective method of personal reform and has become an emblematic feature of organisation . They describe the purpose of this retreat as to patch the damages caused by the worldly indulgence and occasionally use the dry @-@ dock parable to explain this . These individual jamaats , each led by an ameer , are sent from each markaz across the city or country to remind people to persist on the path of God . The duration of the work depends on the discretion of each jamaat . A trip can take an evening , a couple of days or a prolonged duration . = = = Khurūj ( proselytising tour ) = = = largest islamic movement , Tabligh Jamaat encourages its followers to follow the pattern of spending " one night a week , one weekend a month , 40 continuous days a year , and ultimately 120 days at least once in their lives engaged in tabligh missions " . During the course of these tours , members are generally seen dressed in simple , white , loose @-@ clothing , carrying sleeping bags on their backs . These members use mosques as their base during this travel but particular mosques , due to more frequent tablighiyat activities , have come to be specifically associated with this organisation . These mosques generally hold the periodic , smaller scale convocations for neighbourhood members . During their stay in mosques , these jamaats conduct a daily gasht , which involves visiting local neighbourhoods , preferably with the help of a guide . They invite people to attend the Maghrib prayer at their mosque and those who attend are delivered a sermon after the prayers , which essentially outlines the Six Principles . They urge the attendees to spend time in tabligh for self reformation and the propagation of Islam . Also the regular activities like eating , sleeping etc. are also carried out in the mosques . Generally , the assumed role of these jamaat members cycle in a way that they may be engaged as a preacher , a cook or as a cleaner at other times . Among Tabligh Jamaat members , this is generally referred to as khidmat which essentially connotes to serving their companions and freeing them for tablighi engagements . The members of the Jamaat are assigned these roles based on the day 's mashwara . The markaz keeps records of each jamaat and its members , the identity of whom is verified from their respective mosques . Mosques are used to assist the tablighi activities of individual jamaats that voluntarily undertake preaching missions . Members of a jamaat , ideally , pay expenses themselves so as to avoid financial dependence on anyone . = = = Ijtema ( annual gathering ) = = = An annual gathering of followers , called ijtema , is summoned at headquarters of the respective countries . A typical ijtema continues for three days and ends with an exceptionally long prayer . These gatherings are considered moments of intense blessings by Tabligh Jamaat members and are known to attract members in excess of 2 million in some countries . The oldest ijtema of the World started in Bhopal , capital city of Madhya Pradesh , India . It attracts people from all over World . Almost 2 million people gather for this annual gathering . The largest of such annual gatherings is held in Bangladesh . The Bengali gathering , called Bishwa Ijtema ( World Gathering ) , converges followers from around the World in Tongi near Dhaka , Bangladesh , with an attendance exceeding 3 million people . The second largest Tabligh Jamaat gathering takes place in Raiwind , Pakistan which was attended by approximately 1 @.@ 5 million people in 2004 . In 2011 Pakistan divided the Ijtema into two parts and total 1 million People attended each of the two Ijtema . = = Role of women = = In TJ women are encouraged to stay home , and to choose a life of " radical segregation between female and male " . However they also proselytize , discussing among themselves in small groups the basics of Tabligh and traveling with their husbands on proselytizing trips . According to a 1996 study by Barbara Metcalf , in TJ women were encouraged to participate since the beginning of the movement . Some scholars objected to the participation of women , but Muhammad Ilyas slowly gained their support and the first jamaat of women was formed in Nizamuddin , Delhi . Accompanied by a close male relative , women are encouraged to go out in jamaats and work among other women and family members while following the rules of modesty , seclusion and segregation . They observe strict rules of hijab by covering their faces and hands . Jamaats of women sometimes participate in large annual meetings ; otherwise , they commonly hold neighbourhood meetings . Since South Asian Islamic culture discourages women from going to the mosque and saintly shrines , these venues offer an opportunity for women to pray together and congregate religiously . In many modern Islamist movements , women have been relegated to a domestic role . Tablighi Jamaat tends to blur the boundaries of gender roles and both genders share a common behavioural model and their commitment to tabligh . The emphasis is on a common nature and responsibilities shared by both genders . Just as men redraw the gender roles when they wash and cook during the course of da 'wa tours , women undertake the male responsibility of sustaining the household . Women do not play any role in the higher echelons of the movement , but their opinions are taken into due considerations . = = Controversies = = = = = Connections to terrorism = = = Many outside observers have described the group as " apolitical " at least in part because it avoids media and government notice , operates largely in secrecy , and has missionaries that lead austere lifestyles with principled stands against social ills . Three western experts on Islam , for example , have described it as a : peaceful and apolitical preaching @-@ to @-@ the @-@ people movement . — Graham E. Fuller , a former CIA official and an expert on Islam , ( author of The Future of Political Islam ) completely apolitical and law abiding . — Olivier Roy , a prominent authority on Islam at the French National Centre for Scientific Research an apolitical , quietist movement of internal grassroots missionary renewal ( While comparing its activities to the Alcoholics Anonymous for the efforts to reshape individual lives ) — Barbara D. Metcalf , University of Michigan Another describes it as having an " apolitical stance " which has helped it to penetrate and operate without hindrance in Muslim and non @-@ Muslim societies where politically activist Islamic groups face severe restrictions . — Mumtaz Ahmad However , Tablighi Jamaat members have been involved in politics in Pakistan , and in the West , a number of young men have passed through the group on their way to an extreme , militant interpretation of the religion . In Pakistan , prime minister Nawaz Sharif ( whose father was a prominent Tablighi member and financier ) helped Tablighi members take prominent political positions . For example , in 1998 , Muhammad Rafique Tarar , a Tablighi member , took the ceremonial presidency while , in 1990 , Javed Nasir assumed the powerful director @-@ generalship of the Inter @-@ Services Intelligence , Pakistan 's chief intelligence agency . In 1995 , after Benazir Bhutto , who was less sympathetic to Islamist causes , returned to the premiership , the Pakistani army thwarted a coup attempt by several dozen high @-@ ranking military officers and civilians , all of whom were members of the Tablighi Jamaat and some of whom also held membership in Harkat @-@ ul @-@ Mujahideen , a U.S. State Department @-@ defined terrorist organization . In January 2016 , in what was " probably the first time that any restriction has been placed on Tableeghi Jamaat " in Pakistan , the Punjab government banned preaching on university campuses , and banned Tableeghi Jamaat ( and other non @-@ students ) from preaching and staying in campus hostels . In France , as many as " 80 % percent of the Islamist extremists have come from Tablighi ranks , prompting French intelligence officers to call Tablighi Jamaat the ' antechamber of fundamentalism . ' " Among those who have been members of TJ in France include Zacarias Moussaoui ( the only person to be charged in the United States in the September 11 attacks ) ; Hervé Djamel Loiseau , a young Frenchman who died fleeing the 2001 American bombardment of Tora Bora in Afghanistan ; and Djamel Beghal , an Algerian @-@ born Frenchman and admitted member of Al Qaeda who was convicted in 2005 of plotting to blow up the U.S. Embassy in Paris . In a foiled January 2008 bombing plot in Barcelona , Spain , " some media reports " stated that a Muslim leader in the city stated that the fourteen suspects arrested by police in a series of raids ( where bomb @-@ making materials were seized ) were members of Tablighi Jamaat . Other terrorist plots and attacks on civilians that members of Tablighi Jamaat have been connected with include the Portland Seven , the Lackawanna Six , the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot , the 7 / 7 London bombings , the 2007 London car bombs , and 2007 Glasgow International Airport attack . Former Department of Homeland Security employee Philip Haney described Tablighi Jamaat as part of a " trans @-@ national Islamist network " that was also affiliated with the Dar Al Uloom al Islamiyah mosque in San Bernardino , which terrorist Syed Rizwan Farook attended frequently . Assistant FBI Director Michael Heimbach said " We have significant presence of Tablighi Jamaat in the United States and we have found that al Qaeda used them for recruiting . " The American Foreign Policy Council 's report on Tablighi Jamaat states : The available data today indicates that TJ , at least in the preponderance of locations around the World where it is found , can be considered ipso facto a passive supporter of jihadist groups via its reinforcement of strict Islamic norms , intolerance of other religious traditions and unwavering commitment to Islamizing the entire planet . . . However , its eschewal of politics ( at least publicly ) has enabled TJ , in most venues , to escape suppression by wary government organs . According to French Tablighi expert Marc Gaborieau , its philosophy and transnational goals include the " planned conquest of the World " . = = = Criticism = = = Due to orthodox nature of Tablighi Jamaat , they have been criticised for being retrogressive . The women in the movement observe complete hijab for which the Tablighi Jamaat is accused of keeping women " strictly subservient and second string " . Tablighi Jamaat has also been criticised within Islamic circles and the major opposition in the Indian subcontinent comes from the Barelvi movement . One of the main criticisms against them is that the men neglect and ignore their families , especially by going out on da 'wa tours . Tablighi Jamaat participants , in response , argue that both genders should be equally engaged in Tabligh . They further say that women , like men , are also urged to carry the responsibility of Tabligh and that men should facilitate women 's participation by providing childcare . Many critics , especially those from Hizb ut @-@ Tahrir and Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami , criticise Tabligh Jamaat for their neutral political stance . They say that Islamic forces , during their decisive conflicts with un @-@ Islamic forces , could have gained reinforcement from the Tabligh Jamaat followers . They criticise the Tabligh Jamaat 's neutral attitude towards crucial issues like the introduction of an Islamic constitution in Pakistan ( 1950s ) , Islam vs Socialism ( 1969 – 1971 ) , communal riots in India in the 1970s and 1980s , the Khatm @-@ e @-@ Nabuwwat Movement ( 1974 ) , and Nizam @-@ e @-@ Mustafa Movement ( 1977 ) . The Tablighi Jamaat , in response , asserts that it is only by avoiding the political debates that the Tablighi Jamaat has been successful in reawakening the spiritual conscience of the followers . The apolitical stance also helped them operate in difficult times , such as during the governments of Ayub Khan ( 1960s ) and Indira Gandhi ( 1975 – 77 ) , when other sociopolitical Islamic groups faced restrictions . The difference of opinion regarding political participation also marks the fundamental difference between the Tablighi Jamaat and Islamist movements . While the Islamists believe that the acquisition of political power is the absolute requirement for the establishment of an Islamic society , the Tablighi Jamaat believes that merely the political power is not enough to ensure effective organisation of the Islamic social order . The exclusive focus of the Tablighi Jamaat 's attention is the individual , and members believe the reformation of society and institutions will only be effective through education and reform of individuals . They insist that nations and social systems exist by the virtue of the individuals who form them ; therefore , the reform must begin at the grass @-@ roots with individuals and not at the higher level of political structure . TJ have also been accused of insufficient orthodoxy and association with Sufis . Sheikh Abdul Aziz bin Baz , the former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia is reported to have said that " Jama ’ atul @-@ Tableegh ... have many deviations . They have some aspects of bid`ah and shirk , so it is not permissible to go ( out ) with them , " Another Wahhabi cleric , Falih Ibn Nafi Al @-@ Harbi , has reportedly complained that JT " are the originator of fictitious tales and baseless stories and people of Bid ’ ah . " The elders of Tablighi Jamaat are of the view that there are different schools of thoughts in Muslims ( like other religions ) , if we discuss differential points in our gathering than in place of uniting the Ummah ( Muslim community ) we will segregate ( disamalgamate ) the Muslim community . = = Notable members = = The Tablighi Jamaat has no membership lists or formal procedures for membership which makes it difficult to quantify and verify affiliations . Former President of India , Dr. Zakir Hussain who was also associated with this movement . The former chief minister of Punjab Pervaiz Elahi is also a strong supporter of the Tablighi Jamaat . In 2011 he gave 75 kanals of land for a Tablighi Jamaat mosque at the Raiwind Markaz . Maulana Tariq Jameel is a prominent member of Tablighi Jamaat . Former singer and pop star Junaid Jamshed has close links with Tabligh Jamaat , and his departure from his professional singing career is attributed to his inclination towards this movement . Singers , actors and models , including Attaullah Essa Khailwi , Gulzar Alam , Bacha , Alamzeb Mujahid , are also affiliated with the movement . Former Lieutenant General , and heads of Inter @-@ Services Intelligence , Javed Nasir and General Mahmud Ahmed of the Pakistan Army became a member of Tablighi Jamaat during his service . The Tablighi Jamaat also has a notable following among Pakistani professional cricketers : Shahid Afridi , Mohammad Yousuf and the former cricketers Saqlain Mushtaq , Inzamam @-@ ul @-@ Haq , Mushtaq Ahmed , Saeed Anwar and Saeed Ahmed are active members . Mohammad Yousuf 's conversion to Islam is widely attributed to the influence of the Tabligh Jamaat .
= James Caudy = James Caudy ( 1707 – March 15 , 1784 ) was an American frontiersman , settler , and landowner in the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians of the Colony of Virginia — present @-@ day West Virginia . Caudy was born in the Netherlands , immigrated to the Thirteen Colonies in the 1730s , and settled within the Cacapon River valley near present @-@ day Capon Bridge in Hampshire County . As early as 1741 , Caudy was associated with the arrangement and development of transportation routes throughout present @-@ day Hampshire County . Caudy twice hosted George Washington ; first during his surveying expedition in 1748 and again upon Washington 's 1750 return to the Cacapon River valley . Caudy participated in the French and Indian War and is best known for having purportedly defended himself from a band of Native American fighters on Caudy 's Castle — a sandstone outcrop that now bears his name . According to tradition , Caudy used his long rifle barrel to push his Native American attackers off the rock into the Cacapon River below . In his later life , Caudy became involved in a land dispute with John Capper that was resolved by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron in November 1762 . Caudy died in 1784 and was interred on his property south of present @-@ day Capon Bridge . According to local tradition , Caudy was buried with a Native American on either side of him , while another tradition says Caudy was buried with his horse . = = Early life = = James Caudy was born in 1707 in the Netherlands . He possibly arrived in the Thirteen Colonies through Prince George 's County in the Province of Maryland in the 1730s . While in Prince George 's County , Caudy married his first wife , Mary Hutchinson . = = Settlement in Virginia = = Around 1738 , Caudy and fellow frontiersman Joseph Edwards purchased tracts of land along the Cacapon River . He and Edwards were accompanied by the first two families of European descent to settle in the Cacapon River valley . Caudy and his family settled on 358 acres ( 145 ha ; 0 @.@ 559 sq mi ) in the Cacapon River valley near present @-@ day Capon Bridge in what was then Orange County . Caudy 's land parcel was located to the south of Edwards 's 400 acres ( 160 ha ; 0 @.@ 63 sq mi ) ; the present @-@ day U.S. Route 50 ( Northwestern Turnpike ) approximately corresponds to the boundary between Caudy 's and Edwards 's land parcels . = = Development of transportation routes = = As early as 1741 , Caudy was associated with the arrangement and development of transportation routes throughout present @-@ day Hampshire County . On March 25 , 1742 , an Orange County court order mandated that Jeremiah Smith and James Eaton " view and lay " a road from Caudy 's land to Isaac Perkins 's mill near Winchester . That year , a wagon road was constructed between Winchester and Caudy 's land tract . By 1744 , this route was extended from Caudy 's property to the North River at present @-@ day North River Mills . This route later terminated at the mouth of Patterson Creek on the North Branch Potomac River and connected Winchester with Cumberland , Maryland . In December 1742 , the County Court of Orange County ordered the construction of another wagon road from Caudy 's land to the South Branch Potomac River . In 1743 , a wagon road connecting Winchester and Moorefield traversed Caudy 's land using a ford in the Cacapon River . This road led to a watermill near Old Fields on the South Branch Potomac River . Due to the location of Caudy 's settlement along the Winchester – Moorefield route , his residence served as an overnight stopping point for George Washington and George William Fairfax in April 1748 . Washington and Fairfax were returning to Winchester en route to Belvoir following their surveying expedition in the South Branch Potomac River valley in present @-@ day Hardy County . Washington and his surveying party stayed overnight in Caudy 's log cabin . On April 12 , 1750 , George Washington surveyed a plot of " waste land " for Caudy , using white oak trees as boundary markers . Caudy and John Stewart of Frederick County coordinated the layout and construction of further transportation routes through the region , and were respected for their efforts . Following Stewart 's death in 1750 , Stewart left his eldest son in the charge of Caudy and Captain Jeremiah Smith , who both procured land along the Cacapon River for him . = = French and Indian War = = = = = Caudy 's Castle incident = = = According to local tradition and folklore , Caudy is known as an " Indian fighter " . Upon detecting a Native American stalker in pursuit of him , Caudy pretended to flee along a pathway leading up the mountain toward the craggy bluffs spanning between 450 and 600 feet ( 140 and 180 m ) above the Cacapon River , south of present @-@ day Forks of Cacapon . This pathway edged around the face of a rock formation overlooking the Cacapon River , and narrowed into a rocky ledge . Another legend says Caudy was leading a group of pioneer settlers in defense against Native American attacks . In both versions of the story , Caudy awaited his pursuers within the craggy recesses of the rock formation . The narrow recesses within the pinnacle 's sandstone ledges allowed only single file passage through the rock outcrop toward the formation 's face . As Caudy 's followers traversed the outcrop 's narrow passes and ledges , Caudy is said to have used his long rifle barrel to push them one @-@ by @-@ one off the rock formation into the Cacapon River 450 to 600 feet ( 140 to 180 m ) below . Other legends say Caudy used the tactic atop this rock on several occasions . The outcrop was named " Caudy 's Castle , " by which it is still known . With the exception of this event , there exist no other accounts of encounters or conflicts between Caudy and Native Americans . = = = French and Indian War service = = = During the French and Indian War , Caudy remained on his property on the Cacapon River ; he staunchly defended it and likely sought further protection at Fort Edwards to the north . Caudy 's residence may have been fortified ; it was known as " Coddy 's Fort " . This fortification was not part of the " chain of forts " organized by George Washington for the defense of settlers against Native American raids in the South Branch Potomac and Cacapon River valleys . Caudy also served as a drummer in Maryland frontiersman Michael Cresap 's militia . Caudy hosted Washington again in 1755 , providing Washington with an ample supply of grass seed that was likely produced in one of Caudy 's fertile fields known as " Caudy 's Meadow " . Civil engineer Claudius Crozet later mentioned Caudy 's Meadow in his fieldnotes during the planning and construction of the Northwestern Turnpike nearby . Washington sent payment for the grass seed to Caudy through James Wood , the founder of Winchester , Virginia . = = Later life and death = = Following his marriage to the widow of James McCoy by 1761 , Caudy intended to acquire McCoy 's 369 acres ( 149 ha ; 0 @.@ 577 sq mi ) east of Great North Mountain in Frederick County . Caudy 's claim to McCoy 's land was disputed by John Capper , who claimed to have purchased McCoy 's property before his death . A feud developed between Caudy and Capper ; it was resolved by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron in November 1762 . Lord Fairfax awarded 165 acres ( 67 ha ; 0 @.@ 258 sq mi ) to Caudy and the remainder of the disputed land to Capper . Caudy never learned to write in English ; he signed his last will and testament with an X mark in 1784 . Caudy died on March 15 , 1784 , and was interred on his property south of present @-@ day Capon Bridge . According to local tradition , Caudy was buried with a Native American on either side of him . Another tradition says he was buried with his horse . The site of Caudy 's interment is located on property now known as Hartford Bealer farm . In the 1930s , Caudy 's burial site was attended to by a local Boy Scouts troop , who landscaped the site and planted shrubbery . By 1976 , Caudy 's burial place was marked with four posts . In 2002 , the Capon Bridge Ruritan Club removed the overgrown shrubs and erected a white fence around Caudy 's interment site . The project was initiated by Capon Bridge area residents Roy Giffin , Ken Edmonds , and Roberta Munske . The Ruritans purchased a marble marker and erected it on the site at 9 a.m. on November 15 , 2003 . The burial site is accessible and visible from Christian Church Road , West Virginia Secondary Route 13 . = = Marriages and issue = = Caudy 's first marriage was to Mary Hutchinson in Prince George 's County , Maryland . He and Mary had five children together : David Caudy ( died in November 1782 ) , married Martha Hiett Ann Caudy Dulany , married a Mr. Dulany Margaret Caudy Wood , married Daniel Wood Mary Caudy Kinman , married Samuel Kinman Sarah Caudy Hancher , married Joseph Hancher By 1761 , Caudy had married the widow of James McCoy , who lived across Great North Mountain in Frederick County .
= Lavochkin La @-@ 7 = The Lavochkin La @-@ 7 ( Russian : Лавочкин Ла @-@ 7 ) was a piston @-@ engined Soviet fighter developed during World War II by the Lavochkin Design Bureau ( OKB ) . It was a development and refinement of the Lavochkin La @-@ 5 , and the last in a family of aircraft that had begun with the LaGG @-@ 1 in 1938 . Its first flight was in early 1944 and it entered service with the Soviet Air Forces later in the year . A small batch of La @-@ 7s was given to the Czechoslovak Air Force the following year , but it was otherwise not exported . Armed with two or three 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) cannon , it had a top speed of 661 kilometers per hour ( 411 mph ) . The La @-@ 7 was felt by its pilots to be at least the equal of any German piston @-@ engined fighter and even shot down a Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter . It was phased out in 1947 by the Soviet Air Force , but served until 1950 with the Czechoslovak Air Force . = = Design and development = = By 1943 , the La @-@ 5 had become a mainstay of the Soviet Air Forces , yet both its head designer , Semyon Lavochkin , as well as the engineers at the Central Aerohydrodynamics Institute ( Russian : TsAGI ) , felt that it could be improved upon . TsAGI refined earlier studies of aerodynamic improvements to the La @-@ 5 airframe in mid @-@ 1943 and modified La @-@ 5FN c / n 39210206 to evaluate the changes . These included complete sealing of the engine cowling , rearrangement of the wing center section to accommodate the oil cooler and the relocation of the engine air intake from the top of the cowling to the bottom to improve the pilot 's view . The aircraft was evaluated between December 1943 and February 1944 and proved to have exceptional performance . Using the same engine as the standard La @-@ 5FN c / n 39210206 had a top speed of 684 kilometers per hour ( 425 mph ) at a height of 6 @,@ 150 meters ( 20 @,@ 180 ft ) , some 64 kilometers per hour ( 40 mph ) faster than the production La @-@ 5FN . It took 5 @.@ 2 minutes to climb to 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) . It was faster at low to medium altitudes than the La @-@ 5 that used the more powerful prototype Shvetsov M @-@ 71 engine . Lavochkin had been monitoring TsAGI 's improvements and began construction in January 1944 of an improved version of the La @-@ 5 that incorporated them as well as lighter , but stronger , metal wing spars to save weight . The La @-@ 5 , as well as its predecessors , had been built mostly of wood to conserve strategic materials such as aircraft alloys . With Soviet strategists now confident that supplies of these alloys were unlikely to become a problem , Lavochkin was now able to replace some wooden parts with alloy components . In addition Lavochkin made a number of other changes that differed from c / n 39210206 . The engine air intake was moved from the bottom of the engine cowling to the wing roots , the wing / fuselage fillets were streamlined , each engine cylinder was provided with its own exhaust pipe , the engine cowling covers were reduced in number , a rollbar was added to the cockpit , longer shock struts were fitted for the main landing gear while that for the tail wheel was shortened , an improved PB @-@ 1B ( V ) gunsight was installed , and a new VISh @-@ 105V @-@ 4 propeller was fitted . Three prototype 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Berezin B @-@ 20 autocannon were mounted in the engine cowling , firing through the propeller , arming the 1944 standard @-@ setter ( Russian : etalon ) , as the modified aircraft was designated . The etalon only made nine test flights in February and March 1944 before testing had to be suspended after two engine failures , but quickly proved itself to be the near @-@ equal of c / n 39210206 . It was 180 kilograms ( 400 lb ) lighter than the earlier aircraft , which allowed the etalon to outclimb the other aircraft ( 4 @.@ 45 minutes against 5 @.@ 2 minutes climb to 5 @,@ 000 meters ) . However it was 33 kilometres per hour ( 20 @.@ 5 mph ) slower at sea level , but only 4 kilometers per hour ( 2 @.@ 5 mph ) slower at 6 @,@ 000 meters ( 19 @,@ 685 ft ) . The flight tests validated Lavochkin 's modifications and it was ordered into production under the designation of La @-@ 7 , although the B @-@ 20 cannon were not yet ready for production and the production La @-@ 7 retained the two 20 @-@ mm ShVAK cannon armament of the La @-@ 5 . Five La @-@ 7s were built in March by Factory ( Russian : Zavod ) Nr. 381 in Moscow and three of these were accepted by the Air Force that same month . The Moscow factory was the fastest to complete transition over to La @-@ 7 production and the last La @-@ 5FN was built there in May 1944 . Zavod Nr. 21 in Gorky was considerably slower to make the change as it did not exhaust its stock of wooden La @-@ 5 wings until October . The quality of the early production aircraft was significantly less than the etalon due to issues with the engine , incomplete sealing of the cowling and fuselage , and defective propellers . One such aircraft was tested , after these problems had been fixed , by the Flight Research Institute ( Russian : Lyotno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institut ) and proved to be only 6 kilometers per hour ( 3 @.@ 7 mph ) slower than the etalon at altitude . Aircraft from both factories were evaluated in September by the Air Force Scientific Test Institute ( Russian : NII VVS ) and the problems persisted as the aircraft could only reach 658 kilometers per hour ( 409 mph ) at a height of 5 @,@ 900 meters ( 19 @,@ 357 ft ) and had a time to altitude of 5 @.@ 1 minutes to 5 @,@ 000 meters . Combat trials began in mid @-@ September 1944 and were generally very positive . However four aircraft were lost to engine failures and the engines suffered from numerous lesser problems , despite its satisfactory service in the La @-@ 5FN . One cause was the lower position of the engine air intakes in the wing roots of the La @-@ 7 which caused the engine to ingest sand and dust . One batch of flawed wings was built and caused six accidents , four of them fatal , in October which caused the fighter to be grounded until the cause was determined to be a defect in the wing spar . Production of the first aircraft fitted with three B @-@ 20 cannon began in January 1945 when 74 were delivered . These aircraft were 65 kilograms ( 143 lb ) heavier than those aircraft with the two ShVAK guns , but the level speed was slightly improved over the original aircraft . However , the time to climb to 5000 meters increased by two @-@ tenths of a second over the older model . More than 2000 aircraft were delivered before the war 's end , most by Zavod Nr. 21 . A total of 5753 aircraft had been built by Zavod Nr. 21 , Nr. 381 , and Nr. 99 in Ulan @-@ Ude , when production ended in early 1946 . = = Operational history = = The 63rd Guard Fighter Aviation Corps began combat trials of the La @-@ 7 in mid @-@ September 1944 in support of the 1st Baltic Front . Thirty aircraft were provided for the trials , which lasted one month . During this time the new fighters made 462 individual sorties and claimed 55 aerial victories while losing four aircraft in combat . Four other La @-@ 7s were lost to non @-@ combat causes , mostly related to engine problems . A total of three pilots were killed during the trials to all causes . One regimental commander , Colonel Ye . Gorbatyuk , a Hero of the Soviet Union , commented : " The La @-@ 7 exhibited unquestionable advantages over German aircraft in multiple air combats . In addition to fighter tasks , photo reconnaissance and bombing were undertaken with success . The aircraft surpasses the La @-@ 5FN in speed , manoeuvrability , and , especially , in the landing characteristics . It requires changes in its armament , and urgent fixing of its engine . " The twin ShVAK armament inherited from the La @-@ 5 was no longer powerful enough to bring down later , more heavily armored German fighters , especially the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 , in a single burst , even when Soviet pilots opened fire at ranges of only 50 – 100 meters ( 160 – 330 ft ) . The 156th Fighter Air Corps of the 4th Air Army was the next unit to receive the La @-@ 7 in October 1944 . At one point during the month , they had fourteen aircraft simultaneously unserviceable with engine failures . By 1 January 1945 there were 398 La @-@ 7s in front @-@ line service of which 107 were unserviceable . By 9 May 1945 this had increased to 967 aircraft , of which only 169 were unserviceable . For the invasion of Japanese Manchuria , 313 La @-@ 7s were assigned and only 28 of these were unserviceable on 9 August 1945 . The La @-@ 7 was flown by the top Soviet ace of the war , Ivan Nikitovich Kozhedub . Kozhedub , nicknamed " Ivan the Terrible " , a three @-@ time Hero of Soviet Union , scored his last 17 air victories in 1945 in the La @-@ 7 numbered 27 , which is now preserved in the Central Air Force Museum at Monino on the outskirts of Moscow . The last German aircraft that he shot down was the Messerschmitt Me @-@ 262 , of Sergeant ( German : Unteroffizier ) Kurt Lange from 1 . / KG ( J ) 54 , over Frankfurt an der Oder on 15 February 1945 . One fighter regiment of the 1st Czechoslovak Composite Aviation Division was later equipped with the La @-@ 7 after participating in the Slovak National Uprising of August – October 1944 with La @-@ 5FN . A total of 56 aircraft were delivered and equipped the 1st and 2nd Fighter Regiments . The bulk of the aircraft , however , were delivered in 1945 and saw no combat during the war . It remained in service with the Czechoslovaks until 1950 and was designated postwar by them as the S @-@ 97 . One of these aircraft survives in the Prague Aviation Museum , Kbely . Despite reports to the contrary , no La @-@ 7s were ever sold or transferred to the People 's Republic of China or North Korea . Such reports arose from misidentification by Western pilots of the La @-@ 9s or La @-@ 11s that were given to those countries . The British test pilot , Eric " Winkle " Brown was given the chance to fly an La @-@ 7 at the Tarnewitz test site on the Baltic coast , shortly after the German surrender in May 1945 . He described the handling and performance as " quite superb " , but the armament and sights were " below par " , the " wooden construction would have withstood little combat punishment " and the instrumentation was " appallingly basic " . Production of the La @-@ 7 amounted to 5 @,@ 753 aircraft , plus 584 La @-@ 7UTI trainers . Those aircraft still in service after the end of the war were given the NATO reporting name Fin . The follow @-@ up model , the La @-@ 9 , despite its outward similarity , was a completely new design . = = = Tactical significance = = = The La @-@ 7 ended the superiority in vertical maneuverability that the Messerschmitt Bf 109G had previously enjoyed over other Soviet fighters . Furthermore , it was fast enough at low altitudes to catch , albeit with some difficulties , Focke Wulf Fw 190 fighter @-@ bombers that attacked Soviet units on the frontlines and immediately returned to German @-@ controlled airspace at full speed . The Yakovlev Yak @-@ 3 and the Yakovlev Yak @-@ 9U with the Klimov VK @-@ 107 engine lacked a large enough margin of speed to overtake the German raiders . 115 La @-@ 7s were lost in air combat , only half the number of Yak @-@ 3s . = = Variants = = = = = La @-@ 7TK = = = One aircraft used to evaluate the TK @-@ 3 turbosupercharger in July 1944 in the hopes of improving high @-@ altitude performance . It was destroyed when the TK @-@ 3 disintegrated in flight . = = = La @-@ 7R = = = Testbed for a tail @-@ mounted liquid @-@ fuelled RD @-@ 1KhZ rocket engine . The rocket was rated at 300 kilograms @-@ force ( 660 lbf ) of thrust and its fuel ( 90 liters ( 20 imp gal ; 24 U.S. gal ) of kerosene and 180 liters ( 40 imp gal ; 48 U.S. gal ) of red fuming nitric acid ) was expected to last between three and three and a half minutes . While the rocket was firing it increased the fighter 's speed by 80 kilometers per hour ( 50 mph ) , but the aircraft 's other flying qualities deteriorated . Fifteen flights were made in the first quarter of 1945 , although the rocket exploded on the ground on 12 May . The aircraft was repaired , but later had an explosion in flight although the pilot managed to land it safely . Details of any later flights are unknown , but the La @-@ 7R was displayed at the August 1946 Tushino Airshow with the rocket firing . = = = La @-@ 7PVRD = = = Testbed for two underwing ramjet engines . The aircraft was expected to reach a speed of 800 kilometers per hour ( 497 mph ) at a height of 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 19 @,@ 685 ft ) , but could not exceed 670 kilometers per hour ( 416 mph ) due to the high drag of the ramjets . = = = La @-@ 7 / M @-@ 71 = = = One aircraft was fitted with the Shvetsov M @-@ 71 for trials in 1944 . However the engine was not yet ready for service and the program was cancelled . = = = La @-@ 7UTI = = = Two @-@ seat trainer version . Armament reduced to a single 20 mm gun and the oil cooler was relocated underneath the engine cowling . Fitted with a radio compass and gun camera . Considerably heavier than the fighter at 3 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 7 @,@ 716 lb ) , but it retained the flying characteristics of the single @-@ seat aircraft . 584 built , the last two delivered in 1947 . = = Survivors = = One aircraft in the Prague Aviation Museum , Kbely . Ivan Kozhedub 's La @-@ 7 number 27 in the Central Air Force Museum , Monino , Moscow . La @-@ 7 on a monument in front of Lavochkin NPO , Chimki , Moscow . = = Operators = = Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakian Air Force Czechoslovakian National Security Guard Soviet Union Soviet Air Forces = = Specifications ( 1945 production model ) = = Data from Soviet Airpower in World War 2 General characteristics Crew : 1 Length : 8 @.@ 6 m ( 28 ft 3 in ) Wingspan : 9 @.@ 8 m ( 32 ft 2 in ) Height : 2 @.@ 54 m ( 8 ft 4 in ) Wing area : 17 @.@ 59 m2 ( 189 @.@ 3 sq ft ) Gross weight : 3 @,@ 315 kg ( 7 @,@ 308 lb ) Powerplant : 1 × Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82FN 14 @-@ cylinder , two @-@ row , air @-@ cooled radial , 1 @,@ 230 kW ( 1 @,@ 650 hp ) Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed VISh @-@ 105V @-@ 4 Performance Maximum speed : 661 km / h ( 411 mph ; 357 kn ) @ 6 @,@ 000 meters ( 19 @,@ 685 ft ) Range : 665 km ( 413 mi ; 359 nmi ) ( 1944 model ) Service ceiling : 10 @,@ 450 m ( 34 @,@ 285 ft ) Rate of climb : 15 @.@ 72 m / s ( 3 @,@ 095 ft / min ) Time to altitude : 5 @.@ 3 minutes to 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) Armament Guns : 2 × cowl @-@ mounted 20 mm ShVAK cannons with 200 rounds per gun or 3 × cowl @-@ mounted 20 mm Berezin B @-@ 20 cannons with 100 rounds per gun Bombs : 200 kg ( 440 lb ) of bombs
= WKEY ( AM ) = WKEY ( 1340 AM ) is an American radio station licensed to serve the community of Covington , Virginia . The station , which began broadcasting in 1941 , is owned and operated by Todd P. Robinson , Inc . The WKEY broadcast license is held by WVJT , LLC . The station broadcasts a country music format to the Covington / Clifton Forge area . WKEY is branded , along with its broadcast translator W278BF ( 103 @.@ 5 FM , Covington ) , as " 103 @.@ 5 Big Country " . = = History = = WKEY began broadcasting on May 23 , 1941 as WJMA with 250 watts of power . WJMA was owned by John Arrington Jr. and his wife , Marcia . On May 26 , 1942 , WJMA was sold to Earl M. Key and the callsign changed to WKEY in 1943 . By 1964 , the station 's power had increased to 1 @,@ 000 watts during the day , while the nighttime power remained at 250 watts . On June 1 , 1973 , WKEY was sold to WKEY , Inc . , headed by E.H. Barr , for an undisclosed amount . WKEY increased its nighttime power in 1987 to 1 @,@ 000 watts , matching its daytime power . On December 20 , 2002 , WKEY was acquired by Quorum Radio Partners of Virginia , Inc. for $ 650 @,@ 000 . During 2002 , WKEY switched from its longtime country format to oldies . On April 20 , 2005 , Quorum Radio Partners of Virginia , Inc. filed for bankruptcy and WKEY placed into debtor @-@ in @-@ possession status pending a sale . On January 1 , 2006 , WKEY was sold to Todd P. Robinson , Inc . , for $ 100 @,@ 000 . On May 1 , 2008 , the station changed its format from oldies to Southern Gospel , under " The Cross " branding . On January 14 , 2012 , WKEY began simulcasting sister station WIQO @-@ FM , after its move to Forest , Virginia , and away from Covington . On August 9 , 2012 , WKEY began simulcasting full @-@ time on translator station W278BF ( 103 @.@ 5 FM ) , located in Covington , with the country format that was previously heard on WIQO . On November 18 , 2013 , WKEY began streaming its signal live on the internet . = = Programming = = WKEY carries a mix of local and syndicated programming . Weekdays begin with a locally produced morning show called " Highway 64 with Big Al " . The station also has a news department which prepares and broadcasts local news reports on weekdays . The bulk of the broadcast day 's programming comes from Dial Global 's Mainstream Country network . Nationally syndicated programs aired on WKEY include the " Tim White Bluegrass Show " and " zMAX Racing Country " . The station carries a one @-@ minute newscast from Fox News Radio at the top of each hour . WKEY broadcasts live football games from Covington High School in the Fall . WKEY is an affiliate of the University of Virginia 's Virginia Sports Network , which carries the school 's football and basketball games . NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races can also be heard on WKEY with live coverage provided by the Motor Racing Network and the Performance Racing Network . On Sunday mornings , WKEY airs an assortment of religious programming . Beginning with a half @-@ hour , locally produced Gospel music program , the station then airs the syndicated In Touch Ministries and Focus on the Family programs , rounding out the block with a live local church service broadcast . = = Translator = = In addition to the main station , WKEY is relayed by an FM translator to widen its broadcast area .
= Clarinet = The clarinet is a musical @-@ instrument family belonging to the group known as the woodwind instruments . It has a single @-@ reed mouthpiece , a straight cylindrical tube with an almost cylindrical bore , and a flared bell . A person who plays a clarinet is called a clarinetist ( sometimes spelled clarinettist ) . The word clarinet may have entered the English language via the French clarinette ( the feminine diminutive of Old French clarin or clarion ) , or from Provençal clarin , " oboe " . It would seem however that its real roots are to be found amongst some of the various names for trumpets used around the renaissance and baroque eras . Clarion , clarin and the Italian clarino are all derived from the medieval term claro which referred to an early form of trumpet . This is probably the origin of the Italian clarinetto , itself a diminutive of clarino , and consequently of the European equivalents such as clarinette in French or the German Klarinette . According to Johann Gottfried Walther , writing in 1732 , the reason for the name is that " it sounded from far off not unlike a trumpet " . The English form clarinet is found as early as 1733 , and the now @-@ archaic clarionet appears from 1784 until the early years of the 20th century . While the similarity in sound between the earliest clarinets and the trumpet may hold a clue to its name , other factors may have been involved . During the late baroque era , composers such as Bach and Handel were making new demands on the skills of their trumpeters , who were often required to play difficult melodic passages in the high , or as it came to be called , clarion register . Since the trumpets of this time had no valves or pistons , melodic passages would often require the use of the highest part of the trumpet 's range , where the harmonics were close enough together to produce scales of adjacent notes as opposed to the gapped scales or arpeggios of the lower register . The trumpet parts that required this speciality were known by the term clarino and this in turn came to apply to the musicians themselves . It is probable that the term clarinet may stem from the diminutive version of the ' clarion ' or ' clarino ' and it has been suggested that clarino players may have helped themselves out by playing particularly difficult passages on these newly developed " mock trumpets " . Johann Christoph Denner is generally believed to have invented the clarinet in Germany around the year 1700 by adding a register key to the earlier chalumeau . Over time , additional keywork and airtight pads were added to improve the tone and playability . These days the most popular clarinet is the B ♭ clarinet . However , the clarinet in A , just a semitone lower , is commonly used in orchestral music . Since the middle of the 19th century the bass clarinet ( nowadays invariably in B ♭ but with extra keys to extend the register down a few notes ) has become an essential addition to the orchestra . The clarinet family ranges from the ( extremely rare ) BBB ♭ octo @-@ contrabass to the A ♭ piccolo clarinet . The clarinet has proved to be an exceptionally flexible instrument , equally at home in the classical repertoire as in concert bands , military bands , marching bands , klezmer , and jazz . = = Characteristics = = = = = Sound = = = The cylindrical bore is primarily responsible for the clarinet 's distinctive timbre , which varies between its three main registers , known as the chalumeau , clarion , and altissmo . The tone quality can vary greatly with the musician , the music , the instrument , the mouthpiece , and the reed . The differences in instruments and geographical isolation of players in different countries led to the development , from the last part of the 18th century onwards , of several different schools of clarinet playing . The most prominent were the German / Viennese traditions and the French school . The latter was centered on the clarinetists of the Conservatoire de Paris . The proliferation of recorded music has made examples of different styles of clarinet playing available . The modern clarinetist has a diverse palette of " acceptable " tone qualities to choose from . The A clarinet and B ♭ clarinet have nearly the same bore , and use the same mouthpiece . Orchestral players using the A and B ♭ instruments in the same concert could use the same mouthpiece ( and often the same barrel ) for both ( see ' usage ' below ) . The A and the B ♭ instruments have nearly identical tonal quality , although the A typically has a slightly warmer sound . The tone of the E ♭ clarinet is brighter than that of the lower clarinets and can be heard even through loud orchestral or concert band textures . The bass clarinet has a characteristically deep , mellow sound , while the alto clarinet is similar in tone to the bass ( though not as dark ) . = = = Range = = = Clarinets have the largest pitch range of common woodwinds . The intricate key organization that makes this range possible can make the playability of some passages awkward . The bottom of the clarinet ’ s written range is defined by the keywork on each instrument , standard keywork schemes allowing a low E on the common B ♭ clarinet . The lowest concert pitch depends on the transposition of the instrument in question . The nominal highest note of the B ♭ clarinet is a semitone higher than the highest note of the oboe . Since the clarinet has a wider range of notes , the lowest note of the B ♭ clarinet is significantly deeper ( a minor or major sixth ) than the lowest note of the oboe . Nearly all soprano and piccolo clarinets have keywork enabling them to play the E below middle C as their lowest written note ( in scientific pitch notation that sounds D3 on a soprano clarinet or C4 , i.e. concert middle C , on a piccolo clarinet ) , though some B ♭ clarinets go down to E ♭ 3 to enable them to match the range of the A clarinet . On the B ♭ soprano clarinet , the concert pitch of the lowest note is D3 , a whole tone lower than the written pitch . Most alto and bass clarinets have an extra key to allow a ( written ) E ♭ 3 . Modern professional @-@ quality bass clarinets generally have additional keywork to written C3 . Among the less commonly encountered members of the clarinet family , contra @-@ alto and contrabass clarinets may have keywork to written E ♭ 3 , D3 , or C3 ; the basset clarinet and basset horn generally go to low C3 . Defining the top end of a clarinet ’ s range is difficult , since many advanced players can produce notes well above the highest notes commonly found in method books . G6 is usually the highest note clarinetists encounter in classical repertoire . The C above that ( C7 i.e. resting on the fifth ledger line above the treble staff ) is attainable by advanced players and is shown on many fingering charts , and fingerings as high as G7 exist . The range of a clarinet can be divided into three distinct registers . The lowest register , from low written E to the written B ♭ above middle C ( B ♭ 4 ) , is known as the chalumeau register ( named after the instrument that was the clarinet 's immediate predecessor ) . The middle register is known as the clarion register ( sometimes in the U.S.A. as the clarino register from the Italian ) and spans just over an octave ( from written B above middle C ( B4 ) to the C two octaves above middle C ( C6 ) ) ; it is the dominant range for most members of the clarinet family . The top or altissimo register consists of the notes above the written C two octaves above middle C ( C6 ) . All three registers have characteristically different sounds . The chalumeau register is rich and dark . The clarion register is brighter and sweet , like a trumpet ( clarion ) heard from afar . The altissimo register can be piercing and sometimes shrill . = = = Acoustics = = = Sound is a wave that propagates through the air as a result of a local variation in air pressure . The production of sound by a clarinet follows these steps : The mouthpiece and reed are surrounded by the player ’ s lips , which put light , even pressure on the reed and form an airtight seal . Air is blown past the reed and down the instrument . In the same way that a flag flaps in the breeze , the air rushing past the reed causes it to vibrate . As air pressure from the mouth increases , the amount the reed vibrates increases until the reed hits the mouthpiece . At this point the reed stays pressed against the mouthpiece until either the springiness of the reed forces it to open , or a returning pressure wave ‘ bumps ’ into the reed and opens it . Each time the reed opens , a puff of air goes through the gap , after which the reed swings shut again . When played loudly , the reed can spend up to 50 % of the time shut . The ‘ puff of air ’ or compression wave ( around 3 % greater pressure than the surrounding air ) travels down the cylindrical tube and escapes at the point where the tube opens out . This is either at the closest open hole or at the end of the tube ( see diagram : image 1 ) . More than a ‘ neutral ’ amount of air escapes from the instrument , which creates a slight vacuum or rarefaction in the clarinet tube . This rarefaction wave travels back up the tube ( image 2 ) . The rarefaction is reflected off the sloping end wall of the clarinet mouthpiece . The opening between the reed and the mouthpiece makes very little difference to the reflection of the rarefaction wave . This is because the opening is very small compared to the size of the tube , so almost the entire wave is reflected back down the tube even if the reed is completely open at the time the wave hits ( image 3 ) . When the rarefication wave reaches the other ( open ) end of the tube , air rushes in to fill the slight vacuum . A little more than a ‘ neutral ’ amount of air enters the tube and causes a compression wave to travel back up the tube ( image 4 ) . Once the compression wave reaches the mouthpiece end of the clarinet ‘ tube ’ , it is reflected again back down the pipe . However at this time , either because the compression wave ‘ bumped ’ the reed or because of the natural vibration cycle of the reed , the gap opens and another ‘ puff ’ of air is sent down the pipe . The original compression wave , now greatly reinforced by the second ‘ puff ’ of air , sets off on another two trips down the pipe ( travelling 4 pipe lengths in total ) before the cycle is repeated again . The cycle repeats at a frequency relative to how long it takes a wave to travel to the first open hole and back twice ( i.e. four times the length of the pipe ) . For example : when all the holes bar the very top one are open ( i.e. the trill ' B ' key is pressed ) , the note A4 ( 440 Hz ) is produced . This represents a repeat of the cycle 440 times per second . In addition to this primary compression wave , other waves , known as harmonics , are created . Harmonics are caused by factors including : the imperfect wobbling and shaking of the clarinet reed , the reed sealing the mouthpiece opening for part of the wave cycle ( which creates a flattened section of the sound wave ) and imperfections ( bumps and holes ) in the clarinet bore . A wide variety of compression waves are created , but only some ( primarily the odd harmonics ) are reinforced . These extra waves are what gives the clarinet its characteristic tone . The bore of the clarinet is cylindrical for most of the tube with an inner bore diameter between 14 and 15 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 55 and 0 @.@ 61 in ) , but there is a subtle hourglass shape , with the thinnest part below the junction between the upper and lower joint . The reduction is 1 to 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 118 in ) depending on the maker . This " hourglass " shape , although not visible to the naked eye , helps to correct the pitch / scale discrepancy between the chalumeau and clarion registers ( perfect 12th ) . The diameter of the bore affects characteristics such as available harmonics , timbre , and pitch stability ( how far the player can bend a note in the manner required in jazz and other music ) . The bell at the bottom of the instrument flares out to improve the tone and tuning of the lowest notes . Most modern clarinets have " undercut " tone holes that improve intonation and sound . Undercutting means chamfering the bottom edge of tone holes inside the bore . Acoustically , this makes the tone hole function as if it were larger , but its main function is to allow the air column to follow the curve up through the tone hole ( surface tension ) instead of " blowing past " it under the increasingly directional frequencies of the upper registers . The fixed reed and fairly uniform diameter of the clarinet give the instrument an acoustical behavior approximating that of a cylindrical stopped pipe . Recorders use a tapered internal bore to overblow at the 8th ( octave ) when its thumb / register hole is pinched open while the clarinet , with its cylindrical bore , overblows on the 12th . Adjusting the angle of the bore taper controls the frequencies of the overblown notes ( harmonics ) . Changing the mouthpiece 's tip opening and the length of the reed changes aspects of the harmonic timbre or voice of the instrument because this changes the speed of reed vibrations . Generally , the goal of the clarinetist when producing a sound is to make as much of the reed vibrate as possible , making the sound fuller , warmer , and potentially louder . The lip position and pressure , the shaping of the vocal tract , the choice of reed and mouthpiece , the amount of air pressure created , and the evenness of the air flow account for most of the player ’ s ability to control the tone of a clarinet . A highly skilled musician will provide the ideal lip pressure and air pressure for each frequency ( note ) being produced . They will have an embouchure which places an even pressure across the reed by carefully controlling their lip muscles . The air flow will also be carefully controlled by using the strong stomach muscles ( as opposed to the weaker and erratic chest muscles ) and they will use the diaphragm to oppose the stomach muscles to achieve a tone softer than a forte , rather than weakening the stomach muscle tension to lower air pressure . Their vocal tract will be shaped to resonate at frequencies associated with the tone being produced . Covering or uncovering the tone holes varies the length of the pipe , changing the resonant frequencies of the enclosed air column and hence the pitch of the sound . A clarinetist moves between the chalumeau and clarion registers through use of the register key , or speaker key : clarinetists call the change from chalumeau register to clarion register " the break " . The open register key stops the fundamental frequency from being reinforced and the reed is forced to vibrate at three times the speed it was originally vibrating at . This produces a note a twelfth above the original note . Most instruments overblow at two times the speed of the fundamental frequency ( the octave ) but as the clarinet acts as a closed pipe system , the reed cannot vibrate at twice the original speed because it would be creating a ‘ puff ’ of air at the time the previous ‘ puff ’ is returning as a rarefaction . This means that it cannot be reinforced and so would die away . The chalumeau register plays fundamentals , whereas the clarion register , aided by the register key , plays third harmonics , a perfect twelfth higher than the fundamentals . The first several notes of the altissimo range , aided by the register key and venting with the first left @-@ hand hole , play fifth harmonics , a major seventeenth ( that is a perfect twelfth plus a major sixth ) above the fundamental . The clarinet is therefore said to overblow at the twelfth , and when moving to the altissimo register , a seventeenth . By contrast , nearly all other woodwind instruments overblow at the octave , or like the ocarina and tonette , do not overblow at all ) . A clarinet must have holes and keys for nineteen notes ( a chromatic octave and a half , from bottom E to B ♭ ) in its lowest register to play the chromatic scale . This overblowing behavior explains the clarinet 's great range and complex fingering system . The fifth and seventh harmonics are also available , sounding a further sixth and fourth ( a flat , diminished fifth ) higher respectively ; these are the notes of the altissimo register . This is also why the inner " waist " measurement is so critical to these harmonic frequencies . The highest notes on a clarinet can have a shrill piercing quality and can be difficult to tune accurately . Different instruments often play differently in this respect due to the sensitivity of the bore and reed measurements . Using alternate fingerings and adjusting the embouchure help correct the pitch of these higher notes . Since approximately 1850 , clarinets have been nominally tuned according to twelve @-@ tone equal temperament . Older clarinets were nominally tuned to meantone . A skilled performer can use his or her embouchure to considerably alter the tuning of individual notes or to produce vibrato , a pulsating change of pitch often employed in jazz . Vibrato is rare in classical or concert band literature ; however , certain clarinetists , such as Richard Stoltzman , do use vibrato in classical music . Special fingerings may be used to play quarter tones and other microtonal intervals . Around 1900 , Dr. Richard H. Stein , a Berlin musicologist , made a quarter @-@ tone clarinet , which was soon abandoned . Years later , another German , Fritz Schüller of Markneukirchen , built a quarter tone clarinet , with two parallel bores of slightly different lengths whose tone holes are operated using the same keywork and a valve to switch from one bore to the other . = = Construction = = = = = Materials = = = Clarinet bodies have been made from a variety of materials including wood , plastic , hard rubber , metal , resin , and ivory . The vast majority of clarinets used by professional musicians are made from African hardwood , mpingo ( African Blackwood ) or grenadilla , rarely ( because of diminishing supplies ) Honduran rosewood and sometimes even cocobolo . Historically other woods , notably boxwood , were used . Most modern , inexpensive instruments are made of plastic resin , such as ABS . These materials are sometimes called resonite , which is Selmer 's trademark name for its type of plastic . Metal soprano clarinets were popular in the early 20th century , until plastic instruments supplanted them ; metal construction is still used for the bodies of some contra @-@ alto and contrabass clarinets , and for the necks and bells of nearly all alto and larger clarinets . Ivory was used for a few 18th @-@ century clarinets , but it tends to crack and does not keep its shape well . Buffet Crampon 's Greenline clarinets are made from a composite of grenadilla wood powder and carbon fiber . Such instruments are less affected by humidity and temperature changes than wooden instruments but are heavier . Hard rubber , such as ebonite , has been used for clarinets since the 1860s , although few modern clarinets are made of it . Clarinet designers Alastair Hanson and Tom Ridenour are strong advocates of hard rubber . Hanson Clarinets of England manufactures clarinets using a grenadilla compound reinforced with ebonite , known as ' BTR ' ( bithermal reinforced ) grenadilla . This material is also not affected by humidity , and the weight is the same as that of a wooden clarinet . Mouthpieces are generally made of hard rubber , although some inexpensive mouthpieces may be made of plastic . Other materials such as crystal / glass , wood , ivory , and metal have also been used . Ligatures are often made out of metal and plated in nickel , silver , or gold . Other ligature materials include wire , wire mesh , plastic , naugahyde , string , or leather . = = = Reed = = = The instrument uses a single reed made from the cane of Arundo donax , a type of grass . Reeds may also be manufactured from synthetic materials . The ligature fastens the reed to the mouthpiece . When air is blown through the opening between the reed and the mouthpiece facing , the reed vibrates and produces the instrument 's sound . Basic reed measurements are as follows : tip , 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) wide ; lay , 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) long ( distance from the place where the reed touches the mouthpiece to the tip ) ; gap , 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) ( distance between the underside of the reed tip and the mouthpiece ) . Adjustment to these measurements is one method of affecting tone color . Most clarinetists buy manufactured reeds , although many make adjustments to these reeds and some make their own reeds from cane " blanks " . Reeds come in varying degrees of hardness , generally indicated on a scale from one ( soft ) through five ( hard ) . This numbering system is not standardized — reeds with the same hardness number often vary in hardness across manufacturers and models . Reed and mouthpiece characteristics work together to determine ease of playability , pitch stability , and tonal characteristics . = = = Components = = = Note : A Boehm system soprano clarinet is shown in the photos illustrating this section . However , all modern clarinets have similar components . The reed is attached to the mouthpiece by the ligature , and the top half @-@ inch or so of this assembly is held in the player ’ s mouth . In the past clarinetists used to wrap a string around the mouthpiece and reed instead of using a ligature . The formation of the mouth around the mouthpiece and reed is called the embouchure . The reed is on the underside of the mouthpiece , pressing against the player 's lower lip , while the top teeth normally contact the top of the mouthpiece ( some players roll the upper lip under the top teeth to form what is called a ‘ double @-@ lip ’ embouchure ) . Adjustments in the strength and shape of the embouchure change the tone and intonation ( tuning ) . It is not uncommon for clarinetists to employ methods to relieve the pressure on the upper teeth and inner lower lip by attaching pads to the top of the mouthpiece or putting ( temporary ) padding on the front lower teeth , commonly from folded paper . Next is the short barrel ; this part of the instrument may be extended to fine @-@ tune the clarinet . As the pitch of the clarinet is fairly temperature @-@ sensitive , some instruments have interchangeable barrels whose lengths vary slightly . Additional compensation for pitch variation and tuning can be made by pulling out the barrel and thus increasing the instrument 's length , particularly common in group playing in which clarinets are tuned to other instruments ( such as in an orchestra or concert band ) . Some performers use a plastic barrel with a thumbwheel that adjusts the barrel length . On basset horns and lower clarinets , the barrel is normally replaced by a curved metal neck . The main body of most clarinets is divided into the upper joint , the holes and most keys of which are operated by the left hand , and the lower joint with holes and most keys operated by the right hand . Some clarinets have a single joint : on some basset horns and larger clarinets the two joints are held together with a screw clamp and are usually not disassembled for storage . The left thumb operates both a tone hole and the register key . On some models of clarinet , such as many Albert system clarinets and increasingly some higher @-@ end Boehm system clarinets , the register key is a ' wraparound ' key , with the key on the back of the clarinet and the pad on the front . Advocates of the wraparound register key say it improves sound , and it is harder for moisture to accumulate in the tube beneath the pad . Nevertheless , there is a consensus among repair techs that this type of register key is harder to keep in adjustment , i.e. , it is hard to have enough spring pressure to close the hole securely . The body of a modern soprano clarinet is equipped with numerous tone holes of which seven ( six front , one back ) are covered with the fingertips , and the rest are opened or closed using a set of keys . These tone holes let the player produce every note of the chromatic scale . On alto and larger clarinets , and a few soprano clarinets , key @-@ covered holes replace some or all finger holes . The most common system of keys was named the Boehm system by its designer Hyacinthe Klosé in honour of flute designer Theobald Boehm , but it is not the same as the Boehm system used on flutes . The other main system of keys is called the Oehler system and is used mostly in Germany and Austria ( see History ) . The related Albert system is used by some jazz , klezmer , and eastern European folk musicians . The Albert and Oehler systems are both based on the early Mueller system . The cluster of keys at the bottom of the upper joint ( protruding slightly beyond the cork of the joint ) are known as the trill keys and are operated by the right hand . These give the player alternative fingerings that make it easy to play ornaments and trills . The entire weight of the smaller clarinets is supported by the right thumb behind the lower joint on what is called the thumb @-@ rest . Basset horns and larger clarinets are supported with a neck strap or a floor peg . Finally , the flared end is known as the bell . Contrary to popular belief , the bell does not amplify the sound ; rather , it improves the uniformity of the instrument 's tone for the lowest notes in each register . For the other notes the sound is produced almost entirely at the tone holes and the bell is irrelevant . On basset horns and larger clarinets , the bell curves up and forward and is usually made of metal . = = = Keywork = = = Theobald Boehm did not directly invent the key system of the clarinet . Boehm was a flautist who created the key system that is now used for the transverse flute . Klosé and Buffet applied Boehm 's system to the clarinet . Although the credit goes to those people , Boehm 's name was given to that key system because it was based on that used for flute . The current Boehm key system consists of generally 6 rings , on the thumb , 1st , 2nd , 4th , 5th and 6th holes , a register key just above the thumb hole , easily accessible with the thumb . Above the 1st hole , there is a key that lifts two covers creating the note A in the throat register ( high part of low register ) of the clarinet . A key at the side of the instrument at the same height as the A key lifts only one of the two covers , producing G ♯ a semitone lower . The A key can be used in conjunction solely with the register key to produce A ♯ / B ♭ . = = History = = = = = Lineage = = = The clarinet has its roots in the early single @-@ reed instruments or hornpipes used in Ancient Greece , old Egypt , Middle East , and Europe since the Middle Ages , such as the albogue , alboka , and double clarinet . The modern clarinet developed from a Baroque instrument called the chalumeau . This instrument was similar to a recorder , but with a single @-@ reed mouthpiece and a cylindrical bore . Lacking a register key , it was played mainly in its fundamental register , with a limited range of about one and a half octaves . It had eight finger holes , like a recorder , and two keys for its two highest notes . At this time , contrary to modern practice , the reed was placed in contact with the upper lip . Around the turn of the 18th century , the chalumeau was modified by converting one of its keys into a register key to produce the first clarinet . This development is usually attributed to German instrument maker Johann Christoph Denner , though some have suggested his son Jacob Denner was the inventor . This instrument played well in the middle register with a loud , shrill sound , so it was given the name clarinetto meaning " little trumpet " ( from clarino + -etto ) . Early clarinets did not play well in the lower register , so players continued to play the chalumeaux for low notes . As clarinets improved , the chalumeau fell into disuse , and these notes became known as the chalumeau register . Original Denner clarinets had two keys , and could play a chromatic scale , but various makers added more keys to get improved tuning , easier fingerings , and a slightly larger range . The classical clarinet of Mozart 's day typically had eight finger holes and five keys . Clarinets were soon accepted into orchestras . Later models had a mellower tone than the originals . Mozart ( d . 1791 ) liked the sound of the clarinet ( he considered its tone the closest in quality to the human voice ) and wrote numerous pieces for the instrument . , and by the time of Beethoven ( c . 1800 – 1820 ) , the clarinet was a standard fixture in the orchestra . = = = Pads = = = The next major development in the history of clarinet was the invention of the modern pad . Because early clarinets used felt pads to cover the tone holes , they leaked air . This required pad @-@ covered holes to be kept to a minimum , restricting the number of notes the clarinet could play with good tone . In 1812 , Iwan Müller , a Baltic German community @-@ born clarinetist and inventor , developed a new type of pad that was covered in leather or fish bladder . It was airtight and let makers increase the number of pad @-@ covered holes . Müller designed a new type of clarinet with seven finger holes and thirteen keys . This allowed the instrument to play in any key with near @-@ equal ease . Over the course of the 19th @-@ century makers made many enhancements to Mueller 's clarinet , such as the Albert system and the Baermann system , all keeping the same basic design . Modern instruments may also have cork or synthetic pads . = = = Arrangement of keys and holes = = = The final development in the modern design of the clarinet used in most of the world today was introduced by Hyacinthe Klosé in 1839 . He devised a different arrangement of keys and finger holes , which allow simpler fingering . It was inspired by the Boehm system developed for flutes by Theobald Boehm . Klosé was so impressed by Boehm 's invention that he named his own system for clarinets the Boehm system , although it is different from the one used on flutes . This new system was slow to gain popularity but gradually became the standard , and today the Boehm system is used everywhere in the world except Germany and Austria . These countries still use a direct descendant of the Mueller clarinet known as the Oehler system clarinet . Also , some contemporary Dixieland players continue to use Albert system clarinets . = = Usage and repertoire = = = = = Use of multiple clarinets = = = The modern orchestral standard of using soprano clarinets in both B ♭ and A has to do partly with the history of the instrument , and partly with acoustics , aesthetics , and economics . Before about 1800 , due to the lack of airtight pads ( see History ) , practical woodwinds could have only a few keys to control accidentals ( notes outside their diatonic home scales ) . The low ( chalumeau ) register of the clarinet spans a twelfth ( an octave plus a perfect fifth ) , so the clarinet needs keys / holes to produce all nineteen notes in that range . This involves more keywork than is necessary on instruments that " overblow " at the octave — oboes , flutes , bassoons , and saxophones , for example , which need only twelve notes before overblowing . Clarinets with few keys cannot therefore easily play chromatically , limiting any such instrument to a few closely related key signatures . For example , an eighteenth @-@ century clarinet in C could be played in F , C , and G ( and their relative minors ) with good intonation , but with progressive difficulty and poorer intonation as the key moved away from this range . In contrast , for octave @-@ overblowing instruments , an instrument in C with few keys could much more readily be played in any key . This problem was overcome by using three clarinets — in A , B ♭ , and C — so that early 19th @-@ century music , which rarely strayed into the remote keys ( five or six sharps or flats ) , could be played as follows : music in 5 to 2 sharps ( B major to D major concert pitch ) on A clarinet ( D major to F major for the player ) , music in 1 sharp to 1 flat ( G to F ) on C clarinet , and music in 2 flats to 4 flats ( B ♭ to A ♭ ) on the B ♭ clarinet ( C to B ♭ for the player ) . Difficult key signatures and numerous accidentals were thus largely avoided . With the invention of the airtight pad , and as key technology improved and more keys were added to woodwinds , the need for clarinets in multiple musical keys was reduced . However , the use of multiple instruments in different keys persisted , with the three instruments in C , B ♭ , and A all used as specified by the composer . The lower @-@ pitched clarinets sound more " mellow " ( less bright ) , and the C clarinet — being the highest and therefore brightest of the three — fell out of favour as the other two clarinets could cover its range and their sound was considered better . While the clarinet in C began to fall out of general use around 1850 , some composers continued to write C parts after this date , e.g. , Bizet 's Symphony in C ( 1855 ) , Tchaikovsky 's Symphony No. 2 ( 1872 ) , Smetana 's overture to The Bartered Bride ( 1866 ) and Má Vlast ( 1874 ) , Dvořák 's Slavonic Dance Op. 46 , No. 1 ( 1878 ) , Brahms ' Symphony No. 4 ( 1885 ) , Mahler 's Symphony No. 6 ( 1906 ) , and Richard Strauss deliberately reintroduced it to take advantage of its brighter tone , as in Der Rosenkavalier ( 1911 ) . While technical improvements and an equal @-@ tempered scale reduced the need for two clarinets , the technical difficulty of playing in remote keys persisted , and the A has thus remained a standard orchestral instrument . In addition , by the late 19th century , the orchestral clarinet repertoire contained so much music for clarinet in A that the disuse of this instrument was not practical . Attempts were made to standardise to the B ♭ instrument between 1930 and 1950 ( e.g. , tutors recommended learning the routine transposition of orchestral A parts on the B ♭ clarinet , including solos written for A clarinet , and some manufacturers provided a low E ♭ on the B ♭ to match the range of the A ) , but this failed in the orchestral sphere . Similarly there have been E ♭ and D instruments in the upper soprano range , B ♭ , A , and C instruments in the bass range , and so forth ; but over time the E ♭ and B ♭ instruments have become predominant . The B ♭ instrument remains dominant in concert bands and in jazz . Both B ♭ and C instruments are used in some ethnic traditions , such as klezmer music . = = = Classical music = = = In classical music , clarinets are part of standard orchestral and concert band instrumentation . The orchestra frequently includes two clarinetists playing individual parts — each player is usually equipped with a pair of standard clarinets in B ♭ and A , and clarinet parts commonly alternate between B ♭ and A instruments several times over the course of a piece or even , less commonly , of a movement ( e.g. , 1st movement Brahms 3rd symphony ) . Clarinet sections grew larger during the last few decades of the 19th century , often employing a third clarinetist , an E ♭ or a bass clarinet . In the 20th century , composers such as Igor Stravinsky , Richard Strauss , Gustav Mahler , and Olivier Messiaen enlarged the clarinet section on occasion to up to nine players , employing many different clarinets including the E ♭ or D soprano clarinets , basset horn , alto clarinet , bass clarinet , and / or contrabass clarinet . In concert bands , clarinets are an important part of the instrumentation . The E ♭ clarinet , B ♭ clarinet , alto clarinet , bass clarinet , and contra @-@ alto / contrabass clarinet are commonly used in concert bands . Concert bands generally have multiple B ♭ clarinets ; there are commonly 3 B ♭ clarinet parts with 2 – 3 players per part . There is generally only one player per part on the other clarinets . There are not always E ♭ clarinet , alto clarinet , and contra @-@ alto clarinets / contrabass clarinet parts in concert band music , but all three are quite common . This practice of using a variety of clarinets to achieve coloristic variety was common in 20th @-@ century classical music and continues today . However , many clarinetists and conductors prefer to play parts originally written for obscure instruments on B ♭ or E ♭ clarinets , which are often of better quality and more prevalent and accessible . The clarinet is widely used as a solo instrument . The relatively late evolution of the clarinet ( when compared to other orchestral woodwinds ) has left solo repertoire from the Classical period and later , but few works from the Baroque era . Many clarinet concertos have been written to showcase the instrument , with the concerti by Mozart , Copland , and Weber being well known . Many works of chamber music have also been written for the clarinet . Common combinations are : = = = Jazz = = = The clarinet was originally a central instrument in jazz , beginning with the New Orleans players in the 1910s . It remained a signature instrument of jazz music through much of the big band era into the 1940s . American players Alphonse Picou , Larry Shields , Jimmie Noone , Johnny Dodds , and Sidney Bechet were all pioneers of the instrument in jazz . The B ♭ soprano was the most common instrument , but a few early jazz musicians such as Louis Nelson Delisle and Alcide Nunez preferred the C soprano , and many New Orleans jazz brass bands have used E ♭ soprano . Swing clarinetists such as Benny Goodman , Artie Shaw , and Woody Herman led successful big bands and smaller groups from the 1930s onward . Duke Ellington , active from the 1920s to the 1970s , used the clarinet as lead instrument in his works , with several players of the instrument ( Barney Bigard , Jimmy Hamilton , and Russell Procope ) spending a significant portion of their careers in his orchestra . Harry Carney , primarily Ellington 's baritone saxophonist , occasionally doubled on bass clarinet . Meanwhile , Pee Wee Russell had a long and successful career in small groups . With the decline of the big bands ' popularity in the late 1940s , the clarinet faded from its prominent position in jazz . By that time , an interest in Dixieland or traditional New Orleans jazz had revived ; Pete Fountain was one of the best known performers in this genre . Bob Wilber , active since the 1950s , is a more eclectic jazz clarinetist , playing in several classic jazz styles . During the 1950s and 1960s , Britain underwent a surge in the popularity of what was termed ' Trad jazz ' . In 1956 the British clarinetist Acker Bilk founded his own ensemble . Several singles recorded by Bilk reached the British pop charts , including the ballad " Stranger on the Shore " . The clarinet 's place in the jazz ensemble was usurped by the saxophone , which projects a more powerful sound and uses a less complicated fingering system . The requirement for an increased speed of execution in modern jazz also did not favour the clarinet , but the clarinet did not entirely disappear . A few players such as Buddy DeFranco , Tony Scott , and Jimmy Giuffre emerged during the 1950s playing bebop or other styles . A little later , Eric Dolphy ( on bass clarinet ) , Perry Robinson , John Carter , Theo Jörgensmann , and others used the clarinet in free jazz . The French composer and clarinetist Jean @-@ Christian Michel initiated a jazz @-@ classical cross @-@ over on the clarinet with the drummer Kenny Clarke . In the U.S. , the prominent players on the instrument since the 1980s have included Eddie Daniels , Don Byron , Marty Ehrlich , and others playing the clarinet in more contemporary contexts . = = = Other genres = = = The clarinet is uncommon , but not unheard of in rock music . Jerry Martini played clarinet on Sly and the Family Stone 's 1968 hit , " Dance to the Music " ; Don Byron , a founder of the Black Rock Coalition who was a member of hard rock guitarist Vernon Reid 's band , plays clarinet on the Mistaken Identity album ( 1996 ) . The Beatles , Pink Floyd , Radiohead , Aerosmith , Billy Joel , and Tom Waits have also all used clarinet on occasion . Clarinets feature prominently in klezmer music , which entails a distinctive style of playing . The use of quarter @-@ tones requires a different embouchure . Some klezmer musicians prefer Albert system clarinets . The popular Brazilian music styles of choro and samba use the clarinet . Prominent contemporary players include Paulo Moura , Naylor ' Proveta ' Azevedo , Paulo Sérgio dos Santos and Paquito D 'Rivera . Even though it has been adopted recently in Albanian folklore ( around the 18th century ) , the clarinet , or gërneta as it is called , is one of the most important instruments in Albania , especially in the central and southern areas . The clarinet plays a crucial role in saze ( folk ensemble ) that perform in weddings and other celebrations . It is worth mentioned that the kaba ( instrumental Albanian Isopolyphony included in UNESCO 's intangible cultural heritage list ) is a very characteristic play of these ensembles . There are many clarinet players in Albania ; arguably the most famous are Selim Leskoviku , Gaqo Lena , Remzi Lela ( Çobani ) , Laver Bariu ( Ustai ) , and Nevruz Nure ( Lulushi i Korçës ) . The clarinet is prominent in Bulgarian wedding music , an offshoot of Roma / Romani traditional music . Ivo Papazov is a well @-@ known clarinetist in this genre . In Moravian dulcimer bands , the clarinet is usually the only wind instrument among string instruments . In the Republic of Macedonia , old @-@ town folk music -called chalgija ( " чалгија " ) , the clarinet has the most important role in wedding music ; clarinet solos mark the high point of dancing euphoria . One of the most renowned Macedonian clarinet players is Tale Ognenovski , who gained worldwide fame for his virtuosity . In Greece the clarinet ( usually referred to as " κλαρίνο " — " clarino " ) is prominent in traditional music , especially in central , northwest and northern Greece ( Thessaly , Epirus and Macedonia ) . The double @-@ reed zurna was the dominant woodwind instrument before the clarinet arrived in the country , although many Greeks regard the clarinet as a native instrument . Traditional dance music , wedding music and laments include a clarinet soloist and quite often improvisations . Petroloukas Chalkias is a famous clarinetist in this genre . The instrument is equally famous in Turkey , especially the lower pitched clarinet in G. The western European clarinet crossed via Turkey to Arabic music , where it is widely used in Arabic pop , especially if the intention of the arranger is to imitate the Turkish style . Also in Turkish folk music , a clarinet @-@ like woodwind instrument , the sipsi , is used . However , it 's far more rare than the soprano clarinet and is mainly limited to folk music of the Aegean Region . = = = Groups of clarinets = = = Groups of clarinets playing together have become increasingly popular among clarinet enthusiasts in recent years . Common forms are : Clarinet choir , which features a large number of clarinets playing together , usually involves a range of different members of the clarinet family ( see Extended family of clarinets ) . The homogeneity of tone across the different members of the clarinet family produces an effect with some similarities to a human choir . Clarinet quartet , usually three B ♭ sopranos and one B ♭ bass , or two B ♭ , an E ♭ alto clarinet , and a B ♭ bass clarinet , or sometimes four B ♭ sopranos . Clarinet choirs and quartets often play arrangements of both classical and popular music , in addition to a body of literature specially written for a combination of clarinets by composers such as Arnold Cooke , Alfred Uhl , Lucien Caillet and Václav Nelhýbel . = = Extended family of clarinets = = There is a family of many differently pitched clarinet types , some of which are very rare . The following are the most important sizes , from highest to lowest : Experimental EEE ♭ and BBB ♭ octocontra @-@ alto and octocontrabass clarinets have also been built . There have also been soprano clarinets in C , A , and B ♭ with curved barrels and bells marketed under the names saxonette , claribel , and clariphon . = = Cited sources = = Lawson , Colin , ed . ( 1995 ) . The Cambridge Companion to the Clarinet . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 47668 @-@ 2 . Pino D. ( 1998 ) . The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing . Dover Publications . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 40270 @-@ 3 . Rendall , F. Geoffrey ( 1971 ) . The Clarinet : Some Notes upon Its History and Construction ( 3rd ed . ) . New York : W. W. Norton & Company Inc . ISBN 0393021645 .
= Pitfour estate = The Pitfour estate , in the Buchan area of north @-@ east Scotland , was an ancient barony encompassing most of the extensive Longside Parish , stretching from St Fergus to New Pitsligo . It was purchased in 1700 by James Ferguson of Badifurrow , who became the first Laird of Pitfour . The estate was substantially renovated by Ferguson and the following two generations of his family . At the height of its development in the 18th and 19th centuries the 50 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 130 km2 ) property had several extravagant features including a two @-@ mile racecourse , an artificial lake and an observatory . The original mansion house was extended before being rebuilt . The surrounding parklands were landscaped , major renovations were undertaken , and follies such as a small replica Temple of Theseus were constructed , in which George Ferguson , the fifth laird , was thought to keep alligators in a cold bath . The first three lairds transformed the estate into a valuable asset . Lord Pitfour , the second laird , purchased additional lands including Deer Abbey and Inverugie Castle . Pitfour 's son , James Ferguson , who became the third laird , continued to improve and expand the estate by adding the lake and bridges , and establishing planned villages . The third laird died a bachelor with no children , so the estate passed to the elderly George Ferguson , who was only in possession of the property for a few months . George was already a wealthy man , owning lands in Trinidad and Tobago , but despite not directly improving the Pitfour estate he added considerable value to the inheritance passed to his illegitimate son . The extravagant lifestyles of the fifth and sixth lairds led to the sequestration of the estate , which was sold off piecemeal to pay their debts . What remained of the estate was sold after the First World War . The mansion house was demolished in about 1926 , and its stone used to build council houses in Aberdeen . In more recent times some of the remaining buildings , including the temple , the bridges and the stables , have been classified as at high risk by Historic Scotland because their condition has become poor . The chapel was fully renovated and converted to a private residence in 2003 ; the observatory was purchased and restored by Banff & Buchan District Council ( now Aberdeenshire Council ) and can be accessed by the public . The racecourse has been forested since 1926 , and the lake is used by members of a private fishing club . = = Early history = = The Pitfour estate in Mintlaw extended from St Fergus to New Pitsligo and encompassed most of the extensive Longside Parish . The meaning of Pitfour is given in the 1895 records of the Clan Fergusson as " cold croft " , but the historian John Milne breaks the name into two parts and indicates the meaning as Pit being place and feoir or feur being grass . The Pitfour estate is shown on old maps as Petfouir or Petfour . It was formerly one of Scotland 's largest and best @-@ appointed estates and was referred to as " The Blenheim of Buchan " , " The Blenheim of the North " and " The Ascot of the North " by the architectural historian Charles McKean . Scant early records exist of the lands but Alexander Stewart ( Alexandro Senescalli ) , the natural son of King Robert II of Scotland , was given the Pitfour lands together with those of Lunan by his father in 1383 . However , writing in 1887 Cadenhead states the lands were sold to Stewart by Ricardus Mouet , also known as Richard Lownan . During the next three centuries the lands had several different owners . Transactions show it passed to a burgess of Aberdeen in 1477 from Egidia Stewart ; Walter Innes of Invermarkie gained feudal superiority to all Pitfour lands in 1493 ; and in 1506 the land was purchased by Thomas Innes , who died the following year . His son , John , inherited the property . It remained in the possession of the Innes family until at least 1581 , when it was owned by James Innes and his wife Agnes Urquhart . Between 1581 and 1667 the lands were bought by George Morrison . His son William inherited the property in 1700 , and immediately sold the estate to James Ferguson , who became the first Laird of Pitfour . The lands purchased by Ferguson were recorded in 1667 in a charter granted by Charles II and were stated as encompassing " the lands and Barony of Toux and Pitfour in the Parish of Old Deer and Sheriffdom of Aberdeen including the towns and lands of Mintlaw , Longmuir , Dumpston in the Parish of Longside , and County of Aberdeen . " Several other lands , including " the Barony of Aden with the Tower , Fortaliss , Mains and Manor Place therof and pertinents of the same called Fortry , Rora Mill thereof , Croft Brewerie , Inverquhomrie and Yockieshill " were individually listed . State papers from the reign of Queen Anne in the 18th century record the lands in favour of James Ferguson . = = Lairds and subsequent development = = 1st laird James Ferguson — known as the Sheriff , reflecting the post he held , recognised by the Society of Advocates — bought the Pitfour estate after selling the lands of Badifurrow . He had inherited Badifurrow after demanding that his uncle Robert Ferguson should appear in court if he wished to contest the inheritance . Robert , nicknamed the Plotter , was in hiding to avoid charges of treachery , and after his non @-@ appearance in court James Ferguson 's inheritance was confirmed in mid @-@ June 1700 . At that time the estate contained only a small country house . 2nd laird James was laird until his death in 1734 , after which the estate passed to his eldest son , also called James , who was born at Pitfour soon after it was purchased . A solicitor like his father , he was promoted to the bench in 1764 and became Lord Pitfour . He continued to expand and improve the estate until his death in 1777 , and set up the planned village of Fetterangus in 1752 . Lord Pitfour purchased the lands of the last Earl Marischal , George Keith , which were adjacent to Pitfour , in 1766 . They were considered the Earl Marischal 's most significant property and had been forfeited when the Earl Marischal fell out of favour . He had bought it back from the York Buildings Company for £ 31 @,@ 000 , but Pitfour only paid £ 15 @,@ 000 for it . The 8 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 square kilometres ) of land included Deer Abbey and Inverugie Castle , but consisted predominantly of peat bogs , woods and uncultivated land . This addition made the Pitfour estate the largest in the area , at more than 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 square kilometres ) stretching from Buchanhaven to Maud along the course of the River Ugie . 3rd laird The third laird , also named James , inherited the estate in 1777 ; he was usually referred to as the Member to differentiate him from previous generations . Like his forebears , he was an advocate but also became a Member of Parliament . He too continued to expand and improve the estate ; he constructed a lake and a canal , and built the new mansion . He also expanded and altered Longside at the start of the 1800s , founded Mintlaw in 1813 , assisted in the extension of New Deer and extended Buchanhaven . The Member died unmarried , childless and intestate in 1820 . In normal circumstances his brother Patrick would have been his heir , but he died in battle in October 1780 . 4th laird In 1820 the estate was inherited by the Member 's younger brother , George Ferguson , who was by then in his seventies . He was known as the Governor , reflecting his appointment as Lieutenant Governor of Tobago . He was laird from September 1820 , but died in December that year . The Governor had spent most of his life in Trinidad and Tobago , where he was a principal landowner , and had inherited the Castara Estate on Tobago from Patrick . George was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Tobago in 1779 , and after a battle with the French in 1781 surrendered the island to the French on 2 June . The Governor returned to Britain , although the terms of the surrender meant he still owned the Castara estate and all the slaves who worked on it . George had illegitimate children with an unknown woman . He continued to buy estates in the Caribbean and returned there in 1793 , staying until 1810 . 5th laird The estate started to deteriorate after it was inherited by the Governor 's illegitimate son George Ferguson , known as the Admiral because of his naval career . He was already heavily in debt when he became the fifth laird in 1821 , but he still enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and undertook much extravagant construction on the estate , including the erection of follies . To cover his substantial gambling debts , he began to sell parcels of estate land , and upon inheriting Pitfour he began selling furniture , books , farm equipment and other items , realising more than £ 9 @,@ 000 . 6th laird After the Admiral 's death in March 1867 , the estate passed to his son , George Arthur Ferguson , the sixth and final laird . He served in the Grenadier Guards and eventually became a captain . He married Nina Maria Hood , the eldest daughter of Alexander Nelson Hood , 1st Viscount Bridport , in February 1861 . Later that year Captain Ferguson was posted to Canada , where he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and where his first two sons , Arthur and Francis William , were born . His eldest son , Arthur , became Inspector of Constabulary for Scotland . Returning to Britain in 1864 , the family had a nomadic lifestyle , but the sixth laird and his wife were extravagant and habitual gamblers . In June 1909 , a trust deed was registered , and what remained of the estate was put on the market . After large parts of the land had been sold under the ownership of the sixth laird the estate was listed by Bateman in 1883 as being just over 23 @,@ 000 acres ( 93 square kilometres ) with an income of £ 19 @,@ 938 ; at the height of its development the estate had occupied 50 square miles ( 130 square kilometres ) , and was valued at £ 30 million . The last laird died in 1924 and is buried in Luton . Following its 20th @-@ century decline the estate changed hands several times until local farmer Hamish Watson purchased it in December 2010 . The local historian Alex Buchan summed up the demise of the estate : " They thought the estate was here to provide them with money , to gamble , to travel , to simply fritter away and very quickly , within a couple of decades , they had wasted the whole lot . " He added , " Eccentricity amounted to just squandering money . " = = Mansion house = = The original small country house was first altered during the early 18th century . In 1809 the Sheriff 's grandson James Ferguson , the third laird , employed the architect John Smith to design new accommodation . The resulting three @-@ storey house , 98 feet ( 30 metres ) square and 33 feet ( 10 metres ) high , is reputed to have had 365 windows . When the fourth laird , George ( the Governor ) , died in 1820 , the estate was worth £ 300 @,@ 000 with almost £ 35 @,@ 000 of moveable assets . George Ferguson , the fifth laird ( the Admiral ) added a large , glazed gallery when he inherited the house . The Admiral had a lavish lifestyle and despite having a healthy income incurred heavy debts . When the Admiral died after 46 years of managing the estate it was mortgaged for £ 250 @,@ 000 , despite the sale of a number of the lands originally included in it . The house fell into disrepair under the ownership of George Arthur , the sixth and final laird , who had inherited his father 's lifestyle . The entire estate was put on the market in September 1909 but remained unsold until after the First World War ; the house and what remained of the estate were finally purchased by a speculator , Edgar Fairweather , from London in 1926 . Fairweather bought several other Scottish estates , including those nearby at Auchmeddan and Strichen ; he habitually reduced the estates into smaller holdings that he then sold on or rented out . The house was sold to an Aberdeen building company and was demolished sometime between 1927 and 1930 . After demolition , the mansion 's veranda was installed at the front of Kinloch Farmhouse in St Fergus . Other remains from the mansion have been discovered at the farmhouse , including a crest above the conservatory door and tiles inscribed with the Ferguson of Pitfour family crest . The stone from the mansion was transported to Aberdeen and used in the construction of council houses . = = Chapels = = The Fergusons were Episcopalian , and in 1766 , the second laird , Lord Pitfour had a small Qualified Chapel built on the estate at Waulkmill . It was a large , plain building that could accommodate up to 500 people . Saplinbrae , a house that was initially used as a coaching inn after it was built under instruction from Lord Pitfour in 1756 , was used as the minister 's manse for the first chapel . A more modern chapel was built in 1850 after the Admiral had an argument with the Reverend Arthur Ranken , the minister at Old Deer . This was a small , private chapel for the use of the Pitfour estate . It was built in the Gothic style from rubble but was recast in 1871 . A 60 @-@ foot ( 18 @-@ metre ) tower with a battlemented top is at its western end . The chapel fell into disrepair , and by the 1980s it was a roofless ruin . In 1990 Historic Scotland said that Kinloch Farmhouse , in St Fergus featured a bench and chair salvaged from the Pitfour Chapel . In 2003 , the second chapel was renovated and converted to a private residence . The chapel restoration won a " Highly commended " award for craftsmanship from Aberdeenshire Council in 2010 ; the council said the craftsmanship " allowed for the retention of the ecclesiastical spirit and integrity to remain prevalent both internally and externally . " It was also " Highly Commended " in the conservation category . = = Stables and riding school = = The stables were built in 1820 , during the early part of the Admiral 's ownership of the estate , based on a design by John Smith ; the buildings are sited to the rear of the mansion house . Built in a horseshoe @-@ shape , neo @-@ classical design , the two @-@ storey building was constructed in pinned rubble with granite dressings ; grey granite was used for the parapet and quoins . The main buildings were originally harled . A corrugated asbestos hipped roof was at some point substituted for the original slate roof . It features a columned rotunda above a timber clock tower , which has a finial and domed copper roof . The pedimented centrepiece of the symmetrical front elevation is a segmental arch and has three panels set back between columns . Each side is bordered by wings of three bays with single @-@ bay pavilions . The stables are connected to an adjoining two @-@ storey house . They provided accommodation for ten horses and included four loose boxes , a harness room and a coachman 's house ; six bedrooms above were for servants . Two coach houses were later used as garages . The stables building was marketed in 1997 for approximately £ 70 @,@ 000 . Charles McKean describes the stables as " straddling the skyline like a palace " . The stables are listed by Historic Scotland as being at very high risk , and were described in 1997 sale literature as unused and dilapidated . An indoor riding school slightly to the north @-@ west of the stables measured 98 feet ( 30 metres ) by 49 feet ( 15 metres ) . It was used to entertain guests when the facilities at the mansion house were not large enough . More than two hundred local farmers and other landowners celebrated the wedding of George Arthur , the sixth laird , in the riding school in 1861 . In 1883 it was again used to entertain ; on that occasion it was decorated with flags and Chinese lanterns , and pine flooring was laid . Later , it was used as indoor tennis courts before being demolished . = = Canal and lake = = James Ferguson , the third laird , owned the estate during the Industrial Revolution in Britain . He began work on a canal between Pitfour and Peterhead in 1797 , despite fierce opposition from adjoining landowners . The canal was proposed to cover about ten miles following the course of the River Ugie . Pitfour 's canal is sometimes called the St Fergus and River Ugie Canal . Ferguson had thought about building the canal since 1793 , but it was never completed because of " difficulties in effecting the necessary arrangements with neighbouring heritors . " Objections were raised by the Merchant Maiden Hospital , which owned the land on the south side of the Ugie . Despite being advised to take out an interdict to prevent the work , in January 1797 the hospital thought its case was not strong enough . The hospital applied for an interdict four months later however , when two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the canal had been dug to the point where the north and south Ugie joined ; it was granted in July 1797 . A few years after starting work on the canal , Ferguson had a lake built on flat land to the front of the mansion house . The landscape gardener William S. Gilpin was carrying out work on the adjacent Strichen estate at about the same time , and it is assumed he helped with the work at Pitfour . The lake extends to almost 50 acres ( 20 hectares ) and is 174 feet ( 53 metres ) above sea level . Designed in the same style as the lake in Windsor Great Park , the lake was stocked with trout , both rainbow and brown ; there were three bridges and four islands . The siting of the lake meant the driveway had to be moved , and ornate bridges were constructed to cross the water . Built from granite , the northern bridge has three arches with ashlar starlings , the southern bridge has a single arch and the third , smaller bridge crosses a large stream that drains into the lake . The neighbouring Russell family of Aden were concerned their land would be flooded when the lake was built , and their animosity was fully demonstrated when a bridge had to be jointly constructed by the two landowners over the River Ugie . It was wide enough for carriages on the Pitfour side but too narrow on the Russell 's half . = = Theseus temple = = Alongside the lake was a six @-@ bay Greek Doric temple , a small replica styled after the Temple of Theseus . Its exact date of construction is unknown ; it may have been built during the time of James Ferguson , the third laird , or under the instruction of George Ferguson , the fifth laird . The local historian Alex Buchan attributes it to James , the third laird ; according to Historic Scotland , it was built " probably circa 1835 " . Like the mansion house , the temple is credited to the architect John Smith . Measuring 8 metres ( 26 ft ) by 16 metres ( 52 ft ) , it has six columns at both ends and thirteen columns down each side . It had a flat roof with an ornate wooden entablature and contained a cold @-@ water bath in which George , the fifth laird was believed to have kept alligators . As of 2013 the temple is in a ruinous state ; it has been held up by scaffolding since 1992 and is listed by Historic Scotland as being in critical condition . = = Racecourse and observatory = = George Ferguson ( the Admiral ) had a racecourse about 2 @.@ 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ) long and 52 feet ( 16 metres ) wide built near White Cow Woods , an area which is quite flat . This led to the estate being called the " Ascot of the North " . In 1845 the Admiral had an observatory built , again designed by the architect John Smith . It is an octagonal tower with a crenellated parapet and is symmetrical in design . The observatory stands at the top of a hill 396 feet ( 121 m ) above sea level . The tower is 50 feet ( 15 m ) high and is more than half a mile ( 1 kilometre ) from the racecourse . It has three storeys with square windows on the upper floor , and was fully renovated by Banff & Buchan District Council ( now Aberdeenshire Council ) in 1983 . = = Twentieth century = = Sales of country estates became common around the 1920s . The annual tax payable had spiralled and was twenty times greater than in 1870 resulting in the break @-@ up of many larger land @-@ holdings . Pitfour was no exception and the dispersal of the estate continued piecemeal after the sequestration of George Arthur , the sixth laird . The main estate policies including the lake and other land were purchased by Bernard Drake in November 1926 when he bought Saplinbrae , the former minister 's house . Drake was a partner in the electrical engineering company , Drake and Gorham . Sixty years later , in 1986 the BBC Domesday Project does not give any ownership details but indicates many of the buildings are in poor condition . Other surviving structures are used for storage by a farmer who also " manages the land " . = = Recent times = = At the end of 2012 Aberdeenshire Council gave the go @-@ ahead for the present owner 's planned restoration work on the temple and bridges , which he hoped would enhance existing facilities at nearby Drinnies Wood surrounding the Observatory , White Cow Woods and Aden Country Park . The lake is used regularly by local fishermen , and a fishing club with about 120 members was established in 2011 . The rest of the estate is seldom used by local residents , many of whom are completely unaware of it .
= Internationalist ( album ) = Internationalist is the third studio album by Australian alternative rock band , Powderfinger . The album was released on 7 September 1998 and was often labelled Powderfinger 's most adventurous work , with greater experimentation than in previous works . Internationalist followed in the success of its predecessor , Double Allergic , and was certified five times platinum in Australia . Internationalist received four ARIA Music Awards , including " Album of the Year " . The album produced four singles for the band ; " The Day You Come " , " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out / Good @-@ Day Ray " , " Already Gone " and " Passenger " , which all appeared on Triple J 's Hottest 100 poll in two consecutive years . Internationalist received fairly positive reviewers in the Australian press , and cemented Powderfinger 's position on the local music scene ; however , the album failed to launch the band in the overseas market . = = Background = = Powderfinger spent much of early 1997 touring , after the success of Double Allergic . Songwriter Bernard Fanning then spent much of 1997 writing songs for Internationalist in Brisbane , drawing on inspiration from a mid @-@ 1997 band trip to the United States . The album 's title refers to escapism — namely , the ability that an " internationalist " has to escape from racial and social tension . When asked in a Juice interview , Bernard Fanning summarised the title of the album by stating ; = = Recording and production = = Internationalist was recorded at Melbourne 's Sing Sing Studios , with Powderfinger accompanied by American producer Nick DiDia for the first time . As the band had already prepared " about 30 or 40 " songs when they entered the studio , DiDia 's task was relatively minor . Bassist John Collins said of DiDia ; " Nick was really good . The way Nick based the record was that he wanted to record the band how we were at that particular moment , he didn 't want to play around too much . " As a result of this attitude , the band only spent one month in the studio , and the album was mixed by DiDia soon after . Powderfinger used the extra time to play table tennis , which was the band 's recreation of choice during the Internationalist and Odyssey Number Five recording sessions . Collins described the album as not being as easy listening as their previous work , and that it contained numerous experiments in songwriting that they had not put into previous albums . Fanning later said Internationalist was " a better record " than Double Allergic , but acknowledged that it was not as easily likeable — it was just an improvement in songwriting . Collins and Fanning acknowledged that the album 's experimental nature could lose them some old fans , but the pair drew parallels with bands such as U2 , who Collins said had " constantly re @-@ invented themselves , and with success " . He said Powderfinger 's reinvention was as much for the band 's own interest as it was for the " public 's perception " . Meanwhile , guitarist Ian Haug described the album as a " moderation " between Parables for Wooden Ears ( " the complicated beast " ) and Double Allergic ( " totally simplified " ) , Powderfinger 's two previous albums . He also agreed that the album was much more experimental , and described the album as the band 's " most successful " , as well as stating that the album that best replicated " the sound we have live " . Two of the songs derived their names from the way the song was played rather than from the lyrics . Capoicity was named due to the use of the Capo on guitar during the solo . Belter was named after the main verse riff which is " belted " out over a 4 : 4 time . Numerous songs on Internationalist were politically and socially influenced , although the band denied it being a deliberate motif . Fanning explaining that the band did not intentionally discuss political issues , saying " we don 't try to do anything in particular " . He noted , however , that the songs , as his emotional responses to recent events , could inevitably be interpreted as being political . When " The Day You Come " was released , there was speculation that it alluded to Pauline Hanson 's One Nation political party , although the band claimed the song was vague and didn 't specifically refer to one person . Fanning said of " The Day You Come " ; = = Single releases = = The first single from the album was " The Day You Come " , a politically and socially influenced song . The band did not intend for it to be the first single , and released it only when they could not decide on anything else . Haug said it being " a pretty inoffensive song musically " helped Powderfinger make that decision . " The Day You Come " spent nine weeks on the ARIA Charts , peaking at # 25 . The second single was the double a @-@ side , " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out / Good @-@ Day Ray " , released on 9 November 1998 . " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " , a song about a friend of Fanning 's who had difficulty in social situations , was one of the roughest Powderfinger songs to date . ' Don 't Wanna Be Left Out ' could be comfortably ranked with other Powderfinger songs such as ' Lighten My Load ' and ' Rise Up ' . Drummer Jon Coghill described it as the most difficult Powderfinger song to play live at the time , because it was so " fast and offbeat " . The music video for " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " was unpopular and drew criticism from band members . " Good @-@ Day Ray " was dedicated to Australian television presenter Ray Martin and his public disagreements with former Media Watch host Stuart Littlemore . Its lyrics verged on punk , though Coghill denied that Powderfinger were a punk band . He also described the music video for " Good @-@ Day Ray " as being one of the better videos the band had made . Internationalist 's third single was " Already Gone " , released on 12 February 1999 . The song was a tribute to The Beatles and their influence on Powderfinger 's music . The fourth and final single from the album was " Passenger " , released on 9 August 1999 . " Passenger " was influenced by Elvis Presley , and included a big horn section , as well as backing vocals from folk group Tiddas . " Passenger " won the ARIA Award for " Song Of The Year " in 1999 . The song 's music video was one of Powderfinger 's first to feature computer graphics , and was produced by Fifty Fifty Films . " Passenger " spent 11 weeks on the ARIA Charts , peaking at # 30 . It appeared at # 48 on Max 's top 100 songs from the 1990s list . = = Touring and promotion = = Powderfinger went on a nationwide tour after the release of Internationalist , performing with British band Swervedriver and fellow Brisbane band Not From There in capital cities across Australia . In 1999 , the band also toured with Something for Kate and Alex Lloyd . Collins described the process of choosing who the band would play with as a simple matter of choosing whose music the band preferred , stating " we had played with most of the bands , and if you 're going on tour with someone you may as well go with someone you get along with and whose music you enjoy . " Despite being fans of Swervedriver , who were renowned for " their capability to reproduce their album sound perfectly in the live setting " according to Beat Magazine 's Neala Johnson , Fanning said Powderfinger would never attempt to replicate them , because he believed their live shows to be much more " emotionally powerful " than recordings . With Internationalist , Powderfinger first set their sights overseas , appearing at numerous music festivals in the U.S. , including South by Southwest in Texas . While in the U.S. , Powderfinger played several showcase performances to record @-@ label representatives in Los Angeles and New York City . In a later interview in Australia , Fanning said these shows were difficult due to the lack of any homegrown fan support . He also said the band were not focused at the shows , and thus they did not go as well as he had hoped . Coghill , however , described the showcases , and the performances in Austin , as " worthwhile " and " fun " . After performing in the United States , Powderfinger completed a tour of Canada . Fanning described the band 's overseas outlook as a necessity for an Australian @-@ based band , as " people [ in Australia ] are going to get sick of you pretty quickly if you 're going to do five tours a year , so that you can sustain yourself financially . " = = Reception = = Internationalist debuted at the top of the ARIA Albums Chart , and was certified gold in its first week , selling over 35 @,@ 000 copies . It then went on to go platinum , and is currently certified platinum five times , for 350 @,@ 000 copies . At the 1999 ARIA Awards , the album received three awards — " Album of the Year " , " Best Rock Album " , and " Best Cover Art " . " The Day You Come " also won " Single of the Year " . In 2000 , " Passenger " was nominated for three awards , but did not win any . Haug said he was amazed with the highly positive critical response the album had received , surprised that " even Molly [ Meldrum ] gave it nine out of ten . " The positivity of the album 's reception created a feeling of surrealism , and Haug told Juice Magazine " I wish someone would write a really bad [ review ] . " Nonetheless , he appreciated the credibility the album helped Powderfinger develop . Coghill agreed with Haug on the album 's popularity , stating " you couldn 't ask for much better " , and saying he really took notice of the album 's positive critical commentary . Juice 's Benedict Watts said it received " a level of universal praise not yet dished out on an Australian release since You Am I 's Hi Fi Way " . Despite Polydor telling the band the album would be heavily marketed , Fanning still found its success surprising . HIT 's Teresa Bolster suggested Fanning feared the worst during songwriting ; " Celebrity Head " , a song on the album , was seen as a " pre @-@ emptive , scathing attack on music writers " , which he argued was intended as a joke . Internationalist 's critical reception was positive , following in its chart success . The Courier @-@ Mail 's Nicola Six called it the band 's most diverse album yet , using " The Day You Come " as an example ; its " opening staccato guitar riff to the way the bass blends with Bernard Fanning 's almost @-@ falsetto in the final chorus " made it the " perfect first single " . Watts said it " brilliantly pre @-@ empts the mood and progressive nature of the album " , and Allmusic 's Jonathan Lewis described it as the best track on the album . The Weekend Australian 's Iain Shedden said it was " one of the best Australian rock songs of the decade " . " The Day You Come " was not the only single to draw praise ; " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " was described as " surf guitar @-@ fuelled " , " Good Day Ray " as " thrashy " , and HIT 's Teresa Bolster wrote that the released of the two as an a @-@ side displayed the album 's true scope to the public . Allmusic approved of the " rocking " " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " , but said Powderfinger sacrificed their uniqueness on " Good Day Ray " , which Lewis argued was heavily Foo Fighters influenced . Lewis approved of the " melodic " " Already Gone " , while Juice 's Simon Wooldridge said it and " Passenger " demonostrated Powderfinger 's " flair for the big hook " . Beat 's Neala Johnson compared the album 's political motifs to the Manic Street Preachers — " an earnest , sometimes cynical , social and personal conscience displayed in the lyrics " . Noel Mangel of The Courier @-@ Mail said it had " a lightness of touch and boisterous spirit " , especially compared to the distorted guitars on debut album Parables for Wooden Ears . MS Queensland 's Lauren McKay said the album ranked up there with the best of Bon Jovi and Robbie Williams . Time Off 's Geoff Nicholson said Internationalist was " a blend of shimmering pop songs and thought @-@ provoking probing " . = = Track listing = = " Hindley Street " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 3 : 41 " Belter " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 4 : 13 " The Day You Come " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 4 : 00 " Already Gone " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 3 : 28 " Passenger " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 4 : 20 " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " ( Fanning / Middleton / Powderfinger ) – 2 : 12 " Good @-@ Day Ray " ( Coghill / Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 1 : 58 " Trading Places " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 4 : 27 " Private Man " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 3 : 40 " Celebrity Head " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 2 : 20 " Over My Head " ( Middleton ) – 1 : 36 " Capoicity " ( Fanning / Powderfinger ) – 5 : 44 " Lemon Sunrise " ( Fanning / Middleton / Powderfinger ) – 3 : 34 = = = P2K bonus disc = = = The second release of pressings of the album were released in late November 1998 which included a bonus disc featuring a live recording of Powderfinger 's performance at the Sydney Opera House 25th birthday celebration in October 1998 . " Passenger " – 4 : 42 " Private Man " – 4 : 01 " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " – 2 : 55 " Pick You Up " – 5 : 51 " The Day You Come " – 4 : 36 = = Personnel = = Bernard Fanning – vocals , guitars , piano , keyboards Darren Middleton – backing vocals , guitars , piano , keyboards , lead vocal on Over My Head Ian Haug – guitar , handclaps , backing vocals John Collins – bass guitar , bass and organ pedals , backing vocals Jon Coghill – drums , percussion , handclaps , backing vocals Tiddas – backing vocals Nick DiDia – production , engineering , mixing Lachlan " Magoo " Goold , Mark McElligott – additional engineering Michael Mucci – artwork Sophie Howarth – photography = = Award nominations and accolades = = = = = ARIA Awards = = = Internationalist and singles from it have been nominated to win ARIA Music Awards from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) in two consecutive years . = = = Other awards = = = In 1999 , " The Day You Come " was nominated to win the " Song of the Year " APRA Award from the Australasian Performing Right Association , and " Passenger " won the same award the following year . The same year , the tracks " Already Gone " , " Good @-@ Day Ray " and " Passenger " all featured in Triple J 's Hottest 100 list , and " Don 't Wanna Be Left Out " and " The Day You Come " featured in the list in 1998 . Australian music magazine Juice selected Internationalist as # 80 of their top 100 albums of the 1990s .
= Tropical Storm Barry ( 2013 ) = Tropical Storm Barry was a weak and short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that brought heavy rains to parts of Central America and Mexico in June 2013 . Barry originated from a tropical wave that developed in the southern Caribbean Sea . The wave tracked northwestward and began to develop in marginally favorable conditions . On June 17 , the disturbance was upgraded to Tropical Depression Two by the National Hurricane Center . Due to its close proximity to land , the system failed to intensify before crossing the southern Yucatán Peninsula . The depression emerged over the Bay of Campeche late on June 18 and became increasingly organized . During the afternoon of June 19 , data from Hurricane Hunters revealed the system had intensified into a tropical storm . The newly named Barry attained peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) before making landfall in Veracruz , Mexico on June 20 . Once onshore , the storm quickly weakened and degenerated into a remnant low that night . Areas from northern Nicaragua to South @-@ Central Mexico experienced heavy rains from the storm , with notable flooding occurring in many areas . Swollen rivers displaced thousands in Veracruz and killed two people , while two others were killed by a river in Oaxaca . In El Salvador , one person was killed by flooding . = = Meteorological history = = On June 8 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa , moving quickly westward without development . During the evening hours of June 15 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring a large area of disturbed weather in association with a tropical wave over the southwestern Caribbean Sea . That day , a low pressure area developed just north of Panama . Drifting west @-@ northwest , environmental conditions were expected to be favorable for organization , but the system moved over eastern Nicaragua on June 16 . Despite moving over land , the circulation and convection became better organized , and after it emerged over open waters , the system developed into Tropical Depression Two at 1200 UTC on June 17 about 25 mi ( 45 km ) north @-@ northwest of La Ceiba , Honduras . Located about 60 mi ( 95 km ) east of Monkey River Town , Belize , the depression was not expected to undergo significant strengthening . Failing to intensify , the depression made landfall in southern Belize near Big Creek late on June 17 with winds estimated at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Despite a waning structure , the NHC noted that if the system emerged into the Bay of Campeche , re @-@ development and intensification was plausible . While traversing the southern Yucatán Peninsula , the system nearly degenerated into a remnant low during the afternoon of June 18 ; however , as it neared water , sufficient convection redeveloped to maintain the system as a tropical depression . The circulation contracted over land and emerged into the warm waters of the Bay of Campeche that day . The system became increasingly organized as it turned westward in response to a mid @-@ level ridge over the northwestern Gulf of Mexico . A Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance mission into the depression during the afternoon of June 19 revealed gale @-@ force winds , prompting the NHC to upgrade and name the system Tropical Storm Barry . Based on a reconnaissance flight and Dvorak estimates , it was estimated that Barry attained peak winds of 45 km / h ( 75 mph ) late on June 19 . At 1115 UTC on June 20 , Barry made landfall at Laguna La Mancha , just north of Veracruz , Mexico . Hours after moving inland , Barry weakened to a tropical depression as it interacted with the high terrain of Mexico . The center of circulation became increasingly ill defined , with the majority of convection located well away from the center . Late on June 20 , Barry dissipated over the Mexican state of Puebla . = = Preparations and impact = = = = = Central America and Yucatán = = = The precursor to Barry produced significant rains in Nicaragua , causing flooding in 14 districts in the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region . Heavy rains in Honduras , peaking at 4 in ( 100 mm ) in La Ceiba , resulted in floods that damaged 60 homes and affected 300 people . Several landslides occurred in Iriona , blocking off roadways . A likely tornado struck the community of Limón , destroying 9 homes and damaging 91 more . Four people were injured when their home was lifted and dropped back down . In southern Belize , an estimated 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rain fell in 24 hours , causing several rivers to top their banks . In some areas , culverts were washed away . At least 54 people living along Hope Creek were relocated to shelters . In El Salvador , six minors were swept away by a flooded creek ; five were quickly rescued but one remains missing and is presumed killed . Two people were injured after being struck by lightning . In the Mexican state of Yucatán , wind gusts to 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) and heavy rains downed trees and power lines . More than 26 @,@ 000 residents temporarily lost hydroelectric power after lightning struck a power station and caused a fire . = = = Eastern Mexico = = = As Tropical Depression Two emerged into the Bay of Campeche on June 18 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for coastal areas between Punta El Lagarto and Barra Da Nautla . The watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning early on June 19 . Following the storm 's intensification that day , the warning was expanded northward to Tuxpan . Officials dispatched 34 @,@ 250 workers to set up refugee camps throughout the state . Across Veracruz , approximately 2 @,@ 000 people sought refuge in shelters . Heavy rains in Veracruz , peaking at 14 @.@ 6 in ( 370 mm ) in Misantla , brought more than a dozen rivers to critical levels and triggered flash floods that killed two people . As a precautionary measure , officials urged 4 @,@ 000 residents along La Antigua River to evacuate . Several landslides occurred in the states of Guerrero and Puebla . Two people were swept away by a river in Oaxaca .
= Economy of Iran = The economy of Iran is a mixed and transition economy with a large public sector . Some 60 percent of the economy is centrally planned . It is dominated by oil and gas production , although over 40 industries are directly involved in the Tehran Stock Exchange , one of the best performing exchanges in the world over the past decade . With 10 percent of the world 's proven oil reserves and 15 percent of its gas reserves , Iran is considered an " energy superpower " . It is the world 's eighteenth largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) and twenty @-@ nine by nominal gross domestic product . The country is a member of Next Eleven because of its high development potential . A unique feature of Iran 's economy is the presence of large religious foundations called Bonyad , whose combined budgets represent more than 30 percent of central government spending . Price controls and subsidies , particularly on food and energy , burden the economy . Contraband , administrative controls , widespread corruption , and other restrictive factors undermine private sector @-@ led growth . The legislature in late 2009 passed the subsidy reform plan . This is the most extensive economic reform since the government implemented gasoline rationing in 2007 . Most of the country 's exports are oil and gas , accounting for a majority of government revenue in 2010 . Oil export revenues enabled Iran to amass well over $ 100 billion in foreign exchange reserves as of 2010 . Iran ranked first in scientific growth in the world in 2011 and has one of the fastest development in telecommunication globally . Due to its relative isolation from global financial markets , Iran was initially able to avoid recession in the aftermath of the 2008 global financial crisis . Yet , following increasingly stringent sanctions imposed by the international community as a result of the country 's nuclear program , oil exports fell by half , allowing Iraqi oil exports to overtake Iran 's for the first time since the 1980s . In September 2012 , the Iranian rial fell to a record low of 23 @,@ 900 to the US dollar . Exports aided self @-@ sufficiency and domestic investment , although double @-@ digit unemployment and inflation remain problematic . Iran 's educated population , high human development , constrained economy and insufficient foreign and domestic investment prompted an increasing number of Iranians to seek overseas employment , resulting in a significant " brain drain " . = = History = = In 546 BC , Croesus of Lydia was defeated and captured by the Persians , who then adopted gold as the main metal for their coins . There are accounts in the biblical Book of Esther of dispatches being sent from Susa to provinces as far out as India and the Kingdom of Kush during the reign of Xerxes the Great ( 485 – 465 BC ) . By the time of Herodotus ( c . 475 BC ) , the Royal Road of the Persian Empire ran some 2 @,@ 857 km from the city of Susa on the Karun ( 250 km east of the Tigris ) to the port of Smyrna ( modern İzmir in Turkey ) on the Aegean Sea . Modern agriculture in Iran dates back to the 1820s , when Amir Kabir undertook a number of changes to the traditional agricultural system . Such changes included importing modified seeds and signing collaboration contracts with other countries . Polyakov 's Bank Esteqrazi was bought in 1898 by the Tzarist government of Russia , and later passed into the hands of the Iranian government by a contract in 1920 . The bank continued its activities under the name of Bank Iran until 1933 when incorporating the newly founded Keshavarzi Bank . The Imperial Bank of Persia was established in 1885 , with offices in all major cities of Persia . Reza Shah Pahlavi ( r . 1925 – 41 ) improved the country ’ s overall infrastructure , implemented educational reform , campaigned against foreign influence , reformed the legal system , and introduced modern industries . During this time , Iran experienced a period of social change , economic development , and relative political stability . Reza Shah Pahlavi , who abdicated in 1941 , was succeeded by his son , Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi ( r . 1941 – 79 ) . No fundamental change occurred in the economy of Iran during World War II ( 1939 – 45 ) and the years immediately following . However , between 1954 and 1960 a rapid increase in oil revenues and sustained foreign aid led to greater investment and fast @-@ paced economic growth , primarily in the government sector . Subsequently , inflation increased , the value of the national currency ( the rial ) depreciated , and a foreign @-@ trade deficit developed . Economic policies implemented to combat these problems led to declines in the rates of nominal economic growth and per capita income by 1961 . Prior to 1979 , Iran developed rapidly . Traditionally agricultural , by the 1970s the country had undergone significant industrialization and modernization . The pace slowed by 1978 as capital flight reached $ 30 to $ 40 billion 1980 @-@ US dollars just before the revolution . Following the nationalizations in 1979 and the outbreak of the Iran – Iraq War , over 80 % of the economy came under government control . The eight @-@ year war with Iraq claimed at least 300 @,@ 000 Iranian lives and injured more than 500 @,@ 000 . The cost of the war to the country 's economy was some $ 500 billion . After hostilities ceased in 1988 , the government tried to develop the country 's communication , transportation , manufacturing , health care , education and energy sectors ( including its prospective nuclear power facilities ) , and began integrating its communication and transportation systems with those of neighboring states . The government 's long @-@ term objectives since the revolution were stated as economic independence , full employment , and a comfortable standard of living , but at the end of the 20th century , the economy faced many obstacles . Iran 's population more than doubled between 1980 and 2000 and its median age declined . Although many Iranians are farmers , agricultural production has consistently fallen since the 1960s . By the late 1990s , Iran imported much of its food . At that time , economic hardship in the countryside resulted in many people moving to cities . = = Macroeconomic trends = = More than two @-@ thirds of the population ( 74 million people ) are under the age of 30 . Net primary school enrollment is almost 100 % , suggesting a secondary " demographic boom " . Iran 's national science budget in 2005 was about $ 900 million , roughly equivalent to the 1990 figure . By early 2000 , Iran allocated around 0 @.@ 4 % of its GDP to research and development , ranking the country behind the world average of 1 @.@ 4 % . In 2009 the ratio of research to GDP was 0 @.@ 87 % against the government 's medium @-@ term target of 2 @.@ 5 % . Iran ranked first in scientific growth in the world in 2011 and 17th in science production in 2012 . Iran has a broad and diversified industrial base . According to The Economist , Iran ranked 39th in a list of industrialized nations , producing $ 23 billion of industrial products in 2008 . Between 2008 and 2009 Iran moved to 28th from 69th place in annual industrial production growth because of its relative isolation from the 2008 international financial crisis . In the early 21st century the service sector was the country 's largest , followed by industry ( mining and manufacturing ) and agriculture . In 2008 GDP was estimated at $ 382 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 842 billion PPP ) , or $ 5 @,@ 470 per capita ( $ 12 @,@ 800 PPP ) . Nominal GDP is projected to double in the next five years . However , real GDP growth is expected to average 2 @.@ 2 % a year in 2012 – 16 , insufficient to reduce the unemployment rate . Furthermore , international sanctions have damaged the economy by reducing oil exports by half . The Iranian rial lost more than half of its value in 2012 , directing Iran at an import substitution industrialization and a resistive economy . According to the International Monetary Fund , Iran is a " transition economy " , i.e. , changing from a planned to a market economy . The United Nations classifies Iran 's economy as semi @-@ developed . In 2014 , Iran ranked 83rd in the World Economic Forum 's analysis of the global competitiveness of 144 countries . Political , policy and currency stability is regarded as the most problematic factor in doing business in Iran . Difficulty in accessing financing is also a major concern , specially for small and medium enterprises . According to Goldman Sachs , Iran has the potential to become one of the world 's largest economies in the 21st century . = = National economic planning = = Following annual approval of the government ’ s budget by Majlis , the central bank presents a detailed monetary and credit policy to the Money and Credit Council ( MCC ) for approval . Thereafter , major elements of these policies are incorporated into the five @-@ year economic development plan . The fifth development plan , for 2010 – 15 , is designed to delegate power to the people and develop a knowledge economy . The plan is part of " Vision 2025 " , a strategy for long @-@ term sustainable growth . = = = Economic reform plan = = = Expansion of public healthcare and international relations are the other main objectives of the fifth plan , an ambitious series of measures that include subsidy reform , banking , currency , taxation , customs , construction , employment , nationwide goods and services distribution , social justice and productivity . The intent is to make the country self @-@ sufficient by 2015 and replace the payment of $ 100 billion in subsidies annually with targeted social assistance . These reforms target the country 's major sources of inefficiency and price distortion and are likely to lead to major restructuring of almost all economic sectors . As such , by removing energy subsidies , Iran intends to make its industries more efficient and competitive . By 2016 , one third of Iran ’ s economic growth is expected to originate from productivity improvement . Energy subsidies left the country one of the world 's least energy @-@ efficient , with energy intensity three times the global average and 2 @.@ 5 times higher than the Middle Eastern average . The banking sector is seen as a potential hedge against the removal of subsidies , as the plan is not expected to directly impact banks . Iranian President Hassan Rouhani stated in 2014 that the country has the potential to become one of the ten largest economies within the next 30 years . = = Fiscal and monetary policy = = Since the 1979 revolution , government spending has averaged 59 % on social policies , 17 % on economic matters , 15 % on national defense , and 13 % on general affairs . Payments averaged 39 % on education , health and social security , 20 % on other social programs , 3 % on agriculture , 16 % on water , power and gas , 5 % on manufacturing and mining , 12 % on roads and transportation and 5 % on other economic affairs . Iran 's investment reached 27 @.@ 7 % of GDP in 2009 . Between 2002 and 2006 , inflation fluctuated around 14 % . In 2008 , around 55 % of government revenue came from oil and natural gas revenue , with 31 % from taxes and fees . There are virtually millions of people who do not pay taxes in Iran and hence operate outside the formal economy . The budget for year 2012 was $ 462 billion , 9 % less than 2011 . The budget is based on an oil price of $ 85 per barrel . The value of the US dollar is estimated at IRR 12 @,@ 260 for the same period . According to the head of the Department of Statistics of Iran , if the rules of budgeting were observed the government could save at least 30 to 35 % on its expenses . The central bank 's interest rate is 21 % , and the inflation rate has climbed to 22 % in 2012 , 10 % higher than in 2011 . There is little alignment between fiscal and monetary policy . According to the Central Bank of Iran the gap between the rich and the poor narrowed because of monthly subsidies but the trend could reverse if high inflation persists . Iran had an estimated $ 110 billion in foreign reserves in 2011 and balances its external payments by pricing oil at approximately $ 75 per barrel . As of 2013 , only $ 30 to $ 50 billion of those reserves are accessible because of current sanctions . Iranian media has questioned the reason behind Iran 's government non @-@ repatriation of its foreign reserves before the imposition of the latest round of sanctions and failure to convert into gold . As a consequence , the Iranian rial lost more than 40 % of its value between December 2011 and April 2012 . Iran 's external and fiscal accounts reflect falling oil prices in 2012 – 13 , but remain in surplus . The current account was expected to reach a surplus of 2 @.@ 1 % of GDP in 2012 – 13 , and the net fiscal balance ( after payments to Iran 's National Development Fund ) will register a surplus of 0 @.@ 3 % of GDP . In 2013 the external debts stood at $ 7 @.@ 2 billion down from $ 17 @.@ 3 billion in 2012 . Iran 's GDP is predicted to grow 2 @.@ 8 % in 2014 . = = Ownership = = Following the hostilities with Iraq the Government declared its intention to privatize most industries and to liberalize and decentralize the economy . Sale of state @-@ owned companies proceeded slowly , mainly due to opposition by a nationalist majority in the parliament . In 2006 most industries , some 70 % of the economy , remained state @-@ owned . The majority of heavy industries including steel , petrochemicals , copper , automobiles , and machine tools remained in the public sector , with most light industry privately owned . Article 44 of the Iranian Constitution declares that the country 's economy should consist of state , cooperative and private sectors based . The state sector includes all large @-@ scale industries , foreign trade , major minerals , banking , insurance , power generation , dams and large @-@ scale irrigation networks , radio and television , post , telegraph and telephone services , aviation , shipping , roads , railroads and the like . These are publicly owned and administered by the State . Cooperative companies and enterprises concerned with production and distribution in urban and rural areas form the basis of the cooperative sector and operated in accordance with Shariah law . As of 2012 , 5 @,@ 923 consumer cooperatives , employed 128 @,@ 396 . Consumer cooperatives have over six million members . Private sector operate in construction , agriculture , animal husbandry , industry , trade , and services that supplement the economic activities of the state and cooperative sectors . Since Article 44 has never been strictly enforced , the private sector has played a much larger role than that outlined in the constitution . In recent years the role of this sector has increased . A 2004 constitutional amendment allows 80 % of state assets to be privatized . Forty percent of such sales are to be conducted through the " Justice Shares " scheme and the rest through the Tehran Stock Exchange . The government would retain the remaining 20 % . In 2005 , government assets were estimated at around $ 120 billion . Some $ 63 billion of such assets were privatized from 2005 to 2010 , reducing the government 's direct share of GDP from 80 % to 40 % . Many companies in Iran remain uncompetitive because of mismanagement over the years , thus making privatization less attractive for potential investors . According to then @-@ President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad , 60 % of Iran 's wealth is controlled by just 300 people . = = = Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps = = = The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps ( IRGC ) are thought to control about one third of Iran 's economy through subsidiaries and trusts . Estimates by the Los Angeles Times suggest IRGC has ties to over one hundred companies and annual revenue in excess of $ 12 billion , particularly in construction . The Ministry of Petroleum awarded IRGC billions of dollars in no @-@ bid contracts as well as major infrastructure projects . Tasked with border control , IRGC maintains a monopoly on smuggling , costing Iranian companies billions of dollars each year . Smuggling is encouraged in part by the generous subsidization of domestic goods ( including fuel ) . IRGC also runs laser eye @-@ surgery clinics , makes cars , builds bridges and roads and develops oil and gas fields . = = = Religious foundations = = = Welfare programs for the needy are managed by more than 30 public agencies alongside semi @-@ state organizations known as bonyads , together with several private non @-@ governmental organizations . Bonyads are a consortium of over 120 tax @-@ exempt organizations that receive subsidies and religious donations . They answer directly to the Supreme Leader of Iran and control over 20 % of GDP . Operating everything from vast soybean and cotton farms to hotels , soft drink , auto @-@ manufacturing and shipping lines , they are seen as overstaffed , corrupt and generally unprofitable . Bonyad companies also compete with Iran 's unprotected private sector , whose firms complain of the difficulty of competing with the subsidized bonyads . Bonyads are not subject to audit or Iran 's accounting laws . Setad is a multi @-@ sector business organization , with holdings of 37 companies , and an estimated value of $ 95 billion . It is under the control of the Supreme Leader , Ali Khamenei , and created from thousands of properties confiscated from Iranians . = = Labor force = = After the revolution , the government established a national education system that improved adult literacy rates : as of 2008 85 % of the adult population was literate , well ahead of the regional average of 62 % . The Human Development Index was 0 @.@ 749 in 2013 , placing Iran in the " high human development " bracket . Annual economic growth of above 5 % is necessary to absorb the 750 @,@ 000 new labor force entrants each year . Agriculture contributes just over 11 % to GDP and employs one third of the labor force . As of 2004 the industrial sector , which includes mining , manufacturing , and construction , contributed 42 % of GDP and employed 31 % of the labor force . Mineral products , notably petroleum , account for 80 % of Iran ’ s export revenues , even though mining employs less than 1 % of the labor force . In 2004 the service sector ranked as the largest contributor to GDP ( 48 % ) and employed 44 % of workers . Women made up 33 % of the labor force in 2005 . Youth unemployment ( aged 15 – 24 ) was 29 @.@ 1 % in 2012 , resulting in significant brain drain . = = = Personal income and poverty = = = Iran is classed as a middle income country and has made significant progress in provision of health and education services in the period covered by the Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) . In 2010 , Iran 's average monthly income was about $ 500 ( GNI per capita in 2012 : $ 13 @,@ 000 by PPP ) . A minimum national wage applies to each sector of activity as defined by the Supreme Labor Council . In 2009 this was about $ 263 per month ( $ 3 @,@ 156 per year ) . The World Bank reported that in 2001 , approximately 20 % of household consumption was spent on food , 32 % on fuel , 12 % on health care and 8 % on education . Iranians have little debt . Seventy percent of Iranians own their homes . After the Revolution , the composition of the middle class in Iran did not change significantly , but its size doubled from about 15 % of the population in 1979 to more than 32 % in 2000 . The official poverty line in Tehran for the year ending March 20 , 2008 , was $ 9 @,@ 612 , while the national average poverty line was $ 4 @,@ 932 . In 2010 , Iran 's Department of Statistics announced that 10 million Iranians live under the absolute poverty line and 30 million live under the relative poverty line . = = = Social security = = = Although Iran does not offer universal social protection , in 1996 , the Iranian Center for Statistics estimated that more than 73 % of the Iranian population was covered by social security . Membership of the social security system for all employees is compulsory . Social security ensures employee protection against unemployment , disease , old age and occupational accidents . In 2003 , the government began to consolidate its welfare organizations to eliminate redundancy and inefficiency . In 2003 the minimum standard pension was 50 % of the worker ’ s earnings but no less than the minimum wage . Iran spent 22 @.@ 5 % of its 2003 national budget on social welfare programs of which more than 50 % covered pension costs . Out of the 15 @,@ 000 homeless in Iran in 2015 , 5 @,@ 000 were women . Employees between the age of 18 and 65 years are covered by the social security system with financing shared between the employee ( 7 % of salary ) , the employer ( 20 – 23 % ) and the state , which in turn supplements the employer contribution up to 3 % . Social security applies to self @-@ employed workers , who voluntarily contribute between 12 % and 18 % of income depending on the protection sought . Civil servants , the regular military , law enforcement agencies , and IRGC have their own pension systems . = = = Trade unions = = = Although Iranian workers have a theoretical right to form labor unions , there is no union system in the country . Ostensible worker representation is provided by the Workers ' House , a state @-@ sponsored institution that attempts to challenge some state policies . Guild unions operate locally in most areas , but are limited largely to issuing credentials and licenses . The right to strike is generally not respected by the state . Since 1979 strikes have often been met by police action . A comprehensive law covers labor relations , including hiring of foreign workers . This provides a broad and inclusive definition of the individuals it covers , recognizing written , oral , temporary and indefinite employment contracts . Considered employee @-@ friendly , the labor law makes it difficult to lay off staff . Employing personnel on consecutive six @-@ month contracts ( to avoid paying benefits ) is illegal , as is dismissing staff without proof of a serious offense . Labor disputes are settled by a special labor council , which usually rules in favor of the employee . = = Sectors of the economy = = = = = Agriculture and foodstuffs = = = Agriculture contributes just over 11 % to the gross national product and employs a third of the labor force . About 11 % of Iran 's land is arable , with the main food @-@ producing areas located in the Caspian region and in northwestern valleys . Some northern and western areas support rain @-@ fed agriculture , while others require irrigation . Primitive farming methods , overworked and under @-@ fertilized soil , poor seed and water scarcity are the principal obstacles to increased production . About one third of total cultivated land is irrigated . Construction of multipurpose dams and reservoirs along rivers in the Zagros and Alborz mountains have increased the amount of water available for irrigation . Agricultural production is increasing as a result of modernization , mechanization , improvements to crops and livestock as well as land redistribution programs . Wheat , the most important crop , is grown mainly in the west and northwest . Rice is the major crop in the Caspian region . Other crops include barley , corn , cotton , sugar beets , tea , hemp , tobacco , fruits , potatoes , legumes ( beans and lentils ) , vegetables , fodder plants ( alfalfa and clover ) , almonds , walnuts and spices including cumin and sumac . Iran is the world 's largest producer of saffron , pistachios , honey , berberis and berries and the second largest date producer . Meat and dairy products include lamb , goat meat , beef , poultry , milk , eggs , butter and cheese . Non @-@ food products include wool , leather and silk . Forestry products from the northern slopes of the Alborz Mountains are economically important . Tree @-@ cutting is strictly controlled by the government , which also runs a reforestation program . Rivers drain into the Caspian Sea and are fished for salmon , carp , trout , pike and sturgeon that produce caviar , of which Iran is the largest producer . Since the 1979 revolution commercial farming has replaced subsistence farming as the dominant mode of agricultural production . By 1997 , the gross value reached $ 25 billion . Iran is 90 % self @-@ sufficient in essential agricultural products , although limited rice production leads to substantial imports . In 2007 Iran reached self @-@ sufficiency in wheat production and for the first time became a net wheat exporter . By 2003 , a quarter of Iran 's non @-@ oil exports were of agricultural products , including fresh and dried fruits , nuts , animal hides , processed foods , and spices . Iran exported $ 736 million worth of foodstuffs in 2007 and $ 1 billion ( ~ 600 @,@ 000 tonnes ) in 2010 . A total of 12 @,@ 198 entities are engaged in the Iranian food industry , or 12 % of all entities in the industry sector . The sector also employs approximately 328 @,@ 000 people or 16 @.@ 1 % of the entire industry sector ’ s workforce . = = = Manufacturing = = = Large @-@ scale factory manufacturing began in the 1920s . During the Iran – Iraq War , Iraq bombed many of Iran 's petrochemical plants , damaging the large oil refinery at Abadan bringing production to a halt . Reconstruction began in 1988 and production resumed in 1993 . In spite of the war , many small factories sprang up to produce import @-@ substitution goods and materials needed by the military . Iran 's major manufactured products are petrochemicals , steel and copper products . Other important manufactures include automobiles , home and electric appliances , telecommunications equipment , cement and industrial machinery . Iran operates the largest operational population of industrial robots in West Asia . Other products include paper , rubber products , processed foods , leather products and pharmaceuticals . In 2000 , textile mills , using domestic cotton and wool such as Tehran Patou and Iran Termeh employed around 400 @,@ 000 people around Tehran , Isfahan and along the Caspian coast . A 2003 report by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization regarding small and medium @-@ sized enterprises ( SMEs ) identified the following impediments to industrial development : Lack of monitoring institutions ; Inefficient banking system ; Insufficient research & development ; Shortage of managerial skills ; Corruption ; Inefficient taxation ; Socio @-@ cultural apprehensions ; Absence of social learning loops ; Shortcomings in international market awareness necessary for global competition , Cumbersome bureaucratic procedures ; Shortage of skilled labor ; Lack of intellectual property protection ; Inadequate social capital , social responsibility and socio @-@ cultural values . Despite these problems , Iran has progressed in various scientific and technological fields , including petrochemical , pharmaceutical , aerospace , defense , and heavy industry . Even in the face of economic sanctions , Iran is emerging as an industrialized country . = = = = Handicrafts = = = = Iran has a long tradition of producing artisanal goods including Persian carpets , ceramics , copperware , brassware , glass , leather goods , textiles and wooden artifacts . The country 's carpet @-@ weaving tradition dates from pre @-@ Islamic times and remains an important industry contributing substantial amounts to rural incomes . An estimated 1 @.@ 2 million weavers in Iran produce carpets for domestic and international export markets . More than $ 500 million worth of hand @-@ woven carpets are exported each year , accounting for 30 % of the 2008 world market . Around 5 @.@ 2 million people work in some 250 handicraft fields and contribute 3 % of GDP . = = = = Automobile manufacturing = = = = As of 2001 , 13 public and privately owned automakers within Iran , led by Iran Khodro and Saipa that accounted for 94 % of domestic production . Iran Khodro 's Paykan , replaced by the Samand in 2005 , is the predominant brand . With 61 % of the 2001 market , Khodro was the largest player , whilst Saipa contributed 33 % that year . Other car manufacturers , such as the Bahman Group , Kerman Motors , Kish Khodro , Raniran , Traktorsazi , Shahab Khodro and others accounted for the remaining 6 % . These automakers produce a wide range of vehicles including motorbikes , passenger cars such as Saipa 's Tiba , vans , mini trucks , medium @-@ sized trucks , heavy trucks , minibuses , large buses and other heavy automobiles used for commercial and private activities in the country . In 2009 Iran ranked fifth in car production growth after China , Taiwan , Romania and India . Iran was the world 's 12th biggest automaker in 2010 and operates a fleet of 11 @.@ 5 million cars . Iran produced 1 @,@ 395 @,@ 421 cars in 2010 , including 35 @,@ 901 commercial vehicles . = = = = Defense industry = = = = In 2007 the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated Iran 's defense budget at $ 7 @.@ 31 billion , equivalent to 2 @.@ 6 % of GDP or $ 102 per capita , ranking it 25th internationally . The country 's defense industry manufactures many types of arms and equipment . Since 1992 , Iran 's Defense Industries Organization ( DIO ) has produced its own tanks , armored personnel carriers , guided missiles , radar systems , a guided missile destroyer , military vessels , submarines and a fighter plane . In 2006 Iran exported weapons to 57 countries , including NATO members , and exports reached $ 100 million . It is also developing a sophisticated mobile air defense system dubbed as Bavar 373 . = = = = Construction and real estate = = = = Until the early 1950s construction remained in the hands of small domestic companies . Increased income from oil and gas and easy credit triggered a building boom that attracted international construction firms to the country . This growth continued until the mid @-@ 1970s when a sharp rise in inflation and a credit squeeze collapsed the boom . The construction industry had revived somewhat by the mid @-@ 1980s , although housing shortages and speculation remained serious problems , especially in large urban centers . As of January 2011 , the banking sector , particularly Bank Maskan , had loaned up to 102 trillion rials ( $ 10 @.@ 2 billion ) to applicants of Mehr housing scheme . Construction is one of the most important sectors accounting for 20 – 50 % of total private investment in urban areas and was one of the prime investment targets of well @-@ off Iranians . Annual turnover amounted to $ 38 @.@ 4 billion in 2005 and $ 32 @.@ 8 billion in 2011 . Because of poor construction quality , many buildings need seismic reinforcement or renovation . Iran has a large dam building industry . = = = = Mines and metals = = = = Mineral production contributed 0 @.@ 6 % of the country ’ s GDP in 2011 , a figure that increases to 4 % when mining @-@ related industries are included . Gating factors include poor infrastructure , legal barriers , exploration difficulties and government control over all resources . Iran is ranked among the world 's 15 major mineral @-@ rich countries . Although the petroleum industry provides the majority of revenue , about 75 % of all mining sector employees work in mines producing minerals other than oil and natural gas . These include coal , iron ore , copper , lead , zinc , chromium , barite , salt , gypsum , molybdenum , strontium , silica , uranium , and gold , the latter of which is mainly a by @-@ product of the Sar Cheshmeh copper complex operation . The mine at Sar Cheshmeh in Kerman Province is home to the world 's second largest store of copper . Large iron ore deposits exist in central Iran , near Bafq , Yazd and Kerman . The government owns 90 % of all mines and related industries and is seeking foreign investment . The sector accounts for 3 % of exports . Iran has recoverable coal reserves of nearly 1 @.@ 9 billion short tonnes . By mid @-@ 2008 , the country produced about 1 @.@ 3 million short tonnes of coal annually and consumed about 1 @.@ 5 million short tonnes , making it a net importer . The country plans to increase hard @-@ coal production to 5 million tons in 2012 from 2 million tons in November 2008 . The main steel mills are located in Isfahan and Khuzestan . Iran became self @-@ sufficient in steel in 2009 . Aluminum and copper production are projected to hit 245 @,@ 000 and 383 @,@ 000 tons respectively by March 2009 . Cement production reached 65 million tons in 2009 , exporting to 40 countries . = = = = Petrochemicals = = = = Iran manufactures 60 – 70 % of its equipment domestically , including refineries , oil tankers , drilling rigs , offshore platforms and exploration instruments . Thanks to a fertilizer plant in Shiraz , the world 's largest ethylene unit , in Asalouyeh , and the completion of other special economic zone projects , Iran 's exports in petrochemicals reached $ 5 @.@ 5 billion in 2007 , $ 9 billion in 2008 and $ 7 @.@ 6 billion during the first ten months of the Iranian calendar year 2010 . National Petrochemical Company 's output capacity will increase to over 100 million tpa by 2015 from an estimated 50 million tpa in 2010 thus becoming the world ' second largest chemical producer globally after Dow Chemical with Iran housing some of the world 's largest chemical complexes . Major refineries located at Abadan ( site of its first refinery ) , Kermanshah and Tehran failed to meet domestic demand for gasoline in 2009 . Iran 's refining industry requires $ 15 billion in investment over the period 2007 – 2012 to become self @-@ sufficient and end gasoline imports . Iran has the fifth cheapest gasoline prices in the world leading to fuel smuggling with neighboring countries . = = = Services = = = Despite 1990s efforts towards economic liberalization , government spending , including expenditure by quasi @-@ governmental foundations , remains high . Estimates of service sector spending in Iran are regularly more than two @-@ fifths of GDP , much government @-@ related , including military expenditures , government salaries and social security disbursements . Urbanization contributed to service sector growth . Important service industries include public services ( including education ) , commerce , personal services , professional services and tourism . The total value of transport and communications is expected to rise to $ 46 billion in nominal terms by 2013 , representing 6 @.@ 8 % of Iran ’ s GDP . Projections based on 1996 employment figures compiled for the International Labour Organization suggest that Iran ’ s transport and communications sector employed 3 @.@ 4 million people , or 20 @.@ 5 % of the labor force in 2008 . = = = = Energy , gas and petroleum = = = = Iran possesses 10 % of the world 's proven oil reserves and 15 % of its gas reserves . Domestic oil and gas along with hydroelectric power facilities provide power . Energy wastage in Iran amounts to six or seven billion dollars per year , much higher than the international norm . Iran recycles 28 % of its used oil and gas , whereas some other countries reprocess up to 60 % . In 2008 Iran paid $ 84 billion in subsidies for oil , gas and electricity . It is the world 's third largest consumer of natural gas after United States and Russia . In 2010 Iran completed its first nuclear power plant at Bushehr with Russian assistance . Iran has been a major oil exporter since 1913 . The country 's major oil fields lie in the central and southwestern parts of the western Zagros mountains . Oil is also found in northern Iran and in the Persian Gulf . In 1978 , Iran was the fourth largest oil producer , OPEC 's second largest oil producer and second largest exporter . Following the 1979 revolution the new government reduced production . A further decline in production occurred as result of damage to oil facilities during the Iraq @-@ Iran war . Oil production rose in the late 1980s as pipelines were repaired and new Gulf fields exploited . By 2004 , annual oil production reached 1 @.@ 4 billion barrels producing a net profit of $ 50 billion . Iranian Central Bank data show a declining trend in the share of Iranian exports from oil @-@ products ( 2006 / 2007 : 84 @.@ 9 % , 2007 / 2008 : 86 @.@ 5 % , 2008 / 2009 : 85 @.@ 5 % , 2009 / 2010 : 79 @.@ 8 % , 2010 / 2011 ( first three quarters ) : 78 @.@ 9 % ) . Iranian officials estimate that Iran 's annual oil and gas revenues could reach $ 250 billion by 2015 once current projects come on stream . Pipelines move oil from the fields to the refineries and to such exporting ports as Abadan , Bandar @-@ e Mashur and Kharg Island . Since 1997 , Iran 's state @-@ owned oil and gas industry has entered into major exploration and production agreements with foreign consortia . In 2008 the Iranian Oil Bourse ( IOB ) was inaugurated in Kish Island . The IOB trades petroleum , petrochemicals and gas in various currencies . Trading is primarily in the euro and rial along with other major currencies , not including the US dollar . According to the Petroleum Ministry , Iran plans to invest $ 500 billion in its oil sector by 2025 . = = = = Retail and distribution = = = = Iran 's retail industry consists largely of cooperatives ( many of them government @-@ sponsored ) , and independent retailers operating in bazaars . The bulk of food sales occur at street markets with prices set by the Chief Statistics Bureau . Iran has 438 @,@ 478 small grocery retailers . These are especially popular in cities other than Tehran where the number of hypermarkets and supermarkets is still very limited . More mini @-@ markets and supermarkets are emerging , mostly independent operations . The biggest chainstores are state @-@ owned Etka , Refah , Shahrvand and Hyperstar Market . Electronic commerce in Iran passed the $ 1 billion mark in 2009 . In 2012 , Iranians spent $ 77 billion on food , $ 22 billion on clothes and $ 18 @.@ 5 billion on outward tourism . In 2015 , overall consumer expenditures and disposable income are projected at $ 176 @.@ 4 billion and $ 287 billion respectively . = = = = Healthcare and pharma = = = = The constitution entitles Iranians to basic health care . By 2008 , 73 % of Iranians were covered by the voluntary national health insurance system . Although over 85 % of the population use an insurance system to cover their drug expenses , the government heavily subsidizes pharmaceutical production / importation . The total market value of Iran ’ s health and medical sector was $ 24 billion in 2002 and was forecast to rise to $ 50 billion by 2013 . In 2006 , 55 pharmaceutical companies in Iran produced 96 % ( quantitatively ) of the medicines for a market worth $ 1 @.@ 2 billion . This figure is projected to increase to $ 3 @.@ 65 billion by 2013 . = = = = Tourism and travel = = = = Although tourism declined significantly during the war with Iraq , it has subsequently recovered . About 1 @,@ 659 @,@ 000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004 and 2 @.@ 3 million in 2009 mostly from Asian countries , including the republics of Central Asia , while about 10 % came from the European Union and North America . The most popular tourist destinations are Isfahan , Mashhad and Shiraz . In the early 2000s the industry faced serious limitations in infrastructure , communications , industry standards and personnel training . The majority of the 300 @,@ 000 tourist visas granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian Muslims , who presumably intended to visit important pilgrimage sites in Mashhad and Qom . Several organized tours from Germany , France and other European countries come to Iran annually to visit archaeological sites and monuments . In 2003 Iran ranked 68th in tourism revenues worldwide . According to UNESCO and the deputy head of research for Iran Travel and Tourism Organization ( ITTO ) , Iran is rated among the " 10 most touristic countries in the world " . Domestic tourism in Iran is one of the largest in the world . = = = = Banking , finance and insurance = = = = Government loans and credits are available to industrial and agricultural projects , primarily through banks . Iran ’ s unit of currency is the rial which had an average official exchange rate of 9 @,@ 326 rials to the U.S. dollar in 2007 . Rials are exchanged on the unofficial market at a higher rate . In 1979 , the government nationalized private banks . The restructured banking system replaced interest on loans with handling fees , in accordance with Islamic law . This system took effect in the mid @-@ 1980s . The banking system consists of a central bank , the Bank Markazi , which issues currency and oversees all state and private banks . Several commercial banks have branches throughout the country . Two development banks exist and a housing bank specializes in home mortgages . The government began to privatize the banking sector in 2001 when licenses were issued to two new privately owned banks . State @-@ owned commercial banks predominantly make loans to the state , bonyad enterprises , large @-@ scale private firms and four thousand wealthy / connected individuals . While most Iranians have difficulty obtaining small home loans , 90 individuals secured facilities totaling $ 8 billion . In 2009 , Iran 's General Inspection Office announced that Iranian banks held some $ 38 billion of delinquent loans , with capital of only $ 20 billion . Foreign transactions with Iran amounted to $ 150 billion of major contracts between 2000 and 2007 , including private and government lines of credit . In 2007 , Iran had $ 62 billion in assets abroad . In 2010 , Iran attracted almost $ 11 @.@ 9 billion from abroad , of which $ 3 @.@ 6 billion was FDI , $ 7 @.@ 4 billion was from international commercial bank loans , and around $ 900 million consisted of loans and projects from international development banks . As of 2010 , the Tehran Stock Exchange traded the shares of more than 330 registered companies . Listed companies were valued at $ 100 billion in 2011 . Insurance premiums accounted for just under 1 % of GDP in 2008 , a figure partly attributable to low average income per head . Five state @-@ owned insurance firms dominate the market , four of which are active in commercial insurance . The leading player is the Iran Insurance Company , followed by Asia , Alborz and Dana insurances . In 2001 / 02 third @-@ party liability insurance accounted for 46 % of premiums , followed by health insurance ( 13 % ) , fire insurance ( 10 % ) and life insurance ( 9 @.@ 9 % ) . = = = = Communications , electronics and IT = = = = Broadcast media , including five national radio stations and five national television networks as well as dozens of local radio and television stations are run by the government . In 2008 there were 345 telephone lines and 106 personal computers for every 1 @,@ 000 residents . Personal computers for home use became more affordable in the mid @-@ 1990s , since when demand for Internet access has increased rapidly . As of 2010 , Iran also had the world 's third largest number of bloggers ( 2010 ) . In 1998 the Ministry of Post , Telegraph & Telephone ( later renamed the Ministry of Information & Communication Technology ) began selling Internet accounts to the general public . In 2006 , revenues from the Iranian telecom industry were estimated at $ 1 @.@ 2 billion . In 2006 , Iran had 1 @,@ 223 Internet Service Providers ( ISPs ) , all private sector operated . As of 2014 , Iran has the largest mobile market in the Middle East , with 83 @.@ 2 million mobile subscriptions and 8 million smart @-@ phones in 2012 . According to the World Bank , Iran 's information and communications technology sector had a 1 @.@ 4 % share of GDP in 2008 . Around 150 @,@ 000 people work in this sector , including 20 @,@ 000 in the software industry . 1 @,@ 200 IT companies were registered in 2002 , 200 in software development . In 2014 software exports stood at $ 400 million . By the end of 2009 , Iran 's telecom market was the fourth @-@ largest in the Middle East at $ 9 @.@ 2 billion and was expected to reach $ 12 @.@ 9 billion by 2014 at a compound annual growth rate of 6 @.@ 9 % . = = = = Transport = = = = Iran has an extensive paved road system linking most towns and all cities . In 2011 the country had 173 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 107 @,@ 000 mi ) of roads , of which 73 % were paved . In 2007 there were approximately 100 passenger cars for every 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Trains operated on 11 @,@ 106 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 901 mi ) of track . The country ’ s major port of entry is Bandar @-@ Abbas on the Strait of Hormuz . After arriving in Iran , imported goods are distributed by trucks and freight trains . The Tehran – Bandar @-@ Abbas railroad , opened in 1995 , connects Bandar @-@ Abbas to Central Asia via Tehran and Mashhad . Other major ports include Bandar Anzali and Bandar Torkaman on the Caspian Sea and Khoramshahr and Bandar Imam Khomeini on the Persian Gulf . Dozens of cities have passenger and cargo airports . Iran Air , the national airline , was founded in 1962 and operates domestic and international flights . All large cities have bus transit systems and private companies provide intercity bus services . Tehran , Mashhad , Shiraz , Tabriz , Ahvaz and Isfahan are constructing underground railways . More than one million people work in the transportation sector , accounting for 9 % of 2008 GDP . = = International trade = = Iran is a founding member of OPEC and the Organization of Gas Exporting Countries . Petroleum constitutes 80 % of Iran 's exports with a value of $ 46 @.@ 9 billion in 2006 . For the first time , the value of Iran ’ s non @-@ oil exports is expected to reach the value of imports at $ 43 billion in 2011 . Pistachios , liquefied propane , methanol ( methyl alcohol ) , hand @-@ woven carpets and automobiles are the major non @-@ oil exports . Copper , cement , leather , textiles , fruits , saffron and caviar are also export items of Iran . Technical and engineering service exports in 2007 – 08 were $ 2 @.@ 7 billion of which 40 % of technical services went to Central Asia and the Caucasus , 30 % ( $ 350 million ) to Iraq , and close to 20 % ( $ 205 million ) to Africa . Iranian firms have developed energy , pipelines , irrigation , dams and power generation in different countries . The country has made non @-@ oil exports a priority by expanding its broad industrial base , educated and motivated workforce and favorable location , which gives it proximity to an estimated market of some 300 million people in Caspian , Persian Gulf and some ECO countries further east . Total import volume rose by 189 % from $ 13 @.@ 7 billion in 2000 to $ 39 @.@ 7 billion in 2005 and $ 55 @.@ 189 billion in 2009 . Iran 's major commercial partners are China , India , Germany , South Korea , Japan , France , Russia and Italy . From 1950 until 1978 , the United States was Iran 's foremost economic and military partner , playing a major role in infrastructure and industry modernization . It is reported that around 80 % of machinery and equipment in Iran is of German origin . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries in " south @-@ south integration " including Syria , India , China , South Africa , Cuba and Venezuela . Iran 's trade with India passed $ 13 billion in 2007 , an 80 % increase within a year . Iran is expanding its trade ties with Turkey and Pakistan and shares with its partners the common objective to create a common market in West and Central Asia through ECO . Since 2003 , Iran has increased investment in neighboring countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan . In Dubai , UAE , it is estimated that Iranian expatriates handle over 20 % of its domestic economy and account for an equal proportion of its population . Migrant Iranian workers abroad remitted less than $ 2 billion home in 2006 . Between 2005 and 2009 , trade between Dubai and Iran tripled to $ 12 billion ; money invested in the local real estate market and import @-@ export businesses , collectively known as the Bazaar , and geared towards providing Iran and other countries with required consumer goods . It is estimated that one third of Iran 's imported goods and exports are delivered through the black market , underground economy , and illegal jetties . = = = Foreign direct investment = = = In the 1990s and early 2000s , indirect oilfield development agreements were made with foreign firms , including buyback contracts in the oil sector whereby the contractor provided project finance in return for an allocated production share . Operation transferred to National Iranian Oil Company ( NIOC ) after a set number of years , completing the contract . Unfavorable or complex operating requirements and international sanctions have hindered foreign investment in the country , despite liberalization of relevant regulations in the early 2000s . Iran absorbed $ 24 @.@ 3 billion of foreign investment between the Iranian calendar years 1993 and 2007 . The EIU estimates that Iran 's net FDI will rise by 100 % between 2010 and 2014 . Foreign investors concentrated their activities in the energy , vehicle manufacture , copper mining , construction , utilities , petrochemicals , clothing , food and beverages , telecom and pharmaceuticals sectors . Iran is a member of the World Bank 's Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency . In 2006 , the combined net worth of Iranian citizens abroad was about 1 @.@ 3 trillion dollars . According to the head of the Organization for Investment , Economic and Technical Assistance of Iran ( OIETAI ) , in 2008 Iran ranked 142 among 181 countries in working conditions . Iran stands at number 96 in terms of business start @-@ ups , 165 in obtaining permits , 147 in employment , 147 in asset registration , 84 in obtaining credit , 164 in legal support for investments , 104 in tax payments , 142 in overseas trade , 56 in contract feasibility and 107 in bankruptcy . Firms from over 50 countries invested in Iran between 1992 and 2008 , with Asia and Europe the largest participants as shown below : The economic impact of a partial lifting of sanctions extends beyond the energy sector ; the New York Times reported that " consumer @-@ oriented companies , in particular , could find opportunity in this country with 81 million consumers , many of whom are young and prefer Western products " . Iran is considered " a strong emerging market play " by investment and trading firms . Opening Iran ’ s market place to foreign investment could also be a boon to competitive multinational firms operating in a variety of manufacturing and service sectors , worth $ 600 billion to $ 800 billion in new investment opportunities over the next decade . = = = Iran and the World Trade Organization = = = Iran has held observer status at the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) since 2005 . Although the United States has consistently blocked its bid to join the organization , observer status came in a goodwill gesture to ease nuclear negotiations between Iran and the international community . Should Iran eventually gain membership status in the WTO , among other prerequisites , copyrights will have to be enforced in the country . This will require a major overhaul . The country is hoping to attract billions of dollars ' worth of foreign investment by creating a more favorable investment climate through freer trade . Free trade zones such as Qeshm , Chabahar and Kish Island are expected to assist in this process . Iran allocated $ 20 billion in 2010 to loans for the launch of twenty trade centers in other countries . = = = International sanctions = = = After the Iranian Revolution in 1979 , the United States ended its economic and diplomatic ties with Iran , banned Iranian oil imports and froze approximately $ 11 billion of its assets . In 1996 , the U.S. Government passed the Iran and Libya Sanctions Act ( ILSA ) which prohibits U.S. ( and non @-@ U.S. ) companies from investing and trading with Iran in amounts of more than $ 20 million annually . Since 2000 exceptions to this restriction have been made for items including pharmaceuticals and medical equipment . Iran 's nuclear program has been the subject of contention with the West since 2006 over suspicions of its intentions . The UN Security Council imposed sanctions against select companies linked to the nuclear program , thus furthering the country 's economic isolation . Sanctions notably bar nuclear , missile and many military exports to Iran and target investments in oil , gas and petrochemicals , exports of refined petroleum products , as well as the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps , banks , insurance , financial transactions and shipping . In 2012 the European Union tightened its own sanctions by joining the three decade @-@ old US oil embargo against Iran . In 2015 , Iran and the world powers reached a deal on Iran 's nuclear program that will remove the main sanctions against Iran by early 2016 . = = = = Effects = = = = According to Undersecretary of State William Burns , Iran may be losing as much as $ 60 billion annually in energy investment . Sanctions are making imports 24 % more costly on average . In addition , the latest round of sanctions could cost Iran annually $ 50 billion in lost oil revenues . Iran is increasingly using barter trade because its access to the international dollar payment system has been denied . According to Iranian officials , large @-@ scale withdrawal by international companies represents an " opportunity " for domestic companies to replace them . The IEA estimated that Iranian exports fell to a record of 860 @,@ 000 bpd in September 2012 from 2 @.@ 2 million bpd at the end of 2011 . This fall led to a drop in revenues and clashes on the streets of Tehran when the local currency , the rial , collapsed . September 2012 output was Iran 's lowest since 1988 . The U.S. Energy Department has warned that imposing oil embargoes on Iran would increase world oil prices by widening the gap between supply and demand . According to the U.S. Iran could reduce the world price of crude petroleum by 10 % , saving the United States annually $ 76 billion ( at the proximate 2008 world oil price of $ 100 / bbl ) . According to NIAC , sanctions cost the United States over $ 175 billion in lost trade and 279 @,@ 000 lost job opportunities . Between 2010 and 2012 , sanctions cost the E.U. states more than twice as much as the United States in terms of lost trade revenue . Germany was hit the hardest , losing between $ 23 @.@ 1 and $ 73 @.@ 0 billion between 2010 – 2012 , with Italy and France following at $ 13.6- $ 42 @.@ 8 billion and $ 10.9- $ 34 @.@ 2 billion respectively . From positive growth , sanctions have reduced GDP growth to -5 % in 2013 . The unofficial unemployment rate was 20 % by mid @-@ 2012 . Oil exports dropped to 1 @.@ 4 million bpd in 2014 from 2 @.@ 5 million bpd in 2011 . By 2013 , Iran had $ 80 billion in foreign exchange reserves frozen overseas . Automobile production declined 40 % between 2011 and 2013 . According to the U.S. government in 2015 , Iran ’ s economy has reached a point where it is " fundamentally incapable of recovery " without a nuclear accommodation with the West .
= Gordon P. Saville = Gordon Philip Saville ( September 14 , 1902 – January 31 , 1984 ) was a United States Air Force major general who was the top authority on US air defense from 1940 to 1951 . Blunt and direct in manner , Saville had been an outspoken proponent of tactical aviation in the 1930s against a brotherhood of airmen who promoted strategic bombing . Saville succeeded Claire L. Chennault as America 's leading fighter aircraft tactician . With Benjamin S. Kelsey , Saville co @-@ wrote the technical specifications which led to the Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning and the Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobra fighters . In 1949 he selected the North American F @-@ 86 Sabre as America 's main defense fighter , and in 1950 he approved a guided air @-@ to @-@ air missile system that would be carried aboard the proposed supersonic 1954 interceptor ; the missile produced was the AIM @-@ 4 Falcon . Saville was a technical and scientific @-@ minded leader who helped pioneer advanced mathematics for operations research , and computer systems for centralized coordination of air defense . He advocated the expansion of radar installations to create an unbroken air defense network . He explored the concept of a military aircraft designed around an integrated electronics fire @-@ control system built by various subcontractors . After retiring from the military , Saville worked in the defense industry . = = Early career = = Gordon Philip Saville was born in Macon , Georgia , on September 14 , 1902 . His Regular Army officer father propelled Saville 's older brother to enroll at the United States Military Academy at West Point , and he urged Saville to accept an appointment to the United States Naval Academy . However , Saville wanted to fly so he rejected formal military schools . Instead , he attended the University of Washington , Antioch College , and then the University of California and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Army Reserve on November 5 , 1923 , in the infantry , seeing active duty in August 1924 and August 1925 . While on reserve duty at Crissy Field in San Francisco , Saville watched Army Air Service pilots training on military aircraft . He determined that he would join them or leave the military . Saville became a flying cadet with the Army Air Service in March 1926 , and entered the primary flying school at Brooks Field , Texas . During this time his service branch reformed as the United States Army Air Corps ( USAAC ) . In September of that year he was transferred to the advanced flying school at Kelly Field , Texas , from which he graduated on February 28 , 1927 , gaining a commission as second lieutenant in the Air Reserve . He was assigned to the Fifth Observation Squadron at Mitchel Field , New York and in June 1927 , he was appointed a second lieutenant in the Air Corps of the Regular Army . At Mitchel , Saville served ably as adjutant to Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Foulois , but Foulois was unhappy with Saville 's absence during weekend train trips to Connecticut to see Ina Isola Hards , his girlfriend . Hards was an honors graduate of Wellesley College where she had performed in theatre plays and had served as class officer . Foulois ' wife successfully addressed the problem by inviting Miss Hards to stay at the Foulois home on weekends . Saville married Hards in the Church of Transfiguration in New York City in September 1928 ; her father , Ira A. Hards , producer of the Mae West Broadway play Diamond Lil , walked her down the aisle . As a wedding present , Foulois granted Saville 's request for a transfer back to Crissy Field . Saville was made adjutant of Crissy Field in December 1928 . He and his wife produced a daughter in July 1930 , Ina Gordon Saville . Later that year Saville transferred to Mather Field , California , where he was appointed adjutant of the field and of the 20th Pursuit Group . The Savilles welcomed a son in October 1931 : Edward A. Saville . In 1932 , Saville and family traveled to Barksdale Field , Louisiana , along with the 20th Pursuit Group . = = Tactics and theory = = At Foulois ' recommendation , Saville entered the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field , Alabama , in August 1933 . Saville graduated in May 1934 , at the top of his class , and remained at the school as an instructor in the Maps and Photographs Section . At ACTS , Saville joined Claire L. Chennault in favoring an air defense strategy hinging on a strong fighter force . Saville argued against the so @-@ called Bomber Mafia ; he did not believe that fleets of bombers were unstoppable , and he considered close coordination between ground units and tactical air power a key part of Army doctrine . In July 1935 , at the temporary rank of captain , he was named recorder of the Air Corps Board at Maxwell Field , in addition to his duties as fighter aviation instructor . Saville removed a degree of independent command from fighter squadron leaders who previously could ignore instructions radioed from the ground . Backed by Brigadier General Henry Conger Pratt , Saville 's unpopular control methods proved their worth , as ground controllers were often in possession of better information than squadron leaders in flight . From 1935 to 1937 , as Chennault was eased out by the bomber advocates , Saville took his place as the top fighter proponent . Saville avoided Chennault 's fate by refraining from disputing the bomber 's important role in offensive operations . He felt that the fighter aircraft was undervalued in its defensive role . In February 1937 , Saville paired with Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey , Project Officer for Fighters at the USAAC , to find a way to get around the USAAC 's arbitrary 500 @-@ pound ( 225 kg ) limit on the weight of fighter aircraft armament . The two men settled on the term " interceptor " , creating a new Army classification for fighters , not a new mission . They issued a specification for two new heavily armed fighters via Circular Proposal X @-@ 608 and Circular Proposal X @-@ 609 . These were requests for fighters having " the tactical mission of interception and attack of hostile aircraft at high altitude " . Specifications called for at least 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) of heavy armament including a cannon , one or two liquid @-@ cooled Allison V @-@ 1710 engines each with a General Electric turbo @-@ supercharger , tricycle landing gear , a level airspeed of at least 360 miles per hour ( 580 km / h ) at altitude , and a climb to 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) within 6 minutes — the toughest set of specifications USAAC had presented to that date . From these specifications a competition was held , and eventually the single @-@ engine fighter became the Bell Aircraft P @-@ 39 Airacobra , and the twin @-@ engine fighter became the Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning . Saville 's rank of captain was made permanent in June 1937 . Saville entered the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kan . , in September 1938 , and graduated the following June . He then was assigned to Washington , D.C. , as assistant to the chief of the Plans Division in the Office of the Chief of Air Corps . He assumed the role of assistant intelligence and operations officer of the Air Defense Command ( ADC ) at Mitchel Field in March 1940 . Led by Brigadier General James E. Chaney , the ADC was tasked with testing various air defense measures to determine what worked . Chaney was unfamiliar with air defense , and he made Saville the coordinator of all projects . This was the first time Saville was able to test and implement his theories on a large scale . New SCR @-@ 270 radar units were tried out and incorporated into the command scheme , giving greater reach to ground controllers . Army maneuvers held at Watertown , New York , in August 1940 allowed Saville to prove that fighter aircraft could protect a domestic target from air attack long before anti @-@ aircraft artillery could fire , a result that Chaney said " astonished " high @-@ ranking Army observers . In October 1940 , Saville flew to London with Chaney for temporary duty as a military air observer studying British air defenses , and returned to Mitchel Field after two months to become executive officer at the temporary rank of major of the First Interceptor Command . He began drafting a comprehensive air defense doctrine which combined features of the British system with those advocated by Chennault and himself . Saville was promoted to the permanent rank of major in February , 1941 , and from March 25 to April 12 , he conducted an intensive course in air defense given to 60 fighter group staff , including Kenneth P. Bergquist , posted to Hawaii 's fighter wing . In August 1941 , he returned to London and observed British air defense measures until December 1941 . During this time , Saville 's Air Defense Doctrine draft was reviewed by the USAAC , but it was not approved or published . Saville 's proposed defense involved rigorous round @-@ the @-@ clock coordination between ground observers , radar installations , and centralized command posts to filter reports to defense forces consisting of anti @-@ aircraft artillery batteries , barrage balloons , and fighter wings . Unusually , Saville proposed that fighter wings involved in air defense be completely separate from fighter wings making attacks on enemy air forces . = = World War II = = After the attack on Pearl Harbor , Saville was assigned to United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) headquarters in Washington as director of the country 's air defenses , which he considered inadequate . Because of the greatly increased civilian interest in air defense , much of Saville 's unpublished air defense doctrine was copied into the War Department 's Training Circulars No. 70 and 71 , published nine and eleven days after Pearl Harbor , respectively . These training materials emphasized regional command and control of air defenses . Fighter group commanders were to direct the efforts of anti @-@ aircraft artillery officers — one of Saville 's suggestions that had been a sticking point , resisted by artillerists . Before these plans were implemented , British radar pioneer Robert Watson @-@ Watt surveyed West Coast defenses and found them " dangerously unsatisfactory " , a confirmation of Saville 's assessment . Saville found Watson @-@ Watt 's report " a damning indictment of our whole warning service . " Saville was made lieutenant colonel on January 5 , 1942 . In tackling the problem of air defense of the Panama Canal Zone , he brought together civilian mathematicians and military defense experts to organize the first operations research group in the Air Corps , following two such groups formed by the Navy . Saville was promoted to brigadier general on November 2 . Once it was clear that U.S. territory was not in danger of being attacked by enemy air units , Saville 's expertise in air defense was not needed . In March 1943 , he was made director of tactical development at the Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics ( AAFSAT ) at Orlando , Florida , where he reorganized the Army Air Forces Board by July 2 , 1943 . Saville 's structure put tactical and strategic development on equal footing , and tied together the efforts of the Chief of Air Staff for Operations , Commitments , and Requirements ( OC & R ) , the Proving Ground Command and the School of Applied Tactics . Saville charged the AAFSAT with developing air defense doctrines and tactics , and with the testing of air defense equipment and methods . Later that month he was ordered to the North African theater , where he served as chief of staff of the Mediterranean Air Command . Under Carl Andrew Spaatz , Saville argued against the plans for Operation Tidal Wave in August , the air attack on oil refineries in Ploieşti . After the operation resulted in heavy American casualties with little effect on oil production , Saville described it as a " goddamned thing ... ridiculous and suicidal . " In October 1943 , he was appointed commander of the XII Fighter Command ( XXII Tactical Air Command ) , and in January 1944 was named deputy commander of the XII Air Support Command ( XII Tactical Air Command ) in the Mediterranean . There , Saville achieved close coordination between air power and the infantry . Tactics used by Saville were employed again during the Normandy Invasion , with fighter aircraft clearing enemy units from roads behind the front lines . He took part in Operation Strangle , the effort to deny roads and rail to German supply columns . In this , Saville was critical of the inaccuracy of high @-@ altitude bombing ; he wrote privately to a friend in April , " Our waste of effort in trying to hit railroad tracks and bridges is simply fantastic . " Saville was promoted to major general on June 30 , 1944 , distinguishing himself during Operation Dragoon , the invasion of Southern France . He assumed command of the First Tactical Air Force in January 1945 . The following month , Saville returned to the United States for temporary assignment to USAAF headquarters , and in March 1945 became commander of the III Tactical Air Command at Barksdale Field . Two months later , he was appointed deputy commander of Air Transport Command at Washington . = = Cold War = = In January 1947 , Saville was sent to Brazil to serve as chief of the Air Section of the Joint Brazil – United States Military Commission , stationed at the American Embassy at Rio de Janeiro . Saville took his family with him to Brazil ; he enrolled his daughter in the American School of Rio de Janeiro , where she graduated high school in June . During this time the USAAF reformed as an independent service branch ; United States Air Force ( USAF ) . In May 1948 , Muir S. Fairchild was made vice chief of staff of the USAF . In light of the developing Cold War and the threat of Soviet long @-@ range bombers , Fairchild determined that Saville 's expertise was critically needed . Fairchild ordered Saville , the top U.S. authority on air defense and a scientifically minded pragmatist , to return stateside in June 1948 , for assignment to the ADC headquarters at Mitchel Air Force Base . Saville evaluated the ambitious Radar Fence Plan of Major General Francis L. Ankenbrandt , which had recently failed in Congress because it was too expensive in manpower and material , and would take too long to put in place . Fairchild and Saville determined to devise a more practical radar defense plan , one that would bypass the slow approval methods previously established . In pushing his plan to fruition , Saville angered other officers who expected to have a say in air defense ; he said , " I wasn 't going to stand in line and wait . " He first focused on a foundation of radar systems , and concluded that the U.S. should spend $ 116 million in 1949 and 1950 , to build 75 radar sites and 20 control centers in the continental U.S. , with 10 more radar sites facing the Soviet Union from the Territory of Alaska , controlled through a territorial center . The radar sites would primarily be composed of older World War II @-@ era microwave units , but these would be augmented by a few advanced radar units , carefully positioned . Dubbed the " Lashup " plan ( from " lash @-@ up " , meaning " hastily improvised " ) , it was about 20 % of the cost of Ankenbrandt 's Radar Fence Plan , and it was more flexible in terms of future expansion . In September , Saville told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal , Secretary of the Air Force Stuart Symington , and the assembled Air Force staff that America 's air defenses were wholly inadequate . The Chiefs of Staff agreed that air defense was second in importance only to a strong retaliation force , one that would give pause to an aggressor . In November , Saville was named commanding general of ADC . He worked to combine it with Tactical Air Command ( TAC ) to form the backbone of the Continental Air Command ( CONAC ) organization . In February 1949 , Saville updated the House Armed Services Committee on the necessity of radar air defense , and in March the Lashup plan was approved by Congress . Earlier , in mid @-@ 1948 , Saville asked Colonel Bruce K. Holloway to evaluate existing fighter aircraft defense capabilities . Holloway teamed with Major General William E. Kepner , commander of the Air Proving Ground at Eglin Air Force Base , to measure interceptor performance under realistic conditions . Tests showed that the Northrop P @-@ 61 Black Widow , the Lockheed P @-@ 80 Shooting Star and the North American F @-@ 82 Twin Mustang , then in service , were completely inadequate to stop high @-@ altitude bomber attacks at night or in bad weather . Fairchild learned of this failure and formed a team to evaluate two prototype interceptors , the Northrop XP @-@ 89 Scorpion and the Curtiss @-@ Wright XP @-@ 87 Blackhawk , in October 1948 . As a member of the team , Holloway was disappointed with the performance of the prototypes , and he recommended that both aircraft be refused for air defense . Fairchild canceled the Curtiss machine but the Northrop , the " best of a poor lot " , was pushed into immediate service . Holloway and Saville agreed that America needed a fighter that could take off under " zero @-@ zero " conditions of no visibility , and they felt that such a design should be in production by 1954 , when the Soviets were expected to have fleets of bombers . Until then , an interim solution was sought . In a May 1949 meeting of the USAF Senior Officers Board , Saville recommended that the North American F @-@ 86 Sabre be procured in quantity , as it was in his opinion the best available American all @-@ weather fighter for air defense . The government quickly ordered 124 F @-@ 86Ds , as a start . In April 1949 , General Ennis Whitehead was put in charge of CONAC . He devised his own command methods rather than those established by Saville , making Saville redundant in his role as air defense chief . In support of Saville , Colonel Jacob E. Smart , assistant to USAF Commander Henry H. Arnold , wrote that Saville 's unorthodox methods since the end of World War II provided " the only tangible results toward building an air defense system " of any worth . Smart said that Saville , though a " thorn in the side to many people " , should be credited for all recent air defense progress in the U.S. Saville was moved from air defense operations to long @-@ range planning and research . In September 1949 , Arnold appointed Saville head of the newly established Directorate of Requirements in the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations at USAF headquarters . The following January , Saville became Deputy Chief of Staff for Development , Air Research and Development Command , a new staff section at USAF headquarters . To equip the U.S. with a fighter that could defend against the new threat of Soviet nuclear bombers , Saville initiated a design competition for a fire @-@ control system ( FCS ) codenamed MX @-@ 1179 , the basis of a guided air @-@ to @-@ air missile system simple enough that it could be operated alone by the pilot of a supersonic fighter rather than by a weapons officer . The proposed fighter concept was referred to as the 1954 interceptor , resulting directly in the 1956 Convair F @-@ 102 Delta Dagger , and several other fighter models indirectly . Saville was less concerned with the aircraft details than with the weapons system ; regarding the FCS he said , " when that system is developed , we 're going to put aluminum around it , engines on it , and a pilot to run the aluminum , and that is the interceptor . " From a handful of company designs , Saville selected Hughes Aircraft to make the FCS . Saville worked closely with Dr. Ruben F. Mettler of Hughes , to lay out the desired strategy of the weapons system and to describe the expected fighter tactics . This weapon would eventually be developed as the AIM @-@ 4 Falcon after much urging by Saville . The Falcon was used successfully for more than a decade , beginning in 1956 . Designing an aircraft around a weapons system was something Saville had witnessed in the development of Bell 's P @-@ 39 Airacobra around a large autocannon , but he further refined the concept and made it a requirement for government contractors , a practice that is continued to this day . Saville put an end to specific design goals in aircraft requests for proposal ( RFPs ) ; instead , he briefed potential designers on general requirements and discussed with them the defense problems the aircraft was to solve . In early 1950 , Saville served on the Guided Missiles Interdepartmental Operational Requirements Group ( GMIORG ) , a military and civilian committee tasked with the coordination of research on guided missiles , as well as the development of tactics and overall strategy . In his role as USAF Deputy Chief of Staff for Development , Saville helped direct missile work , but soon replaced himself on the GMIORG with Major General Robert M. Lee , commander of TAC . Saville was more interested in air @-@ to @-@ air guided missiles than in ground @-@ based ballistic missiles , which became the focus of the committee . Saville and Fairchild went to Congress in 1950 , and obtained $ 114 million for the development of an electronic computer @-@ based air defense system , a project headed by George E. Valley Jr , who was a physicist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . The computer , named Whirlwind , helped the USAF develop the Semi Automatic Ground Environment ( SAGE ) air defense system . In March 1950 , Fairchild died . Fairchild had been Saville 's champion in the USAF , and Saville had used Fairchild 's influence as a shield to " get things done " , according to Smart . In the process , Saville had made enough enemies in the Air Staff that he realized Fairchild 's absence would greatly limit his career advancement . He began planning his retirement , finishing ongoing projects , and first selecting then grooming his replacement : Brigadier General Laurence C. Craigie . In June 1950 , Saville gave a lecture on air defense at the Air War College , Maxwell AFB , Alabama , telling the students that the optimal air defense system as he envisaged might be able to destroy 60 % of an attacking bomber force , but that realistic results would be closer to 30 % reduction . He emphasized the need for better intelligence regarding Soviet offensive airpower capabilities , to increase the accuracy of air defense predictions . In late 1950 , USAF Chief Scientist Louis Ridenour initiated Project Charles at MIT to study problems of air defense . The study determined that Valley 's methods were the best option . In May 1951 , the project was reformed as Project Lincoln to investigate unusual reconnaissance methods ; this group met at Beacon Hill , Boston , and became known as the Beacon Hill Study Group . Saville expanded the group by naming 15 men to the project , all experts in their fields , including Edwin H. Land , James Gilbert Baker , Edward Mills Purcell , Richard Scott Perkin and USAF Colonel Richard S. Leghorn . The project led to the establishment of Lincoln Laboratory , a research and development project of the Defense Department . = = Civilian career = = In the Army , Navy , Air Force Journal , Saville announced the engagement of his daughter Ina Gordon Saville to James R. Pitts , a cadet at West Point . Ina graduated from the College of William and Mary in 1951 , with a degree in English , then married Pitts on June 17 . In July 1951 , Saville retired from the USAF . Saville was invited to join a November 1952 experimental commercial flight from Los Angeles to Copenhagen , flying to Denmark in a Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) DC @-@ 6B named Arild Viking , stopping first in Edmonton , Canada , then at the newly operational Thule Air Force Base in Greenland , which Saville had previously approved for major construction . The 28 @-@ hour , 5 @,@ 940 @-@ mile ( 9 @,@ 560 km ) flight plan pioneered a polar route for SAS . Saville accompanied Colonel Bernt Balchen , the Norwegian @-@ born commander of Thule AFB . In 1953 , Saville wrote a feature for Air Force Magazine , describing a strong air defense as one of the essential elements for preventing wars . He said " only a fool would run into a hornet 's nest of opposition . " However , he emphasized that a perfect air defense could never succeed in preventing an attack by itself , only in blunting it . A powerful counterattack force was required . In December 1954 , Saville celebrated the marriage of his airman son Edward to Lettice Lee von Selzam , a debutante from Wisconsin . Saville 's younger son John served as best man . Edward was a lieutenant in the USAF , and among the eight ushers were five other USAF lieutenants . Saville was hired in November 1954 , to work for Ramo @-@ Wooldridge , a company that formed from the FCS team at Hughes . Saville was made Director of Military Requirements , a new position tailored to his unique background . In this liaison role , Saville met regularly with military leaders to ensure that Ramo @-@ Wooldridge projects answered America 's defense needs . When Thompson Products merged with Ramo @-@ Woodridge to form TRW , Saville became vice president of the new company . Saville retired in 1963 , and became a consultant to TRW and to other government agencies . In the mid @-@ 1960s Saville invested in cattle ranches , embarking upon what he called a " third career " as a cattle rancher . He was invited to participate in a panel discussion at the annual Conference on World Affairs in 1966 . = = Death and legacy = = Saville died on January 31 , 1984 . His ashes are interred at Arlington National Cemetery . His wife , Ina Hards Saville , died in 1995 , and her ashes joined Saville 's . In his career , Saville was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster , the Legion of Merit , the Distinguished Flying Cross , the Bronze Star Medal and the Air Medal . He was rated a Command Pilot , Combat Observer , Aircraft Observer and Technical Observer . Saville 's daughter Ina bore four daughters in the 1950s , and died in 2005 . Saville 's son Edward produced two sons and a daughter . He retired from the USAF at the rank of Lieutenant Colonel and lives in Beaufort , South Carolina ; his wife " Letty " died in 2000 .
= 1986 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season = The 1986 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season began with the team trying to improve on an 2 – 14 season . This was one of the worst seasons in franchise history . There is some sentiment that the 1986 team was even worse than the winless team of 1976 , and the 473 points conceded was not beaten by any NFL team until the 2001 Indianapolis Colts gave up 486 . The Buccaneers selected Bo Jackson with the top pick in the draft , but were unable to convince him to join the team . Three weeks after the draft , Jackson signed a three @-@ year baseball contract with the Kansas City Royals . Despite holding four of the first forty selections in the draft , and the presence of a great influx of fresh talent from defunct USFL teams , the Buccaneers were unable to find any impact players in either the draft or free agency . They entered the season with a roster nearly identical to the previous season 's 2 – 14 team . Coach Leeman Bennett treated the season as a building season , but was disappointed with the team 's mental errors and lack of progress . Later in the season , he would begin to privately admit that the Buccaneers ' talent was much worse than he had realized . Steve DeBerg won the starting quarterback job after outplaying Steve Young in the preseason , but was benched in favor of Young after struggling in the first two games . Kevin House and Jimmie Giles were released after an October loss to the New Orleans Saints , along with ex @-@ Dallas Cowboys fullback Ron Springs . Bennett showed up at a press conference held after the season by owner Hugh Culverhouse , unaware that the purpose of the press conference was to announce Bennett 's firing . Giles , then with the Detroit Lions , criticized the move , saying that no coach could compensate for the Buccaneers ' lack of talent . He also claimed that administrator Phil Krueger destroyed team chemistry by demeaning players during contract negotiations , pointing to guard Sean Farrell 's disgruntlement as an example . = = Offseason = = Defensive end Lee Roy Selmon retired a week before the draft . He missed the entire 1985 season due to a herniated disk , and chose to retire rather than undergo surgery . Although his retirement was expected , the Buccaneers did not seek a replacement in the draft . With Mark Cotney and Steve Wilson having retired earlier in the year , Selmon was the last of the original Buccaneers on the roster . = = = NFL Draft = = = The Buccaneers received additional picks in the 1st and 2nd rounds from the Miami Dolphins in exchange for linebacker Hugh Green . Their extra 6th @-@ round pick came from the New England Patriots in exchange for a 5th @-@ round pick in the 1987 draft . The second pick in the 12th round came from the San Francisco 49ers in return for the rights to center Jim Leonard . The Buccaneers ' 3rd @-@ round pick was traded to the New Orleans Saints for defensive back David Greenwood . Their 6th @-@ round pick was traded to the Denver Broncos in exchange for defensive end Brison Manor . Their 7th @-@ round pick went to the Buffalo Bills in exchange for wide receiver Perry Tuttle . Their 8th @-@ round pick went to the Rams for defensive back Ivory Sully . = = = = The Bo Jackson draft fiasco = = = = Auburn University running back Bo Jackson was selected with the Buccaneers ' first overall pick in the draft , but refused to sign with them . Jackson was angry with the Buccaneers after accepting a private jet ride to attend a team workout caused him to lose his eligibility to play baseball at Auburn . Although NCAA rules allow a professional athlete to compete collegiately in a different sport , stricter Southeastern Conference rules disqualify a professional athlete from competing in any college sports . Jackson accused the Buccaneers of sabotaging his college baseball career , although Phil Krueger insisted that the SEC had advised them that the flight was allowable , and that it was Jackson himself who had insisted on using a private flight . Jackson had been rated as the best running back prospect to come out of college since O.J. Simpson 17 years earlier . Jackson was said to have ridiculed Tampa Bay 's offensive line , and shortly before the baseball draft to have told two teams that he had no intention of playing football . Most teams did not believe him , but the Kansas City Royals , although they were unsure enough that they waited until the fourth round of the Major League Baseball Draft to select him . Jackson vowed never to play football again and accepted an offer from the Royals worth much less than what the Buccaneers offered . The Buccaneers turned down several impressive trade offers for Jackson , including the San Francisco 49ers ' offer of Ronnie Lott , Wendell Tyler , and first- and second @-@ round draft picks . Jackson 's statements about not playing football were contradictory , as he alternated between stating he didn 't want to play at all and between saying he didn 't want to play for a terrible team and organization like Tampa Bay . In his book , Jackson recalls a meeting with Al Davis where he said he liked Davis and told the Raider boss he would love to play for them , and that the Raiders made offers for the # 1 pick to Tampa Bay that were spurned . There was speculation that owner Hugh Culverhouse was torn between his promise to make Jackson the highest @-@ paid rookie ever , and his status as a member of the NFL Finance Committee , which obligated him to set a reasonable fiscal precedent for the rest of the league . This resulted in an underwhelming contract offer and produced the perception that the Buccaneers were not serious about signing Jackson . Although the Buccaneers offered Jackson $ 7 million over the five years , half of it was in the form of incentives , annuities , and real estate . The actual salary averaged to over $ 700 @,@ 000 per year , still more than twice his yearly salary from the Royals , who gave him a three @-@ year , $ 1 million contract . Negotiator Phil Krueger said that officials from other NFL teams agreed that the Buccaneers had offered Jackson fair money ; however , Jackson also recounted in his book that Culverhouse got angry when he turned out an initial offer and said the Bucs would cut their next offer by 50 % if Jackson didn 't accept the first contract by the following day . Jackson 's Royals contract gave him the option of buying out his contract if he wanted to return to football . Jackson was eligible to be drafted again the next year if not signed by April 28 , 1987 , which turned out to be the case . Culverhouse announced the embarrassment at a news conference in which he quoted the " keep smiling , keep shining " lyrics of Dionne Warwick 's then @-@ current hit song " That 's What Friends are For " . Jackson became the fourth consecutive Heisman Trophy winner ( after USFL players Herschel Walker , Mike Rozier , and Doug Flutie ) to spurn the NFL , although he was the first since Pete Dawkins in 1958 to leave football entirely . It was the first time since 1979 , when Tom Cousineau signed with the Canadian Football League instead of the Buffalo Bills , that the first overall pick chose not to play in the NFL . = = = = Other draft selections = = = = Rod Jones was known as a hard hitter and a world @-@ class track star , but was a controversial selection because , coming from the run @-@ heavy Southwest Conference , his pass @-@ coverage skills were unknown . At 5 ' 11 " , 165 lbs . , he was considered undersized for the NFL . Jones was the first defensive back selected , but was rated no better than fifth @-@ best by most scouting services . The Buccaneers were criticized for taking linebacker Jackie Walker with their third pick , when Kevin Murphy of the national champion Oklahoma Sooners was still available . The Buccaneers did eventually draft Murphy , who they were surprised to find still available with their 40th overall selection . Murphy was believed to have fallen due to rumors of a knee injury . The Buccaneers had rated both Walker and Murphy among the top 15 players in the draft . Craig Swoope was rated as the best safety in the draft , but fell to the fourth round because of a previous charge ( and acquittal ) of conspiracy to distribute cocaine . Swoope was eventually the only Buccaneer to achieve any kind of postseason honors in 1986 , being selected to the Football Digest All @-@ Rookie team . The team went for big offensive linemen in the later rounds . One of them was J.D. Maarleveld , the first cancer patient drafted by the NFL . Maarleveld was considered to have been a second @-@ round talent , but fell all the way to the fifth round . Belief that Maarleveld was worth much more money than the average fifth @-@ rounder caused his agent , Greg Marotta , to advise him to reject the Buccaneers ' offer and sign with the USFL Baltimore Stars . Maarleveld was eventually able to reach agreement with the Buccaneers . = = Preseason = = = = = Personnel moves = = = Bennett made efforts in the offseason to address the passing game , and to improve team speed . He held an extra " passing camp " before training camp for all offensive and defensive players involved in the passing game . Establishing the offense was complicated by the situation of not having enough reliable running backs to run a two @-@ back offense . Finding enough speedy receivers to run a three @-@ receiver set was also difficult , as was finding faster defensive backs who could play the man @-@ to @-@ man coverage that Bennett wanted to move to . Cutting safety David Greenwood and trading cornerback John Holt improved the speed of the secondary by opening up starting spots for rookies Jones and Swoope . Former Florida Gators cornerback Vito McKeever , a product of local Dunnellon High School who had played for the USFL Michigan Panthers under Buccaneer defensive coordinator Jim Stanley , was signed toward the end of preseason . The addition of McKeever , who took over Jeremiah Castille 's starting spot , meant that three of the four secondary positions turned over from the previous year . The quest for speed in the secondary meant cutting safety and punt returner Mike Prior , who went on to become a mainstay on the Green Bay Packer playoff teams of the 1990s . In an attempt to upgrade the offensive line , five @-@ time Pro Bowl tackle Marvin Powell was brought in . While there was speculation that the New York Jets let him go because he was President of the National Football League Players Association , the Jets were concerned over quarterback Ken O 'Brien having been sacked an NFL @-@ record 62 times the previous season , and selected two tackles in the draft . There was sentiment among some teams that , despite his Pro Bowl appearances , Powell was an overrated player who had never lived up to his reputation . Powell performed well for Tampa Bay , but was placed on injured reserve midseason after undergoing arthroscopic knee surgery . Undrafted free @-@ agent running back Nathan Wonsley emerged in the preseason as a legitimate complement to James Wilder . Tyrone Keys , a defensive end from a team loaded with pass @-@ rushers , and David Williams , a receiver who had led the nation in catches during his junior year , were claimed off waivers from the defending world champion Chicago Bears . = = Regular season = = Steve DeBerg won the starting quarterback job over Steve Young in the preseason , but lost it after throwing seven interceptions in the season opener against the San Francisco 49ers , and another two the next week against the Minnesota Vikings . Nose tackle Dave Logan summed up the team 's condition after the 49ers game by saying , " the teams we play do not respect us " . Players coming from winning teams to the Buccaneers , such as Marvin Powell and Tyrone Keys , found themselves shocked by the constant losing and discouraged by the team 's easy acceptance of losses . Keys in particular thought that the Buccaneers were too used to losing , and not bothered by it . Young later criticized the team 's will to win , saying that " if they could hide for four quarters and just go home , they would be happy " . Powell , one of the highest @-@ paid offensive linemen in the league , was placed on injured reserve with a knee injury after only a few games . An embarrassing loss to the New Orleans Saints was followed by the release of Jimmie Giles and Kevin House , the top two receivers in Buccaneer history at the time , and former starting fullback Ron Springs . This upset several club veterans , and weakened an offense that already had to compensate for a defense that had allowed over 1 @,@ 000 rushing yards in the previous four games . League perception was that the Buccaneers were replacing older veterans with younger players who were incapable of taking their places . Said an executive from another team of Giles ' replacement , " Calvin Magee runs a 5 @.@ 2 40 ... We wouldn 't even bring him into camp " . Rumors , denied by Culverhouse , began to circulate that secret meetings were being held to arrange replacing Bennett with Steve Spurrier . Nathan Wonsley , the rookie free @-@ agent running back whose play was one of the few bright spots in the season , was lost to the team after suffering dislocated neck vertebrae during a week 10 loss to the Chicago Bears . After the abnormally large number of injuries suffered during the Bears game , the Buccaneers ended their pattern of suffering fourth @-@ quarter collapses in close games , instead losing their last seven games by an average of over 21 points . With Jerry Bell , a tight end who played a " U @-@ back " position that was crucial to Tampa Bay 's running game , suffering a broken ankle in the same game , the Buccaneers were forced to re @-@ sign Ron Springs just to have enough runners in their backfield . Culverhouse , saying that he had made the decision only minutes prior , fired Bennett at a press conference on Dec. 29 . Bennett , who had spoken to Culverhouse earlier the same morning , was unaware that he was to be let go . Culverhouse met with Ray Perkins and offered him the Tampa Bay coaching job only hours after firing Bennett . The firing was criticized by some , who felt that no steps were being taken to address the front @-@ office problems that were the real root of the Buccaneers ' woes . This criticism was echoed by safety David Greenwood , by then with the Packers , who pointed out the team 's cheapness by recounting a 1985 incident in which he wanted to keep a football as a game ball after catching it for an interception . Executive Phil Krueger demanded that Greenwood pay $ 35 for the football . = = = 1986 roster = = = = = = Coaching staff = = = = = = Schedule = = = = = = Game summaries = = = = = = = Week 1 : vs San Francisco 49ers = = = = at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida San Francisco 49ers quarterback Joe Montana completed 32 of 46 passes for 356 yards before leaving the game with an injury in the fourth quarter . The injury , similar to the one that ended Lee Roy Selmon 's career , would require season @-@ ending surgery and threaten Montana 's football future . Steve DeBerg 's 31 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Gerald Carter in the third quarter brought the Buccaneers to within a touchdown , but they would not score again . The 49ers ' seven interceptions of DeBerg were a team record , and one short of the NFL record . DeBerg placed blame for the loss on himself , but teammates defended him , pointing out that he was under constant pressure from the 49ers ' pass rush . Opposing safety Ronnie Lott said that DeBerg was predictable as to where he would throw the ball when pressured . James Wilder rushed for 81 yards and caught five passes . Selmon 's number 63 was retired in a halftime ceremony . = = = = Week 2 : vs Minnesota Vikings = = = = at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida Early in the first quarter , James Wilder tipped a pass from Steve DeBerg into the hands of Vikings linebacker Chris Doleman , who returned it for a touchdown . Wilder took a helmet to the sternum on this play , leaving a deep bruise that caused him to miss the next two games , and reduced his effectiveness for the remainder of the season . Seventeen seconds later , Scott Studwell recovered a Wilder fumble at the Tampa Bay 18 @-@ yard line , leading to a Viking field goal . The Buccaneers added a Donald Igwebuike field goal before the end of the quarter , but the Vikings answered it with a touchdown pass from Tommy Kramer to Mike Mularkey . DeBerg 's 1 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jimmie Giles brought the Buccaneers to within a touchdown before halftime , but they were unable to score in the second half . The Buccaneers outperformed the Vikings in a number of statistical categories , but could not overcome the turnovers . = = = = Week 3 : at Detroit Lions = = = = at Pontiac Silverdome , Pontiac , Michigan With running back James Wilder nursing a bruised sternum , Nathan Wonsley rushed for 138 yards and two touchdowns . Wonsley became the first Buccaneer running back , other than Wilder , to rush for 100 yards since Nov. 29 , 1981 . He was the first Tampa Bay rookie to rush for 100 yards since Jerry Eckwood in 1979 . Wonsley followed in the footsteps of his two older brothers , George and Otis , both backup NFL running backs who came off the bench to have breakout games while leading their respective teams to victory against the Lions . Constant Buccaneer blitzes resulted in four sacks , two interceptions , and six forced fumbles . Although Lions quarterback Eric Hipple had a good statistical day , completing 31 passes for 318 yards , the Tampa Bay defense 's pressure prevented him from converting his opportunities into points . The win broke Tampa Bay 's 19 @-@ game road losing streak . = = = = Week 4 : vs Atlanta Falcons = = = = at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida The Atlanta Falcons overcame a 20 – 7 halftime deficit to defeat the Buccaneers in overtime on a Mick Luckhurst field goal . The strategy of running out the clock with a conservative offense that had worked so well against the Lions the previous week backfired against the Falcons . The Buccaneers ' offensive line failed to dominate , and the Falcons wound up running 57 offensive plays in the second half , while the Buccaneers ran only 26 . Twenty of those plays were runs by Gerald Riggs , who finished the day with 127 yards rushing . The Buccaneers outgained the Falcons 255 yards to 190 in the first half , but were outgained 300 yards to 68 in the second half , in which the Buccaneers never advanced beyond midfield . The win left Atlanta undefeated at 4 – 0 . = = = = Week 5 : at Los Angeles Rams = = = = at Anaheim Coliseum , Anaheim , CaliforniaEric Dickerson earned his fourth career 200 @-@ yard rushing game with a 42 @-@ yard touchdown run to win the game in overtime for the Los Angeles Rams . Steve Young led an 80 @-@ yard drive in the fourth quarter that ended in a Donald Igwebuike field goal and sent the game into overtime , but the Buccaneers were unable to stop Dickerson all day . It was the second consecutive overtime loss for the Buccaneers . Nathan Wonsley rushed 18 times for 108 yards and a 59 @-@ yard touchdown run . Young also ran for a touchdown . Bennett was again criticized after the game for conservative play @-@ calling , although the Buccaneers ' total of 174 rushing yards was more than double the average the Rams had allowed in their previous four games . The game left Wonsley as the NFL leader in rushing average , with 5 @.@ 7 yards per carry . Dickerson continued to lead the NFL in rushing with 657 yards , 159 ahead of his record @-@ setting pace from 1984 . = = = = Week 6 : vs St. Louis Cardinals = = = = at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida The Buccaneers were once again criticized for poor tackling and conservative play @-@ calling following a loss to a previously winless St. Louis Cardinals team . This time , complaints came from the players as the Cardinals seemed to know in advance which plays the Buccaneers would be running , and the Buccaneers waited until too late in the game to make adjustments . The Buccaneers led early , after Steve DeBerg 's touchdown pass to Calvin Magee on a fake field goal . Steve Young 's rushing and passing combined for 304 of the Buccaneers ' 347 yards . The Cardinals unexpectedly used a soft zone defense instead of their usual blitzing , which contributed to Tampa Bay 's decision to avoid the passing game until the fourth quarter . The Cardinals put the game away with Stump Mitchell 's 31 @-@ yard fourth @-@ quarter touchdown run , in which three Buccaneers missed tackles . Ron Holmes , Jeremiah Castille , Marvin Powell , and Gerald Carter all missed the game with injuries . = = = = Week 7 : at New Orleans Saints = = = = at Louisiana Superdome , New Orleans , LouisianaReuben Mayes rushed for 147 yards , the second @-@ most in New Orleans Saints history , as the Saints equalled their highest @-@ ever margin of victory . The Saints scored on their first three possessions . The Buccaneers did not score until the fourth quarter , when Steve DeBerg ran for a 1 @-@ yard touchdown . Steve Young left the stadium on crutches , and starting defensive end Ron Holmes left the game after trying to play the first quarter with a broken fibula . Mayes was selected with a third @-@ round draft pick that had been obtained from the Buccaneers in exchange for safety David Greenwood , who the Buccaneers had already waived . = = = = Week 8 : at Kansas City Chiefs = = = = at Arrowhead Stadium , Kansas City , Missouri Veteran quarterback Bill Kenney , making the start for the Kansas City Chiefs in place of the struggling Todd Blackledge , completed 15 of 29 passes for 230 yards and a touchdown . The Chiefs ' offensive line protected Kenney well , allowing only one sack and few hurries . Although the Buccaneers led at halftime on a 10 @-@ yard pass from Steve Young to Calvin Magee and two Donald Igwebuike field goals , they were unable to hold the lead in the second half . They tied the game at 20 on a fourth @-@ quarter touchdown run , James Wilder 's first of the year , but immediately allowed the Chiefs to drive the length of the field for the winning touchdown . The sloppily played game included four fumbles , six sacks , two interceptions , and 17 penalties for 146 yards . Art Still contributed three of the Chiefs ' five sacks . = = = = Week 9 : vs Buffalo Bills = = = = at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida The Buccaneers took a 20 – 0 halftime lead over the Buffalo Bills after recovering fumbles on two kickoffs . They barely held on for victory , as a Jim Kelly pass went incomplete in the end zone with no time remaining . Afterward , Leeman Bennett declared it the " start of a new season " . Steve Young completed 14 of 24 passes for 193 yards , and ran for two touchdowns . James Wilder also contributed a 45 @-@ yard touchdown run . The Bills attempted a comeback , with Kelly throwing three touchdowns . Kelly , who only threw twice in the first half , completed 21 of 32 for 257 yards in the second half . It was the Bills ' 31st consecutive road loss . Bills coach Hank Bullough was fired following the loss , and was replaced by Marv Levy . = = = = Week 10 : vs Chicago Bears = = = = at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida Doug Flutie made his NFL debut in the fourth quarter for the Chicago Bears . The Bears took an early 14 – 0 lead after Mike Tomczak 's 37 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Willie Gault . The play occurred after Ervin Randle 's recovery of a Calvin Thomas fumble was nullified due to an offsides penalty on Craig Swoope . While the Buccaneers ' defense improved later in the game , it was not enough to overcome the problems of the injury @-@ battered offense . Nathan Wonsley suffered a broken neck while making a tackle on the opening kickoff . This was followed by injuries to Jerry Bell , Phil Freeman , Craig Swoope , and Willie Gillespie . Calvin Magee played with a prior injury , as did James Wilder and Leonard Harris , though both were forced to leave the game . With Gerald Carter left as the only experienced receiver , the Bears keyed on him , and with Bell , Wonsley and Wilder out , the Buccaneers could not run . = = = = Week 11 : at Green Bay Packers = = = = at Lambeau Field , Green Bay , Wisconsin With James Wilder leaving the game after aggravating his rib injury , the Buccaneers were unable to take advantage of Green Bay Packers quarterback Randy Wright 's three interceptions . Wright completed 18 of 29 passes for 238 yards , with a career @-@ best three first @-@ half touchdowns . The win was only the Packers ' second of the season . The loss left the Buccaneers ' defense in last place in the league , despite their having spent four of their first five draft picks on defensive players . = = = = Week 12 : vs Detroit Lions = = = = at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida Three first @-@ half possessions deep in Detroit Lions territory led to zero Buccaneer points en route to another blowout loss . Lions receiver Jeff Chadwick took a 73 @-@ yard reception to the Buccaneers ' 1 @-@ yard line when Rod Jones fell down while covering him . Jones also got beaten by Leonard Thompson on a jump ball in the end zone . Vito McKeever was outrun by Chadwick on the Lions ' third score . James Wilder had 130 yards rushing and 71 yards receiving for the Buccaneers . = = = = Week 13 : at Minnesota Vikings = = = = at Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome , Minneapolis , Minnesota With Tommy Kramer injured , Vikings quarterback Wade Wilson threw for a career @-@ best 339 yards and three touchdowns . With Tampa Bay down by 45 – 6 , Steve DeBerg 's 45 @-@ yard pass to Calvin Magee set up a 1 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Ron Heller on a tackle @-@ eligible play . The Buccaneers ' only other offense came on two Donald Igwebuike field goals . = = = = Week 14 : at Chicago Bears = = = = at Soldier Field , Chicago , Illinois The Buccaneers almost exceeded their worst @-@ ever loss , a 42 – 0 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers , on its 10th anniversary . They were shut out until the fourth quarter , and only scored when Chicago Bears safety Todd Bell intercepted a Steve Young pass and lateraled it to Mike Richardson , who attempted to lateral it to Shaun Gayle , only to have Tampa Bay receiver Vince Heflin intercept the lateral and run it in for a score . Mike Tomczak ran for the Bears ' first score . Later , a Walter Payton touchdown was called back on a holding penalty . The Buccaneers stopped the Bears on fourth @-@ and @-@ 1 , but an offside penalty on Craig Swoope gave the Bears another chance . Tomczak fumbled , however , causing him to be benched in favor of Doug Flutie . Flutie scored two touchdowns , one passing and one running , before Tomczak returned in the second half . Tampa Bay scored a second time on Young 's 14 @-@ yard pass to Calvin Magee , but Lew Barnes returned the ensuing kickoff for a touchdown . Magee 's 143 receiving yards remain ( as of 2009 ) the Buccaneers ' single @-@ game record for a tight end . = = = = Week 15 : vs Green Bay Packers = = = = at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida The Green Bay Packers had seven different players each contribute a sack , and Randy Wright 's 190 yards passing made him the second player in Packers history to throw for 3 @,@ 000 yards in a season . The crowd cheered the news that an Indianapolis Colts win moved the Buccaneers into first place for the rights to the first overall draft pick , and pelted Buccaneer players with lemons . Ron Holmes 's sack of Wright was the Buccaneers ' first since Oct. 12 , and Ivory Sully recorded the first blocked punt in Buccaneers ( regular @-@ season ) history . Both teams went to their second @-@ string quarterbacks in the second half , but Steve Young returned to the game after Steve DeBerg suffered a concussion , and Wright was reinserted after the Buccaneers threatened to start a comeback . = = = = Week 16 : at St. Louis Cardinals = = = = at Busch Stadium , St. Louis , Missouri St. Louis Cardinals Pro Bowl rookie Vai Sikahema tied an NFL record by returning two punts for touchdowns as the Buccaneers clinched the NFL 's worst record for the second consecutive year . Frank Garcia , playing with a back injury , had a third punt blocked for a net gain of 1 yard . The Buccaneers scored first , on a 1 @-@ yard Bobby Howard run , but the Cardinals ' 21 unanswered points gave them the lead for good before halftime . A 33 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Steve Young to Phil Freeman brought the Buccaneers to within 4 points in the third quarter . The game not only ended a futile season for the Buccaneers , but also concluded the Cardinals ' worst season since moving to St. Louis 27 years earlier . = = = Standings = = =
= Russian battleship Petropavlovsk ( 1894 ) = Petropavlovsk ( Петропавловск ) was the lead ship of the Petropavlovsk class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy . She displaced 11 @,@ 854 long tons ( 12 @,@ 044 t ) at full load and was 369 feet ( 112 @.@ 5 m ) long overall , and mounted a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in two twin turrets . Petropavlovsk participated in the Boxer Rebellion , and during the Russo @-@ Japanese War was the flagship of the First Pacific Squadron , taking part in battles against the Imperial Japanese Navy . On 13 April 1904 , the battleship was sunk after striking two mines near Port Arthur . 652 men and 27 officers died , including the Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov and renowned war artist Vasily Vereshchagin . The loss of Petropavlovsk and Makarov greatly hindered the Russians in the war . = = Design = = The first design for Petropavlovsk and her sister ships of the Petropavlovsk class was approved in January 1891 . She was to be an improved version of the battleship Imperator Nikolai I , but with most of her armament in barbettes , including four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns . The class was designed with a displacement of 10 @,@ 960 long tons ( 11 @,@ 136 t ) at full load . She had a full waterline belt , and the upper hull featured a tumblehome . Imperator Nikolai I was chosen as a starting point for the design because of her good seakeeping and seaworthiness . Some characteristics were copied from the French battleship Brennus and the American Indiana @-@ class battleships , such as the flush @-@ deck hull and Brennus ' high freeboard . Following a redesign of the class , Petropavlovsk ceased to resemble Imperator Nikolai I. The armor plating was changed before construction , and plans for the armament were modified while the ship was being built . The barbettes were replaced with turrets , including wing turrets for some of the secondary 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns modeled after those on Brennus , with electric hoists . The propulsion was based on the machinery on Georgii Pobedonosets . Petropavlovsk had nickel @-@ steel armor imported from the United States . = = Characteristics = = Petropavlovsk displaced 11 @,@ 842 long tons ( 12 @,@ 032 t ) and was 376 feet ( 114 @.@ 6 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 70 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 m ) and a maximum draft of 28 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 6 m ) . She was powered by 16 cylindrical boilers with coal @-@ burning furnaces , and had bunkers for 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) of coal . This gave her a range of 3 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 940 km ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) . She had a crew of 662 . The ship 's main armament was a battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in two twin turrets . Her secondary armament was a battery of 12 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . She had also 10 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns , 28 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ torpedo boat guns , and six 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , four of which were submerged . = = Service history = = = = = Early years = = = In October 1897 Petropavlovsk sailed from Saint Petersburg to Kronstadt to be outfitted . In 1898 the guns were fitted ; later the battleship moved to Liepāja , returning to Kronstadt in 1899 . On 5 October 1899 Petropavlovsk was transferred to the Far Eastern , East Asia Squadron . Aleksandr Kolchak , who was the chief of the watch on aboard , was to have conducted hydrology experiments in the northern Pacific ocean . However , when the ship arrived in the Mediterranean , Kolchak accepted a position with Eduard Toll 's expedition and left the vessel . Petropavlovsk reached Port Arthur on 28 April 1900 , becoming the flagship of Vice Admiral Skrydlov and the East Asia Squadron . In 1900 the ship took part in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China . In October 1902 Rear Admiral Oskar Victorovich Stark took command of the East Asia Squadron and raised his flag on Petropavlovsk . = = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = = In early February 1904 the Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur . The squadron was attacked by a flotilla of Japanese torpedo boat destroyers . The Russians were not prepared for the attack and confusion ran rampant throughout the harbor 's interior . Petropavlovsk escaped damage during the torpedo attack , but was lightly damaged in an engagement the next day against the Japanese fleet ( she was hit by one 6 @-@ inch and two 12 @-@ inch shells ) , killing one and wounding four . Petropavlovsk fired twenty 12 @-@ inch and sixty @-@ eight 6 @-@ inch shells at the Japanese battleships , but none hit . As a result of the damage incurred in the attack by Tsesarevich and the subsequent lengthy repair @-@ time , Makarov was compelled to choose as his flagship Petropavlovsk against his better judgement ( he viewed the former as sturdier than the latter ) . = = = Sinking = = = Having failed to blockade or bottle up the Russian squadron at Port Arthur by sinking blockships in the harbor 's channel , the Japanese under Admiral Togo formulated a new plan . Ships were to mine the entrance from the harbor and then lure the Russians into the minefield in the hopes of sinking a number of Russian warships . Under cover of four detachments of torpedo boat destroyers , the minelayer Koru @-@ Maru began to lay mines near the entrance to Port Arthur on the night of 31 March . The Japanese were observed by Admiral Makarov , who believed that they were Russian destroyers whom he had ordered to patrol that area . On 13 April 1904 ( 31 March old style ) , Strashnii , a Russian destroyer , was intercepted by Japanese destroyers . A sea battle erupted between the opposing destroyers . Makarov immediately dispatched the cruiser Bayan to assist Strashnii . After Bayan had informed on presence of enemy cruisers on the site , Makarov decided to lead main forces in order to seek battle with the surrounding enemy warships and rescue more survivors from Strashnii . He led two battleships ( Petropavlovsk and Poltava ) , four cruisers and a group of destroyers into the Yellow Sea . However , the Japanese retreated beyond Port Arthur 's gunfire support range , and had been reinforced by main forces of six battleships . At 0850 , Makarov turned around to head back to the harbor and join with three other battleships that had just left . After the squadron had united and turned back towards the enemy , about two miles from the shore , on 9 @.@ 42 Petropavlosk detonated a Japanese @-@ laid mine on her port side . Petropavlovsk sank , taking 27 officers and 652 men , including Admiral Makarov and war artist Vasily Vereshchagin with her . A monument was constructed in Saint Petersburg in 1913 to honor Stephan Makarov after Japanese divers identified his remains inside the wreck of Petropavlovsk and gave him a burial at sea .
= Missing ( Body of Proof ) = " Missing " is the third episode of the second season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on October 4 , 2011 . The episode was directed by Eric Laneuville and written by Matthew V. Lewis . Following Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) , a former neurosurgeon turned medical examiner at Philadelphia , in this episode , Helen Martin ( Nicole Callender ) is run over by a speeding truck whilst trying to stop the kidnapping of Noah Parker ( Anthony Pierini ) . With the help of FBI agent Derek Ames ( Cliff Curtis ) , Detective Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) tries to find the culprits of the kidnapping before the child dies . Meanwhile , Megan has to relive the death of her father , when her mother Joan ( Joanna Cassidy ) visits . The episode received positive reviews , and was watched by 9 @.@ 95 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Tuesday night it aired in the United States . Critics praised the scenes which involved Bud , Joan as well as Megan and Derek ; " the banter " and " opposites attracting " , calling the episode " tense " and saying that it was the " most gripping episode of this season so far " . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic said , " Having been a bit bored with last week 's episode , I was glad to see Body of Proof step up its game " . = = Plot = = Helen Martin ( Nicole Callender ) , a nanny , is run over by a speeding truck whilst trying to stop the kidnapping of the six @-@ year @-@ old child she was caring for , Noah Parker ( Anthony Pierini ) . Detective Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) is assisted by Special Agent Derek Ames ( Cliff Curtis ) of the FBI , who takes a call from Noah , but the kidnapper hangs up before the phone can be traced . Bud questions Jason Peterson ( Stink Fisher ) , when his truck matches that of the kidnapping vehicle . Bud turns off the cameras whilst interrogating , and later on , Jason is found dead , which causes Bud 's reputation to be questioned , but is later cleared . Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) finds several clues which reveal that Jason knew where Noah is , but the detectives are worried that Noah may die as he is asthmatic and is without his inhaler . Megan 's mother Joan ( Joanna Cassidy ) offers to help with the case , but only to help her re @-@ election as a judge . Joan is using pamphlets , for her campaign , with a picture of Megan at the funeral of her father . Megan dislikes the photo , but Joan likes the picture as it shows " strength and survival " . A ransom is made , with the kidnappers wanting one million dollars for the return of Noah . A picture of Noah is sent , with Megan stating that he looks extremely sick . Bud and Derek , with the help of Joan , search many places associated with Jason , despite Bud knowing that Internal Affairs is considering voluntary manslaughter charges against him due to Jason 's death . Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) and Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) begin to believe that Noah is being held by fresh water , so the search is narrowed . Bud is also cleared of voluntary manslaughter , and him , Curtis , Megan and Kate Murphy ( Jeri Ryan ) suspect that the kidnapping may be an inside job , meaning that someone close to Noah kidnapped him . Bud checks his parents , Tom ( Stephen Barker Turner ) and Jennifer ( Keira Naughton ) but they are not the culprits . They then find that Helen 's friend , Jason 's girlfriend , Rena Talbot ( Wrenn Schmidt ) looked after Noah whilst Helen was on taking care of her boyfriend Oscar Mendez who had been injured badly in a fight . They find Rena , and result in finding Noah , who is sick but alive , and is reunited with his parents . Whilst Rena is arrested , Derek asks Megan to have a ride on her motorbike , to which she rejects and instead goes to see Joan , having a conversation about her father . = = Production = = " Missing " was written by Matthew V. Lewis and directed by Eric Laneuville . Laneuville is best known for directing episodes of Ghost Whisperer and is also an actor . Daniel Licht who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . Actor Stephen Barker Turner and actress Keira Naughton guest starred in the episode as Tom and Jennifer Parker . Stink Fisher appeared as Jason Peterson and Slaine starred as Kevin Roban , a drug dealer . Slaine said of his role in the episode , " As a lot of people know I have branched out from hip @-@ hop to acting and this will be my first venture into network television . I ’ m really looking forward to working on this , as it ’ s a great show with a fantastic cast " . This episode marked the first appearance of Cliff Curtis , who plays Special Agent Derek Ames , a love interest for Megan Hunt ( Delany ) . Curtis was reported to have a role in Body of Proof in November 2010 . Curtis was originally meant to be appearing towards the end of the season . Delany said , " We do have a very dashing FBI agent coming on for the end of the season , played by Cliff Curtis . [ Cliff is ] an old friend , so I wanted him for the role " . Afterwards , Curtis appears in one more episode ; " Hard Knocks " . " Missing " marked the first appearance of Joanna Cassidy since the first season . Cassidy , who plays Joan Hunt has appeared in season one episodes , " Society Hill " and " Buried Secrets " . Delany said that Megan 's relationship with Joan in the second season would be " tough " because it has been " going on for a long time and most people don ’ t change after a certain age " . Regular cast member Mary Mouser who plays Lacey Fleming , did not appear in this episode . " Missing " , along with the nineteen episode 's from Body of Proof 's second season , were released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 18 , 2012 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episode 's , the webisodes entitled " Outbreak " , five " featurettes " on the making of the show , detailing on the fashion , bodies and special effects throughout the season , as well as a " Body of Goofs " blooper reel . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = In its original American broadcast on 4 October 2011 , " Missing " was seen by 9 @.@ 95 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 11 share . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 0 per cent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 per cent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode achieved a significant higher number of viewers than the previous episode , " Hunting Party " , as well as the subsequent episode , " Lazarus Man " . Body of Proof came fifth in the ratings on Tuesday night ; it was outperformed by one episode of ABC 's Dancing with the Stars , one episode of CBS 's NCIS and Unforgettable and NCIS 's spinoff , NCIS : Los Angeles . However , the episode came second in the timeslot it aired in , being beaten b Unforgettable . " Missing " was watched by 1 @.@ 35 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom . = = = Critical response = = = The episode received positive reviews . The episode was described as " tense " , with Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic , saying that " " Missing " upped the emotional intensity when the autopsies weren 't about finding a killer , but about finding a kidnapped little boy " . Orlando said that the scenes with Bud were a highlight , as well as the scenes with Megan and Derek . Orlando said , " I enjoyed the banter between Megan and Derek . He 's the optimist to her pessimist . When they get the photo of the boy , Derek pointed out that at least he 's alive and not alone . Megan said yes , but he 's sick and possibly coughing up blood . The amateur nature of the photo gave Derek hope that the kidnapper wasn 't a professional . Great , said Megan , that meant he was incompetent and desperate . Was anyone else seeing a case where opposites attract ? " . She said it was a " pity " that Megan turned Derek down ; " Megan could use a bit of a love life and I 'm hoping we see more of Agent Ames in the future " . She said she was " thankful " that there was not a storyline with Lacey ( Mary Mouser ) , saying that the storyline with Megan and Kate arguing over Lacey had gotten " old " , " I 'm happy they seem to be moving on " . Finishing , she praised the scenes with Megan and Joan and added , " Having been a bit bored with last week 's episode , I was glad to see Body of Proof step up its game . The only thing lacking was a bit of the humour I 've grown to love " .
= Geography of Scotland in the early modern era = The geography of Scotland in the early modern era covers all aspects of the land in Scotland , including physical and human , between the sixteenth century and the beginnings of the Agricultural Revolution and industrialisation in the eighteenth century . The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east . The Highlands were subdivided by the Great Glen and the Lowlands into the fertile Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands . The Uplands and Highlands had a relatively short growing season , exacerbated by the Little Ice Age , which peaked towards the end of the seventeenth century . A network of roads developed in the Lowlands in this period . Drover 's roads , between the Highlands and north @-@ east England , had become established by the end of the seventeenth century and a series of military roads were built and maintained as a response to the Jacobite Risings in the eighteenth century . At the beginning of the period , most farming was based on the Lowland fermtoun or Highland baile , but a system of land ownership based on large estates emerged . This was the beginning of a process that would create a landscape of rectangular fields and carefully located farm complexes with interconnecting roads . There was an attempt improve agriculture , resulting in new crops , techniques and enclosures began to displace the run rig system and free pasture . There are almost no reliable sources with which to track the population of Scotland before the late seventeenth century . It probably grew for most of the period , reaching 1 @,@ 234 @,@ 575 by 1691 and 1 @,@ 265 @,@ 380 by the first census in 1751 . Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population as a result of the clearances and the industrial revolution that began in the eighteenth century , these numbers were more evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half north of the River Tay . Most were housed in small hamlets and isolated dwellings . The Little Ice Age saw the abandonment of marginal land , but new settlements were created as a result of the opening up of hunting reserves like Ettrick Forest and less desirable low @-@ lying land was also settled . As the population expanded , some settlements were sub @-@ divided to create new hamlets . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of the many burghs that had grown up in the later Medieval period , mainly in the east and south of the country . By 1750 , with its suburbs , Edinburgh had reached a population of 57 @,@ 000 . By the early modern era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands . It was gradually being replaced by Middle Scots . From the mid sixteenth century , written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England , which came to dominate elite discourse . After the Union in 1707 the use of Gaelic and Scots were discouraged by many in authority and education , as was the notion of Scottishness itself . The extent and borders of the kingdom had been fixed in their modern form by the beginning of the sixteenth century , with the exception of the debatable lands , settled by a French led commission in 1552 . The accession of James VI to the English throne made the borders less significant in military terms , becoming , in his phrase the " middle shires " of Great Britain , but it remained a jurisdictional and tariff boundary until the Act of Union in 1707 . Edinburgh had emerged as the capital in the fifteenth century and continued to be a major administrative centre . From the seventeenth century the responsibilities of shires expanded from judicial functions into wider local administration . The parish also became an important unit of local government . By the mid @-@ seventeenth century this system had largely been rolled out across the Lowlands , but was limited in the Highlands . There was much greater awareness of geography and political boundaries in this period and Scotland was extensively mapped for the first time . = = Physical = = The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east . The Highlands are further divided into the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains by the fault line of the Great Glen . The Lowlands are divided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the Southern Uplands , which included the Cheviot hills , over which , as now , the border with England runs . The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles in width and , because it contains most of the good quality agricultural land and has easier communications , could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional government . However , the Southern Uplands , and particularly the Highlands , were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern . The Uplands and Highlands had a relatively short growing season and , in the extreme case of the upper Grampians , this was an ice free season of four months or less and for much of the Highlands and Uplands of seven months or less . The early modern era also saw the impact of the Little Ice Age , of worldwide colder and wetter weather , which peaked towards the end of the seventeenth century . In 1564 there were thirty @-@ three days of continual frost , and rivers and lochs froze . The 1690s marked its lowest point , leading to the Seven ill years of famine . Most roads in the Lowlands were maintained by justices from a monetary levy on landholders and work levy on tenants . The development of national grain prices indicates the network had improved considerably by the early eighteenth century . By the end of the seventeenth century , the drover 's roads , stretching down from the Highlands through south @-@ west Scotland to north @-@ east England and used for the transport of Highland Cattle for the English meat market , had become firmly established . In the Highlands and Galloway in the early eighteenth century , a series of military roads were built and maintained by the central government , with the aim of facilitating the movement of troops in the event of rebellion . At the beginning of the period , most farming was based on the Lowland fermtoun or Highland baile , settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams , allocated in run rigs , of " runs " ( furrows ) and " rigs " ( ridges ) , to tenant farmers . They usually ran downhill so that they included both wet and dry land , helping to offset the problems of extreme weather conditions . In this era , a system of land ownership based on large estates emerged as the dominant form as Scottish society was largely divided between a few large estate holders and a large number of workers . This had a major impact on the landscape as feudal systems of ownership were abandoned and land holdings reorganised . This process also facilitated the Scottish Agricultural Revolution that further changed the Scottish landscape from the first half of the eighteenth century . This was the beginning of a process that would create a landscape of rectangular fields , carefully located farm complexes with interconnecting roads . Increasing contacts with England after the Union of 1707 led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility . The Society of Improvers was founded in 1723 , including in its 300 members dukes , earls , lairds and landlords . Haymaking was introduced along with the English plough and foreign grasses , the sowing of rye grass and clover . Turnips and cabbages were introduced , lands enclosed and marshes drained , lime was put down , roads built and woods planted . Drilling and sowing and crop rotation were introduced . The introduction of the potato to Scotland in 1739 greatly improved the diet of the peasantry . Enclosures began to displace the run rig system and free pasture . New farm buildings , often based on designs in patterns books , replaced the fermtoun and regional diversity was replaced with a standardisation of building forms . Smaller farms retained the linear outline of the longhouse , with dwelling house , barn and byre in a row , but in larger farms a three- or four @-@ sided layout became common , separating the dwelling house from barns and servants quarters . There was increasing regional specialisation . The Lothians became a major centre of grain , Ayrshire of cattle breading and the Borders of sheep . However , although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their displaced workers , enclosures led to unemployment and forced migrations to the burghs or abroad . = = Settlement and demography = = There are almost no reliable sources with which to track the population of Scotland before the late seventeenth century . Estimates based on English records suggest that by the end of the Middle Ages the Black Death and subsequent recurring outbreaks of the plague may have caused the population of Scotland to fall as low as half a million people . Price inflation , which generally reflects growing demand for food , suggests that this probably expanded in the first half of the sixteenth century , levelling off after the famine of 1595 , as prices were relatively stable in the early seventeenth century . Calculations based on Hearth Tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of 1 @,@ 234 @,@ 575 . This level may have been seriously effected by the famines of the 1690s . The first reliable information available on national population is from the census conducted by the Reverend Alexander Webster in 1755 , which showed the inhabitants of Scotland as 1 @,@ 265 @,@ 380 persons . Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population as a result of the clearances and the industrial revolution that began in the eighteenth century , the population was evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half living north of the Tay . Most of the early modern population , in both the Lowlands and Highlands , was housed in small hamlets and isolated dwellings . One result of the Little Ice Age was the abandonment of marginal land in the early part of the period , as it became impossible to sustain agriculture in some regions , particularly in the uplands , but new settlements were created as a result of the opening up of hunting reserves like Ettrick Forest and less desirable low @-@ lying land was also settled , often incorporating features into their names such as bog , marsh and muir . As the population expanded , some of these settlements were sub @-@ divided to create new hamlets and more marginal land was again settled , with sheilings ( clusters of huts occupied while summer pasture was being used for grazing ) becoming permanent settlements . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of the burghs that had grown up in the later Medieval period , mainly in the east and south of the country . They may have had a mean population of about 2 @,@ 000 , and the largest , Edinburgh , probably had a population of over 10 @,@ 000 at the beginning of the era , but many were much smaller than 1 @,@ 000 . During the seventeenth century , the number of people living in the capital grew rapidly . It also expanded beyond the city walls in suburbs at Cowgate , Bristo and Westport and by 1750 , with its suburbs , it had reached a population of 57 @,@ 000 . The only other towns above 10 @,@ 000 by the end of the period were Glasgow with 32 @,@ 000 , Aberdeen with around 16 @,@ 000 and Dundee with 12 @,@ 000 . = = Language = = By the early modern era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands . It was gradually being replaced by Middle Scots , which became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . Scots was derived substantially from Old English , with Gaelic and French influences . It was called Inglyshe in the fifteenth century and was very close to the language spoken in northern England , but by the sixteenth century , it had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England . From the mid sixteenth century , written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England . With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England , most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion . Unlike many of his predecessors , James VI generally despised Gaelic culture . Having extolled the virtues of Scots " poesie " , after his accession to the English throne , he increasingly favoured the language of southern England . In 1611 the Kirk adopted the Authorized King James Version of the Bible . In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now " not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther " . Jenny Wormald , describes James as creating a " three @-@ tier system , with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top " . After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England , the use of Gaelic and Scots were discouraged by many in authority and education . The Scottish Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ( SSPCK ) , established in 1709 , aimed to teach English language and end the attachment to Roman Catholicism associated with rebellious Jacobitism . It was partly cultural , intending to " wear out " Gaelic and " learn the people the English tongue " . Although SSPCK schools eventually taught in Gaelic , the overall effect contributed to the erosion of Highland culture . Many leading Scots of the period , such as David Hume , considered themselves Northern British rather than Scottish . They attempted to rid themselves of their Scots in a bid to establish Standard English as the official language of the newly formed Union . Many well @-@ off Scots took to learning English through the activities of those such as Thomas Sheridan , who in 1761 gave a series of lectures on English elocution . Charging a guinea at a time ( about £ 100 in today 's money ) they were attended by over 300 men , and he was made a freeman of the City of Edinburgh . Following this , some of the city 's intellectuals formed the Select Society for Promoting the Reading and Speaking of the English Language in Scotland . Nevertheless , Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working @-@ class Scots . = = Political = = The extent and borders of the kingdom had been fixed in their modern form by the beginning of the sixteenth century . The exception , the debatable lands at the western end of the border with England , were settled by a French led commission in 1552 and the Scots ' Dike built to mark the boundary . The Scottish administration of the Borders was divided into three marches : East , West and Middle . The accession of James VI to the English throne made the border less significant in military terms , becoming , in his phrase , the " middle shires " of Great Britain . In 1605 , he established a single commission of ten men drawn from equally Scotland and England to bring law and order to the region , but lawlessness continued and it remained a jurisdictional and tariff boundary until the Act of Union in 1707 . Edinburgh had emerged as the capital in the fifteenth century . It was the wealthiest and largest city in the kingdom and held the central law courts , parliament and royal residence at Holyrood Palace . After James VI left for London at the Union of Crowns in 1603 , it continued to be the centre of government . Even after the Acts of Union in 1707 removed the parliament , it retained the exchequer and law courts . From the seventeenth century the responsibilities of shires expanded from judicial functions into wider local administration . In 1667 , Commissioners of Supply were appointed in each sheriffdom or shire to collect the cess land tax . The parish also became an important unit of local government after three major pieces of legislation , in 1574 , 1579 and 1592 , established what would become known as " the Old Poor Law " . Pressured by Justices , the parish became responsible for taking care of the destitute in periods of famine , to prevent the impoverished from taking to the roads and causing general disorder . By the mid @-@ seventeenth century the system had largely been rolled out across the Lowlands , but was limited in the Highlands . There was a growing awareness of geography and political boundaries in this period . Scotland was extensively mapped for the first time . In the last quarter of the sixteenth century , Timothy Pont created a series of sketch maps of Scotland and recorded the names and details of 20 @,@ 000 places he visited or noted . His work became the basis for the set of maps of Scotland published the following century by Willem and Johannes Blaeu . In the eighteenth century , there was a " militarisation of cartography " , by which the armed forces took over the business of mapping . One response to the Jacobite risings in 1715 and 1745 was the Ordnance Survey , from which over 800 military plans survive for Scotland . The new generation of cartographers were engineers and military surveyors .
= Henry de Lichton = Henry de Lichton [ de Lychtone , Leighton ] ( died 1440 ) was a medieval Scottish prelate and diplomat , who , serving as Bishop of Moray ( 1414 – 1422 ) and Bishop of Aberdeen ( 1422 – 1440 ) , became a significant patron of the church , a cathedral builder , and a writer . He also served King James I of Scotland as a diplomat in England , France , and Italy . = = Early church career = = Lichton was born in the diocese of Brechin ( probably Angus ) somewhere between 1369 and 1379 to Henry and Janet Lichton . He was well @-@ educated for his time , attending the University of Orléans and possibly the University of St Andrews , earning licentiates in civil law and canon law , a bachelorate in canon law , and a doctorate in canon law , all achieved between 1394 and 1415 ; he attained an additional doctorate — in civil law — by 1436 . Lichton followed an ecclesiastical career simultaneously with his studies . The first notice of this career comes in 1392 , when he was vicar of Markinch in Fife , a vicariate of St Andrews Cathedral Priory . He was a canon of the diocese of Moray by 1394 , and Archdeacon of Aberdeen by 1395 , holding this position into the following year , 1396 . = = Bishop of Moray = = After the death of Bishop John de Innes in 1414 , the chapter of Elgin Cathedral met to elect a new bishop , and on 18 May Lichton was elected Bishop of Moray . Lichton travelled to Continental Europe to receive consecration , and was consecrated on 8 March 1415 , at Valencia by Pope Benedict XIII . Lichton enjoyed an amicable relationship with the most powerful magnate in the area , Alexander Stewart , Lord of Badenoch and Earl of Mar , as Lichton appears to have suffered no harassment , attended the latter 's marriage to Isabella , Countess of Mar back in 1404 and procured for him an annulment of that marriage when Stewart chose to remarry in 1415 . Lichton was probably a kinsman of Stewart , as he is described as a kinsman of Stewart 's uncle , Robert Stewart , Duke of Albany , the man who ruled Scotland as governor until his death in 1420 . = = Bishop of Aberdeen = = After the death of Gilbert de Greenlaw , Bishop of Aberdeen , in 1421 , Lichton was chosen as his successor , and was translated to the diocese of Aberdeen in early April 1422 , on the authority of Pope Martin V. Pope Martin delegated authority to Robert de Cardeny , Bishop of Dunkeld , and William Stephen , Bishop of Dunblane , in order to take Lichton 's oath to the Papal see without forcing him to travel to Rome . It is of note that Lichton had already been in possession of the prebend of Kinkell in the Aberdeen diocese , a former possession of the Knights Hospitaller but attached to Aberdeen Cathedral by Lichton 's time . As Bishop of Aberdeen , Lichton was one of its greatest builders . The Aberdeen Registrum noted that he began to rebuild the cathedral , and Hector Boece gave a description of his rebuilding , noting that although he finished the walls and two belltowers , the third belltower remained unfinished at his death . Licthon also constructed a new chapel dedicated to St John the Evangelist , and donated much of his own money to new service books and vestments , as well as to the reconstruction of the cathedral . He also authored several legal and religious texts , though none have survived . = = Diplomatic career = = Henry was frequently used as an ambassador by the king , James I of Scotland . According to the 16th century Bishop of Ross and historian John Lesley , Henry was one of the men sent to England to arrange the ransom of King James - held in England for most of his youth , not being released until 1424 . On 9 June 1425 , he and other prelates received a safe @-@ conduct from King Henry VI of England enabling them to travel through England on their way to visit Pope Martin V at Rome . In 1428 , Henry was the leader of an embassy sent to King Charles VII of France for a marriage proposal and to renew the Franco @-@ Scottish alliance , and in January 1430 , was sent into England for discussion of various grievances . On 31 March 1434 , Lichton is found in attendance at the Council of Basel , though no more details of his activities there have survived . = = Death = = Lichton 's death cannot be precisely dated . It fell between 11 November ( Martinmas ) 1440 , and 11 January 1441 ; it is probable that he died on either 12 or 14 December , because these were the anniversaries given to him in the 15th century and the 16th century respectively . He was buried in his new chapel , the one dedicated to St John the Evangelist . As a churchman , Lichton could never marry and did not ; he did however father a bastard , a daughter named Janet , who appeared in the records receiving papal dispensation to marry in 1432 .
= Plant defense against herbivory = Plant defense against herbivory or host @-@ plant resistance ( HPR ) describes a range of adaptations evolved by plants which improve their survival and reproduction by reducing the impact of herbivores . Plants can sense being touched , and they can use several strategies to defend against damage caused by herbivores . Many plants produce secondary metabolites , known as allelochemicals , that influence the behavior , growth , or survival of herbivores . These chemical defenses can act as repellents or toxins to herbivores , or reduce plant digestibility . Other defensive strategies used by plants include escaping or avoiding herbivores in any time and / or any place , for example by growing in a location where plants are not easily found or accessed by herbivores , or by changing seasonal growth patterns . Another approach diverts herbivores toward eating non @-@ essential parts , or enhances the ability of a plant to recover from the damage caused by herbivory . Some plants encourage the presence of natural enemies of herbivores , which in turn protect the plant . Each type of defense can be either constitutive ( always present in the plant ) , or induced ( produced in reaction to damage or stress caused by herbivores ) . Historically , insects have been the most significant herbivores , and the evolution of land plants is closely associated with the evolution of insects . While most plant defenses are directed against insects , other defenses have evolved that are aimed at vertebrate herbivores , such as birds and mammals . The study of plant defenses against herbivory is important , not only from an evolutionary view point , but also in the direct impact that these defenses have on agriculture , including human and livestock food sources ; as beneficial ' biological control agents ' in biological pest control programs ; as well as in the search for plants of medical importance . = = Evolution of defensive traits = = The earliest land plants evolved from aquatic plants around 450 million years ago ( Ma ) in the Ordovician period . Many plants have adapted to iodine @-@ deficient terrestrial environment by removing iodine from their metabolism , in fact iodine is essential only for animal cells . An important antiparasitic action is caused by the block of the transport of iodide of animal cells inhibiting sodium @-@ iodide symporter ( NIS ) . Many plant pesticides are glycosides ( as the cardiac digitoxin ) and cyanogenic glycosides which liberate cyanide , which , blocking cytochrome c oxidase and NIS , is poisonous only for a large part of parasites and herbivores and not for the plant cells in which it seems useful in seed dormancy phase . Iodide is not pesticide , but is oxidized , by vegetable peroxidase , to iodine , which is a strong oxidant , it is able to kill bacteria , fungi and protozoa . The Cretaceous period saw the appearance of more plant defense mechanisms . The diversification of flowering plants ( angiosperms ) at that time is associated with the sudden burst of speciation in insects . This diversification of insects represented a major selective force in plant evolution , and led to selection of plants that had defensive adaptations . Early insect herbivores were mandibulate and bit or chewed vegetation ; but the evolution of vascular plants lead to the co @-@ evolution of other forms of herbivory , such as sap @-@ sucking , leaf mining , gall forming and nectar @-@ feeding . The relative abundance of different species of plants in ecological communities including forests and grasslands may be determined in part by the level of defensive compounds in the different species . Since the cost of replacement of damaged leaves is higher in conditions where resources are scarce , it may also be that plants growing in areas where water and nutrients are scarce may invest more resources into anti @-@ herbivore defenses . = = = Records of herbivores = = = Our understanding of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources : fossilized plants , which may preserve evidence of defense ( such as spines ) , or herbivory @-@ related damage ; the observation of plant debris in fossilised animal faeces ; and the construction of herbivore mouthparts . Long thought to be a Mesozoic phenomenon , evidence for herbivory is found almost as soon as fossils which could show it . Within under 20 million years of the first fossils of sporangia and stems towards the close of the Silurian , around 420 million years ago , there is evidence that they were being consumed . Animals fed on the spores of early Devonian plants , and the Rhynie chert also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a " pierce and suck " technique . Many plants of this time are preserved with spine @-@ like enations , which may have performed a defensive role before being co @-@ opted to develop into leaves . During the ensuing 75 million years , plants evolved a range of more complex organs - from roots to seeds . There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between each organ evolving , and it being fed upon . Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early Permian , with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period . = = = Co @-@ evolution = = = Herbivores are dependent on plants for food , and have evolved mechanisms to obtain this food despite the evolution of a diverse arsenal of plant defenses . Herbivore adaptations to plant defense have been likened to offensive traits and consist of adaptations that allow increased feeding and use of a host plant . Relationships between herbivores and their host plants often results in reciprocal evolutionary change , called co @-@ evolution . When an herbivore eats a plant it selects for plants that can mount a defensive response . In cases where this relationship demonstrates specificity ( the evolution of each trait is due to the other ) , and reciprocity ( both traits must evolve ) , the species are thought to have co @-@ evolved . The " escape and radiation " mechanism for co @-@ evolution presents the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants have been the driving force behind speciation , and have played a role in the radiation of insect species during the age of angiosperms . Some herbivores have evolved ways to hijack plant defenses to their own benefit , by sequestering these chemicals and using them to protect themselves from predators . Plant defenses against herbivores are generally not complete so plants also tend to evolve some tolerance to herbivory . = = Types = = Plant defenses can be classified generally as constitutive or induced . Constitutive defenses are always present in the plant , while induced defenses are produced or mobilized to the site where a plant is injured . There is wide variation in the composition and concentration of constitutive defenses and these range from mechanical defenses to digestibility reducers and toxins . Many external mechanical defenses and large quantitative defenses are constitutive , as they require large amounts of resources to produce and are difficult to mobilize . A variety of molecular and biochemical approaches are used to determine the mechanism of constitutive and induced plant defenses responses against herbivory . Induced defenses include secondary metabolic products , as well as morphological and physiological changes . An advantage of inducible , as opposed to constitutive defenses , is that they are only produced when needed , and are therefore potentially less costly , especially when herbivory is variable . = = = Chemical defenses = = = The evolution of chemical defences in plants is linked to the emergence of chemical substances that are not involved in the essential photosynthetic and metabolic activities . These substances , secondary metabolites , are organic compounds that are not directly involved in the normal growth , development or reproduction of organisms , and often produced as by @-@ products during the synthesis of primary metabolic products . Although these secondary metabolites have been thought to play a major role in defenses against herbivores , a meta @-@ analysis of recent relevant studies has suggested that they have either a more minimal ( when compared to other non @-@ secondary metabolites , such as primary chemistry and physiology ) or more complex involvement in defense . Secondary metabolites are often characterized as either qualitative or quantitative . Qualitative metabolites are defined as toxins that interfere with an herbivore ’ s metabolism , often by blocking specific biochemical reactions . Qualitative chemicals are present in plants in relatively low concentrations ( often less than 2 % dry weight ) , and are not dosage dependent . They are usually small , water @-@ soluble molecules , and therefore can be rapidly synthesized , transported and stored with relatively little energy cost to the plant . Qualitative allelochemicals are usually effective against non @-@ adapted specialists and generalist herbivores . Quantitative chemicals are those that are present in high concentration in plants ( 5 – 40 % dry weight ) and are equally effective against all specialists and generalist herbivores . Most quantitative metabolites are digestibility reducers that make plant cell walls indigestible to animals . The effects of quantitative metabolites are dosage dependent and the higher these chemicals ’ proportion in the herbivore ’ s diet , the less nutrition the herbivore can gain from ingesting plant tissues . Because they are typically large molecules , these defenses are energetically expensive to produce and maintain , and often take longer to synthesize and transport . The geranium , for example , produces a unique chemical compound in its petals to defend itself from Japanese beetles . Within 30 minutes of ingestion the chemical paralyzes the herbivore . While the chemical usually wears off within a few hours , during this time the beetle is often consumed by its own predators . See Toxalbumin = = = = Types of chemical defences = = = = Plants have evolved many secondary metabolites involved in plant defense , which are collectively known as antiherbivory compounds and can be classified into three sub @-@ groups : nitrogen compounds ( including alkaloids , cyanogenic glycosides , glucosinolates and benzoxazinoids ) , terpenoids , and phenolics . Alkaloids are derived from various amino acids . Over 3000 known alkaloids exist , examples include nicotine , caffeine , morphine , cocaine , colchicine , ergolines , strychnine , and quinine . Alkaloids have pharmacological effects on humans and other animals . Some alkaloids can inhibit or activate enzymes , or alter carbohydrate and fat storage by inhibiting the formation phosphodiester bonds involved in their breakdown . Certain alkaloids bind to nucleic acids and can inhibit synthesis of proteins and affect DNA repair mechanisms . Alkaloids can also affect cell membrane and cytoskeletal structure causing the cells to weaken , collapse , or leak , and can affect nerve transmission . Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals , they almost uniformly invoke an aversively bitter taste . Cyanogenic glycosides are stored in inactive forms in plant vacuoles . They become toxic when herbivores eat the plant and break cell membranes allowing the glycosides to come into contact with enzymes in the cytoplasm releasing hydrogen cyanide which blocks cellular respiration . Glucosinolates are activated in much the same way as cyanogenic glucosides , and the products can cause gastroenteritis , salivation , diarrhea , and irritation of the mouth . Benzoxazinoids , secondary defence metabolites , which are characteristic for grasses ( Poaceae ) , are also stored as inactive glucosides in the plant vacuole . Upon tissue disruption they get into contact with β @-@ glucosidases from the chloroplasts , which enzymatically release the toxic aglucones . Whereas some benzoxazinoids are constitutively present , others are only synthesised following herbivore infestation , and thus , considered inducible plant defenses against herbivory . The terpenoids , sometimes referred to as isoprenoids , are organic chemicals similar to terpenes , derived from five @-@ carbon isoprene units . There are over 10 @,@ 000 known types of terpenoids . Most are multicyclic structures which differ from one another in both functional groups , and in basic carbon skeletons . Monoterpenoids , continuing 2 isoprene units , are volatile essential oils such as citronella , limonene , menthol , camphor , and pinene . Diterpenoids , 4 isoprene units , are widely distributed in latex and resins , and can be quite toxic . Diterpenes are responsible for making Rhododendron leaves poisonous . Plant steroids and sterols are also produced from terpenoid precursors , including vitamin D , glycosides ( such as digitalis ) and saponins ( which lyse red blood cells of herbivores ) . Phenolics , sometimes called phenols , consist of an aromatic 6 @-@ carbon ring bonded to a hydroxy group . Some phenols have antiseptic properties , while others disrupt endocrine activity . Phenolics range from simple tannins to the more complex flavonoids that give plants much of their red , blue , yellow , and white pigments . Complex phenolics called polyphenols are capable of producing many different types of effects on humans , including antioxidant properties . Some examples of phenolics used for defense in plants are : lignin , silymarin and cannabinoids . Condensed tannins , polymers composed of 2 to 50 ( or more ) flavonoid molecules , inhibit herbivore digestion by binding to consumed plant proteins and making them more difficult for animals to digest , and by interfering with protein absorption and digestive enzymes . Silica and lignins , which are completely indigestible to animals , grind down insect mandibles ( appendages necessary for feeding ) . In addition to the three larger groups of substances mentioned above , fatty acid derivates , amino acids and even peptides are also used as defense . The cholinergic toxine , cicutoxin of water hemlock , is a polyyne derived from the fatty acid metabolism. β @-@ N @-@ Oxalyl @-@ L @-@ α , β @-@ diaminopropionic acid as simple amino acid is used by the sweet pea which leads also to intoxication in humans . The synthesis of fluoroacetate in several plants is an example of the use of small molecules to disrupt the metabolism of herbivores , in this case the citric acid cycle . In tropical Sargassum and Turbinaria species that are often preferentially consumed by herbivorous fishes and echinoids , there is a relatively low level of phenolics and tannins . = = = Mechanical defenses = = = Plants have many external structural defenses that discourage herbivory . Depending on the herbivore ’ s physical characteristics ( i.e. size and defensive armor ) , plant structural defenses on stems and leaves can deter , injure , or kill the grazer . Some defensive compounds are produced internally but are released onto the plant ’ s surface ; for example , resins , lignins , silica , and wax cover the epidermis of terrestrial plants and alter the texture of the plant tissue . The leaves of holly plants , for instance , are very smooth and slippery making feeding difficult . Some plants produce gummosis or sap that traps insects . A plant 's leaves and stem may be covered with sharp prickles , spines , thorns , or trichomes- hairs on the leaf often with barbs , sometimes containing irritants or poisons . Plant structural features like spines and thorns reduce feeding by large ungulate herbivores ( e.g. kudu , impala , and goats ) by restricting the herbivores ' feeding rate , or by wearing down the molars . Raphides are sharp needles of calcium oxalate or calcium carbonate in plant tissues , making ingestion painful , damaging a herbivore 's mouth and gullet and causing more efficient delivery of the plant 's toxins . The structure of a plant , its branching and leaf arrangement may also be evolved to reduce herbivore impact . The shrubs of New Zealand have evolved special wide branching adaptations believed to be a response to browsing birds such as the moas . Similarly , African Acacias have long spines low in the canopy , but very short spines high in the canopy , which is comparatively safe from herbivores such as giraffes . Trees such as coconut and other palms , may protect their fruit by multiple layers of armor , needing efficient tools to break through to the seed contents , and special skills to climb the tall and relatively smooth trunk . = = = = Thigmonasty = = = = Thigmonastic movements , those that occur in response to touch , are used as a defense in some plants . The leaves of the sensitive plant , Mimosa pudica , close up rapidly in response to direct touch , vibration , or even electrical and thermal stimuli . The proximate cause of this mechanical response is an abrupt change in the turgor pressure in the pulvini at the base of leaves resulting from osmotic phenomena . This is then spread via both electrical and chemical means through the plant ; only a single leaflet need be disturbed . This response lowers the surface area available to herbivores , which are presented with the underside of each leaflet , and results in a wilted appearance . It may also physically dislodge small herbivores , such as insects . = = = Mimicry and camouflages = = = Some plants mimic the presence of insect eggs on their leaves , dissuading insect species from laying their eggs there . Because female butterflies are less likely to lay their eggs on plants that already have butterfly eggs , some species of neotropical vines of the genus Passiflora ( Passion flowers ) contain physical structures resembling the yellow eggs of Heliconius butterflies on their leaves , which discourage oviposition by butterflies . = = = Indirect defenses = = = Another category of plant defenses are those features that indirectly protect the plant by enhancing the probability of attracting the natural enemies of herbivores . Such an arrangement is known as mutualism , in this case of the " enemy of my enemy " variety . One such feature are semiochemicals , given off by plants . Semiochemicals are a group of volatile organic compounds involved in interactions between organisms . One group of semiochemicals are allelochemicals ; consisting of allomones , which play a defensive role in interspecies communication , and kairomones , which are used by members of higher trophic levels to locate food sources . When a plant is attacked it releases allelochemics containing an abnormal ratio of volatiles . Predators sense these volatiles as food cues , attracting them to the damaged plant , and to feeding herbivores . The subsequent reduction in the number of herbivores confers a fitness benefit to the plant and demonstrates the indirect defensive capabilities of semiochemicals . Induced volatiles also have drawbacks , however ; some studies have suggested that these volatiles also attract herbivores . Plants also provide housing and food items for natural enemies of herbivores , known as " biotic " defense mechanisms , as a means to maintain their presence . For example , trees from the genus Macaranga have adapted their thin stem walls to create ideal housing for an ant species ( genus Crematogaster ) , which , in turn , protects the plant from herbivores . In addition to providing housing , the plant also provides the ant with its exclusive food source ; from the food bodies produced by the plant . Similarly , some Acacia tree species have developed thorns that are swollen at the base , forming a hollowing structure that acts as housing . These Acacia trees also produce nectar in extrafloral nectaries on their leaves as food for the ants . Plant use of endophytic fungi in defense is a very common phenomenon . Most plants have endophytes , microbial organisms that live within them . While some cause disease , others protect plants from herbivores and pathogenic microbes . Endophytes can help the plant by producing toxins harmful to other organisms that would attack the plant , such as alkaloid producing fungi which are common in grasses such as tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea ) . = = = Leaf shedding and color = = = There have been suggestions that leaf shedding may be a response that provides protection against diseases and certain kinds of pests such as leaf miners and gall forming insects . Other responses such as the change of leaf colors prior to fall have also been suggested as adaptations that may help undermine the camouflage of herbivores . Autumn leaf color has also been suggested to act as an honest warning signal of defensive commitment towards insect pests that migrate to the trees in autumn . = = Costs and benefits = = Defensive structures and chemicals are costly as they require resources that could otherwise be used by plants to maximize growth and reproduction . Many models have been proposed to explore how and why some plants make this investment in defenses against herbivores . = = = Optimal defense hypothesis = = = The optimal defense hypothesis attempts to explain how the kinds of defenses a particular plant might use reflect the threats each individual plant faces . This model considers three main factors , namely : risk of attack , value of the plant part , and the cost of defense . The first factor determining optimal defense is risk : how likely is it that a plant or certain plant parts will be attacked ? This is also related to the plant apparency hypothesis , which states that a plant will invest heavily in broadly effective defenses when the plant is easily found by herbivores . Examples of apparent plants that produce generalized protections include long @-@ living trees , shrubs , and perennial grasses . Unapparent plants , such as short @-@ lived plants of early successional stages , on the other hand , preferentially invest in small amounts of qualitative toxins that are effective against all but the most specialized herbivores . The second factor is the value of protection : would the plant be less able to survive and reproduce after removal of part of its structure by a herbivore ? Not all plant parts are of equal evolutionary value , thus valuable parts contain more defenses . A plant ’ s stage of development at the time of feeding also affects the resulting change in fitness . Experimentally , the fitness value of a plant structure is determined by removing that part of the plant and observing the effect . In general , reproductive parts are not as easily replaced as vegetative parts , terminal leaves have greater value than basal leaves , and the loss of plant parts mid @-@ season has a greater negative effect on fitness than removal at the beginning or end of the season . Seeds in particular tend to be very well protected . For example , the seeds of many edible fruits and nuts contain cyanogenic glycosides such as amygdalin . This results from the need to balance the effort needed to make the fruit attractive to animal dispersers while ensuring that the seeds are not destroyed by the animal . The final consideration is cost : how much will a particular defensive strategy cost a plant in energy and materials ? This is particularly important , as energy spent on defense cannot be used for other functions , such as reproduction and growth . The optimal defense hypothesis predicts that plants will allocate more energy towards defense when the benefits of protection outweigh the costs , specifically in situations where there is high herbivore pressure . = = = Carbon : nutrient balance hypothesis = = = The carbon : nutrient balance hypothesis , also known as the environmental constraint hypothesis or Carbon Nutrient Balance Model ( CNBM ) , states that the various types of plant defenses are responses to variations in the levels of nutrients in the environment . This hypothesis predicts the Carbon / Nitrogen ratio in plants determines which secondary metabolites will be synthesized . For example , plants growing in nitrogen @-@ poor soils will use carbon @-@ based defenses ( mostly digestibility reducers ) , while those growing in low @-@ carbon environments ( such as shady conditions ) are more likely to produce nitrogen @-@ based toxins . The hypothesis further predicts that plants can change their defenses in response to changes in nutrients . For example , if plants are grown in low @-@ nitrogen conditions , then these plants will implement a defensive strategy composed of constitutive carbon @-@ based defenses . If nutrient levels subsequently increase , by for example the addition of fertilizers , these carbon @-@ based defenses will decrease . = = = Growth rate hypothesis = = = The growth rate hypothesis , also known as the resource availability hypothesis , states that defense strategies are determined by the inherent growth rate of the plant , which is in turn determined by the resources available to the plant . A major assumption is that available resources are the limiting factor in determining the maximum growth rate of a plant species . This model predicts that the level of defense investment will increase as the potential of growth decreases . Additionally , plants in resource @-@ poor areas , with inherently slow @-@ growth rates , tend to have long @-@ lived leaves and twigs , and the loss of plant appendages may result in a loss of scarce and valuable nutrients . A recent test of this model involved a reciprocal transplants of seedlings of 20 species of trees between clay soils ( nutrient rich ) and white sand ( nutrient poor ) to determine whether trade @-@ offs between growth rate and defenses restrict species to one habitat . When planted in white sand and protected from herbivores , seedlings originating from clay outgrew those originating from the nutrient @-@ poor sand , but in the presence of herbivores the seedlings originating from white sand performed better , likely due to their higher levels of constitutive carbon @-@ based defenses . These finding suggest that defensive strategies limit the habitats of some plants . = = = Growth @-@ differentiation balance hypothesis = = = The growth @-@ differentiation balance hypothesis states that plant defenses are a result of a tradeoff between " growth @-@ related processes " and " differentiation @-@ related processes " in different environments . Differentiation @-@ related processes are defined as " processes that enhance the structure or function of existing cells ( i.e. maturation and specialization ) . " A plant will produce chemical defenses only when energy is available from photosynthesis , and plants with the highest concentrations of secondary metabolites are the ones with an intermediate level of available resources . The GDBH also accounts for tradeoffs between growth and defense over a resource availability gradient . In situations where resources ( e.g. water and nutrients ) limit photosynthesis , carbon supply is predicted to limit both growth and defense . As resource availability increases , the requirements needed to support photosynthesis are met , allowing for accumulation of carbohydrate in tissues . As resources are not sufficient to meet the large demands of growth , these carbon compounds can instead be partitioned into the synthesis of carbon based secondary metabolites ( phenolics , tannins , etc . ) . In environments where the resource demands for growth are met , carbon is allocated to rapidly dividing meristems ( high sink strength ) at the expense of secondary metabolism . Thus rapidly growing plants are predicted to contain lower levels of secondary metabolites and vice versa . In addition , the tradeoff predicted by the GDBH may change over time , as evidenced by a recent study on Salix spp . Much support for this hypothesis is present in the literature , and some scientists consider the GDBH the most mature of the plant defense hypotheses . = = Importance to humans = = = = = Agriculture = = = The variation of plant susceptibility to pests was probably known even in the early stages of agriculture in humans . In historic times , the observation of such variations in susceptibility have provided solutions for major socio @-@ economic problems . The grape phylloxera was introduced from North America to France in 1860 and in 25 years it destroyed nearly a third ( 100 @,@ 000 km ² ) of the French grape yards . Charles Valentine Riley noted that the American species Vitis labrusca was resistant to Phylloxera . Riley , with J. E. Planchon , helped save the French wine industry by suggesting the grafting of the susceptible but high quality grapes onto Vitis labrusca root stocks . The formal study of plant resistance to herbivory was first covered extensively in 1951 by Reginald ( R.H. ) Painter , who is widely regarded as the founder of this area of research , in his book Plant Resistance to Insects . While this work pioneered further research in the US , the work of Chesnokov was the basis of further research in the USSR . Fresh growth of grass is sometimes high in prussic acid content and can cause poisoning of grazing livestock . The production of cyanogenic chemicals in grasses is primarily a defense against herbivores . The human innovation of cooking may have been particularly helpful in overcoming many of the defensive chemicals of plants . Many enzyme inhibitors in cereal grains and pulses , such as trypsin inhibitors prevalent in pulse crops , are denatured by cooking , making them digestible . It has been known since the late 17th century that plants contain noxious chemicals which are avoided by insects . These chemicals have been used by man as early insecticides ; in 1690 nicotine was extracted from tobacco and used as a contact insecticide . In 1773 , insect infested plants were treated with nicotine fumigation by heating tobacco and blowing the smoke over the plants . The flowers of Chrysanthemum species contain pyrethrin which is a potent insecticide . In later years , the applications of plant resistance became an important area of research in agriculture and plant breeding , particularly because they can serve as a safe and low @-@ cost alternative to the use of pesticides . The important role of secondary plant substances in plant defense was described in the late 1950s by Vincent Dethier and G.S. Fraenkel . The use of botanical pesticides is widespread and notable examples include Azadirachtin from the neem ( Azadirachta indica ) , d @-@ Limonene from Citrus species , Rotenone from Derris , Capsaicin from chili pepper and Pyrethrum . Natural materials found in the environment also induce plant resistance as well . Chitosan derived from chitin induce a plant 's natural defense response against pathogens , diseases and insects including cyst nematodes , both are approved as biopesticides by the EPA to reduce the dependence on toxic pesticides . The selective breeding of crop plants often involves selection against the plant 's intrinsic resistance strategies . This makes crop plant varieties particularly susceptible to pests unlike their wild relatives . In breeding for host @-@ plant resistance , it is often the wild relatives that provide the source of resistance genes . These genes are incorporated using conventional approaches to plant breeding , but have also been augmented by recombinant techniques , which allow introduction of genes from completely unrelated organisms . The most famous transgenic approach is the introduction of genes from the bacterial species , Bacillus thuringiensis , into plants . The bacterium produces proteins that , when ingested , kill lepidopteran caterpillars . The gene encoding for these highly toxic proteins , when introduced into the host plant genome , confers resistance against caterpillars , when the same toxic proteins are produced within the plant . This approach is controversial , however , due to the possibility of ecological and toxicological side effects . = = = Pharmaceutical = = = Many currently available pharmaceuticals are derived from the secondary metabolites plants use to protect themselves from herbivores , including opium , aspirin , cocaine , and atropine . These chemicals have evolved to affect the biochemistry of insects in very specific ways . However , many of these biochemical pathways are conserved in vertebrates , including humans , and the chemicals act on human biochemistry in ways similar to that of insects . It has therefore been suggested that the study of plant @-@ insect interactions may help in bioprospecting . There is evidence that humans began using plant alkaloids in medical preparations as early as 3000 B.C. Although the active components of most medicinal plants have been isolated only recently ( beginning in the early 19th century ) these substances have been used as drugs throughout the human history in potions , medicines , teas and as poisons . For example , to combat herbivory by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species , Cinchona trees produce a variety of alkaloids , the most familiar of which is quinine . Quinine is extremely bitter , making the bark of the tree quite unpalatable , it is also an anti @-@ fever agent , known as Jesuit 's bark , and is especially useful in treating malaria . Throughout history mandrakes ( Mandragora officinarum ) have been highly sought after for their reputed aphrodisiac properties . However , the roots of the mandrake plant also contain large quantities of the alkaloid scopolamine , which , at high doses , acts as a central nervous system depressant , and makes the plant highly toxic to herbivores . Scopolamine was later found to be medicinally used for pain management prior to and during labor ; in smaller doses it is used to prevent motion sickness . One of the most well @-@ known medicinally valuable terpenes is an anticancer drug , taxol , isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew , Taxus brevifolia , in the early 1960s . = = = Biological pest control = = = Repellent companion planting , defensive live fencing hedges , and " obstructive @-@ repellent " interplanting , with host @-@ plant resistance species as beneficial ' biological control agents ' is a technique in biological pest control programs for : organic gardening , wildlife gardening , sustainable gardening , and sustainable landscaping ; in organic farming and sustainable agriculture ; and in restoration ecology methods for habitat restoration projects . = = Further references = = Robert S. Fritz and Ellen L. Simms ( editors ) ( 1992 ) . Plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens : ecology , evolution , and genetics . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 26553 @-@ 6 . Hartley , Sue ( 2010 ) The 300 Million Years War : Plant Biomass v Herbivores Royal Institution Christmas Lecture . Howe , H. F. , and L. C. Westley . 1988 . Ecological relationships of plants and animals . Oxford University Press , Oxford , UK . Pierre Jolivet ( 1998 ) . Interrelationship Between Insects and Plants . Boca Raton : CRC . ISBN 1 @-@ 57444 @-@ 052 @-@ 7 . Richard Karban & Ian T. Baldwin ( 1997 ) . Induced responses to herbivory . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 42495 @-@ 2 . Martin R. Speight ; Mark D. Hunter ; Allan D. Watt ( 1999 ) . Ecology of insects : concepts and applications . Oxford : Blackwell Science . ISBN 0 @-@ 86542 @-@ 745 @-@ 3 . John N. Thompson ( 1994 ) . The coevolutionary process . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 79759 @-@ 7 . Wiens , D. ( 1978 ) . " Mimicry in plants " . Evolutionary Biology 11 : 365 – 403 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4615 @-@ 6956 @-@ 5 _ 6 .
= John Balchen = Admiral Sir John Balchen ( 2 February 1670 – 4 October 1744 ) ( sometimes written as Sir John Balchin ) was an officer of the British Royal Navy with a long and distinguished career during the late 17th and early 18th centuries . In the course of his service at sea , Balchen saw action in numerous battles against the French and Spanish navies across 60 years and three separate wars . He was twice captured by the French in action , both times being exonerated and commended for the defence of his ships against overwhelming odds . Balchen died in the shipwreck of the 100 @-@ gun first @-@ rate HMS Victory off the Casquets in the Channel Islands during operations to deter French blockading of Spanish and Portuguese ports during the War of the Austrian Succession . A capable and efficient officer , Balchen never found the wealth and prestige fellow officers secured in other commissions , a fact which remained a source of frustration to him until his elevation to knighthood shortly before his death . = = Nine Years ' War = = Balchen was born in February 1670 , the only surviving child of the yeoman gentleman , John Balchen , and his wife , Ann Edspur . Home educated , Balchen took a commission in the Royal Navy aged 15 and , seven years later , gained promotion to lieutenant . For most of this period Balchen was stationed in the West Indies and , during his service there , was lucky in his health ; the West Indies command was considered very dangerous during this period , mortality rates amongst sailors stationed there being very high due to malaria and yellow fever . The high death rate led to rapid promotion for those who survived , and Balchen was made Post Captain at the relatively young age of 27 during the Nine Years ' War . Balchen had spent the war aboard HMS Dragon and HMS Cambridge under Admiral John Neville , who was impressed enough with his subordinate to give him command of the prize ship HMS Virgin , the safe conduct of which to England earned him the step to captain . = = War of the Spanish Succession = = As with the majority of the Royal Navy , Balchen was placed in reserve at the war 's conclusion and returned to England to await further deployment . Whilst there , he married Susannah Apreece , daughter of an army colonel . The marriage produced six children , two of whom survived into adulthood ; Frances , who later married Temple West ( Vice Admiral Temple West ) and George , who followed his father into the Navy . In 1701 , Balchen was again at sea , commanding the small fireships HMS Firebrand and then HMS Vulcan with Sir George Rooke 's fleet off the Spanish coast at the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession . He was probably engaged during the Battle of Vigo Bay in 1702 , where Rooke 's fleet captured a Spanish treasure fleet and was instrumental in the capture of the 56 @-@ gun Modéré , which he went on to briefly command as HMS Modéré . In 1703 , Balchen was transferred to the 44 @-@ gun frigate HMS Adventure in the North Sea . This was an area of great importance to the British war effort due to the convoys carrying naval supplies from Scandinavia , which crossed it regularly . The commission , however , yielded few opportunities in the way of prize money . The next year , he was transferred to the 54 @-@ gun HMS Chester , with which he was dispatched to the West African Coast , a region considered almost as fatal as the West Indies . Surviving once again , Balchen remained in the Chester and was attached to the convoys bound for Portugal and Virginia . Balchen suffered his first defeat on 10 October 1707 . Leaving the safety of Portsmouth harbour , his convoy was ambushed by a French squadron under Forbin and Duguay @-@ Trouin , in what became the Battle at the Lizard . Although the dozen French warships were larger and stronger than the convoy escorts , Balchen took his ship into battle with the other warship captains . This action allowed the merchant convoy time to disperse and escape . The ensuing battle was one @-@ sided , with the French warships battering three English ships into submission over several hours , including Balchen 's command , which had been boarded by three French ships of the line . One British warship escaped , but HMS Devonshire exploded with the loss of nearly 900 lives . The French captured just 15 merchant ships from the hundreds in the convoy , as most made English ports before their pursuers could catch them . Briefly a prisoner in France , Balchen , as an officer , was allowed to return to England on parole , where a court martial exonerated him for the loss of his ship and commended him for a brave defence . In 1709 , he was formally exchanged for a French officer and returned to naval service , receiving command of the newly built 60 @-@ gun HMS Gloucester in August . Leaving Spithead on his first cruise in October , he had been at sea for just a few hours when Duguay @-@ Trouin again appeared with a squadron of five ships of the line . Unable to outrun his opponents , Balchen engaged the 74 @-@ gun flagship Lis before being forced to surrender after being dismasted and threatened with boarding . Balchen was exchanged almost immediately and the court martial , once again , exonerated him from all blame for the loss of his ship . He was rewarded for his bravery with command of HMS Colchester in 1710 , in which , on 9 November , Balchen secured his first prize , a 20 @-@ gun French privateer which he outran in a gale . In 1712 and 1713 , Balchen was in the Mediterranean under Sir John Jennings and returned home in 1713 for a period of unemployment on shore . With the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1715 , Balchen was returned to sea in the 40 @-@ gun frigate HMS Diamond , which he used in the suppression of piracy in the West Indies until 1716 . The same year , he received the shore position commanding the guardship HMS Orford in the Medway . = = War of the Quadruple Alliance = = In 1718 , war once again broke out and experienced officers were immediately given sea postings , Balchen in the 80 @-@ gun HMS Shrewsbury in the fleet of Sir George Byng . Arriving in the Mediterranean , Vice @-@ Admiral Charles Cornewall made Shrewsbury his flagship and Balchen his flag captain , a position which remained until December of that year . In July 1718 , Shrewsbury had been engaged at the Battle of Cape Passaro , at which a Spanish fleet had been comprehensively defeated ; Balchen 's first great naval action and his first major victory . In May 1719 , Balchen was given command of the 70 @-@ gun HMS Monmouth under Sir John Norris , and served in the Baltic and North Seas until 1722 . In 1722 , Balchen took over the guardship HMS Ipswich at Spithead and , in 1726 , returned to the Monmouth for further service in the Baltic under Norris and Sir Charles Wager . In 1727 Balchen was part of a mission to resupply besieged Gibraltar , although , by the time the fleet arrived , the siege had been broken . In 1728 , Balchen received promotion to Rear @-@ Admiral . In 1731 , after a period in command of the 60 @-@ gun HMS Dreadnought , Balchen took over the 80 @-@ gun HMS Princess Amelia and commanded her in support of a Spanish landing at Livorno . Balchen returned in December and , in 1734 , was promoted to Vice @-@ Admiral , spending the next five years at his estates in England . = = War of the Austrian Succession = = At the outbreak of the War of Jenkin 's Ear with Spain in 1739 , Balchen commanded a squadron of seven ships off the Spanish Atlantic Coast . Tasked with intercepting Spanish convoys , Balchen was almost caught by a superior Spanish squadron , which forced him to withdraw deeper into the Atlantic . For several weeks , this provoked rumours in Britain that his force had been destroyed , until he got word to the Admiralty of his hurried retreat . During the next two years , Balchen spent most of his time on convoy duty and came to resent younger and more active officers who made substantial fortunes from prize money . He confided to a friend in 1741 : " [ We ] have Nobody spoke of Now but Mr. Virnon ; he has all the Glory , and success pursues him . The West Indie people will be so Rich there wont be Roome for them to purchase Lands ; whilst I am forced to drudge from place to place for Nothing . " = = Loss of the Victory = = In March 1743 Balchen received the command of the Greenwich Naval Hospital and £ 600 per annum as a pension . Balchen chafed at being forced to remain ashore and was not pleased when he was forcibly retired in April 1744 , aged 74 . Two months later , however , Balchen was recalled up to the Admiralty . A fleet of 25 British and Dutch ships had been raised in a hurry to rescue a British squadron and convoy under Sir Charles Hardy , which had been trapped in the Tagus by a French Brest squadron . Due to a shortage of officers of sufficient experience and seniority to command a fleet of this kind , Balchen was called up at short notice and rewarded with a knighthood . Balchen 's fleet was successful in driving off the French , who retired in the face of his superior fleet without firing a shot , and Hardy 's convoy was escorted safely to Gibraltar . On the way to the Portuguese Coast , Balchen finally made his fortune in prize money , capturing six heavily laden French West Indiamen . On his return journey however , the fleet was sailing through the Western Approaches in early October when it was hit by a violent storm . Scattered across the Channel , they one by one returned to England in a battered and leaking condition until , a few days later , only HMS Victory was missing . Victory , Balchen 's flagship , was , at the time , one of the largest ships in the world , holding a broadside of 100 guns . She was also very new , having been completed less than seven years before . Frigates were dispatched across the English Channel to search for the missing battleship , which was last seen on the horizon on 4 October . Captain Thomas Grenville of the frigate HMS Falkland landed at Guernsey in the Channel Islands to reprovision and there heard from locals that wreckage and part of a topmast had washed up on the island 's shores . Further investigation proved that the wreckage had indeed come from the Victory , which was believed to have run into the Casquets , a group of rocks nearby . Other wreckage was washed up on Jersey and Alderney , whose inhabitants had heard distress guns the night before the wreck but were unable to provide aid in the severe storm . Of the 1 @,@ 150 sailors aboard Victory , none was ever recovered . ( In 2008 , the H.M.S. Victory was found approximately 100 km ( 62 miles ) from the Casquets . ) = = Legacy = = Balchen 's death was met with national mourning in Britain , where he was regarded as an expert and veteran commander of great talent in seamanship , tactics and ship construction . He was also very popular with sailors below decks , having fought for them in the Admiralty over issues such as allowing volunteer seamen to transfer ship when their captain did the same and giving trustworthy sailors shore visiting privileges . His widow was allowed a pension of £ 500 a year following her husband 's death and the consequent end of his income whilst his son George received a promotion to post captain . George , however , did not long outlive his father , dying of illness in Barbados the following year , aged only 28 . A large memorial to Balchen 's memory was raised in Westminster Abbey , where it can still be seen . The relief commemorates Balchen 's career , that of his son and also the men lost on the Victory in 1744 who have no other permanent memorial . Balchen is remembered in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as " a hard @-@ working , thoroughgoing professional , recognised for his readiness to accept duty whenever and wherever required . "
= Cyclone Keli = Severe Tropical Cyclone Keli ( NPMOC / JTWC Designation : 38P ) was the first recorded post @-@ season tropical cyclone to form in June within the South Pacific Ocean . The system formed on June 7 , 1997 , about 460 kilometers ( 285 mi ) to the north of Tokelau . The depression gradually developed over the next few days while moving southwestward . It was designated as Tropical Cyclone Keli early the next day . Cyclone Keli intensified , slowly reaching its 10 @-@ minute peak wind speeds of 150 km / h , ( 90 mph ) , which made it a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale . As it came under the influence of strong mid latitude westerlies and moved into an area of strong vertical wind shear , the cyclone started to weaken and was declared as extratropical on June 15 . Cyclone Keli struck the islands of Tuvalu on June 12 and 13 , with extensive damage reported throughout the Islands with trees uprooted by wind and waves . On Nivalakita all buildings except for the church were flattened ; an estimated cost to rebuild all of the houses as they were before the cyclone hit was estimated at A $ 12 thousand ( US $ 10 thousand ) , while it was estimated that the cost of rebuilding the houses with an improved , cyclone @-@ resistant design would be about A $ 84 thousand ( US $ 63 thousand ) . The whole of Tepuka Savilivili was left uninhabitable , as coconut trees and other vegetation were swept away with no more than an area of jagged coral left behind . In Fiji , strong winds and rough seas were reported from the cyclone as it was moving to the north of Fiji , and while the cyclone was weakening it dropped 3 @.@ 76 inches ( 95.5mm ) of rain on American Samoa . = = Meteorological history = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Keli was first noted as a depression , to the northeast of the New Zealand territory of Tokelau during June 7 , 1997 . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ west and gradually developed further , with the United States Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center ( NPMOC ) issuing a tropical cyclone formation alert for the system during June 9 . The NPMOC subsequently designated the system as Tropical Cyclone 38P and initiated advisories on the system early on June 10 , while the system was located about 475 km ( 295 mi ) to the east of Funafuti , Tuvalu . The system was subsequently named Keli by the Fiji Meteorological Service , after it had developed into a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . During that day the system continued to move south @-@ westwards , towards the island nation of Tuvalu and passed near or over the island of Niulakita during June 11 . After it the system had passed over Niulakita , Keli rapidly intensified in an area of light vertical wind shear , as it moved slowly and performed a small cyclonic loop . Early on June 12 , the FMS reported that Keli had peaked as a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . During that day the system started to weaken and came to within 65 km ( 40 mi ) of making a second landfall on Niulakita , before it accelerated south @-@ eastwards as it interacted with the Westerlies . The NPMOC also reported during that day that Keli had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) , which made it equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . During June 13 , the system continued to move south @-@ eastwards and passed about 50 km ( 30 mi ) to the southeast of Mata @-@ Utu in the island nation of Wallis and Futuna . Later that day Keli started to transition into an extratropical cyclone , during the following day the system passed within 200 km ( 125 mi ) of Apia , Samoa . During June 15 , the FMS reported that Keli had weakened into a tropical depression , while the NPMOC reported that it had degenerated into an extratropical cyclone . The system was subsequently last noted during June 17 , while it was located about 2 @,@ 140 km ( 1 @,@ 330 mi ) to the southeast of Adamstown in the Pitcairn Islands . = = Impact and aftermath = = Heavy rain was reported in American Samoa with a rainfall total , of 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) reported at Afono in American Samoa . The name Keli was retired after this usage of the name and was replaced with the name Kofi . = = = Tuvalu = = = Keli was the third and final tropical cyclone to impact Tuvalu during the 1996 @-@ 97 season , after Severe Tropical Cyclone 's Gavin and Hina affected the island nation during March 1997 . Ahead of the system impacting Tuvalu , storm and gale force wind warnings were issued for the islands of Niulakita and Nukulaelae , while a strong wind warning was issued for the rest of the group during June 10 . During that day the system moved south @-@ westwards and passed near or over Niulakita later that day , before it performed a cyclonic loop and passed within 65 km ( 40 mi ) of Niulakita during June 12 . As Cyclone Keli struck the islands of Tuvalu on June 12 and 13 , peak wind gusts of 165 km / h , ( 105 mph ) were reported , with extensive damage also reported throughout the Islands with trees uprooted by wind and waves . On Nivalakita all buildings except for the church were flattened with an estimated cost to rebuild the houses exactly as they were was estimated at A $ 12 @,@ 000 ( US $ 10 @,@ 000 1997 ) , while it was estimated that the cost of rebuilding the houses with an improved , cyclone @-@ resistant design would be about A $ 84 @,@ 000 ( 63 @,@ 000 USD 1997 ) . Also on Nivalakita communications were cut with the telephone operator having to resort to sending a Morse code message , however as the storm re @-@ curved and re @-@ hit Tuvalu on June 14 , it silenced the weak radio telegraph system . In Tepuka Savilivili the whole island was left uninhabitable as coconut trees and other vegetation were swept away with no more than an area of jagged coral left behind . With effect from June 12 , a state of public emergency was declared for the whole of Tuvalu , by the then Governor @-@ General of Tuvalu , Sir Tulaga Manuella . This was because there was only a limited amount of food available on Funafuti to cater for the whole of the island nation , while providing Niulakita with immediate relief supplies . This enabled the Tuvaluan embassy in Suva , Fiji to appeal to various overseas countries and organisations including Australia , New Zealand , the United Kingdom and the United Nations Development Programme to provide aid and assistance to the island nation . During June 14 , the Royal New Zealand Air Force deployed a transport plane carrying some relief materials including tarpaulins and water from New Zealand . The plane subsequently stopped in Noumea , New Caledonia and Nadi , Fiji to pick up further relief supplies that had been donated by Australia , Fiji and France . The crew of the plane subsequently conducted an aerial assessment of the damage on Niulakita , and reported seeing widespread damage , before they arrived at Funafuti Airport during June 15 . = = = Wallis and Futuna = = = Cyclone Keli was the third out of four tropical cyclones to impact the French Territory of Wallis and Futuna during a ten @-@ month period , after Cyclones Gavin and Hina had affected the island during March 1997 . There was almost no damage recorded in the archipeligo from Keli , while rainfall totals of 171 @.@ 6 mm ( 6 @.@ 76 in ) and 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) were recorded at Hihifo and Aka 'aka on Wallis during June 11 . Wind gusts of up to 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) were recorded at Maopoopo on Futuna island during July 13 . = = = Tonga = = = Keli was the second of three tropical cyclones to affect Tonga during a ten @-@ month period , with Cyclones Hina and Ron affecting the island nation during March 1997 and January 1998 . Ahead of the system impacting Tonga , the FMS issued cyclone warnings for the Niuas and strong wind warnings for the rest of Tonga . As a result of the warnings a vessel that was heading to the island group had to be recalled , which was predicted to affect supplies on the islands when it was likely to be most needed . During June 13 , Keli caused some damage to the islands with plantations , breadfruit trees and other large trees devastated . The strong winds also destroyed several residences while causing damage to public buildings .
= Joseph H. Allen = Joseph H. Allen ( September 5 , 1821 – April 24 , 1884 ) was an industrial businessman , an officer in the Civil War , and a town supervisor of Brunswick , New York . Allen was born in Alburg , Vermont , to parents of British descent and left home at an early age . After several business ventures , he became successful in the auger and hoe business , selling mainly to the American South . He successfully ran for supervisor of the Town of Brunswick in 1856 and justice of the peace in 1861 . At the beginning of the Civil War , his sales plummeted so he closed his business and enlisted in the Union Army . Allen was wounded multiple times during his service and ended his career at the rank of lieutenant colonel . He returned home to reopen his factory , which was instrumental to the industrial success of the hamlet of Eagle Mills in the mid to late 19th century . He died in 1884 at the age of 62 . = = Early life = = Allen was the son of John and Sarah Allen . His father was a native of Connecticut and of English origin , and his mother was originally from Vermont and of Scottish descent . He left home when he was eight years old " to carve out a fortune for himself " , as Sylvester put it in his History of Rensselaer County , New York . He began work in an auger factory in Hamden , Connecticut , at an early age and continued until he was seventeen years old . At that time , he purchased a clock store , which he traded for horses in Vermont and Canada . He shipped his horses to the West Indies , but the ship was wrecked and his horses were lost , thus placing him badly in debt . However , he soon obtained credit , and again shipped a number of horses to the West Indies , this time successfully , enabling him to pay all his debts and even earning him a profit . = = Before the war = = Allen soon resumed his place in the auger factory in Connecticut , where he remained until September 1 , 1843 , when he moved to Troy , New York . There he entered into partnership with O. W. Edson in manufacturing augers . The partnership continued until the following January when Allen purchased his partner ’ s share and continued in this business until the factory burned down in 1850 . In January 1851 , Allen purchased the Eagle flour mills , an historically important industrial building in the area , which eventually gave the hamlet of Eagle Mills its name . The factory had a long history of failed business attempts . It was built in 1821 by Daniel Sheldon to mill flour using wheat supplied from Troy . After brief success , the business closed and the building sat idle . It was sold to James Bumstead who reopened the building as a feed mill . He too had troubles and sold the building to James McChesney , who kept the building idle for some time before transferring the property to Catlin and Saxton , who began the manufacture of augers and bits . Also unsuccessful , Catlin and Saxton abandoned the business and James McChesney ( whose name was still on the deed ) sold the property to Groome and Shattuck , who began manufacturing monkey wrenches . This too failed and the property was sold to Paul Smith , a miller from nearby Cropseyville , who sold the property to Allen in 1851 because Smith later decided that he preferred to keep his mills consolidated in Cropseyville . The factory was located on the rocky banks of the Poesten Kill , a creek that was commonly used for water power in the area . Allen had two new buildings erected and funneled creek water to them through tunnels in the bedrock underneath the buildings . He named his enterprise the Millville Manufacturing Company and converted the mill into an auger and bit factory . At one point , he experimented with producing cable chains and files , as well . But the company soon ran into legal difficulties and was dissolved . Allen reopened the company in 1859 , having added machinery for the manufacture of hoes , and opened a retail store on site . He found a successful market in the South , where demand was high . His company , newly named the Planters ' Hoe Company , was a considerable success . However , as the nation came closer to civil war , demand dropped and sales in the South became impossible . The factory was closed in 1861 , not only due to poor sales , but because Allen enlisted in the Union Army . = = Public and armed service = = Allen 's presence was noticeable within Brunswick . In March 1853 , he presided over a meeting to incorporate the " Church of the Disciples of Christ at the village of Millville " , now known simply as Church of the Disciples of Christ . That summer , a church building was erected at a cost of about $ 1 @,@ 200 . In 1856 Allen became the supervisor of Brunswick , a position he was reelected to once and held until 1857 ; he ran as a Whig . He was also elected justice of the peace in 1861 , but he did not finish his term because he decided to serve in the Civil War ; this time he ran as a Democrat , and remained one for the rest of his life . In early 1862 , the 125th Volunteer Infantry Regiment had been put together in Brunswick and a call by President Lincoln for more troops was answered by Allen that September . He enlisted in Company C of the 169th New York Volunteer Infantry and was chosen captain , having organized the company within six days . Most of the infantrymen came from Brunswick , though some came from surrounding towns . Residents of the town raised the money necessary to cover various " bounties and expenses " incurred by Allen 's soldiers while en route to war . Allen participated in all the battles in which his regiment took part except a few minor ones , due to wounds he received in battle . During the Battle of Cold Harbor , the bones in his wrist were shattered , and he later incurred a flesh wound in the same wrist at the First Battle of Fort Fisher . He was also wounded in the leg near his ankle at Fort Fisher ; the musket ball remained there until his death . While recovering from injuries , he was reassigned to New York to recruit new soldiers . He was promoted to the rank of major in June 1864 , and , for " meritorious conduct " at Fort Fisher , he was recommended for promotion by President Lincoln and brevetted lieutenant colonel on March 13 , 1865 . = = Post war and personal life = = Allen returned to Brunswick after the war and reopened the Planters ' Hoe Company in association with George T. Lane . He ended the production of augers , which still made up a small percentage of production even after closing Millville Manufacturing . Allen put himself in charge of manufacturing and sales and he again secured a solid market share in the South . A prosperous trade resumed and was still strong at least until the 1880s . The company eventually expanded and began manufacturing lighter common hoes for the general public , adding to its heavy southern @-@ style line of hoes . The Planters ' Hoe Company was still a success as late as the 1890s , but it was extinct by the 1920s . In addition to holding the offices of justice of the peace and town supervisor , it is also said that Allen was one of the foremost supporters of education in the town . On July 6 , 1847 , he married Sarah H. Payne , daughter of David H. and Catharine C. Payne , of Hamden , Connecticut . The couple had two children : Sarah and Cornelia May . Allen died on April 24 , 1884 , and is buried in Eagle Mills Cemetery on Brunswick Road in Eagle Mills ; his wife died in 1907 and is buried next to him . Based on insignia carved on his gravestone ( specifically the Square and Compasses ) , Allen was a Mason .
= Global dimming = Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 – 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming . = = Causes and effects = = It is thought that global dimming is probably due to the increased presence of aerosol particles in the atmosphere caused by human action . Aerosols and other particulates absorb solar energy and reflect sunlight back into space . The pollutants can also become nuclei for cloud droplets . Water droplets in clouds coalesce around the particles . Increased pollution causes more particulates and thereby creates clouds consisting of a greater number of smaller droplets ( that is , the same amount of water is spread over more droplets ) . The smaller droplets make clouds more reflective , so that more incoming sunlight is reflected back into space and less reaches the Earth 's surface . This same effect also reflects radiation from below , trapping it in the lower atmosphere . In models , these smaller droplets also decrease rainfall . Clouds intercept both heat from the sun and heat radiated from the Earth . Their effects are complex and vary in time , location , and altitude . Usually during the daytime the interception of sunlight predominates , giving a cooling effect ; however , at night the re @-@ radiation of heat to the Earth slows the Earth 's heat loss , this causes storms and subsequent flood rains and flooding . = = Research = = In the late @-@ 1960s , Mikhail Ivanovich Budyko worked with simple two @-@ dimensional energy @-@ balance climate models to investigate the reflectivity of ice . He found that the ice @-@ albedo feedback created a positive feedback loop in the Earth 's climate system . The more snow and ice , the more solar radiation is reflected back into space and hence the colder Earth grows and the more it snows . Other studies found that pollution or a volcano eruption could provoke the onset of an ice age . In the mid @-@ 1980s , Atsumu Ohmura , a geography researcher at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology , found that solar radiation striking the Earth 's surface had declined by more than 10 % over the three previous decades . His findings appeared to contradict global warming — the global temperature had been generally rising since the 70s . Less light reaching the earth seemed to mean that it should cool . Ohmura published his findings " Secular variation of global radiation in Europe " in 1989 . This was soon followed by others : Viivi Russak in 1990 " Trends of solar radiation , cloudiness and atmospheric transparency during recent decades in Estonia " , and Beate Liepert in 1994 " Solar radiation in Germany — Observed trends and an assessment of their causes " . Dimming has also been observed in sites all over the former Soviet Union . Gerry Stanhill who studied these declines worldwide in many papers ( see references ) coined the term " global dimming " . Independent research in Israel and the Netherlands in the late 1980s showed an apparent reduction in the amount of sunlight , despite widespread evidence that the climate was becoming hotter . The rate of dimming varies around the world but is on average estimated at around 2 – 3 % per decade . The trend reversed in the early 1990s . It is difficult to make a precise measurement , due to the difficulty in accurately calibrating the instruments used , and the problem of spatial coverage . Nonetheless , the effect is almost certainly present . The effect ( 2 – 3 % , as above ) is due to changes within the Earth 's atmosphere ; the value of the solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere has not changed by more than a fraction of this amount . The effect varies greatly over the planet , but estimates of the terrestrial surface average value are : 5 @.@ 3 % ( 9 W / m ² ) ; over 1958 – 85 ( Stanhill and Moreshet , 1992 ) 2 % / decade over 1964 – 93 ( Gilgen et al . , 1998 ) 2 @.@ 7 % / decade ( total 20 W / m ² ) ; up to 2000 ( Stanhill and Cohen , 2001 ) 4 % over 1961 – 90 ( Liepert 2002 ) Note that these numbers are for the terrestrial surface and not really a global average . Whether dimming ( or brightening ) occurred over the ocean has been a bit of an unknown though a specific measurement ( see below , Causes ) measured effects some 400 miles ( 643 @.@ 7 km ) from India over the Indian Ocean towards the Maldives Islands . Regional effects probably dominate but are not strictly confined to the land area , and the effects will be driven by regional air circulation . A 2009 review by Wild et al. found that widespread variation in regional and time effects . There was solar brightening beyond 2000 at numerous stations in Europe , the United States , and Korea . The brightening seen at sites in Antarctica during the 1990s , influenced by recovering from the Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption in 1991 , fades after 2000 . The brightening tendency also seems to level off at sites in Japan . In China there is some indication for a renewed dimming , after the stabilization in the 1990s . A continuation of the long @-@ lasting dimming is also noted at the sites in India . Overall , the available data suggest continuation of the brightening beyond the year 2000 at numerous locations , yet less pronounced and coherent than during the 1990s , with more regions with no clear changes or declines . Therefore , globally , greenhouse warming after 2000 may be less modulated by surface solar variations than in prior decades . The largest reductions are found in the northern hemisphere mid @-@ latitudes . Visible light and infrared radiation seem to be most affected rather than the ultraviolet part of the spectrum . = = Pan evaporation data = = Over the last 50 or so years , pan evaporation has been carefully monitored . For decades , nobody took much notice of the pan evaporation measurements . But in the 1990s in Europe , Israel , and North America , scientists spotted something that at the time was considered very strange : the rate of evaporation was falling although they had expected it to increase due to global warming . The same trend has been observed in China over a similar period . A decrease in solar irradiance is cited as the driving force . However , unlike in other areas of the world , in China the decrease in solar irradiance was not always accompanied by an increase in cloud cover and precipitation . It is believed that aerosols may play a critical role in the decrease of solar irradiance in China . BBC Horizon producer David Sington believes that many climate scientists regard the pan @-@ evaporation data as the most convincing evidence of solar dimming . Pan evaporation experiments are easy to reproduce with low @-@ cost equipment . There are many pans used for agriculture all over the world and in many instances the data have been collected for nearly a half century . However , pan evaporation depends on factors besides net radiation from the sun . The other two major factors are vapor pressure deficit and wind speed . The ambient temperature turns out to be a negligible factor . The pan evaporation data corroborates the data gathered by radiometer and fills in the gaps in the data obtained using pyranometers . With adjustments to these factors , pan evaporation data has been compared to results of climate simulations . = = Probable causes = = The incomplete combustion of fossil fuels ( such as diesel ) and wood releases black carbon into the air . Though black carbon , most of which is soot , is an extremely small component of air pollution at land surface levels , the phenomenon has a significant heating effect on the atmosphere at altitudes above two kilometers ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) . Also , it dims the surface of the ocean by absorbing solar radiation . Experiments in the Maldives ( comparing the atmosphere over the northern and southern islands ) in the 1990s showed that the effect of macroscopic pollutants in the atmosphere at that time ( blown south from India ) caused about a 10 % reduction in sunlight reaching the surface in the area under the pollution cloud — a much greater reduction than expected from the presence of the particles themselves . Prior to the research being undertaken , predictions were of a 0 @.@ 5 – 1 % effect from particulate matter ; the variation from prediction may be explained by cloud formation with the particles acting as the focus for droplet creation . Clouds are very effective at reflecting light back out into space . The phenomenon underlying global dimming may also have regional effects . While most of the earth has warmed , the regions that are downwind from major sources of air pollution ( specifically sulfur dioxide emissions ) have generally cooled . This may explain the cooling of the eastern United States relative to the warming western part . However some research shows that black carbon will increase global warming , being second only to CO2 . They believe that soot will absorb solar energy and transport it to other areas such as the Himalayas where glacial melting occurs . It can also darken Arctic ice reducing reflectivity and increasing absorption of solar radiation . Some climate scientists have theorized that aircraft contrails ( also called vapor trails ) are implicated in global dimming , but the constant flow of air traffic previously meant that this could not be tested . The near @-@ total shutdown of civil air traffic during the three days following the September 11 , 2001 attacks afforded a unique opportunity in which to observe the climate of the United States absent from the effect of contrails . During this period , an increase in diurnal temperature variation of over 1 ° C ( 1 @.@ 8 ° F ) was observed in some parts of the U.S. , i.e. aircraft contrails may have been raising nighttime temperatures and / or lowering daytime temperatures by much more than previously thought . Airborne volcanic ash can reflect the Sun 's rays back into space and thereby contribute to cooling the planet . Dips in earth temperatures have been observed after large volcano eruptions such as Mount Agung in Bali that erupted in 1963 , El Chichon ( Mexico ) 1983 , Ruiz ( Colombia ) 1985 , and Pinatubo ( Philippines ) 1991 . But even for major eruptions , the ash clouds remain only for relatively short periods . = = Recent reversal of the trend = = Wild et al . , using measurements over land , report brightening since 1990 , and Pinker et al. found that slight dimming continued over land while brightening occurred over the ocean . Hence , over the land surface , Wild et al. and Pinker et al. disagree . A 2007 NASA sponsored satellite @-@ based study sheds light on the puzzling observations by other scientists that the amount of sunlight reaching Earth 's surface had been steadily declining in recent decades , began to reverse around 1990 . This switch from a " global dimming " trend to a " brightening " trend happened just as global aerosol levels started to decline . It is likely that at least some of this change , particularly over Europe , is due to decreases in airborne pollution . Most governments of developed nations have taken steps to reduce aerosols released into the atmosphere , which helps reduce global dimming . Sulfate aerosols have declined significantly since 1970 with the Clean Air Act in the United States and similar policies in Europe . The Clean Air Act was strengthened in 1977 and 1990 . According to the EPA , from 1970 to 2005 , total emissions of the six principal air pollutants , including PM ’ s , dropped by 53 % in the US . In 1975 , the masked effects of trapped greenhouse gases finally started to emerge and have dominated ever since . The Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) has been collecting surface measurements . BSRN was started in the early 1990s and updated the archives in this time . Analysis of recent data reveals that the surface of the planet has brightened by about 4 % in the past decade . The brightening trend is corroborated by other data , including satellite analyses . = = Relationship to hydrological cycle = = Pollution produced by humans may be seriously weakening the Earth 's water cycle — reducing rainfall and threatening fresh water supplies . A 2001 study by researchers at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography suggests that tiny particles of soot and other pollutants have a significant effect on the hydrological cycle . According to Veerabhadran Ramanathan , " the energy for the hydrological cycle comes from sunlight . As sunlight heats the ocean , water escapes into the atmosphere and falls out as rain . So as aerosols cut down sunlight by large amounts , they may be spinning down the hydrological cycle of the planet . " Large scale changes in weather patterns may also have been caused by global dimming . Climate modelers speculatively suggest that this reduction in solar radiation at the surface may have led to the failure of the monsoon in sub @-@ Saharan Africa during the 1970s and 1980s , together with the associated famines such as the Sahel drought , caused by Northern hemisphere pollution cooling the Atlantic . Because of this , the Tropical rain belt may not have risen to its northern latitudes , thus causing an absence of seasonal rains . This claim is not universally accepted and is very difficult to test . However a 2009 Chinese study of 50 years of continuous data found that , though most parts of eastern China saw no significant change in the amount of water held by the atmosphere , light rains had decreased . The researchers then modeled the effect of aerosols and also concluded the overall effect was that water drops in polluted cases are up to 50 percent smaller than in pristine skies . They concluded smaller size impedes the formation of rain clouds , and the falling of light rain is beneficial for agriculture . This was a different effect than reducing solar irradiance , but still a direct result from the presence of aerosols . The 2001 study by researchers at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography concluded that the imbalance between global dimming and global warming at the surface leads to weaker turbulent heat fluxes to the atmosphere . This means globally reduced evaporation and hence precipitation occur in a dimmer and warmer world , which could ultimately lead to a more humid atmosphere in which it rains less . A natural form of large scale environmental shading / dimming has been identified that affected the 2006 northern hemisphere hurricane season . The NASA study found that several major dust storms in June and July in the Sahara desert sent dust drifting over the Atlantic Ocean and through several effects caused cooling of the waters , thus dampening the development of hurricanes . = = Relationship to global warming = = Some scientists now consider that the effects of global dimming have masked the effect of global warming to some extent and that resolving global dimming may therefore lead to increases in predictions of future temperature rise . According to Beate Liepert , " We lived in a global warming plus a global dimming world and now we are taking out global dimming . So we end up with the global warming world , which will be much worse than we thought it will be , much hotter . " The magnitude of this masking effect is one of the central problems in climate change with significant implications for future climate changes and policy responses to global warming . Interactions between the two theories for climate modification have also been studied , as global warming and global dimming are neither mutually exclusive nor contradictory . In a paper published on March 8 , 2005 in the American Geophysical Union 's Geophysical Research Letters , a research team led by Anastasia Romanou of Columbia University 's Department of Applied Physics and Mathematics , New York , also showed that the apparently opposing forces of global warming and global dimming can occur at the same time . Global dimming interacts with global warming by blocking sunlight that would otherwise cause evaporation and the particulates bind to water droplets . Water vapor is the major greenhouse gas . On the other hand , global dimming is affected by evaporation and rain . Rain has the effect of clearing out polluted skies . Brown clouds have been found to amplify global warming according to Veerabhadran Ramanathan , an atmospheric chemist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla , CA . " The conventional thinking is that brown clouds have masked as much as 50 percent of global warming by greenhouse gases through so @-@ called global dimming ... While this is true globally , this study reveals that over southern and eastern Asia , the soot particles in the brown clouds are in fact amplifying the atmospheric warming trend caused by greenhouse gases by as much as 50 percent . " = = Possible use to mitigate global warming = = Some scientists have suggested using aerosols to stave off the effects of global warming as an emergency geoengineering measure . In 1974 , Mikhail Budyko suggested that if global warming became a problem , the planet could be cooled by burning sulfur in the stratosphere , which would create a haze . An increase in planetary albedo of just 0 @.@ 5 percent is sufficient to halve the effect of a CO2 doubling . The simplest solution would be to simply emit more sulfates , which would end up in troposphere - the lowest part of the atmosphere . If this were done , Earth would still face many problems , such as : Using sulfates causes environmental problems such as acid rain Using carbon black causes human health problems Dimming causes ecological problems such as changes in evaporation and rainfall patterns Droughts and / or increased rainfall cause problems for agriculture Aerosol has a relatively short lifetime The solution advocated is transporting sulfates into the next higher layer of the atmosphere - stratosphere . Aerosols in the stratosphere last years instead of weeks - so only a relatively smaller ( though still large ) amount of sulfate emissions would be necessary , and side effects would be less . This would require developing an efficient way to transport large amounts of gases into stratosphere , many of which have been proposed though none are known to be effective or economically viable . In a blog post , Gavin Schmidt stated that " Ideas that we should increase aerosol emissions to counteract global warming have been described as a ' Faustian bargain ' because that would imply an ever increasing amount of emissions in order to match the accumulated greenhouse gas in the atmosphere , with ever increasing monetary and health costs . "
= Battle of Baia = The Battle of Baia ( Romanian : Bătălia de la Baia ) was fought on 15 December 1467 between the Moldavian Prince , Stephen the Great and Hungarian King , Matthias Corvinus . The battle was the last Hungarian attempt to subdue the independent Moldavia , as previous attempts had ended in failure . Corvinus invaded Moldavia as a consequence of Stephen 's annexation of Chilia — a fortress and harbour at the coast of the Black Sea , which at the time was controlled by Hungarian and Wallachian forces , though it had belonged to Moldavia centuries earlier . The conflict ended with a bitter defeat for the Hungarians . This put an end to all Hungarian claims on Moldavia . = = Background = = In 1359 , Bogdan I of Moldavia rebelled against Hungary and founded an independent Moldavia . However , the Hungarian attempts to seize control over Moldavia did not end there , and in 1429 , Sigismund , Holy Roman Emperor , and also King of Hungary , met with Władysław Jagiełło , King of Poland to try to persuade him to launch a common attack on Moldavia and divide the country in two equal parts — Polish and Hungarian . Sigismund argued that the Moldavian nation did not " owe allegiance to anyone , is accustomed to live by theft and brigandage and so is everyone 's enemy . " He also complained about not receiving any help for his struggle against the Turks . In the Annals of Jan Długosz , the Polish chronicler wrote the following on Władysław ’ s reply to Sigismund : Wladislaw replies that it would not be right to wage war on the Wallachians , who confess the Christian faith and have given him and his kingdom obedience and submission ; indeed , to do this would be an act of savagery . Though some may live by brigandage , they cannot all be tarred with the same brush , nor can they be blamed for not helping King Sigismund against the Turks , because they had gone with the Poles to the given rendez @-@ vous on the Danube and got there on time , yet had to waste two months waiting there , and then return home . Rather does the blame for this attach to King Sigismund , who failed to turn up at the appointed time . The squabbling continues for several days , at the end of which Wladyslaw stubbornness compels Sigismund to abandon the plan and seek other ventures . In 1442 , Hungary again had to renounce its claims on Moldavia . On 17 October 1451 , Prince Bogdan II was assassinated by Petru Aron , a pretender to the Moldavian throne . The country was thrown into civil strife which lasted until 1457 , when Stephen , son of Bogdan , gained the throne and ousted the boyars loyal to Aron . The latter fled to Poland , but was later forced to seek asylum in Transylvania , after Moldavia and Poland concluded a new treaty . Stephen ’ s objective was to regain the region of Budjak with the castles of Chilia and Cetatea Albă . The region had previously belonged to Wallachia , but had been incorporated into Moldavia in the late 14th century . Due to the decline of Moldavia during the civil war , the region reverted to Wallachia , with Chilia being co @-@ ruled by Hungary and Wallachia . = = = Foreign relations = = = In 1462 , Stephen sent a letter to his cousin , Prince Vlad III Dracula of Wallachia , asking him to return Chilia back to Moldavia — a demand that was most likely refused . On 22 June , when Vlad was fighting Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire , Stephen launched an attack on Chilia , with some Turkish assistance , with the objective of capturing the fortress . The Wallachians rushed to the scene with 7 @,@ 000 men , and together with the Hungarian garrison , battled the Moldavians and the Turks for eight days . The Turks were defeated and Stephen was wounded by a piece of shrapnel — an injury which would hasten his death . In 1465 , when Dracula was imprisoned in Hungary , Stephen again advanced towards Chilia with a large force and siege weapons ; but instead of besieging the fortress , he showed the garrison , who favoured the Polish King , a letter in which the King requires them to surrender the fortress . The garrison complied with the King 's demand and Stephen entered the fortress escorted by Polish troops where he found “ its two captains , rather tipsy , for they have been to a wedding . ” Mehmed was furious about the news and claimed Chilia as being a part of Wallachia , which now was a vassal to the Porte , and demanded Stephen relinquish ownership . However , Stephen refused and recruited an army , forcing Mehmed , who was not yet ready to wage war , to accept the situation , if only for the time being . Długosz recalls that in the beginning of his reign , Stephen reformed his army by extending rights for men to bear arms : This Stephen 's rule has been so strict and just that no crime has gone unpunished and people now obey his every order . He has insisted that not only the knights and nobility should bear arms , but that farmers and villagers do so as well , for everyone has a duty to defend his fatherland . If the Voivode learns that a farmer does not have a bow , arrows and a sword , or has mustered without a spear , the culprit is condemned to death . In 1466 , Stephen regained Khotyn from Poland in a diplomatic victory , but in the same year , Corvinus became on bad terms with King Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland , which frustrated the Hungarian king further , knowing that Moldavia was a Polish fief . One year later , in 1467 , the locals of Transylvania started an uprising in which Corvinus had a difficult time quelling the riots . He later found out that Stephen had supported the rioters , — probably in order to find and kill Aron . Długosz writes in his ‘ ’ Annals ’ ’ that in 1467 , a certain " Berendeja " went to the court of Corvinus and promised to make Moldavia his vassal , if the King would in turn make him Prince of Moldavia . This was denounced by Romanian historian Nicolae Iorga , who argued that Corvinus started recruiting troops and took Aron with him to put him on the Moldavian throne . This is disputed by Długosz though , who in ‘ ’ Historiae Polonicae ’ ’ , adds that Corvinus brought with him both Aron and Berendeja , making unknown whom the king considered more worthy of the Moldavian throne . = = = Preparations for war = = = The Hungarians recruited an army of 40 @,@ 000 , many drawn locally from Transylvania . Many knights and Hungarian aristocrats followed , one of them being Stefan Báthory . With them , they brought 500 cannons and other heavy siege equipment . The Moldavians , being fewer in number and seeing that the Hungarians were determined to wage war , started to evacuate the population close to the Hungarian border and blockaded the passages by cutting down trees and placing them on the roads . = = Battle = = The Hungarians departed in the middle of October and reached the realm of Moldavia at the beginning of November , using a passage near Bacău . On 19 November , the Hungarians arrived at the Trotuș River where they met some Moldavian resistance , but Corvinus , to ensure the " loyalty of his troops , avoids a pitched battle and limits his efforts to surprise attacks and ambushes , yet is himself prevented from foraging or doing further damage . " The town was destroyed and the Hungarians headed for Bacău , which they also burned down ; then they continued to Roman and stayed there between 29 November and 7 December . According to a chronicle , Stephen sent envoys to negotiate a peace treaty , but the two factions could not agree and the war continued . Roman was put to flames and the Hungarians killed everyone they encountered , “ without considering their sex , age , or looks . ” After three days of marching and more pillaging , they reached Baia where Corvinus met with a Hungarian by the name of Sythotus , who revealed to him the Moldavian position , their numbers ( 12 @,@ 000 ) , and their plan to attack before dusk . The Moldavians were encamped further north , between Moldova River and Șomuz creek . Corvinus ordered the city to be fortified with “ ramparts , ditches and a ring of wagons , ” as the men were told to be prepared for battle and guards were sent to guard strategic points . A peculiar report mentions that Stephen himself was captured by the Hungarians on 14 December , but that he managed to trick them into releasing him . On 15 December , when dusk was approaching , Stephen sent smaller detachments that set the town on fire from three different places : thereafter , noise and confusion set in . Stephen ordered his men to dismount and soon after they launched their attack and made battle until dawn . Descriptions of the battle say that the fire made the night equally light as the day and that many Hungarians were consumed by the flames . The two armies started to butcher each other at the gate of the city ; then the fighting continued onto the streets " with such a wrath , that nothing could be seen as more horrible than this . " The Moldavians got the upper hand of the battle and launched another attack against the royal guard , which consisted of 200 heavily armed knights , the aristocrats and Corvinus . Many Moldavians were killed in the tumult that followed , as Báthory and the rest of the knights tried to defend the entrance to the market . Corvinus was wounded by three arrows in the back and had to be “ carried from the battlefield on a stretcher , to avoid him falling into the hands of the enemy . ” The retreating Hungarian army , on its way to Transylvania , was stopped by a blockade ; there they decided to bury the 500 cannons and other treasures , so the Moldavians would not be able to capture them . According to Długosz , Corvinus escaped the Moldavians due to the assistance of another Vlach ( Romanian ) , whom Stephen found and had executed because of treachery . The Moldavian @-@ German Chronicles say that someone named Isaia failed to launch the cavalry attack which would have blocked the path for the Hungarian retreat ; for this , he and others were later executed . Around 10 @,@ 000 Hungarians were said to have been killed ; most of the barons escaped with their king . A Hungarian chronicle mentions 7 @,@ 000 casualties for the Moldavians . This chronicle is disputed though , due to it being the only one mentioning the Moldavian casualties in numbers ; and because the Hungarians did not have the opportunity to calculate the numbers of their fallen enemy . The entire conflict , with the Hungarian invasion and retreat , took around forty days . = = Aftermath = = Some of the Hungarian standards that were captured came with a " huge booty of tents , waggons and guns , " which were sent to Casimir as proof of Stephen 's victory . Upon his return to Brașov on Christmas day , Corvinus took revenge on the people who had rebelled against him by torturing them to death ; thereafter he fined the Transylvanians a sum of 400 @,@ 000 florins , which they had to pay immediately , in gold . With this money he raised an army of foreign mercenaries , which would prove more loyal to him . In 1468 , Stephen campaigned in Transylvania , found Aron and had him executed . Stephen and Corvinus would later negotiate a peace treaty and become allies ; in 1475 , Corvinus sent 1 @,@ 800 soldiers that assisted Stephen in his victory at the Battle of Vaslui .
= New Zealand place names = Most New Zealand place @-@ names are derived from Māori and British sources . Both groups used names to commemorate notable people , events , places from their homeland , and their ships , or to describe the surrounding area . The Māori did not have a collective name for New Zealand before European arrival , but post @-@ colonisation the name Aotearoa ( commonly translated as ' long white cloud ' ) was used to refer to the whole country . Dutch cartographers named the islands Nova Zeelandia and British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand . Many of the early Māori names were replaced by Europeans during the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Government amendments in 1894 and the establishment of the New Zealand Geographic Board in the mid @-@ 1940s led to the encouragement of original Māori names , although incorrect spellings and pronunciations persisted . Many names now have alternative or dual English and Māori names or , in a few rare cases , dual Māori names or dual English names . Most names have never been made official , but if they are mentioned in authoritative publications they are considered recorded names . Colloquial names in New Zealand result from an ironic view of the place 's entertainment value , or plays on advertising mottos , or are shortened versions of the full name . Some places tried to capitalise on the success of the The Lord of the Rings films by linking themselves to the movies . = = Country and main islands = = No known pre @-@ contact Māori name for New Zealand as a whole survives , although the Māori had several names for the North and South Islands ; including Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui ( the fish of Māui ) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu ( the waters of greenstone ) or Te Waka o Aoraki ( the canoe of Aoraki ) for the South Island . Until the early 20th century , Māori also referred to the North Island as Aotearoa , ( commonly translated as ' long white cloud ' ) ; in modern Māori usage this has become the name for the whole country . The first European visitor to New Zealand , Dutch explorer Abel Tasman , named the islands Staten Landt , believing it formed part of the land which Jacob Le Maire had seen off the coast of Tierra del Fuego . Hendrik Brouwer proved the supposedly South American land an island in 1643 , and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman 's discovery Nova Zeelandia , after the Dutch province of Zeeland . The Latin Nova Zeelandia became Nieuw Zeeland in Dutch , and British explorer James Cook subsequently called the archipelago New Zealand , an anglicised form of the Dutch name . The 1840 Letters Patent established New Zealand as a British colony and claimed the " principal islands " of New Zealand , identified by their commonly known names at the time : the Northern Island ( the North Island ) , the Middle Island ( the South Island ) and Stewart 's Island or " South Island " . The letters patent attempted to rename the islands New Ulster , New Munster and New Leinster after the provinces in Ireland . New Ulster , New Munster and New Leinster were also used for the initial provinces of New Zealand , but the names did not endure . In the 1830s the South Island was used as an alternative to Middle Island and by 1907 it became the common name . The North and South Island names arose through common usage rather than official declaration and in 2009 it was revealed that they had never been formalised . In 2013 , alternative names were formalised for the two main islands , as North Island or Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui , and South Island or Te Waipounamu , with either English or Māori name being used or a combination of both . = = Māori names = = Many Māori place names possess either historical or mythological significance . Their meaning is not always apparent from literal translations and they have been passed down through oral tradition . Before European arrival , place names commemorated notable or historical incidents , described features of the location or were derived from traditional Hawaiki names or myths . After European arrival many locations became known as Māori versions of European words or poorly pronounced contractions of the original Māori names . Early Māori explorers Kupe , Ngahue , and Toi named many of New Zealand 's coastal features . Like later European explorers , they named things after themselves , their family members and events that occurred at the newly discovered location . Kahumatamomoe named Manukau Harbour after a manuka @-@ stake that he used to claim ownership of the area , and Kaipara Harbour after the para fern he ate there ( kai means food ) . The Māori name for Wellington Harbour , Te Whanganui a Tara , derives from Tara , a grandson of Kupe and ancestor of several local iwi . Names from other islands visited during the " Great Migration " have been used to identify some New Zealand landmarks , for example Raratoka Island ( from Rarotonga ) and Tawhiti ( from Tahiti ) . Whakatane , Rangitoto Island , Taupo , Urewera , Ngongotaha , and Tikitapu all commemorate incidents that occurred during the early arrivals , many of which are now forgotten . Maketu and Mount Moehau are two of the few remaining names connected to places in Hawaiki . The use of Polynesian mythology in names is more apparent , with Tāne ( the forest god ) lending his name to Otane and Taneatua among others . Descriptive words are often used as part of a place name , with Ara ( road ) , Maunga ( mountain ) , Wai ( water ) , Whanga ( bay ) , Roto ( lake ) and nui ( big ) among some of the more widely used . Whanganui means " wide river @-@ mouth " and Waikanae indicates good waters for catching kanae , or flathead mullet . European arrival exposed Māori to Christianity , leading to the settlements of Hiruharama , Petane and Hamaria being named after the biblical Jerusalem , Bethany and Samaria . The Rānana , Ātene and Karaponia settlements are Māori transliterations of London , Athens and California . Moriori , descendants of Māori , migrated to islands off the eastern coast of New Zealand and named them Rēkohu ( Misty Sun ) . Sometime before 1835 Māori settled at Rēkohu and confused the name of the settlement , Wharekauri , for the name of islands . It has been known as Wharekauri to Māori ever since . = = = Post @-@ colonial recognition = = = Early Europeans displaced most of the original Māori names with their own , although some Māori names persisted in the north and central regions of the North Island . The Royal Geographical Society of London was responsible for place names until 1894 when authority was given to the New Zealand Governor @-@ General . Prime Minister Joseph Ward moved an amendment in 1894 that gave preference to Māori names for any new features and allowed misspelt names to be altered ( although this did not always occur ) . In 1924 the Honorary Geographic Board of New Zealand was set up to advise on place names , and in 1946 the New Zealand Geographic Board ( NZGB ) was established and given power to change or implement Māori and English names . Anyone can propose a geographical name to the board , who consult local Māori and allow public submissions before determining if the name should be made official . Names can also be made official through an Act of Parliament and the NZGB is required to keep a public list of all the official New Zealand geographical names . The NZGB encourages the use of original Māori names and has given some places official double names . These can be expressed as alternative names where officially either name could be used ( Mount Taranaki or Mount Egmont ) or dual names where both names should be used together ( Matiu / Somes Island ) . In 1998 , as a result of the settling of the Ngai Tahu Treaty claim , New Zealand 's tallest mountain officially became Aoraki / Mount Cook . There are also a few English dual names , with Wellington harbour also officially known as Port Nicholson . Māori groups have campaigned to correct inaccurately spelled or pronounced Māori language place names . In 2000 , the local iwi suggestion to rename the Wellington suburb of Hataitai to Whataitai , referring to a taniwha ( sea @-@ monster ) that legend says lived in Wellington Harbour , was declined by the Geographic Board . More recently the NZGB recommended renaming the town of Wanganui to Whanganui as the town was originally named after the Whanganui River and the word wanga is not in the Māori lexicon . The government decided in 2009 that both Whanganui and Wanganui would be accepted as alternative official names . The origin of Wanganui has been claimed to reflect the dialectal pronunciation of local Māori , who pronounce ' wh ' ( an " f " -like sound in other dialects ) as [ ˀw ] – a glottalised " w " . = = European names = = Tasman named a few geographic features as he sailed along New Zealand 's west coast . Many such as Murderers Bay did not last , while some like Cape Maria van Diemen ( the wife of the governor of Batavia ) and Three Kings Islands are still in use . Cook named many more on his voyage , including Bay of Islands , Bay of Plenty , Poverty Bay , Cape Farewell , Queen Charlotte Sound , Mount Egmont and Banks Peninsula . Cape Kidnappers commemorates a Māori attempt to kidnap one of Cook 's crew members . Dumont d ’ Urville named French Pass after sailing through it . The explorers lent their names to many places , including Mount Tasman , Tasman Glacier , the Tasman Region , Cook Strait , Mount Cook and D 'Urville Island . The Coromandel , Chatham and Pegasus ships visited New Zealand 's shores between 1791 and 1820 and were used to name Coromandel Peninsula , Chatham Islands , Pegasus Bay and Port Pegasus . Stewart Island was named after the first officer aboard the Pegasus . Most European names came during the 1840s to the 1910s and were given by surveyors who worked for colonising associations or provincial governments . Names acknowledged the colonising associations sponsors ( Hutt Valley , Wakefield , Port Chalmers , Ashburton ) , ships ( Bombay ) , government officials ( Featherston , Rolleston , Invercargill ) , politicians ( Foxton , Fox Glacier , Gisborne ) and church leaders ( Selwyn ) . Military heroes and famous battles were popular place names , with Auckland , Napier , Hastings , Havelock , Wellington , Picton , Marlborough , Nelson and Blenheim . British politicians and royalty lent their names to Russell , Palmerston , Cromwell , Queenstown and Alexandra , while Franz Josef is named after the Austrian emperor . Royal names are more popular for streets than towns or geographical features , although both Auckland and Wellington have Mount Victoria . Gore is named after governor Thomas Gore Browne and George Grey 's name is used for Greytown , Greymouth , Grey Lynn and many natural features . Relatively few names are derived from United Kingdom towns , with Dunedin ( after Edinburgh — Dùn Éideann in Scottish Gaelic ) , New Plymouth and the Canterbury Province among the most notable . Many inland locations ( including Helensville , Dargaville , Morrinsville , Bulls , Masterton and Levin ) were named after the early settlers . Mackenzie Country takes its name from a sheep stealer and King Country references the region where the Māori king defied colonial government for many years . Mountains and passes were named after their discoverers ( Haast , Lewis ) or scientists ( Newton , Lyell ) . Other names were descriptive , such as Woodville , Island Bay , Riverton , Whitecliffs and Bluff . A few derive their names from descriptions in languages other than English or Māori , for example : Miramar , which means " sea view " in Spanish ; and Inchbonnie , which means " beautiful " ( bonnie in Lallands ) " island " ( innis in Scottish Gaelic ) . = = = Regional patterns = = = Many Scottish names occur in Otago and Southland ( the Lammerlaws , Invercargill , Wedderburn , Glenfalloch ) and Scottish settlers also named Riccarton and the Avon River in Christchurch . Canterbury has an English flavour to its nomenclature with Christchurch and Oxford , but also contains Belfast and French names throughout the Akaroa area . Scandinavian migrants left their mark in the Seventy Mile Bush with Dannevirke and Norsewood and some of the suburbs and streets of Auckland and Wellington reflect Australian immigration ( Footscray and Botany Downs ) . There is very little Asian influence in New Zealand place naming , with Khandallah in Wellington and Cashmere ( Kashmir ) in Christchurch , reflecting British imperial connections rather than Indian influence . = = Unofficial names = = Many of New Zealand 's place names have never been officially approved by the NZGB . They either fall outside the board 's jurisdiction ( homesteads , lighthouses ) or were common names before the board was established and have never been officially formalised . Unofficial recorded names are defined as " names that have appeared in at least two publicly available authoritative publications or databases " . Recorded names include major cities ( Wellington , Auckland , Hamilton , Christchurch ) , mountains ( Mount Tasman , Mount Dampier ) , islands ( Auckland Islands , Great Barrier Island ) and many other geographical features . New Zealand and various parts of it have acquired a range of colloquial names over the years . Unofficial late 19th century names for New Zealand included " Maoriland " and " God 's Own Country " . The former occurred widely in the labour movement and an early labour newspaper was named the Maoriland Worker . Premier Richard John Seddon ( in power 1893 @-@ 1906 ) popularised " God 's Own Country " . Both names fell out of popularity in the 20th century , although " God 's Own Country " ( or " Godzone " ) still occasionally appears . Latinate names for the country have included " Zealandia " and " Nova Zealandia " . Many cities and towns have nicknames based on a prominent feature or one which promoters wish to emphasise . Christchurch is promoted as the " Garden City " and Auckland is commonly referred to as the " city of sails " . Various councils have come up with mottos to advertise their cities , with Hamilton going from " Where It 's Happening " to " More Than You Expect " in 2000 and Dunedin using the " I am Dunedin " slogan from 2001 until 2010 . Hamilton acquired the nickname " the Tron " after " Hamiltron : City of the Future " was suggested for a city slogan . Wellington is also known as the " windy city " due to its strong and unpredictable winds . Following the release of Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings films , New Zealand has sometimes been called " Middle @-@ earth " after the fictional setting of the films . Wellington , the centre of the films ' production , was sometimes called Middle @-@ earth , and for about a week around the release of the first movie the local newspaper The Evening Post renamed itself to The Middle Earth Post . The town of Matamata , near the location of many of the Hobbiton scenes , unofficially renamed itself " Hobbiton " . The flourishing of the film @-@ industry in Wellington has led to the nickname " Wellywood " , and a proposal to erect a " Hollywood " style sign near the airport was overturned due to public resistance and possible copyright infringements . A number of towns have acquired ironic nicknames comparing them to the " more exciting " city of Las Vegas ; " Rotovegas " for Rotorua , " Ashvegas " for Ashburton and " Invervegas " for Invercargill . Other areas have nicknames or popular designations based on abbreviations or mangling of the Māori name . New Zealanders will sometimes refer to the Taranaki Region as " The Naki " , Palmerston North as " Palmy " , Gisborne as " Gizzie " , Cardrona as " Cardie " , Paraparaumu as " Paraparam " , Waimakariri as " Waimak " and Paekakariki as " Pie @-@ cock " . Waikikamukau ( / waɪkɪkɑːmuːkaʊ / , as if saying " Why kick a moo @-@ cow " ) is a generic name for a small rural town or locality in New Zealand .
= Mirth & Girth = Mirth & Girth is a posthumous portrait painting by School of the Art Institute of Chicago ( SAIC ) student David K. Nelson , Jr . , depicting the recently deceased , popular African @-@ American mayor of Chicago , Harold Washington wearing only a bra , G @-@ string , garter belt and stockings . After a brief showing at a May 11 , 1988 private student exhibition in the Art Institute , angry African @-@ American aldermen , including Ald . Allan Streeter , Ald . Bobby Rush and Ald . Dorothy Tillman , arrived with Chicago Police Department officers and confiscated the painting , triggering a First Amendment and race relations crisis and a civil lawsuit . Free @-@ speech advocates condemned the seizure of the painting , while the aldermen maintained that the painting was an insult to Washington and should have been taken down . Some students at the SAIC showed their support for free speech by holding rallies in front of the school and at the Richard J. Daley Plaza , while other students criticized Nelson for poor timing in showing a racially insensitive image . At some point between when the painting was confiscated and when it was returned , a 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm ) gash was made on the canvas . Nelson filed and later won a federal lawsuit against the city , claiming that the painting 's confiscation and subsequent damaging violated his First Amendment rights . He and the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) settled with the city for $ 95 @,@ 000 ( 1994 ; $ 138 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) in compensation for the damaged painting after the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit upheld the lower court 's decision . = = Background = = = = = Harold Washington = = = Harold Washington , the subject of the portrait , was elected in 1965 to the Illinois House of Representatives . After the death of Richard J. Daley in late 1976 , Washington won Chicago 's 1983 Democratic mayoral primary election . He was elected mayor , prevailing over Bernard Epton in a racially polarizing general election . His first four @-@ year term was characterized by the Council Wars , a period of political conflict with the mostly white aldermanic majority in City Council . Seven Washington @-@ backed aldermanic challengers prevailed in the April , 1986 special municipal election , facilitating progress with Washington 's agenda . Washington died suddenly of a heart attack in his office . His death was followed by a period of mourning by Chicagoans , particularly in the African @-@ American community . = = = Creation of painting = = = Shortly after Washington 's death , Nelson ( who is white ) painted Mirth & Girth , a " full @-@ length frontal portrait of a portly grim @-@ faced Harold Washington clad in a white bra and G @-@ string , garter belt , and stockings " . The painting was approximately 4 feet ( 122 cm ) tall by 3 feet ( 91 cm ) wide . In the portrait , Washington is holding a pencil in his right hand . His aide , Alton Miller , initially mistook Washington 's slumping over his desk as an attempt to pick up a pencil that had fallen onto the floor . The title of the piece is believed to have been derived from the name of an organization for overweight gay men , " Girth and Mirth " . In an interview with the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Nelson stated that he had painted Mirth & Girth over the course of one night , standing in his underwear . He said that he had painted it in response to how the city populace revered Washington shortly after his death . Nelson stated , " ( i ) n Chicago , at this time , Harold Washington is like an icon . He 's like a deity . " In particular , Nelson painted the portrait after seeing prints of " Worry Ye Not " , another poster that depicted a smiling Washington with a blue @-@ robe adorned Jesus Christ , looking down on the Chicago skyline . Nelson later testified that he had based the iconoclastic elements of the painting on a rumor that doctors at Northwestern Memorial Hospital had discovered female underwear beneath the suit Washington was wearing at the time of his death . Three weeks after the controversy erupted , in an interview with the New Art Examiner , Nelson explained that the portrait referenced an existing photograph of Washington holding a cigarette prop at an American Cancer Society event . The caricature was not Nelson 's first . He had drawn a portrait of his mother as " Whistler 's Mother " for Mother 's Day . Nelson had also drawn a caricature of his father as the model depicted on boxes of Cream of Wheat . Nelson explained , " ( t ) his kind of irreverence and iconoclasm runs through all my artwork " . In an April Fools ' Day edition of a Weekly World News parody produced by Nelson , he illustrated SAIC president Edward Jones as an infant in the arms of a bare @-@ breasted Madonna . = = Display and confiscation = = = = = Initial display = = = On May 11 , 1988 , Mirth & Girth was displayed at a private exhibition in one of the school 's main interior hallways . The painting was part of a set of six that Nelson was displaying in a judged three @-@ day student fellowship exhibition held to showcase upcoming graduates . Another of his works was a self @-@ portrait titled " I 'm Sensitive , and I Love All Humanity " , depicting Nelson holding little people of multiple nationalities . As soon as the exhibit opened , between 7 : 30 and 8 : 30 am , the painting drew enough negative attention for the Art Institute to post a security guard in front of the painting . Shortly thereafter , the school began to receive angry phone calls about the painting . Soon after the exhibit opened , word of the controversy reached the Chicago City Council , which was in session . Alderman Bobby Rush ( then of the 2nd ward ) immediately put together a resolution that would cut off the city 's contribution to the Art Institute unless it apologized for displaying the painting . In part , the resolution read " Whereas , the artist David Nelson obviously exhibits some type of demented and pathological mental capacities ... " . Another resolution was written that asked the Art Institute to remove the painting immediately . After passing both items , a group of aldermen left to deliver the resolutions to the Art Institute . Nelson returned to the painting about an hour after it was first displayed . He had forgotten a hammer and nails to hang the painting , and had left it leaning against the wall for an hour . Shortly after he returned , city aldermen , police officers and local reporters arrived at the scene , leading to a dramatic confrontation between aldermen and other students , while Nelson remained incognito nearby . = = = Confiscation = = = Aldermen Edward Jones ( 20th ) and William C. Henry ( 24th ) were the first aldermen to arrive from the City Council session . According to the federal lawsuit , Henry showed he had a gun , and then with Jones removed the now @-@ hung painting from the wall and placed it on the floor , facing the wall . After they left , another student rehung the painting . Three other aldermen , Allan Streeter ( 17th ) , Dorothy Tillman ( 3rd ) and Rush , arrived later . They took down the painting and attempted to remove it from the school , but were stopped by a school official . The aldermen then took the painting to the office of the school president Anthony Jones ( no relation to Edward Jones ) . The painting had a 5 in ( 13 cm ) gash , and it had been wrapped in brown paper . Alderman Tillman threatened to burn the painting in President Jones ' office , but a Chicago Police Department ( CPD ) lieutenant present with the aldermen , Lt. Raymond Patterson , advised against this . Instead , another unnamed alderman called CPD superintendent Leroy Martin . Martin telephoned Patterson in Jones ' office and ordered Patterson to take the painting into police custody , telling Jones that the painting amounted to " incitement to riot " . Patterson overrode this direct order , citing his own powers as the lieutenant on the scene and hung up on Martin . A CPD sergeant accompanied Rush , Streeter and Tillman to a waiting police car with the wrapped painting in hand . Parts of the incident were later broadcast on television . The incident was marked by a volatile shouting match between the aldermen and students , and met with condemnation from free @-@ speech advocates . As the aldermen escorted the painting to the police vehicle , a mass of students outside of the Art Institute jeered them , naming the aldermen " commies " , " fascists " , " brownshirts " and " philistines " . Seventeen bomb threats were recorded at the school after the controversy erupted . = = Responses = = = = = African @-@ American community = = = Shortly after the incident , a black alderman told reporters that he believed the painting was the work of a Jewish artist . Nelson replied through a Chicago Tribune story that he " is not Jewish " . The remark was made in part because racial tensions had already been elevated a week earlier after the firing of Steve Cokely , a mayoral aide , by African @-@ American mayor and Harold Washington 's successor Eugene Sawyer . Cokely had accused Jews of " engaging in an international conspiracy for world control " . His firing caused a rift in segments of the black community , leading some to believe that Sawyer was also involved in the same conspiracy . In a New York Times article published on May 13 , 1988 , Alderman Streeter reiterated his stance regarding the removal of the painting , saying that he would have " gone to jail to get that painting down " , calling it " an insult to a great man and an affront to blacks " . On May 16 , 1988 , Streeter appeared on the local public television station news program Chicago Tonight . He reinforced that Nelson had abdicated his " responsibility to his constituency " to " do what is right " . In the segment , he reaffirmed that he believed the aldermen had " a law , the law of common sense , the law of morality , the law of decency [ that ] transcends the First Amendment " . Operation PUSH , an organization that pursues social justice and civil rights , threatened to impose " sanctions " on the Art Institute unless the Art Institute acted to prevent offensive portraits from being shown by students or contributing artists in the future . Separately , the Illinois Alliance of Black Student Organizations called for racial parity with regards to faculty and student enrollment within the school . One recent African @-@ American students alleged that there was an underlying attitude of racism at the school , while other black students distributed a flyer listing incidences of theft and advice given to foreign students about socializing with blacks . By contrast , another white graduate noted that school officials looked at students ' slides and paintings without knowing the race of the student . The school noted that 236 of its 1 @,@ 312 undergraduate students were minorities , a higher percentage than comparable private professional art schools . On February 12 , 1994 , during a rally to raise money for the defendants ' mounting legal bills , Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan supported the three aldermen 's right to seize the painting , calling it " an act of righteous indignation " . Farrakhan referred to Washington as " a father figure for black people " , and described the painting and subsequent lawsuit " a total disrespect for our feelings and our community " . = = = Free speech advocates = = = On May 12 , 1988 , representatives from the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) picked up the painting and returned it to Nelson . Jay Miller , another representative for the ACLU , described the incident as " vigilante stuff " , noting that the action " was done in the name of one of the great civil libertarians of our time . Harold Washington had a 100 percent voting record in Congress and in the state Legislature on issues of civil liberties and civil rights . " In 1984 Washington had supported the civil rights of sculptor John Sefick after Sefick had created a satirical statue of Washington . By comparison , former mayor Michael Bilandic had ordered a Sefick statue satirizing his handling of Chicago 's crippling Blizzard of 1979 covered by a blanket , a decision that was later overturned in federal court . Students from the SAIC protested on Columbus Drive the next day , holding signs that asked drivers to " honk for free speech " . Student leaders began to consult attorneys to file a lawsuit against the Chicago Police Department and the aldermen . Other groups of students planned a " be @-@ in " at the Richard J. Daley Plaza , but it was canceled after the students learned other groups might cause a confrontation . Some students felt that the school had been a victim of racial politics , and that the incident would be used to censor the Art Institute . On Chicago Tonight , Daniel Polsby , a law professor at Northwestern University , cited federal statutes violated during the confiscation of the portrait . He then faulted Marshall Field 's reluctance to defend the First Amendment , further comparing the seizure of Mirth & Girth to then @-@ Arkansas governor Orval Faubus ' refusal to abide by the First Amendment and allow minorities to enroll in Little Rock Central High School . According to Polsby , Faubus ' rationale at the time was to preserve a delicate civil rights situation . Polsby called the aldermen 's action " crushingly ironic and terribly sad " . = = = Reactions within the SAIC = = = At the SAIC , students ' characterizations of the painting ranged from political caricature , to " whimsy " , to a commercial success . One student noted that Nelson was " known nationally now , which is every artist 's dream " . Another student noted that " ( a ) rtists have to be responsible for what they make , and this guy is not being responsible " . In a meeting with 100 students after the incident , Anthony Jones , then @-@ president of the SAIC , assured the students that he stood behind their First Amendment rights . Regarding the painting , Jones said that the painting was in poor taste and should not have been displayed . Members of the Art Institute Board met the day after the incident and agreed not to display Mirth & Girth any further . Chairman Marshall Field also issued a formal apology for displaying the painting and agreed to consider demands that the school both hire more black administrators and accept more black students . Field also published the apology in each of the city 's daily metropolitan newspapers . After the apology was issued , Polsby strongly criticized Field 's refusal to more aggressively stand up for the students ' First Amendment rights . = = = Other reactions = = = Members of the Council of Religious Leaders of Metropolitan Chicago , which included leaders from mainline Protestant , Roman Catholic and Jewish organizations from the city , issued a statement that expressed " moral dismay " over the painting . They further added that the display of the painting showed " a lack of sensitivity which we could have expected from those who were responsible for its showing " . As for the painting 's critical reception , one local art reviewer mentioned that " the only thing [ the SAIC ] might have felt sheepish about was not having a staff that in four years could instill in Nelson a better grasp of figure painting " . In a newspaper interview , Nelson responded that the criticism was " the one thing that did make me kind of angry . I don 't think the painting was poorly executed , though it wasn 't my favorite painting . " In his book Arresting Images — Impolitic Art and Uncivil Actions , Stephen C. Dubin suggested that the painting represented a symbolic castration of Washington , reflecting more " traditional " reactions to African @-@ Americans in positions of power . Nelson gave only a few interviews before leaving Chicago for the suburbs , and then Graceland to avoid the press . On the advice of his friends , Nelson stayed away from his graduation ceremony on May 14 , 1988 . He turned down a $ 15 @,@ 000 ( 1988 , $ 22 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) offer for the painting , calling it a " grossly inflated " price . He also turned down a separate opportunity to appear on Phil Donahue 's syndicated talk show , saying that he never watched the show and was genuinely uninterested in the offer . Other than the interview with WLUP , Nelson 's views were expressed by Harvey Grossman , the legal director for the ACLU . Through Grossman , Nelson said he would not press for the returning of the painting , as it had fulfilled its purpose of " drawing attention to his ' iconoclastic ' work " . = = Nelson v. Streeter = = On June 23 , 1988 , the ACLU filed a federal lawsuit on behalf of Nelson against the three aldermen who were seen on television handling the painting . It claimed the removal of the painting violated Nelson 's First Amendment right to freedom of expression , Fourth Amendment right to protection from unreasonable seizures , and Fourteenth amendment right against being deprived of property without a hearing . The ACLU sought $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1988 , $ 182 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) to compensate Nelson for damage to the painting , and to " punish " the aldermen and police for their actions . Ald . Robert Shaw ( 9th ) called the suit " a slap in the face to the black community " . Rush questioned the motive of the suit , as himself , Tillman and Streeter all were supporters of Alderman Timothy C. Evans ( 17th ) , a political rival of mayor Eugene Sawyer . Rush specifically called the suit " frivolous " and " impetuous " , openly questioning whether the ACLU had filed the suit to enhance fundraising activities or for other political reasons . The City of Chicago refused in February 1990 to pay mounting legal costs for the aldermen . The aldermen argued that they were performing their official duties " in protecting the security of the city during the turmoil created by the exhibit " when they removed the painting . The city contended that the aldermen had taken the action as individuals . Nelson refused a $ 10 @,@ 000 ( 1990 , $ 16 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) settlement at the time . On August 11 , 1992 , U.S. District Judge George Lindberg dismissed the City of Chicago from the lawsuit , but ruled that Superintendent Martin must go to trial and that the three aldermen violated Nelson 's civil rights . Lindberg supported the recommendations regarding that issue Magistrate Judge Elaine Bucklo 's had made in March 1992 . Tillman 's lawyer , James Chapman , recommended to Tillman that an immediate appeal be filed in federal court . = = = Appellate court = = = In the appeal , decided February 1 , 1994 , judges Richard Posner , Frank H. Easterbrook , and Michael Stephen Kanne affirmed Lindberg 's earlier decision . Writing for the court , Posner rejected claims of official immunity and said city officials had no right to enter private property and take " offensive " paintings off its walls . He also rejected the argument that removing paintings from walls was an official duty . Posner also rejected the argument that the defendants were removing the painting to save Chicago from racial riots that the continued showing of the painting might have started , and in which it might have been destroyed . He found that Tillman herself threatened to burn the painting on the spot , and that there was no mob . In addition , the court found that because Nelson had not intended to provoke a riot , the First Amendment could still be used to protect his speech . The appellate court also faulted the district judge for allowing " more than a year and a half elapsed before the filing and disposition of the motions for summary judgment " . Posner noted in his opinion that " the governing principles are clear , the facts have been explored exhaustively , and the defendants should be aware that efforts to mount a last @-@ ditch , no @-@ holds @-@ barred defense may simply increase their liability for the plaintiff 's attorney 's fees under 42 U.S.C. § 1988 . " He then affirmed the district court 's decision . = = = Settlement and aftermath = = = On September 20 , 1994 , the city and the ACLU reached a settlement . The ACLU agreed to drop claims against the city and Superintendent LeRoy Martin . In return , the city of Chicago agreed to pay Nelson and the ACLU $ 95 @,@ 000 ( 1994 , $ 138 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) for damage to the painting and to issue police procedures about what materials protected by the First Amendment may be seized . The elected officials also agreed not to appeal the district court 's ruling . Left unresolved were the hundreds of thousands of dollars of legal fees owed to lawyers defending Tillman , Rush and Streeter ; by September 1994 , $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1994 , $ 292 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) in fees were owed by Tillman alone . Earlier in the year , the City Council 's Finance Committee voted against paying for the aldermen 's legal fees . The vote split along racial lines , 12 to 8 . Grossman stated that the relatively small settlement showed that Nelson had proceeded with the lawsuit " on a matter of principle " . Tillman , however , called the settlement a " great victory " , saying , " we didn 't admit to anything , all the charges were dropped , we 're not paying anything ( in damages ) , and we preserve our rights to pursue efforts to have our legal fees paid " . At the time the lawsuit was settled , Nelson did not issue any statements . The Chicago Tribune reported that he was employed as an advertising artist at an undisclosed firm ; he continued to paint in his free time . As of 1994 , the painting had not been sold , exhibited , or repaired after the incident .
= Keeping Up with the Kardashians = Keeping Up with the Kardashians ( abbreviated KUWTK ) is an American reality television series that airs on the E ! cable network . The show focuses on the personal and professional lives of the Kardashian – Jenner blended family . Its premise originated with Ryan Seacrest , who also serves as an executive producer . The series debuted on October 14 , 2007 and has subsequently become one of the longest @-@ running reality television series in the country ; the twelfth season of the show premiered on May 1 , 2016 . The series focuses mainly on sisters Kim , Kourtney , Khloé Kardashian , and their half @-@ sisters Kendall and Kylie Jenner . It also features their parents Kris and Caitlyn Jenner ( previously known as Bruce Jenner ) , and brother Rob Kardashian . The significant others of the Kardashian sisters have also appeared on the show , including Kourtney 's ex boyfriend Scott Disick and Khloé 's ex husband Lamar Odom . Caitlyn 's son Brody made cameo appearances in the early seasons before joining the show to appear regularly , along with his brother Brandon , and Brandon 's wife , Leah . Kim 's friend Jonathan Cheban and Khloé 's friend Malika Haqq have also been part of the show . Keeping Up with the Kardashians has received very poor critical reviews since its premiere . It is often criticized for the high degree of emphasis on the " famous for being famous " concept , and for appearing to fabricate some aspects of its storylines . Several critics also noted the show 's lack of intelligence , and described the family as " self @-@ absorbed " and " desperate " for fame . However , some critics recognized the reality series as a " guilty pleasure " and acknowledged the family 's success . Despite the negative reviews , Keeping Up with the Kardashians has attracted high viewership ratings , becoming one of the network 's most successful shows and winning several audience awards . The series ' success has led additionally to the creation of numerous spin @-@ off series , including : Kourtney and Kim Take Miami , Kourtney and Kim Take New York , Khloé & Lamar , Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons , Dash Dolls , and , most recently , Rob and Chyna . The network has also broadcast several television specials featuring special events involving members of the family . = = Background = = Robert Kardashian ( 1944 – 2003 ) and Kristen Mary " Kris " Houghton ( born 1955 ) married in 1978 , and had four children together : daughters Kourtney ( born 1979 ) , Kim ( 1980 ) , and Khloé ( 1984 ) , and son Rob ( 1987 ) . The couple divorced in 1991 . In 1994 , Robert entered the media spotlight when he defended O. J. Simpson for the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman during a lengthy trial . In 1991 , Kris married retired Olympic decathlon champion Bruce Jenner ( born 1949 ; now known as Caitlyn Jenner after undergoing a gender transition in 2015 ) . Caitlyn and Kris had two daughters together , Kendall ( born 1995 ) and Kylie ( 1997 ) . Robert died in 2003 , eight weeks after being diagnosed with esophageal cancer . The Kardashian sisters began appearing in the media spotlight more often . In 2004 , Kim became a personal stylist for recording artist Brandy Norwood . She eventually developed into a full @-@ time stylist , and was a personal shopper and stylist for actress Lindsay Lohan . Khloé , Kim and Kourtney ventured further into fashion , opening a high fashion boutique Dash in Calabasas , California . Throughout Kim 's early career , she was involved in some high @-@ profile relationships including Norwood 's brother , singer Ray J , and later , singer Nick Lachey . In 2006 , Kourtney starred in her first reality television series , Filthy Rich : Cattle Drive . In February 2007 , a home sex video that Kim made with Ray J years earlier was leaked . Vivid Entertainment bought the rights for $ 1 million and released the film as Kim Kardashian : Superstar on February 21 . Kim sued Vivid for ownership of the tape , but dropped the suit in April 2007 settling with Vivid Entertainment for $ 5 million . It is often assumed that the release of the sex tape was a major contributor to the rising fame of Kim Kardashian and her family . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = The idea of creating a reality series originated in 2006 when Kris Jenner showed an interest in appearing on a television show together with her family . Jenner commented : " Everybody thinks that [ my children ] could create a bunch of drama in their lives , but it 's something that I felt I didn 't even have to think about . It would be natural . " Producer Ryan Seacrest , who had his own production company , decided to develop the idea , having the popular family @-@ based show The Osbournes in mind . He hired a camera man to visit the Kardashian 's family home to film them having a Sunday barbeque : " They were all together — as crazy and as fun as loving as they are , " Seacrest described the family after seeing the tape . He later initiated the series by sharing the tape with E ! , an American cable network which features mostly entertainment @-@ related programming , and reality television series ; the show was eventually picked up . In August 2007 , it was announced that the Kardashian and Jenner families would star in a yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ titled reality show on E ! described as a " new non @-@ scripted family sitcom " , being produced by Ryan Seacrest and Bunim / Murray Productions . The series ' announcement came one week after Paris Hilton and her friend Nicole Richie announced that their popular E ! series , The Simple Life , was ending . The show , entitled Keeping Up With the Kardashians , premiered on October 14 , 2007 . The reality series centers around the members of the Kardashian @-@ Jenner blended family , focusing on the sisters Kourtney , Kim and Khloé . Most episodes have very similar sturucture : the family " show [ s ] off their privileged lifestyle and maybe get into one or two minor family squabbles before ultimately wrapping things up with a monologue that reinforces the importance of family , " as noted by Caroline Siede of Quartz . Harriet Ryan and Adam Tschorn of the Los Angeles Times described the reality series as a : " Hollywood version of The Brady Bunch -- the harmless high jinks of a loving blended family against a backdrop of wealth and famous connections " . Kim Kardashian described the beginning of filming the show , " When we first started [ the show ] , we came together as a family and said , ' If we 're going to do this reality show , we 're going to be 100 percent who we really are . ' " . She further commented on the show 's authenticity by saying that the network " has never once put anything out there that we haven 't approved of or accepted " . The series was renewed for a second season one month after its premiere due to high ratings . Seacrest described the show 's success : " At the heart of the series — despite the catfights and endless sarcasm — is a family that truly loves and supports one another [ … ] The familiar dynamics of this family make them one Hollywood bunch that is sure to entertain . " The following year , Keeping Up with the Kardashians was picked up for a third season . In April 2012 , E ! signed a three @-@ year deal with the Kardashian family that kept the series airing through seasons seven , eight and nine . Keeping up with the Kardashians was later renewed for a tenth season which premiered on March 15 , 2015 . In February 2015 , it was announced that the show had been renewed for four more years , along with an additional spin @-@ off series , making it one of the longest @-@ running reality television series in the country . In terms of the show 's future , Kim Kardashian has commented that the reality series could go for an indefinite number of seasons saying that she : " hope [ s ] it goes on for as long as it can . " Keeping Up With the Kardashians , including its spin @-@ off series , has become the cable network 's flagship show and its most lucrative franchise . " It has changed the face of E ! " said Lisa Berger , the network 's executive producer . " We were a place to report on celebrity ; we weren 't a place to break and make celebrity , which is now the whole idea of the E ! brand . " The show 's success contributed significantly towards building the " Kardashian brand " , or " Kardashian Inc . " as it is called by The Hollywood Reporter . " These shows are a 30 @-@ minute commercial , " Khloé Kardashian admitted in 2011 , in response to a suggestion that the television series is used to promote their retail stores and endorsement deals . = = = Cast = = = The reality series revolves around the children of Kris Jenner , and originally focused mainly on the children from her first marriage to deceased attorney Robert Kardashian : Kourtney , Kim , Khloé , and Rob . Kris ' children Kendall and Kylie from her subsequent marriage to American athlete Caitlyn Jenner ( previously known as Bruce ) have also been featured on the show since its beginning , along with Jenner 's son Brody from another marriage , although he appeared very few times during the early seasons , mostly being called by his step @-@ brother Rob to babysit their half @-@ sisters Kylie and Kendall . Kourtney 's boyfriend Scott Disick has also been appearing frequently on the show since the first season , as well as on the show 's spin @-@ offs . Cast members also include numerous friends and other acquaintances of the family members , most notably Malika Haqq and Jonathan Cheban who joined Keeping Up with the Kardashians in the second and third seasons , respectively . Most of the Kardashian sisters ' significant others have appeared on the reality series . Kim 's relationship with football player Reggie Bush was featured on the show when they were dating ; after the breakup , Bush commented on appearing on the show saying that he never felt comfortable being followed by cameras , adding : " I do it because it 's important to [ Kim ] . " Rob 's relationship with singer Adrienne Bailon has also been documented on the show when they were dating from 2007 to 2009 ; although Bailon later admitted that the decision to appear on the show , and be associated with the family , hurt to her career . Kim 's ex @-@ husband Kris Humphries first appeared on the show during the premiere of the sixth season ; their relationship was chronicled throughout the season and ended with the couple 's wedding special " Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event " . They eventually went through a highly publicized divorce ; Kardashian 's former publicist later claimed that Humphries was allegedly set up to be portrayed on the show in a negative way and that the short @-@ lived marriage was staged for the cameras as a ploy to generate money . Khloé married basketball player Lamar Odom during a fourth season premiere aired in 2009 . He later had a major role as part of the supporting cast of the series , though he did not appear regularly during the following seasons as he was attempting to repair his marriage with Khloé . Kim 's current husband Kanye West made his first appearance on Keeping Up with the Kardashians in July 2012 during the seventh season when he started dating Kim . However , West was seldom seen in subsequent seasons . He explained the reasons for not appearing on the show later : " You know , the amount of backlash I got from it is when I decided to not be on the show anymore . And it 's not that I have an issue with the show ; I just have an issue with the amount of backlash that I get . " He also criticized the show for its cinematography and further complained about the way how the show is filmed . In the eighth season , Caitlyn Jenner 's sons Brandon and Brody Jenner , as well as Brandon 's wife Leah , joined the cast for regular appearances . = = Related programming = = The success of the reality series resulted in the development of several spin @-@ off shows and other related programming . In April 2009 , E ! announced the first spin @-@ off of Keeping Up with the Kardashians entitled Kourtney and Khloé in Miami , which was later renamed Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami . The series followed the sisters who moved to Miami to open a new Dash boutique . Ted Harbert , president and CEO of Comcast Entertainment Group , considered the sisters capable of handling their own standalone series . " It 's a very simple formula that we took from scripted TV and applied to a reality show . [ … ] There are a lot of family sitcom elements to ' Kardashians , ' and we think that humor and warmth will carry over to Miami , " Harbert added . The show premiered on August 16 , 2009 to very high ratings ; the first episode brought in 2 @.@ 7 million total viewers and then became the most @-@ watched show on the network since The Anna Nicole Show in 2002 . The spin @-@ off was subsequently renewed for a second season which premiered on June 13 , 2010 , and later returned as Kourtney and Kim Take Miami for a third season on January 20 , 2013 . Additionally , a series of webisodes entitled Lord Disick : Lifestyles of a Lord were released following the show , which showcased Disick as he informed viewers how to live like a " king " . In October 2010 , the network announced another spin @-@ off called Kourtney and Kim Take New York which followed the same format as its predecessor . The show debuted on January 23 , 2011 , and followed the sisters who opened a Dash location in New York City . The series returned for another season which premiered on November 27 the same year . In January 2011 , Khloé & Lamar , which featured Khloé and her husband Lamar Odom , became the third spin @-@ off of Keeping Up with the Kardashians . The show premiered on April 10 , 2011 , and lasted two seasons . In March 2014 , E ! announced the fourth spin @-@ off entitled Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons . The series premiered on November 2 , 2014 , and followed Kourtney and Khloé who relocated to the Hamptons to work on opening a new Dash pop @-@ up store . The fifth spin @-@ off series called Dash Dolls premiered on September 20 , 2015 . The most recent reality series chronicles the daily life of the employees of the upscale Dash boutique in Los Angeles owned by the Kardashian family . The network has also aired several television specials featuring important family events . A two @-@ part television event called " Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event " , showcasing the wedding between Kim and Kris Humphries , was broadcast on October 9 and 10 , 2011 as part of the sixth season ; the special was highly successful with a combined 10 @.@ 5 million viewers . A few days after Caitlyn Jenner ( then Bruce ) came out as a trans woman during a 20 / 20 interview with Diane Sawyer in May 2015 , E ! aired a two @-@ part special on Keeping Up with the Kardashians entitled " About Bruce " , in which another side of the story was told featuring family members who were not involved in the previous interview on 20 / 20 . The first part of the special debuted on May 17 , 2015 , and attracted 2 @.@ 92 million total viewers , a 40 % increase from the previous episode , while the second part aired the following day with similar viewership . I Am Cait , a separate documentary series , was announced immediately after the 20 / 20 interview . The eight @-@ part , one @-@ hour docuseries debuted on July 26 , 2015 , on E ! , and focused on how Jenner was handling the aftermath of the transition ; it also attempted to deal with various LGBT @-@ related issues . Jeff Olde , head of programming at E ! network , said that the series is " not at all a Kardashian spin @-@ off " , and that " we will not resort to spectacle , " trying to emphasize its distinct format that is entirely different from most programming on the network , including Keeping Up with the Kardashians . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been the subject of constant panning by critics since its inception . Brian Lowry , reviewing the show for Variety , said that the network : " widens its lens to encompass the whole irritating brood — including Kim ’ s sisters Khloé and Kourtney , mom @-@ manager Kris and stepdad Bruce Jenner , who now has the distinction of having two sets of useless rich kids featured in pointless reality shows . " Ginia Bellafonte of The New York Times compared the show to reality series Gene Simmons Family Jewels and exclaimed that : " the Kardashian show is not about an eccentric family living conventionally ; it is purely about some desperate women climbing to the margins of fame , and that feels a lot creepier . " Laura Burrows of IGN criticized the family for being too self @-@ seeking and using the given platform only to gain more notoriety for themselves . Following the conclusion of the second season of the series , Burrows wrote : " Those of us who watch this show [ … ] want to believe that these whores of attention have souls and would actually do something for their fellow man and not reap the benefits of their service , but two seasons ' worth of self @-@ absorbed egocentrism speaks to the contrary . " Roxana Hadadi , reviewing Keeping Up with the Kardashians for The Washington Post , was extremely negative towards the reality series due to its absurdity , and commented that the show : " firmly captures all of Kim and Co . ' s dumbest instances from the series ' debut — from the simply self @-@ absorbed to the downright despicable . " Amaya Rivera , writing about the series for Popmatters , noted : " Indeed , there is something disturbing about the Kardashians ' intense hunger for fame . But even worse — it is downright boring to watch this family live out their tedious lives . " John Kubicek , the senior writer of BuddyTV , reviewed the premiere of the third season of the show and discussed the reason for the family 's success by saying that : " the Kardashians ' fame is a lot like Möbius strip or an M. C. Escher painting . " Harriet Ryan and Adam Tschorn of the Los Angeles Times described Keeping Up with the Kardashians as a : " Hollywood version of The Brady Bunch -- the harmless high jinks of a loving blended family against a backdrop of wealth and famous connections " . Jessica Chasmar of The Washington Times said that series : " illustrates our nation ’ s moral , spiritual and cultural decay . " Chasmar emphasized its negative influence and noted : " America of 50 years ago would regard Ms. Kardashian with a mixture of disdain and pity , embarrassed by the very idea of a young lady ’ s most private moments being broadcast for all the world to see . " Goal Auzeen Saedi , reviewing Keeping Up with the Kardashians for Psychology Today , emphasized the show 's influence saying that : " The Kardashians become more relatable the more famous they become . " Saedi also questioned their decision to appear on the show and added : " But if living life in the spotlight is so taxing and demands multiple justifications for the way your life is being lived and criticized , perhaps you can take the cameras out of your house . " Vinnie Mancuso , writing for The New York Observer , criticized the show and felt : " roughly one iota of shadenfreudic pleasure from this endeavor , but for the most part this show is the 100 % drizzling poops . " David Hinckley of the New York Daily News , reviewing the tenth season , said that " even when you think something about the Kardashians could be interesting , it 's not , " adding that the " entertainment value [ of the show ] is like having spent 10 years in Rapid City , S.D. , watching the traffic lights change . " Amy Amatangelo of The Hollywood Reporter said that " in true Kardashian fashion , they managed to make everything about them , " after Caitlyn Jenner came out as a trans woman to her family in the " About Bruce " special aired as part of the tenth season . Amatangelo felt that the conversations " seemed a little too staged , too controlled , " and noted that " there was no attempt to educate the viewers about transgender issues . " However , several critics were more positive towards the show . Tim Stack , writing for Entertainment Weekly , welcomed the show as a guilty pleasure and described the reality series as : " my favorite little slice of reality TV spongecake . " Lauren Le Vine of Refinery29 appreciated the success of the family which " achieved the American dream of making something out of nothing , " using the given platform . Libby Hill of The A.V. Club also acknowledged the show 's success and said : " Keeping Up With The Kardashians gives us real , joyous , ugly , unsavory , hilarious life , with all the polished sitcom trappings . And though the latter may have launched a multimedia empire , the former has made it last " . Maura Kelly of The Guardian evaluated the aftermath of the failed wedding of Kim Kardashian and Kris Humphries , which was documented on Keeping Up with the Kardashians , and subsequently caused public outrage , including an online protest petition to cancel the show . " Since Kim doesn 't exactly seem to be an exemplar of self @-@ awareness , I suppose it 's possible that she really believed she and Humphries would live happily ever after , " Kelly speculated whether or not the marriage was a publicity stunt . " But more likely , she and E ! are laughing all the way to the bank – 10 @.@ 5 million viewers tuned into " Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event " , after all , " Kelly summarized the controversy . Josh Duboff , writing for Vanity Fair , commented on the show 's long run and said that " it is near impossible to argue that their continued relevance , 10 years later , is anything other than awe @-@ inspiring and remarkable " . = = = Viewership = = = Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been a ratings success for E ! – in its first month it became the highest @-@ rated series aired on Sunday nights for adults 18 – 34 and was seen by 1 @.@ 3 million total viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . Lisa Berger , executive vice president of original programming and series development for E ! , said : " The buzz surrounding the series is huge , and viewers have clearly fallen for the Kardashians . [ … ] Seacrest and Bunim @-@ Murray 's unique ability to capture this family 's one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind dynamics and hilarious antics has made the series a fantastic addition to our prime @-@ time lineup . " The second season continued the success and was viewed by 1 @.@ 6 million viewers on average , which led to a third season renewal . The two @-@ hour fourth season premiere , which aired on November 8 , 2009 , and featured the wedding ceremony of Khloé and Lamar Odom , brought in then @-@ record ratings with 3 @.@ 2 million viewers . The subsequent season debuted with nearly 4 @.@ 7 million total viewers , which ranked as the highest @-@ rated season premiere of the show , as of August 2015 . It was also the second highest @-@ rated episode of Keeping Up with the Kardashians , second only to the previous season 's record @-@ breaking finale with 4 @.@ 8 million viewers . The seventh season premiere of the series , which aired on May 20 , 2012 in its earlier timeslot , continued to deliver high ratings attracting almost three million total viewers which exceeded the premiere of the previous season by 16 % . Kim Kardashian has explained the success of the show by saying that people tune in to watch the series because they can relate themselves to the members of the family ; in an interview with the V magazine she said : " You can see that soap operas aren 't on the air as much anymore . I think reality shows are taking over that genre , but I think the draw to our show is that we are relatable . " The eighth season debuted to 3 million viewers , up 6 % from the previous season , while the subsequent ninth season 's premiere was down by 20 % . The ninth season averaged 3 @.@ 3 million total viewers and almost 2 @.@ 2 million in the 18 – 49 years adult demographic , the most sought after by advertisers . It was the highest rated cable show in its timeslot . The series finished as the most @-@ social ad @-@ supported cable program and , as of March 2015 , Keeping Up with the Kardashians is the most @-@ watched show on E ! network . The first episode of the tenth season averaged 2 @.@ 5 million viewers , slightly less than the premiere of the ninth season . = = Awards and nominations = = Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been nominated for , and won , several television awards . The reality series has received nominations for a Teen Choice Award in the Choice TV : Celebrity Reality Show category eight consecutive times between 2008 and 2015 , winning the award in 2010 , 2013 and 2014 . The show also won a People 's Choice Award as Favorite TV Guilty Pleasure in 2011 . The Kardashian sisters have been nominated as part of the cast for five awards , winning four times ; Kim Kardashian has been nominated for three awards winning one in 2012 . In 2010 , Kris and Caitlyn Jenner received a Teen Choice Award nomination in a one @-@ time Choice TV : Parental Unit category . = = Broadcast history = = Keeping Up with the Kardashians premiered on October 14 , 2007 in the United States on the E ! cable network at 10 : 30 / 9 : 30 pm ET / PT . The half @-@ hour reality series continued to air every Sunday night in the same time slot , and the eight @-@ episode first season of the show concluded on December 2 . The subsequent season premiered the following year on March 9 in an earlier time slot at 10 : 00 / 9 : 00 pm with a repeated episode airing immediately afterwards . The season ended on May 26 , 2008 with an episode " Junk in the Trunk " , which featured the Kardashian siblings sharing the most memorable moments of the season . The third season commenced airing on March 8 , 2009 and concluded with two back @-@ to @-@ back episodes which aired on May 25 . The subsequent season premiered with a two @-@ hour long episode entitled " The Wedding " on November 8 , and ended on February 21 , 2010 ; some of the episodes aired throughout the season were extended to a full hour . The fifth season of Keeping Up with the Kardashians began airing on August 22 , 2010 and concluded with another " Junk in the Trunk " episode on December 20 . The sixth season commenced on June 12 , 2011 and ended with a television special " Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event " which aired two extended episodes on October 9 and 10 . The show later returned on December 19 with the episode " Kendall 's Sweet 16 " . Starting with the seventh season , which premiered on May 20 , 2012 , the half @-@ hour reality series was extended to a full hour in a new 9 : 00 / 8 : 00 pm time slot . The season concluded on October 28 . The eighth season of the series started airing on June 2 , 2013 ; it became the longest season with 21 episodes and ended on December 1 . The ninth and tenth seasons aired in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . The latter season included a television special entitled " About Bruce " which aired on May 17 and 18 , 2015 . The eleventh season premiered on November 15 , one month after the previous season finished . The twelfth season of the show debuted on May 1 , 2016 . = = Home video releases and streaming = = In North America , the first three seasons of the reality series were distributed on DVD . The first season was released on October 7 , 2008 by Lions Gate Entertainment which obtained the home entertainment distribution rights for a variety of programming from Comcast Entertainment Group , including Keeping Up with the Kardashians . The second and third seasons of the series were released on November 10 , 2009 and August 17 , 2010 , respectively . In Australia , all seasons are released on DVD by Universal Sony Pictures . The latest addition , which includes the eleventh season of the show , was released on April 28 , 2016 . In the United Kingdom , the reality series is distributed by Universal Pictures UK . The DVD set of the seventh season , the latest addition , was released on June 24 , 2013 . The episodes of Keeping Up with the Kardashians are also available on numerous streaming video on demand services , such as Amazon Video , iTunes , Google Play , Microsoft Movies & TV , Hulu , and Vudu , as well as the E ! network 's own streaming service .
= Pareh = Pareh ( Sundanese for " rice " ) , released internationally as Pareh , Song of the Rice , is a 1936 film from the Dutch East Indies ( modern day Indonesia ) . Directed by the Dutchmen Albert Balink and Mannus Franken , it featured an amateur native cast and starred Raden Mochtar and Soekarsih . The story follows the forbidden love between a fisherman and a farmer 's daughter . Balink began work on the film in 1934 , working with the Wong brothers , who served as cinematographers . They gathered a budget of 75 @,@ 000 gulden – several times the budget of other local productions – and brought Franken from the Netherlands to assist in production . The film was edited in the Netherlands after being shot in the Indies . The film was a commercial and critical success with European audiences , but disliked by native ones ; despite this success , Pareh bankrupted its producers . Pareh resulted in a change in the cinema of Dutch East Indies , which had been Chinese @-@ oriented for several years ; films began to make more effort at targeting local audiences . Balink later found commercial success with Terang Boelan ( 1937 ) . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider considers Pareh and Terang Boelan the two most important cinematic works from the Dutch East Indies during the 1930s . = = Premise = = Mahmud ( Rd . Mochtar ) , a fisherman , is in love with Wagini ( Soekarsih ) , a farmer 's daughter . However , local superstition dictates that their relationship will bring disaster . This seems to prove true after the village leader 's keris is stolen , but eventually Mahmud and Wagini are able to unite with the help of his fellow villagers . = = Production = = During 1934 and early 1935 , all feature films released in the Dutch East Indies had been produced by The Teng Chun , based on Chinese mythology or martial arts , and targeted at low @-@ class audiences , generally ethnic Chinese . This situation was created by the Great Depression , which had led to the Dutch East Indies government collecting higher taxes , advertisers asking for more money , and cinemas selling tickets at lower prices ; this ensured that there was a very low profit margin for local films . During this period cinemas in the country mainly showed Hollywood productions . Albert Balink , a Dutch journalist , began work on what was to become Pareh in 1934 . Unlike The Teng Chun , the inexperienced Balink chose to target his film at Dutch audiences . He brought in two of the Wong brothers , Chinese filmmakers who had been inactive since making Zuster Theresia ( Sister Theresa ) in 1932 . The Wongs donated their studio – an old tapioca flour factory – as well as filmmaking equipment . Meanwhile , much of the funding came from other backers . According to the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran , the money came from the cinema mogul Buse , while EYE Film Institute records indicate that the film was backed by the Centrale Commissie voor Emigratie en Kolonisatie van Inheemschen and meant to promote migration from Java to Sumatra . Balink and the Wongs spent most of two years compiling the necessary funds , with Balink in charge of general operations as the head of Java Pacific Film , a joint operation . Balink insisted on perfection and had a clear idea what kind of actor he wanted in the film . Unlike earlier filmmakers in the country , Balink invested time and money in searching for the best locations and actors possible , without considering whether a person was already a celebrity . Ultimately , most of those cast for Pareh had not acted before , including stars Mochtar and Soekarsih . The role of Mahmud was filled when Balink was out with coffee with Joshua and Othniel Wong and saw a young man , tall , strong , and handsome – as he expected for the role – driving by . Balink called the Wongs and they got into their car , then chased and caught the young man . The man , Mochtar , a Javanese of noble descent , was told to use the title Raden for the film , which he and his family had already abandoned . According to the Indonesian anthropologist Albertus Budi Susanto , the emphasis on Mochtar 's title was meant as a way to draw a higher @-@ class audience . Artistic direction and some of the screenwriting was handled by Mannus Franken , an avant @-@ garde documentary filmmaker from the Netherlands , whom Balink had brought to the Indies . Franken insisted on including ethnographic shots to better present the local culture to international audiences . Franken took an interest in the documentary and ethnographic aspects of the film , directing the shots for these portions , while the Wongs handled the general shots . According to Biran , this was reflected in the camera angles used . Pareh , which had been recorded on 35 mm film using single @-@ system devices , was brought to the Netherlands for editing . There the original voices of the cast were dubbed by actors in the Netherlands , resulting in stilted language use and heavy Dutch accents . Though initially the filmmakers had planned on using gamelan music , the poor quality of the recording equipment in the Indies led to the soundtrack being redone , using European @-@ style music , in the Netherlands . From start to finish the production of Pareh cost 75 @,@ 000 gulden ( approximately US $ 51 @,@ 000 ) , 20 times as much as a regular local production . After editing there were 2 @,@ 061 metres of film , equivalent to 92 minutes of runtime . = = Release and reception = = Pareh was screened in the Netherlands as Pareh , een Rijstlied van Java ( also noted as Het Lied van de Rijst ) beginning on 20 November 1936 . The film was also shown in the Indies . It was unable to recoup its costs and bankrupted the producers . The film was critically acclaimed in the Netherlands , partially owing to the emphasis of Franken 's involvement . Although it was a commercial success amongst the intelligentsia in the Indies , Pareh was a failure with lower @-@ class native audiences . Mochtar never viewed the film in full . Historical reception of Pareh has generally been positive . Writing in 1955 , the Indonesian author and cultural critic Armijn Pane opined that Pareh was technically unparalleled in contemporary Indies cinema , with careful continuity and dynamic cuts . He was critical , however , of the film 's tendency to see the Indies ' native population through European eyes and depict them as " primitive " . The American film historian John Lent , writing in 1990 , described Pareh as a " meticulously detailed and costly " film which attempted to not only earn money , but show the local culture . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider considers Pareh one of the two most important cinematic works from the Dutch East Indies during the 1930s ; Balink 's later work Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ; 1937 ) was the other . Heider , John H. McGlynn , and Salim Said note that the film was of acceptable technical quality but is best remembered for changing the path of cinematic developments in the country . = = Legacy = = The release of Pareh was followed by a shift in genres popularised by the local cinema . The Teng Chun , who – together with Balink – continued to be the only active filmmaker in the country until 1937 , began focusing on more modern stories and those which would be popular with native audiences . Biran suggests that this was influenced by Pareh . Other filmmakers in the late 1930s , partially inspired by Pareh , began to improve the quality of the audio in their films . Pane notes that , following Pareh , films produced domestically no longer centred around ethnic European casts . Mochtar and Soekarsih , who first met on the set of Pareh , married after appearing together in Terang Boelan . This later production included much of the same cast and was highly successful , leading to a renewed interest in filmmaking in the Indies . Terang Boelan proved to be the most successful local production until 1953 's Krisis ( Crisis ) , released after Indonesia had become independent .
= Pilot ( Will & Grace ) = " Pilot " ( also known as " Love and Marriage " ) is the first episode of Will & Grace 's first season . It was written by David Kohan and Max Mutchnick , and directed by James Burrows . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on September 21 , 1998 . In the episode , Grace Adler receives an unexpected marriage proposal from her boyfriend . Her gay best friend Will Truman tries to support her , but finally tells her that she is making a big mistake , even though he risks losing their friendship . The situation gets complicated when Grace 's socialite assistant , Karen Walker , and Will 's flamboyantly gay friend , Jack McFarland , interfere . Kohan and Mutchnick based the show on their own lives ; for example , Mutchnick , who is openly gay , based the relationship between Will and Grace on his real @-@ life relationship with a woman named Janet . When the pilot was pitched to NBC , the network was positive about the project . There was still some concern , however , that the homosexual subject matter would cause alarm , since the sitcom Ellen was canceled because ratings had plummeted after the show became " too gay " . Since airing , the pilot episode of Will & Grace has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 6 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 4 million viewing households . = = Plot = = The episode begins with gay lawyer Will Truman ( Eric McCormack ) talking on the phone with his best friend , heterosexual Jewish interior designer Grace Adler ( Debra Messing ) , about their lives . The following day , Will hosts a poker game at his apartment with his friends , when Grace arrives and informs Will she just had an argument with her long @-@ term boyfriend , Danny ( Tom Verica ) . After the game is over , Will insists that Grace spend the night — much to the displeasure of Will 's flamboyantly gay friend , Jack McFarland ( Sean Hayes ) , who was planning to move in with Will temporarily . Later at her office , Grace Adler Designs , Grace tells her socialite assistant Karen Walker ( Megan Mullally ) about her argument with Danny . Karen tells Grace to make up with him , explaining to Grace that Danny is a " good catch " . After staying another night with Will , Grace decides to end her relationship with Danny . However , when she tries to end things she receives an unexpected marriage proposal from him , which she accepts . After the proposal , Grace goes to Will 's apartment and asks for his blessing . Will attempts to be supportive of her decision , but finally tells her that Danny is not right for her . Grace informs Will that she does not need his blessing , and that she is going to marry Danny regardless . Will shows up at Grace Adler Designs the following day to apologize . Karen reveals to Will that Grace has gone to City Hall to get married . However , Grace shows up at her office and informs Will that she left Danny at the altar . Will takes Grace out for a drink and reassures her that she will find someone eventually . = = Production = = = = = Conception = = = Will & Grace creators Max Mutchnick and David Kohan based the show on their own lives . Mutchnick , who is openly gay , based the relationship between Will and Grace on his real @-@ life relationship with a woman named Janet . Originally , Mutchnick and Kohan first went to the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) , who told them to create a television series about a new young love story , as Mad About You was going off the air . The character of Will was part of a sitcom Mutchnick and Kohan first pitched to NBC executives in 1997 . The original concept was an ensemble comedy featuring three couples , one of which was a gay man living with a straight woman . Warren Littlefield , the executive vice president of NBC at the time , was not excited about the first two couples , but wanted to learn more about the gay and straight couple , so Mutchnick and Kohan was sent to create a pilot script centering on those two characters . NBC went to sitcom director James Burrows to see what he thought of the homosexual subject matter and if an audience would be interested in the show . Burrows liked the idea and when he first read the script in November 1997 , he decided that he wanted to direct it . Burrows said , " I knew that the boys had captured a genre and a group of characters I have never read before . " The filming of the pilot began in March 1998 . The actors who played Will and Grace , Eric McCormack and Debra Messing , were positive about the series and they thought it had the potential to last on television . McCormack said , " When shooting was finished that night , Debra and I were sitting on the couch and looking at each other and I said , ‘ We ’ re gonna be on this set for a while . ’ And we sort of clasped hands , but we didn ’ t want to say anything beyond that and jinx it . " NBC were positive about the project , but there was still some concern that the homosexual subject matter would cause alarm . Ellen DeGeneres ' sitcom Ellen that aired on ABC was canceled the year before Will & Grace premiered because ratings had plummeted after the show became " too gay " . Despite the criticism ABC received for DeGeneres ' coming out episode , " The Puppy Episode " , " there 's no question that show made it easier for Will & Grace to make it on the air , " said Kohan . He added , " Will & Grace had a better shot at succeeding where Ellen failed , however , because Will has known about his homosexuality for twenty years . He 's not exploring that awkward territory for the first time as Ellen did . The process of self @-@ discovery and the pain most gay men go through is fascinating , but the average American is put off by it . " Kohan also commented that rather than concentrating on Will 's sexuality , Will & Grace is using it as a device : " It 's like that When Harry Met Sally ... line when Billy Crystal says , ' A man and woman can never be friends , because sex always gets in the way . ' What we want to explore is what happens between a man and a woman when sex doesn 't get in the way . " = = = Cast and characters = = = Mutchnick said Will was originally going to be named Will Herman ( " her man " ) because the staff wanted to use names that " speak exactly to the essence " of the characters . However , they changed it to Truman ( " true man " ) since they thought it was more accurate , as Will " really lives his life in an honest way " . John Barrowman was one of the final candidates for the role of Will , but was rejected because he " wasn 't gay enough " . The part instead went to Eric McCormack , who revealed that taking the role was not difficult because he liked the concept of a gay show not being about the " issues " of being gay . Having played gay characters several times in his career , McCormack did not have a problem with it and thought his character could become a " poster boy for some gay movement " , like DeGeneres became a spokesperson with her character . He explained that when he first read the script , " what hit me immediately was that this was me . I mean , sexual orientation aside , Will was so much like me . He 's a great host , he 's relatively funny and he has great friends and he 's a good friend to them ... the gay issue just wasn 't really a big thing . " McCormack was also the first actor to be cast . In response to the relationship between Will and Grace , McCormak said that gay men and straight women have " more fun than anybody " in their relationships ; " Straight guys like me are jealous because of how much fun they have . We can show the audience part of that . " Mutchnick , in regards of Debra Messing 's character , said : " Grace doesn 't fall into any of those categories that have stereotyped Jewish women . She 's strong , she 's pretty and she 's a proud Jewish woman . " Mutchnick revealed that Nicollette Sheridan was originally brought in to read the part of Grace , but even though she did a " great job " , her performance was " too desperate " . Mutchnick and Kohan decided to cast Messing in the role instead , who at the time was starring in ABC 's drama Prey . After her first meeting with them , Messing was not convinced she wanted the role . Messing revealed that Mutchnick and Kohan showed up at her home with a bottle of vodka ; " They poured me several shots , we spoke for several hours and they pitched me the show . I 'm a lightweight . I didn 't need much to be a little giddy . By the end of the evening , they said , ' Will you do it ? ' I said , ' Let 's talk tomorrow . ' " They called her the next day to inform her that they " loved her " and asked " if she 'd made up her mind " . Messing still did not make her mind up . However , the following day , she called Mutchnick and Kohan and accepted the role . In discussion of the character , Messing said : " I have a lot more confidence and I 'm much more relaxed . I feel comfortable that Grace will be a character I 'll enjoy doing for a long time . " She later , however , admitted that director Burrows was the reason for doing Will & Grace . Messing was the last actor to be cast . Sean Hayes was cast in the role of Jack . When a NBC casting executive saw Hayes 's role in the indie gay romance film Billy 's Hollywood Screen Kiss , he sent the script to Hayes , who was attending the 1997 Sundance Film Festival in Utah . Even though Hayes enjoyed the script when he read it , he threw it away as he did not want to spend money on a plane ticket to Los Angeles for the audition . However , a few weeks later when Hayes was in Los Angeles , he was sent the script again and decided try out for the audition . If asked if he regrets accepting the role , Hayes said : " If you 're truly an actor , in the long run ... I don 't know that I would have done it either . I think of all the things that I still want to do , and I don 't know if I 'll get to do them . " However , he admits that he " love [ s ] " the idea that people assume that he is either gay or straight . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Hayes admitted that people believe he is Jack " 24 hours a day " . Before Megan Mullally was given the role of Karen , she had previously been cast as a series regular on sitcoms such as The Ellen Burstyn Show , My Life and Times , and Rachel Gunn . Mullally guest starred on many other shows , including Ned & Stacey , on which she first worked with Messing . Mullally informed her agent that she did not want to do any more sitcoms or auditions for sitcoms , during the time that Will & Grace came around . " Because my feeling was , like , Look , I 've done it . It 's not clicking . It 's not for me . But he [ her agent ] was always arguing the point that the right thing hadn 't come along yet . " She initially auditioned for the role of Grace , but admitted that she did not want to audition for the part of Karen . When asked about Karen 's voice , Mullally revealed that the voice was an " instinctive thing " . She also said , " ... I think it was just a feeling that I had that it would be better for the pace of the show and it would be funnier in some way , but I didn 't know why . Karen has a lot of joy , even when she 's in a bad mood . She 's pretty much happy with who she is , and that is something I think is a great thing to play , because the character of Karen could have been very unlikeable , and I think she 's likeable because she has joy and she can be very childlike . " = = Reception = = The episode was first broadcast in the United States on NBC on Monday , September 21 , 1998 , in the 9 : 30 – 10 p.m. ( PST ) timeslot . In its original American broadcast , the pilot tied with Working for forty @-@ first place in ratings for the week of September 21 – 27 , 1998 . With a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 6 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 4 million viewing households , it was the fifteenth highest @-@ rated show on NBC the week it aired . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Joyce Millman of Salon Entertainment said the episode has " glimmers of class " and the jokes are " relatively sophisticated " . John Carman of the San Francisco Chronicle commented that Burrows 's direction was " sharp as usual " and the writing was " above average " . Brian Lambert of the St. Paul Pioneer Press said the pilot was " nicely staged by veteran director Jimmy Burrows , and coming from a couple producers , Max Mutchnick and David Cohan , who assisted Boston Common and Dream On , the show – which is to say the pilot episode ( everything could go to hell next week ) – has the best verbal interplay of any of the season 's new sitcoms . " William Horn from the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) thought the episode was a " wonderful " representation of a gay man 's life " regardless of whether he 's in a relationship in that very moment . I think it 's important that American audiences realize that lesbians and gay men are not simply all about sexual situations . " Ellen Gray of the Chicago Tribune was also positive about the show : " For those who believe that Hollywood 's engaging in a conspiracy to ' normalize ' a sexual orientation that many Americans still find abhorrent , Will & Grace will look like a candy @-@ coated poison pill . To those who think that Hollywood isn 't moving fast enough in offering sexual parity for gays , it may just look like poison . But ... there 's a large audience out there that 's somewhere in the mushy middle , an audience that might be ready to embrace Will & Grace . " The actors ' performances were praised by several critics . Carman thought McCormack and Messing worked " nicely " together , and called the supporting cast " an asset " . Kay Mcfadden of the Seattle Times also praised McCormack , Messing and the supporting cast as " very funny " . Robert Laurence of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune wrote : " Messing and McCormack play wonderfully together , tossing lines back and forth as if they 'd been at it for years , making their relationship quite believable . Sean Hayes , as the flamboyantly gay Jack , adds to the mix . Jack is flighty , temperamental , good @-@ humored and highly likable . " A reviewer for USA Today said he thought it would be nice to see Will have a " full life of his own " , and not just serve as a " love @-@ life adviser " to Grace and Jack . " I know it won 't happen soon ; NBC is so skittish about the so @-@ called Ellen ' gay show ' stigma , it 's gone to Herculean lengths to avoid mentioning Will 's sexuality . But a grace period can only last so long . " The episode received less positive reviews as well . Rahul Gairola of PopMatters wrote that while " the pilot lays the usual groundwork by showing how the characters ' lives are intertwined , it also demonstrates immediately the sitcom 's major drawback , that the stereotypical gay character is the stand @-@ out comic figure . " A reviewer for the Los Angeles Times said " there 's something not quite right about this show 's approach to homosexuality ... It has everything to do with Will 's attitude . It approaches asexual , his gayness appearing to exist solely as a device to give him the moral authority to repeatedly ridicule the mincing manner of his bandanna @-@ wearing homosexual friend , Jack , without being labeled homophobic . " Suite101.com 's Hana Lewis thought it was " regrettable " that the pilot 's jokes revolved " solely around gay stereotypes and sexual innuendo " . Some reviewers were also skeptical about the future of the show . One such review said , " If Will & Grace can somehow survive a brutal time period opposite football and Ally McBeal , it could grow into a reasonably entertaining little anomaly — that is , a series about a man and a woman who have no sexual interest in one another . But don 't bet on it . If it 's a doomed relationships viewers want , they 'll probably opt for Ally . "
= Wayzata Bay Center = Wayzata Bay Center was an enclosed shopping mall in Wayzata , Minnesota , a suburb of the Twin Cities . Wayzata Bay Center once comprised 127 @,@ 000 square feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space , with approximately 30 stores on one level , but closed in 2011 after the city of Wayzata agreed upon constructing a new facility on the same land . The mall was once owned by Madison Marquette until residents of the city purchased the mall for $ 16 million in December 2004 . Opened in 1967 , Wayzata Bay Center was constructed in two phases ; the first phase was completed in 1964 while the second phase was completed in 1967 . The mall initially featured several regional retailers , along with small businesses , but eventually made way for various national chains , including The Original Pancake House and True Value . After increasing vacancies throughout the center in the 2000s , a Minnesota construction firm purchased the center from United Properties for $ 16 million in 2009 . Following the firm 's purchase in 2011 , the mall was shut and torn down to make way for a mixed @-@ use retail and residential community center . = = History = = Wayzata Bay Center was constructed in two different phases in Wayzata , Minnesota . The center was built on top of several wetlands , which were filled in with dirt and concrete to create land suitable for development . The northern phase of the mall was completed in 1964 while the southern phase of the mall was finished in 1967 . The construction of the center cost $ 1 @.@ 5 million , contained 1 @,@ 200 parking spaces , and was anchored by a Country Club Market grocery store . For many years , the mall offered a seasonal trolley car that shuttled shoppers around the facilities ; this service was eventually discontinued in the late 1990s . The mall did not receive any significant remodeling or renovations until 1980 , when four outparcels were constructed in the parking lot of the mall . The outparcels were housed by several restaurants and a Goodyear location . In 2002 , Wayzata Bay Center experienced several store closings within its facilities ; the vacancy rate of the mall increased from 13 to 33 percent in just two years . In June 2004 , the City of Wayzata announced plans to tear down half of the mall , renovating the remaining half , and constructing four condominium buildings on the property . Within the same plan included the possible addition of a grocery store to the mall ; Madison Marquette hinted at the opening of a Whole Foods Market or a Trader Joe 's store . However , these plans fell through when Madison Marquette sold the mall . Owners of The Foursome , a tenant of Wayzata Bay Center since 1967 , purchased the mall in December of the same year after the mall 's previous owner , a German @-@ based developer , abandoned any redevelopment plans for the site . After the redevelopment of the mall was approved in 2008 , The Foursome closed its 30 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 800 m2 ) location and moved to nearby Plymouth , Minnesota . Several other businesses closed in 2009 , resulting in an even higher vacancy rate at Wayzata Bay Center . = = Closure = = Despite regularly hosting several local events and art shows throughout the years , significant discussion of the mall 's closure occurred in 2004 and 2005 . The mall 's owner at the time , Madison Marquette , announced plans to " upgrade and enhance " the shopping center , to appear more attractive to businesses and customers . The supposed enhancement plans included removing the enclosed spaces of the mall , but these plans were never carried out . After talks of closure for years , Wayzata Bay Center closed its doors on August 15 , 2011 . Demolition began shortly after in April 2012 , when all stores in the mall had either relocated or closed . The Original Pancake House , a restaurant , was the final tenant to close in the mall . The restaurant , a tenant of the center since 1994 , relocated to neighboring Plymouth , while Adele 's Frozen Custard , a tenant in the mall since 2009 , closed their Wayzata location entirely . Among the mall 's other final tenants were a True Value hardware store , a jewelry store , a health food store , and a furniture store . When the center was demolished , development began for a senior living facility with mixed retail and office space use . After several months of delays and halts from the city council , construction of the development began in June 2013 . The new development , entitled The Promenade , is expected to be fully completed in 2016 . When the new project was complete , Presbyterian Homes , the company that purchased the land for redevelopment , referred to the project as " ambitious " and thanked the City of Wayzata for their cooperation throughout the process . The new development consists of several different uses , including senior housing , condominiums , a boutique hotel , and office and retail space .
= California State Route 46 = State Route 46 ( SR 46 ) is an east – west state highway in the U.S. state of California . It is a major crossing of the Coast Ranges , connecting SR 1 on the Central Coast near Cambria and US 101 in Paso Robles with SR 99 at Famoso in the San Joaquin Valley . East of Paso Robles , where it carried U.S. Route 466 until 1964 , SR 46 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , though it is mostly a two @-@ lane highway . The highway from SR 1 to SR 41 near Cholame is an eligible State Scenic Highway , but has not been designated as such . The road that is now SR 46 was built and improved during the 1920s and was fully paved by 1930 . The majority of SR 46 was originally designated as U.S. Route 466 ; however , after the latter was entirely removed from the U.S. Highway system , the eastern portion of the route became SR 46 . = = Route description = = State Route 46 begins at SR 1 southeast of Cambria , about one mile ( 2 km ) from the Pacific Ocean . It heads east as the Eric Seastrand Highway across the Santa Lucia Range on a relatively straight roadway built in the 1970s , bypassing the steep , curvy Santa Rosa Creek Road . After passing near several wineries , this first segment ends at US 101 north of Templeton , where SR 46 turns north , overlapping the US 101 freeway through the valley formed by the Salinas River to central Paso Robles . Immediately after splitting from US 101 , SR 46 crosses the Salinas River , passing near the Paso Robles Municipal Airport , and then heads east through a hilly area with several wineries and the community of Whitley Gardens . It then runs partially alongside the Estrella River to a merge with SR 41 near Shandon and a rest area . There , it turns northeast , following Cholame Creek through Cholame Pass between the Cholame Hills and Temblor Range to the settlement of Cholame and the split with SR 41 . After crossing into Kern County , the highway continues to rise as it heads east up the Antelope Grade to a summit near Bluestone Ridge before descending through Polonio Pass into the Antelope Valley , an arm of the San Joaquin Valley . Once it enters the San Joaquin Valley , SR 46 , known as the Paso Robles Highway , follows an almost perfectly straight eastward alignment , crossing SR 33 at Blackwells Corner , passing through the Lost Hills Oil Field , and intersecting I @-@ 5 about two miles ( 3 km ) past Lost Hills and the crossing of the California Aqueduct . SR 46 then passes through the Semitropic Oil Field about seven miles west of Wasco . SR 46 and SR 43 overlap for a short distance in the city of Wasco , and then SR 46 passes over Calloway Canal and Friant Canal before it ends at SR 99 in Famoso . The county @-@ maintained Famoso Road continues east across SR 65 and into the Sierra Nevada foothills . = = History = = As part of the second state highway bond issue , approved by the state 's voters in 1916 , Route 33 was created , linking the San Joaquin Valley trunk ( Route 4 , now SR 99 ) near Bakersfield with the coast trunk ( Route 2 , now US 101 in Paso Robles , passing through the Coast Ranges via Cholame Pass . The road was not yet built in 1919 , when the Automobile Blue Book recommended only the county @-@ maintained " very poor road " ( now SR 58 ) via Simmler as a connection between the valley and Central Coast . By 1925 , the Cholame Pass highway had been improved , and paving was completed in December 1930 . An extension west to Route 56 ( now SR 1 ) near Cambria was added in 1933 ; however , it ran along Santa Rosa Creek Road , north of today 's alignment . The state sign route system was established in 1934 , but the majority of Route 33 did not receive a state route designation , instead becoming part of the new U.S. Route 466 . However , US 466 turned southwest from Cholame Pass along Legislative Route 125 ( modern SR 41 ) to Morro Bay . Sign Route 41 , which followed Legislative Route 125 northeast of Cholame , continued along Route 33 west to the coast . However , Route 125 had still not been paved between Cholame and Atascadero by the 1950s , and so US 466 was moved to the longer but better @-@ quality Route 33 via Paso Robles , replacing SR 41 to Paso Robles and overlapping US 101 to Atascadero . As SR 41 had not been signed over the unpaved road west of Paso Robles , it was truncated to Cholame . US 466 was eliminated in the 1964 renumbering , becoming SR 46 east from Paso Robles . However , instead of going south and west to Morro Bay , SR 46 continued west to Cambria , and the road via Creston and Atascadero to Morro Bay ( which had since been paved ) became part of SR 41 . A new two @-@ lane expressway carrying SR 46 west from Paso Robles was built in the mid @-@ 1970s , replacing Santa Rosa Creek Road . The two @-@ lane stretch from Paso Robles to Cholame was once known as " Blood Alley " for the large number of car crashes , mainly head @-@ on collisions , among the high volume of commuters , truckers , and tourists . Between 2000 and 2010 , a total of 38 people have died . As of 2016 , Blood Alley was widened to a four lane expressway from the junction of US 101 to just east of the west junction of SR 41 , near the town of Shandon . The east junction of the SR 46 - SR 41 split , is named after actor James Dean , who was killed in a car accident near this site on September 30 , 1955 . The current intersection is now marked as the James Dean Memorial Junction . The junction was officially dedicated as the James Dean Memorial Junction on September 30 , 2005 , as part of the State of California 's official commemoration of the 50th anniversary of Dean 's death . However , this is not the actual intersection where the accident occurred , contrary to popular belief . The accident scene is approximately 100 feet to the south of the current intersection , where the road use to be . The California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) carried out an interim safety project in December 1995 , mandating daytime headlights and installing thermoplastic striping and rumble strips . Caltrans has plans to start widening the section between SR 33 and I @-@ 5 in 2017 . There are also plans to upgrade SR 46 west of this segment and build an interchange at the James Dean Memorial Junction ( SR 41 North ) . = = Major intersections = = Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Discipline ( Nine Inch Nails song ) = " Discipline " is a single by American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails . It is the band 's first single since severing its ties with Interscope Records and publishing music independently . Unlike previous NIN singles , no physical release of the song was issued . The song was first released to radio stations on April 22 , 2008 , sent by Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor . The MP3 download contains an embedded album art image , full lyrics , and the comment : " Go to www.nin.com May 5 " . Subsequently on May 5 , 2008 a new Nine Inch Nails album , The Slip , was revealed for download . " Discipline " charted on Billboard 's Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks and Hot Modern Rock Tracks charts , and was Nine Inch Nails ' sixth consecutive top ten single on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . = = Recording = = Nine Inch Nails front man Trent Reznor announced in 2007 that the band had completed its contractual obligations to its record label , Interscope Records , and would no longer be working with the company . Reznor also revealed that Nine Inch Nails would likely distribute music independently . Since the announcement , Nine Inch Nails released the 36 @-@ track instrumental album Ghosts I – IV in March 2008 on Reznor 's independent label The Null Corporation . After the release of Ghosts , Reznor began writing and recording what would become the next full @-@ length album , The Slip . During recording sessions for The Slip , Reznor sent the track " Discipline " to radio stations himself on April 22 . The track was sent before the remainder of the album was completed , and less than 24 hours after the track had been mastered by Alan Moulder . On the same day , the track was also made available for download at the official Nine Inch Nails website for free , as well as multitrack files of the song for remixing . Reznor reflected on the quick turnaround by saying " that was fun [ ... ] you never could have done that before " , referring to his past career on major record labels . " Discipline " was the first Nine Inch Nails single to be released independently via The Null Corporation . = = Music and lyrics = = The largely electronic instrumentation of " Discipline " has been compared to Depeche Mode , Bauhaus , Siouxsie and the Banshees , and Giorgio Moroder . Rolling Stone magazine described the track as " the closest Reznor has ever come to disco , right down to a splashing high @-@ hat , boosted way up in the mix " . Eric Harvey of Pitchfork Media also compared the song to disco , saying that the song " eschews a typically monstrous chorus for an airtight industrial disco grind ventilated by an airy piano and falsetto cooing . " Lyrically , Spin magazine wrote that " As is true of nine out of every ten NIN tracks , ' Discipline ' is about submission and domination " . Harvey compared " Discipline " to one Nine Inch Nails 's first singles , " Head Like a Hole " , saying " [ ' Discipline ' ] comes from a long @-@ established and now label @-@ free artist trying to reflexively reassert his position in the pop landscape , on his own terms . [ ... ] ' Discipline ' evinces Reznor 's desire for some sort of framework [ ... ] In relative terms , ' I need your discipline / I need your help ' is sure a long way from the nearly 20 @-@ year @-@ old ' Head Like a Hole ' refrain ' I 'd rather die / Than give you control ' . " = = Release and reception = = " Discipline " was released on April 22 , 2008 , and was the first single from The Slip . The song was also the first single released from the band under Reznor 's newly formed independent label , The Null Corporation . The ID3 tag of the downloadable track came with the message " Go to www.nin.com May 5 " , the day that The Slip would eventually be released as a free download . " Discipline " was only made available for airplay and download ; a physical release was never issued . Though no music video was created for the song either , retail versions of The Slip included a DVD featuring a live @-@ rehearsal of the song by the Nine Inch Nails live band . The rehearsal video has since been posted on the band 's official Vimeo and YouTube pages . The song was written and composed by Trent Reznor , and produced by Alan Moulder and Atticus Ross . Like the entirety of The Slip , " Discipline " was released under a Creative Commons attribution @-@ noncommercial share @-@ alike license , in effect allowing anyone to use or rework the material for any non @-@ profit purpose , as long as credit is provided and the resulting work is released under a similar license . " Discipline " reached number six and number 24 on Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks and Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks charts , respectively , and failed to top any charts . The song was the band 's sixth consecutive top ten single on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart , but had no involvement at Top 5 . The song also charted at number nine on Billboard 's " iLike Libraries : Most Added " chart , which tracks total downloads over the iLike online service . Pitchfork Media 's review of The Slip called the track " another solid pop song about constraint from the guy who , following Prince , brought kinky sex odes to strip @-@ mall bars . " Spin magazine 's review of the album called " Discipline " " the most conventional tune " from The Slip . = = Track list = = " Discipline " ( Trent Reznor ) – 4 : 30 = = Chart positions = =
= Maryland Route 537 = Maryland Route 537 ( MD 537 ) is a collection of unsigned state highways in the U.S. state of Maryland . These three existing highways and a former section of state highway are segments of old alignment of U.S. Route 213 ( US 213 ) , which is now MD 213 , in Chesapeake City in southern Cecil County . Some of the roads that became segments of MD 537 were constructed in the mid @-@ 1910s as part of the original state road between Elkton and Cecilton . Other portions of MD 537 were part of the approach roads to a bridge across the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal that was built in the mid @-@ 1920s and destroyed in 1942 . After the modern Chesapeake City Bridge and its approach roads were completed in 1949 , US 213 was moved to the new bridge and approach roads and MD 537 was assigned to the bypassed sections of US 213 . Much of MD 537 outside of Chesapeake City was transferred to county maintenance in the late 1950s . = = Route description = = There are three existing sections of MD 537 and one former section of the highway . MD 537A was and MD 537B is north of the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal , and MD 537C and MD 537D are south of the canal . This description runs north to south starting from the north end of the Chesapeake City area : MD 537A ran 1 @.@ 61 miles ( 2 @.@ 59 km ) between a pair of intersections with US 213 ( Augustine Herman Highway ) , between which was a third intersection with the highway , north of Chesapeake City . The highway split from the U.S. Highway on a tangent along Knights Corner Road . MD 537A turned west onto Elk Forest Road , crossed to the west side of US 213 , and turned south onto Spears Hill Road . The highway followed that road to its southern terminus at US 213 north of Long Creek . MD 537B begins at MD 285 , which heads east along Biddle Street toward Delaware and north along Lock Street toward Elkton . The highway heads south along Lock Street for 0 @.@ 06 miles ( 0 @.@ 097 km ) to Canal Road along the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal . The 0 @.@ 01 miles ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) of MD 537B closest to the canal is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers instead of the Maryland State Highway Administration . MD 537B originally followed Lock Street a further 0 @.@ 57 miles ( 0 @.@ 92 km ) out of the town limits to MD 213 at the north end of the Chesapeake City Bridge along what is now MD 285 . MD 537C runs 0 @.@ 49 miles ( 0 @.@ 79 km ) from the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal south to MD 213 . The highway begins at a dead end at the canal just north of 1st Street in the South Chesapeake City Historic District . MD 537C follows George Street through an intersection with the western end of MD 286 ( 2nd Street ) . The highway has an acute junction with the northern end of MD 342 ( St. Augustine Road ) and an orthogonal intersection with MD 537D . South of MD 537D , MD 537C reaches its southern terminus at right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange ramps with northbound MD 213 at the south end of the Chesapeake City Bridge at the Chesapeake City town limit . MD 537D begins at MD 342 and heads west as an unnamed road through an intersection with MD 537C . The highway passes under the Chesapeake City Bridge and curves south to an intersection with the right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange ramps with southbound MD 213 . MD 537D reaches its southern terminus 0 @.@ 02 miles ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) south of the town limit of Chesapeake City . The roadway continues as county @-@ maintained Basil Avenue . MD 537D formerly continued south 0 @.@ 86 miles ( 1 @.@ 38 km ) along Basil Avenue to US 213 at Bohemia Manor High School . = = History = = The Cecilton – Elkton highway was one of the original state roads the Maryland State Roads Commission designated for improvement in 1909 . The portion of the highway from Elkton to the north town limit of Chesapeake City was constructed as a 14 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) macadam road between 1911 and 1914 . The highway through Chesapeake City and south toward Cecilton was completed as a 14 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) concrete road in 1915 . At that time , the main highway from the north used Knights Corner Road , Elk Forest Road , and Spears Hill Road , entered Chesapeake City along Hemphill Street , crossed the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal on a one @-@ lane bridge , turned west and crossed Back Creek on a wooden bridge , turned south onto Bohemia Street in South Chesapeake City , turned west onto Third Street , and turned south onto George Street to the south end of town , from which the highway followed Basil Avenue toward Cecilton . In the 1920s , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers widened , straightened , and deepened the canal . As part of their work , the agency constructed a vertical lift bridge across the canal . Between 1924 and 1926 , the Maryland State Roads Commission constructed approaches to the new bridge on both sides of the expanded canal , eliminating two narrow and dangerous bridges and four right @-@ angle turns in Chesapeake City . The new route along George Street and Lock Street , which became part of US 213 in 1927 and is now MD 285 and MD 537 , entirely bypassed what is now MD 284 . After the tanker Franz Klasen ' destroyed the verticle lift bridge on July 28 , 1942 , the Maryland State Roads Commission established a ferry service across the canal . Between 1946 and 1949 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers constructed the present tied arch Chesapeake City Bridge and new approach roads to the bridge . US 213 was moved to the new Chesapeake City Bridge , and MD 537 was assigned to the bypassed portions of highway approaching and within Chesapeake City . On May 8 , 1958 , the Maryland State Roads Commission and Cecil County signed a road transfer agreement to turn maintenance of the approach roads outside the town of Chesapeake City to county maintenance . These roads included all of MD 537A , most of MD 537D , and much of MD 537B . The portion of MD 537B from US 213 to the north town limit was returned to state maintenance through an August 22 , 1961 , road transfer agreement . All three segments of MD 537 were resurfaced with bituminous concrete in 1976 . The intersection of MD 537B and MD 284 was transformed from a tangent intersection to the present orthogonal intersection in 1982 . The following year , the state highway numbers in Chesapeake City achieved their present form when the portion of MD 537B between MD 213 and MD 285 's then western terminus at the intersection of Biddle and Lock streets was renumbered as an extension of MD 285 . = = Junction lists = = The route progression in these tables is south to north . = = = MD 537B = = = The entire route is in Chesapeake City , Cecil County . = = = MD 537C = = = The entire route is in Chesapeake City , Cecil County . = = = MD 537D = = = The entire route is in Chesapeake City , Cecil County .
= Jermain Taylor = Jermain Taylor ( born August 11 , 1978 ) is an American former professional boxer . He remains the last undisputed middleweight champion , having unified the WBA , WBC , IBF , WBO , The Ring magazine and lineal titles in 2005 by beating Bernard Hopkins . This made Taylor the first boxer to ever claim each title from all four major boxing sanctioning organizations . He is also a two @-@ time former IBF middleweight champion , having won the title for a second time in 2014 . Taylor made his professional debut in 2001 and won his first 25 bouts , which included victories over former champions Raúl Márquez and William Joppy . Taylor , who began boxing officially at age 13 , earned numerous accolades throughout his amateur career , starting with his achievement of the 1996 Under @-@ 19 Championship . He went on to win a pair of Police Athletic League ( PAL ) Championships and National Golden Gloves titles and he finished second and third at the 1997 and 1998 United States Championships , respectively . In 1998 , Taylor won a bronze medal at the Goodwill Games . Then , in 2000 , he earned a spot on the U.S. Olympic boxing team , becoming the first boxer from Arkansas ever to compete in the Olympic Games . Competing at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney , Australia , Taylor ended up winning the bronze medal . During his reign as unified middleweight champion , Taylor won a rematch against Hopkins and defeated Kassim Ouma and Cory Spinks , as well as fighting Winky Wright to a draw . = = Professional career = = In December 2000 , Taylor signed with boxing promoter Lou DiBella . Pat Burns became Taylor 's trainer as a professional and Ozell Nelson became an assistant . He made his professional boxing debut on January 27 , 2001 , at Madison Square Garden in New York City against Chris Walsh . Taylor managed to knock Walsh down twice with his right hand and won his debut after forcing a stoppage with 16 seconds left in the fourth and final round . He went on to fight six more times in 2001 , resulting in six more victories . Taylor continued his winning streak through 2002 and 2003 , before defeating Alex Bunema on March 27 , 2004 . Taylor 's next bout occurred on June 19 , 2004 against former IBF Light Middleweight Champion Raúl Márquez . Taylor controlled the fight by using his jab and right hand throughout the one @-@ sided contest . Near the end of the ninth round , Taylor landed a right uppercut that staggered Márquez . A follow @-@ up right hand put Márquez down just before the bell rung to end the round . Soon after Márquez arrived to his corner , his trainer told the referee to stop the fight , resulting in a technical knockout victory for Taylor . On December 4 , 2004 , Taylor fought former WBA Middleweight Champion William Joppy in his hometown of Little Rock . For the majority of the fight , Joppy made the more aggressive Taylor chase him , while landing few punches and seeming more content to frustrate Taylor . Taylor landed several punches early in the fight and knocked Joppy down in the fifth round en route to a unanimous decision victory with scores of 120 – 107 from all three judges . In his next bout , Taylor fought Daniel Edouard on February 19 , 2005 . In the third round , Taylor landed a 10 @-@ punch combination that hurt Edouard to the point that the referee decided to stop the fight . = = = Fights with Hopkins = = = Taylor fought Bernard Hopkins for the Undisputed Middleweight Championship on July 16 , 2005 at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas , Nevada . At age 40 , Hopkins entered the bout with a record 20 consecutive successful title defenses and had not lost a fight in 12 years . Hopkins entered the boxing match as a 3 – 2 favorite to win . Taylor was able to successfully use his jab to control the first two rounds of the fight , though neither fighter was taking any major risks . He tended to move forward , while Hopkins was patient and waited for openings in Taylor 's defense . In round five , a clash of heads opened a cut on the top of Taylor 's head . In the tenth round , Hopkins hurt Taylor with two right hands that made his legs wobble and forced him to clinch . Taylor won the bout by split decision with two judges scoring the fight 115 – 113 for Taylor and the other judge scoring it 116 – 112 for Hopkins . With the victory , Taylor became the new Undisputed Middleweight Champion , winning the WBC , WBO , IBF , WBA ( Super ) Middleweight titles and The Ring Middleweight Championship . Hopkins appealed the decision , but was denied by the Nevada State Athletic Commission . On December 3 , 2005 , Taylor defeated Hopkins by unanimous decision in a rematch at the Mandalay Bay Resort & Casino in Las Vegas . In order for the rematch to occur , Taylor vacated his IBF Middleweight title on October 11 , 2005 . Days before the fight , tensions rose after Hopkins mocked Taylor 's speech impediment and called him a " phony champion . " Taylor responded by bringing a doll with Hopkins ' name on it to the final prefight press conference to suggest that he was a " crybaby . " In a similar situation to the first fight , Hopkins started slowly and began pressuring Taylor in the later rounds . Hopkins ended the fight with a 101 – 60 advantage in power punches , while Taylor had success with his jab , outlanding Hopkins 64 – 29 . All three judges scored the bout 115 – 113 for Taylor . After the fight , Taylor said that he would welcome a challenge against the winner of a fight between former Undisputed Light Middleweight Champion Winky Wright and Sam Soliman . On December 10 , 2005 , Wright defeated Soliman by unanimous decision to retain his number one position in the WBC and WBA Middleweight rankings and take over the number one spot in the IBF Middleweight rankings . = = = Middleweight Champion = = = On June 17 , 2006 , Taylor fought Winky Wright at the FedEx Forum in Memphis , Tennessee . The WBC had ordered Taylor and Wright to begin negotiating on the fight on December 12 , 2005 and if the two sides could not agree , a purse bid would be ordered . An agreement was made 10 minutes before a purse bid was to take place . Ozell Nelson , unsatisfied with Taylor 's progression between the first and second Hopkins fights , helped convince Taylor to replace Pat Burns with hall of fame trainer Emanuel Steward . Taylor received $ 3 @.@ 75 million for the fight and Wright made $ 3 @.@ 5 million . Wright only paid sanctioning fees for the WBC belt , while Taylor paid fees to the WBC and WBO . Taylor did not pay the fees to the WBA amid controversy of the organization removing him from their rankings after questions of whether Taylor followed all procedures for the WBA before his rematch with Hopkins . He was reinstated at the top the organizations ' middleweight rankings , but his title remained under review . The bout was evenly competitive through the first 10 rounds , with Wright winning most of the early rounds before Taylor became more active in the latter part of the fight . By the ninth round , Wright had swelling above both his eyes . Wright was winning the bout going into the final round on two of the judges ' scorecards , but he was generally passive in the round . Two of the three judges gave the round to Taylor , which resulted in a draw . The scores for the fight were 115 – 113 for Taylor , 115 – 113 for Wright and 114 – 114 . On December 9 , 2006 , Taylor fought Kassim Ouma at the Alltel Arena in North Little Rock , Arkansas . Taylor hurt Ouma early in the first round and continued to control the fight through the middle part of the fight with jabs and hooks . During the second half of the fight , Taylor gradually began to tire and suffered a cut over the left eye . He allowed Ouma to back him into the ropes often as the fight came to an end . However , Ouma was unable to be effective with his punches . Taylor won the bout by unanimous decision with scores of 117 – 111 , 115 – 113 and 118 – 110 . Afterwards , the WBA announced that Taylor was no longer the holder of its Middleweight Super Championship . On May 19 , 2007 , Taylor went up against former Undisputed Welterweight Champion Cory Spinks at the FedEx Forum in Memphis . Taylor dictated the fight by staying away from Spinks and landing one punch at a time . He hurt Spinks with a right hand in the seventh round . Spinks , with a much shorter reach , had difficulty getting within a closer range against his opponent . Taylor landed 101 of 319 punches , while Spinks landed just 85 of 542 . Taylor won the fight by split decision , with two judges scoring 117 – 111 and 115 – 113 in favor of him and the other scoring 117 – 111 for Spinks . = = = Fights with Pavlik = = = In his next bout , Taylor fought Kelly Pavlik on September 29 , 2007 at Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City , New Jersey . Pavlik began rising in popularity after an upset victory over Edison Miranda in a Middleweight Title Eliminator to determine the number one contender to fight Taylor . During their amateur careers , Taylor had defeated Pavlik on February 9 , 2000 in the opening round of the United States Olympic trials . In the second round of the bout , Taylor landed a right hand and followed @-@ up with several more punches which resulted in the first knockdown of the fight . Pavlik got up and managed to make it to the end of the round . Entering the seventh round , Taylor had a commanding lead on all three judges ' scorecards . With less than a minute remaining in the round , Pavlik landed a right cross that sent Taylor into a corner . Pavlik closed in and threw a left uppercut followed by a left and right hook and right uppercut . Two more left hooks dropped Taylor to the canvas as the referee stepped in to halt the fight . It was the first time Taylor had lost in his professional career and the first time he had ever been knocked down . One month later , Taylor exercised a rematch clause in his contract with Pavlik . The rematch took place at a weight of 166 pounds ( 75 kg ) , six pounds higher than the middleweight limit . Due to disappointing performances , Emanuel Steward was fired as Taylor 's trainer and replaced with Ozell Nelson . Fighting at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas on February 16 , 2008 , Taylor lost the rematch to Pavlik by unanimous decision . = = = Super Middleweight = = = After the two losses to Pavlik , Taylor moved up to the super middleweight division . On November 15 , 2008 , Taylor defeated Jeff Lacy by a dominant unanimous decision to earn a mandatory fight against the winner of a bout between Carl Froch and Jean Pascal for the vacant WBC Super Middleweight title , a fight that was won by Froch . On April 25 , 2009 , at the Foxwoods Resort Casino in Ledyard , Connecticut , Taylor fought Carl Froch for the WBC Super Middleweight title . Taylor was able to control the first two rounds of the fight . In the third round , Taylor knocked Froch down for the first time in his career with a right hand . Entering the final round , Taylor was ahead 106 – 102 on two of the judges ' scorecards , while Froch was ahead 106 – 102 on the other . During the round , Froch landed two right hands that sent Taylor to the canvas . He got up , but Froch quickly went after him , trapping him against the ropes and landing a barrage of hard and fast punches . Taylor could not recoup or defend himself , desperately curling up against the ropes . Around 10 clean hard shots from Froch landed before the referee stepped in to stop the bout with only a matter of seconds left in the final round , earning Froch the technical knockout victory . = = = Super Six and retirement = = = Taylor competed in the preliminary round of the Super Six World Boxing Classic , a tournament by Showtime , to find out who is the best boxer in the super middleweight division . On October 17 , 2009 , in his first fight in the Super Six tournament at the O2 World Arena in Berlin , Germany , undefeated Armenian @-@ German former champion , Arthur Abraham , defeated Jermain Taylor by KO in the 12th round with less than 10 seconds left in the fight . Taylor was hospitalized with a severe concussion , suffering short term memory loss , unable to remember details of this bout . After being released from the hospital , Taylor released a statement saying that he 's doing just fine and wanted to congratulate Abraham on his victory and wish him well in the tournament . At the time of the stoppage , the judges scorecards read : 104 @-@ 102 , 107 @-@ 102 and 106 @-@ 102 , all in favour of Abraham . In January 2010 , Taylor , one of the original members of the Super Six World Boxing Classic , officially withdrew from the tournament . The former Undisputed Middleweight Champion issued a statement in early 2010 saying , " I 'm going to take some time off from the sport of boxing and take myself out of the SHOWTIME Sports World Boxing Classic tournament . It 's important that I give my body and mind some much needed rest , because I have been boxing for nearly 20 years , " said Taylor . " I plan on keeping myself in shape and making a return to the sport sometime in the future . This was not an easy decision for me , having discussed it with my family , trainer , friends and my adviser Al Haymon , because I 'm a very competitive person @-@ but I know this is the smart road for me to take . " Taylor was later replaced by Allan Green . = = = Comeback = = = On December 30 , 2011 , after 26 months away from the ring , Taylor finally returned and faced Jessie Nicklow . In a fight scheduled for ten rounds , Taylor won via technical knockout in the eighth round . He then took on then @-@ undefeated Caleb Truax ( 18 @-@ 0 @-@ 1 ) on April 25 , 2012 in another fight scheduled for ten rounds . Taylor controlled most of the action and survived a knock @-@ down in round nine in order to win a unanimous decision victory . Taylor then faced boxing veteran Raul Munoz on October 12 , 2012 . He made short work of Muñoz , winning via second @-@ round KO . Taylor 's next bout was against Juan Carlos Candelo on December 14 , 2013 . Jermaine won with a seventh round TKO . On October 4 , 2014 , Taylor fought Sam Soliman , in Biloxi , Mississippi for Soliman 's IBF Middleweight World Championship belt . After twelve grueling rounds , ( Soliman injured his knee badly midway through the fight ) and knocking Soliman down four times ( Soliman actually went down on his own from the knee injury , not primarily from punches from Taylor ) , Taylor won with a resounding unanimous decision . By regaining the belt he had lost to Pavlik in 2007 , Taylor became a two @-@ time middleweight world champion . On February 6 , 2015 Taylor was scheduled to defend his title against Sergio Mora on ESPN2 's Friday Night Fights in Biloxi , Mississippi . However , the fight was cancelled after Taylor suffered an injury and was also later arrested and charged with multiple felonies following an incident on January 19 ( see Personal life below ) . The IBF subsequently stripped him of his title on February 6 , due to his inability to defend during his ongoing legal and mental health issues . = = Personal life = = Taylor is married to former Louisiana Tech University basketball player Erica Taylor , who was selected in the second round of the 2005 WNBA Draft by the Washington Mystics . Jermain and Erica Taylor have three daughters . Taylor gained popularity in the state for frequently mentioning how proud he was to be from Arkansas . He is known to be an enthusiastic fan of the University of Arkansas Razorbacks and has visited the Arkansas campus to talk to the football team . Taylor oftens sports a large Razorback on the back of his boxing robe and trunks for his fights . He was named " Arkansan of the Year " for 2005 by the Arkansas Times . In 2007 , Taylor was inducted into the Arkansas Sports Hall of Fame along with former NFL players Rod Smith and Willie Roaf . Taylor has modeled for Everlast , GQ and Vogue . Lou Dibella resigned as Taylor 's promoter because he was concerned with Taylor 's health following the knockout from Arthur Abraham in the Super Six tournament . Taylor had been knocked out two times prior to the Abraham bout . On August 26 , 2014 , Taylor was taken into police custody and charged with 2 felonies after officers say he shot his cousin during an altercation in his Little Rock , AR , home . Taylor was out on bond for his October 4 , 2014 bout versus Sam Soliman . On January 19 , 2015 , Taylor was arrested without incident and a gun was recovered . He was jailed on five felony counts of aggravated assault , three felony counts of endangering the welfare of a minor and a misdemeanor count of drug possession after he was found to have a small bag of marijuana . Taylor was remanded to the custody of the Pulaski County Regional Detention Facility in Little Rock in lieu of a $ 27 @,@ 000 bond . On May 20 , 2016 , Taylor was given a suspended sentence of 19 years to be served concurrently , amounting to a six @-@ year suspended sentence for 3 cases . He was also sentenced to probation and will have to serve 120 hours of community service , pay a $ 2 @,@ 000 fine plus court costs , and will have to submit to regular drug screens . = = Professional boxing record = =
= Brazilian monitor Rio Grande = The Brazilian monitor Rio Grande was the second ship of the Pará @-@ class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . Rio Grande participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war . The ship was assigned to the Upper Uruguay ( Portuguese : Alto Uruguai ) Flotilla after the war . Rio Grande was scrapped in 1907 . = = Design and description = = The Pará @-@ class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling . The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men . = = = Propulsion = = = The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming . = = = Armament = = = Rio Grande carried a single 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in her gun turret . The 70 @-@ pounder gun had a maximum elevation of 15 ° . It had a maximum range of 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 70 @-@ pounder gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . Most unusually the gun 's Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter . = = = Armor = = = The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron . The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimeters of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret . = = Service = = Rio Grande was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 17 August 1867 and completed on 3 September 1867 . She arrived at Montevideo on 6 January 1868 and steamed up the Paraná River , although her passage further north was barred by the Paraguayan fortifications at Humaitá . On 19 February 1868 six Brazilian ironclads , including Rio Grande , sailed past Humaitá at night . Rio Grande and her two sister ships , Alagoas and Pará , were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns . Barroso led with Rio Grande , followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará . The latter two ships were damaged as they sailed past the fortifications and had to be beached to prevent them from sinking . Rio Grande continued upstream with the other undamaged ships and they bombarded Asunción on 24 February . On 23 March Rio Grande and Barroso sank the steamer Igurey . Paraguayan soldiers in canoes attempted to board both ships on the evening of 9 July , but were only successful in getting on board Rio Grande where they were able to kill the ship 's captain and some of the crew . The remaining crewmembers locked the monitor 's hatches and Barroso was able to kill or capture almost all of the Paraguayans on deck . On 15 October she bombarded Angostura Fort in company with Brasil , Silvado , Pará and her sister Ceará . After the war Rio Grande was assigned to the newly formed Alto Uruguai Flotilla , based at Itaqui . She was docked in Ladário for rebuilding in 1899 , but this was never completed and she was scrapped in February 1907 .
= Kahaani = Kahaani ( IPA : [ kəˈɦaːni ] ; " Story " ) is a 2012 Indian Hindi mystery thriller film co @-@ written , co @-@ produced and directed by Sujoy Ghosh . It stars Vidya Balan as Vidya Bagchi , a pregnant woman searching for her missing husband in Kolkata during the festival of Durga Puja , assisted by Satyoki " Rana " Sinha ( Parambrata Chatterjee ) and Khan ( Nawazuddin Siddiqui ) . Made on a shoestring budget of ₹ 80 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) , Kahaani was conceived and developed by Ghosh , who co @-@ wrote the film with Advaita Kala . The crew often employed guerrilla @-@ filmmaking techniques on Kolkata 's city streets to avoid attracting attention . The film was noted for its deft portrayal of the city and for making use of many local crew and cast members . Kahaani explores themes of feminism and motherhood in male @-@ dominated Indian society . The film also makes several allusions to Satyajit Ray 's films such as Charulata ( 1964 ) and Aranyer Dinratri ( 1970 ) . Kahaani was released worldwide on 9 March 2012 . Critics praised the screenplay , the cinematography and the performances of the lead actors . Following critical acclaim and word @-@ of @-@ mouth publicity , the film earned ₹ 1 @.@ 04 billion ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide in 50 days . The film won several awards , including three National Film Awards and five Filmfare Awards . The latter included trophies for Best Director ( Ghosh ) and Best Actress ( Vidya ) . A sequel , starring Vidya and Arjun Rampal , is in production . = = Plot = = A poison @-@ gas attack on a Kolkata Metro Rail compartment kills the passengers on board . Two years later Vidya Bagchi ( Vidya Balan ) , a pregnant software engineer , arrives in Kolkata from London during the Durga Puja festivities in search of her missing husband , Arnab Bagchi . A police officer , Satyoki " Rana " Sinha ( Parambrata Chatterjee ) , offers to help . Although Vidya claims that Arnab went to Kolkata on an assignment for the National Data Center ( NDC ) , initial investigations suggest that no such person was employed by the NDC . Agnes D 'Mello , the NDC 's head of human resources , suggests to Vidya that her husband resembled former employee Milan Damji ( Indraneil Sengupta ) , whose file is probably kept in the old NDC office . Before Agnes can provide any further help she is killed by Bob Biswas ( Saswata Chatterjee ) , an assassin working undercover as a life insurance agent . Vidya and Rana break into the NDC office and find Damji 's file , barely escaping an encounter with Bob , who is searching for the same information . Meanwhile , the attempts to obtain Damji 's records have attracted the attention of two Intelligence Bureau ( IB ) officials in Delhi — the chief Bhaskaran K. ( Dhritiman Chatterjee ) and his deputy Khan ( Nawazuddin Siddiqui ) . Khan arrives in Kolkata and reveals that Damji was a rogue IB agent responsible for the poison @-@ gas attack . In spite of Khan 's warnings , Vidya continues her search , fearing that Arnab 's resemblance to Damji may have led him into trouble . The address on Damji 's record leads Vidya and Rana to a dilapidated flat . An errand boy from the neighbourhood tea stall identifies R. Sridhar ( Shantilal Mukherjee ) , an NDC officer , as a frequent visitor to Damji 's flat . Bob attempts to kill Vidya , but fails , and is run over by a car during a chase . Examination of Bob 's mobile phone leads Vidya and Rana to an IP address sending instructions to kill her . They break into Sridhar 's office to verify his IP address , but he is alerted electronically and returns to his office . Vidya accidentally shoots Sridhar dead during a scuffle , which upsets Khan , who had wanted him alive . Sridhar 's computer data reveals a code , which when deciphered reveals Bhaskaran 's phone number . Vidya calls Bhaskaran to tell him that she has retrieved sensitive documents from Sridhar 's office . She asks Bhaskaran to help find her husband in exchange for the documents , but Bhaskaran tells her to contact the local police . Vidya soon gets a call from an unknown number however , warning her that she should hand over the documents to the caller if she wishes to see her husband alive . Khan thinks the caller is Milan Damji . Vidya goes to meet Damji , followed by Rana and Khan . Damji cuts the meeting short when Vidya expresses her doubt that he will be able to return her husband in exchange for the sensitive file , and he attempts to leave . Vidya tries to stop him , and in the ensuing struggle Damji draws a gun on her . Vidya disarms him using the prosthetic belly she has been using to fake her pregnancy , before shooting him with his own gun . She flees into the crowd before the police arrive , leaving a thank you note for Rana and a pen drive containing data from Sridhar 's computer , which leads to Bhaskaran 's arrest . Rana concludes that no Vidya or Arnab Bagchi ever existed , and that Vidya had been using the police and the IB to achieve her own ends . Vidya is revealed to be the widow of Arup Basu ( Abir Chatterjee ) , an IB officer and Damji 's colleague , who was killed in the poison @-@ gas attack , which also caused Vidya to fall unconscious and suffer a miscarriage . In her mission to avenge his death , Vidya was helped by retired IB officer Pratap Bajpayee ( Darshan Jariwala ) , who suspected the involvement of a top IB official . = = Cast = = Vidya Balan as Vidya Venkatesan Bagchi Parambrata Chatterjee as Satyoki " Rana " Sinha Nawazuddin Siddiqui as A. Khan Indraneil Sengupta as Milan Damji Dhritiman Chatterjee as Bhaskaran K. Saswata Chatterjee as Bob Biswas Darshan Jariwala as Captain Pratap Bajpayee Abir Chatterjee as Arup Basu Shantilal Mukherjee as R. Shridhar , chief technical officer at the NDC Kharaj Mukherjee as Inspector Chatterjee , a friendly inspector at the Kalighat Police Station . Colleen Blanche as Agnes D 'Mello Nitya Ganguli as Mr. Das , the guest house owner . Ritabrata Mukherjee as Bishnu , a worker at the guest house . Pamela Bhuttoria as Sapna , an employee at NDC . Kalyan Chatterjee as Paresh Pal , a clay artist and a police informer . Riddhi Sen as Poltu , a worker at a tea @-@ stall . Massod Akhtar as Rasik Tyagi , systems supervisor at the NDC = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Sujoy Ghosh approached novelist and script writer Advaita Kala with the idea for the film . Kala took inspiration from her experience in Kolkata , where she had moved in 1999 , akin to the protagonist in the film . She reported that despite facing a language barrier and the chaos and poverty of the metropolis , she was charmed by the warmth of the people , which was reflected in the film . Kala started writing in 2009 and finished the 185 @-@ page script by February 2010 . Her research included reading the books Open Secrets : India 's Intelligence Unveiled by Maloy Krishna Dhar and India 's External Intelligence : Secrets of Research and Analysis Wing ( RAW ) by V. K. Singh . Ghosh , who co @-@ wrote the story and the screenplay , began to plan the film while awaiting the release of his previous film Aladin ( 2009 ) , but the dismal response to Aladin was a setback . He had to approach several producers to finance him for Kahaani , but was refused and discouraged from making the film owing to three factors : a pregnant woman as the lead star , a bunch of unknown Bengali actors as the supporting cast and Kolkata as a backdrop . Yashraj Films were willing to produce the film , but wanted Ghosh to sign a three @-@ film deal , which he declined because he did not want that much commitment . Bengali film actor Prosenjit Chatterjee encouraged Ghosh to shoot in Kolkata . Ghosh finally selected Kolkata for several reasons : the director 's acquaintance with the city , its mix of modernity and old @-@ world charm , and budget constraints . Kolkata is a cheaper location than Mumbai or Delhi , where most Bollywood films are shot . Ghosh admitted in an interview that after his two preceding directorial ventures — Aladin and Home Delivery ( 2005 ) — performed poorly at the box office , Kahaani was his last chance to create a niche as a director . He added that the film 's plot twist came somewhat accidentally . Having described the skeleton of the story to a friend during its development , the friend called him back a few days later to enquire about his film . The friend had mistakenly imagined sequences which he assumed to be parts of the plot , from which the twist ending was derived . = = = Casting = = = Vidya Balan was the first choice of both writer Advaita Kala and director Sujoy Ghosh . Ghosh had planned for a long time to work with Vidya and approached her in 2010 . Unimpressed with the plot outline , Vidya refused , only changing her mind after having read the completed script . Ghosh chose mostly Bengali actors as he wanted to make the characters as authentic as possible . The role of the Inspector Satyoki " Rana " Sinha was first offered to Chandan Roy Sanyal , but he could not take the part due to other commitments . Parambrata Chatterjee , a Bengali actor whose acting in the film The Bong Connection ( 2006 ) had impressed Ghosh at the Mumbai Academy of the Moving Image festival , was later offered the role in Kahaani . Chatterjee had earlier worked with Vidya in her début film Bhalo Theko ( 2003 ) . The casting director Roshmi Banerjee suggested Nawazuddin Siddiqui for the role of Khan . Siddiqui , who had only had minor roles in Bollywood up to that time , was surprised that for the first time he would not have to portray a beggar . Saswata Chatterjee , another Bengali actor , was surprised as well when he was offered the role of the contract killer Bob Biswas . He thought there were suitable actors in Hindi film industry for the role . He said that Ghosh had known him since childhood and was impressed with his acting , so he wanted him as Bob Biswas . Ghosh went against the expectations of casting a popular actor from Bollywood . He signed Bengali actor Abir Chatterjee to play Vidya 's husband . According to Ghosh , popular Bollywood actors were not willing to work with him after his two previous flops . He also believed that audience might expect more screen @-@ time from a better @-@ known actor . Several other Bengali film and television actors , such as Indraneil Sengupta and Kharaj Mukherjee , were cast in supporting roles . = = = Characters = = = Before the shooting of the film began , Vidya started to use a prosthetic belly to look as close to authentically pregnant as possible . According to news reports , she met doctors and pregnant women to learn about the typical lifestyle and nuances of a pregnant woman , and also made lists of rules and superstitions followed by pregnant women . Vidya said that during her college days she often used to imitate pregnant ladies during stand @-@ up acting among friends , an experience that helped her during the shooting . While briefing Saswata Chatterjee about his character , the cold @-@ blooded killer Bob Biswas , Ghosh used the phrase " Binito Bob " ( meaning polite Bob ) , which crystallised the notion of Bob 's manners . Further discussions led to the inclusion of paunch and a bald patch . Chatterjee devised the mannerism of rubbing his nails together as some Indians believe doing that helps prevent hair loss . The mannerism was well @-@ noted and praised by the viewers . Ghosh was surprised at how Bob Biswas was greeted by fans as a cult figure . He emphasised that the deliberate ordinariness of Bob Biswas was portrayed so convincingly by Chatterjee that the viewers can expect Bob to be around them at any time and any place . Parambrata Chatterjee said in an interview that he did not identify with the Rana character , owing to the difference between his own urban upbringing and Rana 's rural background . Chatterjee visited police stations and did some research " on their work , mindset and other relevant things " to prepare for the role . The character Khan was envisaged as a ruthless , arrogant , expletive @-@ spewing officer who cares nothing about the emotional or social consequences of his behaviour . Siddiqui said that he was surprised on being offered the role , and wondered how he could portray the arrogance needed for the character . Ghosh built Khan as a character with lean physical build but full of mental strength , loyalty and patriotism . Khan smokes a relatively cheap brand of cigarette ( Gold Flake ) despite his high official post ; Siddiqui had smoked that brand of cigarette throughout his struggling days in Bollywood and thereafter . = = = Filming = = = Filming took place on the streets of Kolkata , where Ghosh often employed the art of guerrilla filmmaking ( shooting in real locations without any previous knowledge given to onlookers ) to avoid unwanted attention . The cinematographer Setu , who had assisted others in the past to shoot documentaries in Kolkata , said that unlike majority of Indian films , Kahaani was shot mostly without artificial light . The film was shot in 64 days , during which the Durga Puja festival of 2010 took place . Shooting locations in Kolkata included Kalighat Metro station , Nonapukur tram depot , Kumartuli , Howrah Bridge , Victoria Memorial , old houses of North Kolkata and others . The climax , which takes place on the night of Vijayadashami ( the last day of Durga Puja ) , was shot on the night of Vijayadashami in the premises of a Barowari ( publicly organised ) Durga Puja celebration in the Ballygunge neighbourhood of Kolkata . Most of the crowd in the climax were not actors . Some actors mingled with the crowd engaged in Sindoor khela — their job was to appreciate the camera angles and accordingly apply sindoor ( vermilion ) on Vidya 's face so that accidental exposure of her eyes to sindoor could be avoided . Ghosh chose the guest house in which the protagonist stays after noticing it during his visit to a neighbouring hotel in April 2010 . He booked it for 10 days for ₹ 40 @,@ 000 ( US $ 590 ) , and requested the guest @-@ house employees to keep the shooting schedule a secret . Choosing a room with windows overlooking a busy road , he proceeded to give it an old @-@ fashioned look by replacing the windows ' designer grilles with old @-@ fashioned wooden ones , and by painting the room with some rough patches . = = Themes and influences = = After Ishqiya ( 2010 ) , No One Killed Jessica ( 2011 ) and The Dirty Picture ( 2011 ) , Kahaani was Vidya 's fourth woman @-@ centric film to win widespread praise for her unconventional approach to portraying strong female roles . According to Zee News , Kahaani is a woman 's film about " role reversals , breaking of stereotypes , turning clichés inside out , a woman 's journey , and the way she carves a niche for herself in the male @-@ dominated mentalscape of the society . " Trisha Gupta of The Indian Express also finds feminist themes in the film . For Ghosh , one aspect of his project " is a study of motherhood " ; the instinct of a mother to protect her baby inspired him to develop the story . A recurring theme is the fleeting hint of romance between Rana and Vidya . Ghosh said that this delicate romance was " the most progressive thing " in the film — a suggestion that a man could fall in love with a pregnant woman . The director explained that the boy was initially " fascinated by someone who is literally a hero in his eyes " , as Rana was awed by the computer skills of Vidya . Gradually , the fascinated boy moves into a zone where he tries to protect her . Some reviewers note that a major protagonist is Kolkata itself , which is " brimming with warm , sympathetic inhabitants " . A review in Rediff.com notes that the director pays a " fond yet understated tribute " to the city by incorporating imagery such as " yellow taxis , leisurely trams , congested traffic , claustrophobic metros , dilapidated brick houses , tapering alleys , rajnigandhas , lal paad saris , piping hot luchis " . According to the reviewer , Kahaani did not depend on the tropes of Kolkata culture typically used in Bollywood film — " O @-@ emphasizing accent , dramatic play of conch shells , rasgulla / mishti doi excesses . " The director acknowledges that Kolkata " becomes a central character " of the film . Gautaman Bhaskaran , writing for Gulf Times , notes that Kolkata imagery was polished up in the film ; noted Bengali director Srijit Mukherji argues that the portrayal of the city in Kahaani was akin to a " Lonely Planet exotica " on the city . Uddalak Mukherjee of The Telegraph explains that Kolkata in Kahaani was cosmetic and lacked a deep menacing presence . Mukherjee argues the depiction of the city never matches the level of Satyajit Ray 's Calcutta trilogy , where " aided by bloodshed , greed and decadence , ... Calcutta ... , even though a place of dreams , desires and hope , slides irreversibly into chaos , anxiety and a moral crisis , taking its residents with it " . Durga Puja , the autumnal festival to worship goddess Durga , plays a prominent role in the story . The allegorical yearly return of goddess Durga to slay the demon Mahishasura is alluded to at the end of the film . According to Uddalak Mukherjee of The Telegraph , " Durga Puja , with its paraphernalia of idols , immersion processions , pandals , even an entire crowd of women draped in white saris with red borders , is central to the film 's ... visual aesthetic . " A review in Rediff.com praised the depiction of the festivities in Kolkata , a city well known for its celebration of Durga Puja . Ghosh acknowledges the allusions to Ray 's films . In one scene , Vidya asks the manager of the guest house why there is no hot water although the signboard had claimed " running hot water " . The manager explains that the sign refers for his errand boy , who runs to deliver hot water in a kettle whenever required . This alludes to a similar scene in Ray 's Joi Baba Felunath ( 1979 ) . In an interview with The Telegraph , Ghosh says that the way Vidya looks out and moves from window to window in the guest @-@ house room is reminiscent of Ray 's Charulata ( 1964 ) , where the actress Madhabi Mukherjee enjoys glimpses of the outside world through the blinds of windows . He also acknowledges the influence of Mahanagar ( 1963 ) , another Ray film noted for its portrayal of Kolkata . According to the director , he was inspired by particular scenes of Ray 's Nayak ( 1966 ) to plan the portrayal of complex emotional issues between Vidya and the police officer Rana , especially Rana 's awe in the presence of Vidya . Ghosh expresses his inspiration from Ray 's Aranyer Dinratri ( 1970 ) in which Ray " wanted the audience to be inside the car with the four guys all the time . So the camera never leaves the car . " Ghosh shot a similar scene , hoping the audience would become " like Vidya 's fellow passenger . " Besides Ray 's films , Ghosh also admits inspiration from what he calls " visually striking " films of the 1970s and 1980s , such as Deewaar ( 1975 ) . Critics have compared the fake @-@ pregnancy twist of Kahaani with the 2004 American psychological thriller Taking Lives . The sequences towards the end that explain the missing pieces of the mystery were compared with The Usual Suspects ( 1995 ) . Ghosh writes that the film was heavily influenced by the colour scheme of the Pratima Visarjan , a c.1915 watercolour by the Bengal School artist Gaganendranath Tagore . = = Soundtrack = = The musical score was composed by Vishal – Shekhar , and the lyrics for the film 's six songs were written by Vishal Dadlani , Anvita Dutt and Sandeep Srivastava . Several of R. D. Burman 's Hindi and Bengali compositions were used in the background . An album of the music was released on 22 February 2012 and subsequently on the digital music platform Apple iTunes India since its inception from mid @-@ 2012 . The soundtrack received positive reviews , and was praised for its amalgamation of Bengali and Hindi lyrics . A review in CNN @-@ IBN states that the song " Ami Shotti Bolchi " is able to partially convey the feel of Kolkata , and that the soundtrack " features right voices with the overall mood of the album " . Mumbai Mirror rated the album with 3 stars out of 5 . Reviewing the soundtrack for Indiatimes , Anand Vaishnav commented that " Kahaani , as an album , stays honest to the theme of the film " . All lyrics written by Vishal Dadlani , Anvita Dutt and Sandeep Srivastava , except where noted . = = Marketing and release = = Kahaani 's first @-@ look poster was launched on 2 December 2011 , and the official trailer on 5 January 2012 . The poster , portraying a pregnant Vidya Balan and lacking any romantic element , was well received . Critics ' expectations were low , owing to the director 's previous box @-@ office failures . Vidya appeared in public with a prosthetic belly to promote the film , and mingled with the public in railway stations , bus stands and markets . She often carried a sketch of her on @-@ screen missing husband , and asked people to help in finding him . Social @-@ networking website Ibibo.com developed an online game , The Great Indian Parking Wars , which required players to park Vidya 's taxi on a street ; it was well @-@ received , reaching 50 @,@ 000 hits in 10 days . On 5 March 2012 , prior to release , Kolkata Metro authorities objected to a scene in which Vidya is pushed by a man onto the tracks as a train arrives . They requested that the scene be removed , as it would remind people of the past suicides , which had tarnished the railway 's image . The filmmakers screened the scene for the authorities and explained that nothing in the film would affect the image of the Metro or prompt people to commit suicide . Convinced , the officials withdrew their objections , and the scene was retained , although it was removed from trailers . Kahaani was released on 9 March 2012 , a day after International Women 's Day . It played on 1100 screens worldwide . CNN @-@ IBN reported that although Kahaani was ready before The Dirty Picture , distributors deferred its release , fearing that Vidya 's role of a sexy siren ( in The Dirty Picture ) after that of a pregnant woman might not be received well . STAR TV bought the exclusive right to broadcast the film for a price of ₹ 80 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) , which was the highest @-@ ever price paid for a female @-@ centric film in India . The Indian television premiere of the film was on Star India 's channel Movies OK on 3 June 2012 . The DVD of the film was released on 17 May 2012 across all regions in a one @-@ disc pack in NTSC format . Distributed by Shemaroo Entertainment , it contained additional content , such as behind @-@ the @-@ scene footage , video of celebration parties after its theatrical release , and music videos of the songs of the film . The VCD and Blu @-@ ray versions were released at the same time . = = Reception = = Kahaani garnered generally positive reviews from critics . According to review aggregator Review Gang the film received a rating of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , based on the reviews by professional critics . Good word of mouth publicity played a part in its popularity besides the positive reviews . The Telegraph called the film " a mind @-@ juggling medley of manipulation masquerading as a ' mother of a story ' " . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 4 out of 5 stars , and praised Vidya 's acting . The Times of India commented " Once again , a ' pregnant ' Vidya , ironically displays more ' male ornaments ' ... than most heroes . " The reviews in Rediff , Indo Asian News Service , CNN @-@ IBN , Zee News , Hindustan Times , and The Hindu were unanimously positive , and noted script , direction , cinematography , and acting as strong points of the film . Noted film actress and multiple National Award winner Shabana Azmi lauded Vidya for her performance , " As an actor , I could see she [ Vidya ] was making all the right moves throughout the film . There was not a single artificial note in her performance . " Russell Edwards , the reviewer for Variety , praised the cast , cinematography , and direction , and commented that despite occasional glitches , the " adroit thriller ... maintains momentum and credibility . " Many reviewers criticised the film 's climax and certain features , feeling that they deviated from its general style . Rituparna Chatterjee of CNN @-@ IBN noted that the climax of the film was a " huge dampener " and explained , " The diabolic twist at that juncture got underplayed ... What follows is a sobfest ... the apologetic explanation of why she does what she does . Justifying her action comes across more as an effort to appease the Indian morality " . The Outlook review noted , " At times , Kahaani is too clever , at others extremely pedestrian like in the depiction of computer hacking and IB operations , not to speak of the ludicrous terrorist angle and the all @-@ too predictable Durga Puja setting for that mythology tie @-@ in . " It adds that the " spoon @-@ feeding " of reasons at the end dampens the intrigue factor . The review in Yahoo ! India comments that the Durga metaphor at the end was enforced , and that the film over @-@ indulged in Bengali stereotypes . Gautaman Bhaskaran , in his review in Gulf Times , noted that the sometimes @-@ handheld photography was " as irksome as the plot with a sleuth too many and cops galore . " Though Kahaani received critical acclaim , it was a slow starter at the box office , opening to a poor response on the first day , but gradually picking afterwards . According to The Telegraph , the film earned almost ₹ 20 million ( US $ 300 @,@ 000 ) from the state of West Bengal within the first three days of its release . At multiplexes in Kolkata , occupancy increased from 47 % on Friday 9 March , the day of release , to 77 % on 10 March and to around 97 % on 11 March . Box Office India , a website on Indian film trade , reported that the film collected nearly ₹ 240 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 6 million ) in its first week , well beyond its production cost of ₹ 80 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) . It grossed ₹ 190 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 8 million ) in second week to make a two @-@ week total of around ₹ 430 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 4 million ) in India ; this led Box Office India to declare the film a " Super Hit " . The film was successful in the international box office as well , garnering ₹ 80 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) within 10 days of its release in seven markets — UK , US , UAE , Australia , New Zealand , Malaysia and Pakistan , according to Bollywood Hungama , a film @-@ related website . By the third week , according to CNN @-@ IBN , it had grossed ₹ 750 million ( US $ 11 million ) , including India and overseas market . Hindustan Times reported that Kahaani made a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @,@ 044 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 16 million ) within 50 days of its release . Kahaani was nominated for , and won , many awards . The 58th Filmfare Awards nominated the film for six of their categories , where it won five , including Best Actress for Vidya and Best Director for Ghosh . Kahaani received thirteen nominations at the 19th Colors Screen Awards , and won five , including Best Actress and Best Story . At the 14th Zee Cine Awards , Kahaani won five awards , including Best Film ( Critics ) and Best Actress ( Critics ) , out of fifteen nominations . At the 2013 Stardust Awards ceremony , Kahaani was announced Hottest Film of the Year while Vidya received for the Best Actress in a Thriller or Action . Kahaani was awarded the Most Entertaining Film of the Year at the 3rd ceremony of the BIG Star Entertainment Awards . At the 60th National Film Awards , Ghosh won Best Screenplay ( Original ) , Namrata Rao won Best Editing , and Nawazuddin Siddiqui won a Special Jury award . = = Impact = = Following Kahaani 's success , Kolkata became a preferred destination for Bollywood filmmakers . They felt the landscapes of Mumbai and Delhi were overused for several decades , while Kolkata retained its unique visuals such as metro trains , rickety trams , hand @-@ pulled rickshaws , dingy bylanes , palatial mansions , dilapidated houses of North Kolkata , roadside eateries , ghats of river Ganga , British @-@ era buildings , restaurants and iconic structures and areas including Howrah Bridge , Kalighat Temple , Nakhoda Mosque , Kumortuli idol @-@ making district and Victoria Memorial . Monalisa Guest House , the lodge which hosted Vidya Bagchi in the film , became a local attraction . Several hundreds have visited it since the film 's release , to the extent that the owners planned to increase tariffs and renovate the rooms around a Kahaani theme . The potbellied contract killer Bob Biswas became an Internet phenomenon , the subject of several jokes and pieces of pop art , which circulated through Facebook and Twitter . " Nomoshkar , Aami Bob Biswas ... Ek minute ? " ( " Hello , I am Bob Biswas ... do you have a minute ? " ) — the monologue he repeatedly uses just before murdering his victims — was used in different memes . A graphic novel and a television show based on Bob Biswas were being planned , as of March 2012 . Two remakes of Kahaani were released in 2014 : a Telugu remake titled Anaamika , and its Tamil version Nee Enge En Anbe , both directed by Sekhar Kammula and featuring Nayantara as the lead character . An English @-@ language remake , entitled Deity , will be directed by the Danish director Niels Arden Oplev and produced by Yashraj Films , with production scheduled to begin in 2015 . = = Sequel = = In March 2012 , Sujoy Ghosh announced that he intended to develop Kahaani into a series . He was inspired by Satyajit Ray 's Feluda detective series and wanted to continue the stories of Vidya Bagchi on similar lines , with Vidya Balan reprising the role . The shooting of Kahaani 2 was scheduled to begin in 2013 , but in July 2013 differences arose between Sujoy Ghosh and other co @-@ producers . In February 2014 , Vidya announced that the sequel was not happening due to these differences , but two years later , Ghosh confirmed that the film was in pre @-@ production with Vidya set to reprise her role . The sequel , entitled Kahaani 2 , began filming in March 2016 with Vidya and Arjun Rampal in lead roles .
= The Diary of a Nobody = The Diary of a Nobody is an English comic novel written by the brothers George and Weedon Grossmith , with illustrations by the latter . It originated as an intermittent serial in Punch magazine in 1888 – 89 and first appeared in book form , with extended text and added illustrations , in 1892 . The Diary records the daily events in the lives of a London clerk , Charles Pooter , his wife Carrie , his son Lupin , and numerous friends and acquaintances over a period of 15 months . Before their collaboration on the Diary , the brothers each pursued successful careers on the stage . George originated nine of the principal comedian roles in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas over 12 years from 1877 to 1889 . He also established a national reputation as a piano sketch entertainer and wrote a large number of songs and comic pieces . Before embarking on his stage career , Weedon had worked as an artist and illustrator . The Diary was the brothers ' only mature collaboration . Most of its humour derives from Charles Pooter 's unconscious and unwarranted sense of his own importance , and the frequency with which this delusion is punctured by gaffes and minor social humiliations . In an era of rising expectations within the lower @-@ middle classes , the daily routines and modest ambitions described in the Diary were instantly recognised by its contemporary readers , and provided later generations with a glimpse of the past that it became fashionable to imitate . Although its initial public reception was muted , the Diary came to be recognised by critics as a classic work of humour , and it has never been out of print . It helped to establish a genre of humorous popular fiction based on lower or lower @-@ middle class aspirations , and was the forerunner of numerous fictitious diary novels in the later 20th century . The Diary has been the subject of several stage and screen adaptations , including Ken Russell 's " silent film " treatment of 1964 , a four @-@ part TV film scripted by Andrew Davies in 2007 , and a widely praised stage version in 2011 , in which an all @-@ male cast of three played all the parts . = = Authorship and origin = = The Diary of a Nobody was the work of George Grossmith and his brother Weedon Grossmith , the sons of a court reporter and part @-@ time stage entertainer , also named George . The younger George followed his father , first as a reporter and later on the stage ; the 7 @-@ years @-@ younger Weedon studied at the West London School of Art and had some success as a portrait painter before becoming a comic actor . The brothers were fascinated with the stage at an early age . In 1864 , at 17 and 10 , they hosted a complex programme of musical and dramatic entertainment in their parents ' garden at Haverstock Hill . This included a 20 @-@ minute burlesque version of Hamlet , in which George played the title role ; Weedon was Ophelia . By 1877 the younger George Grossmith had established himself as a comic piano sketch entertainer in provincial institutes and literary societies . In that year he was seen by Arthur Sullivan and , separately , by W. S. Gilbert , in performances of their one @-@ act comic opera Trial by Jury . Impressed , they engaged him to play the comic lead in their new , full @-@ length work , The Sorcerer . Thereafter , Grossmith created the leading comic role in each of Gilbert and Sullivan 's long @-@ running comic operas until The Yeomen of the Guard , which closed in 1889 . While appearing in the operas , Grossmith continued his piano entertainment career at private parties and matinees , writing and composing his own material . He became the most successful comic entertainer of his day , writing numerous operettas , around 100 piano sketches , some 600 songs and short piano pieces , and three books . For Punch magazine in 1884 he provided a series of short sketches based on his experiences as a court reporter at Bow Street Magistrates ' Court . In 1889 , Grossmith ended his connection with Gilbert and Sullivan to pursue his piano sketch career full @-@ time and continued to perform until 1908 . He died in 1912 . As an artist Weedon Grossmith exhibited at the Royal Academy and at the Grosvenor Gallery . He also contributed illustrations to Punch and the prestigious Art Journal . He was nevertheless dissatisfied with his financial prospects as an artist , and by 1885 was pursuing an alternative career as an actor . He continued his career on the stage with considerable success until 1918 , making his name playing roles he described as " cowards , cads and snobs " , and as browbeaten small men under the thumb of authority . He wrote several plays , of which The Night of the Party ( 1901 ) was his most successful , and from 1894 was engaged in the management of two West End theatres . He died in 1919 . The literary scholar Peter Morton , who published an annotated edition of the Diary in 2009 , suggests that many of the events depicted in it were drawn from the brothers ' own home experiences , and that Weedon , " something of a scapegrace compared with his perfectionist brother " , was the model for Lupin . = = Synopsis = = The diary begins on 3 April of an unstated year , and runs for approximately 15 months . In a short prologue , readers are informed that Charles Pooter and his wife Caroline ( Carrie ) have just moved to a new home at " The Laurels " , Brickfield Terrace , Holloway . Mr Pooter is a City of London clerk with Perkupps , possibly an accountancy or private banking firm ( though their business is not explicitly stated ) . The couple 's 20 @-@ year @-@ old son William works as a bank clerk in Oldham . The first entries describe the Pooters ' daily lives and introduce their particular friends , such as their neighbour Gowing , the enthusiastic bicyclist Cummings , and the Jameses from Sutton . From the beginning a pattern is set whereby the small vexations of the Pooters ' daily lives are recounted , many of them arising from Pooter 's unconscious self @-@ importance and pomposity . Trouble with servants , tradesmen , and office juniors occur regularly , along with minor social embarrassments and humiliations . The rare formal social events in the Pooters ' lives are particular magnets for misfortune . They receive an invitation from the Lord Mayor of London to attend a ball at the Mansion House for " Representatives of Trade and Commerce " . After days of keen anticipation they are dismayed , when they arrive , to find that the gathering is undistinguished . Pooter is snobbishly upset to be greeted familiarly by his local ironmonger , even more so when this tradesman appears to be on social terms with some of the more important guests . Pooter overindulges in champagne and humiliates Carrie by collapsing on the dance floor . In the summer their son arrives from Oldham and informs his parents that he wishes henceforth to be called by his middle name , " Lupin . " He has been dismissed from his bank post for idleness ; although dismayed , Pooter sees this as a chance to get his son into Perkupps . Lupin joins the couple for their annual holiday week in Broadstairs , but relationships are strained by Lupin 's " fast " habits . On their return , Pooter 's efforts to find Lupin a job at first prove fruitless . The boy is interested in amateur dramatics and joins an organisation called the " Holloway Comedians " . With the help of Pooter 's employer Mr. Perkupp , Lupin finally secures a clerical position with a firm of stockbrokers in November . He then shocks his parents by announcing his engagement . Lupin 's fiancée , Daisy Mutlar , is the sister of one of his theatrical friends and is , he says , " the nicest , prettiest , and most accomplished girl he ever met " . Pooter is disappointed when he meets her : " She is a big young woman ... at least eight years older than Lupin . I did not even think her good @-@ looking " . Nevertheless , in her honour the Pooters give a large dinner @-@ party , to which Pooter invites Mr Perkupp . The party becomes boisterous ; Mr Perkupp arrives at a particularly raucous moment , and decides not to stay . Pooter believes the party has failed , and is despondent , although Carrie deems it a great success . However , within a few days , Lupin informs them that the engagement is off . In the following weeks Lupin often brings the Holloway troupe back to " The Laurels " . These occasions are graced with the unexplained presence of a complete stranger , Mr Padge , who regularly occupies the best chair as if of right . Lupin opts out of the family 's Christmas celebrations , and then announces , to everyone 's astonishment , that the engagement to Daisy is back on . Christmas passes happily enough , despite a supper party which degenerates into a food fight instigated by Daisy . In the New Year , Pooter is promoted to senior clerk at Perkupp 's , and his salary raised by £ 100 a year , but his achievement is overshadowed by Lupin 's announcement that he has just profited by £ 200 through a timely shares speculation . Lupin persuades his father , and Gowing and Cummings , to invest small sums in Parachikka Chlorates , the source of his gains . The Pooters meet a new friend of Lupin 's , Mr Murray Posh , who Pooter thinks is somewhat over @-@ familiar with Daisy and might , he warns Lupin , be a rival for her hand . Lupin pooh @-@ poohs this notion . Later , Pooter learns that he and his friends have lost their investment ; indeed , Lupin 's stockbroking firm has collapsed entirely and its principal has fled . Lupin is thus unemployed ; worse , that same day the engagement of Daisy Mutlar to Murray Posh is announced . Lupin 's only consolation , he tells his father , is that he persuaded Posh to invest £ 600 in Parachikka Chlorates . However , in Pooter 's eyes the situation is redeemed when Mr Perkupp offers Lupin a clerkship . April begins with another social disaster . The Pooters receive an invitation to a ball given by the East Acton Rifle Brigade , which they imagine will be a glittering occasion . It turns out to be shabby and down @-@ at @-@ heel ; furthermore , having liberally supplied fellow @-@ guests — among them Mr Padge — with food and drink which he thinks is free , Pooter is presented at the end with a large bill that he can barely afford to pay . Other social events also turn sour : a lunch party with Mr Finsworth , the father of an old friend , is marred by some unfortunate comments by Pooter on the Finsworth family portraits . On another occasion they meet a loud and over @-@ opinionated American , Mr Hardfur Huttle who , Pooter realises , is like a mature version of Lupin . Lupin is sacked from Perkupps for persuading their top client , Mr Crowbillion , to take his business to another firm . Pooter is mortified , but the new firm rewards Lupin with £ 25 commission and a job at £ 200 a year . Lupin resumes his friendship with Murray Posh and Daisy , who is now Mrs Posh . Lupin moves to lodgings in Bayswater , where Pooter and Carrie are invited to dine and where they Murray 's sister , known as " Lillie Girl " , a woman of around 30 . Pooter learns that Murray Posh has settled £ 10 @,@ 000 on both Daisy and " Lillie Girl " . Pooter is summoned to meet Hardfur Huttle , who offers Perkupps a new client to replace Mr Crowbillion . Perkupp is so grateful to Pooter for this introduction that he buys up the freehold of " The Laurels " and presents the deeds to Pooter . As the couple celebrate , a letter arrives from Lupin announcing his engagement to " Lillie Girl " : " We shall be married in August , and among our guests we hope to see your old friends Gowing and Cummings " . = = Publication and reception history = = The Diary made its initial appearance as an intermittent serial in the satirical weekly magazine Punch . The first of the 26 instalments was announced in the issue of 26 May 1888 with a brief editorial note : " As everybody who is anybody is publishing Reminiscences , Diaries , Notes , Autobiographies , and Recollections , we are sincerely grateful to ' A Nobody ' for permitting us to add to the historic collection " . The diary entry dates are several weeks behind the dates on which they appear in Punch . The Punch serialisation ended in May 1889 with the diary entry for 21 March , which records the Pooters and their friends celebrating the minor triumph of Lupin 's appointment as a clerk at Perkupps . That was the intended end of the diary ; however , when the writers were preparing the manuscript for publication as a book , they added a further four months ' entries to the text , and included 26 illustrations by Weedon Grossmith . In June 1892 J.W. Arrowsmith Ltd published the Diary in book form , although its critical and popular success was not evident until the third edition appeared in October 1910 . After the First World War the book 's popularity continued to grow ; regular reprintings and new editions ensured that thereafter the book was never out of print . Audiobook versions have been available since 1982 . The writer Robert McCrum , in a personal list of " The 100 greatest novels of all time " published in The Observer newspaper , listed the Diary at number 35 . = = = Early indifference = = = The Punch serialisation attracted little critical comment ; The Athenaeum 's literary critic thought the series " may have escaped unnoticed amid better jokes " . When the Diary was published as a book , Punch heralded it in its issue of 23 July 1892 as " very funny " , adding : " not without a touch of pathos " . However , apart from a warmly approving report in The Saturday Review , the book 's initial critical reception was lukewarm . The Review 's critic thought the book " admirable , and in some of its touches [ it ] goes close to genius " , with a natural and irresistible appeal : " The Diary has amused us from cover to cover " . This contrasted with the negative judgement of The Athenaeum , which opined that " the book has no merit to compensate for its hopeless vulgarity , not even that of being amusing " . It questioned the tastefulness of jokes aimed almost exclusively at the poverty of underpaid city clerks , and concluded : " Besides , it is all so dull " . The Speaker 's critic thought the book " a study in vulgarity " , while The New York Times , reviewing the first American edition , found the work largely incomprehensible : " There is that kind of quiet , commonplace , everyday joking in it which we are to suppose is highly satisfactory to our cousins across the water ... Our way of manufacturing fun is different " . Although details of sales figures are not given , Arrowsmiths later acknowledged that the early editions of the book did not have a wide public impact . = = = Growing reputation = = = By 1910 the Diary was beginning to achieve a reputation in London 's literary and political circles . In his essay " On People in Books " , published earlier that year , the writer and humourist Hilaire Belloc hailed the Diary as " one of the half @-@ dozen immortal achievements of our time ... a glory for us all " . Among others who recorded their appreciation of the work were Lord Rosebery , the former prime minister who told Arrowsmiths that he thought he had " purchased and given away more copies than any living man ... I regard any bedroom I occupy as unfurnished without a copy of it " . Another essayist @-@ cum @-@ politician who added his tribute was Augustine Birrell , who in 1910 occupied the cabinet post of Chief Secretary for Ireland . Birrell wrote that he ranked Charles Pooter alongside Don Quixote as a comic literary figure , and added a note of personal pride that one of the characters in the book — " an illiterate charwoman , it is true " — carried his name . Arrowsmiths printed these appreciations as prefaces in the 1910 and subsequent issues . The 1910 edition proved immediately popular with the reading public , and was followed by numerous reprintings . In its review of this edition The Bookman ' s critic wrote of Charles Pooter : " You laugh at him — at his small absurdities , his droll mishaps , his well @-@ meaning fussiness ; but he wins upon you and obtains your affection , and even your admiration , he is so transparently honest , so delightfully and ridiculously human " . In its review of the book 's fourth edition , published in 1919 , The Bookman observed that the book was now a firm favourite with the public . " It has had many imitators ... but not one of them has rivalled the original , and they have all faded away " . The reviewer recommended the book 's " quaint drollery , its whimsical satire and delightfully quiet irony " . In Canada , Queen 's Quarterly magazine 's sympathetic reception of the book contrasted with that of the New York Times nearly 30 years previously . It praises the understated but lovable self @-@ portrait of Pooter , and adds that " It is not till the second or third reading — and you are bound to reread it — that the really consummate art of this artless book becomes apparent " . The literary critic D. B. Wyndham Lewis summarised the Pooters as " warm , living , breathing , futile , half @-@ baked , incredibly alive and endearing boneheads " . = = = Acclaim = = = The novelist Evelyn Waugh had been familiar with the Diary since his childhood . It was a great favourite of his parents — Arthur Waugh used to read passages aloud to his family , and Evelyn 's biographer Selena Hastings has drawn attention to the distinctly Pooterish elements in the Waugh household . Evelyn Waugh was initially contemptuous of the book , but grew to admire it , to the extent of writing in his 1930 essay " One Way to Immortality " that it was " the funniest book in the world " . He added : " Nobody wants to read other people 's reflections on life and religion and politics , but the routine of their day , properly recorded , is always interesting , and will become more so as conditions change with the years " . Morton posits that several of the leading characters in Waugh 's early novels , though socially far removed from the Pooters , share the bafflement of Charles and Carrie with the problems of a changing world . In his 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited , Waugh has Lady Marchmain comforting her family by reading aloud from the Diary " with her beautiful voice and great humour of expression " . Morton suggests that one of the work 's attractions to Waugh was his personal identification with Lupin , and the way in which the disapproved son ( as Waugh saw himself ) repeatedly manages to turn adverse circumstances to his ultimate advantage . At about the time that Waugh was discovering his affection for the Diary another writer , J. B. Priestley , was extolling it as an exemplar of English humour ; Jerome K. Jerome , Priestley asserted , never wrote anything as good : " [ P ] oor Mr Pooter , with his simplicity , his timidity , his goodness of heart , is not simply a figure of fun but one of those innocent , lovable fools who are dear to the heart " . In a 1943 essay , George Orwell considered the book an accurate account of English life in the 1880s . In describing Pooter he revived the Don Quixote analogy but saw this English equivalent as a sentimentalised version of the original , one who " constantly suffers disasters brought upon him by his own folly " . In the years after the Second World War the book 's stock remained high ; Osbert Lancaster deemed it " a great work of art " , and similar enthusiasm was expressed by a new generation of writers and social historians . Gillian Tindall , writing in 1970 , thought the Diary " the best comic novel in the language " , and lauded Pooter as " the presiding shade " of his era . This accolade was echoed a further generation on by A. N. Wilson , who wrote in his study of the Victorian era : " Who is to say that Oscar Wilde and Aubrey Beardsley are more typical of the [ 1890s ] than the lower @-@ middle class Charles and Carrie Pooter ? " Wilson also observed the extent to which the Pooters had become recognised as " arbiters of the greatest good taste " , as the late 20th @-@ century English middle classes sought to acquire or preserve authentic Victorian features in their carefully crafted " period " homes . A Spectator article of 2008 remarks on how such houses as " The Laurels " , the humble habitats of 1890s City clerks , had by the 21st century become desirable £ 1 million @-@ plus homes in what it terms " banker land " . = = Literary and cultural influence = = Peter Bailey , in his study " White Collars , Gray Lives " ( 1999 ) , traces the beginnings of literary interest in the lower @-@ middle classes to the " disquieting irruption of a new breed of petty bourgeois shop and office workers " that faced Victorian writers in the last quarter of the 19th century . The Grossmiths ' Diary was a typical satire of its time ; it probed the lower @-@ middle class lives of the Pooters and poked fun at their pretensions and petty concerns . Tony Joseph calls the Diary " a sharp analysis of social insecurity " . Although many writers had themselves come from humble backgrounds , they often sought to disguise their origins through scorn : " putting the boot in on the lower middle classes " , says Bailey , " has long been the intellectual 's blood sport " . However , the quarter @-@ century following the publication of The Diary of a Nobody saw a tendency to mix mockery with sympathy , even approval . In the works of writers such as George Gissing , H. G. Wells , Arnold Bennett and E. M. Forster , characters emerged who , despite the recognisably Pooterish aspects of their lives , were by no means entirely absurd . Bennett and Wells could poke fun at figures such as " Denry Machin " , " Mr Polly " or " Mr Lewisham " , while at the same time celebrating their fortitude , energy and determination to look for better things . In cases such as these , writes Bailey , " disdain could change to admiration and national self @-@ identification , as the Little Man ... was transposed into Everyman , a model of cheerful resilience in times of crisis . " During the past century , the fictitious diary has developed as an accepted means of comedic expression ; the original has , says Morton , " been fertile ground which has germinated many seeds " . An early example is Anita Loos 's novel of 1925 : Gentlemen Prefer Blondes : The Illuminating Diary of a Professional Lady in which the protagonist , Lorelei Lee , records her flirtatious adventure in prose that " follows the mannerisms of colloquial speech " and suggests innocence or ignorance yet , the critic Elyse Graham observes , " burlesques , in excoriating detail , the vernacular of the American middle class " . The diary genre became particularly popular in the late 20th century . In 1978 – 81 Christopher Matthew produced three volumes of diaries recording the daily life of " Simon Crisp " , a bachelor would @-@ be man @-@ about town of the era . The title of the first , The Diary of a Somebody , is a direct reference to the Grossmith original . Reviewing this volume in The Spectator , Benny Green points out several parallels with the original , in both character and event . Matthew 's book , says Green , is amusing , but the Grossmiths ' book is superior ; it is " affecting as well as comical , in a way that the Matthew pastiche is not " . In 1982 came the first appearance of Sue Townsend 's teenage creation , Adrian Mole , whose passage into young manhood and early middle age is charted in a long series of diaries . The more middle @-@ aged he becomes , says Morton , the more he resembles Pooter . Keith Waterhouse 's Mrs Pooter 's Diary of 1983 is an adaptation of the Grossmith original that shifts the narrative voice to Carrie Pooter . In 1996 Helen Fielding used the imaginary diary format for Bridget Jones 's Diary , which records the daily paraphernalia of a single woman 's life . The New York Times critic wrote that it " captures neatly the way modern women teeter between ' I am woman ' independence and a pathetic girlie desire to be all things to all men . " This diary began as a weekly column in The Independent , and was later published in books which sold more than 15 million copies in 40 countries . In the 1990s the satirical magazine Private Eye lampooned John Major , British prime minister 1990 – 97 , in " The Secret Diary of John Major aged 473 ⁄ 4 " , a hybrid of the Adrian Mole diaries with The Diary of a Nobody , which made much fun of Major 's lower @-@ middle class origins . The social historian James Hammerton defines " Pooterism " as " the dependent weakness and inflated social pretension of white @-@ collar workers , constructed in the workplace but expressed just as powerfully at home " . Jon Wilde of The Guardian observes this characteristic in a number of British TV comedy creations of the late 20th and early 21st centuries : Captain Mainwaring , Victor Meldrew , and Peep Show 's Mark Corrigan are all examples of characters " whose blinkered view of themselves is forever in sharp contrast to how they are perceived by the world " . Charles Pooter , says Hammerton , was a metaphor for lower middle @-@ class pretension , pomposity and self @-@ importance , set up for mockery by the " elites " . However , by the mid @-@ 20th century changes in the perception of masculine roles in lower middle @-@ class society had stifled the mockery , as men increasingly embraced domesticity . Hammerton remarks that the Grossmiths " would surely appreciate the irony in seeing features of the lower middle @-@ class existence they mocked so mercilessly becoming the more universal model for 20th century family life " . Bailey remarks on how the poet John Betjeman presented the Pooters " not as objects of ridicule but of envy , snug and secure in their suburban retreat " . = = Adaptations = = In September 1954 a stage version of the Diary , by Basil Dean and Richard Blake , was presented at London 's Arts Theatre with a cast that included George Benson and Dulcie Gray as the Pooters and Leslie Phillips as Lupin . Anthony Hartley , writing in The Spectator , classed this production as " fair @-@ to @-@ middling " , with sympathetic performances from the principals : " [ I ] t is a precondition of this kind of play that everybody concerned should have a heart of gold : only in the case of Mr. Pooter 's employer , Mr. Perkupp , do we actually hear the metal chinking . " In 1986 Waterhouse presented an adaptation of his " Mrs Pooter " text at the Garrick Theatre , with Judi Dench and Michael Williams . This version was revived in 1993 at the Greenwich Theatre in a production by Matthew Francis . Clive Swift and Patricia Routledge played Charles and Carrie , in what Paul Taylor in The Independent described as " essentially a two @-@ hander ... in which all the other folk ( including Lupin Pooter , the uppish , worrying son ) are either imagined characters or , at times , impersonated by the Pooters " . In March 2011 the Diary was the subject of an even less orthodox production at the Royal & Derngate Theatre , Northampton . Adapted by Hugh Osborne , with an all @-@ male cast led by Robert Daws , this supposes that Pooter has arranged for his diaries to be performed by amateur actors . Quentin Letts of the Daily Mail found this " an evening of some of the cleverest , fastest entertainment I have seen for months " . Lyn Garner in The Guardian found it " a show of some charm – though one that , like Pooter himself , does not quite have the credentials to be quite so pleased with itself " . The first adaptation for screen was Ken Russell 's short ( 40 minutes ) film for the BBC film unit in 1964 . Russell shot this in the style of the silent films of Buster Keaton and Charlie Chaplin , with the text narrated in a voice @-@ over . The BBC screened two subsequent adaptations : in 1979 a version dramatised by Basil Boothroyd , and in 2007 a four @-@ part dramatisation Andrew Davies , directed by Susanna White and first shown on BBC Four as part of the channel 's Edwardian season . The Guardian 's critic wrote of the latter that Hugh Bonneville was " immaculate as the ignored kerfuffler [ Pooter ] . " BBC Radio 4 has broadcast at least three dramatisations of the Diary . In September 2004 , Stephen Tompkinson and Annette Badland played the main roles in an adaptation by Kelvin Segger . In July 2012 , Johnny Vegas and Katherine Parkinson starred in Andrew Lynch 's adaptation . In March 2015 , BBC Radio 4 Extra broadcast an audio version of the 1986 Keith Waterhouse adaptation , with Judi Dench and Michael Williams in the lead roles .
= Imleria badia = Imleria badia , commonly known as the bay bolete , is an edible , pored mushroom found in Europe and North America , where it grows in coniferous or mixed woods on the ground or on decaying tree stumps , sometimes in prolific numbers . Both the common and scientific names refer to the bay- or chestnut @-@ coloured cap , which is almost spherical in young specimens before broadening and flattening out to a diameter up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) . On the cap underside are small yellowish pores that bruise dull blue @-@ grey when injured . The smooth , cylindrical stipe , measuring 4 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , is coloured like the cap , but paler . Some varieties have been described from eastern North America , differing from the main type in both macroscopic and microscopic morphology . First described scientifically by Elias Fries in 1818 , the bay bolete was reclassified as Xerocomus badius in 1931 , and it is still listed thus in several sources . Modern molecular phylogenetic studies show Xerocomus to be polyphyletic ( not descended from a common ancestor ) , and the bay bolete is not particularly closely related to species in that genus . Often considered a poor relation of the cep ( Boletus edulis ) , I. badia is nevertheless regarded as a choice edible mushroom by some authors , such as food expert Antonio Carluccio , and is sold in markets in Europe and central Mexico . Its mushrooms are less often infested by maggots than other boletes . Several European studies have demonstrated that the mushroom can bioaccumulate some trace metals from the soil , such as mercury , cobalt , and nickel . Additionally , the mushroom contains a pigment that concentrates radioactive caesium ; specimens collected in Europe following the 1986 Chernobyl disaster had 137Cs concentrations several times greater than those collected before the incident . = = Taxonomy = = The bay bolete was first named as Boletus castaneus ß badius ( i.e. a subspecies of Boletus castaneus ) by Elias Magnus Fries in 1818 . Fries later renamed it as a variety of Boletus castaneus in 1828 , before assigning it distinct species status in his 1832 work Elenchus Fungorum . The fungus has been transferred to several genera in its taxonomic history : Rostkovites by Petter Karsten in 1881 ; Viscipellis and Ixocomus by Lucien Quélet in 1886 and 1888 , respectively ; and Suillus by Otto Kuntze in 1898 . In 1931 , Edouard @-@ Jean Gilbert reclassified it in the genus Xerocomus , and many sources still list it thus . Review of Xerocomus strongly suggested it was polyphyletic , and the genus was not accepted by some mycologists . The stickiness of its wet cap distinguishes the species from others classified in Xerocomus , and hence it was left in Boletus until Alfredo Vizzini placed it in its own genus in 2014 . Genetic analysis published in 2013 shows that Imleria badia is related to B. pallidus and B. glabellus ; the three species form a clade known informally as the badius clade within a larger group ( informally called anaxoboletus ) in the suborder Boletineae . Other clades within the group include the Tylopilus , porcini ( = Boletus sensu stricto ) and Strobilomyces clades , as well as two other groups composed of members of various genera including Xerocomus ( the taxa designated as Xerocomus species in this clade are not Xerocomus species and require new taxonomic designations ) and Xerocomellus . The species Boletus limatulus , originally published by Charles Christopher Frost in 1874 , was later redescribed , " with a slight tinge of irritation at the time , energy and gasoline spent " , as a variety of I. badia by Wally Snell in 1945 ( as Xerocomus badius var. limatulus ) . The taxon name comes from the Latin limatulus , " rather polished " or " refined " . Varieties glaber and macrostipitatus were described from Nova Scotia , Canada , in 1976 . The starting date of fungal taxonomy had been set as January 1 , 1821 , to coincide with the date of the works of Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries , the " father of mycology " . Rolf Singer argued that setting the starting date earlier to Christiaan Persoon 's 1801 publication of Synopsis would make a name change necessary , as he had originally given what is now known as Royoporus badius the combination Boletus badius Pers. and if the bay bolete was classified in the genus Boletus , the name would be unavailable and the names Boletus glutinosus Krombh. or B. spadiceus Krombh . ( non Fr . ) would have to be used instead . The species name is the Latin adjective badia , meaning " chestnut brown " . The common name is likewise derived from the colour of the cap , likened to the coat of a bay horse . Alternate common names of a similar derivation include bay @-@ brown bolete and bay @-@ capped bolete , and it is known as bolet bai in French . It is also known as the false cep . Variety glaber was named for its smooth ( Latin : glaber , " without hairs " ) stipe , and macrostipitatus for its large ( Latin : macro , " large " ) stipe . = = Description = = Imleria badia fruit bodies have a chestnut to dark brown cap , which is almost spherical in young specimens before broadening and flattening out to a diameter of up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) . The cap margin is acute , and cap surface velvety when young and slightly sticky when wet or old . The cap cuticle is difficult to separate from the flesh underneath . On the cap undersurface , the pores are initially cream to pale yellow , but become greenish yellow or olive with age . They stain dull blue to bluish @-@ grey when bruised or cut , and are easily removed from the flesh . The pores are initially circular , becoming more angular with age , and number about one or two per millimetre . The tubes are 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) long , and are adnate to depressed around the area of attachment to the stipe . The flesh is mostly whitish or yellowish in some places ; underneath the cap cuticle , it is brownish @-@ pink or reddish brown . Initially firm , it begins to soften under the cap in older mushrooms . In some parts of the cap , such as the junction of the cap and the stipe , the flesh stains pale blue when injured or exposed to air , particularly in damp weather . This change is sometimes faint , and not persistent , as it eventually reverts to its original colour . The stipe is 4 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and is similar in colour to the cap but paler , and sometimes with a rose @-@ coloured tinge . Its surface has faint longitudinal ridges , a fine powdering , and fine reticulations ( a net @-@ like pattern of ridges ) at the apex . It often has a whitish region at the base and the top , and white mycelium at the base . Unlike the bulbous stipe of many other boletes , the stipe of B. badius remains relatively slim and cylindrical . The flesh of the stipe gets tougher with age . Its smell has been described as fruity . The spore print is olive to olive @-@ brown . The smooth spores are somewhat oblong to slightly ventricose ( fattened in the middle ) , and measure 10 – 14 by 4 – 5 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored and measure 25 – 35 by 8 – 10 µm . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the faces of the tubes ) are fuse @-@ shaped and ventricose , with dimensions of 50 – 60 by 10 – 14 µm . Variety B. b. macrostipitatus differs from the main form by its grey @-@ orange cap , shorter stipe measuring 5 – 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) , longer spores ( 15 – 18 by 4 – 5 µm ) , and longer pleurocystidia ( 30 – 55 by 10 – 14 µm ) . The variety B. b. glaber has a smooth ( glabrous ) stipe , and smaller pleurocystidia ( 35 – 40 by 10 – 15 µm ) and cheilocystidia ( 25 – 30 by 9 – 12 µm ) . Several chemical tests can be used to help identify the mushroom . A drop of ammonium hydroxide solution turns the cap cuticle a greenish to bluish colour . Application of iron ( II ) sulphate solution causes the flesh to stain a dull bluish @-@ green , while the pores turn golden brown with a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide . = = = Similar species = = = The similar colouration may cause confusion with Boletus projectellus , but the latter species is usually more robust , and has a reticulated stipe . Additionally , B. projectellus has the largest spores in the Boletaceae , up to about 30 µm in diameter . Another lookalike is Austroboletus gracilis , but this species does not have a blue bruising reaction , and its pore surface is initially white before turning pinkish . Compared to I. badia , B. subtomentosus fruit bodies have narrower stipes , paler brown , dry caps , and wider pores that do not stain blue on bruising . This latter species is not as good to eat . In western North America , I. badia is replaced by the similar B. zelleri , which also grows both on the ground and on rotten wood . The European species Xerocomus bubalinus can be mistaken for I. badia , but it has a paler yellow @-@ brown cap flushed with pinkish @-@ red , and is not sticky when wet . = = Ecology , distribution and habitat = = Although the bay bolete is predominantly a mycorrhizal species , it does have some saprophytic tendencies and may be able to use this lifestyle in certain circumstances . The ectomycorrhizae formed between I. badia and spruce ( Picea abies ) have active hyphal sheaths and a higher potential to store nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium , magnesium , iron , and zinc than other mycorrhizal types , indicating the fungus is well adapted to acidic stands and its mycorrhizae are very efficient in uptake and storage of macronutrients . Mycorrhizae with Monterey pine ( Pinus radiata ) have also been described . The bay bolete is common in coniferous and less commonly mixed woodlands in Europe , from the British Isles , where it is abundant throughout through August – November , east to the Black Sea Region in Turkey . In Asia , the species has been recorded from Jordan mainland China , and Taiwan . The North American distribution extends from eastern Canada west to Minnesota and south to North Carolina , where the mushroom fruits from July to November . It also grows in central Mexico . The variety B. b. macrostipitatus is found from eastern Canada south to Maine and New York , while variety B. b. glaber is known from the Atlantic Maritime Ecozone of eastern Canada . Fruit bodies appear singly or scattered on the ground , or on decaying tree stumps , and can be well hidden by pine needles and ferns . Fruiting tends to peak generally three or four days after rain during warm weather . Numbers can be prolific , especially in highland areas that are humid and shady . It is commonly found under white pine , spruce , and hemlock , although it also occurs under deciduous trees , especially beech . It also occurs in grassy or mossy areas at or near forest margins ; Italian restaurateur and cook Antonio Carluccio recalled picking them in the grounds of Blenheim Palace . It does not occur on calcareous ( chalky ) soils . I. badia fruit bodies are less affected by insects than other boletes . Orbatid mites such as Carabodes femoralis , Nothrus silvestris and Oribatula tibialis consume them , as do squirrels . Several microbial pathogens can damage the fruit bodies , and have had an effect on populations in China , including soft rot caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and black mould caused by Mucor , Sepedonium , Paecilomyces , and Diasporangium species . = = Uses = = Often considered a poor relation of the cep ( Boletus edulis ) , the bay bolete is nevertheless highly regarded as a choice edible mushroom by some authors such as Carluccio . In central Mexico , it is collected from Izta @-@ Popo Zoquiapan National Park and sold in neighbouring markets . It may cause an allergic reaction in some people , and the blue discolouration upon bruising can be offputting , although the staining disappears from white flesh when it is cooked . The flavour is milder than its better @-@ known relative . Younger specimens are best for eating , though more mature ones can be suitable for cutting up and drying . The tendency for the pores to absorb water means that wiping rather than washing is recommended before use in the kitchen . Unlike most boletes , I. badia can be eaten raw ( though only young mushrooms should be used ) . Otherwise it can be fried in butter , or used with meat or fish recipes . Mushrooms can also be frozen , dried , or pickled in cider vinegar , wine , or extra virgin olive oil , and later used in sauces or soups . The fruit bodies can be used to make mushroom dyes . Depending on the mordant used , colours ranging from yellow , orange , gold , and green @-@ brown can be obtained . Without mordant , a yellow colour is produced . = = Research = = In laboratory experiments , extracts of I. badia fruit bodies have been shown to have significant antioxidative properties in vitro . Fruit bodies contain the compound theanine , an amino acid and a glutamic acid analogue found in green tea . Efforts have been made to establish a protocol for producing theanine by growing the fungus mycelium using submerged fermentation . Several indole compounds have been detected in fruit bodies . Unprocessed mushrooms contain tryptophan ( 0 @.@ 68 mg per 100 g dry weight ) , tryptamine ( 0 @.@ 47 ) , serotonin ( 0 @.@ 52 ) , kynurenine sulphate ( 1 @.@ 96 ) , and kynurenic acid ( 1 @.@ 57 ) . Due to their temperature sensitivity , cooking significantly changes the contents and composition of indole compounds : cooked mushrooms contained tryptophan ( 1 @.@ 74 mg / 100 g dw ) , 5 @-@ methyltryptophan ( 6 @.@ 55 ) , melatonin ( 0 @.@ 71 ) , and indoleacetonitrile ( 2 @.@ 07 ) . Fruit body extracts have been shown to slow the growth of certain tumour cell lines in cell culture . Polish studies found that although the mushroom bioaccumulates mercury and cobalt from the soil , occasional consumption of mushrooms should not cause maximum allowable intake doses to be exceeded . Similar conclusions about safety were made in a Polish study of the mushroom 's ability to accumulate organochlorine compounds . Different methods of preparation for consumption affect the leaching rate of cadmium , lead , and mercury . After the 1986 Chernobyl disaster , several studies showed I. badia bioaccumulates radioactive caesium , 137Cs . 137Cs is produced in nuclear power plants following the chain decay of 235U to 137Te , and has a half @-@ life of thirty years . A German study showed that mushrooms collected from 1986 to 1988 had radiocaesium contents that were 8 @.@ 3 to 13 @.@ 6 times greater than mushrooms collected before the accident in 1985 . This caesium @-@ sequestering effect is caused by a brown pigment , the polyphenol compound norbadione A , which is related to a family of mushroom pigments known as pulvinic acids . Norbadione A has been investigated for its ability to provide a protective effect against the damaging effects of ionizing radiation . Tests with cell cultures and mice show that although it has some protective effect , it is toxic to cells in higher doses . A new series of alkali chelators based on the structure of norbadione A has been reported . The mushroom may have potential as a bioremediation agent to clean up contaminated sites .
= Stella power stations = The Stella power stations were a pair of now @-@ demolished coal @-@ fired power stations in the North East of England that were a landmark in the Tyne valley for over 40 years . The stations stood on either side of a bend of the River Tyne : Stella South power station , the larger , near Blaydon in Gateshead , and Stella North power station near Lemington in Newcastle . Their name originated from the nearby Stella Hall , a manor house close to Stella South that by the time of their construction had been demolished and replaced by a housing estate . They operated from shortly after the nationalisation of the British electrical supply industry until two years after the Electricity Act of 1989 , when the industry passed into the private sector . These sister stations were of similar design and were built , opened , and closed together . Stella South , with a generating capacity of 300 megawatts ( MW ) , was built on the site of the Blaydon Races , and Stella North , with a capacity of 240 MW , on that of the former Lemington Hall . They powered local homes and the many heavy industries of Tyne and Wear , Northumberland and County Durham . The large buildings , chimneys and cooling towers were visible from afar . Their operation required coal trains on both sides of the river to supply them with fuel and river traffic by flat iron barges to dump ash in the North Sea . After their closure in 1991 , they were demolished in stages between 1992 and 1997 . Following the stations ' demolition , the sites underwent redevelopment : the North site into a large business and industrial park , the South into a housing estate . = = History = = = = = Development = = = The British demand for electricity increased after the Second World War . In the North East of England this led to the expansion of existing power stations at Dunston and Billingham in the late 1940s , the two new Stella power stations , and the construction of two more large stations built at Blyth later in the 1960s . This new generating capacity quickly met the demand for power . The British Electricity Authority were granted permission to construct the Stella North and Stella South power stations in 1951 . The two stations were originally projected to cost around £ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The site chosen for Stella North was the Newburn Haugh , which was the site of Lemington Hall . Lemington Hall was demolished in 1953 during the construction of Stella North . Stella South was built on the Stella Haugh , the site of the Battle of Newburn in 1640 . A cannonball from the battle was on display in the South station for many years , after having been dredged from the river bed . Between 1887 and 1916 , the Stella Haugh had been the site of the annual Blaydon Races , which stopped after a riot broke out following allegations of race fixing . Just before the construction of the South station the haugh had two uses . Blaydon Rugby Club 's ground had been there since 1893 , but in 1950 it was compulsorily purchased by the British Electricity Authority for £ 1 @,@ 000 . The club moved to a new ground in Swalwell , which it still uses . Newcastle University Boat Club had owned a boathouse on the site since 1929 , but in 1951 the British Electricity Authority requisitioned it , forcing the club to move upstream to its current location in Newburn . The addition of various power lines was needed to connect the power stations to the National Grid . These included a 275 kilovolt ( kV ) connection from Stella to West Melton , and another 275 kV connection from Stella to Carlisle . The towers for these connections were to stand at 115 feet ( 35 m ) , rather than the 85 feet ( 26 m ) towers of the existing grid system . The line from Stella to Carlisle , which was to consist of 250 towers spaced at 320 meters over a distance of around 60 miles ( 97 km ) , came up against opposition when first proposed . The Northumberland County Planning Authority launched a public enquiry in 1951 , and Hexham Rural District Council held a meeting . The Ministry of Agriculture and other outdoor associations voiced their concerns , as it was feared that the line would interfere with good farming land . An alternative route was proposed , but in view of its additional cost of £ 72 @,@ 000 it was turned down , and the Ministry of Fuel and Power gave the line the go @-@ ahead . = = = Construction = = = Both of the stations were designed by Newcastle upon Tyne @-@ based architects L J Couves & Partners , and construction work began in 1951 . The Cleveland Bridge Company were contracted to construct the steel frames for the stations ' main buildings , including their turbine halls , boiler houses , workshops and stores buildings . Various other companies were contracted for the construction of other parts of the station . Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons were contracted for site clearance , provision of the foundations for the main and ancillary buildings , as well as the diversion of streams and sewers . Davenport Engineering Co. were responsible for the construction of the North station 's cooling towers , as well as the stations ' ancillary buildings . P.C. Richardson & Co. built the stations ' brick chimneys . Aiton & Co. installed the stations ' low @-@ pressure piping equipment . Underwater electrical work was carried out by British Royal Navy frogman Lionel " Buster " Crabb , chosen for the dangerous job because he wore a rubber diving suit at a time when most divers used canvas . The first generating sets of the stations became operational on 20 December 1954 . However , it was not until 1956 that all four of the North station 's units were commissioned , and 1957 before all five of the South station 's units generated electricity . The cost of the two stations in total came to around £ 40 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . On the morning of 14 December 1955 , during the stations ' construction , switchgear exploded in the South station 's substation , closing down the generators . Dunston power station could not take the extra load and it also shut down , creating a total blackout on Tyneside . Around 400 @,@ 000 people were affected by the fault , including 20 @,@ 000 miners trapped in over a hundred collieries . Power was fully reconnected by that evening. but the failure caused an interruption of work and services worth more than £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , as well as the loss of 300 megawatts of electricity . = = = Post @-@ commissioning = = = Although developed by the British Electricity Authority , the stations were first operated by the Central Electricity Authority , following the Electricity Reorganisation ( Scotland ) Act 1954 . From 1957 they were operated by the Central Electricity Generating Board ( CEGB ) , following the Electricity Act 1957 . In 1961 , Stella North was presented with the Hinton Cup , the CEGB 's " good house keeping trophy " . The award was presented by Sir Christopher Hinton , the first chairman of the CEGB . The station 's achievement was attributed to the fact the station 's annual efficiency had never been less than 29 @.@ 1 % . The station also won the North East regional award for the second year in a row in 1961 . In March 1967 , Stella South 's male first aid team won a national first aid competition in Harrogate , organised by the CEGB . Over 150 teams took part . In 1966 , Stella North was at the centre of a legal case in which three men were found guilty of conspiracy to defraud after trying to sell the CEGB poor quality coal when contracted to deliver high quality coal . The three men involved were D.C.P. Brooksbank , a salesman for a coal firm ; J.W. Patterson , a sampler at the power station , and M. Ridley , a contractor . Their scheme was for Patterson to substitute samples of reasonably good coal for the samples of poor coal taken from the lorries . However they were found out only two days after starting the scheme , when a foreman at the station saw Patterson dropping a bag of cement into the sampling bin , and reported the incident . Ridley was found to have planned the fraud , and was jailed for a year , while Brooksbank was fined £ 150 and Patterson £ 75 . = = Design and specification = = The main visible features of the stations were their large boiler houses , turbine halls , cooling towers and pairs of chimneys ; other facilities on both sites included offices , coal sorting areas , small fire stations and workshops . The power stations had the " brick @-@ cathedral " style of design popular for power stations in the 1930s and 1940s and , as of 2009 , still tenuously surviving at Battersea power station in London . The main buildings of the South station had a total length of 130 m ( 430 ft ) and a width of 81 m ( 266 ft ) ; their tallest point , the roof of the boiler house , was 44 m ( 144 ft ) high . The main buildings of the North station were of a similar length and height , but in total slightly narrower as the station had one less generator unit . This also meant it had a smaller generating capacity ; it was sometimes erroneously termed the South station 's " B " station . The boiler houses and turbine halls were all @-@ welded steel structures , consisting of box @-@ type main columns and roof girders , clad with brick and glazed in parts . Each of their four chimneys was made of brick and stood 120 m ( 390 ft ) tall , weighing about 5 @,@ 000 tonnes . The North station 's four 73 m ( 240 ft ) cooling towers were made from reinforced concrete and were of the typically hyperbolic , natural @-@ draft design . The South station had five generating sets and the North station had four . Each generating set had a bunker for 1 @,@ 250 tonnes of coal , fed by a conveyor from the coal store . This conveyor belt system was built by E. N. Mackley & Co , Gateshead . Each bunker fed coal into a pulveriser , manufactured by Raymond . From here it was fed into a boiler in powder form and burned . All of the boilers were suspended from the boiler houses ' steel frames , and were made by Clarke Chapman Group Ltd , Gateshead . The boilers were forged in Sheffield , the first of the nine arriving at Stella South in 1953 . At 62 tonnes , the boilers were at the time the largest ever made in the UK . The boilers were of the radiant @-@ heat type , comprising a water @-@ cooled combustion chamber , controlled @-@ type superheater and an economiser . Each of the boilers had an evaporation rating of 550 kL / h , a steam pressure of 950 psi and a steam temperature of 925 ° F. Each boiler was equipped with two forced and two induced Howden fans , twenty @-@ two electrically operated Clyde soot blowers , an automatic control system made by Bailey and Sturtevant electrostatic precipitators . Each station was designed to burn 2 @,@ 000 tonnes of bituminous coal a day . Each boiler powered a turbo generator , made by Parsons , Newcastle upon Tyne . These were three @-@ cylinder reaction type steam turbines operating at 3 @,@ 000 rpm , generating 60 MW of electricity . The stations used them because of a Statutory Order of the Ministry of Supply in November 1947 that all turbo alternators made for the home market could only be of 60 MW at advanced steam conditions . Stella South had a total generating capacity of 300 MW and Stella North originally 240 MW ( later recorded as only 224 MW ) . The stations were the first to use silica removal beds in their turbines , a development which became standard within the CEGB 's power stations for some time . In 1967 , one of the sets at Stella South became the world 's first in commercial operation to use brushless excitation . The set was modified by Parsons to use A.C. exciters and silicon diode rectifiers . The stations ' switchgear was manufactured by A. Reyrolle & Company . The power stations were illuminated by what was then the most powerful lighting installation in North East England . The North station was lit up by 60 flood lights , 15 on each of four towers ; the South station also had four towers , but each held 26 flood lights . The Central Electricity Authority justified the use of 194 flood lights over the two sites as " economical , safe and much more efficient than lighting the stations at street level " . = = Operations = = = = = Coal transportation = = = The stations were in the heart of the North East coal field , which at the time of their opening had hundreds of collieries . Coal was delivered straight to the stations by rail . The Newcastle and Carlisle Railway was used for the South station , where 22 railway sidings were built . Trains could only enter the sidings when travelling in a westerly direction . The Scotswood , Newburn and Wylam Railway ( SN & WR ) supplied the North station , trains reaching the power station via a junction at Newburn . Despite the SN & WR 's closure on 11 March 1968 , and the rerouting of the Newcastle & Carlisle Railway through Dunston in 1982 , the track between Scotswood and Newburn was retained for supplying the North station , as well as for rail access to the neighbouring Ever Ready battery factory and Anglo Great Lakes Graphite Plant . The tracks outlived the power stations , and were finally lifted when the Ever Ready factory shut down in 1992 . Part of the line serving the station is now a well @-@ used section of the Hadrian 's Way National Trail . A small home fleet of locomotives was used to shunt the coal wagons once they had arrived at the stations . Originally this included Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0ST No.20 and No.21 , and Sentinel No.25. Engine No.25 was used exclusively at the North station , but was converted to diesel @-@ hydraulic by Thomas Hill of Kilnhurst in 1967 , becoming Thomas Hill 188 . It returned to the station but was taken out of use in 1983 and scrapped by C F Booth of Rotherham . After the closure of the stations , engine No.21 was sent to be preserved at the Tanfield Railway site , near Sunniside in Gateshead . During the 1970s the steam locomotives were replaced by diesel locomotives . These included a Fowler 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 and CEGB No. 24 Vanguard 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 CEGB No. 24 has since been sent to Statfold Barn Railway for preservation . The stations were picketed during the UK miners ' strike of 1972 , stopping coal deliveries to them . = = = Cooling system = = = Water is essential to a thermal power station to produce the steam needed to turn the steam turbines and generate electricity . Water cycled through the Stella stations ' systems was taken from the River Tyne ; after use it was cooled before being discharged back into the river . The North station 's water cooling system consisted of four large 60 @-@ cubic @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 100 cu ft ) natural draft cooling tower units , 73 m ( 240 ft ) tall and made of reinforced concrete . The South station used a syphon cooling system instead of cooling towers , consisting of five 300 @-@ cubic @-@ metre ( 11 @,@ 000 cu ft ) units , made up of five underground pipes , each 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 6 ft 11 in ) in diameter , with valves and screens . = = = Ash removal = = = Fly ash and bottom ash are two by @-@ products from the burning of coal in power stations . Ash from the Stella stations was taken out to sea by three flat iron barges : Bobby Shaftoe , Bessie Surtees and Hexhamshire Lass . All three were built by Charles Hill & Sons of Bristol , in 1955 . Bessie Surtees was the first to be put into service , in April 1955 . On each trip , each ship took up to 500 tonnes of ash from the stations down the river and dumped it in the North Sea , 4 @.@ 8 km ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) off the coast . Originally , they carried ash waste from Dunston power station as well . Their frequent passages made them a common sight on the Tyne . Each was 46 m ( 151 ft ) long and 10 m ( 33 ft ) wide , weighed 680 tonnes , and had a crew of seven . They were managed by Stephenson Clarke Shipping Ltd but owned by the CEGB . The ships went further up the Tyne than did any other , and so needed a shallow draft . The entire load of ash was dumped through two hydraulically operated doors in only a few minutes . As early as the 1960s , the power stations ' operating hours were decreased due to the opening of the much larger Blyth power station in Northumberland . This meant that less ash was produced by the Stella and Dunston stations ; so by the end of the 1960s , the CEGB sold Hexhamshire Lass and Bobby Shaftoe . The former went to a firm in Fareham , Hampshire , where it worked as a sand dredger until scrapped in 1993 ; the latter to a French dredging company . After the closure of Dunston Staithes in 1980 , the Swing Bridge downstream of the stations seldom had to be opened . ( Because Bessie Surtees was low lying , it was able to pass underneath the bridge at low tide . ) However , on 15 December 1975 , Bessie Surtees collided with the Swing Bridge , forcing it to close for the rest of that weekend . = = Environmental impact = = When built , the power stations were fitted with electrostatic precipitators , to reduce the amount of smoke and dust emitted from the stations ' chimneys . At the time , this was the most up @-@ to @-@ date method to prevent pollution from power stations . Despite these precautions , pollution from the power stations was still a factor . In 1954 , consideration was given to scrapping the plan to build the Union Hall housing estate in Lemington because of probable pollution from nearby power stations . This was mainly because some of the houses were as high as , if not higher than , the power stations ' chimneys . At times , this meant the estate being exposed to as much as 1 @.@ 25 parts per million of sulphur dioxide . However the estate was still built , as these peak conditions were thought unlikely to occur on more than 18 days in a year . Smoke was not the only thing emitted from the power station . In July 1956 , the discharge of cooling water from the stations was noted to have increased the water temperature of the river by 1 @.@ 5 ° C between Ryton and Scotswood . However , this was found to not be too deleterious , as it did not seem to affect the passage of migratory fish . In fact , because of the stations ' introduction of warm water into the river , basking sharks were known to be attracted to the area . From the start , the power stations ' fly ash was dumped in the North Sea , and 800 @,@ 000 tonnes of fly ash were dumped between the Stella and Blyth stations in 1976 . By 1991 , National Power 's licence had been restricted to dumping only 50 @,@ 000 tonnes of ash a year from the Stella power stations . By this point the North East coast was the only place in Europe to dump fly ash at sea . Fly ash dumping had been found to make sea bed inert , with much life being smothered and killed by the fly ash . It was also found to create problems for the fishing industry , when their trawlers caught large lumps of it . The licence for Stella was terminated in May 1991 , with the stations ' closure . Blyth power stations ' licence was terminated by the end of 1992 , ending fly ash dumping in the North Sea . = = Closure and demolition = = = = = Closure = = = By the mid @-@ 1980s closure of the stations was being considered , and in 1984 , was considered for a combined heat and power scheme . After the privatisation of the Central Electricity Generating Board in 1989 , the stations passed into the ownership of National Power . After almost 37 years of use they were decommissioned in May 1991 as outdated and uneconomical to operate . They had been overtaken technologically , and had lower generating capacity than newer plants such as Drax . Their closure coincided with that of a large number of coal mines in the North East of England , just after the privatisation of both the electricity industry and the National Coal Board in the early 1990s . Following the closure of the power stations at Stella , as well as those at Dunston and Blyth ( in 1981 and 2001 respectively ) , the northern part of North East England has become heavily dependent upon the National Grid for electricity . However , in the South of the region there are still two large power stations , at Hartlepool and Wilton . The stations ' closure also forced the Tyne Sea Scouts , who had operated from the North station since 1978 , to seek new accommodation . The scouts had moved into the station when their boat house in Blyth was deemed unsafe and demolished . They had been provided with two site offices , storage in the power station complex , and permission to keep their boats at the North station 's jetty , at the end of which they had a slipway built . = = = Demolition = = = The large buildings and structures of the stations were demolished in stages throughout the 1990s . The four cooling towers were demolished by explosives on 29 March 1992 , in front of thousands of spectators . St Paul 's Developments then bought the two sites from National Power in 1993 . Both stations were demolished by T. W. Ward Industrial Dismantling of Barnsley , which started with the South station , whose twin chimneys were destroyed on 29 October 1995 by 82 kilograms ( 181 lb ) of explosives . Its turbine hall followed , before the boiler house went on 1 February 1996 . Stella North then stood alone for almost a year before its turbine hall was demolished on 27 January 1997 and its bunker bay building was demolished on 22 June . The boiler house followed straight after , but its complete destruction took three attempts . Most of it went on 22 June ; the rest followed over the next two days . Its two chimneys , the last obvious reminder of the Stella power stations , were pulled down a month later on 27 July . The power stations were among the last remaining heavy industrial buildings in modern Tyneside , and their demolition was felt by many Tynesiders to have marked the end of industrial Tyneside . The National Trust was then uninterested in the preservation of modern structures such as this . = = Redevelopment = = = = = North site = = = = = = = CCGT power station proposal = = = = In 1997 there had been plans for a £ 130 million combined cycle gas turbine power station on the site of the Ever Ready battery factory to the West of the site of the North station . AES Electrical applied to the Department of Trade and Industry for permission to build the station , which would have been twice as efficient as the coal @-@ fired Stella stations and the first major electricity generation site built in Tyne and Wear in over 40 years . The station would have had a generating capacity of 350 MW . It would have taken three years to build , and created 400 construction jobs , as well as 40 full @-@ time jobs after construction . But the proposal was opposed by the coal mining industry and dropped . = = = = Newburn Riverside = = = = Shortly after the North station was demolished , its site was reclaimed along with the site of the neighbouring Anglo Great Lakes Graphite Plant . The plant had made high @-@ purity graphite for use in magnox nuclear reactors , and operated using the North station 's available excess generating capacity , as large quantities of cheap electricity were essential for production . It was demolished around the same time as the stations , and left the site littered with graphite blocks . At 93 ha ( 230 acres ) , the reclamation of the two neighbouring sites was one of the UK 's largest land reclamation schemes ; it was completed in 2000 . This made way for an industrial / business park , Newburn Riverside , the first phase of whose construction was completed in 2005 . As of 2009 it was still expanding , and expected to provide 5 @,@ 000 jobs and £ 116 million of private sector investment once completed . The park has a 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) cycle route and nature trail around its edge , which takes visitors , walkers and cyclists beside the river and past the point in which the North station 's cooling towers once stood . One of the buildings in the business park was named Stella House , as a tribute to the power station . It is occupied by One NorthEast , the regional development agency for the North East of England . In early 2012 , Stella House became the National HQ of the NHS Business Service Authority following the winding down of One NorthEast . Little else commemorates the power stations , but they are briefly mentioned in a plaque on Stella Road near the South station 's site marking the Blaydon Races : " Official racing started in 1861 on Blaydon Island which lay North of here . The song was written in 1862 . From 1887 to 1914 the race course was on Stella haugh , the site of the former power station . " As well as the NHSBSA , the other key occupiers of the Newburn Riverside site are DEFRA , North East Ambulance Trust , MacFarlane Packaging , True Potential LLP , Northumberland and Tyne & Wear Strategic Health Authority and Stannah Stairlifts . = = = South site = = = Following the completion of the South station 's demolition in 1996 , thousands of pounds were spent on a number of security measures ; the site was fenced off , bunding was installed , warning signs were put up and security patrols took place . However , large sections of the fencing were stolen and the warning signs were ignored . Ultimately this led to one man being trapped on the site for five hours on 22 May 1997 . He had been looking for scrap metal and power cables , and had climbed through a small hole into an underground room , from which he had to be rescued by fire crews . The site was then designated a danger zone . The derelict site was vandalised in July 1999 , when people hurled burning tyres into the sub @-@ station , creating a fire and damaging cables worth £ 150 @,@ 000 . = = = = Riverside Crescent = = = = As of 2007 , the 14 ha ( 35 acres ) site of the South station is under redevelopment , after having sat as a brownfield site for almost 10 years . St Paul 's Developments , the site developer , had often applied for planning permission to build housing and leisure facilities on the site over the course of six years , only to be refused . It was finally granted permission to begin building a £ 4 @.@ 7 million housing estate on the site in 2007 . Named Riverside Crescent , this is being constructed by Barratt and Persimmon . It will have 522 residential units , from two @-@ bedroom flats to five @-@ bedroom houses , as well as 1 @.@ 6 ha ( 4 @.@ 0 acres ) of open space , a riverside walkway and a restaurant . A new bus link to Blaydon will improve transport links . The plans for the residential development first went on display at Stella RC Primary School on 5 October 2005 . Other proposals for the site had included industrial development , which met opposition , and restoration to grassland , seen as unfeasible . Despite the demolition in 1996 of all of the above @-@ ground structure of the South station , foundations , culverts and more remained . These needed to be removed before construction could start . The removal of these underground structures was completed in early 2007 , whereupon construction of the houses began immediately . = = = Remnants = = = Due to the significant reclamation on the two sites very little evidence remains of the power stations , other than a small number of bricks and steel rods . Some minor structures have survived to the North West of the North station 's site , including a road bridge over the rail line which served the station , a brick wall , and a concrete staircase . More obvious remains of the power stations are their three large sub @-@ stations that still supply the local region . Much of this electrical power is generated in Scotland 's Cockenzie power station , transported via a 275 kilovolt ( kV ) and a 400 kV connection . = = Cultural use = = The power stations were a strong local landmark . Their chimneys could be seen along a roughly 13 @.@ 8 km ( 8 @.@ 6 mi ) long section of the Tyne valley ; from Bensham near Gateshead down to Heddon @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Wall in Northumberland : almost no other building was present to obstruct the view . When still in operation , the power stations appeared in films and television programs shot in the Newcastle area . They appeared in Payroll , a movie made in 1961 , starring Michael Craig . One of two security van operators lives in Stella park , a housing estate above the power station . It is prominently in the background whenever the van operator 's home is shown . In 1985 , the Stella power stations are seen briefly in a shot in Seacoal , a movie made by Amber Films . They appear during a scene where the two protagonists , Ray and Betty , are travelling from Sunderland to Newcastle . ( Lynemouth power station , a North East power station still in operation , is more prominent in the film . ) In Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads ? , a British sitcom broadcast between 1973 and 1974 , the stations themselves did not appear in the series , but in the end credits their ash boat , Bessie Surtees , could be seen passing Spiller 's Wharf near Byker . In 1981 , it was featured in Swing Bridge Videos ' Check it Out , a short film about youth unemployment in the west end of Newcastle . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the decommissioned stations were photographed by north eastern artist John Kippin as part of his work The Secret Intelligence of the Silent . This piece was exhibited at the Laing Art Gallery in 2012 as part of the exhibition Futureland Now .
= Belarus = Belarus ( / bɛləˈruːs / bel @-@ ə @-@ ROOSS ; Belarusian : Белару ́ сь , tr . Bielaruś , IPA : [ bʲɛlaˈrusʲ ] ; Russian : Беларусь , tr . Byelarus ; IPA : [ bʲɪlɐˈrus ] ) , officially the Republic of Belarus , formerly and sometimes known as Byelorussia is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe bordered by Russia to the northeast , Ukraine to the south , Poland to the west , and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest . Its capital is Minsk ; other major cities include Brest , Hrodna ( Grodno ) , Homiel ( Gomel ) , Mahilioŭ ( Mogilev ) and Vitsebsk ( Vitebsk ) . Over 40 % of its 207 @,@ 600 square kilometres ( 80 @,@ 200 sq mi ) is forested . Its strongest economic sectors are service industries and manufacturing . Until the 20th century , different states at various times controlled the lands of modern @-@ day Belarus , including the Principality of Polotsk ( 11th to 14th centuries ) , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , and the Russian Empire . In the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution , Belarus declared independence as the Belarusian People 's Republic , which was conquered by Soviet Russia as the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia , which became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922 and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic ( Byelorussian SSR ) . Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland after the Polish @-@ Soviet war of 1919 @-@ 1921 . Much of the borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were reintegrated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland and were finalized after World War II . During WWII , military operations devastated Belarus , which lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources . The republic was redeveloped in the post @-@ war years . In 1945 Belarus became a founding member of the United Nations , along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR . The parliament of the republic declared the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990 , and during the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Belarus declared independence on 25 August 1991 . Alexander Lukashenko has served as the country 's president since 1994 . Lukashenko continued a number of Soviet @-@ era policies , such as state ownership of large sections of the economy . Elections under Lukashenko 's rule have been widely criticized as unfair by the international community ; and according to many countries and organizations , political opposition has been violently suppressed . Belarus 's Democracy Index rating was the lowest in Europe until 2014 ( when it was passed by Russia ) , the country is labelled as " not free " by Freedom House , " repressed " in the Index of Economic Freedom , and is rated as by far the worst country for press freedom in Europe in the 2013 – 14 Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders , which ranks Belarus 157th out of 180 nations . In 2000 Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation , with some hints of forming a Union State . Over 70 % of Belarus 's population of 9 @.@ 49 million resides in urban areas . More than 80 % of the population is ethnic Belarusian , with sizable minorities of Russians , Poles and Ukrainians . Since a referendum in 1995 , the country has had two official languages : Belarusian and Russian . The Constitution of Belarus does not declare any official religion , although the primary religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity . The second most widespread religious group , Roman Catholicism , has a much smaller following ; nevertheless , Belarus celebrates both Orthodox and Catholic versions of Christmas and Easter as national holidays . Belarus is the only country in Europe which retains capital punishment in law and in practice . = = Etymology = = The name Belarus is closely related with the term Belaya Rus ' , i.e. , White Rus ' . There are several claims to the origin of the name White Rus ' . An ethno @-@ religious theory suggests that the name used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had been populated mostly by early Christianized Slavs , as opposed to Black Ruthenia , which was predominantly inhabited by pagan Balts . An alternate explanation for the name comments on the white clothing worn by the local Slavic population . A third theory suggests that the old Rus ' lands that were not conquered by the Tatars ( i.e. , Polatsk , Vitsiebsk and Mahilyow ) had been referred to as " white . " Other sources claim that , before 1267 , the land not conquered by the Mongols was considered " White Rus ' " . The name Rus ' is often conflated with its Latin forms Russia and Ruthenia , thus Belarus is often referred to as White Russia or White Ruthenia . The name first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature ; the chronicles of Jan of Czarnków mention the imprisonment of Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother at " Albae Russiae , Poloczk dicto " in 1381 . In some languages , including German and Dutch , the country is generally called " White Russia " to this day ( Weißrussland and Wit @-@ Rusland respectively ) . The Latin term " Alba Russia " was used again by Pope Pius VI to recognize the Society of Jesus there 1783 , exclaiming " Approbo Societatem Jesu in Alba Russia degentem , approbo , approbo . " The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus was in the late @-@ 16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey , who was known for his close contacts with the Russian Royal Court . During the 17th century , the Russian Tsars used " White Rus " to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The term Belorussia ( Russian : Белору ́ ссия , the latter part similar but spelled and stressed differently from Росси ́ я , Russia ) first rose in the days of the Russian Empire , and the Russian Tsar was usually styled " the Tsar of All the Russias " , as Russia or the Russian Empire was formed by three parts of Russia — the Great , Little , and White . This asserted that the territories are all Russian and all the peoples are also Russian ; in the case of the Belarusians , they were variants of the Russian people . After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 , the term " White Russia " caused some confusion as it was also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks . During the period of the Byelorussian SSR , the term Byelorussia was embraced as part of a national consciousness . In western Belarus under Polish control , Byelorussia became commonly used in the regions of Białystok and Grodno during the interwar period . The term Byelorussia ( its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form ) was only used officially until 1991 , when the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR decreed by law that the new independent republic should be called Republic of Belarus ( Республика Беларусь spelled in Russian ) , as well its abridged form should be " Belarus " . The law decreed that all the forms of the new term should be transliterated into other languages from their Belarusian language forms . The use of Byelorussian SSR and any abbreviations thereof were allowed from 1991 – 93 . Conservative forces in the newly independent Belarus did not support the name change and opposed its inclusion in the 1991 draft of the Constitution of Belarus . Accordingly , the name Byelorussia was replaced by Belarus in English and to some extent in Russian ( although the traditional name persists in that language as well ) ; likewise , the adjective Belorussian or Byelorussian was replaced by Belarusian in English ( though Russian has not developed a new adjective ) . Belarusian is closer to the original Russian term of bielaruski . Belarusian intelligentsia in the Stalin era attempted to change the name from Byelorussia to a form of Krivia because of the supposed connection with Russia . Some nationalists object to the name for the same reason . Several local newspapers kept the old name of the country in Russian in their names , for example Komsomolskaya Pravda v Byelorussii , which is the localized publication of a popular Russian newspaper . Also , those who wish for Belarus to be reunited with Russia continue to use Belorussia . Officially , the full name of the country is " Republic of Belarus " ( Рэспубліка Беларусь , Республика Беларусь , Respublika Belarus listen ) . = = History = = = = = Early history = = = From 5000 to 2000 BC , Bandkeramik cultures predominated . In addition , remains from the Dnieper @-@ Donets culture were found in Belarus and parts of Ukraine . Cimmerians and other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1 @,@ 000 BC , and by 500 AD , Slavs had taken up residence , which was circumscribed by the Scythians who roamed its outskirts . Invaders from Asia , among whom were the Huns and Avars , swept through c . 400 – 600 AD , but were unable to dislodge the Slavic presence . The region that is now Belarus was first settled by Baltic tribes in the 3rd century . Around the 5th century , the area was taken over by Slavic tribes . The takeover was partially due to the lack of military coordination of the Balts but the gradual assimilation of the Balts into Slavic culture was peaceful in nature . = = = Middle Ages = = = In the 9th century the territory of modern Belarus became part of Kievan Rus ' , a vast East Slavic state ruled by the Rurikid dynasty . Upon the death of Kievan Rus ' ruler Yaroslav I the Wise , the state split into independent principalities . Many early Russian principalities were virtually razed or severely affected by a major Mongol invasion in the 13th century , but the lands of Belarus avoided the brunt of the invasion and were eventually absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The Grand Duchy of Lithuania first incorporated Belarusian lands into its territory in 1250 , when it conquered the territories of Polotsk and Navahrudak . Incorporation into The Grand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in an economic , political and ethno @-@ cultural unification of Belarusian lands . Of the principalities held by the Duchy , nine of them were settled by a population that would eventually become Belarusian people . During this time , the Duchy was involved in several military campaigns , including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 ; the joint victory allowed the Duchy to control the northwestern borderlands of Eastern Europe . On 2 February 1386 , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers . This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , created in 1569 . In 1696 , Polish replaced Belarusian as the official language and Belarusian was outlawed . The Muscovites , led by Ivan III of Moscow , began military campaigns in 1486 in an attempt to incorporate the lands of Kievan Rus ' , specifically the territories of Belarus , Russia and Ukraine . = = = Within the Russian Empire = = = The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the partitioning of Poland by Imperial Russia , Prussia , and Austria . During this time , the territories of Belarus were acquired by the Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine II and held until their occupation by the German Empire during World War I. Although under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed due to the policies of de @-@ Polonization and Russification , which included the return to Orthodoxy , the 19th century was signified by the rise of the modern Belarusian nation and self @-@ confidence . In a Russification drive in the 1840s , Nicholas I prohibited the use of Belarusian language in public schools , campaigned against Belarusian publications and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under the Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith . In 1863 , economic and cultural pressure exploded into a revolt , led by Kalinowski . After the failed revolt , the Russian government reintroduced the use of Cyrillic to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted by Russian government until 1905 . During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk , Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918 , forming the Belarusian People 's Republic . Immediately afterwards , the Polish – Soviet War ignited , and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and the Soviet Russia . = = = Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic = = = A part of Belarus under Russian rule emerged as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic ( Byelorussian SSR ) in 1919 . Soon thereafter it merged to form the Lithuanian @-@ Byelorussian SSR . The contested lands were divided between Poland and the Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921 , and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922 . The western part of modern Belarus remained part of Poland . In the 1920s , agricultural reforms that culminated in the Belarusian phase of Soviet collectivization were set in motion . In the 1930s , the implementation of the Soviet five @-@ year plans for the national economy led to rapid industrialization . In 1939 , Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded and occupied Poland , marking the beginning of World War II . Much of northeastern Poland , which had been part of the country since the Peace of Riga two decades earlier , was annexed to the Byelorussian SSR , and now constitutes West Belarus . The Soviet @-@ controlled Byelorussian People 's Council officially took control of the territories , whose populations consisted of a mixture of Poles , Ukrainians , Belarusians and Jews , on 28 October 1939 in Białystok . Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 . The Brest Fortress , which had been annexed in 1939 , at this time was subjected to one of the most destructive onslaughts that happened during the war . Statistically , the Byelorussian SSR was the hardest @-@ hit Soviet republic in World War II ; it remained in Nazi hands until 1944 . During that time , Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic , 85 % of the republic 's industry , and more than one million buildings . Casualties were estimated to be between 2 and 3 million ( about a quarter to one @-@ third of the total population ) , while the Jewish population of Belarus was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered . The population of Belarus did not regain its pre @-@ war level until 1971 . It was also after this conflict that the final borders of Belarus were set by Stalin when parts of Belarusian territory were given to the recently annexed Lithuania . After the war , Belarus was among the 51 founding countries of the United Nations Charter and as such it was allowed an additional vote at the UN , on top of the Soviet Union 's vote . Vigorous postwar reconstruction promptly followed the end of the war and the Byelorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in western USSR , creating jobs and attracting ethnic Russians . The borders of the Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn and became known as the Curzon Line . Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences . This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government . The official use of the Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow . After Stalin 's death in 1953 , Nikita Khrushchev continued his predecessor 's cultural hegemony program , stating , " The sooner we all start speaking Russian , the faster we shall build communism . " In 1986 , the Byelorussian SSR was exposed to significant nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in the neighboring Ukrainian SSR . In June 1988 , the archaeologist and leader of the Christian Conservative Party of the BPF Zyanon Paznyak discovered mass graves of victims executed in 1937 – 41 at Kurapaty , near Minsk . Some nationalists contend that this discovery is proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people , causing Belarusian nationalists to seek independence . = = = Independence = = = In March 1990 , elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR took place . Though the pro @-@ independence Belarusian Popular Front took only 10 % of the seats , the populace was content with the selection of the delegates . Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990 by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic . With the support of the Communist Party , the country 's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991 . Stanislav Shushkevich , the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus , met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on 8 December 1991 in Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States . A national constitution was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of prime minister were given to the President of Belarus . = = = Post @-@ independence = = = Two @-@ round elections for the presidency on ( 24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994 ) catapulted the formerly unknown Alexander Lukashenko into national prominence . He garnered 45 % of the vote in the first round and 80 % in the second , defeating Vyacheslav Kebich who received 14 % of the vote . Lukashenko was re @-@ elected in 2001 , in 2006 , in 2010 and again in 2015 . Western governments , Amnesty International , and Human Rights Watch have criticized Lukashenko 's authoritarian style of government . = = Geography and climate = = Belarus lies between latitudes 51 ° and 57 ° N , and longitudes 23 ° and 33 ° E. Its extension from north to south is 560 km ( 350 mi ) , from west to east is 650 km ( 400 mi ) . It is landlocked , relatively flat , and contains large tracts of marshy land . About 40 % of Belarus is covered by forests . Many streams and 11 @,@ 000 lakes are found in Belarus . Three major rivers run through the country : the Neman , the Pripyat , and the Dnieper . The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnieper ; the Dnieper flows southward towards the Black Sea . The highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara ( Dzyarzhynsk Hill ) at 345 metres ( 1 @,@ 132 ft ) , and the lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 m ( 295 ft ) . The average elevation of Belarus is 160 m ( 525 ft ) above sea level . The climate features mild to cold winters , with average January minimum temperatures ranges from − 4 ° C ( 24 @.@ 8 ° F ) in southwest ( Brest ) to − 8 ° C ( 17 @.@ 6 ° F ) in northeast ( Vitebsk ) , and cool and moist summers with an average temperature of 18 ° C ( 64 @.@ 4 ° F ) . Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 mm ( 21 @.@ 7 to 27 @.@ 6 in ) . The country is in the transitional zone between continental climates and maritime climates . Natural resources include peat deposits , small quantities of oil and natural gas , granite , dolomite ( limestone ) , marl , chalk , sand , gravel , and clay . About 70 % of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine 's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory , and about a fifth of Belarusian land ( principally farmland and forests in the southeastern regions ) was affected by radiation fallout . The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas , especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation , which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium @-@ 137 . Belarus borders five countries : Latvia to the north , Lithuania to the northwest , Poland to the west , Russia to the north and the east , and Ukraine to the south . Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus 's borders with Latvia and Lithuania , but Belarus failed to ratify a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus @-@ Ukraine border . Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007 . = = Governance = = Belarus is a presidential republic , governed by a president and the National Assembly . The term for each presidency is five years . Under the 1994 constitution , the president could serve for only two terms as president , but a change in the constitution in 2004 eliminated term limits . Alexander Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus since 1994 . In 1996 , Lukashenko called for a controversial vote to extend the presidential term from five to seven years , and as a result the election that was supposed to occur in 1999 was pushed back to 2001 . The referendum on the extension was denounced as a " fantastic " fake by the chief electoral officer , Viktar Hanchar , who was removed from office during the campaign . The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110 @-@ member House of Representatives ( the lower house ) and the 64 @-@ member Council of the Republic ( the upper house ) . The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister , make constitutional amendments , call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister , and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy . The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials , conduct an impeachment trial of the president , and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives . Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the constitution . The government includes a Council of Ministers , headed by the prime minister and five deputy prime ministers . The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president . The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court , which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law . The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic . For criminal cases , the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court . The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extrajudicial courts . In the Belarusian parliamentary election , 2012 , 105 of the 110 members elected to the House of Representatives were not affiliated with any political party . The Communist Party of Belarus won 3 seats , and the Agrarian Party and Republican Party of Labour and Justice , one each . Most non @-@ partisans represent a wide scope of social organizations such as workers ' collectives , public associations , and civil society organizations , similar to the composition of the Soviet legislature . = = = Election controversies = = = Neither the pro @-@ Lukashenko parties , such as the Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labour and Justice , nor the People 's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties , such as the Belarusian People 's Front and the United Civil Party of Belarus , won any seats in the 2004 elections . Groups such as the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) declared the election " un @-@ free " because of the opposition parties ' poor results and media bias in favor of the government . In the 2006 presidential election , Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievič , who represented a coalition of opposition parties , and by Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats . Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People 's Assembly . Lukashenko won the election with 80 % of the vote ; the Russian Federation and the CIS deemed the vote open and fair while the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair . After the December completion of the 2010 presidential election , Lukashenko was elected to a fourth straight term with nearly 80 % of the vote in elections . The runner @-@ up opposition leader Andrei Sannikov received less than 3 % of the vote ; independent observers criticized the election as fraudulent . When opposition protesters took to the streets in Minsk , many people , including most rival presidential candidates , were beaten and arrested by the state militia . Many of the candidates , including Sannikov , were sentenced to prison or house arrest for terms typically over four years . Six months later amid an unprecedented economic crisis , activists utilized social networking to initiate a fresh round of protests characterized by wordless hand @-@ clapping . = = = Corruption = = = The judicial system in Belarus lacks independence and is subject to political interference . Corrupt practices such as bribery often take place during tender processes , and whistleblower protection and national ombudsman are lacking in Belarus 's anti @-@ corruption system . However , there is a political will to fight against corruption in the government , and the government has made some progress in combating corruption , such as minimizing tax regulations in order to improve transparency in the tax office . = = = Human rights = = = Lukashenko has described himself as having an " authoritarian ruling style " . Western countries have described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship ; the government has accused the same Western powers of trying to oust Lukashenko . The Council of Europe has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting and election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by @-@ elections . The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its persecution of non @-@ governmental organisations , independent journalists , national minorities , and opposition politicians . In a testimony to the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations , former United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice labeled Belarus as one of the world 's six " outposts of tyranny " . In response , the Belarusian government called the assessment " quite far from reality " . The Viasna Human Rights Centre lists 11 political prisoners currently detained in Belarus . Among them is the human rights activist Ales Bialiatski , Vice President of International Federation for Human Rights and head of Viasna . Lukashenko announced a new law in 2014 that will prohibit kolkhoz workers ( around 9 % of total work force ) from leaving their jobs at will — a change of job and living location will require permission from governors . The law was compared with serfdom by Lukashenko himself . Similar regulations were introduced for the forestry industry in 2012 . = = = Foreign relations = = = Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union . Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market . The union of Russia and Belarus , a supranational confederation , was established in a 1996 – 99 series of treaties that called for monetary union , equal rights , single citizenship , and a common foreign and defense policy . However , the future of the union has been placed in doubt because of Belarus 's repeated delays of monetary union , the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution , and a dispute over the petroleum trade . On 11 December 2007 , reports emerged that a framework for the new state was discussed between both countries . On 27 May 2008 , Belarusian President Lukashenko said that he had named Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin the " prime minister " of the Russia @-@ Belarus alliance . The significance of this act was not immediately clear ; some incorrectly speculated that Putin would become president of a unified state of Russia and Belarus after stepping down as Russian president in May 2008 . Belarus was a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) ; however , recently other CIS members have questioned the effectiveness of the organization . Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states ( despite other member states ' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials ) , including neighboring Latvia , Lithuania , and Poland . Travel bans imposed by the European Union have been lifted in the past in order to allow Lukashenko to attend diplomatic meetings and also to engage his government and opposition groups in dialogue . Bilateral relations with the United States are strained because the U.S. Department of State supports various anti @-@ Lukashenko non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) , and also because the Belarusian government has made it increasingly difficult for U.S.-based organizations to operate within the country . Diplomatic relations remained tense , and in 2004 , the United States passed the Belarus Democracy Act , which authorized funding for anti @-@ government Belarusian NGOs , and prohibited loans to the Belarusian government , except for humanitarian purposes . Despite this political friction , the two countries do cooperate on intellectual property protection , prevention of human trafficking , technology crime , and disaster relief . Sino @-@ Belarusian relations have improved , strengthened by the visit of President Lukashenko to China in October 2005 . Belarus also has strong ties with Syria , considered a key partner in the Middle East . In addition to the CIS , Belarus is a member of the Eurasian Economic Community , the Collective Security Treaty Organisation , the international Non @-@ Aligned Movement since 1998 , the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe ( OSCE ) , and the UN since its founding in 1945 . As an OSCE member state , Belarus 's international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission . Belarus is included in the European Union 's European Neighbourhood Policy ( ENP ) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer . On 15 February 2016 the European Union announced the easing of sanctions against Belarus during a meeting by 28 EU foreign ministers at a regular session of the Council of the European Union . = = = Military = = = Major General Andrei Ravkov heads the Ministry of Defense , and Alexander Lukashenko ( as president ) serves as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . The Armed Forces were formed in 1992 using parts of the former Soviet Armed Forces on the new republic 's territory . The transformation of the ex @-@ Soviet forces into the Armed Forces of Belarus , which was completed in 1997 , reduced the number of its soldiers by 30 @,@ 000 and restructured its leadership and military formations . Most of Belarus 's service members are conscripts , who serve for 12 months if they have higher education or 18 months if they do not . Demographic decreases in the Belarusians of conscription age have increased the importance of contract soldiers , who numbered 12 @,@ 000 in 2001 . In 2005 , about 1 @.@ 4 % of Belarus 's gross domestic product was devoted to military expenditure . Belarus has not expressed a desire to join NATO but has participated in the Individual Partnership Program since 1997 , and Belarus provides refueling and airspace support for the ISAF mission in Afghanistan . Belarus first began to cooperate with NATO upon signing documents to participate in their Partnership for Peace Program in 1995 . However , Belarus cannot join NATO because it is a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organisation . Tensions between NATO and Belarus peaked after the March 2006 presidential election in Belarus . = = = Administrative divisions = = = Belarus is divided into six regions ( Belarusian : вобласць , Russian : о ́ бласть ) , which are named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers . Each region has a provincial legislative authority , called a region council ( Belarusian : абласны Савет Дэпутатаў , Russian : областно ́ й Сове ́ т Депутатов ) , which is elected by its residents , and a provincial executive authority called a region administration ( Belarusian : абласны выканаўчы камітэт , Russian : областно ́ й исполнительный комите ́ т ) , whose chairman is appointed by the president . Regions are further subdivided into raions , commonly translated as districts ( Belarusian : раён , Russian : район ) . Each raion has its own legislative authority , or raion council , ( Belarusian : раённы Савет Дэпутатаў , Russian : районный Сове ́ т Депутатов ) elected by its residents , and an executive authority or raion administration appointed by higher executive powers . There are six regions , divided into 118 raions . The city of Minsk is split into nine districts and enjoys special status as the nation 's capital . It is run by an executive committee and has been granted a charter of self @-@ rule . Regions ( with administrative centers ) : Brest Region ( Brest ) Homiel ( Gomel ) Hrodna ( Grodno ) Mahilioŭ ( Mogilev ) Minsk Region ( Minsk ) Vitebsk Region ( Vitebsk ) Special administrative district : Minsk City = = Economy = = Most of the Belarusian economy remains state @-@ controlled and has been described as " Soviet @-@ style . " In 2015 , 39 @.@ 3 % of Belarusians were employed by state @-@ controlled companies , 57 @.@ 2 % were employed by private companies ( in which the government has a 21 @.@ 1 % stake ) and 3 @.@ 5 % were employed by foreign companies . The country relies on Russia for various imports , including petroleum . Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts , including meat . In 1994 , Belarus 's main exports included heavy machinery ( especially tractors ) , agricultural products , and energy products . Historically , textiles and wood processing have constituted a large part of industrial activity . At the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 , Belarus was one of the world 's most industrially developed states by percentage of GDP as well as the richest CIS member @-@ state . Economically , Belarus involved itself in the CIS , Eurasian Economic Community , and Union with Russia . In the 1990s , however , industrial production plunged due to decreases in imports , investment , and demand for Belarusian products from its trading partners . GDP only began to rise in 1996 ; the country was the fastest @-@ recovering former Soviet republic in the terms of its economy . In 2006 , GDP amounted to US $ 83 @.@ 1 billion in purchasing power parity ( PPP ) dollars ( estimate ) , or about $ 8 @,@ 100 per capita . In 2005 , GDP increased by 9 @.@ 9 % ; the inflation rate averaged 9 @.@ 5 % . In 2006 , Belarus 's largest trading partner was Russia , accounting for nearly half of total trade , with the European Union the next largest trading partner , with nearly a third of foreign trade . As of 2015 , 38 % of Belarusian exported goods go to Russia and 56 % of imported goods come from Russia . Due to its failure to protect labor rights , including passing laws forbidding unemployment or working outside of state @-@ controlled sectors , Belarus lost its EU Generalized System of Preferences status on 21 June 2007 , which raised tariff rates to their prior most favored nation levels . Belarus applied to become a member of the World Trade Organization in 1993 . The labor force consists of more than four million people , among whom women hold slightly more jobs than men . In 2005 , nearly a quarter of the population was employed by industrial factories . Employment is also high in agriculture , manufacturing sales , trading goods , and education . The unemployment rate , according to government statistics , was 1 @.@ 5 % in 2005 . There were 679 @,@ 000 unemployed Belarusians , two @-@ thirds of whom were women . The unemployment rate has been in decline since 2003 , and the overall rate of employment is the highest since statistics were first compiled in 1995 . Until July 1st 2016 , the currency of Belarus was the Belarusian ruble ( BYR ) . The currency was introduced in May 1992 , replacing the Soviet ruble . The first coins of the Republic of Belarus were issued on 27 December 1996 . The ruble was reintroduced with new values in 2000 and has been in use ever since . As part of the Union of Russia and Belarus , both states have discussed using a single currency along the same lines as the Euro . This led to a proposal that the Belarusian ruble be discontinued in favor of the Russian ruble ( RUB ) , starting as early as 1 January 2008 . The National Bank of Belarus abandoned pegging the Belarusian ruble to the Russian ruble in August 2007 . A new currency , the new Belarusian ruble ( ISO 4217 code : BYN ) was introduced in July 2016 , replacing the Belarusian ruble in a rate of 1 : 10 @,@ 000 ( 10 @,@ 000 old rubles = 1 new ruble ) . From July 1 until December 31 , 2016 , the old and new currencies will be in parallel circulation and series 2000 notes and coins can be exchanged for series 2009 from January 1 , 2017 to 31 December 2021 . This redenomination can be considered an effort to fight the high inflation rate . The banking system of Belarus consists of thirty state @-@ owned banks and one privatized bank . On 23 May 2011 , the Belarusian ruble depreciated 56 % against the U.S. dollar . The depreciation was even steeper on the black market and financial collapse seemed imminent as citizens rushed to exchange their rubles for dollars , euros , durable goods , and canned goods . On 1 June 2011 , Belarus requested an economic rescue package from the International Monetary Fund . = = Demographics = = According to the National Statistical Committee , as of 1 October 2015 , the population is 9 , 494 , 200 people . Ethnic Belarusians constitute 83 @.@ 7 % of Belarus 's total population . The next largest ethnic groups are : Russians ( 8 @.@ 3 % ) , Poles ( 3 @.@ 1 % ) , and Ukrainians ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) . Belarus has a population density of about 50 people per square kilometer ( 127 per sq mi ) ; 70 % of its total population is concentrated in urban areas . Minsk , the nation 's capital and largest city , was home to 1 @,@ 937 @,@ 900 residents in 2015 . Gomel , with a population of 481 @,@ 000 , is the second @-@ largest city and serves as the capital of the Homiel Voblast . Other large cities are Mogilev ( 365 @,@ 100 ) , Vitebsk ( 342 @,@ 400 ) , Hrodna ( 314 @,@ 800 ) and Brest ( 298 @,@ 300 ) . Like many other European countries , Belarus has a negative population growth rate and a negative natural growth rate . In 2007 , Belarus 's population declined by 0 @.@ 41 % and its fertility rate was 1 @.@ 22 , well below the replacement rate . Its net migration rate is + 0 @.@ 38 per 1 @,@ 000 , indicating that Belarus experiences slightly more immigration than emigration . As of 2006 , 69 @.@ 7 % of Belarus 's population is aged 14 to 64 ; 16 % is under 14 , and 14 @.@ 6 % is 65 or older . Its population is also aging ; the median age of 37 is estimated to rise to between 55 and 65 in 2050 . There are about 0 @.@ 87 males per female in Belarus . The average life expectancy is 68 @.@ 7 years ( 63 @.@ 0 years for males and 74 @.@ 9 years for females ) . Over 99 % of Belarusians aged 15 and older are literate . = = = Languages = = = Belarus 's two official languages are Russian and Belarusian ; Russian is the main language , used by 72 % of the population , while Belarusian , the official first language , is spoken by 11 @.@ 9 % . Minorities also speak Polish , Ukrainian and Eastern Yiddish . = = = Religion = = = According to the government sources , as of November 2011 , 58 @.@ 9 % of all Belarusians adhere to some kind of religion ; out of those , Eastern Orthodoxy ( Belarusian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church ) makes up about 82 % . Roman Catholicism is practiced mostly in the western regions , and there are also different denominations of Protestantism . Minorities also practice Greek Catholicism , Judaism , Islam and Neopaganism . Belarus 's Catholic minority , which constitute about 9 % of the country 's population and is concentrated in the western part of the country , especially around Hrodna , is made up of a mixture of Belarusians and the country 's Polish and Lithuanian minorities . In a statement to the media regarding Belarusian @-@ Vatican ties , President Lukashenko stated that Orthodox and Catholic believers are the " two main confessors in our country " . The total Roman Catholic population has dropped to 12 % of religious believers , according to a 2011 report by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Belarus was once a major center of European Jews , with 10 % of the population being Jewish . But since the mid @-@ 20th century , the number of Jews has been reduced by the Holocaust , deportation , and emigration , so that today it is a very small minority of less than one percent . The Lipka Tatars , numbering over 15 @,@ 000 , are predominantly Muslims . According to Article 16 of the Constitution , Belarus has no official religion . While the freedom of worship is granted in the same article , religious organizations deemed harmful to the government or social order can be prohibited . = = Culture = = = = = Arts and literature = = = The Belarusian government sponsors annual cultural festivals such as the Bazaar in Vitebsk , which showcases Belarusian performers , artists , writers , musicians , and actors . Several state holidays , such as Independence Day and Victory Day , draw big crowds and often include displays such as fireworks and military parades , especially in Vitebsk and Minsk . The government 's Ministry of Culture finances events promoting Belarusian arts and culture both inside and outside the country . Belarusian literature began with 11th- to 13th @-@ century religious scripture , such as the 12th @-@ century poetry of Cyril of Turaw . By the 16th century , Polotsk resident Francysk Skaryna translated the Bible into Belarusian . It was published in Prague and Vilnius sometime between 1517 and 1525 , making it the first book printed in Belarus or anywhere in Eastern Europe . The modern era of Belarusian literature began in the late 19th century ; one prominent writer was Yanka Kupala . Many Belarusian writers of the time , such as Uładzimir Žyłka , Kazimir Svayak , Yakub Kolas , Źmitrok Biadula , and Maksim Haretski , wrote for Nasha Niva , a Belarusian @-@ language paper published that was previously published in Vilnius but now is published in Minsk . After Belarus was incorporated into the Soviet Union , the Soviet government took control of the Republic 's cultural affairs . At first , a policy of " Belarusianization " was followed in the newly formed Byelorussian SSR . This policy was reversed in the 1930s , and the majority of prominent Belarusian intellectuals and nationalist advocates were either exiled or killed in Stalinist purges . The free development of literature occurred only in Polish @-@ held territory until Soviet occupation in 1939 . Several poets and authors went into exile after the Nazi occupation of Belarus and would not return until the 1960s . The last major revival of Belarusian literature occurred in the 1960s with novels published by Vasil Bykaŭ and Uladzimir Karatkievich . An influential author who devoted his work to awakening the awareness of the catastrophes the country has suffered , was Ales Adamovich . He was named by Svetlana Alexievich , the Belarusian winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature 2015 , as " her main teacher , who helped her to find a path of her own " . Music in Belarus largely comprises a rich tradition of folk and religious music . The country 's folk music traditions can be traced back to the times of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . In the 19th century , Polish composer Stanisław Moniuszko composed operas and chamber music pieces while living in Minsk . During his stay , he worked with Belarusian poet Vintsent Dunin @-@ Martsinkyevich and created the opera Sialanka ( Peasant Woman ) . At the end of the 19th century , major Belarusian cities formed their own opera and ballet companies . The ballet Nightingale by M. Kroshner was composed during the Soviet era and became the first Belarusian ballet showcased at the National Academic Vialiki Ballet Theatre in Minsk . After the Second World War , music focused on the hardships of the Belarusian people or on those who took up arms in defense of the homeland . During this period , Anatoly Bogatyrev , creator of the opera In Polesye Virgin Forest , served as the " tutor " of Belarusian composers . The National Academic Theatre of Ballet in Minsk was awarded the Benois de la Dance Prize in 1996 as the top ballet company in the world . Rock music has become increasingly popular in recent years , though the Belarusian government has attempted to limit the amount of foreign music aired on the radio in favor of traditional Belarusian music . Since 2004 , Belarus has been sending artists to the Eurovision Song Contest . Marc Chagall was born in Liozna ( near Vitebsk ) in 1887 . He spent the World War I years in Soviet Belarus , becoming one of the country 's most distinguished artists and a member of the modernist avant @-@ garde and was a founder of the Vitebsk Arts College . = = = Dress = = = The traditional Belarusian dress originates from the Kievan Rus ' period . Due to the cool climate , clothes were designed to preserve body heat and were usually made from flax or wool . They were decorated with ornate patterns influenced by the neighboring cultures : Poles , Lithuanians , Latvians , Russians , and other European nations . Each region of Belarus has developed specific design patterns . One ornamental pattern common in early dresses currently decorates the hoist of the Belarusian national flag , adopted in a disputed referendum in 1995 . = = = Cuisine = = = Belarusian cuisine consists mainly of vegetables , meat ( particularly pork ) , and bread . Foods are usually either slowly cooked or stewed . Typically , Belarusians eat a light breakfast and two hearty meals , with dinner being the largest meal of the day . Wheat and rye breads are consumed in Belarus , but rye is more plentiful because conditions are too harsh for growing wheat . To show hospitality , a host traditionally presents an offering of bread and salt when greeting a guest or visitor . = = = Sport = = = Belarus has competed in the Olympic Games since the 1994 Winter Olympics . Its National Olympic Committee has been headed by President Lukashenko since 1997 . Receiving heavy sponsorship from the government , ice hockey is the nation 's second most popular sport after football . The national football team have never qualified for a major tournament , however BATE Borisov have played in the Champions League . The national hockey team finished fourth in overall competition at the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics , and its players have been present in the National Hockey League in North America . Darya Domracheva is a leading biathlete whose honors include three gold medals at the 2014 Winter Olympics . Tennis player Victoria Azarenka became the first Belarusian to win a Grand Slam singles title at the Australian Open in 2012 . She also won the gold medal in mixed doubles at the 2012 Summer Olympics with Max Mirnyi , who holds ten Grand Slam titles in doubles . Other notable Belarusian sportspeople include cyclist Vasil Kiryienka , who won the 2015 Road World Time Trial Championship , and middle distance runner Maryna Arzamasava , who won the gold medal in the 800m at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics . = = = Telecommunications = = = In 2008 , there were 3 @.@ 718 million phone landlines used in comparison to 8 @.@ 639 million cellular phones in Belarus . Most of the phone lines are operated by Beltelecom , a state @-@ owned company . About two @-@ thirds of all of the phone services are run on digital systems , and the mobile @-@ cellular teledensity is about 90 phones per 100 persons . There are approximately 113 @,@ 000 internet hosts in Belarus in 2009 to meet the needs of approximately 3 @.@ 107 million Internet users . The largest media holding group in Belarus is the state @-@ owned National State Teleradiocompany . It operates several television and radio stations that broadcast content domestically and internationally , either through traditional signals or the Internet . The Television Broadcasting Network is one of the major independent television stations in Belarus , mostly showing regional programming . Several newspapers , printed either in Belarusian or Russian , provide general information or special interest content , such as business , politics or sports . In 1998 , there were fewer than 100 radio stations in Belarus : 28 AM , 37 FM and 11 shortwave stations . All media companies are regulated by the Law on Press and Other Mass Media , passed on 13 January 1995 . This grants the freedom of press ; however , Article 5 proscribes slander against the President of Belarus or other officials outlined in the national constitution . The Belarusian Government has since been criticized for acting against media outlets . Newspapers such as Nasha Niva and the Belaruskaya Delovaya Gazeta have been targeted for closure by the authorities after they published reports critical of President Lukashenko or other government officials . The OSCE and Freedom House have commented regarding the loss of press freedom in Belarus . In 2009 , Freedom House gave Belarus a score of 6 @.@ 75 ( not free ) when it came to dealing with press freedom . Another issue for the Belarusian press is the unresolved disappearance of several journalists . = = = World Heritage Sites = = = Belarus has four UNESCO @-@ designated World Heritage Sites : the Mir Castle Complex , the Nesvizh Castle , the Belovezhskaya Pushcha ( shared with Poland ) , and the Struve Geodetic Arc ( shared with nine other countries ) .
= Neotrypaea californiensis = Neotrypaea californiensis ( formerly Callianassa californiensis ) , the Bay ghost shrimp , is a species of ghost shrimp that lives on the Pacific coast of North America . It is a pale animal which grows to a length of 11 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) . One claw is bigger than the other , especially in males , and the enlarged claw is thought to have a function in mating . N. californiensis is a deposit feeder that lives in extensive burrow systems , and is responsible for high rates of bioturbation . It adversely affects oyster farms , and its numbers are controlled in some places by the application of pesticides . It carries out an important role in the ecosystem , and is used by fishermen as bait . = = Description and life cycle = = Neotrypaea californiensis reaches a length of 11 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) . The body is creamy white , with patches of pale colour ( pink , yellow or orange ) on the appendages , and a pink abdomen . Adult N. californiensis have one claw larger than the other , and in the males , the " master claw " can make up as much as 25 % of the animal 's mass – compared to only 10 % in females – with the minor claw making up around 3 % of the total body mass in both sexes . The enlarged claw is equally likely to be on the right side or the left side . The male 's larger claw is thought to be used in agonistic encounters or during mating , and may be the result of sexual selection . Eggs are laid in spring or early summer , and the larvae hatch in summer , living as plankton . They settle to the sea floor again as post @-@ larvae in the late summer and fall . = = Taxonomy = = N. californiensis was originally described in 1854 by James Dwight Dana as a member of the genus Callianassa , giving the type locality as " California " ; the material Dana studied was probably collected from San Francisco Bay or Monterey , but the original specimens have since been lost . In 1991 , Raymond Manning and Darryl Felder transferred the three species in that genus that come from California and Oregon into the new genus Neotrypaea . N. californiensis is distinguished from the other two species of Neotrypaea by the lack of a rostrum ( which is present in Neotrypaea gigas ) and the acute and diverging tips of the eyestalks ( which are short , blunt and not diverging in Neotrypaea biffari ) . = = Ecology and human impact = = Both Neotrypaea californiensis and the mud shrimp Upogebia pugettensis live in mudflats and sandy substrates in the intertidal zone of estuaries in western North America . N. californiensis is found from Mutiny Bay , Alaska to Punta Abreojos , Mulegé , Baja California Sur , Mexico . Its habitat is also used for the aquaculture of the Pacific oyster , Crassostrea gigas . Since the bioturbation carried out by N. californiensis and U. pugettensis reduces the productivity of the oyster beds , they are considered pests . Their effects may , however , have knock @-@ on effects across the entire ecosystem , and may buffer it from the hazards of nutrient enrichment and increase primary and secondary productivity by increasing the amount of dissolved inorganic nitrogen . The burrows made by N. californiensis have many branches , and a number of other animals live in them , including snapping shrimp of the genus Betaeus , the copepod Clausidium vancouverense , and the crab Scleroplax granulata . The gut flora of N. californiensis includes a wide range of bacteria , comprising around 40 % Alphaproteobacteria , 20 % gram @-@ positive bacteria , 20 % in the Cryptophaga – Flavobacteria – Bacteroides group , and 5 % of each of Gammaproteobacteria and Epsilonproteobacteria . Predators of N. californiensis include bottom @-@ dwelling fish and Dungeness crabs ( Metacarcinus magister ) . N. californiensis has a negative impact on oyster production , and as a result , the insecticide carbaryl ( 1 @-@ napthyl N @-@ methyl carbamate ) is sprayed in some areas ( including Willapa Bay , Washington ) to reduce the population of N. californiensis . The addition of shelly debris also reduces numbers of N. californiensis both by preventing the settlement of larvae , and through predation on the young N. californiensis by young Dungeness crabs in the shelly debris . N. californiensis is used as fishing bait , and is frequently transported alive between U.S. states , prompting fears that existing population structure may be obliterated , and that it could introduce the castrating parasitic isopod Ione cornuta outside its native range .
= D. Djajakusuma = Djadoeg Djajakusuma ( [ dʒaˈdʊʔ dʒajakuˈsuma ] ; 1 August 1918 – 28 October 1987 ) , generally credited as D. Djajakusuma , was an Indonesian film director and promoter of traditional art forms . Born to a nobleman and his wife in Temanggung , Central Java , Djajakusuma became interested in the arts at a young age , choosing to pursue a career in theatre . During the Japanese occupation from 1943 to 1945 he was a translator and actor , and in the four @-@ year national revolution which followed he worked for the military 's educational division , several news agencies , and in drama . In 1951 , Djajakusuma joined the National Film Corporation ( Perfini ) at the invitation of Usmar Ismail . After making his directorial debut with Embun , Djajakusuma released a further eleven films with the company before leaving in 1964 . He then returned to traditional Indonesian theatre , including wayang . Although he continued to direct movies independently of Perfini , most of his energies were dedicated to promoting traditional art forms and teaching cinematography . After over a decade of poor health and high blood pressure , Djajakusuma collapsed during a ceremony and died . He was buried in Karet Bivak Cemetery . The dedicated but easily angered Djajakusuma was influenced by Usmar Ismail 's realist views , although he focused more on traditional aspects of life . His theatrical performances attempted to modernise traditional forms so that they could be better received in a modern world . He is credited with revitalising the Betawi theatre form lenong and received numerous awards for his filmmaking , including a lifetime achievement award at the Indonesian Film Festival . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Djajakusuma was born on 1 August 1918 in Parakan , Temanggung , Central Java , Dutch East Indies , to a priyayi father , Raden Mas Aryo Djojokoesomo , and his wife Kasimah . Djajakusuma was the fifth child of six born to the couple , who lived comfortably off Djojokoesomo 's salary as a government official . While young he enjoyed watching stage performances , such as wayang puppetry and the traditional dance form tayuban ; at times he would furtively leave his home after bedtime to watch the productions . With his friends , he would act out the bedtime stories his mother told him . When imported Hollywood films began to be screened , he was an avid viewer , watching Westerns and works starring Charlie Chaplin . Owing to his position as the son of a nobleman , Djajakusuma was able to receive an education . He completed his studies in Semarang , Central Java , graduating from the natural sciences programme at a senior high school there in 1941 . Although his family hoped that he would become a government employee like his father , Djajakusuma decided to go into the performing arts . He returned to his hometown for a short time before realising that he would have little opportunity in Parakan . Accordingly , in early 1943 – almost a year after the Indies were occupied by the Empire of Japan – Djajakusuma moved to the colony 's political centre , Jakarta , to find work . Djajakusuma became employed at the Cultural Centre as a translator and actor under Armijn Pane . Among the works he translated were several pieces by the Swedish playwright August Strindberg and Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen , as well as a history of Japan and several kabuki stage plays . While with the Centre , Djajakusuma wrote several of his own stage plays . In his free time , Djajakusuma helped establish the amateur theatre company Maya , together with artists such as HB Jassin , Rosihan Anwar , and Usmar Ismail . The troupe , formed in response to a desire for greater artistic freedom , performed translations of European works and original works by Ismail and El Hakim . To promote a sense of Indonesian nationalism while still conforming with the Japanese censorship bureau 's rules , several of Maya 's plays did not explicitly promote Japan , but rather the Greater East Asia Co @-@ Prosperity Sphere . Themes supporting the Indonesian nationalist movement , meanwhile , remained implicit in the works . With Maya , Djajakusuma travelled from village to village , putting on performances . = = = Indonesian National Revolution = = = President Sukarno proclaimed Indonesia 's independence on 17 August 1945 , days after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Expecting the Dutch colonial government to return , Djajakusuma and Ismail helped establish the Independent Artists ( Seniman Merdeka ) as a form of resistance . The group travelled throughout the city , spreading news of Indonesia 's proclaimed independence while performing from an open @-@ air truck . After the arrival of the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration , the group sometimes attempted to spy on the Europeans or hide information which would be considered useful to the returning Dutch forces . Owing to this dangerous work , Djajakusuma began carrying a pistol , and went to Banten to ask a kyai to make him impervious to bullets . In early 1946 , with the Dutch colonial forces in control of Jakarta , Djajakusuma fled to the new national capital at Yogyakarta . There , he spent a time with the national news agency Antara before joining the military 's educational division , rising to the rank of captain . For the military Djajakusuma edited the weekly Tentara ; he also contributed articles to Ismail 's cultural magazine Arena . Despite his involvement in the press , he did not abandon the theatre ; with Surjo Sumanto , he established a troupe which performed for soldiers and raised morale , sometimes travelling to the frontlines . Djajakusuma was hired by the Ministry of Information in 1947 to teach at a school for the performance arts , the Mataram Entertainment Foundation ( Stichting Hiburan Mataram ) . Through Mataram , he and Ismail were introduced to filmmakers Andjar Asmara , Huyung , and Sutarto ; the two studied under these more established individuals . Meanwhile , Djajakusuma was put in charge of censoring radio broadcasts in Republican @-@ held areas , a duty he held until the Dutch captured Yogyakarta on 19 December 1948 . Djajakusuma fled the city , then met up with Republican forces . Using an old radio and a bicycle @-@ powered generator , Djajakusuma listened to international news broadcasts and wrote them down ; the information from these broadcasts was then printed in underground newspapers . After the Indonesian National Revolution ended with Dutch recognition of Indonesia 's independence in 1949 , Djajakusuma continued to work as a journalist for Patriot ( a rebranding of Tentara ) and the magazine Kebudajaan Nusantara ; Mataram was reopened , and Djajakusuma began teaching there again while managing the Soboharsono cinema and writing several stage plays . Ismail , meanwhile , went back to Jakarta and established the National Film Corporation ( Perusahaan Film Nasional , or Perfini ) ; its first production , Darah dan Doa ( The Long March ) , which gave a fictionalised version of the Siliwangi Division 's trek from Yogyakarta to West Java in 1948 , was directed by Ismail and released in 1950 . = = = Career with Perfini = = = In preparation for his second film , Enam Djam di Jogja ( Six Hours in Yogyakarta ) , Ismail recalled Djajakusuma to Jakarta . For the film , Djajakusuma helped Ismail adapt the General Assault of 1 March 1949 for the screen . Production was completed on a low budget ; Djajakusuma later recalled that their camera had to be powered by a car battery . Despite this and other difficulties , Djajakusuma stayed on after the film 's completion , completing another work for Perfini , Dosa Tak Berampun ( Unforgivable Sin ) , later that year . Ismail served as director for this film , about a man who leaves his family after he is transfixed by the smile of a waitress . While Ismail , who remained head of Perfini , went abroad to study cinematography at the School of Theater , Film and Television at the University of California , Los Angeles , Djajakusuma began taking a larger role in Perfini . He made his directorial debut in 1952 with Embun ( Dewdrop ) , which showed the psychological troubles faced by soldiers upon returning to their village after the revolution . The film was shot in Wonosari , at the time in the middle of a drought , to provide a visual metaphor for the barren souls of the warriors . Because of its depiction of traditional superstitions , the film had trouble with both the censorship bureau and critics ; superstition was considered incompatible with the new republic 's need for modernisation . The release of Embun made Djajakusuma one of four directors to work for Perfini ; the others were Ismail , Nya Abas Akup , and Wahyu Sihombing . Djajakusuma 's next production , Terimalah Laguku ( Take My Song ; 1952 ) , was a musical about an old , impoverished musician who sells his saxophone to help his former student 's career . Though the film 's technical quality was poor , when he returned to Indonesia in 1953 Ismail was pleased with the work , stating that the editing had been done well . Over the next year Ismail conveyed information he learned at UCLA to the Perfini staff ; Djajakusuma followed these lessons closely . This was followed by Harimau Tjampa ( Tiger from Tjampa ) in 1953 , a film about a man who attempts to avenge his father 's death . Set amidst Minang culture , the film featured some of the first nudity in a domestic production and was a considerable critical success . In 1954 Djajakusuma directed two comedies , Putri dari Medan ( Daughter of Medan ) and Mertua Sinting ( Insane Parents @-@ in @-@ Law ) . The first dealt with three young men who resolve to never marry , only for their strength to waver after meeting some women from Medan , while the second followed a man who rejects his son 's choice of spouse owing to her lack of noble descent , then unknowingly chooses the same woman to be his son 's wife . The following year Djajakusuma helped establish the Indonesian Screen Actors Guild ( Persatuan Artis Film Indonesia ; PARFI ) . His only film that year , the drama Arni , told of a man who married another woman while his sick wife went to Padang , Sumatra , for treatment . Djajakusuma studied cinematography in the United States , first at the University of Washington in Seattle , then at the University of Southern California 's School of Cinematic Arts , from 1956 to 1957 . When he returned to Indonesia , he worked with Ismail and fellow Perfini employee Asrul Sani to establish the National Theatre Academy of Indonesia ( Akademi Teater Nasional Indonesia ) , which promoted realism ; the Indonesian dramatist Putu Wijaya described the realism promoted by the Academy as more Indonesian than Western , while Djajakusuma considered inspired by the Italian neorealist movement . Djajakusuma remained a lecturer with the academy until 1970 , and his students considered him humorous and easy to approach . Upon his return to Indonesia , Djajakusuma began work on Tjambuk Api ( Whips of Fire ; 1958 ) , a critique of the widespread corruption in Indonesia ; this theme led to the film being held by the censorship bureau for almost a year . The director followed this with the drama Pak Prawiro ( Mr. Prawiro ) , which was sponsored by the Post Savings Bank ( Bank Tabungan Pos ) and meant to convey the importance of having savings . During this period he studied the traditional theatre of India , travelling to Calcutta , Madras , and New Delhi ; he hoped that this first @-@ hand experience would inspire him in the filming of traditional Indonesian stories . In 1960 Djajakusuma released his first film based on traditional wayang stories , Lahirnja Gatotkatja ; the traditional puppetry had fascinated him as a child , and he greatly enjoyed the character Gatotkaca . Shot in Yogyakarta , the film featured a cast of stars from Jakarta and local talent in backing roles . It was , however , controversial : dhalang and others versed in wayang argued that the director had ignored too many traditional aspects of the puppetry . That year Djajakusuma also served as production manager for Ismail 's Pedjuang ( Warriors for Freedom ) and directed Mak Tjomblang ( Mrs. Tjomblang ) , a comedy adapted from Nikolai Gogol 's 1842 drama Marriage . Djajakusuma released another comedy , Masa Topan dan Badai ( Time of Cyclones and Storms ) , in 1963 ; the film centres around the family dynamics of a conservative father , liberal mother , and their two teenaged daughters who are in the throes of adolescence . The following year Djajakusuma directed his last film with Perfini , Rimba Bergema ( Echoing Jungles ) , which was meant to promote the nation 's rubber industry . That year he helped establish the Film and TV Employee 's Union ( Persatuan Karyawan Film dan TV ) , a response to the Lekra @-@ sponsored Indonesian Film League . As with Ismail and most Perfini employees , Djajakusuma was staunchly against the communist @-@ affiliated Lekra ; the cultural group was likewise hostile towards those affiliated with Perfini . = = = Later career = = = Towards the end of his time with Perfini , Djajakusuma again became active in traditional arts . He devoted considerable time towards the promotion of wayang . In 1967 he organised the National Wayang Festival , which collapsed shortly afterwards owing to a lack of funds . In 1967 he directed the wayang @-@ inspired film Bimo Kroda for Pantja Murti Film , which used the destruction of the Pandawa – brothers in the Hindu epic Mahābhārata – to represent the kidnappings and subsequent murders of five army generals during the 30 September Movement in 1965 . Djajakusuma 's involvement with wayang continued into the early 1970s ; he organised two Wayang Weeks , in 1970 and 1974 , as well as a national wayang festival in 1977 . Furthermore , he established two wayang orang troupes , Jaya Budaya ( 1971 ) and Bharata ( 1973 ) , hoping to save the ailing medium by modernising it . Meanwhile , Djajakusuma helped promote art forms such as the Betawi lenong and Javanese ludruk over a period of several years . He is particularly recognised for his revitalising lenong . Beginning in 1968 , Djajakusuma appeared on television as an advocate of lenong , which was then limited to rural villages and on the verge of dying out . He increased popular knowledge of the form while arguing for proper remuneration for performers . Through the 1970s lenong was performed at Ismail Marzuki Hall , drawing considerable audiences , and several lenong performers found mainstream acclaim in the film industry . Djajakusuma also promoted non @-@ traditional cultural activities , both modern and foreign . In 1968 he became the head of the Jakarta Art Council , a position he held until 1977 , and in 1970 he held a kroncong music festival . Beginning with the school 's establishment in 1970 , he became a lecturer at the Jakarta Institute for Arts Education ( Lembaga Pendidikan Kesenian Jakarta , later the Jakarta Art Institute [ Institut Kesenian Jakarta , or IKJ ] ) , teaching cinematography . To better understand the world 's theatre , in 1977 he went to Japan and China to study their traditions . He later led the students in various stage performances , including adaptations of Japanese noh and Chinese opera ; several of these performances were held at Ismail Marzuki Hall . In the 1970s Djajakusuma held a variety of positions in film organisations , including as a member of the Film Council ( 1974 – 76 ) , a member of the Board of Trustees for Radio and TV Broadcasts ( 1976 ) , and a member of the Bureau for the Development of National Film ( 1977 – 78 ) . Djajakusuma 's productivity in the film industry , however , declined . In 1971 he directed his final films , Api di Bukit Menoreh ( Fire on Mount Menoreh ) and Malin Kundang ( Anak Durhaka ) ( Malin Kundang [ Faithless Child ] ) . The first , released for Penas Film Studio and based on a novel by Singgih Hadi Mintardja , followed soldiers from the Kingdom of Pajang in their efforts to subdue soldiers from the rival kingdom of Jipang . The second film was an adaptation of the Malay folktale of the same name . Starring Rano Karno and Putu Wijaya as the title character , the film follows a young boy who forgets his roots after spending much of his childhood at sea . His last role as a filmmaker was in 1977 , when he helped produce Fritz G. Schadt 's comedy Bang Kojak ( Brother Kojak ; 1977 ) . = = = Final years and death = = = In 1977 Djajakusuma served on the jury of the Indonesian Film Festival ( Festival Film Indonesia , or FFI ) . While reading the decision , he collapsed and was rushed to the hospital , while Rosihan Anwar completed the reading . Djajakusuma 's neighbour and frequent collaborator Taufiq Ismail told reporters that it was not the first time Djajakusuma had collapsed . Djajakusuma continued to suffer from bouts of sudden weakness for the rest of his life , caused by high blood pressure . Despite his rapidly failing health , Djajakusuma remained active in the arts . In 1980 he made his last film appearance , and his only role on the big screen , acting in Ismail Soebardjo 's Perempuan dalam Pasungan ( Woman in Stocks ) . He and Sofia WD portrayed parents who regularly put their daughter in stocks to punish her for being disobedient ; in an interview with Suara Karya , Soebardjo recalled that , from the time he had written it , he had only considered Djajakusuma for the role . Perempuan dalam Pasungan won the Citra Award for Best Film at the 1981 Indonesian Film Festival , and Djajakusuma expressed an interest in making several further films ; this was , however , never realised . In 1983 Djajakusuma served as dean of the Faculty of Arts at IKJ , and in 1984 he went to the Three Continents Festival in Nantes , France , where two of his films were shown to critical acclaim . In early 1987 Djajakusuma 's doctor diagnosed him with heart disease , which led Djajakusuma to begin dieting and stop smoking . He continued to be highly respected in Indonesian film circles , but was displeased with the condition of the country 's film industry , which he considered to be on the verge of collapse . This he blamed on American cultural imperialism , which meant that most cinemas preferred screening foreign films , especially those from Hollywood , and that Indonesian youth were no longer creating a uniquely Indonesia identity . Djajakusuma collapsed on 28 October 1987 while giving a speech in commemoration of the Youth Pledge at the IKJ , striking his head on a stone step . After being rushed to Cikini General Hospital , he was declared dead at 10 : 05 a.m. local time ( UTC + 7 ) . He was buried at Karet Bivak Cemetery that evening , after ceremonies at the IKJ led by the author Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana and prayers at the Amir Hamzah Mosque in Ismail Marzuki Hall led by the poet Taufiq Ismail . Among the mourners were the former Minister of Information Boediardjo , the Minister of Education and Culture Fuad Hassan , and the Deputy Governor of Jakarta Anwar Umar . Djajakusuma had never married , but left behind several nieces and nephews whom he had raised as his own children . After his death , newspapers throughout Jakarta carried obituaries by such cultural and film figures as Alisjahbana , the producer Misbach Yusa Biran , and the Perfini cameraman Soemardjono . These obituaries emphasised Djajakusuma 's role in the development of the Indonesian film industry and the preservation of traditional culture . In a ceremony commemorating the fifth anniversary of Djajakusuma 's death , all his documents and books were donated to the IKJ library . = = Style = = Like Usmar Ismail , Djajakusuma was influenced by realism . However , while Ismail preferred to focus on national @-@ level themes , Djajakusuma was more drawn to simple , locally relevant storylines with educational messages . This realism carried over into Djajakusuma 's work in wayang . The settings , traditionally drawn , were instead created as three @-@ dimensional sets , including representations of trees , rocks , and water . According to Soemardjono , who often edited Djajakusuma 's films , the director enjoyed experimenting with new techniques to better convey his intentions . Djajakusuma often included traditional arts in his films , and two of them ( Lahirnja Gatotkatja and Bimo Kroda ) were based on traditional wayang stories and used wayang @-@ inspired costumes and tempos . This focus on aspects of traditional culture fell out of the mainstream after 1965 , having been replaced by films about city life . Djajakusuma 's theatrical productions experimented with new storytelling techniques , adapting the traditional styles for the modern world . As a lecturer teaching screenwriting and the history of theatre , Djajakusuma focused on Indonesian arts . He argued that Indonesians should rely on local culture , not continuously look towards the West . In other areas he was mostly apolitical . The Indonesian sociologist Umar Kayam , who had served on the Jakarta Art Council with Djajakusuma , described the director as highly disciplined . Biran described him as having a fiery temper which could be triggered suddenly , yet quick to calm when the trigger was removed ; this sentiment was echoed by several people who had worked with Djajakusuma . Coverage in the film magazine Djaja described him as hardworking and highly dedicated to his craft , to the point of forsaking romantic relationships . = = Reception = = Djajakusuma 's film Harimau Tjampa garnered him the Best Screenplay Award at the 1954 Asian Film Festival . His later film Bimo Kroda was recognised by the Indonesian Department of Information for promoting traditional culture . In 1970 he received an Art Award from the Indonesian government for " his service to the State as the Main Promoter of the Development of Modern Drama " . At the 1987 Indonesian Film Festival , he received a special award for his contributions to the film industry , and in November 2003 he was posthumously granted a Budaya Parama Dharma Award by President Megawati Sukarnoputri for his contributions to the development of Indonesian culture . Critical reception has been positive . The award @-@ winning director Teguh Karya cited the works of Djajakusuma , Usmar Ismail , and Asrul Sani as " legendary " and among his greatest influences . Choreographer Bagong Kussudiardjo reportedly so respected Djajakusuma that he had named his son Djadoeg after the director . According to a memorial in the newspaper Kompas , Djajakusuma was also dubbed a " living legend " during his visit to Nantes . A later Kompas article records Djajakusuma 's best @-@ remembered works are Harimau Tjampa and Tjambuk Api . Those two works are those most often shown , owing to the fact that ready @-@ to @-@ use copies are stored at Sinematek Indonesia ; his other surviving films are kept as negatives . = = Filmography = = = = = Cast = = = Perempuan dalam Pasungan ( Girl in Stocks ; 1980 ) – as Mr. Prawiro = = = Crew = = = Enam Djam di Jogja ( Six Hours in Yogya ; 1951 ) – as screenwriter Embun ( Dewdrop ; 1951 ) – as director and screenwriter Dosa Tak Berampun ( Unforgivable Sin ; 1951 ) – as screenwriter Terimalah Laguku ( Take My Song ; 1952 ) – as director Harimau Tjampa ( Tiger from Tjampa ; 1953 ) – as director and screenwriter Putri dari Medan ( Girl From Medan ; 1954 ) – director Mertua Sinting ( Insane Parents @-@ in @-@ Law ; 1954 ) – as director Arni ( 1955 ) – as director Tjambuk Api ( Whips of Fire ; 1958 ) – as director Pak Prawiro ( Mr. Prawiro ; 1958 ) – as director and screenwriter Pedjuang ( Warriors for Freedom ; 1960 ) – as production manager Mak Tjomblang ( Mrs. Tjomblang ; 1960 ) – as director and screenwriter Lahirnja Gatotkatja ( Birth of Gatotkatja ; 1960 ) – as director and screenwriter Masa Topan dan Badai ( Time of Cyclones and Storms ; 1963 ) – as director Rimba Bergema ( Echoing Jungles ; 1964 ) – as director Bimo Kroda ( 1967 ) – as director Malin Kundang ( Anak Durhaka ) ( Malin Kundang [ Faithless Child ] ; 1971 ) – as director Api Dibukit Menoreh ( Gugurnya Tohpati ) ( Fire on Mount Menoreh [ Death of Tohpati ] ; 1971 ) – as director Bang Kojak ( Brother Kojak ; 1977 ) – as producer = = Explanatory notes = =
= Fenrir = In Norse mythology , Fenrir ( Old Norse : " fen @-@ dweller " ) , Fenrisúlfr ( Old Norse : " Fenris wolf " ) , Hróðvitnir ( Old Norse : " fame @-@ wolf " ) , or Vánagandr ( Old Norse : " the monster of the river Ván " ) is a monstrous wolf . Fenrir is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda and Heimskringla , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In both the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda , Fenrir is the father of the wolves Sköll and Hati Hróðvitnisson , is a son of Loki , and is foretold to kill the god Odin during the events of Ragnarök , but will in turn be killed by Odin 's son Víðarr . In the Prose Edda , additional information is given about Fenrir , including that , due to the gods ' knowledge of prophecies foretelling great trouble from Fenrir and his rapid growth , the gods bound him , and as a result Fenrir bit off the right hand of the god Týr . Depictions of Fenrir have been identified on various objects , and scholarly theories have been proposed regarding Fenrir 's relation to other canine beings in Norse mythology . Fenrir has been the subject of artistic depictions , and he appears in literature . = = Attestations = = = = = Poetic Edda = = = Fenrir is mentioned in three stanzas of the poem Völuspá , and in two stanzas of the poem Vafþrúðnismál . In stanza 40 of the poem Völuspá , a völva divulges to Odin that , in the east , an old woman sat in the forest Járnviðr , " and bred there the broods of Fenrir . There will come from them all one of that number to be a moon @-@ snatcher in troll 's skin . " Further into the poem , the völva foretells that Odin will be consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök : Then is fulfilled Hlín 's second sorrow , when Óðinn goes to fight with the wolf , and Beli 's slayer , bright , against Surtr . Then shall Frigg 's sweet friend fall . In the stanza that follows , the völva describes that Odin 's " tall child of Triumph 's Sire " ( Odin 's son Víðarr ) will then come to " strike at the beast of slaughter , " and with his hands , he will drive a sword into the heart of " Hveðrungr 's son , " avenging the death of his father . In the first of two stanzas mentioning Fenrir in Vafþrúðnismál , Odin poses a question to the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir : " Much I have travelled , much have I tried out , much have I tested the Powers ; from where will a sun come into the smooth heaven when Fenrir has assailed this one ? " In the stanza that follows , Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól ( here referred to as Álfröðull ) , will bear a daughter before Fenrir attacks her , and that this daughter shall continue the paths of her deceased mother through the heavens . = = = Prose Edda = = = In the Prose Edda , Fenrir is mentioned in three books : Gylfaginning , Skáldskaparmál and Háttatal . = = = = Gylfaginning chapters 13 and 25 = = = = In chapter 13 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , Fenrir is first mentioned in a stanza quoted from Völuspá . Fenrir is first mentioned in prose in chapter 25 , where the enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri ( described as King Gylfi in disguise ) about the god Týr . High says that one example of Týr 's bravery is that when the Æsir were luring Fenrir ( referred to here as Fenrisúlfr ) to place the fetter Gleipnir on the wolf , Týr placed his hand within the wolf 's mouth as a pledge . This was done at Fenrir 's own request because he did not trust that the Æsir would let him go . As a result , when the Æsir refused to release him , he bit off Týr 's hand at a location " now called the wolf @-@ joint " ( the wrist ) , causing Týr to be one @-@ handed and " not considered to be a promoter of settlements between people . " = = = = Gylfaginning chapter 34 = = = = In chapter 34 , High describes Loki , and says that Loki had three children with a female named Angrboða located in the land of Jötunheimr ; Fenrisúlfr , the serpent Jörmungandr , and the female being Hel . High continues that , once the gods found that these three children were being brought up in the land of Jötunheimr , and when the gods " traced prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them " the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three children , partially due to the nature of the mother of the children , yet worse so due to the nature of their father . High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them to him . Upon their arrival , Odin threw Jörmungandr into " that deep sea that lies round all lands " , and then threw Hel into Niflheim , and bestowed upon her authority over nine worlds . However , the Æsir brought up the wolf " at home " , and only Týr had the courage to approach Fenrir , and give Fenrir food . The gods noticed that Fenrir was growing rapidly every day , and since all prophecies foretold that Fenrir was destined to cause them harm , the gods formed a plan . The gods prepared three fetters : The first , greatly strong , was called Leyding . They brought Leyding to Fenrir and suggested that the wolf try his strength with it . Fenrir judged that it was not beyond his strength , and so let the gods do what they wanted with it . At Fenrir 's first kick the bind snapped , and Fenrir loosened himself from Leyding . The gods made a second fetter , twice as strong , and named it Dromi . The gods asked Fenrir to try the new fetter , and that should he break this feat of engineering , Fenrir would achieve great fame for his strength . Fenrir considered that the fetter was very strong , yet also that his strength had grown since he broke Leyding , yet that he would have to take some risks if he were to become famous . Fenrir allowed them to place the fetter . When the Æsir exclaimed that they were ready , Fenrir shook himself , knocked the fetter to the ground , strained hard , and kicking with his feet , snapped the fetter – breaking it into pieces that flew far into the distance . High says that , as a result , to " loose from Leyding " or to " strike out of Dromi " have become sayings for when something is achieved with great effort . The Æsir started to fear that they would not be able to bind Fenrir , and so Odin sent Freyr 's messenger Skírnir down into the land of Svartálfaheimr to " some dwarfs " and had them make a fetter called Gleipnir . The dwarves constructed Gleipnir from six mythical ingredients . After an exchange between Gangleri and High , High continues that the fetter was smooth and soft as a silken ribbon , yet strong and firm . The messenger brought the ribbon to the Æsir , and they thanked him heartily for completing the task . The Æsir went out on to the lake Amsvartnir sent for Fenrir to accompany them , and continued to the island Lyngvi ( Old Norse " a place overgrown with heather " ) . The gods showed Fenrir the silken fetter Gleipnir , told him to tear it , stated that it was much stronger than it appeared , passed it among themselves , used their hands to pull it , and yet it did not tear . However , they said that Fenrir would be able to tear it , to which Fenrir replied : " It looks to me that with this ribbon as though I will gain no fame from it if I do tear apart such a slender band , but if it is made with art and trickery , then even if it does look thin , this band is not going on my legs . " The Æsir said Fenrir would quickly tear apart a thin silken strip , noting that Fenrir earlier broke great iron binds , and added that if Fenrir wasn 't able to break slender Gleipnir then Fenrir is nothing for the gods to fear , and as a result would be freed . Fenrir responded : " If you bind me so that I am unable to release myself , then you will be standing by in such a way that I should have to wait a long time before I got any help from you . I am reluctant to have this band put on me . But rather than that you question my courage , let someone put his hand in my mouth as a pledge that this is done in good faith . " With this statement , all of the Æsir look to one another , finding themselves in a dilemma . Everyone refused to place their hand in Fenrir 's mouth until Týr put out his right hand and placed it into the wolf 's jaws . When Fenrir kicked , Gleipnir caught tightly , and the more Fenrir struggled , the stronger the band grew . At this , everyone laughed , except Týr , who there lost his right hand . When the gods knew that Fenrir was fully bound , they took a cord called Gelgja ( Old Norse " fetter " ) hanging from Gleipnir , inserted the cord through a large stone slab called Gjöll ( Old Norse " scream " ) , and the gods fastened the stone slab deep into the ground . After , the gods took a great rock called Thviti ( Old Norse " hitter , batterer " ) , and thrust it even further into the ground as an anchoring peg . Fenrir reacted violently ; he opened his jaws very wide , and tried to bite the gods . Then the gods thrust a sword into his mouth . Its hilt touched the lower jaw and its point the upper one ; by means of it the jaws of the wolf were spread apart and the wolf gagged . Fenrir " howled horribly , " saliva ran from his mouth , and this saliva formed the river Ván ( Old Norse " hope " ) . There Fenrir will lie until Ragnarök . Gangleri comments that Loki created a " pretty terrible family " though important , and asks why the Æsir did not just kill Fenrir there since they expected great malice from him . High replies that " so greatly did the gods respect their holy places and places of sanctuary that they did not want to defile them with the wolf 's blood even though the prophecies say that he will be the death of Odin . " = = = = Gylfaginning chapters 38 and 51 = = = = In chapter 38 , High says that there are many men in Valhalla , and many more who will arrive , yet they will " seem too few when the wolf comes . " In chapter 51 , High foretells that as part of the events of Ragnarök , after Fenrir 's son Sköll has swallowed the sun and his other son Hati Hróðvitnisson has swallowed the moon , the stars will disappear from the sky . The earth will shake violently , trees will be uprooted , mountains will fall , and all binds will snap – Fenrisúlfr will be free . Fenrisúlfr will go forth with his mouth opened wide , his upper jaw touching the sky and his lower jaw the earth , and flames will burn from his eyes and nostrils . Later , Fenrisúlfr will arrive at the field Vígríðr with his sibling Jörmungandr . With the forces assembled there , an immense battle will take place . During this , Odin will ride to fight Fenrisúlfr . During the battle , Fenrisúlfr will eventually swallow Odin , killing him , and Odin 's son Víðarr will move forward and kick one foot into the lower jaw of the wolf . This foot will bear a legendary shoe " for which the material has been collected throughout all time . " With one hand , Víðarr will take hold of the wolf 's upper jaw and tear apart his mouth , killing Fenrisúlfr . High follows this prose description by citing various quotes from Völuspá in support , some of which mention Fenrir . = = = = Skáldskaparmál and Háttatal = = = = In the Epilogue section of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , a euhemerized monologue equates Fenrisúlfr to Pyrrhus , attempting to rationalize that " it killed Odin , and Pyrrhus could be said to be a wolf according to their religion , for he paid no respect to places of sanctuary when he killed the king in the temple in front of Thor 's altar . " In chapter 2 , " wolf 's enemy " is cited as a kenning for Odin as used by the 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson . In chapter 9 , " feeder of the wolf " is given as a kenning for Týr and , in chapter 11 , " slayer of Fenrisúlfr " is presented as a kenning for Víðarr . In chapter 50 , a section of Ragnarsdrápa by the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason is quoted that refers to Hel , the being , as " the monstrous wolf 's sister . " In chapter 75 , names for wargs and wolves are listed , including both " Hróðvitnir " and " Fenrir . " " Fenrir " appears twice in verse as a common noun for a " wolf " or " warg " in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál , and in chapter 56 of the book Háttatal . Additionally , the name " Fenrir " can be found among a list of jötnar in chapter 75 of Skáldskaparmál . = = = Heimskringla = = = At the end of the Heimskringla saga Hákonar saga góða , the poem Hákonarmál by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is presented . The poem is about the fall of King Haakon I of Norway ; although he is Christian , he is taken by two valkyries to Valhalla , and is there received as one of the Einherjar . Towards the end of the poem , a stanza relates sooner will the bonds of Fenrir snap than as good a king as Haakon shall stand in his place : Unfettered will fare the Fenris Wolf and ravaged the realm of men , ere that cometh a kingly prince as good , to stand in his stead . = = Archaeological record = = = = = Thorwald 's Cross = = = Thorwald 's Cross , a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man , depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf , his right foot in its mouth , while a large bird sits at his shoulder . Rundata dates it to 940 , while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century . This depiction has been interpreted as Odin , with a raven or eagle at his shoulder , being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök . On the reverse of the stone is another image parallel to it that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan . These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as " syncretic art " ; a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs . = = = Gosforth Cross = = = The mid @-@ 11th century Gosforth Cross , located in Cumbria , England , has been described as depicting a combination of scenes from the Christian Judgement Day and the pagan Ragnarök . The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style , including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head , one of whose feet is thrust into the beast 's forked tongue and on its lower jaw , while a hand is placed against its upper jaw , a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir . This depiction has been theorized as a metaphor for Christ 's defeat of Satan . = = = Ledberg stone = = = The 11th century Ledberg stone in Sweden , similarly to Thorwald 's Cross , features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four @-@ legged beast , and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök . Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless , helmeted man , with his arms in a prostrate position . The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication , but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as " mysterious , " and " an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world . " = = = Other = = = If the images on the Tullstorp Runestone are correctly identified as depicting Ragnarök , then Fenrir is shown above the ship Naglfar . Meyer Schapiro theorizes a connection between the " Hell Mouth " that appears in medieval Christian iconography and Fenrir . According to Schapiro , " the Anglo @-@ Saxon taste for the Hell Mouth was perhaps influenced by the northern pagan myth of the Crack of Doom and the battle with the wolf , who devoured Odin . " = = Theories = = In reference to Fenrir 's presentation in the Prose Edda , Andy Orchard theorizes that " the hound ( or wolf ) " Garmr , Sköll , and Hati Hróðvitnisson were originally simply all Fenrir , stating that " Snorri , characteristically , is careful to make distinctions , naming the wolves who devour the sun and moon as Sköll and Hati Hróðvitnisson respectively , and describing an encounter between Garm and Týr ( who , one would have thought , might like to get his hand on Fenrir ) at Ragnarök . " John Lindow says that it is unclear why the gods decide to raise Fenrir as opposed to his siblings Hel and Jörmungandr in Gylfaginning chapter 35 , theorizing that it may be " because Odin had a connection with wolves ? Because Loki was Odin 's blood brother ? " Referring to the same chapter , Lindow comments that neither of the phrases that Fenrir 's binding result in have left any other traces . Lindow compares Fenrir 's role to his father Loki and Fenrir 's sibling Jörmungandr , in that they all spend time with the gods , are bound or cast out by them , return " at the end of the current mythic order to destroy them , only to be destroyed himself as a younger generation of gods , one of them his slayer , survives into the new world order . " Indo @-@ European parallels have been proposed between myths of Fenrir and the Persian demon Ahriman . The Yashts refer to a story where Taxma Urupi rode Angra Mainyu as a horse for thirty years . An elaboration of this allusion is found only in a late Parsi commentary . The ruler Taxmoruw ( Taxma Urupi ) managed to lasso Ahriman ( Angra Mainyu ) and keep him tied up while taking him for a ride three times a day . After thirty years Ahriman outwitted and swallowed Taxmoruw . In a sexual encounter with Ahriman , Jamshid , Taxmoruw 's brother , inserted his hand into Ahriman 's anus and pulled out his brother 's corpse . His hand withered from contact with the diabolic innards . The suggested parallels with Fenrir myths are the binding of an evil being by a ruler figure and the subsequent swallowing of the ruler figure by the evil being ( Odin and Fenrir ) , trickery involving the thrusting of a hand into a monster 's orifice and the affliction of the inserted limb ( Týr and Fenrir ) . Ethologist Valerius Geist wrote that Fenrir 's maiming and ultimate killing of Odin , who had previously nurtured him , was likely based on true experiences of wolf @-@ behaviour , seeing as wolves are genetically encoded to rise up the pack hierarchy and have on occasion been recorded to rebel against and kill their parents . Geist states that " apparently , even the ancients knew that wolves may turn on their parents and siblings and kill them . " = = Modern influence = = Fenrir has been depicted in the artwork " Odin and Fenris " ( 1909 ) and " The Binding of Fenris " ( around 1900 ) by Dorothy Hardy , " Odin und Fenriswolf " and " Fesselung des Fenriswolfe " ( 1901 ) by Emil Doepler , and is the subject of the metal sculpture " Fenrir " by A. V. Gunnerud located on the island of Askøy , Norway . Fenrir appears in modern literature in the poem " Om Fenrisulven og Tyr " ( 1819 ) by Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger ( collected in Nordens Guder ) , the novel Der Fenriswolf by K. H. Strobl , and Til kamp mod dødbideriet ( 1974 ) by E. K. Reich and E. Larsen . Fenrir also appears in the MOBA game SMITE as a playable character .
= Double @-@ tuned amplifier = A double @-@ tuned amplifier is a tuned amplifier with transformer coupling between the amplifier stages in which the inductances of both the primary and secondary windings are tuned separately with a capacitor across each . The scheme results in a wider bandwidth and steeper skirts than a single tuned circuit would achieve . There is a critical value of transformer coupling coefficient at which the frequency response of the amplifier is maximally flat in the passband and the gain is maximum at the resonant frequency . Designs frequently use a coupling greater than this ( over @-@ coupling ) in order to achieve an even wider bandwidth at the expense of a small loss of gain in the centre of the passband . Cascading multiple stages of double @-@ tuned amplifiers results in a reduction of the bandwidth of the overall amplifier . Two stages of double @-@ tuned amplifier have 80 % of the bandwidth of a single stage . An alternative to double tuning that avoids this loss of bandwidth is staggered tuning . Stagger @-@ tuned amplifiers can be designed to a prescribed bandwidth that is greater than the bandwidth of any single stage . However , staggered tuning requires more stages and has lower gain than double tuning . = = Typical circuit = = The circuit shown consists of two stages of amplifier in common emitter topology . The bias resistors all serve their usual functions . The input of the first stage is coupled in the conventional way with a series capacitor to avoid affecting the bias . However , the collector load consists of a transformer which serves as the inter @-@ stage coupling instead of capacitors . The windings of the transformer have inductance . Capacitors placed across the transformer windings form resonant circuits which provide the tuning of the amplifier . A further detail that may be seen in this kind of amplifier is the presence of taps on the transformer windings . These are used for the input and output connections of the transformer rather than the top of the windings . This is done for impedance matching purposes ; bipolar junction transistor amplifiers ( the kind shown in the circuit ) have a quite high output impedance and a quite low input impedance . This problem can be avoided by using MOSFETs which have a very high input impedance . The capacitors connected between the bottom of the transformer secondary windings and ground do not form part of the tuning . Rather , their purpose is to decouple the transistor bias resistors from the AC circuit . = = Properties = = Double tuning , as compared to single tuning , has the effect of widening the bandwidth of the amplifier and steepening the skirt of the response . Tuning both sides of the transformer forms a pair of coupled resonators which is the source of the increased bandwidth . The gain of the amplifier is a function of the coupling coefficient , k , which is related to the mutual inductance , M , and the primary and secondary winding inductances , Lp and Ls respectively , by <formula> There is a critical value of coupling at which the gain of the amplifier is a maximum at resonance . Below this critical value , there is a single peak in the frequency response with the amplitude peaking at resonance and the peak decreasing as k decreases . Such a response is said to be undercoupled , At values of k above critical coupling the response starts to split into two peaks . These peaks become narrower and further apart as k increases and the gap between them ( centred on the resonant frequency ) becomes progressively deeper . Such a response is said to be overcoupled . A critically coupled amplifier has a response that is maximally flat . This response can also be achieved without transformers with two stages of a stagger @-@ tuned amplifier . Unlike staggered tuning , double tuning usually tunes both resonators to the same resonant frequency . However , a designer might choose to design an overcoupled amplifier in order to achieve a wider bandwidth at the expense of a small dip ( typically 3 dB ) in the centre of the frequency response . Like synchronous tuning , adding more stages of double @-@ tuned amplifiers has the effect of reducing the bandwidth . The 3 dB bandwidth of n identical stages , as a fraction of the bandwidth of a single stage , is given approximately by , <formula> This expression applies only to small fractional bandwidths . = = Analysis = = The circuit can be represented in a more generic way by replacing the amplifiers with a generalised transconductance amplifier as shown . where ( omitting the stage number suffixes ) , Go is the output conductance of the amplifiers Gi is the input conductance of the amplifiers . Typically , a design will make the resonant frequencies and Qs on the primary and secondary sides identical , such that , <formula> and , <formula> where ω0 is the resonant frequency expressed in units of angular frequency and the subscripts p and s refer respectively to components on the primary and secondary side of the transformer . = = = Stage gain = = = With the above assumptions , the voltage gain , A of one stage of the amplifier can be expressed as <formula> where <formula> is the imaginary unit , <formula> is the maximum gain deliverable by the stage , and <formula> is the frequency expressed as the fractional frequency deviation from the resonant frequency . = = = Peak frequency = = = With less than critical coupling , there is one peak in the response occurring at resonance . Above critical coupling , there are two peaks at frequencies given by <formula> where δL and δH are respectively the low and high frequencies of the peaks expressed as fractional deviation . With critical coupling or above , the peaks reach the maximum gain available from the amplifier . = = = Critical coupling = = = Critical coupling occurs when the two peaks just coincide . That is , when <formula> or <formula>
= Fort Yellowstone = Fort Yellowstone was a U.S. Army fort , established in 1891 at Mammoth Hot Springs in Yellowstone National Park . Yellowstone was designated in 1872 but the Interior Department was unable to effectively manage the park . Administration was transferred to the War Department in August 1886 and General Philip Sheridan sent a company of cavalry to Mammoth Hot Springs to build a cavalry post . The army originally called the post Camp Sheridan in honor of General Sheridan but the name was changed to Fort Yellowstone in 1891 when construction of the permanent fort commenced . The army administered the park until 1918 when it was transferred to the newly created National Park Service . The facilities of Fort Yellowstone now comprise the Yellowstone National Park headquarters , the Horace Albright Visitor Center and staff accommodations . Between the years 1891 and 1913 , a total of 60 structures were erected at Fort Yellowstone , of which 35 were still in existence one hundred years later . The fort was built in two major construction waves . During the first construction period from 1891 to 1897 , mainly wood @-@ framed buildings in what has been referred to as " cottage style " were built . A few of them had Colonial Revival architectural elements . A second construction wave began in 1908 and concluded in 1913 . These structures were primarily built from locally quarried sandstone . Many of the structures from the later construction period are now used as administrative offices , residences for National Park Service employees , museums and visitor center . Beyond the immediate confines of the fort , cabins were constructed for use by small detachments of army personnel while on patrol throughout the park . Besides the buildings of Fort Yellowstone , the army left a legacy of policies and practices that served as precedents for the future National Park Service management of national parks . The army military commanders implemented backcountry patrols , wildlife protection and management , and protection of natural features . Army educational programs were later adopted by the National Park Service as part of their resource management . The army effectively implemented law enforcement priorities and developed a ranger force that provided for prosecution and punishment of those engaged in illegal activity in the national parks . The National Park Service carried over a version of the campaign hat worn by members of the army during the last years of their management of Yellowstone National Park for use by Park Rangers . = = History = = More than 40 years before the creation of the National Park Service , Yellowstone National Park was established on March 1 , 1872 , as the world 's first national park . Between 1872 and 1886 , the park was administered by the Interior Department and was managed by a civilian superintendent with limited resources or legal authority to maintain and protect the park 's natural features and wildlife , or to deal with poaching , vandalism and other destructive activities . Over the next decade , special interest groups such as concessionaires , railroad and mining interests attempted to commercialize and privatize park lands . The poorly funded Interior Department was unable to prevent degradation of the park and in some circumstances , was complicit with special interest groups . Senator George Vest led efforts to prevent railroads and other special interests from misusing the resource , and along with other members of Congress believed that only the military could effectively protect the park . A study of the situation and amendments to the Yellowstone Park Act proposed by Senator Vest resulted in the Sundry Civil Appropriations Bill of 1883 which allowed the Interior Department to transfer control of the park to the War Department , thereby protecting Yellowstone from schemes to commercialize the park . In August 1886 , Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan sent Company M , 1st U.S. Cavalry to the Park , where they established Camp Sheridan , named after General Sheridan , at Mammoth Hot Springs . Camp Sheridan consisted of an arrangement of temporary facilities at the base of Capitol Hill just east of the Mammoth Hot Springs travertine terraces . None of the facilities that comprised Camp Sheridan remain as they were all removed over the years . Congress appropriated funds for the establishment of a permanent fort in 1891 , and the Interior Department allocated land just north of Camp Sheridan for permanent facilities . Camp Sheridan was renamed Fort Yellowstone on May 11 , 1891 . The army continued to use Fort Yellowstone until they turned over control of the park and the fort to the newly formed National Park Service in October 1918 . Fort Yellowstone was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 31 , 2003 . The fort , along with concessionaire facilities that were built after the National Park Service assumed management of the park , comprise what is collectively known as the Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District . = = Facilities = = Fort Yellowstone was constructed between 1891 and 1913 on the eastern edge of the Mammoth Hot Springs terraces , southeast of the present Mammoth Hotel , at a cost of approximately $ 700 @,@ 000 ( $ 16 million in 2013 dollars ) . By 1905 , three more troops of cavalry had been added to the original Company M contingent of 50 soldiers , and during this period the fort facilities were almost continuously expanded to meet the requirements of park administration , ordinary cavalry training , and growing numbers of visitors . The initial wave of construction between 1891 – 97 was representative of typical army posts of the period . Like other western military posts , the earliest buildings erected at Fort Yellowstone were constructed according to quartermaster general standardized plans . In design , they were of a generally spartan appearance with a few Colonial Revival style domestic elements , described by the army as " cottage style " . The buildings were of one to two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stories in height , and of frame construction with drop siding and stone foundations , with evenly spaced double @-@ hung sash windows and prominent porches . A second phase of building and upgrades started in 1908 which resulted in the prominent architecture visible at Fort Yellowstone in the 21st century . Built from locally quarried sandstone , these buildings defined Fort Yellowstone . The most prominent of the structures built in the later period is the Horace Albright Visitor Center which was originally the bachelor officers ' quarters ( Bldg 1 ) . Each historic building in the fort and the park was assigned an official number , with the original bachelor officers ' quarters being building number 1 . Architects Reed and Stem and Robert Reamer along with the U.S. Army Office of the Chief Quartermaster , Department of Dakota participated in the design of many of the facilities . Engineer facilities and landscaping were designed by Captain Hiram M. Chittenden of the U.S. Corps of Engineers . = = = Initial construction period 1891 – 1907 = = = The first building constructed at Fort Yellowstone was the guardhouse ( Bldg 9 ) at the southwest corner of the fort . In 1891 , visitors traveled the lower Mammoth road through what is now the main residential area for park personnel . The guardhouse was the first building they encountered in the Mammoth area and there was always a sentry on duty to check visitors entering the park . The building is now a private residence . The original fort administration building ( Bldg 8 ) was located immediately next to the guardhouse and is now also a private residence . Of the twelve buildings constructed in 1891 , the most prominent are two of the four double officers ' quarters ( Bldgs 6 and 7 ) which front the old parade ground . Other buildings constructed in 1891 included a 60 @-@ man barracks , a commissary storehouse ( Bldg 10 ) , a quartermaster storehouse ( Bldg 11 ) , a granary ( Bldg 12 ) , a bakery ( Bldg 24 ) , a stable ( Bldg 25 ) and the first two of four non @-@ commissioned officers ' ( NCO ) quarters ( Bldgs 30 and 33 ) . These NCO quarters became known as " soap @-@ suds row ' because many of the NCO wives were former army laundresses who supplemented their husbands ' income by doing laundry for post personnel . A number of significant buildings were added to the fort from 1893 to 1899 including a 10 @-@ bed hospital , quarters for hospital personnel ( Bldg 14 ) , and a large hay shed ( Bldg 20 ) which were constructed in areas behind officers ' row in 1894 . Of these structures , only the hospital quarters building remains and is now used as a private residence . The most significant building constructed in 1895 was the U.S. Commissioner 's office , which included a jail and residence for the U.S. Marshal ( Bldg 49 ) . The first commissioner was Judge John W. Meldrum who served the army and National Park Service until 1935 from this building . Located well west of the rest of the fort , this was the first stone building within the fort . It was a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ story rock @-@ faced sandstone dwelling with gable @-@ on @-@ hip roof , through @-@ the @-@ cornice dormers and a full @-@ width porch . The ground floor of the house contained the jail , office , and living quarters while bedrooms were situated on the second floor . The structure is used today as a private residence . The building was funded with the passage of the Lacey Act of 1894 . Sponsored by U.S. Representative John F. Lacey , the Lacey Act was " An Act To protect the birds and animals in Yellowstone National Park , and to punish crimes in said park , and for other purposes . " Construction during this period also included two double officers ' quarters ( Bldgs 4 and 5 ) which completed " officers ' row " in 1893 . Two NCO quarters ( Bldgs 31 and 32 ) were added to " soap @-@ suds row " in 1897 and the distinctive cavalry barracks ( Bldg 27 ) , which now houses administrative offices , was constructed in 1899 . Captain Hiram M. Chittenden was the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers senior engineer in Yellowstone from 1899 – 1906 . The Corps had been responsible for road and other infrastructure construction within the park since 1883 . In 1901 , in cooperation with Captain John Pitcher , Acting Park Superintendent , he began a series of projects to improve the quality of life at the fort . Chittenden had a reservoir built in 1901 to provide a consistent supply of water for irrigation , human consumption and fire fighting . The engineers oversaw a project during 1901 which cleared , manured and seeded the area immediately in front of officers ' row to create a grassy parade ground and seeded areas around the various buildings to reduce perennially dusty summer conditions . Fort Yellowstone transitioned from oil to electric lighting in 1902 after Chittenden completed a 100 @-@ kilowatt powerplant 300 yards ( 270 m ) east of the fort . The powerplant and reservoir no longer exist , but most of the grassy areas around Fort Yellowstone that Chittenden planned remain . In 1903 , Captain Chittenden oversaw the design and construction of the second stone building in Yellowstone , the engineers headquarters ( Bldg 39 ) , often called the " Pagoda " because of its design . This structure is in a prominent but isolated location just north of the fort . In 1918 , after the National Park Service began administration of the park , the engineer 's headquarters building became the first official park headquarters . Another prominent Yellowstone landmark , the Roosevelt Arch , was constructed in 1903 under the supervision of Chittenden . A north entrance station and gate near Gardiner , Montana , was first suggested by Captains Wilber Wilder and Oscar Brown in 1899 . However it was not until 1903 that Chittenden and then @-@ Acting Superintendent Major John Pitcher were able to gain approval for the arch . The ground breaking for the arch coincided with the two @-@ week vacation visit of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt to the park . Roosevelt was the only U.S. President to visit Yellowstone during the army era . On his last day in the park , April 24 , 1903 , Roosevelt participated in the cornerstone laying ceremony and the arch was completed later that year . In 1904 , Major John Pitcher recommended the construction of several new buildings to accommodate the growing contingent of soldiers . The only structure approved was the new post exchange located just south of the double cavalry barracks . This striking Colonial Revival styled structure was completed in 1905 , replacing a much smaller post exchange that had been built in 1894 . It now functions as the National Park Service canteen . = = = Later construction period 1908 – 1913 = = = The second wave of major construction started in 1908 when the largest structures in the fort were built , including the three @-@ story double barracks ( Bldg 36 ) , which now houses the park superintendent 's office and is used as the modern park headquarters . Another large building was the bachelor officers ' quarters ( Bldg 1 ) , constructed immediately to the west , fronting the parade ground . This iconic building anchors the northwest corner of the main fort area and houses the Horace Albright Visitor Center , a museum , theater and the Yellowstone Association gift shop . Officers ' row was completed with the construction of a double captains ' quarters ( Bldg 2 ) and a field officers ' quarters ( Bldg 3 ) immediately south of the bachelor officers ' quarters . Cavalry stables ( Bldgs 34 and 38 ) , a double stable guardhouse and blacksmith shop ( Bldg 37 ) were built behind these residences . All these buildings are used by the National Park Service as administrative offices , maintenance facilities or residences . The increasing size of the army contingent required a more up @-@ to @-@ date guardhouse than the original . Acting Superintendents Major Benson and Colonel Brett wanted the new guardhouse to be constructed of stone . The War Department could not justify the expense , so in 1911 the guardhouse was built from concrete . The last building constructed at Fort Yellowstone was the chapel , located just south of the original guardhouse . Army policy did not mandate that army forts provide places of worship . However , at the insistence of park superintendent Pitcher , U.S. Commissioner Meldrum and Wyoming state senator Francis E. Warren , Congress appropriated the funds for the construction of a chapel in 1909 and the building was finished in January 1913 . On September 19 , 1914 , Katharine Piercy Edmunds and Captain Albert Ady King , 1st U.S. Cavalry , were the first couple to be married in the new chapel . Reverend Pritchard , an Episcopalian missionary , traveled to the fort from Emigrant , Montana to perform the ceremony . = = = Remote facilities = = = To provide shelter for small detachments of soldiers on overnight patrols , the army constructed soldier and snowshoe cabins in remote and isolated spots and at popular tourist locations . Most of these structures no longer exist , but similar , more modern cabins are maintained by the National Park Service throughout the park . The first soldier cabins were built in 1886 as part of Camp Sheridan and all of these were later removed . Cabins were also built at the Lower Geyser Basin , Upper Geyser Basin , Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone , Riverside and at Soda Butte . As more outposts were needed over the years cabins were constructed at Lake Outlet ( 1887 ) , Snake River ( Polecat Creek ) , West Thumb and Riverside ( 1892 ) , Mud Geyser ( 1895 ) , Norris and Thumb Bay ( 1897 ) , Lake ( 1899 ) , Snake River ( 1902 ) , Gardiner ( 1903 ) , West Thumb , Syvan Pass and Soda Butte ( 1904 ) , Tower ( 1907 ) , Crevice Mountain ( 1912 ) , Snake River ( 1914 ) , and Aster Creek , Cabin Creek , Harebell , and Thorofare ( 1915 ) . Snowshoe cabins in existence in 1899 included small structures at Astringent Creek , Bartlet , Boundary Creek , Coulter Creek , Hellroaring Creek , Lewis River , Park Point , Proposition , Trappers Creek , Trout Creek and Willow Creek . While none of the aforementioned structures are still in existence , four remote structures remain . They include the Buffalo Lake snowshoe cabin ( Bldg 234 ) and the Norris and Bechler River soldier stations ( Bldgs 111 and 231 ) . The Norris soldier station currently houses the Museum of the National Park Ranger . Additionally , the Bechler River barn ( Bldg 232 ) is still in existence . = = Historical significance of the U.S. Army in Yellowstone = = U.S. Army management of Yellowstone was so successful that by 1891 they were also managing Sequoia , Yosemite and Kings Canyon National Parks in California and Mackinac National Park in Michigan . The National Park Service later followed the precedents established by the army and incorporated them into their own management strategy . During its tenure at Yellowstone , the army developed regulations that put emphasis on protection of park resources , safety of visitors , and positive but effective visitor interaction . Under the watchful eyes of the army , the geothermal features , forests and wildlife of Yellowstone were protected from vandalism , fire and poaching . These practices were adopted by the National Park Service and continue as a foundation of National Park management policy . Proactive actions by the army in stopping poaching in the park led to the passing of the Lacey Act of 1894 , which established legal protection for the wildlife and remedies for dealing with violators . When Company M , 1st U.S. Cavalry arrived in Yellowstone , Captain Moses Harris , a Civil War Medal of Honor recipient , on his own authority and initiative , promulgated a set of rules that his staff enforced to protect park resources still adhered to in the 21st century : 1 ) The cutting of green timber , or the removal or displacement of any mineral deposits or natural curiosities , is forbidden . 2 ) Hunting or trapping and the discharge of firearms within the limited of the Park is prohibited . Fishing is forbidden except with hook and line , and the sale of fish so taken is also disallowed . 3 ) Wagon tires on all wagons used for freighting purposes on roads ... are required to be a least four inches in width . 4 ) Camping parties will only build fires when actually necessary . 5 ) The sale of intoxicating liquors , except by hotel proprietors to their guests , for their own use , is strictly prohibited . 6 ) Trespassers within the Park for illicit purposes , or persons wantonly violating the foregoing rules , will be summarily removed from the Park . 8 ) No rocks , sticks , or other obstructions must be thrown into any of the springs or geysers within the park . ... It is enjoined upon all soldiers ... to be vigilant and attentive in the enforcement of the foregoing regulations . ... they will in the enforcement of their orders conduct themselves in a courteous and polite , but firm and decided manner . Even though Harris and his soldiers vigilantly enforced the rules , arresting many violators , there was no legal authority for prosecution or punishment . All Harris could do was expel violators from the park . Captain Harris , and his successor , Captain Frazier Augustus Boutelle , established a network of soldier and snowshoe cabins throughout the remote portions of the park . These cabins , strategically located about 10 miles ( 16 km ) apart , were used by detachments of soldiers throughout the year as they stayed watchful for wildfires , vandalism and poaching . The use of remote ranger cabins for patrolling the park is still practiced by Park Rangers . Captain Young , during his first tour as Acting Superintendent in 1897 , established patrol cabin policies that are essentially still followed by Park Rangers . Young required that soldiers using a patrol cabin keep a daily log of activities , including game counts , visitor counts and weather observations . These logs were used to compile a monthly report sent to the headquarters at Fort Yellowstone . Young issued the following orders to all soldiers using the snowshoe cabins . All persons are enjoined to use the rations in the snowshoe cabins only in case of necessity ; never under any circumstances to waste any of them and always to leave the cabins and their contents secure and in good condition . The ax and shovel must be left inside , the comforts hanged [ sic ] up , the cooking utensils left clean and dry and the food in its box secure from mice , etc . Enough dry wood for one night should always be left in the cabin . = = = Wildlife policies = = = Of the many decisions made by Captain Boutelle in managing the park , his approach to fisheries had significant and lasting impact . Boutelle was an avid angler and recognized the angling potential in Yellowstone waters . In 1889 he suggested the U.S. Fish Commission consider stocking many of the fish @-@ less lakes and streams in Yellowstone . Besides the beautiful Shoshone and other smaller lakes , there are hundreds of miles of as fine streams as any in existence without a fish of any kind . I have written Col. Marshall McDonald , U.S. Fish Commission , upon the subject , and have received letters from him manifesting a great interest . I hope through him to see all of these waters so stocked that the pleasure @-@ seeker in the Park can enjoy fine fishing within a few rods of any hotel or camp . This suggestion was acted upon and in 1889 the first non @-@ native fish were stocked into Yellowstone waters , a practice that continued until 1955 and helped create the angling experience Yellowstone National Park is renowned for . In 1902 , the population of bison in the park had declined to approximately 25 individual animals . Under the leadership of Captain Pitcher , the army began a program of importing plains bison from private domestic herds in Texas and Montana . Fenced enclosures were created at Mammoth and in the Lamar Valley . Areas were ploughed and planted with oats and timothy to feed the captive bison herds as well as the expanding elk herds . The bison enclosure in the Lamar Valley became known as the Lamar Buffalo Ranch . When the army left the park in 1918 , the bison population was estimated to have increased to 400 individuals . = = = Transition to the National Park Service = = = After serving more than six years as the Acting Superintendent , Major John Pitcher was replaced by Lieutenant General Samuel B.M. Young ( U.S. Army retired ) in June 1907 . Young was appointed by the Secretary of the Interior , James Rudolph Garfield as full superintendent of the park . Although Young was a senior officer , command of the troops at Fort Yellowstone was given to Major H. T. Allen . Young 's lasting contribution to Fort Yellowstone 's history was his proposal to replace the army with a force of Civilian Guards . Young , who had served as Acting Superintendent as a Captain in 1897 recognized the dysfunctional and complicated relationships between the War Department , Corps of Engineers and Interior Department which Congress knew was adversely impacting the successful administration of the park . Young 's proposal was not acted upon , but it did set the stage for a decade of change that ultimately saw the creation of the National Park Service in 1916 as well as a Park Ranger force to protect the national parks . Although the cavalry had been successful in protecting the park , by 1914 the average soldier was not cutout for the strenuous , diplomatic and tedious nature of the work , and the high level of training related to cavalry skills . World War I added further impetus to a transition back to civilian management , to relieve the army of a duty that could be performed by civilian rangers . In July 1914 , the 1st Cavalry was withdrawn from Yellowstone and replaced with a composite unit of 200 cavalrymen from throughout the army , many of whom had served in Yellowstone previously . Throughout 1915 – 16 , the Interior Department was organizing itself to deal with the growing number of national parks and ultimately , Congress created the National Park Service on August 25 , 1916 . Prior to the establishment of the National Park Service , in July 1916 the War Department agreed to withdraw troops from Yellowstone as of October 1 , 1916 , which was the end of the park visitation season . At the same time , the War Department agreed to discharge a select number of the current volunteer cavalry contingent on September 29 , 1916 , so they could go to work for the National Park Service as Park Rangers . Unfortunately , Congress failed to appropriate funds for the new National Park Service for 1917 and the ranger force was disbanded in the spring of 1917 . Political pressure from the Montana Congressional delegation over the loss of economic revenue from the army presence resulted in the recall of the army and 450 soldiers from the 7th Cavalry Regiment were sent back to Fort Yellowstone to protect the park . Administrative control remained with the Interior Department under the supervision of Acting Superintendent Chester Allinson Lindsley , a long time civilian employee in the park . Relations between the army , the Corps of Engineers and the Interior Department continued to be contentious in 1917 – 1918 as disagreements over proposed construction , ownership of buildings and use of personnel persisted . In 1918 , Director of the National Park Service Stephen Mather convinced Congress and the War Department that civilian control of the National Parks under the National Park Service was the right solution . On October 31 , 1918 , the army left Yellowstone for the last time . = = = Legacy = = = John Muir a foremost American naturalist and often called the " Father of the National Parks " once wrote : " Blessings on Uncle Sam 's Soldiers . They have done the job well , and every pine tree is waving its arms for joy . " While Yellowstone was under army management , the activities , policies and procedures developed served as precedents for other national parks and subsequent actions by the National Park Service after its formation in 1916 . The army solved a wide variety of problems and developed procedures covering a multitude of administrative issues . The military superintendents continued the evolution of park policies and conservation measures initiated by the first civilian administrators . They implemented backcountry patrols , access improvement , wildlife protection and management , protection of natural features , law enforcement and development of a ranger force . The army set precedents for future headquarters area development designs , visitor services such as educational outreach and interpretive tours . Their diligence in dealing with poachers led to legislation that provided for prosecution and punishment of illegal activity . That most of the precedents that the army established were incorporated later by the National Park Service is a lasting legacy of the important role the army played in U.S. national park history . Modern Park Ranger uniforms are legacies of army management of the park . Most iconically , the campaign hat , a flat @-@ brow peaked hat worn by the cavalry in the last years of army management is nearly identical to the modern hats worn into the 21st century . = = Commanding officers = = The commanding officer of the Fort Yellowstone troop was designated as the Acting Superintendent of the park , reporting to both the army and the Interior Secretary . The following army officers served in this position at Fort Yellowstone . Captain Moses Harris : August 20 , 1886 – May 31 , 1889 Captain Frazier Augustus Boutelle : June 1 , 1889 – February 15 , 1891 Captain George S. Anderson : February 15 , 1891 – June 23 , 1897 Captain Samuel B. M. Young : June 23 , 1897 – November 15 , 1897 Captain James B. Erwin : November 15 , 1897 – March 15 , 1899 Captain Wilber E. Wilder : March 15 , 1899 – June 23 , 1899 Captain Oscar J. Brown : June 23 , 1899 – July 24 , 1900 Captain George W. Goode : July 24 , 1900 – May 8 , 1901 Captain / Major John Pitcher : May 8 , 1901 – June 1 , 1907 Lt. General Samuel B. M. Young ( retired ) : June 1 , 1907 – November 28 , 1908Major H. T. Allen ( Commander of troops ) Major Harry C. Benson : November 28 , 1908 – September 30 , 1910 Colonel Lloyd M. Brett : September 30 , 1910 – October 15 , 1916 = = = Units assigned = = = Six different cavalry regiments were stationed off and on during army administration of Yellowstone . 1st Cavalry Regiment : 1886 – 1891 , 1900 – 1902 , 1911 – 1914 4th Cavalry Regiment : 1898 – 1899 5th Cavalry Regiment : 1909 – 1910 6th Cavalry Regiment : 1892 – 1897 , 1906 – 1907 8th Cavalry Regiment : 1908 Yellowstone Park Detachment : 1915 – 1916 7th Cavalry Regiment : 1917 – 1918
= Devil May Cry 4 = Devil May Cry 4 is an action @-@ adventure hack and slash video game developed and published by Capcom in 2008 for the PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 and Windows platforms . The game is the fourth installment to the Devil May Cry series . It later on generated a handheld version released on iOS , titled Devil May Cry 4 : Refrain . Chronologically , the game is set between the original Devil May Cry and Devil May Cry 2 . The story follows Nero , a teenager possessing demonic powers who is on a mission to stop the series ' main character , Dante , after he assassinates demons from the Order of the Sword including its leader . During the game , the player controls both Nero and Dante as they fight enemies in close combat using firearms , swords , and other weapons . Devil May Cry 4 was the first entry in the series to release for multiple consoles at the same time ; during its development , Capcom focused on all versions achieving the same visual quality . Critical reception to Devil May Cry 4 was positive , with praise aimed towards its challenging difficulty and the characters ' special moves . However , it was also criticized for its backtracking and a troublesome camera . The game sold over 3 million units worldwide , becoming the series ' best @-@ selling title . It has also been adapted into a two @-@ volume light novel by its original writer , Bingo Morihashi . A remastered version of the game was released in June 2015 as Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition , which adds both English and Japanese voice tracks , improved visual effects and textures , in @-@ game re @-@ balancing , additional costumes , and 3 bonus playable characters : Vergil , returning from Devil May Cry 3 , Trish , playable for the first time since Devil May Cry 2 , and Lady , who makes her playable debut . = = Gameplay = = Gameplay in Devil May Cry 4 is similar to previous games in the series . The player must fight through levels called " missions " , occasionally solving puzzles or gathering items . Performance in a mission is graded from D being the bottom grade through C , B , A , S , SS , and SSS being the highest grade . Grades are based on items used , Red Orbs gathered , time taken , and the amount of Style Points accumulated . Each Style Point grade has its own tag @-@ word . The stylish grade shows up on the side of the screen and starts at " Deadly " ( D ) ; progresses through " Carnage " ( C ) , " Brutal " ( B ) , and " Atomic " ( A ) ; then , progresses through one last bar of grade containing the phrases " Smokin ' " ( S ) , " Smokin ' Style " ( SS ) , and lastly " Smokin ' Sick Style " ( SSS ) . Stylish combat is the main focus of the game , which is conveyed through unbroken combos of varied attacks while avoiding damage . The player must avoid enemy attacks to continue performing combos , often by memorizing attack patterns . The Devil Trigger is a super state that enables the player to become more powerful adding a slow but steady health regeneration , with increased damage done . Devil Trigger can be activated by pressing the button to trigger it when the minimum amount on the gauge is filled . Some changes introduced into Devil May Cry 4 are the presence of two playable characters , Dante and Nero , and a slight modification to the shop system . A new currency , Proud Souls , is used to buy new abilities while Red Orbs are used to buy items . Proud Souls are rewarded at the end of missions and the amount varies depending on how well the player performed . Cost of abilities also increase with the purchase of other abilities , though all abilities can be sold back for the original price . The player plays as Nero throughout most of the game . He is equipped with the Red Queen sword , Blue Rose revolver , and the powers of his Devil Bringer . The Red Queen features an Exceed Gauge that can be charged up , allowing for subsequent attacks that are more powerful than regular slashes , until the gauge empties . Nero also has the powers of his Devil Bringer , and can use it to pull himself towards enemies or vice versa . The Devil Bringer may also be used for context @-@ sensitive throw attacks , leading to high damage and various effects depending on the enemy . Nero 's Devil Bringer also gains new abilities during the course of the game , such as being able to detect secret missions or caches of Red Orbs . Nero eventually gains the ability to use Devil Trigger after getting the katana known as Yamato , which increases his Devil Bringer 's power , thus changing his Devil Bringer attacks into more powerful versions with different animations . The player plays as Dante through seven missions , taking over halfway through the game . His gameplay is similar to that of Devil May Cry 3 , with him having access to multiple melee and ranged weapons which he gains after boss battles , and being able to cycle through them freely in combat , being no longer limited to equipping two weapons of each type as he was in the previous game . Dante also starts with his four styles , each of which grants him different abilities , but he may now switch them at will with buttons or pads on the controller , unlike in Devil May Cry 3 . He also gains the Dark Slayer style near the end of his appearance , which only has one style level . Styles do not level up through experience as in the previous game , but must instead be upgraded like other skills in the shop screen in between missions or at statues . Dante can also enter Devil Trigger ; in his Devil Trigger he gains most of the benefits that Nero 's Devil Trigger has , though , as he does not have the Devil Bringer , he gets animation and property changes on some of his normal attacks instead . The Special Edition introduces a new gameplay for each new characters like Vergil , Lady and Trish . Lady and Trish , like Dante and Nero , also only playable on a certain mission routes . The player plays Lady will have a same mission route as Nero . She has a similar gameplay as Nero , such as the grappling move mechanism . However , Her combat style relies heavily on using her firearms . The player plays Trish will have a same mission route as Dante . She has a similar gameplay as Dante . According to Hideaki Itsuno , the director of Devil May Cry 3 & 4 , states that " ... she does away her weapon switching and instead use of the Sparda Sword in the variety of ways that require the use of relatively few buttons . " He also stated that her style is " ... distinctly different you 've seen anything in the game until now . The player plays Vergil through all game 's missions . He retain his moves from the Special Edition of Devil May Cry 3 , including the close ranged weapon switches , but also added with elements from the reboot of the franchise DmC : Devil May Cry . It is known that his moves are also fully upgradable . And a feature was added for his choice of stylized fighting , which is known as the " Concentration " mechanic . While in action , Vergil 's abilities and moves will grow stronger and faster the more calmly and flawlessly he fights . The Concentration mechanic is signaled by a blue gauge in the upper left corner of the screen which is Vergil 's Concentration Gauge . It has three levels . The higher the level , the more powerful attacks he will be able to perform . To increase the gauge , Vergil can land attacks on enemies and dodge their attacks , but if he is hit by an enemy or if he runs , these cause the gauge to deplete . Missing attacks also depletes the gauge , so the player must be efficient with their attacks during battle . = = Plot = = In an extra Special Edition story of Vergil , set before the events of Devil May Cry 3 : Dante 's Awakening , Vergil had been traveling the world , looking for information about his father , Sparda . It was during this time that he visited the city of Fortuna to investigate the Order of the Sword . Upon his arrival into the city , Vergil wondered why they worship a demon like Sparda as a god . As he pondered , a horde of Scarecrows surround him , but Vergil dispatches them with little effort . After that brief encounter , Vergil then continued deeper into Fortuna , intending to learn more about the Order and their intentions . As he walked , he passed by a group of pedestrians , with a woman in a scarlet red dress taking notice of him as he walked away . After finishing his investigation of the Order 's plan , Vergil soon leaves the town pondering whether or not one can call them misguided for their worship . As he walks away , he vows that one day the Order will know the true power of the son of Sparda . Nero is a young man who works as a demon hunter for the Order of the Sword that worships the Legendary Dark Knight Sparda as a god . When he goes to the Opera House to see his love interest Kyrie perform for The Order of the Sword 's ceremony , the Order 's high priest Sanctus is murdered by Dante , the son of Sparda who appears suddenly after crashing through a skylight . The Order 's Holy Knights , led by Kyrie 's older brother Credo , try to subdue Dante but he defeats them easily . Promising to return with help , Credo takes Kyrie to safety and leaves Nero to stall Dante . Tapping into his dormant demonic power , Nero overwhelms Dante . Impressed , Dante ( before leaving ) reveals that the Holy Knights members he killed were actually demons . Credo gives Nero the task of stopping Dante in Fortuna Castle . In the castle , Nero discovers that Order of the Sword 's Agnus has secretly been experimenting with demonic power using the demonic energy from Yamato , the long lost sword that used to belong to Dante 's brother , Vergil . Agnus has created an army of demon infused warriors and several Hell Gates across Fortuna under the orders of Sanctus himself who has revived as a demon . Nero fights Agnus fully unlocking his own dormant demonic power thanks to Yamato . When Agnus flees to Headquarters , Nero follows him and tries to piece together The Order 's plan involving the Hell Gates . He discovers that Credo is part of the conspiracy , having similarly become a demon . Credo is tasked by Sanctus to stop Nero , while Gloria has taken up Nero 's job of hunting Dante . However , Credo stops his mission when Agnus uses Kyrie as a bait to capture Nero . Nero decides to save Kyrie from Sanctus , but encounters Dante , who tests him in fight to see if he is worthy of Yamato . Dante wins this time but lets Nero retain Yamato . Nero finds Sanctus in the Headquarters with an enormous statue , which Sanctus calls " The Savior . " Sanctus reveals that only Yamato and the Legendary Sparda Sword , along with Sparda 's blood can awaken the Savior . Having already received the Sparda Sword from Gloria , Sanctus proceeds to absorb Nero , who has Sparda 's blood . Using Kyrie as a human shield to distract Nero , he succeeds in capturing him . Credo attempts to rescue Nero and Kyrie but is mortally wounded by Sanctus . Dante and his partner Trish , revealed to be Gloria , appear , unable to stop the proceedings , and promise Credo in his final moments to save Kyrie and Nero . Underneath the city , Agnus opens the true Hell Gate with Yamato , which releases countless demons . Using The Savior to defeat the oncoming demons , Sanctus plans to strengthen the people 's worship by acting as their saviour . Dante succeeds in destroying all of the false gates Agnus created , and kills him . After reclaiming Yamato , Dante engages Sanctus . Dante takes Yamato and drives it through the Savior 's chest , freeing Nero , who reclaims it inside The Savior . He races to the Savior 's Heart where Sanctus awaits , with Kyrie as his prisoner . Facing Sanctus , Nero stabs him and saves Kyrie and both escape the confines of The Savior . The Savior reawakens , having absorbed Sanctus 's soul . Destroying this final demon , Nero finally makes peace with his demonic heritage after acknowledging the power it has given him to save those he cares about . Dante entrusts him with Yamato before departing . Nero and Kyrie then reconcile in the ruins of Fortuna . In an extra Special Edition scene in a same time as Nero and Dante 's story ending from original edition in Lady and Trish 's story ending after Nero and the three Devil Hunters finishes all the remaining demons in Castle Town of Fortuna , just as Dante reunites with Trish and Lady before departing , they saw Nero and Kyrie share their kiss without notice that Dante , Trish and Lady are still there watching them kissing before the Devil Hunters ' departure . In the post credits scene , Lady makes a stop at the Devil May Cry office . She had hired Dante and Trish to investigate The Order 's intentions but gives them a small reward for giving them Sparda to the Order in an attempt to get close to them . The three stop arguing after receiving a call involving a new job . = = Development = = Producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi noted that the production team began working with the game using a PC @-@ based engine . He said that this was the first PlayStation 3 game developed by Capcom , and that making this transition was a " hard step " , particularly because no member of the producing team was familiar with the console 's capabilities . As the first Devil May Cry not to be released for PlayStation 2 , the team wanted to introduce a new character for newcomers . This allowed them to try new play mechanics that and expand more the series ' plot . On September 6 , 2006 , Japanese video game magazine Famitsu reported that the past games ' main character , Dante , would not be the protagonist in Devil May Cry 4 . Instead , a new character named Nero , voiced and motion captured by Johnny Yong Bosch , took the lead . The game 's multi @-@ platform crossover was justified by emphasizing the Xbox 360 's success in the North American and European markets , labeling the move as " natural " . The final game uses Capcom 's internally developed MT Framework engine . In a thread questioning the move on the official Capcom message board , the company 's senior director of strategic planning and research , Christian Svensson , responded by saying that they were moved by people 's strong feelings about the decision , but that it was the best decision for the company and consumers . He also claimed that the contents would be identical , except that " the feel of the controller " may cause a slight difference . Itsuno said in the Famitsu article that the visuals attempt to deliver a satisfying feel of being in the air , and that the actions of Nero 's Devil Bringer could not be done on contemporary generation consoles , but they could be done on the new generation of consoles such as the PlayStation 3 ; . Kobayashi stated that the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions would be identical , although he did not comment on the PC version . Kobayashi confirmed that the PC version " would be great , because the same team is working on both " . The PlayStation 3 version requires the user to install 5GB of game data , taking 20 minutes , which shortens the length of the loading screens throughout the game . During production , new gameplay options were implemented in order to " keep up with fresh action games " ; among these is the Devil Bringer 's ability to bring enemies towards the characters . Unlike Dante 's progress in Devil May Cry 3 , Nero was designed to become stronger by upgrading his Devil Bringer ability instead of receiving new weapons after defeating boss characters . During development , the production team noted several aspects of the game , including that Nero would be one of two main characters and that Dante was not going to be the only character from previous entries in the series to appear . Producer Hiroyuki Kobashi noted prior to the release of that game that they wanted to make Dante seem significantly more powerful than Nero . This was done in order to create an evident difference between the strength of a " veteran " when compared to a " rookie " . Unlike Devil May Cry 3 , the game 's difficulty would be the same in both the Japanese and European versions as in the one released in North America . Before commencing the designs for the characters in Devil May Cry 4 , character designer Tatsuya Yoshikawa consulted with several members of the staff that had worked in the series previously , in order to become familiar with previous elements . The characters were designed in order to emphasize their moves , which made the staff controlling their motions vital in the design . Some of the demonic forms of the antagonists in Devil May Cry 4 resemble angels . These characters were designed to be attractive to the game 's audience while providing a contrast when compared to other demons in the game . Yoshikawa noted that several of the boss characters presented some difficulty when creating them , but that Nero 's design was one of the biggest challenges he had experienced in his career , based on the fact that the character would have to be accepted by the public and fit in the series ' universe . The soundtrack for Devil May Cry 4 was composed by Tetsuya Shibata , Shusaku Uchiyama , Kento Hasegawa , Akihiko Narita , Kota Suzuki , Rei Kondoh , Masayoshi " Chamy " Ishi , Masami Ueda and Shinichiro Sato . = = = Windows version = = = Two exclusive features are Turbo Mode ( previously featured only in Devil May Cry 3 : Special Edition ) giving the game a 20 % speed boost and a new difficulty mode called Legendary Dark Knight Mode which can display over 100 enemies in some missions at once . Both features return in the Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition release . The PC version also has both DirectX 9 and DirectX 10 mode . It is labeled Games for Windows and runs on XP , Vista and 7 . It assumes a Gamepad is present and only uses the mouse in the menus , providing the same interface as the Xbox 360 version . = = = iOS version = = = An iOS version called Devil May Cry 4 : Refrain was announced January 11 , 2011 . It was released on February 3 , 2011 . = = Marketing and release = = The first teaser trailer was shown at E3 2005 , depicting Dante traveling through a snow @-@ covered environment . A more substantial trailer was released at that year 's Tokyo Game Show , with a more rugged and older Dante in a city @-@ like setting . Both teasers show very little detail of the game itself . At the 2006 Tokyo Game Show , a more complete trailer debuted , along with a playable demo , featuring the character Nero . A fourth trailer , released on December 17 , 2007 , revealed more gameplay and story detail , as well as information on new songs for the game , including a new version of " Lock and Load " , Dante 's theme music from the first Devil May Cry , with new lyrics written and performed by Shawn " Shootie HG " McPherson , the lyricist and lead vocalist on the soundtrack of Devil May Cry 3 : Dante 's Awakening . Released with the Japanese version of the game is Japanese rock band , L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel , and their new single , Drink It Down , which is used as the Japanese opening for the game . The company presented the game 's first demo at an event titled " Capcom 's Gamer 's Day " , where Kobayashi highlighted several of the games features . With the team focused in completing the game , a new demo was not produced in time for the 2007 E3 Media and Business Summit . = = = Collector 's Edition = = = A collector 's edition of the game was released at the same time as the regular version . The North American version features a bonus disc containing the making of Devil May Cry 4 , and an additional disc of the first four episodes of Devil May Cry : The Animated Series , while the European and Australian versions include a signed artbook instead , named " Art of the Devil " . A very small number of Collector 's Edition packages were signed by the game 's producer , Hiroyuki Kobayashi , on the back of the metal tin on Dante 's left shoulder . This number was reported to be as low as only 100 signed copies of the Collector 's Edition for each console , making for a total of 200 signed copies . Both versions were packaged in a steelbook case . = = Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition = = On December 15 , 2014 , Capcom revealed that an updated version of the game would be released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . The game was released on June 18 , 2015 for the PS4 and Xbox One versions , and June 24 , 2015 for the PC version in Japan , and on June 23 , 2015 for all announced platforms in other regions . It was released physically and digitally in Japan and only digitally in other regions . The Special Edition features Vergil , Trish , and Lady as bonus playable characters , each with new opening and ending movies . Bonus costumes for Trish and Lady were included in the first @-@ print run of the physical version and as a pre @-@ order bonus for the digital versions . Included in the game were bonus costumes and EX @-@ colors for Nero , Dante , Vergil , Lady and Trish . The game contains the Legendary Dark Knight mode , an additional difficulty mode featuring a vastly increased enemy count , and a Turbo setting , which increases game speed by 20 % , both previously exclusive to the PC version of the original release . The in @-@ game economy was re @-@ tuned for quicker acquisition of Red Orbs and Proud Souls , both used for leveling up skills and purchasing items . The remaster also has uncompressed textures and some improved visual effects . Completely new to the Special Edition is a Japanese language voice track . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = Devil May Cry 4 received positive reviews from critics . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 84 @.@ 13 % and 84 / 100 , the Xbox 360 version 83 @.@ 26 % and 84 / 100 and the PC version 80 @.@ 05 % and 78 / 100 . Xbox World Australia gave the game 90 / 100 , saying " Devil May Cry 4 is everything a hack @-@ and @-@ slash should be and then some . Sadly it falters with repeated level design and a moderately troublesome camera ; but in the grand scheme of things , these are only minor flaws . " PSM3 gave the game an 80 out of 100 . The magazine discussed the difficulty of the game , saying , " Most games these days tend to hold your hand all the way through ... Devil May Cry is not like that . It 'll throw a million demons at you because it wants to , put in half a dozen arbitrary fights in a 30 @-@ foot stretch of map , force you to survive for ages on a tiny sliver of health ... and then give you a D at the end of the level because you weren 't doing enough combos . " 1UP.com graded it A- , praising the gameplay and " predictably slick " looks , but criticized the " divisive industrial hard @-@ rock nonsense .... that sullied DMC3 [ and ] returns here " and the game 's " overly frugal approach to level design " . GameTrailers rated it an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 , and praised the voice acting while criticizing the corny dialogue . IGN gave it an 8 @.@ 7 saying , " Whether it 's on the PS3 or the 360 , action fans are going to get one incredible experience with this game , and if you own either system , you 'll have a great time . " However , the review also noted that , contrary to Kobayashi 's claim , " Dante simply doesn 't have nearly as many weapons as he did in DMC3 " and found that " the amount of backtracking and repetition makes the game feel somewhat half @-@ heartedly finished in the design department . " GameSpy gave it 4 stars out of 5 , stating that " DMC4 succeeds on many levels because it fuses fan service with entertaining gameplay " , finding that " visually , DMC4 is a dynamo . " The review also praised Nero for " [ bringing ] something fresh to the franchise " and being " as diverse as DMC3 SE 's Vergil " ; however , they also claim that " it cheapens things a little to see that the team has opted to recycle assets in lieu of showing us more of this rich world " and call out the " annoying industrial @-@ meets @-@ butt @-@ rock soundtrack " . Hyper 's Dirk Watch commends the game for " looking great , combos galore and being more fun than Devil May Cry 3 " . However , he criticized it for " still playing like Devil May Cry 2 as well as choppy pacing and level design " . The series ' original creator , Hideki Kamiya , said he used this game as a research when developing Bayonetta , an action game that would use a similar style and which borrowed elements from the Devil May Cry series . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die . = = = Sales = = = Capcom expected Devil May Cry 4 to ship 1 @.@ 8 Million Units by the end of its respected fiscal year . On February 20 , 2008 , Capcom 's president Haruhiro Tsujimoto announced in a press release that the game shipped 2 million copies in its first month , making it the fastest selling title in the series . By the end of the title 's launch year , it had sold 2 @.@ 32 Million Copies and would eventually reach the milestone of 3 Million units sold by December 31 2014 . Capcom 's Christian Svensson noted the PC retail version 's sales in the US did not meet his wishes , while a digital download version was only available in the form of piracy as Capcom Japan did not allow the game to be sold online . ( A PC digital distribution release was made available over a year later ) . In July 2015 , Capcom announced the Special Edition sold well , with the majority of units sold digitally . They further cited that the digital sales of the " Special Edition " were a key contributor to their overall growth for the fiscal quarter . = = Media = = Following the game 's popularity , a two @-@ volume novel adaptation of the game named Devil May Cry 4 : Deadly Fortune was released in 2009 by Capcom . It is a two @-@ volume graphic novel written by Bingo Morihashi and his assistant writer Yasui Kentarou . The novel covers the story of Devil May Cry 4 , and the events that happened before it . It expands Nero 's backstory as it is revealed he was abandoned in Fortuna when he was baby . An unidentified character ( strongly hinted to be Dante 's brother Vergil ) following Sparda 's footsteps also appears in the novel first in a flashback when Nero was found in Fortuna as well as in a dream before Nero wields Yamato for the first time . During the novel Nero is often compared with Vergil ; Dante is unable to understand the connection between the two . The ending is also expanded as Nero opens his own demon hunting business after the Order of the Sword . In the afterword , Bingo wrote that these removed scenes were intended to be included in the game , but were not due to some production reasons .
= 2003 Insight Bowl = The 2003 Insight Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the California Golden Bears at Bank One Ballpark in Phoenix , Arizona , on December 26 , 2003 . The game was the final contest of the 2003 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 52 – 49 victory for California . Cal and Virginia Tech combined for 101 points ; only the 2001 GMAC Bowl saw more points scored by two teams in a bowl game without overtime . During the 2003 college football season , Virginia Tech accumulated an 8 – 4 regular @-@ season record that included four losses in the Hokies ' final six regular @-@ season games . As the third @-@ place team in the Big East Conference , Tech accepted a bid to the 2003 Insight Bowl . Facing the Hokies were the California Golden Bears , who went 7 – 6 during the regular season , tying for third place in the Pacific @-@ 10 ( Pac @-@ 10 ) . The 2003 Insight Bowl kicked off at 8 : 30 p.m. EST on December 26 , 2003 . From the beginning of the game , it was a quick @-@ paced , high @-@ scoring contest . In the first quarter , Virginia Tech jumped out to a 21 – 7 lead courtesy of the Tech passing game , which was coordinated by quarterback Bryan Randall , who threw four touchdowns during the game . In the second quarter , California recovered from its 14 @-@ point first @-@ quarter deficit by scoring two touchdowns . Tech , meanwhile , scored another , and took a 28 – 21 lead into halftime . The offensive onslaught continued in the second half , though it was California who took the advantage at first . Bolstered by an improved defensive effort that held the Hokies scoreless throughout the third quarter , California and quarterback Aaron Rodgers scored 21 unanswered points to take a 42 – 28 lead into the fourth quarter . In that quarter , the Hokies clawed back into competition . Tech scored a touchdown to begin the quarter , but Cal answered with one of its own , making the score 49 – 35 . The Hokies evened the score at 49 – 49 after an 80 @-@ yard touchdown drive that took less than two minutes and a punt return by DeAngelo Hall for a touchdown . The post @-@ score Tech kickoff went out of bounds , giving the Bears possession at their 35 @-@ yard line . With time running out , Cal began to drive for a game @-@ winning score . Cal needed just seven plays to advance 47 yards and set up a field goal attempt . As time expired , kicker Tyler Fredrickson kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal to give California the 52 – 49 win . = = Team selection = = In 2003 , the Insight Bowl contracted with the Big East conference and Pacific @-@ 10 conference to select teams for participation in its annual game . Big East champion Miami was awarded an automatic Bowl Championship Series berth , and second @-@ place Pittsburgh accepted a bid to the Continental Tire Bowl in Charlotte , North Carolina . Continental Tire Bowl officials considered inviting Virginia Tech to participate in the game , but were required to invite Virginia due to the Continental Tire Bowl 's contract with the Atlantic Coast Conference . Rather than selecting two teams that faced each other in the final game of the regular season , Continental Bowl officials chose another team . The other possibility for the Hokies was the San Francisco Bowl , whose managers also held a contract with the Big East , but because Tech played in the previous year 's San Francisco Bowl , the bowl 's organizing committee decided against a second invitation . California 's route to the Insight Bowl was less roundabout . In the Pac @-@ 10 , first @-@ place Southern California was awarded the conference 's Bowl Championship Series bid . Second @-@ place Washington State was selected by the Holiday Bowl , and Oregon , tied for third place with California , received a bid to the Sun Bowl . Oregon had a better overall record than California and also won the teams ' head @-@ to @-@ head matchup . = = = Virginia Tech = = = Virginia Tech entered the 2003 college football season having gone 10 – 4 the previous season , including a season @-@ ending victory over Air Force in the inaugural San Francisco Bowl . During the offseason , the Hokies were extended an invitation to join the Atlantic Coast Conference and accepted , making the 2003 season their final year in the Big East . In the annual preseason poll of reporters covering Big East football , Virginia Tech was picked to finish third in the conference , behind the previous year 's champion , Miami , and Pittsburgh . Virginia Tech 's first game of the season was at home against Central Florida on August 31 . In a game that saw the debut of quarterback Marcus Vick , brother of former star Hokie Michael Vick , 10th @-@ ranked Virginia Tech pulled out to an early lead before Central Florida fought back in the second half . Tech recovered , however , and won the game , 48 – 29 . Virginia Tech followed the victory with five others . On October 11 , a fourth @-@ ranked Hokie squad easily won against Syracuse University , 51 – 7 , giving Virginia Tech a 6 – 0 record . In its seventh game , Tech suffered its first loss . Traveling to Morgantown , West Virginia , home of West Virginia University , the third @-@ ranked Hokies lost 28 – 7 to the No. 23 Mountaineers . The loss was Tech 's worst since November 2001 , and knocked the previously undefeated Hokies out of contention for the national championship . The Hokies returned home to face another high @-@ ranking opponent , No. 2 Miami . Recovering from the loss against West Virginia , the Hokies delivered one of the highest @-@ profile wins in school history , defeating the second @-@ ranked Hurricanes 31 – 7 . The game ended a 39 @-@ game regular @-@ season winning streak by Miami and was Tech 's first victory over a top @-@ eight team in 34 games . Tech 's fortunes declined dramatically following the victory over Miami . The week after that win , Tech lost 31 – 28 to Pittsburgh , then escaped with a one @-@ point win in overtime against Temple University , which had just one win that season . Tech 's win against Temple was its last in the regular season . The Hokies lost their final two regular @-@ season games , dropping their overall record to 8 – 4 . To some Virginia Tech fans , the Insight Bowl invitation accepted on December 1 was a disappointment after a season that began with hopes of participation in the national championship game . = = = California = = = The California Golden Bears earned a 7 – 5 record in 2002 , a year that culminated with a 30 – 7 victory over traditional rival Stanford in the Big Game . It was California 's first winning season since 1993 , and came on the heels of a 1 – 10 season in 2001 . New head coach Jeff Tedford was praised for turning the program around so quickly , and expectations were high heading into the 2003 season . Tedford was awarded a new five @-@ year contract in the offseason , and in the annual preseason poll of media covering the Pac @-@ 10 conference , Cal was picked to finish eighth in the 10 @-@ team organization . In the Bears ' first game of the season , California traveled to Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City , Missouri , to face No. 10 Kansas State for the 2003 BCA Classic . There , California lost 42 – 28 in the season opener for both teams . California recovered from the loss in its next game , outscoring the visiting Southern Miss Golden Eagles 34 – 2 . Despite the Bears ' success against Southern Miss , they struggled in their next two games , losing to both Colorado State and Utah . Traveling to the Midwest to face Big 10 opponent Illinois , California debuted a new quarterback : Aaron Rodgers . Rodgers had success late in California 's game against Utah , but did not earn the win . Against Illinois , however , he orchestrated a California offense that emerged victorious , 31 – 24 . The week after the Illinois game , California faced its toughest opponent of the season : third @-@ ranked Southern California . The USC Trojans were undefeated heading into their game against the Bears and on an 11 @-@ game winning streak , but California maintained a lead throughout the game . During the fourth quarter , however , USC rallied to tie California and force overtime , then second and third overtimes when the score remained tied . At the end of the third overtime , California kicker Tyler Fredrickson 's 38 @-@ yard field goal kick was successful , and the Bears earned a 34 – 31 victory . It was California 's first home victory over a top five team since 1975 , and turned out to be USC 's only loss of the season . California lost its next two games , but then won four of its final five , completing the regular season with a record of 7 – 6 and earning a spot in the Insight Bowl . California head coach Jeff Tedford said , " Playing in a bowl game was one of our primary goals this year , so today 's announcement represents a milestone for this team and the Cal football program . " The Insight Bowl would be California 's first bowl game appearance since 1996 . = = Pregame buildup = = In the weeks leading up to the game , media coverage focused on Virginia Tech 's lack of motivation heading into the game . The Hokies were ranked among the top five teams in the country earlier in the season , and had higher expectations than the Insight Bowl , a factor some commentators speculated could cause a distraction . The game was Virginia Tech 's first in the state of Arizona , and its first against a Pac @-@ 10 team . California played in the 1990 Copper Bowl , the name of the Insight Bowl before a name change in the mid @-@ 1990s . = = = Offensive matchups = = = = = = = Virginia Tech offense = = = = Virginia Tech running back Kevin Jones drew media attention one day after Virginia Tech 's selection for the Insight Bowl by announcing that he would be foregoing his final year of school in favor of entering the NFL Draft . Jones was an All @-@ America selection and broke a Virginia Tech single @-@ season record by rushing for 1 @,@ 494 yards during the regular season . Speculation immediately turned to the fact that Jones could be the top running back taken in that year 's draft . Assisting Jones ' success was a strong offensive line , led by Associated Press first @-@ team All @-@ America center Jake Grove . Grove was the only first @-@ team All @-@ America player for the Hokies that season and earned the Dave Rimington Trophy , given annually to the best college center in the United States . As with Jones , Grove announced his intention to enter the NFL Draft following the Insight Bowl . Virginia Tech quarterback Bryan Randall also benefited from the Hokies ' strong offensive line . Randall finished the regular season having passed for 1 @,@ 598 yards and 11 touchdowns . He also rushed for 412 yards on the ground , and was the Hokies ' second @-@ leading rusher . Wide receiver Ernest Wilford was the Hokies ' leading receiver , finishing the regular season with 776 receiving yards and three touchdowns . = = = = California offense = = = = Running back Adimchinobe Echemandu was named California 's regular @-@ season most valuable player by ESPN.com writer Ted Miller , who pointed to Echemandu 's 1 @,@ 161 yards and 12 touchdowns on the ground despite missing one game and most of another due to injury . He was picked ahead of Bears quarterback Aaron Rodgers , who finished the season with 2 @,@ 509 passing yards and 17 touchdowns despite starting the season as the team 's backup player in that position . He outplayed original starting quarterback Reggie Robertson and replaced him during most of the second half of the season . Rodgers ' favorite passing target was wide receiver Geoff McArthur , who was the Bears ' leading receiver during the regular season , catching 85 passes for a school @-@ record 1 @,@ 504 receiving yards and 10 touchdowns . In one of the Bears ' final practices before the Insight Bowl , however , McArthur fractured his right forearm and was unable to play . McArthur recorded the third @-@ highest receiving total for a Pac @-@ 10 player and had the second @-@ highest average receiving yards per game in the country during the regular season . He set California single @-@ game records for receiving yards and receptions . Junior receiver Chase Lyman was picked to start the Insight Bowl in McArthur 's place . Lyman caught just seven passes for 107 yards during the season . During practice before the game , California kicker Tyler Fredrickson practiced kicking the ball high to avoid what was expected to be a difficult Virginia Tech kick @-@ blocking attack . During the regular season , Fredrickson had five kicks blocked and successfully converted just 14 of 29 field goal attempts . Virginia Tech , meanwhile , blocked 102 kicks in the 200 games previous to the Insight Bowl . = = = Defensive matchups = = = = = = = Virginia Tech defense = = = = Virginia Tech 's defense , which performed well in the beginning of the season and against No. 3 Miami , faltered in the final games of the regular season , allowing 123 points and over 1 @,@ 800 yards to opponents ' offenses . Despite a poor performance when compared with previous seasons ' accomplishments , Virginia Tech still ranked second in the Big East conference in total defense , scoring defense , and quarterback sacks . Leading that defense was cornerback DeAngelo Hall , a second @-@ team All @-@ America selection and first @-@ team All @-@ Big East selection who was also a semifinalist for the Jim Thorpe Award , given annually to the best defensive back in college football . Hall finished the regular season with 54 tackles and 1 interception . Hall was also a threat returning kicks . During the regular season , he returned 30 punts for 434 yards and 2 touchdowns . = = = = California defense = = = = The California defense was led by defensive back Donnie McCleskey , an All Pac @-@ 10 selection who accumulated 99 tackles — the most on the team — and 2 interceptions during the regular season . The 99 tackles were enough to tie him for 14th place on California 's all @-@ time single @-@ season tackle leaders list . Lineman Ryan Riddle drew attention by accumulating 5 @.@ 5 sacks and 6 @.@ 5 tackles for loss despite playing only three games for the Bears . Riddle had not played football for two years while he focused on academics . He eventually signed up with a junior college team , then transferred to California when the Bears expressed interest in having him play on their team . Linebacker Brendan Tremblay , who finished the season with 31 tackles , was scheduled to miss the game due to a knee injury that required surgery . = = Game summary = = The 2003 Insight Bowl kicked off at 8 : 30 p.m. EST on December 26 , 2003 at Bank One Ballpark in Phoenix , Arizona . Though normally a baseball stadium , Bank One Ballpark hosted the Insight Bowl from 2000 to 2005 with seating reconfigured from the standard used during baseball games . 42 @,@ 364 people attended the game , which was just 511 short of a sellout and was the largest crowd to attend an Insight Bowl game since the game moved to Bank One Ballpark in 2000 . In exchange for participating in the game , each team received $ 750 @,@ 000 . On December 24 , two days before the game , spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win by three points . An estimated 2 @.@ 7 million people watched the game on ESPN 's television broadcast , which was commentated by Mark Malone , Mike Golic and Rob Stone . The audience was large enough to earn the game a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 08 , making it the 13th most @-@ viewed bowl game that season and the fourth @-@ highest television rating of the 20 bowl games broadcast on ESPN that season . At kickoff , the weather was clear with an air temperature of 56 ° F ( 13 ° C ) . Owing to the cool temperatures , the roof of Bank One Ballpark ( which is retractable ) was closed after fireworks were shot off during the opening ceremony . = = = First quarter = = = After the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss , California chose to receive the ball to begin the game . James Bethea returned the opening kickoff to the California 21 @-@ yard line . On the game 's first play from scrimmage , California quarterback Aaron Rodgers completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Burl Toler , presaging the game 's offensive nature . Rodgers completed another pass , and the Bears were aided by a penalty against Virginia Tech . Running back Adimchinobe Echemandu ran the ball twice for short gains each time , and Rodgers continued to make long passes for first downs to keep the Golden Bears ' offensive drive going . Deep inside Virginia Tech territory , Rodgers ran the ball twice , picking up short gains and the game 's first touchdown . The extra point kick by kicker Tyler Fredrickson was good , and with 9 : 43 remaining in the quarter , California took a 7 – 0 lead . Virginia Tech 's Mike Imoh fielded the post @-@ touchdown kickoff , returning it 52 yards and setting up the Virginia Tech offense inside California territory to begin Tech 's first offensive possession of the game . Although Tech quarterback Bryan Randall was sacked for a loss of nine yards on his first play , he recovered to complete all four passes he attempted during the Tech drive , and after pushing the Hokies deep into California territory , scoring on a two @-@ yard touchdown run . The drive took just two and a half minutes off the clock , and the touchdown and subsequent extra point evened the score at 7 – 7 with 7 : 13 remaining in the quarter . After receiving Virginia Tech 's kickoff , the California offense returned to the field . The Bears were unable to repeat the success of their first drive and went three and out , punting the ball back to Virginia Tech . The Hokies recovered the ball at their 43 @-@ yard line and moved quickly . Bryan Randall completed a 53 @-@ yard pass to receiver Chris Shreve . Two plays later , Randall completed a three @-@ yard touchdown pass that gave the Hokies a 14 – 7 lead with 2 : 40 remaining in the quarter . California received the ball after the touchdown , but again went three and out . As before , the Hokies struck quickly . After starting from the California 49 @-@ yard line , it took one play for Virginia Tech to score . Randall completed a long pass to quarterback Marcus Vick , who came into the game as a wide receiver . The score and extra point made the game 21 – 7 with 50 seconds left in the quarter . California received the kickoff and ran three quick plays before the end of the quarter . As time expired , California faced a fourth down and nine yards from their 36 @-@ yard line and was preparing to punt . With one quarter elapsed , Virginia Tech led , 21 – 7 . = = = Second quarter = = = The second quarter began with a California punt . Virginia Tech recovered at its 15 @-@ yard line and began the first offensive series of the second quarter . On the first full play of the quarter , Virginia Tech running back Kevin Jones broke free of the California defense for a 42 @-@ yard gain . On the next play , Bryan Randall completed an 11 @-@ yard pass to receiver Ernest Wilford . Jones returned to action with a nine @-@ yard run , driving the Hokies to the California 22 @-@ yard line , but there the Hokie offense stalled . Tech faced a second down and needed just two yards for a first down , but could not gain the required yardage in two attempts . Tech kicker Carter Warley was sent in to attempt a 40 @-@ yard field goal , but his kick missed and California took over on offense at its 23 @-@ yard line . In their first drive of the second quarter , the Golden Bears found success that was missing since their first drive of the game . Quarterback Aaron Rodgers completed a short pass , then scrambled for 24 yards and a first down . California ran the ball three times for another first down , then Rodgers connected with Chase Lyman on a 33 @-@ yard touchdown toss . The score was California 's first since the opening drive of the game and cut Virginia Tech 's lead to 21 – 14 with 9 : 10 remaining before halftime . The Hokies recovered the post @-@ touchdown kickoff at their 20 @-@ yard line and began a scoring drive of their own . At first , the Hokies moved slowly , spending six plays to move just 14 yards , gaining a first down in the process . Then , facing a third down and seven , Randall completed a 25 @-@ yard pass to Richard Johnson . This was followed by another long pass — this one a 31 @-@ yarder — to Marcus Vick . On the play immediately following , Kevin Jones ran for seven yards and a Virginia Tech touchdown . The Tech score made the game 28 – 14 with 5 : 09 remaining in the quarter . California began its next drive at its 29 @-@ yard line after a short kickoff return . At first , the Bears struggled to move the ball , but were helped by a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty against Virginia Tech . This advanced the ball near midfield and gave California a first down . Aaron Rodgers then completed a series of passes to drive California into the Virginia Tech side of the field and into the end zone . On a 13 @-@ yard pass to J. J. Arrington , Rodgers cut Virginia Tech 's lead to 28 – 21 with 30 seconds remaining . Virginia Tech took over after the kickoff at its 31 @-@ yard line . Kevin Jones ran for 15 yards and Bryan Randall completed a 30 @-@ yard pass to drive Tech into California territory . Tech was unable to advance the ball further , but kicker Carter Warley was sent in to attempt a 45 @-@ yard field goal . As time expired in the first half , Warley 's kick missed , denying the Hokies a chance to extend their lead . At the end of the first half , Virginia Tech still held a 28 – 21 lead . = = = Third quarter = = = Because California received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Virginia Tech 's Mike Imoh fielded the ball at the goal line and returned it 40 yards . Bryan Randall got off to a good start , completing two passes for 26 yards , and Kevin Jones ran the ball another 16 yards . After pushing inside the California red zone , however , the California defense stiffened and Tech was prevented from gaining another first down . Kicker Carter Warley attempted his third field goal of the game — this one a 28 @-@ yard kick — but as before , the kick was no good . After the missed kick , California took over at its 12 @-@ yard line . Aaron Rodgers completed three passes for 58 yards and Arrington added 15 yards on an end @-@ around run . It took California 2 : 44 in game time to advance 88 yards for a touchdown . The score tied the game at 28 – 28 with 10 : 12 to go in the quarter . Tech received the post @-@ touchdown kickoff and gained two quick first downs , but after advancing the ball beyond its own 40 @-@ yard line , was forced to punt it back to California . With the momentum shifting in the Golden Bears ' favor and a chance to take the lead , it took California three plays to earn a touchdown from its 34 @-@ yard line . Rodgers completed a 42 @-@ yard pass , then a 14 @-@ yard pass , and Adimchinobe Echemandu ran the ball in to the end zone from the Virginia Tech 10 @-@ yard line . The score gave California its first lead since the first drive of the game , and with 5 : 52 remaining in the quarter , the scoreboard read 35 – 28 , California . Following the touchdown , Virginia Tech received the ball and had its first three and out of the game . Tech was forced to punt after running three plays for four yards . California received the ball at its 41 @-@ yard line and used the good field position to its advantage . After two short @-@ gain plays , Rodgers completed a 16 @-@ yard pass and a 24 @-@ yard toss to drive the Bears inside the Virginia Tech 20 @-@ yard line . Echemandu rushed the ball twice for seven total yards , then Rodgers ran it himself the remaining nine yards for another California touchdown . The touchdown and extra point gave California a 42 – 28 lead , its largest in the game . Virginia Tech received the ball with 41 seconds remaining in the quarter , and ran four quick plays . After Bryan Randall threw two incompletions , he connected with Ernest Wilford on a long 23 @-@ yard pass , and Kevin Jones rushed up the middle of the field for another 12 yards . As time expired in the quarter , Tech was inside California territory for the first time since the beginning of the quarter and had a first down . At the end of the third quarter , California held a 42 – 28 lead . = = = Fourth quarter = = = Virginia Tech opened the fourth quarter in possession of the ball , facing a first down at the California 45 @-@ yard line . Two short plays resulted in seven yards , then Kevin Jones rushed for a 15 @-@ yard gain . On the next play , Bryan Randall completed a 22 @-@ yard toss to receiver Keith Willis for a touchdown . The score and extra point cut California 's lead to 42 – 35 , and there were 13 minutes and 35 seconds remaining in the game . California received the ball at its 35 @-@ yard line following the post @-@ touchdown kickoff and a short return . The Bears began to run out the clock , rushing the ball more than passing it , as had been the trend throughout the game . Though Aaron Rodgers completed four passes during the drive for 38 yards , J. J. Arrington and Vincent Strang rushed the ball a total of eight times during the possession . California ran 7 : 09 off the clock before Vincent Strang broke free for a 13 @-@ yard rush that resulted in a touchdown . The score restored California 's 14 @-@ point lead , making the game 49 – 35 with 6 : 26 remaining . Needing to score quickly , Virginia Tech 's subsequent drive consisted primarily of pass plays . Marcus Vick quarterbacked the first play of the drive , but his pass fell incomplete and he was replaced by Bryan Randall on subsequent plays . Randall completed his first three passes of the drive for 46 yards , pushing the Hokies into California territory . Kevin Jones picked up another first down on two rushes , then Randall completed a 28 @-@ yard pass to Chris Shreve for a touchdown that cut California 's lead to 49 – 42 . The drive took just two minutes off the clock , leaving 4 : 26 remaining in the game . California received the post @-@ touchdown kickoff and went three and out , leaving plenty of time for a potential game @-@ tying Virginia Tech drive . This turned out to be unnecessary , however , as Tyler Fredrickson 's punt was returned 52 yards by Virginia Tech 's DeAngelo Hall for a touchdown . Hall 's return tied the game at 49 – 49 , and with 3 : 11 remaining in the game , California took over on offense . On his first play after receiving Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff , Aaron Rodgers was sacked by the Virginia Tech defense and fumbled the ball . The Bears ' Chris Murphy jumped on the ball , preventing what otherwise might have been a game @-@ losing turnover . Rodgers recovered from the fumble by completing three straight passes : first to J. J. Arrington for 11 yards , then to Brandon Hall for 18 yards and a first down , then to Burl Toler for 22 yards and another first down . The last play took California deep into Virginia Tech territory . At the Tech 20 @-@ yard line , Rodgers rushed for a five @-@ yard gain , then prepared the offense for a potential game @-@ winning field goal kick . With two seconds remaining on the clock , California called timeout and sent in kicker Tyler Fredrickson . Despite an attempt by Virginia Tech to ice the kicker by calling its final timeout , Fredrickson was undeterred by the pressure and his 35 @-@ yard field goal sailed through the goalposts as time expired . The kick gave California three points and the 52 – 49 victory . = = Final statistics = = For his performance in the 2003 Insight Bowl , California quarterback Aaron Rodgers was named the offensive player of the game . Rodgers completed 27 of his 35 passes for 394 yards and two touchdowns in the winning effort . Rodgers ' performance tied Cal 's bowl records for most completions , most touchdowns , and most rushing touchdowns , and was the third @-@ highest offensive output by a single player in California history . The victory was California 's first bowl win since a victory over Iowa in the 1993 Alamo Bowl . California kicker Tyler Fredrickson 's game @-@ winning score was his only field goal kick during the game , but he also had seven extra @-@ point kicks for seven points . In addition , he served as California 's punter , kicking the ball 4 times for 159 total punting yards . He set school records for most extra points in a season and most extra points attempted . Virginia Tech kicker Carter Warley missed three field goals : a 40 @-@ yarder , 45 @-@ yarder , and a 28 @-@ yarder . He successfully kicked four extra points for four points . Virginia Tech quarterback Bryan Randall finished the game having completed 24 of his 34 pass attempts for 398 yards and four touchdowns . On the ground , Virginia Tech running back Kevin Jones led all rushers with 16 carries for 153 yards and a touchdown . He finished the game having set school records for most rushing yards in a season , most 100 @-@ yard rushing games in a season , and most yards averaged per carry in a career . Leading the Golden Bears on the ground was J. J. Arrington , who finished the game with 11 carries for 34 yards . Two other California players — Adimchinobe Echemandu and quarterback Aaron Rodgers — also had more than 30 yards rushing . Echemandu had one rushing touchdown , and Rodgers earned two . Virginia Tech receiver Ernest Wilford caught 8 passes for 110 yards , setting school records for career pass receptions with 126 , most receptions in a bowl game , and most receptions in a season ( 56 ) . Tech 's Marcus Vick , normally a quarterback , was put into the game several times as a wide receiver . He caught four passes for 82 yards and a touchdown . California wide receiver Chase Lyman led all receivers statistically , finishing with five receptions for 149 yards and a touchdown . Burl Toler had the most California receptions , catching six passes for 84 yards . Lyman 's total was a career high for him and a California bowl game record . Virginia Tech 's offense broke or tied 14 school bowl records , either individually or as a team . In addition to the ones already noted , the Hokies ' 18 first downs by passing , 398 yards passing , 551 yards of total offense , 24 passes completed , 49 points scored and four passing touchdowns were also new school bowl records . Tech 's 26 rushing plays were the fewest in a Virginia Tech bowl game . California 's offense set school bowl records for most points ( 52 ) , total yards ( 530 ) , passing yards ( 394 ) , completion percentage ( 77 @.@ 1 % , 27 @-@ of @-@ 35 ) , touchdowns ( seven ) , and rushing touchdowns ( five ) . On defense , California 's Ryan Gutierrez was named the defensive player of the game . He led all defensive players with 12 tackles in the game . = = Postgame effects = = California 's win raised it to a final record of 8 – 6 , while Virginia Tech 's loss dropped it to a final record of 8 – 5 . The Hokies ' five losses represented their worst season since 1997 , when they went 7 – 5 . Virginia Tech and California 's combined score — 101 points — represented the second @-@ highest scoring bowl game without an overtime period in NCAA history , behind only the 2001 GMAC Bowl . Several players from each team were selected in the 2004 NFL Draft . California 's Mark Wilson and Adimchinobe Echemandu were selected in the fifth and seventh rounds , respectively . Virginia Tech had five players selected : DeAngelo Hall and Kevin Jones were both taken in the first round , Jake Grove was selected in the second , Ernest Wilford in the fourth , and Nathaniel Adibi in the fifth . One day before the Insight Bowl , Virginia Tech was selected as a participant in the 2004 Black Coaches Association Classic , which traditionally was the first college football game of the season . Virginia Tech 's opponent in that game was Southern California , whom the Hokies ' Insight Bowl opponents , California , defeated during the 2003 regular season .
= Everything Tastes Better with Bacon = Everything Tastes Better with Bacon : 70 Fabulous Recipes for Every Meal of the Day is a book about cooking with bacon written by Sara Perry . She is an author , food commentator and columnist for The Oregonian . The book was published in the United States on May 1 , 2002 , by Chronicle Books , and in a French language edition in 2004 by Les Éditions de l 'Homme in Montreal . In it , Perry describes her original concept of recipes combining sugar and bacon . Her book includes recipes for bacon @-@ flavored dishes and desserts . The book received mainly positive reviews and its recipes were selected for inclusion in The Best American Recipes 2003 – 2004 . The St. Petersburg Times classed it as among the " most interesting and unique cookbooks " published , the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette highlighted it in the article " Favorite Cookbooks for 2002 " and The Denver Post included it in a list of best cookbooks of 2002 . A review in the Toronto Star criticized Perry 's lack of creativity in her choice of recipes . Recipes from the work have been featured in related cookbooks . = = Background = = Sara Perry is a resident of Portland , Oregon , and a columnist for The Oregonian , a radio restaurant commentator and a cookbook author . Before Everything Tastes Better with Bacon she wrote four books : The New Complete Coffee Book , The New Tea Book , Christmastime Treats and Weekends with the Kids . Her editor at Chronicle Books suggested bacon as a cookbook subject . Bacon 's popularity and usage was increasing , but Perry believed that a paucity of recipes would make writing the book difficult . Recalling her fondness for honey @-@ baked ham , she combined sugar and bacon to create dishes . Perry realized that bacon could be used to add seasoning in flavoring dishes , including salads and pastas . She observed that bacon increased the sweet and salty tastes of food . Everything Tastes Better with Bacon was published in English in paperback format by Chronicle Books on May 1 , 2002 . The book sold for a retail price of US $ 18 @.@ 95 in its initial publication . A French paperback edition was published in 2004 by Les Editions de l 'Homme , as part of its " Tout un plat ! " ( " What a dish ! " ) series . = = Content summary = = Perry explains her feelings about bacon in the book 's introduction , observing that its smell while cooking helps start her day and provide her with a sense of calmness . The beginning of the book provides background on the phrase " bringing home the bacon " , introduces the reader to types of bacon and describes storage methods . The book offers 70 recipes for bacon @-@ flavored dishes , in nine chapters organized by topic , including breakfast , leaf vegetables , pasta meals , side dishes , party servings , desserts and appetizers . Recipes include a bacon sandwich using other ingredients , a bacon crunch topping for ice cream , a bacon concoction to top a fruit crisp , and a pie crust that incorporates bacon . Methods are offered for cooking bacon on a stovetop , in an oven and under a griller to maximize its flavor and appearance . The book is illustrated with photographs by Sheri Giblin . = = Reception = = Everything Tastes Better with Bacon was positively received by reviewers and food critics . The Chicago Tribune reported that it sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in its first month . Janet F. Keeler of the St. Petersburg Times commented positively on the book 's title . She noted the work was covered by food critics , who included its recipes in articles about the subject . Keeler interviewed Fran McCullough , author of The Best American Recipes 2003 – 2004 , who posited that the Atkins diet ( which emphasizes higher meat consumption as part of a low carbohydrate plan ) had helped increase the popularity of bacon usage . She classed it among the " most interesting and unique cookbooks " published . Giblin 's photography received favorable commentary from Cindy Hoedel of The Kansas City Star . Literary critic Dwight Garner of The New York Times included the book in a list of favorites among recent cooking publications . The review was critical of the author 's dessert recipes , but agreed with her overall argument for increased use of bacon in cooking . The Arizona Daily Star highlighted the book in their " Hot Reads " section . Assistant Texas Taste Editor for The Dallas Morning News Laura H. Ehret wrote that the book successfully conveys the experience of consuming bacon . Marty Meitus wrote for the Rocky Mountain News that the book had increased his appetite for bacon dishes . Meitus recommended dessert recipes , including Hazelnut @-@ Bacon Candy Crunch , Peanut Butter Cookies with Bacon Brittle , Pear @-@ Apple Crisp with Brown Sugar @-@ Bacon Topping and Ruby Raisin Mincemeat Tart . Steve Smith , executive chef at Dixon 's Downtown Grill in Denver , was inspired by Perry 's " Maple Sundae " recipe and used it to create his own macadamia @-@ bacon crunch ice cream dessert . Writing for the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , Marlene Parrish gave the book a favorable review , highlighting it in her article " Favorite Cookbooks for 2002 " . She wrote that she enjoyed sampling the recipes from the book . Parrish added that Robert Atkins , creator of the Atkins diet , would think favorably of the " Gorgonzola Cheeseburgers with Bacon " dish . The Denver Post included the book in a list of best cookbooks of 2002 . Another article for the same newspaper highlighted recipes in the book , including Spaghetti alla Carbonara and Cobb salad , Pear @-@ Apple Crisp with Brown Sugar @-@ Bacon Topping and Bacon Brittle . A review in the Toronto Star criticized Perry 's lack of creativity in her choice of recipes . The review concluded the book was a good deal compared to other cookbooks on the subject , while noting its lack of comprehensiveness with the small number of total recipes included . Michele Anna Jordan of The Press Democrat recommended Perry 's work , and commented that the author 's zest for the subject was contagious . = = Impact = = According to the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and the St. Petersburg Times , Everything Tastes Better with Bacon is a niche work in the cookbook genre . Perry stated that bacon had undergone a renaissance period . Christian Science Monitor noted in a 2003 article that bacon was becoming an increasingly used cooking ingredient , despite having been maligned by nutritionists . Recipes from the book were selected for inclusion in The Best American Recipes 2003 – 2004 : The Year 's Top Picks from Books , Magazines , Newspapers and the Internet . Perry 's recipe for " Succulent Bacon @-@ Wrapped Shrimp " was referenced in the 2003 book Smoke & Spice : Cooking with Smoke , the Real Way to Barbecue . Fran McCullough , the author of The Best American Recipes , commented that the book was a surprising addition to the field . The Atlantic said that three years after the book 's publication , bacon had become as popular as chocolate or olive oil . Leah A. Zeldes observed in a 2006 article for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times that the book contributed to the body of works that display the adaptability of bacon in recipes . In his 2009 book Hungry Monkey , author Matthew Amster @-@ Burton commented on the phenomena involving bacon and books on the subject in prior years , listing the book along with The Bacon Cookbook and Seduced by Bacon . A 2013 article in the British newspaper The Independent cited the book as an example of increasing interest in pork .
= Betula pendula = Betula pendula , commonly known as silver birch or warty birch , is a species of tree in the family Betulaceae , native to Europe and parts of Asia , though in southern Europe it is only found at higher altitudes . Its range extends into Siberia , China and southwest Asia in the mountains of northern Turkey , the Caucasus and northern Iran . It has been introduced into North America , where it is known as the European white birch , and is considered invasive in some states in USA and in parts of Canada . The tree can also be found in more temperate regions of Australia . The silver birch is a medium @-@ sized deciduous tree that owes its common name to the white peeling bark on the trunk . The twigs are slender and often pendulous and the leaves are roughly triangular with doubly serrate margins and turn yellow in autumn before they fall . The flowers are catkins and the light , winged seed get widely scattered by the wind . The silver birch is a hardy tree , a pioneer species , and one of the first trees to appear on bare or fire @-@ swept land . Many species of birds and animals are found in birch woodland , the tree supports a wide range of insects and the light shade it casts allows shrubby and other plants to grow beneath its canopy . It is planted decoratively in parks and gardens and is used for forest products such as joinery timber , firewood , tanning , racecourse jumps and brooms . Various parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine and the bark contains triterpenes which have been shown to have medicinal properties . = = Description = = The silver birch is a medium @-@ sized deciduous tree , typically reaching 15 to 25 m ( 49 to 82 ft ) tall ( exceptionally up to 31 metres ( 102 ft ) ) , with a slender trunk usually under 40 cm ( 16 in ) diameter . The bark on the trunk and branches is golden @-@ brown at first , but later this turns to white as a result of papery tissue developing on the surface and peeling off in flakes . The bark remains smooth until the tree gets quite large , but in older trees , the bark thickens , becoming irregular , dark and rugged . Young branches have whitish resin warts and the twigs are slender , hairless and often pendulous . The buds are small and sticky , and development is sympodial , that is to say the terminal bud dies away and growth continues from a lateral bud . Some shoots are long and bear the male catkins at the tip , while others are short and bear female catkins . The immature male catkins are present during the winter but the female catkins develop in the spring , soon after the leaves unfurl . The leaves have short slender stalks and are 3 to 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) long , triangular with broad , untoothed , wedge @-@ shaped bases , slender pointed tips and coarsely double @-@ toothed , serrated margins . They are sticky with resin at first but this dries as they age leaving small white scales . The foliage is a pale to medium green and turns yellow early in the autumn before the leaves fall . In mid @-@ summer , the female catkins mature and the male catkins expand and release pollen , and wind pollination takes place . The small 1 to 2 mm winged seeds ripen in late summer on pendulous , cylindrical catkins 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) long and 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) broad . The seeds are very numerous and are separated by scales , and when ripe , the whole catkin disintegrates and the seeds are spread widely by the wind . = = Distribution and habitat = = The silver birch grows naturally from western Europe eastwards to Kazakhstan , the Sakha Republic in Siberia , Mongolia and the Xinjiang province in China , and southwards to the mountains of the Caucasus and northern Iran , Iraq and Turkey . It is also native to northern Morocco and has become naturalised in some other parts of the world . In the southern parts of its range it is mainly found in mountainous regions . Its light seeds are easily blown by the wind and it is a pioneer species , one of the first trees to sprout on bare land or after a forest fire . It needs plenty of light and does best on dry , acid soils and is found on heathland , mountainsides and clinging to crags . Its tolerance to pollution make it suitable for planting in industrial areas and exposed sites . It has been introduced into North America where it is known as the European white birch , and is considered invasive in the states of Kentucky , Maryland , Washington and Wisconsin . It is naturalised and locally invasive in parts of Canada . = = Taxonomy = = The closely related Betula platyphylla in northern Asia and Betula szechuanica of central Asia are also treated as varieties of silver birch by some botanists , as B. pendula var. platyphylla and B. pendula var. szechuanica respectively ( see birch classification ) . B. pendula is distinguished from the related downy birch ( B. pubescens , the other common European birch ) in having hairless , warty shoots ( hairy and without warts in downy birch ) , more triangular leaves with double serration on the margins ( more ovoid and with single serrations in downy birch ) , and whiter bark often with scattered black fissures ( greyer , less fissured , in downy birch ) . It is also distinguished cytologically , silver birch being diploid ( with two sets of chromosomes ) , whereas downy birch is tetraploid ( four sets of chromosomes ) . Hybrids between the two are known , but are very rare , and being triploid , are sterile . The two have differences in habitat requirements , with silver birch found mainly on dry , sandy soils , and downy birch more common on wet , poorly drained sites such as clay soils and peat bogs . Silver birch also demands slightly more summer warmth than does downy birch , which is significant in the cooler parts of Europe . Many North American texts treat the two species as conspecific ( and cause confusion by combining the downy birch 's alternative vernacular name ' white birch ' , with the scientific name B. pendula of the other species ) , but they are regarded as distinct species throughout Europe . Synonyms include Betula pendula var. carelica ( Merckl . ) Hämet @-@ Ahti , B. pendula var. laciniata ( Wahlenb . ) Tidestr . , B. pendula var. lapponica ( Lindq . ) Hämet @-@ Ahti , B. aetnensis Raf . , B. montana V.N.Vassil , B. talassica Poljakov , B. verrucosa Ehrh . , B. verrucosa var. lapponica Lindq . , and B. fontqueri Rothm . The rejected name Betula alba L. also applied in part to B. pendula , though also to B. pubescens . = = Ecology = = The silver birch has an open canopy which allows plenty of light to reach the ground . This allows a variety of mosses , grasses and flowering plants to grow beneath which in turn attract insects . Flowering plants often found in birch woods include primrose ( Primula vulgaris ) , violet ( Viola riviniana ) , bluebell ( Hyacinthoides non @-@ scripta ) , wood anemone ( Anemone nemorosa ) and wood sorrel ( Oxalis acetosella ) . Small shrubs that grow on the forest floor include blaeberry ( Vaccinium myrtillus ) and cowberry ( Vaccinium vitis @-@ idaea ) . Birds found in birch woodland include the chaffinch , tree pipit , willow warbler , nightingale , robin , woodcock , redpoll and green woodpecker . The branches of the silver birch often have tangled masses of twigs known as witch 's brooms growing among them , caused by the fungus Taphrina betulina . Old trees are often killed by the decay fungus Piptoporus betulinus and fallen branches rot rapidly on the forest floor . This tree commonly grows with the mycorrhizal fungus Amanita muscaria in a mutualistic relationship . This applies particularly to acidic or nutrient @-@ poor soils . Other mycorrhizal associates include Leccinum scabrum and Cantharellus cibarius . It has been shown that , as well as mycorrhiza , the presence of microfauna in the soil assists the growth of the tree , as it enhances the mobilization of nutrients . The larvae of a large number of species of butterflies , moths and other insects feed on the leaves and other parts of the silver birch . In Germany , almost 500 species of insect have been found on silver and downy birch including 106 beetles and 105 lepidopterans , with 133 insect species feeding almost exclusively on birch . Birch dieback disease can affect planted trees , while naturally regenerated trees seem less susceptible . This disease also affects Betula pubescens and in 2000 was reported at many of the sites planted with birch in Scotland during the 1990s . In the United States , the wood is attacked by the bronze birch borer ( Agrilus anxius ) , an insect pest to which it has no natural resistance . = = Uses = = Silver birch is often planted in parks and gardens , grown for its white bark and gracefully drooping shoots , sometimes even in warmer @-@ than @-@ optimum places such as Los Angeles and Sydney . In Scandinavia and other regions of northern Europe , it is grown for forest products such as lumber and pulp , as well as for aesthetic purposes and ecosystem services . It is sometimes used as a pioneer and nurse tree elsewhere . Silver birch wood is pale in colour with no distinct heartwood and is used in making furniture , plywood , veneers , parquet blocks , skis , kitchen utensils and in turnery . It makes a good firewood that produces a good heat when burnt but is quickly consumed by the flames . Slabs of bark are used for making roof shingles and wooden footwear . Historically , the bark was used for tanning . Bark can be heated and the resin collected ; the resin is an excellent waterproof glue and useful for starting fires . The thin sheets of bark that peel off young wood contain a waxy resin and are easy to ignite even when wet . The dead twigs are also useful as kindling for outdoor fires . Birch brushwood is used for racecourse jumps and besom brooms . In the spring , large quantities of sap rise up the trunk and this can be tapped . It contains around 1 % sugars and can be used in a similar way to maple syrup , being drunk fresh , concentrated by evaporation or fermented into a " wine " . In Sweden , the bark of birch trees was ground up and used to make bark bread , a form of famine food . The removal of bark was at one time so widespread that Carl Linnaeus expressed his concern for the survival of the woodlands . Silver birch is used in traditional medicine as a diuretic and is reputed to be useful in the treatment of high blood pressure , high cholesterol , obesity , gout , kidney stones , nephritis , cystitis , digestive disturbances and respiratory diseases . For these purposes , a decoction of the bark or leaves is generally used . Externally silver birch is used to promote healing , relieve pain and treat inflammations and infections of the skin such as eczema and psoriasis . The outer part of the bark contains up to 20 % betulin . The main components in the essential oil of the buds are α @-@ copaene ( ~ 10 % ) , germacrene D ( ~ 15 % ) and δ @-@ cadinene ( ~ 13 % ) . Also present in the bark are other triterpene substances which have been shown to have anti @-@ inflammatory , antiviral and anti @-@ cancer properties . The silver birch is Finland 's national tree . Leafy , fragrant boughs of silver birch ( called vihta or vasta ) are used to gently beat oneself in the Finnish sauna culture . = = Cultivation = = Successful birch cultivation requires a climate cool enough for at least the occasional winter snowfall . As they are shallow @-@ rooted , they may require water during dry periods . They grow best in full sun planted in deep , well @-@ drained soil . = = = Cultivars = = = 'Carelica ' is called " curly birch " in Finland ; the wood is hard and decorative and is used in wood @-@ carving . 'Laciniata ' agm ( commonly misidentified as ' Dalecarlica ' ) has deeply incised leaves and weeping branches . 'Purpurea ' has dark purple leaves . 'Tristis ' agm has an erect trunk with weeping branchlets . 'Youngii ' has dense , twiggy weeping growth with no central leader and requires being grafted onto a standard stem of normal silver birch . The cultivars marked agm above have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit .
= Thomas Crisp = Skipper Thomas Crisp VC , DSC , RNR ( 28 April 1876 – 15 August 1917 ) was an English posthumous recipient of the Victoria Cross . Crisp , in civilian life a commercial fisherman operating from Lowestoft in Suffolk , earned his award after being killed during the defence of his vessel , the armed naval smack His Majesty 's Smack Nelson , in the North Sea against an attack from a German submarine in 1917 . Thomas Crisp 's self – sacrifice in the face of this " unequal struggle " was used by the government to bolster morale during some of the toughest days of the First World War for Britain , the summer and autumn of 1917 , during which Britain was suffering heavy losses at the Battle of Passchendaele . His exploit was read aloud by David Lloyd George in the Houses of Parliament and made headline news for nearly a week . = = Early life = = Thomas Crisp was born into a family of shipwrights and fishermen in Lowestoft , one of ten children to William and Mary Anne Crisp . Although his father was the owner of a successful boatbuilding firm and thus could afford an education for his children , Thomas did not enjoy school , instead showing a " marked preference for quayside adventure to school routine " . Leaving school , Thomas took to the sea , spending several years as a herring fisherman before joining a fishing trawler out of Lowestoft . He was a natural to the work , being a remarkably good sailor , but tired of it quickly and joined the Atlantic steamship SS Mobile , becoming her quartermaster and making several trans – Atlantic voyages . In 1895 , aged 19 , he met and married Harriet Elizabeth Alp and settled with her at 48 Staithe Road in Burgh St. Peter near Lowestoft , where they had two sons and a daughter , including Thomas Crisp Jr . , who would be with his father on the day he won the Victoria Cross . Establishing himself as a fisherman , Thomas Sr. achieved his mate and then skipper qualifications , entitling him to captain a fishing vessel sailing from the port . In 1902 he was taken on by Chambers , one of the largest boat owning families in Lowestoft , to crew and then captain their ketch George Borrow , in which he remained for thirteen years . In 1907 the family moved to Lowestoft while Crisp continued his work at sea , proving one of the most popular fishing captains in Lowestoft and joined on his ketch by his son in 1913 . When the First World War began in July 1914 , Crisp was at sea . Unaware of the outbreak of war , he remained in the North Sea for several days , and was surprised on his return to learn that enemy submarines were expected off the port at any moment . When this threat failed to materialise , Thomas Crisp returned to fishing , considered too old for military service and in an occupation vital to Britain 's food supplies . In late September , the George Borrow passed the HMS Aboukir , HMS Hogue and HMS Cressy just hours before they were all sunk with over a thousand lives by German U @-@ boat U @-@ 9 . Tom Crisp Jr. later wrote of finding bodies in their fishing nets for weeks afterwards . = = War service = = In the spring of 1915 , Tom Crisp Jr. left the vessel to join the Royal Navy . A few weeks later the U – boat threat expected so many months before arrived , as submarines surfaced among the undefended fishing fleets and used dynamite to destroy dozens of them after releasing the crews in small boats . This offensive was part of a wider German strategy to denude Britain of food supplies and took a heavy toll on the fishing fleets of the North Sea . George Borrow was among the victims , sunk in August , although it is not known if Crisp was aboard at the time . While temporarily working in a net factory following the loss of his vessel , he was scouted by a Navy officer recruiting experienced local fishing captains to command a flotilla of tiny fishing vessels , which were to be secretly armed . The boats were intended to be working fishing vessels fitted with a small artillery piece with which to sink enemy submarines as they surfaced alongside . In this manner it was hoped they would protect the fishing fleets without the diversion of major resources from the regular fleet , in the same manner as Q @-@ ships deployed in the commercial sea lanes . Agreeing to this proposal , Crisp became first a Seaman and by the summer of 1916 a Skipper in the Royal Naval Reserve , arranging for his son to join the crew of his boat , the HM Armed Smack I 'll Try , armed with a 3 – pounder gun . On 1 February 1917 in the North Sea , I 'll Try had its first confrontation with the enemy when two submarines surfaced close to the smack and her companion the larger Boy Alfred . Despite near misses from enemy torpedoes , both smacks scored hits on their larger opponents and reported them as probable sinkings , although post – war German records show that no submarines were lost on that date . Both skippers were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and a present of £ 200 for this action , and Crisp was offered a promotion and transfer to an ocean – going Q – ship . He was forced to turn down this offer due to his wife 's sudden and terminal illness . She died in June 1917 . = = Victoria Cross action = = In July , I 'll Try was renamed Nelson and Boy Alfred became Ethel & Millie , in an effort to maintain their cover . The boats continued to operate together and Crisp 's crew was augmented with two regular seamen and a Royal Marine rifleman , providing the Nelson with a crew of ten , including Crisp and his son . The smacks set out as usual on 15 August and pulled in a catch during the morning before making a sweep near the Jim Howe Bank in search of cruising enemies . At 2 @.@ 30 pm , Crisp spotted a German U @-@ boat on the surface 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) away . The U @-@ boat also sighted the smack and both vessels began firing at once , the U @-@ boat 's weapon scoring several hits before Nelson 's could be brought to bear . By this stage in the war , German submarine captains were aware of the decoy ship tactics and no longer stopped British merchant shipping , preferring to sink them from a distance with gunfire . With such a heavy disparity in armament between the smack 's 3 pounder and the submarine 's 88 mm deck gun the engagement was short lived , the submarine firing eight shots before the Nelson could get within range of her opponent . The fourth shot fired by the U @-@ boat holed the smack , and the seventh tore off both of Crisp 's legs from underneath him . Calling for the confidential papers to be thrown overboard , Crisp dictated a message to be sent by the boat 's four carrier pigeons : like many small ships of the era , the Nelson did not possess a radio set . " Nelson being attacked by submarine . Skipper killed . Jim Howe Bank . Send assistance at once . " The sinking smack was abandoned by the nine unwounded crew , who attempted to remove their captain , who ordered that he should be thrown overboard rather than slow them down . The crew refused to do so , but found they were unable to move him and left him where he lay . He died in his son 's arms a few minutes later . It is said that he was smiling as he died and remained so as the ship sank underneath him . The Ethel & Millie had just arrived on the scene as the Nelson sank , and her captain Skipper Charles Manning called for Nelson 's lifeboat to come alongside . Realising that this would greatly overcrowd the second boat , the survivors refused and Manning sailed onwards towards the submarine , coming under lethal fire as he did so . His vessel was soon badly damaged and began to sink . The crew of the Ethel & Millie then abandoned their battered boat and were hauled aboard the German submarine , where the Nelson survivors last saw them standing in line being addressed by a German officer . The seven British sailors of the Ethel & Millie were never seen again , and much controversy exists surrounding their disappearance . Prevailing opinion at the time was that they were murdered and dumped overboard by the German crew or abandoned at sea without supplies , but these scenarios cannot be substantiated . Another theory is that they were taken prisoner aboard the boat and killed when the submarine was itself sunk . The son of Arthur Soanes , a sailor who disappeared in this incident , later claimed to have contacted his father through his powers as a spiritual medium , reporting that he had died on board the German vessel . UC 63 has been named as the submarine that sank both vessels . The survivors of the Nelson drifted for nearly two days until they arrived at the Jim Howe Buoy , where they were rescued by the fishery protection vessel Dryad . A pigeon named " Red Cock " had reached the authorities in Lowestoft with news of the fate of the boats and caused the Dryad to be despatched to search for survivors . Following their rescue , the whole of Nelson 's crew were extensively debriefed following medical treatment for exposure and minor injuries . A court of enquiry praised the surviving crew and their dead captain and authorised the award of the Victoria Cross posthumously to Thomas Crisp and Distinguished Service Medals to his son and another member of the crew . On 29 October 1917 , David Lloyd George made an emotional speech in the House of Commons citing Crisp 's sacrifice as representative of the Royal Navy 's commitment " from the icy waters of the Arctic Ocean to the stormy floods of Magellan " , which promoted Crisp into an overnight celebrity whose story ran in all the major London papers for nearly a week , containing as it did a story of personal sacrifice , filial devotion and perceived German barbarity . The medal presentation was made to Tom Crisp Jr. at Buckingham Palace on 19 December 1917 , shortly before he was promoted to Skipper in his own right . Thomas Crisp , VC , DSC , is buried with his wife in Lowestoft Cemetery . = = Post – war remembrance = = After the war , a small display to the memory of Thomas Crisp Sr. was set up in Lowestoft free library and another in Lowestoft Maritime Museum . The former contained a specially commissioned painting and parts of the sunken Nelson , which were dredged up years later . This display was destroyed during the Second World War when the building was gutted in the Blitz . A new display featuring a replica of the Victoria Cross awarded to Tom Crisp currently stands in Lowestoft town hall . The original is held secure by the local council after the family of Skipper Crisp felt his interests would not be served if the medal were held privately . It can be viewed on request of Waveney District Council 's Chief Executive . Thomas Crisp 's name is inscribed on the Chatham Naval Memorial for those lost at sea during the First World War , as well as two church memorials in Lowestoft to the town 's war dead , St. John 's and St. Margaret 's . The latter church also contains a " VC Bell " dedicated to Thomas Crisp 's memory . Tom Crisp Way , a street in his native Lowestoft , is named in his honour . In a footnote to the action , the pigeon " Red Cock " , which brought news of the engagement to the authorities , was stuffed upon his death and was mounted in the Thomas Crisp display at Lowestoft town hall for many years before being reportedly relocated to a museum in South Kensington .
= The Bill = The Bill is a British police procedural television series , first broadcast on ITV from 16 October 1984 until 31 August 2010 . The programme originated from a one @-@ off drama , Woodentop , broadcast in August 1983 . In its final year on air , The Bill was broadcast once a week , usually on Tuesdays or Thursdays , in a one @-@ hour format . The programme focused on the lives and work of one shift of police officers , rather than on any particular aspect of police work . The Bill was the longest @-@ running police procedural television series in the United Kingdom , and among the longest running of any British television series . The title originates from " Old Bill " , a slang term for the police . Although highly acclaimed by fans and critics , the series attracted controversy on several occasions . An episode broadcast in 2008 was criticised for featuring fictional treatment for multiple sclerosis . The series has also faced more general criticism concerning its levels of violence , particularly prior to 2009 , when it occupied a pre @-@ watershed slot . The Bill won several awards , including BAFTAs , a Writers ' Guild of Great Britain award and Best Drama at the Inside Soap Awards in 2009 , this being the series ' fourth consecutive win . Throughout its twenty @-@ seven @-@ year run , the programme was always broadcast on the main ITV network . In later years , episodes of the show were repeated on ITV3 on their week of broadcast . The series has also been repeated on other digital stations , including Gold , Alibi , Watch , Dave and Drama . In March 2010 , executives at ITV announced that the network did not intend to recommission The Bill , and that filming on the series would cease on 14 June 2010 . The last episode aired on 31 August 2010 . = = History = = The Bill was originally conceived by Geoff McQueen in 1983 , then a relatively new television writer , as a one @-@ off drama . McQueen had originally titled the production " Old Bill " . It was picked up by Michael Chapman for ITV franchise holder Thames Television , who retitled it " Woodentop " as part of Thames ' " Storyboard " series of one @-@ off dramas and was broadcast on ITV under the title Woodentop on 16 August 1983 . Woodentop starred Mark Wingett as Police Constable Jim Carver and Trudie Goodwin as Woman Police Constable June Ackland of London 's Metropolitan Police , both attached to the fictional Sun Hill police station . Although originally only intended as a one @-@ off , Woodentop impressed ITV to the extent that a full series was commissioned , first broadcast on 16 October 1984 with one post @-@ watershed episode per week , featuring an hour @-@ long , separate storyline for each episode of the first three series . The first episode of the full series was " Funny Ol ' Business – Cops & Robbers " . With serialisation , the name of the show changed from " Woodentop " to " The Bill " . In its first four years the series was broadcast between July onwards each year , with a 12 @-@ week summer break from May until the next July . The series then changed to two episodes , each of thirty minutes on Tuesdays and Thurdsays , per week in 1988 ( from July 1988 onwards , the series also began being broadcast all year round without a summer break ) , increasing to three a week beginning in 1993 , with the third episode being broadcast on Fridays . In 1998 , The Bill returned to hour @-@ long episodes , which later became twice @-@ weekly , with the Friday episode , being dropped , at which point the series adopted a much more serialised approach . When Paul Marquess took over as executive producer in 2002 , as part of a drive for ratings , the series was revamped , bringing in a more soap opera type feel to many of its stories . Many veteran characters were written out , leading to the Sun Hill fire during 2002 . Marquess stated that the clearout was necessary to introduce " plausible , powerful new characters " . As part of the new serial format , much more of the characters ' personal lives were explored , however , as Marquess put it , the viewers still " don 't go home with them " . The change also allowed The Bill to become more reflective of modern policing with the introduction of officers from ethnic minorities , most notably the new superintendent , Adam Okaro . It also allowed coverage of the relationship of homosexual Sergeant Craig Gilmore and PC Luke Ashton , a storyline which Marquess was determined to explore before rival Merseybeat . In 2005 , Johnathan Young took over as executive producer . The serial format was dropped and The Bill returned to stand @-@ alone episodes with more focus on crime and policing than on the personal lives of the officers . 2007 saw the reintroduction of episode titles , which had been dropped in 2002 . In 2009 , The Bill moved back to the 9 pm slot it previously held and the theme tune , " Overkill " , was replaced as part of a major overhaul of the series . = = = Cancellation = = = On 26 March 2010 , ITV announced it would be cancelling the series later that year after 26 years on air . ITV said that this decision reflected the " changing tastes " of viewers . The last episode of The Bill was filmed in June 2010 and broadcast on 31 August 2010 followed by a documentary titled Farewell The Bill . Fans of the show started a ' Save the Bill ' campaign on social networking website Facebook in an effort to persuade ITV to reconsider the cancellation , and some radio broadcasters , including BBC Radio One 's Chris Moyles , presented special features on the programme 's cancellation . At the time of the series ' end in August 2010 , The Bill was the United Kingdom 's longest @-@ running police drama and was among the longest @-@ running of any British television series . The series finale , entitled " Respect " , was aired in two parts and was dedicated to " the men and women of the Metropolitan Police Service past and present " . The finale storyline concerned gang member Jasmine Harris being involved in the murder of fellow member Liam Martin who died in the arms of Inspector Smith after being stabbed . Jasmine is then gang raped because she talked to the police and when Callum Stone found the person responsible he was held at gunpoint . Of the title for the finale , Executive Producer Johnathan Young said " It 's called " Respect " and we hope it will respect the heritage of the show " . The finale episodes featured all the cast and the final scene was specially written so all cast members would be featured . Following the final episode , ITV aired a documentary entitled Farewell The Bill which featured interviews from past and present cast and crew members . The finale was watched by 4 @.@ 4 million viewers , with Farewell The Bill averaging 1 @.@ 661 million viewers . = = Broadcasting and production = = = = = Filming locations = = = Throughout the series , there have been three filming locations for Sun Hill police station . From the first series , the police station consisted of a set of buildings in Artichoke Hill , Wapping , East London . However , these buildings were next to the News International plant and during the winter of 1985 – 86 there was much industrial action which resulted in some altercations between the strikers and what they thought were the real police but were actually actors working on The Bill . Working conditions got so dire , that the production team realised they needed to find another base to set Sun Hill police station . The second location was an old record distribution depot in Barlby Road , North Kensington in North West London . Filming began here in March 1987 . In 1989 , the owners of the Barlby Road site ordered The Bill out , due to their redevelopment plans for the area . After an extensive search , two sites were selected , the favourite being a disused hospital in Clapham . However , this fell through and the second option was chosen – an old wine distribution warehouse in Merton , South West London . The move was made in March 1990 and was disguised on screen by the ' ongoing ' refurbishment of Sun Hill police station and then finally the explosion of a terrorist car @-@ bomb in the station car @-@ park , which ended up killing PC Ken Melvin . Filming for the series took place all over London , mainly in South London and particularly the London Borough of Merton , where the Sun Hill set was located . Locations used when the show was filmed on a housing estate included : Cambridge Estate , in Kingston , south @-@ west London High Path Estate , in South Wimbledon , south @-@ west London ( approx . 10 @-@ minute walk from the Sun Hill set ) Phipps Bridge , Mitcham Roundshaw Estate in Wallington , London Sutton Estate , which includes Durand Close in Carshalton , where a housing block regularly used by The Bill for filming was demolished in November 2009 . Scenes were often filmed in east London , most notably the London Docklands , with other scenes filmed in Tooting , Greenwich and Croydon . = = = = " Sun Hill " = = = = The Bill is set in and around Sun Hill police station , in the fictional " Canley Borough Operational Command Unit " in East London . Geoff McQueen , creator of The Bill , claimed that he named Sun Hill after a street name in his home town of Royston , Hertfordshire . The fictional Sun Hill suburb is located in the fictional London borough of Canley in the East End , north of the River Thames . The Borough of Canley is approximately contiguous to the real @-@ life London Borough of Tower Hamlets , and in the first few years of The Bill , Sun Hill police station was actually stated as being located in Wapping in Tower Hamlets . Sun Hill has a London E1 postcode ( the ' address ' of Sun Hill police station is given as ' 2 Sun Hill Road , Sun Hill , Canley E1 4 km ' . ) , which corresponds to the real @-@ life areas of Whitechapel and Stepney . = = = Production details = = = When filming The Bill , some scenes were re @-@ enacted indoors with microphones surrounding the actors and the extra sounds being " dubbed " on later . Some of the more aggressive scenes were also filmed indoors either for dubbing or safety reasons . When filming scenes involving police cars , a camera was attached to the outside of the car which feeds back images to a digital recorder in the back of the vehicle . This technique was used to film the new opening titles of The Bill . The sirens used in the series were added later in the dubbing suite as The Bill did not have permission to use sirens while on location . However , the police uniforms used in the series were genuine , again making The Bill unique amongst police dramas . When the series ended , London 's Metropolitan Police Service , after talks with the production company , bought 400 kilograms of police related paraphernalia , including flat caps and stab vests etc. to prevent them falling into the hands of criminals or those who would seek to use them for criminal activities after the programme 's production ceased . The Bill is unique amongst police dramas in that it takes a serial format , focussing on the work and lives of a single shift of police officers , rather than on one particular area of police work . Also unique is that The Bill adapted to this format after several series , whereas comparable series started with the serial format . = = = Broadcast in the United Kingdom = = = During its initial broadcast , The Bill was always shown on ITV . In 2009 , STV , ITV 's regional franchise in Central and Northern Scotland , opted out of broadcasting the series along with a number of other dramas , a decision that later became the subject of legal proceedings between STV and the main ITV network . The legal dispute was settled on 27 April 2011 , with ITV receiving £ 18 million from STV . Aside from repeats of episodes on ITV3 , which occurred on the original week of their broadcast , the show has regularly been repeated on other digital stations . Re @-@ runs of the series began on 1 November 1992 , when new digital channel UKTV Gold began broadcasting . The channel broadcast repeats of the series for nearly sixteen years , until 6 October 2008 , when the channel was given a revamp by the owners of the network . During the sixteen @-@ year period , re @-@ runs of the series covered every episode broadcast between 16 October 1984 , and 8 March 2007 . On 7 October 2008 , UKTV launched a new British drama channel , Alibi , and from this point on , episodes of the series were broadcast in the 8 am slot on the channel . Alibi broadcast episodes until 23 December 2009 , when the show was taken from the channel 's schedule due to poor viewer feedback . During the fourteen months that the show broadcast on Alibi , the channel covered all of the episodes broadcast between 25 August 1998 and 27 February 2002 . On 27 January 2010 , UKTV relocated The Bill to one of its more recent entertainment channels , Watch . Watch began by airing the episode " Sweet Revenge " , broadcast on 21 March 2007 . Thus , they continued in broadcast order , carrying on from where their predecessor , UKTV Gold , had finished . Through the course of the year , the channel continued to broadcast episodes from the latter years of the show , concluding in November 2010 with the episode " Conviction : Judgement Day " , broadcast on 16 July 2009 . Following a short break from the network , the series returned in December 2010 , beginning with Episode # 001 , broadcast on 28 February 2002 . This continued on from the broadcast order of episodes repeated on Alibi , carrying on from where the network had finished . As of April 2012 , Watch had repeated every single episode from 28 February 2002 to 24 February 2005 , and was to begin airing episodes from March 2005 . In July 2013 the show started to be broadcast by UKTV channel Drama , starting with episodes from 1998 . = = = Broadcast outside the UK = = = The Bill has been broadcast in over 55 different countries . In Australia The Bill was shown on ABC1 . The final episode was shown on 16 October 2010 , with Farewell The Bill shown the following week on 23 October . On Wednesday 3 February 2016 , ABC1 commenced repeating the entire series from the pilot episode in an afternoon weekday timeslot , with early @-@ morning repeats . On pay television services in Australia and New Zealand , older episodes are broadcast on UKTV . In Denmark the series was retitled " Lov og Uorden " ( Law and Disorder ) . Two episodes of the series were broadcast every afternoon on TV2 Charlie . In Ireland the series was broadcast on RTÉ television , first starting in the early 1990s on RTÉ Two , and in the early 2000s RTÉ began broadcasting it on RTÉ One at 5 : 30 pm each weekday , splitting hour long episodes into two @-@ part half @-@ hour episodes . RTÉ discontinued this in 2009 , moving the show to Monday Nights on RTÉ Two . RTÉ showed episodes from 2005 . AIn 2010 RTÉ moved the show from its prime time slot on RTÉ Two to a midnight slot on RTÉ One on Thursday nights , but the show remained on the RTÉ player . In Sweden the series was retitled " Sunhillspolisstation " ( Sun Hill Police Station ) by broadcaster TV4 . In 2011 it was broadcast daily on Kanal 9 in the early afternoon with a repeat early the following morning . = = Themes and title sequences = = The pilot episode of the series , " Woodentop " , featured a short theme composed by Mike Westergaard . The theme was used specifically for the episode and was never used at any time during the main series . The title sequence for the episode consisted simply of the word ' Woodentop ' being spelt out letter by letter , as if someone was writing it on a typewriter . The first ever opening sequence of The Bill was first seen in the episode " Funny Ol ' Business – Cops & Robbers " . The sequence consisted of two police officers , one male and one female , walking down a street , whilst images of Sun Hill were interspersed between them . This sequence was used for the first series only . It featured the first version of the series iconic theme tune , " Overkill " , composed by Charlie Morgan and Andy Pask . The theme is notable for its use of septuple meter . The end titles of the series simply showed the feet of the two police constables pounding the beat . In the second series of the show , the opening sequence consisted of a police car , a Rover SD1 , racing down a street with its siren wailing and its blue flashing light on . The car would screech to a stop , and the camera would zoom in on the blue light . Various clips were then shown from the series of the characters in action , often chasing suspects . This sequence kept the first version of " Overkill " , and also used the same ending credits from series one . This sequence was also used in the third series . From the fourth series onwards , the opening sequence was kept generally the same ; however , clips from the series used were regularly updated to remove departed characters and keep to date with the show 's events . Minor changes to the sequence included the Rover SD1 changing into a Ford Sierra in 1993 , which was replaced by a Vauxhall Vectra in 1997 . In the 1997 sequence , the Vectra was seen overtaking a Leyland Titan bus , before screeching to a halt , and the main sequence starting . The end credits for the series remained the same , but a new version of " Overkill " was used , also composed by Andy Pask and Charlie Morgan . On 6 January 1998 , starting with " Hard Cash " , the third episode of the show 's fourteenth series , the title sequence and theme used for nearly ten years were scrapped . This time , the title sequence consisted of various police procedural images , including a suspect being shown into a police cell , another suspect being interviewed , and a third posing for mug shot photographs . Clips of any of the actors featured were removed , as was the initial sequence involving the police car racing down the street . Pask and Morgan revamped " Overkill " , giving it a jazz feel , with the majority of the theme played by a saxophone . The end credits of the series were also completely revamped . This time , the credits featured various images of the Metropolitan Police uniform , combined with images of a feet tapping on a kerb . A longer version of " Overkill " was also used in the final credits , this time composed by Mark Russell . These opening and closing sequences were used for nearly three years , although both saw minor updates in 1999 . The text sequence at the very start of the opening sequence was changed into a different font , and the images of the police uniform and feet tapping on a curb were removed from the closing sequence to make way for a preview of the next episode . The closing sequence remained this way until 2001 , but the opening titles were once again updated in 2000 to remove certain images from the sequence to make it shorter . It is also noted that during this period , a ' previously on The Bill ' segment was aired before the title sequence , to inform views what had occurred in the last episode . On 20 February 2001 , starting with " Going Under " , the fourteenth episode of the show 's seventeenth series , the opening and closing sequences were once again scrapped to make way for a completely new sequence and theme . This time , the opening sequence consisted of a montage image of the entire cast , backed by a darker , slower version of " Overkill " . The closing credits featured a montage of various police @-@ related images , also backed by the new version of " Overkill " . The opening sequence was designed by the visuals company " Blue " , and the new arrangement of " Overkill " was produced by Miles Bould and Mike Westergaard . These titles remained essentially the same for two years , with two small updates . The font used on the closing credits was changed towards the end of 2001 , and the characters featured in the opening sequence were updated in 2002 , to remove characters who had departed , and include new characters . These titles were broadcast from Episode No. 017 , and are notable as several of the characters in these titles had not yet appeared in the show . DS Samantha Nixon appeared in the titles from Episode No. 017 , but did not first appear until Episode No. 038 , some four months later . On 13 February 2003 , starting with Episode No. 090 , the opening and closing sequences were once again updated . This time , the opening sequence consisted of several generic police images , such as a police car and uniform . A new arrangement of " Overkill " , made by Lawrence Oakley , was also used for both the opening and closing sequences . The background of the closing sequence , designed by company " Roisin at Blue " , was simply a police shade of blue , with all generic images being removed . Throughout its four @-@ year use , these titles were never updated or changed , with the exception of the police shade of blue , which was changed to a dark shade of black in 2006 . On 3 January 2007 , starting with Episode No. 471 , the opening and closing sequences were once again changed . This time , the opening sequence , for the first time , features an image of the " Sun Hill " sign , and returns to featuring images of officers in action . This sequence also featured a further new arrangement of " Overkill " , once again arranged by Lawrence Oakley . This time , the closing sequence follows a police car on patrol , watching it as it drives through the streets of Sun Hill . These titles were used for nearly two and a half years . On 23 July 2009 , after the programme underwent a major overhaul , the opening sequence and theme were heavily changed . This time , the classic " Overkill " theme was completely removed , and a new theme created by Simba Studios was used . However , producer Jonathan Young stated that echoes of " Overkill " can still be heard in the theme . The opening sequence featured a patrol car driving through the streets of Sun Hill . The closing sequence follows the same patrol car , however , this time , from an overhead view . These titles remained the same until the show 's final episode , where the theme tune was replaced by a final version of " Overkill " , in homage to the show . = = Episodes = = When The Bill was first commissioned as a series by ITV , it started with twelve episodes per year , each an hour long with a separate storyline . In 1988 the format changed to year round broadcast with two thirty @-@ minute episodes per week . In 1993 this expanded to three thirty @-@ minute episodes per week . In 1998 the broadcast format changed to two , one hour episodes each week . Episodes were now recorded in 16 : 9 widescreen digibeta . In 2009 The Bill began broadcasting in HD and as part of a major revamp , was reduced to broadcasting once a week . The Bill finished in 2010 , with 2425 episodes broadcast . = = = Special episodes = = = The Bill has broadcast two live episodes . The first was in 2003 to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the pilot , " Woodentop " . The second was in 2005 to celebrate the fiftieth birthday of ITV . The live episode in 2003 was episode No. 162 , originally broadcast on 30 October 2003 at 8 pm , and produced with a crew of 200 staff including seven camera crews . It was reported to be the first live television broadcast of a programme where filming was not largely confined to a studio . Detective Constable Juliet Becker and Constable Cathy Bradford are being held hostage by a man called Mark . As they are being held hostage in a carrier in the station yard , Cathy Bradford raises the custody suite alarm . When the rest of the station arrive outside , Mark makes it known that he intends to kill Juliet Becker . The police get permission to break into the carrier , only to find that Juliet has been stabbed . She is rushed to hospital , but attempts to resuscitate her fail . The episode was watched by around 11 million viewers . This special was later released onto DVD in United Kingdom 31 October 2011 , as part of Network DVD 's " Soap Box : Volume 1 " . The live episode in 2005 was episode No. 349 , broadcast on 22 September 2005 at 8 pm . In this episode , it was revealed that PC Gabriel Kent had assumed a false identity . It is revealed that he has been operating under his brother 's name and is , in fact , David Kent . In this episode the " real " Gabriel Kent arrived in Sun Hill to meet his mother , Sergeant June Ackland . In this episode , Sun Hill police station is hosting a reception party and , as the police arrive , they are taken hostage by a distraught father whose son was killed by a stolen car . A struggle ensues in which a shot is fired , alerting others in the building the incident . After an evacuation of the station , Superintendent Amanda Prosser encourages PC Dan Casper to attempt to overpower the man . As he does so , both Casper and the real Gabriel Kent are shot . The real Gabriel Kent is rushed to hospital where the false Gabriel Kent threatens him to keep the identity switch a secret . A series of special episodes titled The Bill Uncovered were produced to reflect the stories of select characters and events . The first was The Bill Uncovered : Des and Reg ( 2004 ) – The story of the unusual friendship between PC Des Taviner and PC Reg Hollis , traversing their history from Des 's first day at Sun Hill to his death in a Sun Hill cell . The second was The Bill Uncovered : Kerry 's Story ( 2004 ) , the story of PC Kerry Young , who met her death outside Sun Hill . The third special was The Bill Uncovered : Jim 's Story ( 2005 ) , the story of DC Jim Carver – from his first day at Sun Hill ( in the pilot " Woodentop " ) . The last was The Bill Uncovered : On The Front Line ( 2006 ) , in which Superintendent Adam Okaro recounts the extraordinary events that have surrounded Sun Hill over his time in charge . A review of the second of these specials criticised the " increasingly degenerative plotlines " of the series , and characterised the special as a " cheerless outing " covering The Bill 's " travesties of plot " . All four editions of The Bill Uncovered was released onto DVD in Australia as part of The Bill Series 26 DVD boxset , 30 April 2014 . In 2008 , a special programme called " The Bill Made Me Famous " in light of the show 's 25th anniversary was broadcast , which saw former actors and special guest stars telling their accounts of working on the show and how it changed their lives . It included old favourites such as Billy Murray ( DS Don Beech ) , Chris Ellison ( DI Frank Burnside ) and popular TV personalities such as Paul O 'Grady and Les Dennis . A two @-@ part crossover episode with the German series SOKO Leipzig , entitled " Proof of Life " , was broadcast in November 2008 . Following The Bill 's final episode on 31 August 2010 , a one @-@ hour special titled Farewell The Bill was broadcast . The special explored the history of the series and gave viewers a behind the scenes look at the filming of the last episode . This special was later release onto DVD in Australia 5 October 2011 , along with the last two @-@ part episode " Respect " . = = Cast = = The Bill had a large regular cast to support the number of episodes that were produced each year . Working on The Bill had become something of a rite of passage in British acting , with 174 actors having formed part of the series ' main cast since the series began . A number of cast members have played multiple roles in the series , and in other British soap operas and dramas . = = = Notable cast members = = = There are numerous actors who have either appeared on The Bill for some considerable length of time , or on whose careers The Bill has made a significant impact . The following is a concise list of the most notable , an expanded version is available at List of characters of The Bill . Billy Murray played DS Don Beech from 1995 to 2004 . The character was a cold police officer , notably having murdered DS John Boulton , forcing Beech to go on the run , sparking the " Don Beech scandal " . Since leaving The Bill , Murray 's career has included a stint on EastEnders as gangster and murderer Johnny Allen and two films , Rollin ' With The Nines and Rise of the Footsoldier . The character also spawned Beech on the Run and Beech is Back . Tony O 'Callaghan played Sergeant Matt Boyden from 1991 to 2003 . Boyden was shot dead by his daughter 's boyfriend so she can profit from insurance money to fund her drug habit . This was the storyline that formed the basis for the opening episode of spin @-@ off M.I.T. : Murder Investigation Team . Tony O 'Callaghan has also appeared in The Magnificent Evans , Family Affairs , Holby City , Doctors and Shameless . Christopher Ellison played DI , later promoted to DCI , Frank Burnside from 1984 to 2000 . Burnside made many enemies both at Sun Hill and with the villains , indeed Chief Superintendent Pearson tried to frame Burnside in a corruption inquiry . Since leaving The Bill , Ellison has enjoyed a guest stint as Len Harker in EastEnders . Ellison has also appeared in The Professionals , Minder , Casualty , Judge John Deed and voiced a Doctor Who audio adventure . The character spawned spin off Burnside . Mark Wingett played DC , later promoted to DS , Jim Carver from 1983 to 2007 . After his marriage to June Ackland collapsed and he built up gambling debts , the character left Sun Hill . Since leaving , Wingett has also appeared in EastEnders . Eric Richard played Sergeant Bob Cryer from 1984 to 2001 , the character leaving after being injured when he was accidentally shot by then PC Dale Smith . The character later made brief re @-@ appearances in the series , including in one storyline involving his niece Roberta who later joined the station . Prior to appearing in The Bill , Richard appeared in a number of TV programmes including Open All Hours , Made in Britain and Shoestring . Kevin Lloyd played DC Tosh Lines from 1988 to 1998 . The character was written out as having accepted a position in the Coroner 's Office after Lloyd was sacked for turning up for work drunk . Lloyd died a week after his dismissal . Jeff Stewart played PC Reg Hollis from 1984 to 2008 . The character was written out after resigning under the grounds of being traumatised by the death of colleagues in a bomb blast . After learning of his axing from the show , Stewart attempted suicide on set by slashing his wrists . Graham Cole played PC Tony Stamp from 1987 to 2009 . The character was written out of the series , taking up a driving instructor 's post at Hendon , as part of the show 's revamp , after producers felt that he didn 't fit the style of the new show . Cole 's last episode was shown on 5 November 2009 and his departure meant the end of a 22 @-@ year association with the programme . Trudie Goodwin played PC , later promoted to Sergeant , June Ackland from 1983 to 2007 , appearing first in Woodentop . The character retired in 2007 after her on @-@ screen relationship with DC Jim Carver came to an abrupt end . When Goodwin left The Bill in 2007 she was not only the longest serving cast member in the history of The Bill , but also held the world record for the longest time an actor has portrayed a police character . Alex Walkinshaw played PC , later promoted to Sergeant and Inspector , Dale " Smithy " Smith from 1999 to 2010 . Walkinshaw made three " one off " appearances in the series prior to becoming a regular cast member , and has since made appearances in several other British soaps and serial dramas , including Waterloo Road and Casualty . Simon Rouse played DCI , later promoted to Superintendent , Jack Meadows from 1989 to 2010 , though the character only became a regular role in 1992 . Aside from The Bill , Rouse has had small appearances in a number of other British television series including Robin of Sherwood , The Professionals , Casualty , Minder and Doctor Who . Chris Simmons played DC Mickey Webb from 2000 to 2010 . He appeared twice on the show playing different roles , most notably as a criminal in 1999 , before joining the cast as a regular in the following year . He left the series temporarily in 2003 , as the culmination of a storyline where his character was raped . He made several guest appearances before returning as a regular in 2005 . = = Ratings = = The Bill has become a popular drama in the United Kingdom and in many other countries , most notably in Australia . The series attracted audiences of up to six million viewers in 2008 and 2009 . Ratings during 2002 peaked after the overhaul of the show which brought about the 2002 fire episode , in which six officers were killed and the 2003 live episode attracted ten million viewers- forty percent of the UK audience share . Immediately following The Bill 's revamping and time slot change , it was reported that the programme had attracted 4 @.@ 5 million viewers , 19 % of the audience share , however , it lost out to the BBC 's New Tricks with the Daily Mirror later reporting that ITV 's schedule change was behind a two million viewer drop in ratings . In 2001 , prior to Paul Marquess ' appointment as executive producer , The Bill 's ratings had dropped to approximately six million viewers and advertising revenues had fallen , in part due to the ageing demographic of its viewers , leading ITV to order a " rejuvenation " which saw the series adopt a serial format . In 2002 , The Independent reported that The Bill 's Thursday episode was viewed by approximately 7 million people , a fall of approximately 3 million viewers in the space of 6 months . After the cast clearout resulting from the Sun Hill fire in April 2002 , BBC News reported that The Bill attracted 8 @.@ 6 million viewers , the highest figure for the year to that point , and by October 2003 , the program had around 8 million viewers each week . In 2005 , The Bill was averaging around 11 million viewers , in comparison to Coronation Street , which was attracting around 10 million viewers . In 2009 , The Daily Mirror reported that The Bill was to be moved to a post @-@ watershed slot to allow it to cover grittier storylines . It was reported that it is the first time in British Television that ITV have broadcast a drama all year in the 9 pm slot . The changeover happened at the end of July 2009 . Before the move , The Bill was averaging 5 million viewers between the two episodes each week . BARB reports that the week 12 – 18 October 2009 saw 3 @.@ 78 million viewers watch The Bill . = = Awards = = The Bill has achieved a number of awards throughout its time on air , ranging from a BAFTA to the Royal Television Society Awards. and the Inside Soap Awards , particularly the " best recurring drama " category . In 2010 , The Bill was nominated for a Royal Television Society award for Best Soap / Continuing Drama , beating both Coronation Street and Emmerdale on to the nominations list . The only soap to be nominated was EastEnders and the results were announced on 16 March 2010 . In 2009 an episode of The Bill won the Knights of Illumination Award for Lighting Design- Drama . = = Impact and history = = The Bill was Britain 's longest running police drama . It has been compared to Hill Street Blues due to the similar , serial , format that both series take . However , The Bill has seen little direct competition on British television in the police procedural genre over its twenty @-@ five @-@ year history , though the BBC has twice launched rival series . The first was Merseybeat , which ran from 2001 but was cancelled in 2004 due to poor ratings and problems with the cast . The second , HolbyBlue , launched in 2007 , was a spin @-@ off of successful medical drama Holby City ( itself a spin @-@ off of the long @-@ running Casualty ) . It was scheduled to go " head to head " with The Bill , prompting a brief " ratings war " , however HolbyBlue was also cancelled by the BBC in 2008 , again , largely due to poor ratings . When The Bill started , the majority of the Police Federation were opposed to the programme , claiming that it portrayed the police as a racist organisation , however , feelings towards the programme have now mellowed to the extent that Executive Producer Johnathan Young met with Sir Ian Blair , then Commissioner of the Met in 2006 and it was decided that the editorial relationship between the police and the programme was sufficient . However , Young stressed that The Bill is not " editorially bound " to the police . Despite better relations with the police , The Bill has still not been without controversy . The Bill has been repeatedly criticised for the high levels of violence portrayed in its scenes , especially prior to 2009 when it occupied a pre @-@ watershed timeslot . Specific story lines have also come under fire in the media , such as that surrounding a gay kiss in 2002 , as well as an episode broadcast in March 2008 which featured a fictional treatment for multiple sclerosis , leading the MS Society to brand the plot " grossly irresponsible " . The series has also been criticised by the tabloid press for the replacing of the iconic theme tune as part of a revamping effort . = = Spin @-@ offs and related series = = During its 27 @-@ year @-@ run , The Bill spawned several spin @-@ off productions and related series in German and Dutch languages , as well as a series of documentaries . The following is a list of the most notable of these . Bureau Kruislaan : Dutch interpretation of the series . Produced by Joop van den Ende for VARA Television , the programme lasted for four series running from 1992 to 1995 . In 1995 , the show was nominated for the Gouden Televizier Ring , an award for the best television programme in the Netherlands . All four series of the show have been released on DVD there . Die Wache : German interpretation of the series . As decent script @-@ writers were hard to find at the time , the German producers were given the licence to utilise ( re @-@ use ) scripts from the British series . The series was produced by RTL Television , running for nearly 750 episodes from 1994 to 2006 . Burnside : Spin @-@ off from the main British series , following ex @-@ DI Frank Burnside in his transfer and promotion to the National Crime Squad . The programme lasted for just a single series of six episodes , debuting in the UK on 6 July 2000 . The series was created and produced by Richard Handford . On 8 October 2008 , the series was released on DVD in Australia in a three @-@ disc @-@ set . MIT : Murder Investigation Team : Spin @-@ off from the main British series . Lasting for two series , the drama began with a group of MIT officers investigating the drive @-@ by shooting of Sgt. Matthew Boyden , who had been at Sun Hill for eleven years . The first series consisted of eight one @-@ hour episodes . The second series consisted of four ninety @-@ minute episodes . The series was created by Paul Marquess , produced by Johnathan Young and starred ex @-@ Bill DS Eva Sharpe ( Diane Parish ) . = = Merchandise = = = = = VHS and DVD = = = = = = Books = = = = = = = Novels = = = = = = = Music = = = = = = Event merchandising = = =
= Bleach ( Nirvana album ) = Bleach is the debut studio album by American rock band Nirvana , released on June 15 , 1989 by Sub Pop . The main recording sessions took place at Reciprocal Recording in Seattle , Washington between December 1988 and January 1989 . Bleach was well received by critics , but failed to chart in the U.S. upon its original release . The album was re @-@ released internationally by Geffen Records in 1992 following the success of Nirvana 's second album , Nevermind ( 1991 ) . The re @-@ release debuted at number 89 on the Billboard 200 , and peaked at number 33 on the UK Albums Chart and 34 on the Australian albums chart . In 2009 Sub Pop released a 20th anniversary edition of Bleach featuring a live recording of a Nirvana show in Portland , Oregon from 1990 as extra material . Since its release in 1989 , Bleach has sold more than 1 @.@ 7 million units in the United States alone . It is Sub Pop 's best @-@ selling release to date . = = Recording = = After the release of its debut single " Love Buzz " on Sub Pop in November 1988 , Nirvana practiced for two to three weeks in preparation for recording a full @-@ length album , even though Sub Pop had only requested an EP . The main sessions for Bleach took place at Reciprocal Recording Studios in Seattle , with local producer Jack Endino . Nirvana began recording with a five @-@ hour session on December 24 , 1988 . The band recorded again on December 29 – 31 , and on January 14 and 24 . Three of the album 's songs – " Floyd the Barber " , " Paper Cuts " and " Downer " – were recorded during a previous session at Reciprocal Studios in 1988 , featuring Dale Crover on drums . Despite attempts to re @-@ record them with new drummer Chad Channing , the band ultimately decided to remix the versions recorded with Crover for the final version of Bleach . " Big Long Now " was omitted from the album because vocalist / guitarist Kurt Cobain felt " there was already enough slow heavy stuff on Bleach , and he ' didn 't want that song to go out ' " , according to Endino . The album was edited and sequenced , but Sub Pop head Bruce Pavitt ordered that the album be completely re @-@ sequenced . The record was further delayed for several months until Sub Pop was able to secure sufficient funds to issue it . Nirvana songwriter Kurt Cobain felt pressured to create music for Bleach that conformed to the grunge music style favored by his record label and the contemporary Seattle music scene . The album is regarded as quite negative and bleak ; Cobain claimed that most of the lyrics were written the night before recording while he was feeling " pissed off " , and that he did not regard them highly . Endino billed the band thirty hours of recording at $ 606 @.@ 17 . Jason Everman , a guitarist who was impressed by Nirvana 's demo with Dale Crover , supplied the money . He briefly joined the group as second guitarist . Everman was credited as a guitarist on the album sleeve , and is the other guitarist on the cover of the album , even though he did not perform on the album . Bassist Krist Novoselic explained , " We just wanted to make him feel at home in the band . " = = Music = = According to Cobain , the music on Bleach conformed with the grunge genre Sub Pop heavily endorsed . " There was this pressure from Sub Pop and the grunge scene to play ' rock music ' " , Cobain said , and noted that he " [ stripped ] it down and [ made ] it sound like Aerosmith . " Cobain also felt he had to fit the expectations of the grunge sound to build a fanbase , and hence suppressed his arty and pop songwriting traits while crafting the record . Krist Novoselic said in a 2001 interview with Rolling Stone that the band had played a tape in their tour van that had an album by The Smithereens on one side and one by the extreme metal band Celtic Frost on the other , and noted that the combination probably played an influence as well . The songs were described as " deliberately bleak , claustrophobic , and lyrically sparse , with none of the manic derangement or sense of release of the live performance " . Cobain said that the song structures were " one – dimensional " , and said that he sought to present a more " polished and urbane side of happy " . Describing the various songs on Bleach , Christopher Sandford wrote : " ' Paper Cuts ' includes a folk @-@ influence melody and ponderous rhythm of an early Led Zeppelin number ; ' Mr. Moustache ' addressed itself on Nirvana 's male fans ; ' Downer ' showed the same exceptional contempt for the group 's audience " . Sandford felt " School " – which features only four lines of lyrics – was memorable for its chorus that " served as the rip " . While " Scoff " is " a parting salvo at [ Cobain 's parents ] " , " Negative Creep " was written by Cobain about himself . According to Sandford , " About a Girl " has a " chiming melody and ironic chorus " . In Sounds magazine , Keith Cameron said the song " was exhilarating and it was exciting because that was the nature of the music , but there was also an almost palpable sense of danger , that this whole thing could fall apart any second . There was never any relaxation from the first note to the last " . In his book Nirvana : The Stories Behind Every Song , Chuck Crisafulli writes that the song " stands out in the Cobain canon as a song with a very specific genesis and a very real subject " . In one of his first interviews , Cobain told Sounds journalist John Robb , " When I write a song the lyrics are the least important thing . I can go through two or three different subjects in a song and the title can mean absolutely nothing at all . Sometimes I try to make things harder for myself , just to try to make myself a bit more angry . I try out a few subconscious things I suppose , like conflicts with other people . Most of the lyrics on the Bleach album are about my life in Aberdeen . " In 1993 , Cobain told Spin that on Bleach he " didn 't give a flying fuck what the lyrics were about " and claimed that 80 percent of the lyrics were written the night before recording . He was often still working on the words on the drive to the recording studio . He explained : " It was like I 'm pissed off . Don 't know what about . Let 's just scream negative lyrics , and as long as they 're not sexist and don 't get too embarrassing it 'll be okay . I don 't hold any of those lyrics dear to me . " Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad noted that , nevertheless , many of the songs on the album reflected Cobain and various incidents in his life . " Mr. Moustache " was inspired by Cobain 's dislike of macho behavior , while " School " was a critique of the Seattle music scene , particularly Sub Pop . = = Release and promotion = = The album cover was photographed by Cobain 's then @-@ girlfriend Tracy Marander during a concert at the Reko Muse art gallery in Olympia , Washington . On February 25 , 1989 , Nirvana played at venues on the west coast , including the University of Washington . The group began its first European tour , a double headliner with the band Tad , at the Riverside venue in Newcastle upon Tyne on October 23 , 1989 . On December 3 , they played a " triumphant " set at the London Astoria . Christopher Sandford related : " when the style pundits noted Cobain 's ' patent lumberjack shirts and ugly fifties geometric @-@ patterned jerseys ' , seeing an example of ' low @-@ couture chic ' they missed the point that flannel shirts and sweaters were everyday dress in the marine climate of the Northwest " . Cobain took note and said that he never intended to start a fad or act as a role model . The album 's working title was Too Many Humans . It was renamed Bleach after Cobain found an AIDS prevention poster while Nirvana was driving through San Francisco . The poster advised heroin addicts to bleach their needles before use , featuring the slogan " Bleach Your Works " . In Australia , Bleach was released on Waterfront Records and re @-@ issued on various colored covers and colored vinyl prior to 1992 . Due to increasing dissatisfaction with Everman over the course of the Bleach tour , Nirvana canceled the last few dates and drove back to Washington . No one told Everman he was fired at the time , while Everman later claimed that he actually quit the group . Although Sub Pop did not promote Bleach as much as other releases , it was a steady seller . However , Cobain was upset by the label 's lack of promotion and distribution for the album . In April 1992 , following the success of Nirvana 's second album Nevermind , Sub Pop released a remastered version of Bleach on LP , CD and cassette , adding two extra tracks . Geffen Records handled the international release . The CD version was packaged in a cardboard foldout case that included a bonus booklet filled with photos of the band from 1987 – 1990 . For the 20th anniversary of the album , Sub Pop released on November 3 , 2009 a deluxe reissue of Bleach featuring a March 2009 remastering from the original tapes by George Marino and a live recording of a 1990 show at Portland , Oregon 's Pine Street Theatre . = = Reception = = Bleach did not sell well but received positive reviews from critics when it was first released . Anthony Carew from the About.com Guide said that the album " define [ d ] the entire decade of the ' 90s " , and awarded it four out of five stars . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album three and a half out of five stars , noting that " Kurt Cobain illustrated signs of his considerable songcraft , particularly on the minor @-@ key ballad ' About a Girl ' and the dense churn of ' Blew ' " . He also said that " it 's a debut from a band that shows potential but haven 't yet achieved it . " NME 's Edwin Pouncey said that the album was the " biggest , baddest sound that Sub Pop have so far managed to unearth . So primitive that they manage to make label mates Mudhoney sound like Genesis , Nirvana turn up the volume and spit and claw their way to the top of the musical garbage heap " , and gave it an eight out of ten rating . Bleach was considered by Rolling Stone as " a moderate hit on college radio and the underground / DIY circuit . " Before Nevermind was released , Bleach had sold 40 @,@ 000 units in North America . The 1992 re @-@ release of the album was more successful on the charts , with Bleach eventually reaching number 89 at the Billboard 200 , number 33 on the UK album charts , number 34 on the Australian Recording Industry Association chart , and number 22 on the Finland charts . Kurt Cobain 's death in 1994 also led to a resurgence of popularity , with Bleach entering the Top Pop Catalog chart at number six in the week following his death , and eventually earning the top spot on May 7 . The 2009 deluxe edition entered the Catalog Albums chart at number seven . Bleach was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in February 1995 , and has sold an estimated 1 @.@ 7 million units in the United States . It has also been certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . It is Sub Pop 's best @-@ selling release . = = Track listing = = All songs written by Kurt Cobain , except where noted . = = Personnel = = Kurdt Kobain – vocals , guitar Chris Novoselic – bass Chad Channing – drums Jason Everman - guitar ( in name only ) Additional Personnel Dale Crover – drums on " Floyd the Barber " , " Paper Cuts " , and " Downer " Jack Endino – producer Tracy Marander – photography Charles Peterson – photography Lisa Orth – design Jane Higgins – execution = = Charts = = = = = 1992 re @-@ release = = = = = = 2009 20th Anniversary = = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Gangut @-@ class battleship = The Gangut @-@ class battleships , also known as the " Sevastopol class " , were the first dreadnoughts begun for the Imperial Russian Navy before World War I. They had a convoluted design history involving several British companies , evolving requirements , an international design competition , and foreign protests . Four ships were ordered in 1909 ; two were named after victorious battles of Peter the Great in the Great Northern War and the other two were named after battles in the Crimean War . Three ships of the class used names of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Petropavlovsk @-@ class lost in the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Construction was delayed by financing problems until the Duma formally authorized the ships in 1911 . They were delivered from December 1914 through January 1915 , although they still needed work on the turrets and fire @-@ control systems until mid @-@ 1915 . Their role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans , who never tried to enter , so the ships spent their time training and providing cover for minelaying operations . Their crews participated in the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet after the February Revolution in 1917 , and joined the Bolsheviks the following year . The Russians were forced to evacuate their naval base at Helsinki after Finland became independent in December 1917 . The Gangut @-@ class ships led the first contingent of ships to Kronstadt even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen . All of the dreadnoughts except for Petropavlovsk were laid up in October – November 1918 for lack of manpower . Poltava was severely damaged by a fire while laid up in 1919 . Petropavlovsk was retained in commission to defend Kronstadt and Leningrad against the British forces supporting the White Russians although she also helped to suppress a mutiny by the garrison of Fort Krasnaya Gorka in 1919 . Her crew , and that of the Sevastopol , joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of March 1921 . After it was bloodily crushed , those ships were given proper ' revolutionary ' names . The other two serviceable vessels were recommissioned and renamed in 1925 – 26 while some work was done to repair Frunze , as Poltava was now known , but the money quickly ran out for her repairs . Parizhskaya Kommuna , the former Sevastopol , was modified in 1928 to improve her sea @-@ keeping abilities so that she could be transferred to the Black Sea Fleet which had nothing heavier than a light cruiser available . This proved to be the first of a series of modernizations where each ship of the class was progressively reconstructed and improved . A number of proposals were made in the 1930s to rebuild Frunze to match her sisters or even as a battlecruiser by removing one turret , but these came to naught and she was hulked preparatory to scrapping . The two ships of the Baltic Fleet did not play a prominent role in the Winter War , but did have their anti @-@ aircraft guns significantly increased before Operation Barbarossa in 1941 . However this did not help either ship as they attempted to provide fire support for the defenders of Leningrad . Marat had her bow blown off and Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya was badly damaged by multiple bomb hits in September . The former was sunk , but later raised and became a floating battery for the duration of the Siege of Leningrad while the latter spent over a year under repair , although this was lengthened by subsequent bomb hits while in the hands of the shipyard . Both ships bombarded German and Finnish troops so long as they remained within reach , but Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya did not venture away from Kronstadt for the duration of the war . Parizhskaya Kommuna remained in Sevastopol until forced to evacuate by advancing German troops . She made one trip to besieged Sevastopol in December 1941 and made a number of bombardments in support of the Kerch Offensive during January – March 1942 . She was withdrawn from combat in April as German aerial supremacy had made it too risky to risk such a large target . Sevastopol and Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya remained on the active list after the end of the war although little is known of their activities . Both were reclassified as ' school battleships ' ( uchebnyi lineinyi korabl ) in 1954 and stricken in 1956 after which they were slowly scrapped . There were several plans ( Project 27 ) to reconstruct Petropavlovsk using the bow of Frunze , but they were not accepted and were formally cancelled on 29 June 1948 . She was renamed Volkhov in 1950 and served as a stationary training ship until stricken in 1953 and subsequently broken up . Frunze was finally scrapped beginning in 1949 . = = Design and development = = After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War the Imperial Russian Navy was in a state of confusion . Its leadership , tactics and ship designs had all been cast into disrepute by its repeated defeats by the Japanese at the Battle of Tsushima , Battle off Ulsan and the Battle of the Yellow Sea . The Navy took quite some time to absorb the design lessons from the war while the government reformed the Naval Ministry and forced many of its more conservative officers to retire . It conducted a design contest for a dreadnought in 1906 , but the Duma refused to authorize it , preferring to spend the money on rebuilding the Army . The requirements for a new class of dreadnoughts were in a state of flux during 1907 , but Vickers Ltd submitted a design that met the latest specifications and was very nearly accepted by the Navy for a 22 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 22 @,@ 000 t ) ship with twelve 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in triple , superimposed turrets . However rumors of a contract with Vickers raised a public outcry as they had some problems with the armored cruiser Rurik then building in England . The Naval Ministry defused the situation on 30 December 1907 by announcing an international design contest with the ship built in Russia regardless of the nationality of the winning firm . By the deadline of 12 March 1908 a total of 51 designs had been submitted by 13 different shipyards . The winner of the competition was a design from the German firm of Blohm & Voss , but the French protested that they did not want to see any of the money that they had loaned Russia to build up its defenses in German pockets . The Russians bought the design for 250 @,@ 000 rubles and shelved it to placate both sides . A design by the Baltic Works had been the runner @-@ up and was revised for the Navy 's updated requirements with a complete design to be presented by 22 March 1909 . This was extended by a month to allow the Baltic Works to finalize its contract with the British firm of John Brown & Company for design assistance with the hull form and machinery . The Naval General Staff believed that a speed advantage over the 21 knots ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) German battle fleet would prove very useful in battle , as demonstrated at the Battle of Tsushima , but use of the heavy and bulky Belleville Water @-@ tube boilers , as insisted upon by the Engineering Section of the Naval Technical Committee , would prevent the new design from exceeding 21 @.@ 25 knots itself . However , after John Brown indicated that the ship 's turbines could deliver 45 @,@ 000 shp ( 33 @,@ 556 kW ) if supplied with enough steam and that the hull form could reach 23 knots ( 26 mph ; 43 km / h ) with 45 @,@ 000 horsepower , the Naval General Staff took the opportunity to get the speed it desired by using small @-@ tube boilers . It convened a meeting of the Naval Technical Committee to discuss the issue , but packed it with engineers from the fleet who were in favor of small @-@ tube boilers and the Engineering Section was outvoted . The Yarrow small @-@ tube boiler was significantly smaller and lighter than Belleville large @-@ tube boiler , but required more frequent cleaning and repair and their horsepower dropped off more rapidly with use . The Russians did not believe that super firing turrets offered any advantage as they discounted the value of axial fire , believed that broadside fire was much more important and also believed that super firing turrets could not fire while over the lower turret because of muzzle blast interfering with the open sighting hoods in the lower turret 's roof . They therefore designed the ships with a ' linear ' arrangement ( lineinoe raspolozhenie ) of turrets distributed over the length of the ship . This arrangement had several advantages because it reduced the stress on the ends of the ship since the turrets were not concentrated at the end of the ship , increased stability because the lack of elevated turrets and their barbettes , improved the survivability of the ship because the magazines were separated from each other and gave a lower silhouette . Disadvantages were that the magazines had to be put in the middle of all the machinery , which required steam pipes to be run through or around them and the lack of deck space free from blast . This greatly complicated the placement of the anti @-@ torpedo boat guns which ultimately had to be mounted in the hull , closer to the water than was desirable . = = = General characteristics = = = The Ganguts were 180 meters ( 590 ft ) long at the waterline and 181 @.@ 2 meters ( 594 ft 6 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 meters ( 88 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 99 meters ( 29 ft 6 in ) , 49 centimeters ( 1 ft 7 in ) more than designed . They were completed overweight and their displacement was 24 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 400 long tons ) at load , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) more than their designed displacement of 23 @,@ 288 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 920 long tons ) . This reduced their freeboard by about 16 inches ( 41 cm ) and gave them a slight bow trim that made them very wet ships . High @-@ tensile steel was used throughout the longitudinally @-@ framed hull with mild steel used only in areas that did not contribute to structural strength . This , plus refinements in the design process , meant that the hull was 19 % lighter than that of the preceding Andrei Pervozvanny class pre @-@ dreadnoughts . The hull was subdivided by 13 transverse watertight bulkheads and had a double bottom . The engine and condenser rooms were divided by two longitudinal bulkheads . They had two electrically driven rudders on the centerline , the main rudder abaft the smaller auxiliary rudder . Their designed metacentric height was 1 @.@ 76 meters ( 5 @.@ 8 ft ) . = = = Propulsion = = = Ten Parsons @-@ type steam turbines drove the four propellers . The engine rooms were located between turrets three and four in three transverse compartments . The outer compartments each had a high @-@ pressure ahead and reverse turbine for each wing propeller shaft . The central engine room had two each low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines as well as two cruising turbines driving the two center shafts . The engines had a total designed output of 42 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 000 kW ) , but they produced 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 39 @,@ 000 kW ) during Poltava 's full @-@ speed trials on 21 November 1915 and gave a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . Twenty @-@ five Yarrow Admiralty @-@ type small @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a designed working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 atm ( 1 @,@ 773 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Each boiler was fitted with Thornycroft oil sprayers for mixed oil / coal burning . They were arranged in two groups . The forward group consisted of two boiler rooms in front of the second turret , the foremost of which had three boilers while the second one had six . The rear group was between the second and third turrets and comprised two compartments , each with eight boilers . At full load they carried 1 @,@ 847 @.@ 5 long tons ( 1 @,@ 877 @.@ 1 t ) of coal and 700 long tons ( 710 t ) of fuel oil and that provided her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) . = = = Armament = = = The main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four electrically powered triple turrets . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 25 ° . They could be loaded at any angle between − 5 ° and + 15 ° ; their rate of fire was one round every 30 to 40 seconds up to 15 ° of elevation and one round per minute above that . The forward turret had an arc of fire of 330 ° , the second turret had a total of 280 ° , the third turret 310 ° and the aft turret 300 ° . They could elevate at 3 – 4 ° per second and traverse at a rate of 3 @.@ 2 ° per second . 100 rounds per gun were carried at full load . The guns fired 470 @.@ 9 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 038 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 762 m / s ( 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 230 meters ( 25 @,@ 400 yd ) . Sixteen manually operated 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in the hull in casemates as the secondary battery intended to defend the ship against torpedo boats . Because of the lack of freeboard and bow @-@ heavy trim the forward casemates were often washed out in even moderate seas . All guns had a firing arc of 125 ° – 30 ° and at least four could bear on any part of the horizon . Their maximum elevation was 25 ° and they could elevate at 3 @.@ 5 ° per second . They could traverse at six to eight degrees per second . 300 rounds per gun were provided which was increased from 245 rounds during construction . As designed they were 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) above the waterline , but this was reduced in service as they were overweight . They had a rate of fire was seven rounds per minute and a maximum range of about 16 @,@ 800 yards ( 15 @,@ 362 m ) at 25 ° elevation with a 63 @.@ 87 @-@ pound ( 28 @.@ 97 kg ) semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing Model 1911 shell at a muzzle velocity of 792 @.@ 5 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The Gangut @-@ class ships were completed with only a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber Lender anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounted on the quarterdeck . This had a maximum depression of 5 ° and a maximum elevation of 65 ° . It fired a 14 @.@ 33 @-@ pound ( 6 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 929 ft / s ( 588 m / s ) . It had a rate of fire of 10 – 12 rounds per minute and had a maximum ceiling of 19 @,@ 000 ft ( 5 @,@ 800 m ) . Other AA guns were probably added during the course of World War I , but details are lacking , although Conway 's says that four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns were added to the roofs of the end turrets during the war . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted with three torpedoes for each tube . = = = Fire control = = = Two Zeiss 5 @-@ meter ( 16 ft ) rangefinders were fitted on the conning towers and there was also a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) Barr & Stroud instrument , possibly for precise stationkeeping on the master ship when concentrating fire . Two Krylov stadimeters were situated in the lower level of the forward conning tower . These would provide data for the central artillery post to calculate with its imported Pollen Argo Mark V Clock , a mechanical fire @-@ control computer , and then transmit the gun commands via the Geisler transmission system for the gun crew to follow . During the winter of 1915 – 16 the Zeiss rangefinders were transferred to armored hoods on the rear of the fore and aft turrets and , at some point , 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) Barr & Stroud rangefinders were added to the roofs of the middle turrets . Gangut received a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) Pollen rangefinder in the spring of 1916 . = = = Protection = = = The armor protection of the Gangut @-@ class ships had to protect against two different threats as revealed during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Japanese high explosive shells had riddled the unarmored portions of Russian ships and had even sunk several ships with their heavy armor belts unpenetrated . The Russians decided that the entire side of the ship needed to be armored , even though this would limit the thickness of the main belt . They developed a system where the outer armor would break up or at least slow shells down and burst immediately behind the outer armor and an inboard armor bulkhead would stop the splinters and shell fragments from reaching the vitals . This system likely would have worked against the British armor @-@ piercing shells that performed so badly at the Battle of Jutland , but would have failed against the improved shells introduced afterwards with their redesigned fuses . A related weakness was that the turrets and conning towers lacked the inboard splinter bulkhead even though they used armor thickness roughly equivalent to that of the main belt . The waterline belt , made of Krupp cemented armor ( KCA ) , had a maximum thickness of 225 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) , but tapered to about 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) on its bottom edge . It was 117 @.@ 2 meters ( 385 ft ) long and had a total height of 5 meters ( 16 ft ) , 3 @.@ 26 meters ( 10 ft 8 in ) of which was above the design waterline and 1 @.@ 74 meters ( 5 ft 9 in ) below . However , the ship 's draft was almost 50 to 79 centimeters ( 20 to 31 in ) deeper than intended , which meant that much less was above water . The remaining portion of the waterline was protected by 125 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) plates . The upper belt , which protected the casemates , was 125 mm of KCA over the citadel and 2 @.@ 72 meters ( 8 ft 11 in ) high . It thinned to a thickness of 75 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) forward of the citadel . The area aft of the citadel was the only unprotected section of the hull . 3 @.@ 4 meters ( 11 ft ) inboard of the side was a longitudinal splinter bulkhead made of Krupp non @-@ cemented armor ( KNC ) . It was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick at the level of the main belt , but thinned to 37 @.@ 55 mm ( 1 @.@ 478 in ) behind the upper belt . The main deck sloped from the bulkhead to the lower edge of the waterline belt and consisted of a 50 @-@ mm KNC plate on a 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) mild steel plate . This space was used as a coal bunker , which added extra protection . The main belt was closed off by 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) transverse bulkheads fore and aft and the steering gear was protected by armor 100 – 125 mm thick . The main gun turrets had a KCA face and sides 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick with a 100 @-@ mm roof . The guns had 3 @-@ inch gun shields to protect against splinters entering the embrasures and they were separated by splinter bulkheads . The barbettes were 150 mm thick above the upper deck , but reduced to 75 mm behind other armor , except for the fore and aft barbettes which only thinned to 125 mm . The conning tower sides were 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick with a 100 @-@ mm roof . The 120 @-@ mm guns had their own individual 3 @-@ inch gun shields . The funnel uptakes were protected by 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) of armor . The upper deck was 37 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 48 in ) of nickel @-@ chrome steel and the middle deck was 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) of nickel @-@ chrome steel between the longitudinal splinter bulkheads , but thinned to 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) outside them . The lower deck was of 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) mild steel . Underwater protection was minimal as there was only a single watertight bulkhead , presumably of high @-@ tensile steel , behind the upwards extension of the double bottom . This was an extension of the splinter bulkhead and was also 3 @.@ 4 meters inboard . A more comprehensive system was considered early in the design process but rejected because it would have cost some 500 – 600 t ( 490 – 590 long tons ; 550 – 660 short tons ) . The armor scheme of the Gangut @-@ class ships had some significant weaknesses . The rear transverse bulkhead was unprotected by any other armor but was the same thickness as the forward bulkhead which was defended by the upper belt armor . The thinness of the barbette armor was a serious defect which could have proved fatal in a battle . And the lack of a splinter bulkhead behind the armor of the turrets , barbettes and conning towers left all of those locations vulnerable to main gun hits . But the biggest weakness was the lack of an anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead , which made them highly vulnerable to mines or torpedoes . = = Construction = = All four ships were laid down on 16 June 1909 , but this was just a ceremonial event as actual work did not begin until September – October . One major complication was that the design for the turrets and their magazines was not completed when construction began so their weights and dimensions had to be estimated . The machinery for these ships was built by either the Baltic Works or the Franco @-@ Russian Works as the New Admiralty Shipyard lacked its own engine shop . Construction was initially very slow because the Duma did not allocate any money for these ships until May 1911 . Initial funding was taken from other budget items or the emperor 's discretionary fund and the shipyards had to use their own money to keep the work going . They were enormously expensive with their cost estimated at 29 @.@ 4 million rubles each , including armament . By way of comparison the preceding class of pre @-@ dreadnoughts had only cost 11 million rubles each . Once the Duma provided the funding the pace of work accelerated and the ships were launched later that year , although delays in the delivery of engines and turrets hindered their completion . All of the ships completed abbreviated trials by the end of 1914 and reached the fleet in December 1914 – January 1915 . = = Ships = = = = Service = = = = = World War I = = = All four of the Ganguts were assigned to the First Battleship Brigade of the Baltic Fleet in December 1914 – January 1915 when they reached Helsingfors . Their turrets and fire @-@ control systems , however , were still being adjusted and fine @-@ tuned through the next spring . Their role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans , who never tried to enter , so they spent their time training with occasional sorties into the Baltic . Several ships ran aground in 1915 and 1916 , often while providing cover for minelaying operations , but only Sevastopol suffered any significant damage . A minor mutiny broke out on 1 November on board Gangut when the executive officer refused to feed the crew the traditional meal of meat and macaroni after coaling . The crews of the battleships joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917 , after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Gangut and her sisters led the first group of ships on 12 March and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' . = = = Russian Civil War and interwar period = = = All of the dreadnoughts except for Petropavlovsk were laid up in October – November 1918 for lack of manpower . She bombarded the rebellious garrison of Fort Krasnaya Gorka in 1919 and supported Bolshevik light forces operating against British ships supporting the White Russians in the Gulf of Finland . On 17 August 1919 Petropavlovsk was claimed as torpedoed and put out of action by the British Coastal Motor Boat CMB 88 in Kronstadt harbor , but was , in fact , not damaged at all . On 24 November 1919 a fire broke out in Poltava 's forward boiler room and gutted much of her interior ; she was never repaired although numerous proposals were made to reconstruct her . The crews of Sevastopol and Petropavlovsk joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of 1921 and they were renamed Parizhskaya Kommuna and Marat respectively after the rebellion was crushed to commemorate the Paris Commune and to erase their ' betrayal ' of the Communist Party . The two undamaged ships were recommissioned in 1925 – 26 and all the ships were given proper revolutionary names . The initial attempts to return Frunze to service were to restore her to original design , but money ran out before she was even half completed . Subsequent plans that focused on reconstructing her as a modernized equivalent to her sisters or even as a battlecruiser , with one turret deleted to save weight , were considered , but finally abandoned on 23 January 1935 when all work was stopped . Parizhskaya Kommuna was refitted in 1928 in preparation for her transfer to the Black Sea Fleet the next year and she was given an open @-@ topped false bow to improve her sea @-@ keeping ability . However , while en route through the Bay of Biscay , she was caught in a heavy storm that damaged the bow and she was forced to put into Brest for repairs . Marat was the first of the class to be reconstructed between 1928 and 8 April 1931 . Her superstructure was enlarged , her guns were replaced , the turrets overhauled , the anti @-@ aircraft armament augmented and the fire @-@ control equipment modernized . Her boilers were converted to burn only fuel oil and this produced enough steam that the forward three boilers could be removed and the boiler room was turned into anti @-@ aircraft magazines and control spaces . The forward funnel was angled to the rear and extended to try to keep the exhaust out of the gunnery spaces and the bridge . She was also given a false bow , but hers had a solid top that turned it into a forecastle . Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya was the next ship to rebuilt and profited from the experiences of her sister 's modernization between 1931 and 1934 . All twenty @-@ five of her old boilers were replaced by a dozen oil @-@ fired boilers originally intended for the Borodino @-@ class battlecruiser Izmail . The space saved was used to add another inboard longitudinal watertight bulkhead that greatly improved her underwater protection . The rest of her modernization was along the same lines as Marat 's , except that the latter 's tubular foremast was replaced by a sturdier semi @-@ conical mast , a new aft structure was built in front of the rear conning tower which caused the mainmast to be moved forward , her forward funnel was curved to the rear to better keep the bridge clear of exhaust gases and the thickness of her turret roofs was increased to 152 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) . Parizhskaya Kommuna began her two @-@ stage reconstruction in 1933 along the lines of Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya 's modernization . Major differences were that her guns and turrets were improved to increase their rate of fire to about two rounds per minutes and to extend their range , she was the first ship of the class to receive light anti @-@ aircraft guns and her forward funnel was given a more sinuous curve to direct its exhaust gases away from the forward superstructure . She completed these alterations in 1938 , but was returned to the dockyard from December 1939 through July 1940 to receive a new armored deck and anti @-@ torpedo bulges which cured her stability problems and greatly increased her underwater protection at a modest cost in speed . = = = World War II = = = = = = = Baltic Fleet = = = = The participation of Marat and Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya in the Winter War was limited to a bombardment of Finnish coastal artillery in December 1939 at Saarenpää in the Beryozovye Islands before the Gulf of Finland iced over . They failed to inflict any permanent damage before being driven off by near misses . Both ships had their anti @-@ aircraft armament modernized and reinforced over the winter of 1939 – 40 and were transferred to Tallinn shortly after the Soviets occupied Estonia in 1940 . Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya received more AA guns in February – March 1941 . Parizhskaya Kommuna received a more modest number of AA guns while she was receiving her bulges , but landed four 120 @-@ mm guns right before the Germans invaded . On 22 June 1941 , the Germans attacked the Soviet Union under the codename of Operation Barbarossa ; on that date Marat was in Kronstadt and Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya was in Tallinn . The latter was soon forced to fall back to Kronstadt by the speed of the German advance and neither of the Baltic Fleet dreadnoughts participated in combat until 8 September when they fired on troops of the German 18th Army from positions near Kronstadt and Leningrad . Marat was lightly damaged by German 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns on 16 September and had her bow blown off on 23 September by two bomb hits . One of which was claimed by Lieutenant Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel of III . / StG 2 flying a Junkers Ju 87B ' Stuka ' , that detonated her forward magazine . She sank in the shallow water from progressive flooding , but was raised and used as a floating artillery battery for the rest of the war using two , and later , three of her gun turrets . Marat reverted to her original name on 31 May 1943 . Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya was badly damaged on 21 September 1941 by three bomb hits on her bow that knocked out two of her turrets . She was sent for repairs at the Ordzhonikidze Yard on 23 October , although she was hit by more bombs on two different occasions while under repair until November 1942 . Her AA armament was further reinforced during this period and Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya returned to her mission of providing fire support during the Siege of Leningrad , the Leningrad – Novgorod Offensive in January 1944 and the Vyborg – Petrozavodsk Offensive in June 1944 . She was the last Soviet battleship to fire shots in anger on 9 June 1944 during the latter offensive . On 22 July 1944 , the ship was awarded the Order of the Red Banner . Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya received a Lend @-@ Lease British Type 279 air @-@ warning radar sometime during 1944 . During the late 1930s Frunze was used as a barracks hulk while she was stripped for parts , until she was formally discarded 1 December 1940 , after scrapping had already begun at a leisurely pace . After the German invasion she was towed to Kronstadt and run aground in late July 1941 near the Leningrad Sea Canal . During the Siege of Leningrad her hull was used as a base for small ships . Frunze raised on 31 May 1944 , towed to Leningrad and scrapped beginning in 1949 . = = = = Black Sea Fleet = = = = Parizhskaya Kommuna was in Sevastopol and remained until 30 October 1941 when she was evacuated to Novorossiysk after the Germans had breached Soviet defensive lines near the Perekop Isthmus . The ship fired her first shots of the war on 28 – 29 November when she bombarded German and Romanian troops south of Sevastopol . Parizhskaya Kommuna made one evacuation run to Sevastopol on 29 December , bombarding German troops on her arrival , but spent most of her time supporting troops during the Kerch Offensive in January – March 1942 . She fired her last shots of the war at targets near Feodosiya during the nights of 20 – 22 March 1942 before returning to Poti to have her worn @-@ out 12 @-@ inch guns relined . By the time this was finished the Soviets were unwilling to expose such a prominent ship to German air attacks , which had already sunk a number of cruisers and destroyers . She returned to her original name on 31 May 1943 , but remained in Poti until late 1944 when she led the surviving major units of the Black Sea Fleet back to Sevastopol on 5 November . British Type 290 and 291 air @-@ warning radars were fitted during the war . Sevastopol was awarded the Order of the Red Banner on 8 July 1945 . = = = Postwar = = = Sevastopol and Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya remained on the active list after the end of the war although little is known of their activities . Both were reclassified as ' school battleships ' ( uchebnyi lineinyi korabl ) on 24 July 1954 and stricken on 17 February 1956 . Their scrapping began that same year although Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya 's hulk was still in existence in May 1958 . After the war there were several plans ( Project 27 ) to reconstruct Petropavlovsk , as she was now known , using the bow of Frunze and moving her third turret to the forward position , but they were not accepted and were formally cancelled on 29 June 1948 . She was renamed Volkhov , after the nearby river , on 28 November 1950 and served as a stationary training ship until stricken on 4 September 1953 and broken up afterwards . After World War II two of Frunze 's turrets and their guns were used to rebuild Coast Defense Battery 30 ( Maksim Gor 'kii I ) in Sevastopol . It remained in service with the Soviet Navy through 1997 .
= Seaxburh of Ely = Seaxburh ( Old English : Sexburh ) ; also Saint Sexburga of Ely , ( died about 699 ) was the queen of King Eorcenberht of Kent , as well as an abbess and a saint of the Christian Church . Seaxburh 's sisters were Æthelburg of Faremoutiers , Saethryth , Æthelthryth and possibly Withburga . Her marriage to Eorcenberht produced two sons , both of whom ruled , and two daughters . After her husband 's death in 664 , Seaxburh remained in Kent to bring up her children . She acted as regent until her young son Ecgberht came of age . Seaxburh founded the abbeys at Milton Regis and Minster @-@ in @-@ Sheppey , where her daughter Ermenilda was also a nun . She moved to the double monastery at Ely where her sister Æthelthryth was abbess and succeeded her when Æthelthryth died in 679 . According to Bede , in 695 , Seaxburh organised the movement ( or translation ) of Æthelthryth 's remains to a marble sarcophagus , after they had lain for sixteen years in a common grave . On opening the grave , it was discovered that her body was miraculously preserved . The legend is described in Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People , which celebrates the saintly virtues of Æthelthryth , but speaks less highly of Seaxburh , referring only to her marriage , succession as abbess and translation of her sister 's relics . The date of Seaxburh 's death at Ely is not known . The surviving versions of the Vita Sexburge , compiled after 1106 , describe her early life , marriage to Eorcenberht , retirement from secular life and her final years as a nun and abbess at Ely . = = Family = = Seaxburh was a daughter of Anna , King of East Anglia , the son of Eni , who ruled the East Angles from the early 640s and was slain together with his son Jurmin , at the Battle of Bulcamp in 653 or 654 . She was the sister of Æthelburg and Saethryth , who were both abbesses of Faremoutiers Abbey in Brie , and also the sister of Æthelthryth , who married firstly Tonberht , an ealderman of the South Gyrwe in the Fens , and secondly Ecgfrith of Northumbria . Withburga , who died in 743 , may also have been her sister . Seaxburh married Eorcenberht of Kent , and was the mother of kings Ecgberht ( d . 673 ) , Hlothhere ( d . 685 ) , and of Saints Eormenhild and Ercengota . Seaxburh was buried at Ely with her sisters Æthelthryth Wihtburh , and with her daughter Eormenhild . = = Marriage and widowhood = = Seaxburh was connected with the royal family of the Magonsætan by her marriage to Eorcenberht , who was king of Kent from 640 to 664 . Eorcenberht was the great @-@ uncle of Mildburh and her sisters , the daughters of King Merewalh of the Magonsætan . Their sons Ecgberht and Hlothhere both became kings of Kent . Their daughter Ercongota was a nun at Faremoutiers , who was eventually canonised . Eorcenberht is mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle within the annal for 640 : " Then his son Eorcenberht succeeded to the kingdom ; he overthrew all devil @-@ worship in his kingdom , and was the first of the English kings to establish the Easter festival " . In the same passage is the Chronicle 's single reference to Seaxburh and Eorcengota , " ... þaes dohter wæs ge haten Erchongata halifemne. and wundorlic man. thære modor wæs Sexburh Annan dohter East Engla ciningas " – ' ... his daughter was called Eorcengota , a holy and a remarkable person , whose mother was Seaxburh , daughter of Anna , king of the East Anglians ' . Seaxburh and Eorcenberht had a second daughter , Ermenilda , who married Wulfhere of Mercia and after his death became a nun and was later canonised . According to Barbara Yorke , Seaxburh 's marriage was itself of seminal importance in the establishment of monastic life for women during the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , as she became an example of an ex @-@ queen who made retreating to an nunnery a desirable royal vocation . Eorcenberht died on 14 July 664 , in an outbreak of plague that occurred that year . After her husband 's death , Seaxburh remained in Kent to bring up her children . She played an important political and religious influence in the kingdom : she acted as regent for her son Ecgberht , ruling Kent until her young son came of age , and was the founder of Kent 's first abbey for women at Milton . Thereafter , Seaxburh became a nun and founded the abbey of Minster @-@ in @-@ Sheppey . According to the Liber Eliensis , a 12th @-@ century chronicle and history written at Ely , an English source related that Seaxburh received " the veil of holiness " from Theodore , the Archbishop of Canterbury , in her church on the Isle of Sheppey and that her daughter Eormenhild also became a nun there . Seaxburh is said by her hagiographer to have sought refuge as a nun after living a secular role that she had found hard to tolerate : having reluctantly submitted to marriage , she hastened from queenhood to " a timely widowhood and a hasty withdrawal to the religious life " , according to Susan Ridyard . For a family tree of the ancestors of Seaxburh , see Wuffingas . = = Religious life at Ely = = Shortly afterwards Seaxburh moved to the double monastery at Ely , which was the precursor to Ely Cathedral , and where her sister Æthelthryth was abbess . The historian Barbara Yorke mentions the possibility that Seaxburh and her namesake Seaxburh of Wessex were the same person , but also notes that the accounts of Seaxburh 's religious life at Ely contradict this suggestion . According to Yorke , Seaxburh 's retirement to Ely is an example an Anglo @-@ Saxon custom , represented in a law , whereby a married woman remained the responsibility of the paternal side of her family , perhaps to spend the rest of her days as a nun or an abbess . Described by the Liber Eliensis as a " pretiosa virago " , or precious lady @-@ warrior , she succeeded as abbess when Æthelthryth died , probably of plague , in 679 . Seaxburh 's previous political experience in East Anglia and Kent would have been useful in preparing her for the role of abbess at the double monastery at Ely . In 695 , in a vivid demonstration of the dynastic value of the cult of royal saints in Anglo @-@ Saxon England , Seaxburh decided to translate the remains of her sister Æthelthryth , who had been dead for sixteen years , from a common grave to the new church at Ely . Professor Patrick Sims @-@ Williams has identified Seaxburh as " the chief mover behind the translation of her body and the promulagation of her cult " . The Liber Eliensis describes these events in detail . When her grave was opened , Æthelthryth 's body was discovered to be uncorrupted and her coffin and clothes proved to possess miraculous powers . A sarcophagus made of white marble was taken from the Roman ruins at Grantchester , which was found to be the right fit for Æthelthryth . The architectural historian John Crook questions how such miraculous coincidences feature in hagiographies ( the studies of the lives of saints ) , when he observes that " the miraculous discovery of a suitable coffin is , however , a hagiographic commonplace " . Seaxburh 's supervised the preparation of her sister 's body , which was washed and wrapped in new robes before being reburied . She apparently oversaw the translation of her sister 's remains without the supervision of her bishop , using her knowledge of procedures gained from her family 's links with the abbey at Faremoutiers as a basis for the ceremony . The fourth book of the Ecclesiastical History of the English People , completed by the Northumbrian monk Bede in 731 , celebrates the monastery at Ely and focuses on Æthelthryth 's piety and the translation of her relics . Bede does not mention the matrilinear succession established at Ely by Æthelthryth , where power passed in turn to Seaxburh before subsequently transferring to Seaxburh 's daughter Eormenhild and to her granddaughter , Werburh . He praises the virtues of Æthelthryth , a princess who was married twice but still preserved her virginity . Seaxburh receives little praise from Bede , as she had borne children before becoming a nun . He only mentions Seaxburh 's marriage to Eorcenberht , succession as abbess and translation of her sister 's relics . = = Death and veneration = = The date of Seaxburh 's death is not known , but when she died at Ely , she was at " a good , late age " , according to the Liber Eliensis , which also related that ' Richard , Bishop of Ely ' translated the remains of Seaxburh and of " all the saintly women reposing in that place " . Her feast day is 6 July . Seaxburh is mentioned in a written account of Kent 's earliest Christian kings and their canonised relatives , known as the Kentish Royal Legend ( Old English : Þá hálgan ) . These kings , queens and princesses were unified by their holiness and royal connections . Pauline Stafford notes that the Legend " may have been a Christian alternative to pagan genealogy " to the rulers of 10th- and 11th @-@ century mediaeval England , as it described an earlier period of sustained Christian piety within the royal dynasty of Kent . Being both a queen and a saint , Seaxburh was held in high regard within the Legend : within it her role as queen and the founder of the minster at Sheppey was highlighted . The 1913 edition of the Catholic Encyclopedia lists several separate accounts of the saint 's deeds and miracles , or so @-@ called Lives . The Life ( or Vita ) printed in John Capgrave 's Nova , Legenda and used by the Bollandists , was perhaps copied from a Cotton manuscript in the British Museum . There is another Vita in Latin in the same collection , but it was so damaged by fire that it is useless . The surviving versions of the Vita Sexburge were compiled after 1106 ( the year the relics of Seaxburh were translated ) and are copies from an earlier manuscript , now lost . The Vita describes Seaxburh 's early life , marriage to Eorcenberht , withdrawal to Milton and then Minster @-@ in @-@ Sheppey , and her final years as a nun and the abbess at Ely . The section relating to her life at Sheppey is similar to another fragment , dating between the 9th and 11th centuries , and currently kept at Lambeth Palace . It has been suggested that part of the Vita Sexburge was derived from this manuscript , or that both parts originated from an earlier version of Seaxburh 's Life .
= Dan Gibbs = Dan Gibbs ( born c . 1976 ) is a legislator in the U.S. state of Colorado . Gibbs worked as an outdoor guide and as a staffer for U.S. Representative Mark Udall before being elected to the Colorado House of Representatives as a Democrat in 2006 . In the legislature , Gibbs was noted for his focus on transportation and environment issues in the state legislature , particularly in response the fire dangers posted by Colorado 's mountain pine beetle epidemic — Gibbs is a volunteer wildland firefighter and has served fighting fires in Colorado and California . Gibbs was appointed to a vacancy in the Colorado State Senate in late 2007 , won election to a Senate term of his own in 2008 , and currently represents a multi @-@ county region stretching from the Colorado Front Range near Boulder into Rocky Mountain ski country west of Denver . Gibbs rose quickly to chair the Colorado Senate 's Transportation Committee , but announced that he would seek election to a Summit County Commissioner seat in 2010 rather than run for another term in the legislature . = = Biography = = Gibbs ' parents were both public school teachers and later school principals ; they divorced when Gibbs was young and he split his childhood between Gunnison , Colorado and East Lansing , Michigan . He was influenced at an early age toward public service after meeting former U.S. President Jimmy Carter . Gibbs earned a bachelor 's degree in sociology from Western State College , and then attended the University of Colorado at Denver , where he worked towards a graduate degree in political science . Gibbs has worked in the timber industry , as a manager with a whitewater rafting company in Lake Luzerne , New York , and as an outdoor adventure guide in Gunnison , Colorado . As a local businessperson , he was a member of and diplomat for the Summit Chamber of Commerce , and was elected to their board for a three @-@ year term in 2006 . An athlete and outdoorsman , Gibbs has competed in marathon and ultramarathon running races ( including the Leadville Trail 100 ) and helped coach the Battle Mountain High School cross @-@ country ski team . He has also volunteered with Habitat for Humanity , Eagle River Clean Up , and the I @-@ 70 Clean Up Team , and sat on the boards of Club 20 , the High Country Conservation Center , the Vail @-@ Eagle Valley Rotary Club , and Vail Valley Hospital Home Health / Hospice . He has cited being a volunteer youth mentor with the Buddy Mentors program as his most meaningful volunteer experience . Gibbs worked in the Washington , DC office of U.S. Congressman Mark Udall before becoming the director for Udall 's Western Slope office in Minturn in 2003 . As a Congressional staffer , Gibbs sat on the Congressional Legislative Staff Association Board of Directors . He also helped launch the Summit County Young Democrats in 2004 . = = Legislative career = = = = = 2006 election = = = Currently a resident of Silverthorne , Colorado , Gibbs first ran for the state legislature in 2006 for a seat being vacated by Gary Lindstrom , who served as his campaign chair . Running for office at the age of 30 , Gibbs faced criticism for his relative youth and inexperience , however , spending over $ 90 @,@ 000 on his campaign — more than twice as much as Republican opponent Ken Chlouber , — Gibbs ultimately defeated Chlouber by a 2 : 1 margin . His constituency , House District 56 , encompassed Eagle , Lake and Summit Counties , including the skiing communities of Vail and Breckenridge . = = = 2007 legislative session = = = In his first year in the legislature — the 2007 session of the Colorado General Assembly — Gibbs sat on the House Agriculture , Livestock and Natural Resources Committee and was Vice @-@ Chair of the House Transportation and Energy Committee . That same year , Gibbs was also appointed to the Colorado Interbasin Water Compact Committee and the board of directors of the Colorado Tourism office . Starting when he was a staffer for Congressman Udall and continuing into his legislative career , Gibbs promoted increased government assistance on forest management issues , particularly in response to the increased fire danger caused by mountain pine beetle infestations . In the legislature , Gibbs sponsored legislation which established the Colorado Community Forest Restoration grant program , setting aside $ 1 million for projects to reduce fire risks . The bill was signed into law by Gov. Bill Ritter and ultimately yielded $ 176 @,@ 000 for forest restoration projects within Gibbs ' district . Following the legislative session , in order to better understand issues surrounding forest wildfires , Gibbs trained for and received certification in wildland firefighting , becoming certified Type II Wildland Firefighter with Lake Dillon Fire @-@ Rescue . Gibbs ' first deployment as a volunteer firefighter was to assist fighting the Santiago Fire during the October 2007 California wildfire epidemic . After successfully sponsoring a 2007 bill requiring collaboration between the Colorado Oil and Gas Commission and Colorado Division of Wildlife to minimize the impact on wildlife from oil and gas drilling , Gibbs testified before the U.S. House 's Natural Resources committee on cooperative efforts between oil and environmental interests . After initial resistance , Gibbs also successfully pushed legislation in 2007 to increase penalties for truck drivers who fail to comply with Colorado 's law requiring snow chain on roads in winter , a move designed to improve accessibility and safety on I @-@ 70 , which bisected Gibbs ' house district . In later years , Gibbs and state officials attributed decreases in accidents and tickets issued for violating the chain law to the passage of the bill . Gibbs was named to the interim Transportation Legislation Review Committee at the end of the 2007 regular session . = = = 2007 senate appointment = = = Following the resignation of Colorado Senate President Joan Fitz @-@ Gerald in November 2007 , Gibbs was unanimously elected by a vacancy committee to take her seat in the Colorado State Senate . He resigned from the House of Representatives at 9 a.m. on Tuesday , December 11 , 2007 , and was sworn into the Colorado State Senate an hour later to represent Senate District 16 , which covers Clear Creek Gilpin , Grand , Summit and portions of western Boulder and Jefferson counties . Because of his interim appointment , Gibbs faced an election in November 2008 to retain his new Senate seat . Christine Scanlan was appointed to fill Gibbs ' vacant house seat on December 19 , 2007 . = = = 2008 legislative session = = = In his first year in the Colorado State Senate , Gibbs sat on the Senate Agriculture , Livestock , Natural Resources and Energy Committee and the Senate Transportation Committee — the counterparts of both of the House committees he served on — and was named vice @-@ chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee . He also co @-@ chaired the General Assembly 's Sportsmen 's Caucus . During the 2008 session , Gibbs sponsored a total of 26 bills as either the lead sponsor or the Senate sponsor of a House bill . Twenty @-@ two of his bills were passed — an average of more than one per week during the legislative session — including : the Colorado Forest Restoration Act , a reauthorization of Gibbs ' 2007 house bill to provide funds for local forest restoration projects through 2012 , cosponsored with Rep. Christine Scanlan ; the Workplace Accommodations for Working Mothers Act , which requires employers to provide accommodations for breastfeeding mothers ; the Firefighter Protection Act , which would grant additional legal protections for firefighters ; a bill clarifying rules regarding sales of gaming machines ; a bill to prohibit soft drinks from being sold at public schools , a bill lowering the blood alcohol limit for boat operators . a bill allowing water boards to issue bonds for fire @-@ mitigation projects . Several of Gibbs bills failed in committee , including legislation to provide $ 10 million in tax incentives for the film industry in Colorado . With Rep. Scanlan , Gibbs was a prominent opponent of several proposals to charge tolls along the I @-@ 70 mountain corridor within his district ; he later cited this as his most significant accomplishment of the session . In response to Gibbs ' efforts to advance understanding of the ongoing bark beetle epidemic , Colorado Gov. Bill Ritter signed an executive order in February 2008 creating the Colorado Forest Health Advisory Council ; Gibbs was named to the 24 @-@ member panel shortly after its creation . Following the legislative session , Gibbs was also named the chairman of an interim legislative committee to study wildfire issues , but was criticized by Republicans for delaying the start of the committee 's work . The following day , Gibbs announced plans for the committee 's first meeting . In July 2008 , Gibbs was a prominent critic of Denver Water 's sudden closure of the Lake Dillon Dam Road for security reasons . Shortly after the road was reopened , Gibbs and Rep. Christine Scanlan announced plans for legislation to prevent future unilateral closures and to encourage cooperation between agencies to share vulnerability assessments and emergency plans = = = 2008 election = = = In the 2008 general election , Gibbs faced Republican Don Ytterberg , whom he had outraised roughly $ 80 @,@ 000 to $ 50 @,@ 000 by mid @-@ October . Gibbs cited his track record of passing legislation and his connections and experience at the state capitol as part of his case for re @-@ election , and named wildfire and business concerns as his major priorities for a continued term in the Colorado Senate . He also called for reducing business personal property taxes and growing local small businesses . Gibbs ' re @-@ election bid was endorsed by the Denver Post , the Summit Daily News , and the Boulder Daily Camera , the Arvada Press , and the Golden Transcript . Gibbs raised over $ 100 @,@ 000 during his campaign to Ytterberg 's $ 60 @,@ 000 , and ultimately won re @-@ election with about 59 percent of the vote , taking three @-@ quarters of votes cast in Summit County , but losing narrowly to Ytterberg in suburban Jefferson County . = = = 2009 legislative session = = = In the 2009 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Gibbs rose to chair the Senate Transportation Committee and sat on the Senate Agriculture and Natural Resources Committee . Gibbs missed some of the opening ceremonies of the 2009 General Assembly after being called to help fight a wildfire near Boulder , Colorado ; his absence was cited by Gov. Ritter during the governor 's " State of the State " address . With Rep. Christine Scanlan , Gibbs travelled to Washington DC in February and in June to lobby for resources to deal with Colorado 's mountain pine beetle epidemic . Gibbs was the Senate sponsor of a major transportation proposal , introduced by Rep. Joe Rice and backed by Gov. Bill Ritter and other Democratic leaders , to increase transportation funding by $ 250 million per year , primarily for road and bridge repair , by increasing a range of vehicle registration fees . The proposal , labeled " FASTER , " an acronym for Funding Advancement for Surface Transportation and Economic Recovery , stalled in the state senate , but advanced after a compromise was reached to drop a pilot program to charge drivers based on vehicle miles travelled and to allow locally authorized toll roads. and eventually passed out of the legislature , FASTER was passed without the support of Republicans , who objected to the level of fee increases and called for resources besides fees to be used to support transportation . The increased registration fees drew significant protest from the public when they took effect in July 2009 . Other legislation sponsored by Gibbs included bills to extend Colorado 's habitat stamp program , to create a specialty license plate for skiing and snowboarding , to overhaul regulations on oil and gas drilling operations , and to facilitate local planning and fundraising for fighting wildfires . Gibbs was also viewed as one of the crucial swing votes on a measure to repeal the death penalty in Colorado and use the resulting savings to fund a statewide cold case unit . Although he first voted to remove the death penalty repeal from the legislation , he later voted in support of a version of the bill containing the repeal , which came within one vote of passing the legislature on the final day of the session . In January 2009 , Gibbs was named one of the Western Colorado Conservation Corps ' Legislators of the Year , and in May 2009 , he was the keynote speaker at Summit High School 's graduation . = = = 2010 election = = = In November 2009 , Gibbs announced that , rather than running for re @-@ election to the state senate in fall of 2010 , he would run for the Summit County Commissioner seat being vacated by Bob French . Gibbs 's retirement opened up a seat that Republicans viewed as a pickup opportunity . In 2014 , Gibbs discussed his preference for local politics : “ At the state level , it ’ s much more about whether you are a Republican or a Democrat and winning and losing , rather than making decisions that are good for Colorado . The more dysfunctional things get at the federal and state levels , the more people seem to come together at the local level to accomplish goals that are important to communities . ” In November 2014 , he easily defeated Republican Allen Bacher , winning re @-@ election by over 66 percent of the vote .
= St John Passion structure = The structure of the St John Passion ( German : Johannes @-@ Passion ) , BWV 245 , a sacred oratorio by Johann Sebastian Bach , is " carefully designed with a great deal of musico @-@ theological intent " . Some main aspects of the structure are shown in tables below . The original Latin title Paßio secundum Joannem translates to " The Passion after John " . Bach 's large choral composition in two parts on German text , written to be performed in a Lutheran service on Good Friday , is based on the Passion , as told in two chapters from the Gospel of John ( John 18 and John 19 ) in the translation by Martin Luther , with two short interpolations from the Gospel of Matthew ( in Version I , one from the Gospel of Matthew and one from the Gospel of Mark ) . During the vespers service , the two parts of the work were performed before and after the sermon . Part I covers the events until Peter 's denial of Jesus , Part II concludes with the burial of Jesus . The Bible text is reflected in contemporary poetry and in chorales that often end a " scene " of the narration , similar to the way a chorale ends most Bach cantatas . An anonymous poet supplied a few texts himself , quoted from other Passion texts and inserted chorales by nine hymnwriters . Bach led the first performance on 7 April 1724 in Leipzig 's Nikolaikirche . He repeated it several times between 1724 and 1749 , experimenting with different movements and changes to others , which resulted in four versions ( with a fifth one not performed , but representing the standard version ) . The Passion , close to Bach 's heart , has an " immediate dramatic quality " . = = Structure = = = = = Text = = = = = = = Gospel = = = = The gospel account by John narrates the story in five " scenes " . The corresponding movement numbers are given from the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe ( NBA ) . Part I Arrest ( 1 – 5 ) , Kidron Valley ( John 18 : 1 – 11 ) Denial ( 6 – 14 ) , palace of the high priest Kaiphas ( John 18 : 12 – 27 ) Part II Court hearing with Pontius Pilate ( 15 – 26 ) ( John 18 : 28 – 40 and John 19 : 1 – 22 ) Crucifixion and death ( 27 – 37 ) , Golgatha ( John 19 : 23 – 30 ) Burial ( 38 – 40 ) , burial site ( John 19 : 31 – 42 ) Some musicologists regard movement 24 as the conclusion of scene 3 , the aria " Eilt , ihr angefocht 'nen Seelen " which locates the action from the courthouse to Golgotha , the calvary . Others , including Alfred Dürr regard the scene as ending with the last comment by Pilate . Bach incorporated two short interpolations from the Gospel of Matthew ( in Version I , one from Matthew and one from the Gospel of Mark ) , Matthew 26 : 75 after John 18 : 27 , describing the weeping of Peter , and Matthew 27 : 51 – 52 after John 19 : 30 , describing the tearing of the temple curtain ( in Version I , this was replaced by Mark 15 : 38 ) . The narrator is the Evangelist , a tenor , Jesus and all other male characters are sung by a bass , the people who are often summarily called die Jüden ( the Jews ) are sung by a four @-@ part chorus ( SATB ) in dramatic turba movements . The " immediate , dramatic quality " of the " kind of musical equivalent of the Passion Play " relies on the setting of the interaction between the historical persons ( Jesus , Pilate , Peter ) and the crowd ( " soldiers , priests , and populace " ) . = = = = Chorales = = = = At eleven points in the structure , chorales reflect the narration , stanzas from Lutheran hymns . Possibly Bach had an influence on their selection . He set them all in common time for four parts , the instruments playing with the voices . Five chorales conclude a scene ( in movements 5 , 14 , 26 , 37 and 40 ) , a chorale opens Part II ( 15 ) . Five chorales comment within a scene ( 3 , 11 , 17 , 22 , 28 ) . including the central movement of the whole Passion ( 22 ) . One chorale accompanies the bass soloist in an aria ( 32 ) . Most chorale texts were written in the 16th and 17th century , by authors of the Reformation such as Martin Luther , Martin Schalling and Michael Weiße , and by hymn writers including Paul Gerhardt and Johann Heermann . The central chorale is not part of a common hymn . = = = = Contemporary text = = = = On a third level of text , contemporary poetry reflects the biblical narration . It was compiled by an unknown author , who partly used existing text . From the Brockes Passion ( Der für die Sünde der Welt Gemarterte und Sterbende Jesus , aus den IV Evangelisten , Hamburg , 1712 and 1715 ) by Barthold Heinrich Brockes , he copied for movements 7 , 19 , 20 , 24 , 32 , 34 , a part of 35 and 39 . He found movement 13 in Christian Weise 's Der Grünen Jugend Nothwendige Gedanken ( Leipzig , 1675 ) and took from Christian Heinrich Postel 's Johannes @-@ Passion ( c . 1700 ) movements 19 ( partly ) , 22 and 30 . = = = Scoring = = = The work is scored for vocal soloists , soprano , alto , tenor and bass , a four part choir SATB , and an orchestra of two flauto traverso ( Ft ) , two oboes ( Ob ) , two oboes da caccia ( Oc ) , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo . Bach added some instruments in arias for special effects , old @-@ fashioned already at the time , such as archlute , viola d 'amore and viola da gamba ( Vg ) . Bach did not differentiate the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) , singing the words of Jesus , from the other bass recitatives and arias , nor the evangelist from the tenor arias . = = = Symmetry = = = The work displays a thoughtful symmetry . In the center of the five parts is the court hearing which confronts Jesus , Pilate and the people . In the middle of the hearing , a chorale ( 22 ) interrupts the argument , which talks about prison and freedom . It is surrounded by two choral movements , which not only both ask for the crucifixion of Jesus , but also use the same musical motifs , the second time intensified . Again in symmetry of similar musical material , a preceding turba choir explains the law , while a corresponding movement reminds Pilate of the emperor whose authority is challenged by someone calling himself a king . Preceding this , Jesus is greeted in mockery as the king , corresponding in motif to the later request that Pilate should change the inscription saying he is the king to that he claimed to be king . = = = Versions = = = Bach led the first performance on 7 April 1724 at the Nikolaikirche ( St. Nicholas ) as part of a Vesper service on Good Friday . Part I was performed before the sermon , Part II after the sermon . Bach performed a second version on Good Friday a year later , 30 March 1725 . Other changes date from between 1728 and 1732 ( version 3 ) , and between 1738 and 1748 ( version 4 ) . In version 2 , Bach opened with a chorale fantasia on " O Mensch , bewein dein Sünde groß " ( O man , bewail thy sins so great ) , the first stanza of a 1525 hymn by Sebald Heyden , a movement which he ultimately used to conclude Part I of his St Matthew Passion , returning to the previous chorus Herr , unser Herrscher in later versions of the St John Passion . He used three alternative arias , one of them with a chorale sung by the choir , and replaced the two closing movements , the chorus " Ruht wohl " and the chorale " Ach Herr , laß dein lieb Engelein " with the chorale fantasia " Christe , du Lamm Gottes " ( Christ , you Lamb of God ) , the German Agnus Dei , published in Braunschweig in 1528 . Bach took this movement from his cantata Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn , BWV 23 , which had been an audition piece for the Leipzig post . Before , it had been part of his Weimarer Passion of 1717 . In version 3 , after Bach wrote his St Matthew Passion , he returned the opening chorus Herr , unser Herrscher and the final chorus " Ruht wohl " to their first position , but eliminated the Gospel passages after Matthew and the closing chorale . In version 4 , Bach returned to the first version , possibly in 1739 , but revised it thoroughly . He began a new score which covers 12 movements . As Christoph Wolff observes : " The fragmentary revised score constitutes an extensive stylistic overhaul with painstaking improvements to the part @-@ writing and a partial restructuring of the instrumentation ; particular attention was paid to the word @-@ setting in the recitatives and the continuo accompaniment . " In 1749 , Bach performed the St John Passion once more , to become his last performance of a Passion . Wolff writes : " Bach experimented with the St John Passion as he did with no other large @-@ scale composition " , possible by the work 's structure with the Gospel text as its backbone and interspersed features that could be exchanged . Wolff concludes : " the work accompanied Bach right from his first year as Kantor of St Thomas 's to the penultimate year of his life and thus , for that reason alone , how close it must have been to his heart . = = Overview = = In the following , the movement numbers are those of the NBA , version I , unless otherwise noted . = = = The chorales in detail = = = The first chorale , movement 3 , is inserted after Jesus said to arrest him , but let the disciples go . " O große Lieb , o Lieb ohn alle Maße " ( O mighty love , O love beyond all measure ) is stanza 7 of Johann Heermann 's 1630 hymn " Herzliebster Jesu , was hast du verbrochen " . In personal reflection , the speaker sees the contrast of his pleasure in the world and the suffering of Jesus , ending in a short " Und du mußt leiden " ( And thou must suffer ) . The second chorale , movement 5 , ends the first scene ( of the arrest ) , after Jesus remarks that he has to be obedient . " Dein Will gescheh , Herr Gott , zugleich " ( Thy will be done , Lord God , alike ) is stanza 4 of Luther 's 1539 hymn " Vater unser im Himmelreich , a paraphrase of the Lord 's Prayer . The third chorale , movement 11 , is inserted after Jesus asks the one who beat him for justification . Two stanzas from Paul Gerhardt 's 1647 hymn " O Welt , sieh hier dein Leben " comment the scene , stanza 3 , " Wer hat dich so geschlagen " ( Who hath thee now so stricken ) , and stanza 4 , " Ich , ich und meine Sünden " ( I , I and my transgressions ) , highlighting the personal responsibility of the speaking sinner for the suffering of Jesus . The fourth chorale , movement 14 , ends the second scene ( of the arrest ) and Part I. After the denial of Peter , " Petrus , der nicht denkt zurück " ( Peter , when he fails to think ) summarizes the scene in stanza 10 of Paul Stockmann 's 1633 hymn " Jesu Leiden , Pein und Tod " . The fifth chorale , movement 15 , opens Part II and the third scene ( of the court hearing ) . " Christus , der uns selig macht " ( Christ , who hath us blessed made ) , stanza 1 of Michael Weiße 's 1531 hymn , summarizes what Jesus has to endure although innocent ( " made captive , ... falsely indicted , and mocked and scorned and bespat " ) . The sixth chorale , movement 17 , comments in two more stanzas from " Herzliebster Jesu " ( 3 ) , after Jesus addressed the different kind of his kingdom . Stanza 8 , " Ach großer König , groß zu allen Zeiten " ( Ah King so mighty , mighty in all ages ) reflects the kingdom and the need for thanksgiving , stanza 9 the inability to grasp it , " Ich kanns mit meinen Sinnen nicht erreichen " ( I cannot with my reason ever fathom ) . The seventh chorale , movement 22 , is the central movement of the whole Passion , which interrupts the conversation of Pilate and the crowd by a general statement of the importance of the passion for salvation : " Durch dein Gefängnis , Gottes Sohn , ist uns die Freiheit kommen " ( Through this thy prison , Son of God , must come to us our freedom ) is not part of a known hymn , but the text of an aria from a St John Passion by Postel from c . 1700 . The seventh chorale , movement 26 , ends the scene of the court hearing , after Pilate refuses to change the inscription . " In meines Herzens Grunde " ( Within my heart 's foundation ) is stanza 3 of Valerius Herberger 's 1613 hymn " Valet will ich dir geben " . The eighth chorale , movement 28 , is related to Jesus telling his mother and John to take care of each other . " Er nahm alles wohl in acht " ( He of all did well take heed ) is stanza 20 of Stockmann 's hymn ( 14 ) . The ninth chorale , movement 32 , is part of the bass aria which follows immediately after the report of the death of Jesus . " Jesu , der du warest tot , lebest nun ohn ' Ende " ( Jesus , thou who suffered death , livest now forever ) is the final stanza of Stockmann 's hymn ( 14 ) . The tenth chorale , movement 37 , ends the scene of the crucifixion . " O hilf , Christ , Gottes Sohn " ( O help , Christ , O Son of God ) is stanza 8 of Weiße 's hymn ( 15 ) . The eleventh chorale , movement 40 , ends the Passion . " Ach Herr , laß dein lieb Engelein " ( Ah Lord , let thine own angels dear ) is stanza 3 of Martin Schalling 's 1569 hymn " Herzlich lieb hab ich dich , o Herr " . = = = Tables of movements = = = The following tables give an overview of all versions of the Passion , first performed in 1724 . Two versions of movement numbers are given , first that of the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe ( NBA ) , then that of the older Bach @-@ Werke @-@ Verzeichnis ( BWV ) . Voices appear in one of three columns , depending on the text source , Bible , contemporary poetic reflection , and chorale . The instrumentation is added , using abbreviations for instruments , followed by key and time signature , and the NBA number of a corresponding movement within the work 's symmetry . = = = = Version I = = = = There are no extant Flute parts for this version , so the movements that normally require them have Violins doubling on them . This was performed in 1724 . The Bach Compendium lists it as BC D 2a = = = = Part I = = = = = = = = Part II = = = = = = = = Version II = = = = For this version ( of 1725 ) , in addition to the Flute parts ( which were first used in late 1724 ( after 1 . Sunday after Trinity ) , Bach revised heavily both text and music . He added five movements from his Weimarer Passion , with three texts now thought to be by Christoph Birkmann . This is listed as BC 2b . = = = = Part I = = = = = = = = Part II = = = = = = = = Version III = = = = In this version , Bach reverted to the original layout ( thus discarding the previous revisions and additions ) . However , he decided to compose a true St. John Passion , and thus eliminated the material inserted from the Gospel of Matthew . Now 12c ends in Measure 31 and Movement 33 is eliminated altogether ( replaced by a lost Sinfonia ) . He also dispensed with the Lute and the Viola d 'amore , replacing them with an Organ and Violini con sordino . It was possibly performed in 1728 and definitely in 1732 . This is listed as BC D 2c . = = = = Part I = = = = = = = = Part II = = = = = = = = Standard Version ( 1739 @-@ 1749 ) = = = = Essentially a reworking of the 1724 1st Version , this version is the most detail @-@ oriented revisioning of the work . On 17 March 1739 , while still working on this revision , Bach was informed that the performance of the Passion setting could not go ahead without official permission , thus ( most likely ) effectively halting any plans for that year . In response , Bach performed the Brockes @-@ Passion of his friend , Georg Philipp Telemann ( TVWV 5 : 1 ) . However , though he was stopped at M. 42 of Movement 10 , he continued to work on his revision , as borne out by the Copyist 's score and parts . It is listed as BC D 2e . = = = = Part I = = = = = = = = Part II = = = = = = = = Version IV = = = = Essentially a re @-@ production of Version I with a few alterations ( text changes in Movements 9 , 19 & 20 , instrumentation reflection of Version III ) . It was performed in 1749 and ( most likely ) repeated in 1750 . It also represents ( outside of the St. Matthew Passion ) the largest instrumental ensemble used ( calling for 3 1st Violins ) , and ( for the first time in his work ) calls for a Contrabassoon ( used in all choral parts , as well as instrumental ritornellos ) . It is listed as BC D 2d . = = = = Part I = = = = = = = = Part II = = = = = = = Scores = = = Johannespassion : Scores at the International Music Score Library Project " St. John passion ( first version ) BWV 245 ; BC D 2a " . Leipzig University . 1973 . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . " St. John passion ( second version ) BWV 245 ; BC D 2b " . Leipzig University . 1973 . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . " St. John passion ( third version ) BWV 245 ; BC D 2c " . Leipzig University . 1973 . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . " St. John passion ( fourth version ) BWV 245 ; BC D 2d " . Leipzig University . 1973 . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . " St. John passion ( standard version ) BWV 245 ; BC D 2e " . Leipzig University . 1973 . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . " Johannespassion , BWV 245 ( Johann Sebastian Bach ) " . CPDL Free Choral Sheet Music . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . " Johannespassion Version II , BWV 245 ( Johann Sebastian Bach ) " . Carus @-@ Verlag . Retrieved 23 April 2016 . " Johannespassion Version IV , BWV 245 ( Johann Sebastian Bach ) " . Carus @-@ Verlag . Retrieved 23 April 2016 . " Johannespassion ( Traditional Version ) , BWV 245 ( Johann Sebastian Bach ) " . Carus @-@ Verlag . Retrieved 23 April 2016 . = = = Books = = = Chafe , Eric T. ( 1989 ) . Franklin , Don O. , ed . The St John Passion : theology and musical structure , in : Bach Studies , Volume 1 . CUP Archive . ISBN 0 @-@ 52 @-@ 134105 @-@ 1 . Dürr , Alfred ( 1999 ) . Johann Sebastian Bach , Die Johannes @-@ Passion / Entstehung , Überlieferung , Werkeinführung ( in German ) . Bärenreiter . ISBN 3 @-@ 7618 @-@ 1473 @-@ 9 . Scholz , Gottfried ( 2000 ) . Bachs Passionen : ein musikalischer Werkführer ( in German ) . C.H.Beck. ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 43305 @-@ 7 . Steinberg , Michael ( 2005 ) . Saint John Passion , in : Choral Masterworks : A Listener 's Guide . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 802921 @-@ 7 . = = = Online sources = = = Ambrose , Z. Philip ( 2012 ) . " BWV 245 Johannes @-@ Passion " . University of Vermont . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Bischof , Walter F. ( 2012 ) . " BWV 245 Johannes @-@ Passion " . University of Alberta . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Braatz , Thomas ; Oron , Aryeh ( 2006 ) . " Chorale Melodies used in Bach 's Vocal Works / Machs mit mir , Gott , nach deiner Güt " . bach @-@ cantatas.com. Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Browne , Francis ( 2006 ) . " Durch dein Gefängnis , Gottes Sohn / Text and Translation of Chorale " . bach @-@ cantatas.com. Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Gardiner , John Eliot ( 2011 ) . " Bach 's first Leipzig Passion " ( PDF ) . bach @-@ cantatas.com. Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Johnston , Blair ( 2014 ) . " Johann Sebastian Bach / St. John Passion ( Johannespassion ) , BWV 245 ( BC D2 ) " . Allmusic . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Kolb , Gerhard . " Die Passionsgeschichte vom Leiden und Sterben Jesu Christi in der musikalischen Interpretation von J.S. Bach " ( in German ) . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 43305 @-@ 7 . Laffin , Frank ( 2007 ) . " J. S. Bach : Johannes @-@ Passion – Eine musikalische Analyse " ( PDF ) ( in German ) . gemeindemusikschule.de. Oron , Aryeh ( 2011 ) . " Johannes @-@ Passion BWV 245 " . bach @-@ cantatas . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Wolff , Christoph ( 2012 ) . " Bach : St John Passion " ( PDF ) . Hyperion Records . Retrieved 29 March 2014 . Wong , Audrey ( 2004 ) . " St. John Passion " . bach @-@ cantatas.com. Retrieved 12 April 2014 .
= Operation Pamphlet = Operation Pamphlet , also called Convoy Pamphlet , was a convoy operation of World War II conducted during January and February 1943 to transport the Australian Army 's 9th Division home from Egypt . The convoy involved five transports , which were protected from Japanese warships during their trip across the Indian Ocean and along the Australian coastline by several Allied naval task forces . The 9th Division boarded the ships during late January 1943 , and the convoy operation began on 4 February . No contact was made between Allied and Japanese ships , and the 9th Division arrived in Australian ports during late February with no losses from enemy action . The operation was initiated after the British and United States governments agreed to the Australian Government 's request that the 9th Division be transferred to Australia , thereby ending the Second Australian Imperial Force 's role in the North African Campaign . The division had seen extensive combat in North Africa , but was needed to bolster the forces available for planned offensive operations in the Pacific . After its return to Australia , the 9th Division was retrained for jungle warfare and made an important contribution to operations conducted in New Guinea during late 1943 . = = Background = = During 1940 and 1941 , three infantry divisions and other units assigned to I Corps of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) were transported to the Middle East , where they took part in several campaigns against German , Italian and French forces . Following the outbreak of the Pacific War , the corps headquarters and the 6th and 7th Divisions were returned to Australia in early 1942 to bolster the country 's defences ; the movement of these troops was designated Operation Stepsister . The Australian Government agreed to British and US requests to temporarily retain the 9th Division in the Middle East in exchange for the deployment of additional United States Army units to Australia and Britain 's support for a proposal to expand the Royal Australian Air Force to 73 squadrons . That year , the 9th Division played an important role in the First Battle of El Alamein during July 1942 and the Second Battle of El Alamein between 23 October and 4 November . The division suffered many casualties during the latter engagement , and did not take part in the pursuit of the retreating Axis forces . Several factors influenced the decision made by the Australian Government in October 1942 to recall the 9th Division to Australia . Firstly , the Government and the commander of the Australian Military Forces , General Thomas Blamey , wanted to relieve the 6th and 7th Divisions from combat in the New Guinea Campaign and Blamey considered the 9th Division to be better prepared for this responsibility than his militia forces or US Army units . Secondly , the commander of Allied forces in the South West Pacific Area , General Douglas MacArthur , had been pressing the US and Australian Governments for reinforcements to conduct offensive operations against Japanese positions . Other factors influencing the decision were a desire to concentrate the Australian Army in a single theatre , the increasing difficulty in finding replacements for the 9th Division 's casualties given the Army 's manpower shortages , the political difficulties associated with implementing reforms to permit militia units to serve outside Australian territory , and concerns that a prolonged absence from Australia would affect morale among the 9th Division 's soldiers . On 17 October 1942 , Australian Prime Minister John Curtin cabled British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to request that the 9th Division be returned to Australia . In the cable Curtin stated that , owing to Australia 's manpower shortage and the demands of the war in the Pacific , it was no longer possible to provide enough reinforcements to sustain the division in the Middle East . The British Government initially resisted this request on the grounds that the 9th Division was required for the upcoming offensive at El Alamein . On 29 October ( six days into the battle ) Curtin again cabled Churchill , stating that Australia needed the division in the Pacific and in a fit state to participate in offensive operations . On 1 November , US President Franklin D. Roosevelt wrote to Curtin proposing to send an additional army division to Australia if the Australian Government agreed to retain the 9th Division in the Middle East . Curtin , acting on the advice of MacArthur , responded to Roosevelt on 16 November rejecting this suggestion , and again requested that the 9th Division be returned . On 21 November , the commander of the 9th Division , Major General Leslie Morshead , was informed by General Harold Alexander , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Middle East Command , that a decision had been made to return the division to Australia . Churchill subsequently told the Australian Government on 2 December that while he was prepared to recommend to Roosevelt that the 9th Division be returned , the resultant diversion of shipping would reduce the size of the build @-@ up of United States military personnel in Britain and North Africa by 30 @,@ 000 men . In the same cable , Churchill also stated that due to a shortage of shipping the 9th Division 's heavy equipment would need to remain in the Middle East . On 3 December Roosevelt again wrote to Curtin to suggest that the 9th Division remain in the Middle East until the final defeat of the Axis forces in North Africa . Roosevelt also informed Curtin that the United States Army 's 25th Infantry Division would be transferred to Australia during December . Following these messages the Government sought advice from Blamey and MacArthur on whether it was necessary for the 9th Division to return with its heavy equipment , and was informed that the necessary supplies could be sourced from American resources once the unit arrived in Australia . Curtin replied to Churchill and Roosevelt on 8 December , and again stressed the need to return the 9th Division to Australia as soon as possible to make good the Army 's losses to tropical diseases and prepare for future offensives in the Pacific . In his message he agreed to leave the division 's heavy equipment in the Middle East , and requested only that it travel with items necessary to quickly re @-@ enter combat in the South West Pacific . No further debate took place , and on 15 December Churchill informed Curtin that shipping would be made available in late January to transport the division and a small portion of its equipment to Australia . = = Preparations = = The 9th Division 's role in the Second Battle of El Alamein ended on 5 November 1942 . From 30 November the division travelled to Palestine by road , and all its units arrived there by 9 December . After settling into camps located between Gaza and Qastina , the 9th Division undertook a period of rebuilding and training , and many soldiers were granted leave . On 22 December , a formal parade involving the entire division was conducted at Gaza Airport . Preparations to return the 9th Division to Australia began in late December 1942 . On 26 December , all of the AIF unit commanding officers in the Middle East were informed that their commands were to return to Australia ; the movement was code @-@ named " Liddington " . Tight security was instituted for this operation , and more junior personnel who needed to be informed of the move were told that their units were being transferred to Egypt . While many members of the AIF initially believed that they would take part in further fighting in the Mediterranean , as preparations continued it became obvious that the units were about to undertake a long sea voyage . The 9th Division 's artillery , tanks and other heavy equipment were transferred to ordnance depots during early January 1943 , and on the 16th of that month the division began moving to the Suez Canal area , from where it was to embark . The movement of the 9th Division took place in groups , each of which spent one or two days at a transit camp at Qassin where all vehicles were handed to British authorities . The Royal Navy also made preparations for the movement of the 9th Division back to Australia in late 1942 . Four large troop ships were allocated to the task , and the British Chiefs of Staff Committee initially proposed to Churchill that they sail across the Indian Ocean without a protective escort . However , as the eastern Indian Ocean was within range of Japanese warships based at Singapore this was judged to be unacceptably risky , especially as it was not likely that the movement of so many soldiers could be kept secret . Moreover , transporting the division without an escort would have violated the long @-@ standing policy of assigning at least one capital ship to protect troop convoys in this region , and would not have been accepted by the Australian government . In November , the Chiefs of Staff Committee decided to allocate an escort to the convoy , but did not specify what it should comprise . = = Voyage = = = = = Indian Ocean = = = The AIF began embarking on the troop ships on 24 January 1943 . The ships assigned to carry the troops home were the converted ocean liners Aquitania , Île de France , Nieuw Amsterdam and Queen Mary . The armed merchant cruiser HMS Queen of Bermuda provided escort , and also embarked 1 @,@ 731 Australian soldiers . As the Suez Canal ports were too small for the four troop ships to load simultaneously , the embarkation process was staged and the convoy 's five vessels sailed separately through the northern Red Sea and rendezvoused near Massawa in Eritrea . British destroyers HMS Pakenham , Petard , Derwent and Hero and the Greek destroyer Vasilissa Olga were transferred from the Mediterranean Fleet to guard the troop ships from attack by Japanese submarines as they passed through the Red Sea . Queen Mary was the first ship to complete loading , and left Port Tewfik on 25 January . She anchored at Massawa three days later , and the soldiers on board endured very hot conditions until she resumed her journey . Aquitania was next to load , and embarked the entire 20th Brigade between 25 and 30 January . Île de France completed loading and departed Egypt on 28 January , and Nieuw Amsterdam and Queen of Bermuda sailed together on 1 February . Overall , 30 @,@ 985 Australians were embarked on Queen of Bermuda and the converted liners ; Aquitania carried 6 @,@ 953 , Île de France 6 @,@ 531 , Nieuw Amsterdam had 9 @,@ 241 on board and 9 @,@ 995 sailed on Queen Mary . A total of 622 AIF personnel remained in the Middle East after the five ships departed Egypt , but this figure was steadily reduced to below 20 by March 1943 . The five ships of the convoy rendezvoused off Perim on the morning of 4 February , and passed Aden later that day . The destroyers left the convoy as it passed Cape Guardafui , and were replaced by the heavy cruiser HMS Devonshire and light cruiser HMS Gambia which were to serve as ocean escorts . Captain James Bisset , commander of the Queen Mary , served as the convoy commodore . The four large converted liners sailed in line abreast formation and Queen of Bermuda 's position varied based on the time of day and the situation . The convoy maintained a speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ) ; while the liners typically sailed at much higher speeds during their independent voyages , they were constrained by the maximum which Queen of Bermuda could maintain . After entering the Indian Ocean , the convoy sailed south @-@ east . The ships manoeuvred together in a zigzag course ; avoiding collisions during the frequent turns placed heavy demands on the watch @-@ keeping officers , who found their shifts exhausting . The troops endured very uncomfortable conditions on the crowded troop ships , but morale was high . They entertained themselves with sports , sun baking and gambling . The 9th Division 's officers enjoyed somewhat better conditions , which frustrated some of the other ranks . The convoy arrived at Addu Atoll on the evening of 9 February , and anchored there to refuel and take on supplies . This atoll served as a secret supply base for Allied ships in the Indian Ocean , and the Australian soldiers were not told where they were while the refuelling took place . The ships sailed again on the afternoon of 10 February . A strong escort force was provided to guard the convoy as it travelled through the eastern Indian Ocean . For this , most dangerous , stage of the journey Force " A " of the British Eastern Fleet sailed near the troop ships . The force comprised the battleships HMS Warspite , Resolution and Revenge , as well as the light cruiser HMS Mauritius and six destroyers . The Australian soldiers were pleased to see so many warships sailing near their ships on 10 February , though Force A later patrolled over the horizon from the convoy . As the convoy neared the Western Australian port of Fremantle , its escort was reinforced by the Dutch cruisers HNLMS Jacob van Heemskerck and Tromp , as well as the destroyers HNLMS Tjerk Hiddes and Van Galen . The ships arrived at Fremantle on 18 February . Nieuw Amsterdam and Queen of Bermuda berthed in Fremantle Harbour , and the other three troop ships dropped anchor at Gage Roads . The Western Australian members of the 9th Division were disembarked , and the ships loaded supplies and mail . As Queen of Bermuda left the convoy at Fremantle , her remaining 517 passengers were transferred to Nieuw Amsterdam . This resulted in considerable overcrowding on board the liner for the remainder of her voyage . = = = Australian waters = = = The Australian Government was concerned about the safety of the troop ships in Australian waters . At a meeting held on 17 February , the Advisory War Council considered recommending that the soldiers be moved to the east coast by rail . It decided against this option after being informed that , due to the limited capacity of the Trans @-@ Australian Railway , it would take several months to move the 30 @,@ 000 personnel . Instead , the council recommended that the convoy continue but be given " the maximum protection possible " . Due to the presence of Japanese submarines off the Australian coast , tight security measures were instituted after the convoy arrived at Fremantle ; civilian communications between Western Australia and the east coast were cut off for several days , and Curtin asked the media to not report the movement of the 9th Division . As part of a confidential briefing on 24 February , Curtin told journalists that he had not slept well for three weeks due to concerns for the safety of the convoy . When the convoy sailed from Fremantle on 20 February it was escorted by the Australian light cruiser HMAS Adelaide , as well as Jacob van Heemskerck and Tjerk Hiddes . It met the ships of Task Group 44 @.@ 3 on 24 February in the Great Australian Bight . This force comprised the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia and American destroyers USS Bagley , Helm and Henley , and had been dispatched from Sydney on 17 February to escort the troop ships . Adelaide and the Dutch warships left the convoy shortly afterwards to escort Nieuw Amsterdam into Melbourne ; the liner docked there on the afternoon of 25 February . Task Group 44 @.@ 3 escorted the remaining ships to Sydney , passing south of Tasmania . The escort was strengthened by Jacob van Heemskerck and the French destroyer Triomphant en route . The three converted liners arrived at Sydney on 27 February 1943 , completing Operation Pamphlet without loss . Despite the official secrecy concerning the convoy , large crowds assembled on vantage points around Sydney Harbour to watch the ships arrive . Queen Mary anchored off Bradleys Head and the other two liners berthed at Woolloomooloo . Curtin officially announced that the 9th Division had returned to Australia in a speech delivered to the House of Representatives on 23 March . After disembarking , all members of the 9th Division were given three weeks leave . The men were then assembled in their home state capital and took part in a welcome home march ; these marches were conducted to acknowledge the division 's service in the Middle East and advertise a war loan drive . Following the marches the division re @-@ assembled at training camps on the Atherton Tableland in far North Queensland where it was to be retrained for jungle warfare . The 9th Division next saw action against Japanese forces during the Salamaua – Lae campaign in September 1943 ; had the division not returned from the Middle East , at least part of this task would have fallen to less experienced Militia units . = = = Works consulted = = = Coates , John ( 1999 ) . Bravery Above Blunder : The 9th Australian Division at Finschhafen , Sattelburg , and Sio . South Melbourne , Australia : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0195508378 . Coates , John ( 2006 ) . An Atlas of Australia 's Wars . Melbourne : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 555914 @-@ 2 . Day , David ( 1993 ) . Reluctant Nation : Australia and the Allied Defeat of Japan 1942 – 45 . Melbourne : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0195534530 . Faulkner , Marcus ; Wilkinson , Peter ( 2012 ) . War at Sea : A Naval Atlas , 1939 – 1945 . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 9781591145608 . Gill , G. Herman ( 1968 ) . Royal Australian Navy , 1942 – 1945 . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 , Series 2 — Navy . Volume II ( 1st ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 164291844 . Hasluck , Paul ( 1970 ) . The Government and the People 1942 – 1945 . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 4 — Civil . Volume II . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . 6429367X . Johnston , Mark ( 2002 ) . That Magnificent 9th : An Illustrated History of the 9th Australian Division 1940 – 46 . Sydney : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 @-@ 86508 @-@ 654 @-@ 1 . Lloyd , Clem ; Hall , Richard , eds . ( 1997 ) . Backroom Briefings : John Curtin 's War . Canberra : National Library of Australia . ISBN 0642106886 . Long , Gavin ( 1973 ) . The Six Years War . A Concise History of Australia in the 1939 – 1945 War . Canberra : The Australian War Memorial and the Australian Government Printing Service . ISBN 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 99375 @-@ 0 . Maughan , Barton ( 1966 ) . Tobruk and El Alamein . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 , Series 1 — Army . Volume III ( 1st ed . ) . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 954993 . Plowman , Peter ( 2003 ) . Across the Sea to War : Australian and New Zealand Troop Convoys from 1865 Through Two World Wars to Korea and Vietnam . Kenthurst , New South Wales : Rosenberg Publishing . ISBN 1877058068 . Rohwer , Jürgen ; Hümmelchen , Gerhard ; Weis , Thomas ( 2005 ) . Chronology of the War at Sea : 1939 – 1945 : The Naval History of World War II ( 3rd revised ed . ) . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1591141192 . Roskill , S.W. ( 1956 ) . War at Sea 1939 – 1945 , Volume 2 : The Period of Balance . London : HMSO . OCLC 881709047 .
= 1982 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game = The 1982 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game took place on March 29 , 1982 between the North Carolina Tar Heels and Georgetown Hoyas at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans , Louisiana . The match @-@ up was the final one of the forty @-@ fourth consecutive NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship single @-@ elimination tournament — commonly referred to as the NCAA Tournament — organized by the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and is used to crown a national champion for men 's basketball at the Division I level . Head coach John Thompson and the Georgetown Hoyas entered the game ranked eighth in the AP Poll , with an overall record of 28 – 6 . The Hoyas were led by First – team All @-@ American Eric Floyd and seven @-@ foot freshman Patrick Ewing . In the midst of a fifteen @-@ game winning streak , the North Carolina Tar Heels entered the National Championship game with a record of 31 – 2 after defeating the Houston Cougars in the national semifinal . The Dean Smith led North Carolina Tar Heels were anchored by Junior and First – team All @-@ American James Worthy . The game was televised by CBS across the United States , which attracted over 17 million viewers . Georgetown jumped out to an early 12 – 10 lead after twelve minutes of play , with eight of North Carolina 's points coming from goaltending infractions by Ewing . The Hoyas entered halftime ahead by a single point , 32 – 31 . The teams traded the lead multiple times closing minutes of the second half . Following a turnover by Matt Doherty , Georgetown took the lead 62 – 61 courtesy of a jump shot from Floyd . During the ensuing possession , North Carolina Freshman Michael Jordan hit a go @-@ ahead basket with fifteen seconds remaining to give North Carolina a one @-@ point advantage . The Tar Heels won their second NCAA Men 's Basketball National Championship , with their first coming in 1957 . Worthy was named the NCAA Basketball Tournament Most Outstanding Player for his efforts throughout the tournament . After losing in his first three national title game appearances – something many had openly criticized him over – coach Smith won his first National Championship as a head coach . Ewing helped lead the Hoyas back to the national title game in 1984 and 1985 , where they won it all in 1984 . Both talented Freshman , Ewing and Jordan , went on to become National Players of the Year before each left college to play professional basketball . = = Background = = = = = Georgetown Hoyas = = = John Thompson was in the midst of his tenth season as head coach of the Georgetown Hoyas as the team entered the National Championship game . Before the season , Thompson made headlines when he signed top recruit , Patrick Ewing over several other top name schools , along with Tony Jones , Ralph Dalton , Elvado Smith , and Bill Martin . Georgetown was named by some voters as the number one team in the nation in the preseason polls due to its highly touted recruiting class . The Hoyas ' starting line up was : Eric Smith , Eric Floyd , and Fred Brown as guards , Mike Hancock in the forward position , and Ewing at center . The Georgetown Hoyas participated in the Great Alaska Shootout to start the 1981 – 82 season . The Hoyas lost their opening game to Southwestern Louisiana 70 – 61 after playing a sloppy game . After winning the following game against , the Hoyas lost to Ohio State by one point in their final game of the tournament . Georgetown then began a thirteen @-@ game win streak , which was followed by losing three straight to three conference opponents . The Hoyas then finished the regular season with nine more wins and one loss , which was good enough to finish second in the Big East regular season standings . The Hoyas won their first two games of the Big East Tournament by a collective margin of 29 points and advanced to the championship game against the Villanova Wildcats . The two teams were tied at halftime , but at halftime the Hoyas elected to use a man to man defense over a zone . This proved effective as they were able to force turnovers and shoot well from the field , which led them to win the game 72 – 54 . The Georgetown Hoyas won the Big East Tournament and also , a bid to the NCAA Tournament . In the first round of the NCAA Tournament , Georgetown faced Wyoming and won 51 – 43 . The Hoyas then beat the Fresno State Bulldogs by eighteen , after leading by five at halftime , to advance to the regional finals . Georgetown faced off against Oregon State in the regional final . In the game , the Hoyas shot very well from the field , setting the tournament record for field goal percentage in a game , 77 @.@ 4 % , en route to the 69 – 45 victory . In the national semifinal against Louisville , both teams shot very poorly . The two teams traded the lead several times throughout the first half , but after three minutes into the second half , Georgetown gained the lead and never relinquished it . The Hoyas used defense to maintain their lead and set the pace of the game , which they won 50 – 46 . = = = North Carolina Tar Heels = = = The North Carolina Tar Heels were coached by Dean Smith , who was in his twenty – first season as head coach of the Tar Heels . This was Smith 's fourth National Championship game appearance as the coach of North Carolina , after losing in 1968 , 1977 , and 1981 . Coach Smith entered the 1981 regular season with what he called the " best class he ever had " to that point in his career with : Buzz Peterson , Warren Martin , Michael Jordan , Lynwood Robinson , and John Brownlee . His North Carolina team was named by many as the preseason number one and the favorite to win the national title . North Carolina 's starting line up consisted of Jimmy Black and Jordan at the guard positions , Matt Doherty and James Worthy in at forward , and Sam Perkins as starting center . North Carolina opened their 1981 – 82 campaign with a win against Kansas at a neutral site in Charlotte , North Carolina . After winning five more games , the Tar Heels entered the Cable Car Classic . Behind Perkins ' 23 points , the Tar Heels managed to win the game , despite being taken to overtime . North Carolina advanced to the tournament final where the defeated Santa Clara . Wake Forest defeated North Carolina , who was playing without Perkins due to illness , to hand them their first loss of the season . The Tar Heels won three more games before losing to Virginia , where they trailed the whole game . North Carolina won the remaining games of its regular season . The team won the ACC Tournament by narrowly defeating Virginia in tournament 's championship game , 47 – 45 . North Carolina edged James Madison 52 – 50 in the first round of the NCAA Tournament . The Tar Heels beat Alabama in the succeeding round to advance to the regional final against Villanova . North Carolina advanced to the Final Four with a 70 – 60 over Villanova as each starter scored over ten points . In the national semifinal , North Carolina was pitted against Houston . The Tar Heels opened the game with a 14 – 0 run . Houston overcame the deficit and tied the game at 29 just a few minutes before the half . Coming out of halftime , North Carolina went on a 7 – 2 run and eventually won the game 68 – 63 after stalling for a significant period of time . = = = Team rosters = = = = = = Media coverage = = = In the days before the game was to be played there was significant coverage given to the two head coaches Smith and Thompson . The two had both served as coaches on the 1976 United States men 's Olympic basketball team for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , Canada . The two coaches first met in Washington D.C. while trying to recruit players from the same high school . Thompson was quoted saying that coach Smith " knows our philosophy and I know his philosophy . " Smith talked of Thompson saying he was a personal friend of his and that he would maintain contact with him whether or not Thompson was still coaching . The relationship between Georgetown 's Floyd and North Carolina 's Worthy also drew some attention from the media . The two players grew up in Gastonia , North Carolina together , where they went to the same church and competed in high school against each other . Worthy commented that his family lives around two to three miles away from Floyd 's . It was noted that the two would likely not interact much while playing as they did not play the same position . Both coaches told the media that they believed their respective teams should play far better than they did in the National semifinal games if they wanted to win the upcoming game . Coach Smith expressed concerns over Georgetown 's shooting ability and feared that Floyd would come out shooting very well from the field . In addition , Smith noted that Ewing would play a large factor in the game because his defensive presence in the game limits second chance opportunities for Georgetown 's opponents . Ken Rappoport of the Associated Press wrote of how North Carolina was a very disciplined team that takes only high @-@ percentage shots . = = Venue = = The Louisiana Superdome was chosen as the venue for the Final Four of the 1982 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . The Superdome was selected over Rupp Arena in Lexington , Kentucky . Throughout the 1970s , the NCAA had considered hosting the Final Four in a domed football stadium , and the 1982 Final Four was the first time the tournament was held in a domed football stadium . = = Broadcast = = The National Championship game was televised across the United States by CBS . CBS obtained the rights to broadcast the NCAA Tournament , after the tournament had been previously broadcast by NBC . A total of 17 @.@ 52 million homes , 30 % of the television audience , watched the game . The broadcast earned a 21 @.@ 5 Nielsen Rating , the second highest for the NCAA National Championship game at the time , after 1979 . = = Game summary = = The game began with a tip – off between Georgetown 's Patrick Ewing and North Carolina 's Sam Perkins , which was won by Georgetown . Ewing made the first shot of the game from the baseline . On defense , Ewing was called for goaltending four times to give North Carolina their first eight points . Georgetown coach John Thompson ordered Ewing to " make his presence known " on defense and to not worry about goaltending calls when attempting to block shots . North Carolina did not physically make a shot until 8 : 08 had passed , at which point the score was 12 – 10 in favor of Georgetown . Eric Floyd proceeded to score four consecutive baskets for the Hoyas , while Worthy made six shots for the Tar Heels to tie the score at 22 – 22 . The score at halftime was 32 – 31 in favor of the Hoyas , with ten of North Carolina 's points coming off five goaltending calls on Ewing . The teams traded baskets for the majority of the second half , with the largest advantage being four points by Georgetown with over twelve minutes to go in the game . After five more minutes of game play , North Carolina managed to cut the lead to two , 56 – 54 . The Tar Heels then obtained a single point lead with 5 : 50 to play and set up in their four corners offense , \ to run out the game clock . The Tar Heels were quickly fouled and Jimmy Black converted two free throws , while Fred Brown made two his own on the other end to bring the score to 59 – 58 in favor of North Carolina . With three and a half minutes left in the contest , Michael Jordan drove to the basket and made a shot off of the backboard to increase the Tar Heels ' lead to three , 61 – 58 . On Georgetown 's following possession , Ewing made a jump shot to bring his team within one . North Carolina again set up in the four corners . While making an attempt to steal the ball from Matt Doherty , the Hoyas ' Eric Smith was called for a foul . This sent Doherty to the line for a one @-@ and @-@ one , which he missed and Ewing got the rebound . Smith then hit a twelve @-@ foot jump shot with 57 seconds left to go to give Georgetown the lead , 62 – 61 . Then , Jordan received a pass from Black and connected on a shot with fifteen seconds remaining in the game to give North Carolina a one point lead . On the Hoyas ' ensuing possession , Fred Brown passed the ball away to Worthy , who proceeded to run out some of the clock before being fouled . Because the Hoyas were in the double bonus , Worthy received two free throw attempts , both of which he missed . Floyd got the rebound and attempted a last second shot that also missed . = = Box score = = Source : = = Aftermath = = North Carolina 's James Worthy was named the NCAA Tournament 's Most Outstanding Player for his performance during the course of the tournament . Along with that honor , Worthy and Eric Floyd were both named Consensus First – team All @-@ Americans for the 1981 – 82 season , while Tar Heel Sam Perkins was a Consensus Second – team All @-@ American . Despite losing the game , John Thompson was given the United States Basketball Writers Association 's Coach of the Year . In the days leading up to the National Championship game , North Carolina head coach Dean Smith was a focal point of the media over his record in national championship games . Smith had coached the North Carolina Tar Heels to six Final Fours and three national title games before the 1981 – 82 season , all of which resulted in the Tar Heels failing to win the tournament . Due to these losses , Smith had earned a reputation for not being able to win the " big game . " When coach Smith won the National Championship game against Georgetown , he silenced those who had criticized him before the game . Before retiring , coach Smith led the Tar Heels to one more national title victory in 1993 . The Georgetown Hoyas returned the National Championship game in 1984 , where they faced off against the Houston Cougars and won 84 – 75 . It was the first NCAA Men 's Basketball National Championship that Georgetown had won , along with the first that Thompson had won as head coach . The following year , they again made it back to the national title game . This time , however , they lost to the number eight seeded Villanova Wildcats . The game featured two future National Players of the Year in Michael Jordan and Ewing . Sporting News named Jordan Player of the Year for the 1982 – 83 season . The following year , Jordan was the consensus National Player of the Year for the 1983 – 84 season , winning each of the player of the year awards that were given out . Ewing won four National Player of the Year awards for his efforts during the 1984 – 85 season . In addition , Worthy , Ewing , and Jordan were all enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame after illustrious professional careers , in 2003 , 2008 , and 2009 , respectively .
= Shield nickel = The Shield nickel was the first United States five @-@ cent piece to be made out of copper @-@ nickel , the same alloy of which American nickels are struck today . Designed by James B. Longacre , the coin was issued from 1866 until 1883 , when it was replaced by the Liberty Head nickel . The coin takes its name from the motif on its obverse , and was the first five @-@ cent coin referred to as a " nickel " — silver pieces of that denomination had been known as half dimes . Silver half dimes had been struck from the early days of the United States Mint in the late 18th century . Those disappeared from circulation , along with most other coins , in the economic turmoil of the Civil War . In 1864 , the Mint successfully introduced low @-@ denomination coins , whose intrinsic worth did not approach their face value . Industrialist Joseph Wharton advocated coins containing nickel — a metal in which he had significant financial interests . When the Mint proposed a copper @-@ nickel five @-@ cent piece , Congress required that the coin be heavier than the Mint had suggested , allowing Wharton to sell more of the metal to the government . Longacre 's design was based on his two @-@ cent pieces , and symbolizes the strength of a unified America . The nickel proved difficult to strike and the reverse , or tails , design was modified in 1867 . Even so , production difficulties continued , causing many minor varieties which are collected today . Minting of the Shield nickel for circulation was suspended in 1876 for a period of over two years due to a glut of low @-@ denomination coinage and it was struck in only small quantities until 1882 . The following year , the coin was replaced by Charles E. Barber 's Liberty head design . = = Background and authorization = = Five @-@ cent pieces had been struck by the United States Mint since 1792 . They were the first coins struck by Mint authorities . These half dimes ( originally spelled " half dismes " ) , were struck in silver . The alloy used was originally .892 silver with the remainder copper ; in 1837 the silver portion was increased to .900 . The Civil War caused most American coins to vanish from circulation , with the gap filled by such means as merchant tokens , encased postage stamps , and United States fractional currency , issued in denomination as low as three cents . Although specie ( gold or silver coins ) was hoarded or exported , the copper @-@ nickel cent , then the only base metal denomination being struck , also vanished . In 1864 , Congress began the process of restoring coins to circulation by abolishing the three @-@ cent note and authorizing bronze cents and two @-@ cent pieces , with low intrinsic values , to be struck . These new coins initially proved popular , though the two @-@ cent piece soon faded from circulation . On March 3 , 1865 , Congress passed legislation authorizing the Mint to strike three @-@ cent pieces of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel . In 1864 , Congress had authorized a third series of fractional currency notes . The five @-@ cent note was to bear a portrait of " Clark " , but Congress was appalled when the issue came out not bearing a portrait of William Clark , the explorer , but Spencer M. Clark , head of the Currency Bureau . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , Congress 's " immediate infuriated response was to pass a law retiring the 5 ¢ denomination , and another to forbid portrayal of any living person on federal coins or currency . " Clark only kept his job because of the personal intervention of Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase . Mint Director James Pollock had been opposed to striking coins containing nickel but in view of the initial success of the copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece , he became an advocate of striking five @-@ cent pieces in the same metal . In his 1865 report Pollock wrote , " From this nickel alloy , a coin for the denomination of five cents , and which would be a popular substitute for the five cent note , could easily be made ... [ The five cent coin should be struck in base metal ] only until the resumption of specie payments ... in time of peace ... coins of inferior alloy should not be permitted to take the place permanently of silver in the coinage of pieces above the denomination of three cents . " Industrialist Joseph Wharton had a near @-@ monopoly on the mining of nickel in the United States and sought to promote its use in coinage . He was also highly influential in Congress . His friends there , though they had failed to obtain the metal 's use for the two @-@ cent piece , had been more successful with the three @-@ cent coin . Pollock prepared a bill authorizing a five @-@ cent coin of the same alloy as the three @-@ cent piece and a total weight not to exceed 60 grains ( 3 @.@ 9 g ) . At the committee stage in the House of Representatives , the weight was amended to 77 @.@ 19 grains ( 5 @.@ 00 g ) , ostensibly to make the weight equal to five grams in the metric system but more likely so that Wharton could sell more nickel . This made the new coin heavy in comparison to the three @-@ cent copper @-@ nickel coin . The bill passed without debate on May 16 , 1866 . The new copper @-@ nickel coin was legal tender for up to one dollar , and would be paid out by the Treasury in exchange for coin of the United States , excluding the half cent , cent and two @-@ cent . It was redeemable in lots of $ 100 for banknotes . Fractional currency in denominations of less than ten cents was withdrawn . = = Design and production = = Since coinage was to begin immediately , it was necessary for the Mint 's chief engraver , James B. Longacre to prepare a design as quickly as possible . With the five cent authorization bill pending in Congress , Longacre had produced patterns as early as late 1865 . Longacre produced pattern coins , one with a shield similar to the design he had prepared for the two @-@ cent piece . Longacre altered the two @-@ cent design by shifting the location of the two arrows in the design , removed the scroll on which " In God We Trust " had been inscribed ( the first time that motto had appeared on a U.S. coin ) , and added a cross , apparently intending a pattee to the top of the shield . Another pattern depicted Washington , while another showed the recently assassinated president , Abraham Lincoln . Reverse designs proposed by Longacre included one with a number 5 within a circle of thirteen stars , each separated from the next by rays . Another reverse design featured the numeral within a wreath . Treasury Secretary Hugh McCulloch , acting on Pollock 's recommendation , selected the shield design for the obverse , or " heads " side , and the stars and rays design for the reverse . Pollock did not show McCulloch the Lincoln design , believing it would not be well received in the South . According to numismatic author Q. David Bowers , Longacre 's obverse design is " one of the most patriotic motifs in American coinage " . Based on the coat of arms from the Great Seal of the United States of America , Longacre 's design focused on the shield , or escutcheon as a defensive weapon , symbolizing strength and self @-@ protection through unity . The upper part of the shield , or " chief " , symbolizes Congress , while the 13 vertical stripes , or " paleways " symbolize the states ; consequently the entire escutcheon symbolizes the strength of the federal government through the unity of the states . The crossed arrows , whose ends are visible near the bottom of the shield , symbolize nonaggression , but imply readiness against attack . The laurel branches , taken from Greek tradition , symbolize victory . In heraldic engraving , vertical lines represent red , clear areas white and horizontal lines blue , thus the escutcheon is colored red , white and blue and is meant to evoke the American flag . Bowers does not consider the reverse design an artistic work , but one which is purely mechanical , obtained by punching characters and devices into a steel hub . The new coins proved difficult to produce ; due to the hardness of the planchet , the coins were not of high quality and the life of the striking dies was brief . The design of the coins was widely criticized , with Wharton describing the shield design as suggesting " a tombstone surmounted by a cross and overhung by weeping willows . " The American Journal of Numismatics described it as " the ugliest of all known coins " . More seriously , the reverse design reminded many of the " stars and bars " motif of the defeated Confederate States . The rays were eliminated from the design in early 1867 , in the hopes of eliminating some of the production problems . The transition to the new design was to occur on February 1 , 1867 , but it is likely the mint used up the remaining dies with the old design in the interest of economy . The design change created confusion among the population , with many people assuming one design or the other was a counterfeit , and the Mint considered abandoning the shield design entirely . \| Seeking alternatives to the difficult @-@ to @-@ work copper @-@ nickel alloy , in June 1867 Longacre proposed that the five @-@ cent piece be struck in aluminum . The new Mint director , Henry Linderman , objected to the proposal , stating that the price and supply of aluminum were as yet uncertain , and that the metal was too expensive to use in a minor coin . Numismatic historian Don Taxay , in his history of the United States Mint and its coins , noted that Linderman had proposed legislation increasing the proportion of nickel in the alloy to a third despite having earlier opposed the use of nickel in coins . Taxay suggested that Linderman was most likely influenced by Wharton and the metal 's other advocates . By late 1869 , enough nickels , as the coin came to be called , had been produced to meet the needs of commerce , and production dropped off . The new coins tended to accumulate in the hands of merchants beyond the legal tender limit , but banks refused to accept them beyond the one @-@ dollar maximum . Storeowners were forced to discount the coins to brokers . Postmasters , compelled by law to accept the coins , found that the Treasury would not accept them as deposits except in lots of $ 100 , in accordance with the authorizing statute . In 1871 , Congress alleviated the problem by passing legislation allowing the Treasury to redeem unlimited quantities of nickels and other low @-@ denomination coins when presented in lots of not less than $ 20 . It would not be until 1933 , long after the shield design passed from the scene , that the nickel was made legal tender without limit . The Mint Act of 1873 ended the production of the half dime . Despite the abolition , the silver pieces continued to circulate in the West , where silver or gold coins were preferred , and the nickel was disliked , throughout the remainder of the 19th century . The act also gave the Mint Director the authority to suspend production of any denomination if additional coins were not needed . Improved economic conditions , combined with low silver prices , brought large quantities of hoarded silver coinage , including half dimes , into circulation beginning in April 1876 . In late 1876 , production of the Shield nickel was halted under the 1873 act . No Shield nickels were struck in 1877 or 1878 , excepting proof specimens for collectors . As the Treasury had a large stock of nickels in storage , only small numbers were struck over the next few years ; full @-@ scale production began again on December 12 , 1881 . The 1880 nickel , with only 16 @,@ 000 pieces struck for circulation , remains the rarest non @-@ proof Shield nickel today . = = = Varieties = = = The Shield nickel series has yielded a large number of varieties . Howard Spindel , a leading expert on Shield nickels , notes that Shield nickel dies produced far fewer coins than other coin dies , as the dies wore out so fast that the Mint was continually under great pressure to produce new ones . According to Spindel , many dies were hastily and carelessly produced , producing numerous minor varieties . Bowers points to the 1868 nickel as " a playground for repunching [ repunched dates ] , errors , and the like " . Specialists have found more than sixty different doubled die varieties , caused by misalignment when the heated die was repeatedly pressed against the hub to transfer the design . There are several different kinds of repunched dates , including a variety in which the numeral " 1 " is much smaller than usually found on the Shield nickel . As with many denominations of United States coins , there are two major varieties of the 1873 piece . The initial variety , known as the " close 3 " or " closed 3 " was struck first . These coins led to a complaint by the chief coiner , A. Loudon Snowden , to Pollock , who was again director of the Mint . Snowden stated that the numeral " 3 " in the date too closely resembled an " 8 " . The Mint prepared new date punches , in which the arms of the 3 did not curl around toward the center , creating the second variety , the " open 3 " . The final year of production saw an overdate , 1883 / 2 , with a visible " 2 " under or near the digit " 3 " . This variety was caused by the use of 1882 @-@ dated dies which were not destroyed at the end of the year , but were instead repunched with a four @-@ digit logotype , " 1883 " . Five different dies are known to have been so reused , and Bowers estimates a mintage of 118 @,@ 975 pieces . Spindel estimates that only 0 @.@ 2 % – 0 @.@ 3 % of the pieces have survived to the present . = = Replacement = = The 1867 redesign of the reverse had not solved the problems of short die life and poor striking ; with a view to a redesign , pattern coins were struck in 1868 and 1871 , but the Shield nickel remained in production . Charles E. Barber became chief engraver in 1880 , and the following year was asked to produce uniform designs for the nickel , the three @-@ cent piece , and a proposed copper @-@ nickel cent . While the redesign of the two lower denominations did not occur , in 1882 , Barber 's design for the nickel , with the head of the goddess of Liberty on the obverse and the Roman numeral " V " on the reverse , was approved . The following year the Barber design replaced the Shield nickel . Shield nickels dated 1883 had already been coined by the time the Barber design was ready , and Mint officials desired to discourage speculation . Accordingly , they kept the shield design in production for several months side by side with what became known as the Liberty Head nickel . Almost a million and a half Shield nickels were struck in 1883 . Coinage of the Shield nickel was ended on June 26 , 1883 . = = Mintages = = Shield nickel proof mintages from before 1878 are modern estimates and may vary — for example , Bowers estimates 800 – 1 @,@ 200 for the 1866 piece , while Peters estimates 375 + . The issue is complicated by the fact that restrikes were made of proofs , sometimes years after the inscribed date . Mint officials , despite what Bowers terms " official denials ( a.k.a. lies ) " , reused dies which had supposedly been destroyed to strike pieces for favored collectors or dealers . This practice led to incongruous pieces , with a dated obverse mated with a reverse not placed in use until years later . All pieces struck at the Philadelphia mint , without mintmark .
= Zombia = Zombia antillarum , commonly known as the zombie palm , is a species of palm tree and the only member of the genus Zombia . It is endemic to the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles . Usually found in dry , hilly areas of northern and southern Haiti and the northwest of the Dominican Republic , Z. antillarum is a relatively short fan palm with clustered stems and a very distinctive appearance caused by its persistent spiny leaf sheaths . Threatened by habitat destruction in Haiti , Z. antillarum is a popular ornamental species due to its distinctive appearance , low maintenance requirements and salt tolerance . = = Description = = Zombia antillarum is a small palm which grows in dense , multi @-@ stemmed clumps with stems up to 3 metres ( 10 ft ) tall and 5 centimetres ( 2 in ) in diameter . Individuals bear nine to 12 fan @-@ shaped ( or palmate ) leaves which are greyish @-@ white on the lower surface . The leaf sheaths remain attached to the stem after the leaf drops off . The intervening tissue gradually degrades , and the woody vascular tissue splits , forming the spines which are characteristic of the species . The inflorescence , which is shorter than the leaves , bears bisexual flowers with 9 – 12 stamens and a single carpel . Fruit are white in colour ( although orange @-@ fruited individuals are also known to exist ) , oblong or pear @-@ shaped , 1 @.@ 5 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter and bear a single seed . The flowers and fruit are borne among the leaves due to the fact that the inflorescences are shorter than the leaves . Trees can produce 5000 seeds per year , predominantly in July and August . The species is believed to be wind pollinated . = = Taxonomy = = Zombia is a monotypic genus — it includes only one species , Z. antillarum . The earliest description of the species is found in the work of French physician and botanist Michel Étienne Descourtilz . In 1821 he placed it in the genus Chamaerops as C. antillarum . Italian naturalist Odoardo Beccari independently described the species in 1908 , placing it in the genus Coccothrinax ( as C. anomala ) . Recognising that it was distinct enough to be placed in its own genus , American botanist Liberty Hyde Bailey erected the genus Zombia in 1931 to accommodate the species that Descourtilz had described . This generated the combination Z. antillarum . In selecting a name for the genus , Bailey noted that it would be preferable if this endemic palm could bear a Latin name indicative of its nativity rather than an exotic binomial of no relation with its country and the people . In 1941 another American botanist , Orator F. Cook , moved Beccari 's C. anomala to a new genus , Oothrinax . This generated a fourth combination , O. anomala . Since Descourtilz 's description pre @-@ dates that of Beccari , Zombia antillarum ( which is based on Descourtilz 's description ) has priority over Oothrinax anomala . In addition , Cook 's name is invalid , since it was apparently never formally described . In the first edition of Genera Palmarum ( 1987 ) , Natalie Uhl and John Dransfield placed the genus Zombia in the subfamily Coryphoideae , the tribe Corypheae and the subtribe Thrinacinae using Harold E. Moore 's 1973 classification of the palm family . Subsequent phylogenetic analysis showed that the Old World and New World members of the Thrinacinae were not closely related . As a consequence of this , Zombia and related genera were places in their own tribe , Cryosophileae . Within this tribe , Zombia appears to be most closely related to the genera Coccothrinax and Hemithrinax , and the species Thrinax morrisii , with the remainder of the genus Thrinax being a sister taxon to this group . Because of this , T. morrisii was moved to a new genus , Leucothrinax . In 1960 Dominican botanist José de Jesús Jiménez Almonte described a variety of Z. antillarum which was distinguished from the typical variety by its smaller , pear @-@ shaped fruits with a " dirty yellow " colour . He named this variety Z. antillarum var. gonzalezii . More recent workers have not considered this form distinctive enough to maintain it as a distinct variety . = = = Common names = = = Zombia antillarum is called the " Zombie palm " or " Zombi palm " by horticulturists . Orator F. Cook coined the name " Haitian cactus palm " due to the spiny appearance of its trunk . In Haiti it is usually known as latanye zombi ( latanier zombi in French ; the zombie fan palm ) , or latanye pikan , ( latanier piquant in French , the spiny fan palm ) . It is also called latanier savanne or latanier marron . Latanye or latanier is a common term for fan palms in Haiti , so these names ( " savanna fan palm " and " wild fan palm " ) are not specific to this species ; they are also used for several species of Coccothrinax . In the Dominican Republic the species is called guanito or guanillo . These are diminutives of guano , which is used for several species of Coccothrinax and Thrinax . In his 1821 description of the species , Descourtilz used the name latanier épineux . = = Distribution = = Zombia antillarum is endemic to the island of Hispaniola . In northern Haiti is grows along the tributaries of the Trois Rivières between Gros @-@ Morne and Port @-@ de @-@ Paix , while in south it is found along the eastern edge of the Massif de la Hotte , between Miragoâne , Fond @-@ des @-@ Nègres and Fond @-@ des @-@ Blancs . The species also occurs in northwestern parts of the Dominican Republic , between Dajabón , Jarabacoa , the Sierra de Yamasá , Puerto Plata and Gaspar Hernández . It grows in dry hilly regions at low elevation , usually on slopes and ridges but is generally absent from the valley bottoms . In the Dominican Republic it is found from sea level up to 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) above sea level . Zombia antillarum is associated with serpentine soils , but is also found on calcareous soils . In Haiti , Z. antillarum grows in association with a variety of other palms , including Coccothrinax argentea , Bactris plumeriana , Roystonea borinquena , Sabal causiarum and S. domingensis . In the Dominican Republic it grows in association with Pinus occidentalis , Calyptronoma rivalis , R. borinquena , S. domingensis , Copernicia berteroana and C. argentea . = = = Conservation status = = = Although listed as " not threatened " in the 2006 IUCN Red List , a 2007 review of the status of West Indian palms classified Zombia antillarum as vulnerable based on a projected loss of 10 % of the population over the next century . In Haiti , the species is threatened by habitat destruction when land is cleared for agriculture . Seedlings can also be destroyed when they are browsed by livestock . = = Uses = = The plant is a popular ornamental , and is valued for its unusual appearance , low maintenance requirements , small stature and salt tolerance , and is recommended for low @-@ maintenance landscaping in South Florida . Leaves of Z. antillarum are used to weave hats and make brooms and the seeds , which have a protein content of 2 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 9 % , are used to feed pigs . South of Sabaneta in the Dominican Republic the petioles are reportedly " used to mix manioc flour for making cassava bread . " In 1821 Michel Étienne Descourtilz reported that the wood was used for snuff boxes and tobacco cases , that the kernel of the seed was used to treat scurvy , and that the sap had been used by Carib Amerindians " for its powerful properties " . Fabienne Boncy Taylor and Joel C. Timyan explored the connection between the " zombie palm " and beliefs about zombies . They found that oil extracted from the seeds has been described as a " sense @-@ activator " by one ethnographic source and can be used to " awaken " a zombie , and that a dwelling with thatch made from the leaves of the plant could prevent zombies from being used to spy on its occupants . Other sources , however , were reportedly unaware of this these uses . Taylor and Timyan concluded that we were able to find a link , albeit weak , between the name Zombia and Haitian culture , even though we could not verify that this species is typically associated with zombies .
= Roman Baths ( Bath ) = The Roman Baths complex is a site of historical interest in the English city of Bath . The house is a well @-@ preserved Roman site for public bathing . The Roman Baths themselves are below the modern street level . There are four main features : the Sacred Spring , the Roman Temple , the Roman Bath House and the Museum holding finds from Roman Bath . The buildings above street level date from the 19th century . The Baths are a major tourist attraction and , together with the Grand Pump Room , receive more than one million visitors a year . It was featured on the 2005 TV program Seven Natural Wonders as one of the wonders of the West Country . Visitors can see the Baths and Museum but cannot enter the water . An audio guide is available in 12 languages . = = How the hot springs form at the Bathhouse = = The water which bubbles up from the ground at Bath falls as rain on the nearby Mendip Hills . It percolates down through limestone aquifers to a depth of between 2 @,@ 700 and 4 @,@ 300 metres ( 8 @,@ 900 and 14 @,@ 100 ft ) where geothermal energy raises the water temperature to between 69 and 96 ° C ( 156 @.@ 2 and 204 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Under pressure , the heated water rises to the surface along fissures and faults in the limestone . This process is similar to an artificial one known as Enhanced Geothermal System which also makes use of the high pressures and temperatures below the Earth 's crust . Hot water at a temperature of 46 ° C ( 114 @.@ 8 ° F ) rises here at the rate of 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 litres ( 257 @,@ 364 imp gal ) every day , from a geological fault ( the Pennyquick fault ) . In 1983 a new spa water bore @-@ hole was sunk , providing a clean and safe supply of spa water for drinking in the Pump Room . = = History = = The first shrine at the site of the hot springs was built by Celts , and was dedicated to the goddess Sulis , whom the Romans identified with Minerva . Geoffrey of Monmouth in his largely fictional Historia Regum Britanniae describes how in 836 BC the spring was discovered by the British king Bladud who built the first Moorish baths . Early in the 18th century Geoffrey 's obscure legend was given great prominence as a royal endorsement of the waters ' qualities , with the embellishment that the spring had cured Bladud and his herd of pigs of leprosy through wallowing in the warm mud . = = = How the Romans used the building = = = The name Sulis continued to be used after the Roman invasion , leading to the town 's Roman name of Aquae Sulis ( " the waters of Sulis " ) . The temple was constructed in 60 @-@ 70 AD and the bathing complex was gradually built up over the next 300 years . During the Roman occupation of Britain , and possibly on the instructions of Emperor Claudius , engineers drove oak piles to provide a stable foundation into the mud and surrounded the spring with an irregular stone chamber lined with lead . In the 2nd century it was enclosed within a wooden barrel @-@ vaulted building , and included the caldarium ( hot bath ) , tepidarium ( warm bath ) , and frigidarium ( cold bath ) . After the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the first decade of the 5th century , these fell into disrepair and were eventually lost due to silting up , and flooding . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle suggests the original Roman baths were destroyed in the 6th century . About 130 curse tablets have been found . Many of the curses related to thefts of clothes whilst the victim was bathing . = = = Redevelopment = = = The baths have been modified on several occasions , including the 12th century when John of Tours built a curative bath over the King 's Spring reservoir and the 16th century when the city corporation built a new bath ( Queen 's Bath ) to the south of the Spring . The spring is now housed in 18th @-@ century buildings , designed by architects John Wood , the Elder and John Wood , the Younger , father and son . Visitors drank the waters in the Grand Pump Room , a neo @-@ classical salon which remains in use , both for taking the waters and for social functions . Victorian expansion of the baths complex followed the neo @-@ classical tradition established by the Woods . In 1810 the Hot Springs failed and William Smith opened up the Hot Bath Spring to the bottom , where he found that the spring had not failed but had flowed into a new channel . Smith restored the water to its original course and the Baths filled in less time than formerly . The visitor entrance is via an 1897 concert hall by J M Brydon . It is an eastward continuation of the Grand Pump Room with a glass @-@ domed centre and single @-@ storey radiused corner . The Grand Pump Room was begun in 1789 by Thomas Baldwin . He resigned in 1791 and John Palmer continued the scheme until its completion in 1799 . The elevation on to Abbey Church Yard has a centre piece of four engaged Corinthian columns with entablatures and pediment . It has been designated by Historic England as a grade I listed building . The north colonnade was also designed by Thomas Baldwin . The south colonnade is similar but had an upper floor added in the late 19th century . The museum and Queen 's Bath including the " Bridge " spanning York Street to the City Laundry were by Charles Edward Davis in 1889 . It comprises a southward extension to the Grand Pump Room , in which some remains of the C17 Queen 's Bath are merged . = = = Museum = = = The museum houses artefacts from the Roman period including objects which were thrown into the Sacred Spring , presumably as offerings to the goddess . These include more than 12 @,@ 000 Roman currency coins which is the largest collective votive deposit known from Britain . A gilt bronze head of the goddess Sulis Minerva , which was discovered nearby in 1727 , is displayed . The Bath Roman Temple stood on a podium more than two metres above the surrounding courtyard , approached by a flight of steps . On the approach there were four large , fluted Corinthian columns supporting a frieze and decorated pediment above . The pediment , parts of which are displayed in the museum , is the triangular ornamental section , 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) wide and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) from the apex to the bottom , above the pillars on the front of the building . It featured the very powerful central image of the Gorgon ’ s head glowering down from a height of 15 metres on all who approached the temple.The great head itself has snakes entwined within its beard , wings above its ears , beetling brows and a heavy moustache although there is some controversy about what this really represents as Gorgons are usually female . An alternative interpretation sees the central head as the image of a water god such as the image of Oceanus , and yet another as a Celtic sun god . In early 2010 various stones on the pediment were conserved and rearranged . Also on display are the remains of the elaborate hypocaust heating system which served the sweat rooms . = = Conservation = = The late 19th century carvings of Roman Emperors and Governors of Roman Britain on the terrace overlooking the Great Bath are particularly susceptible to the effect of acid rain and are being protected with a wash of a sacrificial shelter coat every few years . Exhibits within the temple precincts are susceptible to warm air which had the effect of drawing corrosive salts out of the Roman stonework . To help reduce this , a new ventilation system was installed in 2006 . In 2009 a grant of £ 90 @,@ 000 was made to Bath and North East Somerset Council to contribute towards the cost of re @-@ developing displays and improving access to the Roman Baths , by the Department for Culture , Media and Sport / Wolfson Fund , which was established to promote improvements in Museums and Galleries in England . = = Water safety = = Bath was charged with responsibility for the hot springs in a Royal Charter of 1591 granted by Elizabeth I. This duty has now passed to Bath and North East Somerset Council , who carry out monitoring of pressure , temperature and flow rates . The thermal waters contain sodium , calcium , chloride and sulphate ions in high concentrations . The water that flows through the Roman Baths is considered unsafe for bathing , partly due to its having passed through the still @-@ functioning original lead pipes , and up until World War II , it was advertised on the basis of the radioactivity it contained . However , the more significant danger is now considered to be infectious diseases . In October 1978 , a young girl swimming with the Bath Dolphins , a local swimming club , in the restored Roman Bath contracted meningitis and died , leading to the closure of the bath for several years . Tests showed that Naegleria fowleri , an extremely dangerous disease @-@ causing amoeba , was in the water . The newly constructed Thermae Bath Spa nearby , designed by Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners , and the refurbished Cross Bath allow modern @-@ day bathers to experience the waters via a series of more recently drilled boreholes . = = Gallery = =
= John Komnenos Asen = John Komnenos Asen ( Bulgarian : Йоан Комнин Асен , Yoan Komnin Asen ; Greek : Ίωάννης Κομνηνός Ἀσάνης , Iōannēs Komnēnos Asanēs ; Serbian : Јован Комнин Асен , Jovan Komnin Asen ) was the ruler of the Principality of Valona from circa 1345 to 1363 , initially as a Serbian vassal and after 1355 as a largely independent lord . Descended from high @-@ ranking Bulgarian nobility , John was a brother of both Tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria and Helena of Bulgaria , the wife of Tsar Stephen Dušan of Serbia . Perhaps in search of better opportunities , he emigrated to Serbia , where his sister was married . There , he was granted the title of despot by Stephen Dušan , who placed him in charge of his territories in modern south Albania . As the despot of Valona , John established commercial ties with Venice and Ragusa , and he became a citizen of the former in 1353 . After the death of Dušan in 1355 , he took the side of the unsuccessful Simeon Uroš in the ensuing conflict for the Serbian throne . With Venetian assistance , John maintained the essentially independent status of the Principality of Valona . He probably died of the plague in 1363 and he was succeeded by Alexander Komnenos Asen , who was likely his son from his unknown first wife . John 's second marriage was to the former Epirote queen @-@ consort Anna Palaiologina . = = Origin and Serbian vassalage = = While the birth date of John Komnenos Asen is unknown , his origin is clearly documented in the sources . On both sides , he descended from the highest ranks of 14th @-@ century Bulgarian nobility . He was born to Keratsa Petritsa , a daughter of despot Shishman of Vidin , and Sratsimir , the despot of Kran . John 's mother was a descendant of the Asen dynasty as a grand granddaughter of Tsar Ivan Asen II . His siblings were Ivan Alexander , who would ascend to the Bulgarian throne in 1331 , and Helena , who married Serbian ruler Stephen Dušan in 1332 . Even though John was commonly referred to as a Komnenos in the sources , his relations to that Byzantine family are rather scarce . He had rights to that name either through his mother 's descent from the Asens , themselves related to the Komnenoi , or through his marriage to Anna Palaiologina . It is uncertain as to exactly why John emigrated to Serbia instead of assuming a high @-@ ranking position in Bulgaria , as his ancestry and family ties would suggest . Bulgarian historian Ivan Bozhilov is of the opinion that John was not seeking political refuge in Serbia . Instead , it is most likely that he moved to that country with the belief that Serbia 's territorial expansion and political influence in that period would secure him better career opportunities . Presumably , John accompanied his sister Helena when she moved to Serbia to marry Stephen Dušan in 1332 . John was first mentioned as the despot of Valona in 1350 and his documented presence in the Albanian lands only dates to 1349 . However , he was most likely bestowed the title as early as 1345 or 1346 , when Stephen Dušan was proclaimed Emperor ( Tsar ) . American scholar John Fine believes this happened immediately after Stephen Dušan 's coronation in 1346 . Along with Stephen Dušan 's half @-@ brother , Simeon Uroš , and Jovan Oliver , John was one of three people to bear that title under Stephen Dušan . John was installed as ruler of Valona in late 1345 , in the wake of the Serbian conquest of south Albania from the Byzantine Empire , which was concluded no later than August 1345 . Besides the Adriatic port of Valona ( modern Vlorë ) , John 's appanage included nearby Kanina and the inland castle of Berat to the northeast . Other than that , the extent of his domain is uncertain . Estimates of the area John ruled over range from all of central Albania to only the three cities mentioned , with the rest remaining under the government of local Albanian nobility , who owed allegiance either to John or to Stephen Dušan directly . To the south , John 's appanage bordered on the lands of Simeon Uroš , the ruler of Epirus . = = Relations with Venice and independence = = In 1349 , John plundered a Venetian commercial ship which had been shipwrecked on the coast he controlled , in accordance with the medieval principle of jus naufragii . This act necessitated the involvement of Stephen Dušan in order to settle the dispute between Venice and John , as evidenced by an official document from 13 April 1350 . Despite this conflict , under John the Principality of Valona was an active partner of Venice and Ragusa ( modern Dubrovnik ) in maritime commerce . Two receipts from 27 April 1350 document John 's role as a mediator in cattle , sugar and pepper trade and reveal that he received significant income from the Valona customs . The customs was profitable because the port was often visited by merchant ships . Even though all of these documents were written in Slavic , John signed his name in Greek , which testifies to his Hellenisation . At the time , John also had ties with the Mamluk rulers of Egypt , who addressed him as “ King of Serbia and Bulgaria ” in correspondence . In 1353 , John and his family were granted Venetian citizenship , which hints that his domain was under the protection of Venice . The premature death of Stephen Dušan in 1355 plunged the Serbian Empire into civil war . In that conflict , John took the side of his wife 's son @-@ in @-@ law Simeon Uroš against the legitimate successor Stephen Uroš , who was Stephen Dušan 's son and Simeon Uroš 's nephew . While Simeon 's attempt at taking the throne was ill @-@ fated and Stephen Uroš even captured Berat in 1356 , John managed to preserve his remaining lands and became independent from both Simeon and Stephen Uroš . The threat of Nikephoros II Orsini , who was gaining ground in Thessaly and Epirus , forced John to request the dispatch of a Venetian warship and an administrator from Venice to take control of his domain , to which the republic obliged . Bulgarian historian Hristo Matanov conjectures that after 1355 , John may have minted his own coinage intended for trade with partners outside the inner Balkans . He bases this theory on a new reading of several Latin @-@ language coin inscriptions as Monita despoti Ioanni instead of Monita despoti Oliveri , as previously thought . The new reading , which would identify the coins as being minted by John , was proposed by Yugoslav numismatist Nedeljković , who rejects the initial attribution of these coins to Jovan Oliver . A commercial document from 30 January 1359 , which testifies to John 's continuing trade relations with Venice , is chronologically the last reference to his activity in contemporary sources . While the date of his death was not recorded , it is likely that John perished during the plague epidemic which hit Valona and Durazzo ( today Durrës ) in 1363 . = = Family = = John 's first marriage probably dates to after his arrival in Serbia , though the identity of his first wife , if any , is unknown . If the next ruler of Valona , Alexander Komnenos Asen , was his son , then he would have been born circa 1346 – 1348 , as he was already an adult in 1363 – 1366 . This would place John 's potential first marriage a few years before Alexander 's estimated birth . Around 1350 – 1355 , John married Anna Palaiologina , a granddaughter of Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos and a widow of John II Orsini , the despot of Epirus . This marriage to an Epirote noblewoman consolidated and legitimised John 's position in the region . Besides Alexander , another very likely child of John Komnenos Asen was a certain Komnena , the wife of Balša II who had succeeded Alexander as ruler of Valona in early 1372 .
= Ashford v Thornton = Ashford v Thornton ( 1818 ) 106 ER 149 is an English law case in the Court of King 's Bench that upheld the right of the defendant , on a private appeal from an acquittal for murder , to trial by battle . In 1817 , Abraham Thornton was charged with the murder of Mary Ashford . Thornton had met Ashford at a dance , and had walked with her from the event . The next morning , Ashford was found drowned in a pit , with little outward signs of violence . Although public opinion was heavily against Thornton , the jury quickly acquitted him , and also found him not guilty of rape . Mary 's brother , William Ashford , launched an appeal , and Thornton was rearrested . Thornton claimed the right to trial by battle , a medieval usage that had never been repealed by Parliament . Ashford argued that the evidence against Thornton was overwhelming , and that he was thus ineligible to wage battle . The court decided that the evidence against Thornton was not overwhelming , and that trial by battle was a permissible option under law ; thus Thornton was granted trial by battle . Ashford declined the offer of battle and Thornton was freed from custody . Appeals such as Ashford 's were abolished by statute in 1819 , and with them the right to trial by battle . Thornton emigrated to the United States , where he died around 1860 . = = Background = = = = = Legal = = = Trial by battle was a procedure which had been brought to Britain by the Normans ; it was not present in Saxon law . It was authorized in " appeals of murder " , that is , retrials by private prosecution following an acquittal for murder . If the plaintiff ( in an appeal of murder , the next @-@ of @-@ kin of the deceased ) requested such a retrial , the defendant could respond with the " wager of battle " , that is , requiring the plaintiff to settle the matter by combat , with the outcome to be ordained by God . Such an appeal , and such an offer of battle could also take place following an acquittal for treason or another felony . Appeals of murder were uncommon , had to be brought within a year and a day of the death , and were generally tried by jury . In 1815 , three years before Ashford v Thornton , an appeal of murder was brought in Dublin in O 'Reilly v Clancy , and the defendant demanded the wager of battle . Chief Judge William Downes ( later Lord Downes ) , faced with this case , asked : Can it be possible that this " wager of battle " is being seriously insisted on ? Am I to understand that this monstrous proposition as being propounded by the bar — that we , the judges of the Court of King 's Bench — the recognized conservators of the public peace , are to become not merely the spectators , but the abettors of a mortal combat ? Is that what you require of us ? No combat took place in Ireland ; the case was settled as Clancy agreed to plead guilty and was transported for life . It is uncertain when the last actual trial by battle ( often spelled " battel " ) in Britain took place . While some references speak of such a trial being held in 1631 , records indicate that King Charles I intervened to prevent the battle . A 1638 case is less clear : the King again stepped in and judges acted to delay proceedings . No record survives of the outcome of the case , but no contemporary account speaks of the trial by battle actually taking place . The last certain judicial battle in Britain was in Scotland in 1597 , when Adam Bruntfield accused James Carmichael of murder , and killed him in battle . The last in England occurred in 1446 : a servant accused his master of treason . The master drank much wine before the battle and was slain by the servant . The wager of battle was not always available to the defendant in an appeal of murder . If the defendant was taken in the mainour ( that is , in the act of committing his crime ) , if he attempted to escape from prison , or if there was such strong evidence of guilt that there could be no effective denial , the defendant could not challenge . Similarly , if the plaintiff was a woman , above 60 years of age , a minor , lame or blind , he or she could decline the challenge , and the case would be determined by a jury . Peers of the realm , priests , and citizens of the City of London could also decline the battle if challenged . If the actual battle took place , it would occur in judicial lists , 60 feet ( 18 m ) square , following the taking of oaths against witchcraft and sorcery . If the defendant was defeated , and if he was still alive , he was to be hanged on the spot ; not even the King could pardon him from the divine judgment against him . However , if he defeated his opponent , or if he were able to fend off his opponent from sunrise to sunset , he would go free . If the plaintiff said the word craven ( " I am vanquished " ) , and gave up the fight , he was to be declared infamous , deprived of the privileges of a freeman , and was liable for damages to his successful opponent . Proposals to abolish trial by battle were made in the 17th century , and twice in the 18th , but were unsuccessful . In 1774 , as part of the legislative response to the Boston Tea Party , Parliament considered a bill which would have abolished appeals of murder and trials by battle in the American colonies . It was successfully opposed by MP John Dunning , who called the appeal of murder " that great pillar of the Constitution " . Writer and MP Edmund Burke , on the other hand , supported the abolition , calling the appeal and wager " superstitious and barbarous to the last degree " . = = = Death of Mary Ashford = = = Mary Ashford , a young woman of about 20 years of age , worked as a general servant and housekeeper to her uncle , a farmer at Langley Heath , Warwickshire , between Birmingham and Sutton Coldfield . Her father was a gardener near Erdington . She worked as usual on 26 May 1817 , and planned to attend a party that evening at The Three Tuns , a public house more commonly known as the Tyburn House . The party was an " annual club @-@ feast and dance " , which attracted a large attendance . She met her friend , Hannah Cox , left her work clothes at Cox 's house in Erdington ( after having obtained nicer clothes from her mother 's house in the same village ) and journeyed to the Tyburn House , arriving there at 7 : 30 to find the dancing already begun . Among those attending at the Tyburn House was Abraham Thornton , the son of a builder from Castle Bromwich . Thornton was about 24 years old and heavyset ; descriptions of him range from " well @-@ looking young fellow " to " of repulsive appearance " . When he saw Ashford , he inquired of another male attendee who she was . That party @-@ goer later alleged that , upon being told who she was , Thornton stated that he had been intimate with her sister three times , and would also be with Mary Ashford , or he would die for it . Thornton later denied this statement , which was a major source of the public animus towards him following his arrest . During the course of the evening , he was very attentive to Ashford , and she appeared to enjoy his company . At about eleven o 'clock , Cox began urging Ashford to leave . When the two did leave , it was with Thornton , who accompanied Ashford closely , while Cox walked behind them . Instead of returning to Erdington , Ashford announced that she would go to her grandfather 's house , stating that it was closer to work . This was true , but ignored the fact that she would have to return to Erdington to obtain her working clothes in the morning . Cox journeyed to Erdington , while Ashford and Thornton went off together . At about a quarter to three , a labourer saw Thornton leaving a friend 's house with a woman , and greeted Thornton , but the woman ( undoubtedly Ashford ) held her bonnet over her face . Just before 4 a.m. , Cox was awakened by Ashford , seeking her working clothes . Ashford changed and hurried off , stating that she needed to be home before her uncle left for market . A returning reveller from Tyburn House saw her walking quickly . He was the last person known to see her alive . At around 6 a.m. , a passing labourer saw women 's items near a water @-@ filled pit . One of the items was a woman 's shoe with blood on it . He raised the alarm . He and others were able to use a rake to find a body in the pit – that of Mary Ashford . Two workers from a nearby factory found a series of footprints on the newly harrowed field near the pit , showing that a man and a woman had travelled together , almost up to the pit , and that the man returned alone . Ashford was known to many of those who gathered around the pit , as was the fact that she had gone to Tyburn the previous evening . The local mill owner , who took charge , went to Tyburn to discover with whom Ashford had left the party . Daniel Clarke , the landlord , began to ride towards Castle Bromwich to try to locate Thornton , and encountered him almost at once . When Clarke told Thornton of Ashford 's death , Thornton stated that he was with her until 4 a.m. , and at Clarke 's request went with him to Tyburn . Thomas Dales , an assistant constable , arrived from Birmingham , where he was one of those responsible for policing the town . On ascertaining the situation he interrogated Thornton , and soon arrested him . However , Dales did not keep any notes and later proved unable to remember much of what the prisoner told him . Thornton was then examined by the local magistrate , William Bedford , who ordered Thornton searched . The search revealed that Thornton was wearing underclothing with bloodstains , and Thornton admitted having sexual intercourse with Ashford the previous night . The prisoner 's shoes were removed , and comparisons with the footprints in the field were made by the factory workers , who later testified at trial that they matched . A post @-@ mortem examination revealed that Ashford died from drowning , and that the only marks on her body were two lacerations in the genital area . The examination concluded that until the sexual act which caused the bleeding , Ashford was a virgin . She was menstruating at the time of her death . = = Trial = = An inquest was held on 30 May 1817 , and was presided over by Francis Hacket , a Warwickshire magistrate who by virtue of his position as Warden of Sutton Coldfield was coroner ex officio . Thornton attended in custody , and was permitted to cross @-@ examine witnesses through his solicitor . At the end of the proceedings , a verdict of " Wilful Murder " was returned , and Thornton was committed for trial at the next assizes in Warwick on the Coroner 's Warrant . Thornton was held in the county gaol pending the trial . Local opinion was heavily against Thornton . Pamphlets were sold purporting to show Thornton 's guilt , and poems were composed with the same theme . The defendant 's solicitor complained of these , alleging it made it hard to find an unbiased jury . On 8 August 1817 , people filled the street in front of County Hall in Warwick , where the trial was to take place . When the judge began proceedings at 8 a.m. , people rushed to fill the available seating , and the public benches remained full throughout the one @-@ day trial . Because of the nature of the evidence , women were not permitted to witness the trial . The prosecution 's theory of the case , as told in its opening statement to the jury , was that Thornton , having failed in his attempt to seduce Ashford , lay in wait for her in the field near the pit . He knew she would have to cross the field on her return from Erdington . On perceiving him , she attempted to elude him , but he caught her and got her to accompany him into the next field . There , he threw her down and ravished her . The post @-@ mortem showed that she had not eaten in 24 hours , and according to the prosecuting counsel , she was unable to resist and fainted . Fearing the consequences were he to be caught with an unconscious woman whom he had treated in such a manner , Thornton threw her into the pit , where she drowned . At that time , defence counsel were not permitted to address the jury , and the matter proceeded with the prosecution case . A number of witnesses , including Hannah Cox , testified to the events of the evening of 26 May and of the following morning . The first witnesses to attract significant cross @-@ examination by William Reader , Thornton 's barrister , were the two factory workers , William Lavell and Joseph Bird , who had matched Thornton 's shoes to the footprints in the harrowed field . Under cross @-@ examination , both admitted that it had rained heavily between the time the footprints were made and the time they attempted to match the prints . Constable Dales told the jury that Thornton admitted having sex with Ashford before he was searched : that is , before his bloodstained clothing came to light . Mr Freer , a Birmingham surgeon who conducted the post @-@ mortem , testified as to its results , and stated that except for the vaginal lacerations , there were no signs of violence on Ashford 's person , and that those cuts could have been caused by consensual sexual relations . Freer 's testimony concluded the prosecution case , and as the defendant declined to exercise his right to himself make a statement to the court , the defence began calling witnesses . Through its eleven witnesses , the defence established an alibi for Thornton . Milkman William Jennings ( in some sources Jennans ) testified that he saw Thornton at 4 : 30 am , walking leisurely by the farm of John Holden , where Jennings went to buy milk . The Holden farm was 2 @.@ 25 to 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 3 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 0 km ) from the pit , depending on the path taken . At about 4 : 50 a.m. , Thornton was seen at Castle Bromwich by a gamekeeper , John Heydon . Thornton told Heydon that he was with a woman much of the night , and after the two spent about fifteen minutes conversing , Thornton went on towards his father 's house . The defence contended that for Thornton to have murdered Ashford , he would have had to chase her down , rape her , kill her , and then travel three miles ( 5 km ) , all in at most eleven minutes . The witnesses took ten hours to testify , during which time the court sat continuously . After a short break , the judge , George Holroyd , a justice of the Court of King 's Bench , began his summing up , taking two hours to charge the jury . The judge urged the jury to put their prejudice at hearing that Thornton had sex with Ashford out of their heads ; they were here to determine if Thornton was guilty of the offence charged . He pointed out to the jury the lack of concealment exhibited by Thornton , his admission of the sexual act and of being with Ashford until 4 a.m. The judge told them it was not possible for Thornton to have committed the acts alleged by the prosecution and still have made it to the Holden farm by the time he was seen by Heydon , and stressed that Thornton did not act like a man who ran . The judge concluded by reminding the jury that it was better a murderer go free than an innocent man be convicted . The jury never left the box , but instead conferred together and found Thornton not guilty in six minutes . They were then resworn on the rape allegation . The prosecution informed the court that it had no evidence to offer on that count , and Mr Justice Holroyd directed the jury to find the prisoner not guilty of rape , which they did . Thornton was set free . = = Appeal = = The acquittal of Thornton was met with outrage in Warwickshire , and indeed across the country . Newspapers published letters and comments which were extremely hostile toward Thornton . The leading papers in this campaign were the Lichfield Mercury and the Independent Whig , but even The Times expressed delight when it learned that the case would be further pursued . Funds were obtained from contributors , and a local solicitor prevailed on Mary 's brother , William Ashford , to bring an appeal of murder against Thornton . William Ashford was described as " a plain country young man , about twenty @-@ two years of age , of short stature , sandy hair , and blue eyes " . A writ of appeal was issued on 1 October 1817 , and Thornton was arrested on a warrant issued pursuant to that writ . As the appeal was to be tried before the King 's Bench in London , Thornton was taken to London on 28 October . Supporters of the Ashford family did their best to find evidence to upset his alibi . They had little success . On 6 November , the case first came before the Court , but was quickly adjourned until the 17th when Reader indicated that he had just been instructed , and needed more time to advise his client as to his plea . The initial hearing was little attended , apparently because the public did not realise the notorious Thornton would be there in person . The Warwickshire magistrate , Bedford , was now acting as solicitor for William Ashford . At first , he saw no reason for uneasiness in the appeal . However , on 11 November , he wrote to his clerk , I am sorry to say that difficulties have been started likely to occasion much trouble and perhaps ultimate defeat. it seems the Appellee [ Thornton ] has the option of waging Battle and of challenging the Appellor [ William Ashford ] in single combat which if not accepted by the Appellor the suit is lost and , if accepted , and the Appellee can hold out from sun rise to sun set , then he wins the contest and claims his discharge , otherwise his election subjects him not only to a good threshing [ sic ] but also the pain of death into the bargain . It is rumoured here that is the plea intended to be set up by the Def. and unless we can devise any means by arguement [ sic ] to induce the Court not to allow it , I am very apprehensive our poor little Knight will never be able to contend the Battle with his brutish opponent . When the case came to be heard in the King 's Bench on 17 November , a huge crowd packed Westminster Hall to such an extent that counsel had great difficulty in entering . When Thornton was called upon for his plea , he responded , " Not guilty ; and I am ready to defend the same with my body . " He then put on one of a pair of leather gauntlets , which Reader handed him . Thornton threw down the other for William Ashford to pick up and thus accept the challenge , which Ashford did not do . Instead , his counsel , Nathaniel Clarke , argued that Thornton should not be able to compound his murder of the sister with an attempt to murder the brother , to which the Lord Chief Justice , Lord Ellenborough responded , " It is the law of England , Mr Clarke ; we must not call it murder . " Clarke then argued Ashford 's youth and lack of bodily strength as a reason not to allow the battle . Reader , in reply , stated that Ashford 's counsel should not waste the Court 's time by arguing that trial by battle was unwise because of Ashford 's physical condition , but should file responsive pleadings and allow the case to move forward . Reader also noted that he and his co @-@ counsel had advised Thornton to wage battle out of concern that with the " extraordinary and unprecedented prejudice " against the defendant , a fair jury could not be obtained . The matter was adjourned to 22 November to allow Ashford 's counsel to file pleadings . At subsequent hearings , each side submitted replications ( affidavits ) with his version of the evidence . Ashford sought for the Court to rule that the evidence against Thornton was strong and that the defendant was thus ineligible to wage battle ; Thornton sought the opposite . Much of the case was argued between 6 and 8 February 1818 , but one of Ashford 's counsel , Joseph Chitty , asked for and received more time so he could reply to the other side 's arguments , and the matter was adjourned until 16 April . Chitty then responded but was so often interrupted in his argument by the judges that when he sat down , according to Sir John Hall in his book on the affair , " it was clear to everyone in Court that his client had lost his case " . The judges conferred for about a quarter of an hour , and then delivered judgment seriatim ( one after the other ) . All four ruled for Thornton , holding that the evidence against him was not so strong as to oust his right to battle . Lord Ellenborough stated that The discussion which has taken place here , and the consideration which has been given to the facts alleged , most conclusively show that this is not a case that can admit of no denial or proof to the contrary ; under these circumstances , however obnoxious I am myself to the trial by battle , it is the mode of trial which we , in our judicial character , are bound to award . We are delivering the law as it is , and not as we wish it to be , and therefore we must pronounce our judgment , that the battle must take place . After the other judges delivered their judgments , Lord Ellenborough concluded , The general law of this land is in favour of the wager of battle , and it is our duty to pronounce the law as it is , and not as we may wish it to be . Whatever prejudices may exist therefore against this mode of trial , still as it is the law of the land , the Court must pronounce judgment for it . However , Lord Ellenborough indicated that Ashford could ask that Thornton be allowed " to go without a day " , that is , be released without obligation to return to court . The matter was adjourned until 20 April for Ashford to consider his options , whether to allow Thornton 's release or meet him in battle . On 20 April , Ashford 's counsel indicated that he had no objection to Thornton 's discharge , so long as no action would be taken against his client . With the appellant reassured on that point , the appeal was dismissed . Thornton was then given a pro forma arraignment on the murder charge , to which he interposed a plea that he was acquitted previously . The plea being accepted , the case was ended , and Thornton was freed . With an angry mob outside , Thornton left ( at Lord Ellenborough 's direction ) through a side door . = = Aftermath = = In June 1819 , Lord Eldon , the Lord Chancellor , introduced a bill to abolish private appeals following acquittals , and also abolish trial by battle . The act passed in great haste , with all three of the required readings of the bill in the House of Lords passing on one night . According to Sir Robert Megarry , who wrote of Ashford v Thornton in 2005 , the haste was due to a wager of battle being made in another case , though the names of the parties are not known . The act , which was recorded as 59 Geo . III , Chapter 46 , recited , " whereas appeals of murder , treason , felony , and other offences , and the manner of proceeding therein , have been found to be oppressive ; and the trial by battle in any suit , is a mode of trial unfit to be used ; and it is expedient that the same should be wholly abolished . " The Act abolished appeals of murder and other offences , and enacted in section 2 : " that from and after the passing of this act , in any writ of right now depending , or which may hereafter be brought , instituted , or commenced , the tenant shall not be received to wage battel , nor shall issue be joined nor trial be had by battel in any writ of right ; any law , custom , or usage to the contrary notwithstanding . " Abraham Thornton returned to Castle Bromwich , but found the general dislike in which he was held unbearable . He booked passage to New York aboard the Independence , but when his fellow passengers found out who he was , they insisted on his being put ashore . On 30 September 1818 , Abraham Thornton sailed from Liverpool aboard the Shamrock to New York . In the United States , he worked as a bricklayer , married and had children . He died around 1860 in Baltimore . William Ashford , who for many years worked as a fish @-@ hawker in Birmingham , was found dead in his bed there in January 1867 , at the age of seventy . According to Walter Thornbury , who wrote of the case in the late 19th century , " The causes of Mary Ashford 's death , only the Last Day can now reveal . " Academics have argued that Ashford v Thornton inspired the judicial combat which is the climax of Sir Walter Scott 's Ivanhoe . Scott mentioned the case in his other writings , discussed it with his friends , and backdated the dedication to the book two years to the date of Thornton 's wager of battle . An attempt was made in 1985 to claim trial by battle , brought by two brothers in Scotland who were accused of armed robbery , on the grounds that the abolition did not apply in Scotland . The attempt failed when the defendants could offer no evidence to oust the statutory presumption that Parliamentary acts apply to the entire United Kingdom . In 2002 , a 60 @-@ year @-@ old man , faced with a £ 25 fine for a minor motoring offence , appeared before magistrates and demanded trial by battle against a champion to be nominated by the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency . He stated that trial by battle was still valid under European human rights legislation . Magistrates fined him £ 200 , with £ 100 costs .
= Dynamic Science Stories = Dynamic Science Stories was a pulp magazine which published two issues , dated February and April 1939 . A companion to Marvel Science Stories , it was edited by Robert O. Erisman and published by Western Fiction Publishing . Among the better known authors who appeared in its pages were L. Sprague de Camp and Manly Wade Wellman . = = Publication history and contents = = Although science fiction had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was booming . In 1938 Abraham and Martin Goodman , two brothers who owned a publishing company with multiple imprints , launched Marvel Science Stories , edited by Robert O. Erisman . In February of the following year they added Dynamic Science Stories as a companion magazine intended to run longer stories . The contents were typical pulp science fiction , with few memorable stories . Science fiction historians Joseph Marchesani and Mike Ashley identify only three stories of quality : Nelson S. Bond 's " The Message from the Void " ( published under the pseudonym " Hubert Mavity " ) ; L. Sprague de Camp 's " Ananias " ; and Manly Wade Wellman 's " Insight " . The cover for the first issue was painted by Frank R. Paul , a popular cover artist recently returned to the science fiction field ; Norman Saunders provided the second cover . Dynamic 's sister magazine , Marvel Science Stories , often published stories with more sexual content than was usual for science fiction magazines of the day , but , although Dynamic 's advertising included books offering sexual advice , the magazine 's actual content was more traditional pulp material . The magazine only lasted two issues , though it is not known whether this was because of poor sales or if the cancellation was " a reflection of the whim of the publisher " , in Ashley 's words . = = Bibliographic details = = The publisher of Dynamic Science Stories was Western Fiction Publishing Co . , based in Chicago , with editorial offices in Radio City , New York . There was one volume of two numbers . Both issues were in pulp format , 112 pages long , and priced at 15 cents . There was a British reprint edition of the first issue ; it appeared in 1939 and was undated . The editor of both issues was Robert O. Erisman , who was not credited in the magazine .
= Somerset = Somerset ( / ˈsʌmərsɛt / ) is a county in South West England which borders Gloucestershire and Bristol to the north , Wiltshire to the east , Dorset to the south @-@ east and Devon to the south @-@ west . It is bounded to the north and west by the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel , its coastline facing southeastern Wales . Its traditional border with Gloucestershire is the River Avon . Somerset 's county town is Taunton . Somerset is a rural county of rolling hills such as the Blackdown Hills , Mendip Hills , Quantock Hills and Exmoor National Park , and large flat expanses of land including the Somerset Levels . There is evidence of human occupation from Paleolithic times , and of subsequent settlement in the Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon periods . The county played a significant part in the consolidation of power and rise of King Alfred the Great , and later in the English Civil War and the Monmouth Rebellion . The city of Bath is famous for its substantial Georgian architecture and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . = = Toponymy = = Somerset 's name derives from Old English Sumorsǣte , short for Sumortūnsǣte , meaning " the people living at or dependent on Sumortūn " ( Somerton ) . The first known use of Somersæte is in the law code of King Ine who was the Saxon King of Wessex from 688 to 726 , making Somerset along with Hampshire , Wiltshire and Dorset one of the oldest extant units of local government in the world . An alternative suggestion is the name derives from Seo @-@ mere @-@ saetan meaning " settlers by the sea lakes " . The people of Somerset are mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle 's entry for AD 845 , in the inflected form " Sumursætum " , and the county is recorded in the entry for 1015 using the same name . The archaic name Somersetshire was mentioned in the Chronicle 's entry for 878 . Although " Somersetshire " was in common use as an alternative name for the county , it went out of fashion in the late 19th century , and is no longer used possibly due to the adoption of " Somerset " as the county 's official name after the establishment of the county council in 1889 . As with other counties not ending in " shire , " the suffix was superfluous , as there was no need to differentiate between the county and a town within it . The Old English name is used in the motto of the county , Sumorsǣte ealle , meaning " all the people of Somerset " . Adopted as the motto in 1911 , the phrase is taken from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Somerset was a part of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Wessex , and the phrase refers to the wholehearted support the people of Somerset gave to King Alfred in his struggle to save Wessex from Viking invaders . Somerset is Gwlad yr Haf in Welsh , Gwlas an Hav in Cornish and Bro an Hañv in Breton , which all mean " Country of the Summer " . Somerset settlement names are mostly Anglo @-@ Saxon in origin , but some hill names include Brittonic Celtic elements . For example , an Anglo @-@ Saxon charter of 682 refers to Creechborough Hill as " the hill the British call Cructan and we call Crychbeorh " ( " we " being the Anglo @-@ Saxons ) . Some modern names are Brythonic in origin , such as Tarnock , while others have both Saxon and Brythonic elements , such as Pen Hill . = = History = = The caves of the Mendip Hills were settled during the Palaeolithic period , and contain extensive archaeological sites such as those at Cheddar Gorge . Bones from Gough 's Cave have been dated to 12 @,@ 000 BC , and a complete skeleton , known as Cheddar Man , dates from 7150 BC . Examples of cave art have been found in Aveline 's Hole . Some caves continued to be occupied until modern times , including Wookey Hole . The Somerset Levels — specifically dry points at Glastonbury and Brent Knoll — also have a long history of settlement , and are known to have been settled by Mesolithic hunters . Travel in the area was facilitated by the construction of one of the world 's oldest known engineered roadways , the Sweet Track , which dates from 3807 BC or 3806 BC . The exact age of the henge monument at Stanton Drew stone circles is unknown , but it is believed to be Neolithic . There are numerous Iron Age hill forts , some of which , like Cadbury Castle and Ham Hill , were later reoccupied in the Early Middle Ages . On the authority of the future emperor Vespasian , as part of the ongoing expansion of the Roman presence in Britain , the Second Legion Augusta invaded Somerset from the south @-@ east in AD 47 . The county remained part of the Roman Empire until around AD 409 , when the Roman occupation of Britain came to an end . A variety of Roman remains have been found , including Pagans Hill Roman temple in Chew Stoke , Low Ham Roman Villa and the Roman Baths that gave their name to the city of Bath . After the Romans left , Britain was invaded by Anglo @-@ Saxon peoples . By AD 600 they had established control over much of what is now England , but Somerset was still in native British hands . The British held back Saxon advance into the south @-@ west for some time longer , but by the early eighth century King Ine of Wessex had pushed the boundaries of the West Saxon kingdom far enough west to include Somerset . The Saxon royal palace in Cheddar was used several times in the 10th century to host the Witenagemot . After the Norman Conquest , the county was divided into 700 fiefs , and large areas were owned by the crown , with fortifications such as Dunster Castle used for control and defence . Somerset contains HM Prison Shepton Mallet , which was England 's oldest prison still in use prior to its closure in 2013 , having opened in 1610 . In the English Civil War Somerset was largely Parliamentarian , with key engagements being the Sieges of Taunton and the Battle of Langport . In 1685 the Monmouth Rebellion was played out in Somerset and neighbouring Dorset . The rebels landed at Lyme Regis and travelled north , hoping to capture Bristol and Bath , but they were defeated in the Battle of Sedgemoor at Westonzoyland , the last pitched battle fought in England . Arthur Wellesley took his title , Duke of Wellington from the town of Wellington ; he is commemorated on a nearby hill by a large , spotlit obelisk , known as the Wellington Monument . The Industrial Revolution in the Midlands and Northern England spelled the end for most of Somerset 's cottage industries . Farming continued to flourish , however , and the Bath and West of England Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture , Arts , Manufactures and Commerce was founded in 1777 to improve farming methods . Despite this , 20 years later John Billingsley conducted a survey of the county 's agriculture in 1795 and found that agricultural methods could still be improved . Coal mining was an important industry in north Somerset during the 18th and 19th centuries , and by 1800 it was prominent in Radstock . The Somerset Coalfield reached its peak production by the 1920s , but all the pits have now been closed , the last in 1973 . Most of the surface buildings have been removed , and apart from a winding wheel outside Radstock Museum , little evidence of their former existence remains . Further west , the Brendon Hills were mined for iron ore in the late 19th century ; this was taken by the West Somerset Mineral Railway to Watchet Harbour for shipment to the furnaces at Ebbw Vale . Many Somerset soldiers died during the First World War , with the Somerset Light Infantry suffering nearly 5 @,@ 000 casualties . War memorials were put up in most of the county 's towns and villages ; only nine , described as the Thankful Villages , had none of their residents killed . During the Second World War the county was a base for troops preparing for the D @-@ Day landings . Some of the hospitals which were built for the casualties of the war remain in use . The Taunton Stop Line was set up to repel a potential German invasion . The remains of its pill boxes can still be seen along the coast , and south through Ilminster and Chard . A number of decoy towns were constructed in Somerset in World War II to protect Bristol and other towns , at night . They were designed to mimic the geometry of " blacked out " streets , railway lines , and Bristol Temple Meads railway station , to encourage bombers away from these targets . One , on the radio beam flight path to Bristol , was constructed on Beacon Batch . It was laid out by Shepperton Studios , based on aerial photographs of the city 's railway marshalling yards . The decoys were fitted with dim red lights , simulating activities like the stoking of steam locomotives . Burning bales of straw soaked in creosote were used to simulate the effects of incendiary bombs dropped by the first wave of Pathfinder night bombers ; meanwhile , incendiary bombs dropped on the correct location were quickly smothered , wherever possible . Drums of oil were also ignited to simulate the effect of a blazing city or town , with the aim of fooling subsequent waves of bombers into dropping their bombs on the wrong location . The Chew Magna decoy town was hit by half @-@ a @-@ dozen bombs on 2 December 1940 , and over a thousand incendiaries on 3 January 1941 . The following night the Uphill decoy town , protecting Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare 's airfield , was bombed ; a herd of dairy cows was hit , killing some and severely injuring others . = = Human geography = = = = = Boundaries = = = The boundaries of Somerset are largely unaltered from medieval times . The River Avon formed much of the border with Gloucestershire , except that the hundred of Bath Forum , which straddles the Avon , formed part of Somerset . Bristol began as a town on the Gloucestershire side of the Avon , however as it grew it extended across the river into Somerset . In 1373 Edward III proclaimed " that the town of Bristol with its suburbs and precincts shall henceforth be separate from the counties of Gloucester and Somerset ... and that it should be a county by itself " . The present @-@ day northern border of Somerset ( adjoining the counties of Bristol and Gloucestershire ) runs along the southern bank of the Avon from the Bristol Channel , then follows around the southern edge of the Bristol built @-@ up area , before continuing upstream along the Avon , and then diverges from the river to include Bath and its historic hinterland to the north of the Avon , before meeting Wiltshire at the Three Shire Stones on the Fosse Way at Batheaston . = = = Cities and towns = = = Somerton took over from Ilchester as the county town in the late thirteenth century , but it declined in importance and the status of county town transferred to Taunton about 1366 . The county has two cities , Bath and Wells , and 30 towns ( including the county town of Taunton , which has no town council but instead is the chief settlement of the county 's only borough ) . The largest urban areas in terms of population are Bath , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Taunton , Yeovil and Bridgwater . Many settlements developed because of their strategic importance in relation to geographical features , such as river crossings or valleys in ranges of hills . Examples include Axbridge on the River Axe , Castle Cary on the River Cary , North Petherton on the River Parrett , and Ilminster , where there was a crossing point on the River Isle . Midsomer Norton lies on the River Somer ; while the Wellow Brook and the Fosse Way Roman road run through Radstock . Chard is the most southerly town in Somerset , and at an altitude of 121 m ( 397 ft ) it is also the highest . = = Physical geography = = = = = Geology = = = Much of the landscape of Somerset falls into types determined by the underlying geology . These landscapes are the limestone karst and lias of the north , the clay vales and wetlands of the centre , the oolites of the east and south , and the Devonian sandstone of the west . To the north @-@ east of the Somerset Levels , the Mendip Hills are moderately high limestone hills . The central and western Mendip Hills was designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in 1972 and covers 198 km2 ( 76 sq mi ) . The main habitat on these hills is calcareous grassland , with some arable agriculture . To the south @-@ west of the Somerset Levels are the Quantock Hills which was England 's first Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty designated in 1956 which is covered in heathland , oak woodlands , ancient parklands with plantations of conifer and covers 99 square kilometres . The Somerset Coalfield is part of a larger coalfield which stretches into Gloucestershire . To the north of the Mendip hills is the Chew Valley and to the south , on the clay substrate , are broad valleys which support dairy farming and drain into the Somerset Levels . = = = Caves and rivers = = = There is an extensive network of caves , including Wookey Hole , underground rivers , and gorges , including the Cheddar Gorge and Ebbor Gorge . The county has many rivers , including the Axe , Brue , Cary , Parrett , Sheppey , Tone and Yeo . These both feed and drain the flat levels and moors of mid and west Somerset . In the north of the county the River Chew flows into the Bristol Avon . The Parrett is tidal almost to Langport , where there is evidence of two Roman wharfs . At the same site during the reign of King Charles I , river tolls were levied on boats to pay for the maintenance of the bridge . = = = Levels and moors = = = The Somerset Levels ( or Somerset Levels and Moors as they are less commonly but more correctly known ) are a sparsely populated wetland area of central Somerset , between the Quantock and Mendip hills . They consist of marine clay levels along the coast , and the inland ( often peat based ) moors . The Levels are divided into two by the Polden Hills ; land to the south is drained by the River Parrett while land to the north is drained by the River Axe and the River Brue . The total area of the Levels amounts to about 647 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 160 @,@ 000 acres ) and broadly corresponds to the administrative district of Sedgemoor but also includes the south west of Mendip district . Approximately 70 % of the area is grassland and 30 % is arable . Stretching about 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) inland , this expanse of flat land barely rises above sea level . Before it was drained , much of the land was under a shallow brackish sea in winter and was marsh land in summer . Drainage began with the Romans , and was restarted at various times : by the Anglo @-@ Saxons ; in the Middle Ages by the Glastonbury Abbey , from 1400 – 1770 ; and during the Second World War , with the construction of the Huntspill River . Pumping and management of water levels still continues . The North Somerset Levels basin , north of the Mendips , covers a smaller geographical area than the Somerset Levels ; and forms a coastal area around Avonmouth . It too was reclaimed by draining . It is mirrored , across the Severn Estuary , in Wales , by a similar low @-@ lying area : the Caldicot and Wentloog Levels . In the far west of the county , running into Devon , is Exmoor , a high Devonian sandstone moor , which was designated as a national park in 1954 , under the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act . The highest point in Somerset is Dunkery Beacon on Exmoor , with an altitude of 519 metres ( 1 @,@ 703 feet ) . Over 100 sites in Somerset have been designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest . = = = Coastline = = = The 64 km ( 40 mi ) coastline of the Bristol Channel and Severn Estuary forms part of the northern border of Somerset . The Bristol Channel has the second largest tidal range in the world . At Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea , for example , the tidal range of a spring tide is more than 12 metres ( 39 feet ) . Proposals for the construction of a Severn Barrage aim to harness this energy . The island of Steep Holm in the Bristol Channel is within the ceremonial county and is now administered by North Somerset Council . The main coastal towns are , from the west to the north @-@ east , Minehead , Watchet , Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Clevedon and Portishead . The coastal area between Minehead and the eastern extreme of the administrative county 's coastline at Brean Down is known as Bridgwater Bay , and is a National Nature Reserve . North of that , the coast forms Weston Bay and Sand Bay whose northern tip , Sand Point , marks the lower limit of the Severn Estuary . In the mid and north of the county the coastline is low as the level wetlands of the levels meet the sea . In the west , the coastline is high and dramatic where the plateau of Exmoor meets the sea , with high cliffs and waterfalls . = = = Climate = = = Along with the rest of South West England , Somerset has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures . The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 ° C ( 69 @.@ 8 ° F ) . In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) are common . In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south @-@ west of England , but convective cloud sometimes forms inland , reducing the number of hours of sunshine . Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1 @,@ 600 hours . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton . Most the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which is when they are most active . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms . Average rainfall is around 700 mm ( 28 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west . = = Economy and industry = = Somerset has few industrial centres , but it does have a variety of light industry and high technology businesses , along with traditional agriculture and an increasingly important tourism sector , resulting in an unemployment rate of 2 @.@ 5 % . Unemployment is lower than the national average ; the largest employment sectors are retail , manufacturing , tourism , and health and social care . Population growth in the county is higher than the national average . Bridgwater was developed during the Industrial Revolution as the area 's leading port . The River Parrett was navigable by large ships as far as Bridgwater . Cargoes were then loaded onto smaller boats at Langport Quay , next to the Bridgwater Bridge , to be carried further up river to Langport ; or they could turn off at Burrowbridge and then travel via the River Tone to Taunton . The Parrett is now only navigable as far as Dunball Wharf . Bridgwater , in the 19th and 20th centuries , was a centre for the manufacture of bricks and clay roof tiles , and later cellophane , but those industries have now stopped . With its good links to the motorway system , Bridgwater has developed as a distribution hub for companies such as Argos , Toolstation , Morrisons and Gerber Juice . AgustaWestland manufactures helicopters in Yeovil , and Normalair Garratt , builder of aircraft oxygen systems , is also based in the town . Many towns have encouraged small @-@ scale light industries , such as Crewkerne 's Ariel Motor Company , one of the UK 's smallest car manufacturers . Somerset is an important supplier of defence equipment and technology . A Royal Ordnance Factory , ROF Bridgwater was built at the start of the Second World War , between the villages of Puriton and Woolavington , to manufacture explosives . The site was decommissioned and closed in July 2008 . Templecombe has Thales Underwater Systems , and Taunton presently has the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office and Avimo , which became part of Thales Optics . It has been announced twice , in 2006 and 2007 , that manufacturing is to end at Thales Optics ' Taunton site , but the trade unions and Taunton Deane District Council are working to reverse or mitigate these decisions . Other high @-@ technology companies include the optics company Gooch and Housego , at Ilminster . There are Ministry of Defence offices in Bath , and Norton Fitzwarren is the home of 40 Commando Royal Marines . The Royal Naval Air Station in Yeovilton , is one of Britain 's two active Fleet Air Arm bases and is home to the Royal Navy 's Lynx helicopters and the Royal Marines Commando Westland Sea Kings . Around 1 @,@ 675 service and 2 @,@ 000 civilian personnel are stationed at Yeovilton and key activities include training of aircrew and engineers and the Royal Navy 's Fighter Controllers and surface @-@ based aircraft controllers . Agriculture and food and drink production continue to be major industries in the county , employing over 15 @,@ 000 people . Apple orchards were once plentiful , and Somerset is still a major producer of cider . The towns of Taunton and Shepton Mallet are involved with the production of cider , especially Blackthorn Cider , which is sold nationwide , and there are specialist producers such as Burrow Hill Cider Farm and Thatchers Cider . Gerber Products Company in Bridgwater is the largest producer of fruit juices in Europe , producing brands such as " Sunny Delight " and " Ocean Spray . " Development of the milk @-@ based industries , such as Ilchester Cheese Company and Yeo Valley Organic , have resulted in the production of ranges of desserts , yoghurts and cheeses , including Cheddar cheese — some of which has the West Country Farmhouse Cheddar Protected Designation of Origin ( PDO ) . Traditional willow growing and weaving ( such as basket weaving ) is not as extensive as it used to be but is still carried out on the Somerset Levels and is commemorated at the Willows and Wetlands Visitor Centre . Fragments of willow basket were found near the Glastonbury Lake Village , and it was also used in the construction of several Iron Age causeways . The willow was harvested using a traditional method of pollarding , where a tree would be cut back to the main stem . During the 1930s more than 3 @,@ 600 hectares ( 8 @,@ 900 acres ) of willow were being grown commercially on the Levels . Largely due to the displacement of baskets with plastic bags and cardboard boxes , the industry has severely declined since the 1950s . By the end of the 20th century only about 140 hectares ( 350 acres ) were grown commercially , near the villages of Burrowbridge , Westonzoyland and North Curry . The Somerset Levels is now the only area in the UK where basket willow is grown commercially . Towns such as Castle Cary and Frome grew around the medieval weaving industry . Street developed as a centre for the production of woollen slippers and , later , boots and shoes , with C. & J. Clark establishing its headquarters in the town . C & J Clark 's shoes are no longer manufactured there as the work was transferred to lower @-@ wage areas , such as China and Asia . Instead , in 1993 , redundant factory buildings were converted to form Clarks Village , the first purpose @-@ built factory outlet in the UK . C & J Clark also had shoe factories , at one time at Bridgwater , Minehead , Westfield and Weston super Mare to provide employment outside the main summer tourist season , but those satellite sites were closed in the late 1980s , before the main site at Street . Dr. Martens shoes were also made in Somerset , by the Northampton @-@ based R. Griggs Group , using redundant skilled shoemakers from C & J Clark ; that work has also been transferred to Asia . The county has a long tradition of supplying freestone and building stone . Quarries at Doulting supplied freestone used in the construction of Wells Cathedral . Bath stone is also widely used . Ralph Allen promoted its use in the early 18th century , as did Hans Price in the 19th century , but it was used long before then . It was mined underground at Combe Down and Bathampton Down Mines , and as a result of cutting the Box Tunnel , at locations in Wiltshire such as Box . Bath stone is still used on a reduced scale today , but more often as a cladding rather than a structural material . Further south , Hamstone is the colloquial name given to stone from Ham Hill , which is also widely used in the construction industry . Blue Lias has been used locally as a building stone and as a raw material for lime mortar and Portland cement . Until the 1960s , Puriton had Blue Lias stone quarries , as did several other Polden villages . Its quarries also supplied a cement factory at Dunball , adjacent to the King 's Sedgemoor Drain . Its derelict , early 20th century remains , was removed when the M5 motorway was constructed in the mid @-@ 1970s . Since the 1920s , the county has supplied aggregates . Foster Yeoman is Europe 's large supplier of limestone aggregates , with quarries at Merehead Quarry . It has a dedicated railway operation , Mendip Rail , which is used to transport aggregates by rail from a group of Mendip quarries . Tourism is a major industry , estimated in 2001 to support around 23 @,@ 000 people . Attractions include the coastal towns , part of the Exmoor National Park , the West Somerset Railway ( a heritage railway ) , and the museum of the Fleet Air Arm at RNAS Yeovilton . The town of Glastonbury has mythical associations , including legends of a visit by the young Jesus of Nazareth and Joseph of Arimathea , with links to the Holy Grail , King Arthur , and Camelot , identified by some as Cadbury Castle , an Iron Age hill fort . Glastonbury also gives its name to an annual open @-@ air rock festival held in nearby Pilton . There are show caves open to visitors in the Cheddar Gorge , as well as its locally produced cheese , although there is now only one remaining cheese maker in the village of Cheddar . In November 2008 , a public sector inward investment organisation was launched , called Into Somerset , with the intention of growing the county 's economy by promoting it to businesses that may wish to relocate from other parts of the UK ( especially London ) and the world . = = = Nuclear electricity = = = Hinkley Point C nuclear power station is a project to construct a 3 @,@ 200 MW two reactor nuclear power station . On 18 October 2010 , the British government announced that Hinkley Point – already the site of the disused Hinkley Point A and the still operational Hinkley Point B power stations – was one of the eight sites it considered suitable for future nuclear power stations . NNB Generation Company , a subsidiary of EDF , submitted an application for development consent to the Infrastructure Planning Commission on 31 October 2011 . A protest group , Stop Hinkley , was formed to campaign for the closure of Hinkley Point B and oppose any expansion at the Hinkley Point site . In December 2013 , the European Commission opened an investigation to assess whether the project breaks state @-@ aid rules . On 8 October 2014 it was announced that the European Commission has approved the project , with an overwhelming majority and only four commissioners voting against the decision . = = Demography = = In the 2001 census the population of the Somerset County Council area was 498 @,@ 093 with 169 @,@ 040 in Bath and North East Somerset , and 188 @,@ 564 in North Somerset giving a total for the ceremonial county of 855 @,@ 697 . Population growth is higher than the national average , with a 6 @.@ 4 % increase , in the Somerset County Council area , since 1991 , and a 17 % increase since 1981 . The population density is 1 @.@ 4 persons per hectare , which can be compared to 2 @.@ 07 persons per hectare for the South West region . Within the county , population density ranges 0 @.@ 5 in West Somerset to 2 @.@ 2 persons per hectare in Taunton Deane . The percentage of the population who are economically active is higher than the regional and national average , and the unemployment rate is lower than the regional and national average . Somerset has a high indigenous British population , with 98 @.@ 8 % registering as white British and 92 @.@ 4 % of these as born in the United Kingdom . Chinese is the largest ethnic group , while the black minority ethnic proportion of the total population is 2 @.@ 9 % . Over 25 % of Somerset 's population is concentrated in Taunton , Bridgwater and Yeovil . The rest of the county is rural and sparsely populated . Over 9 million tourist nights are spent in Somerset each year , which significantly increases the population at peak times . = = Politics = = The county is divided into nine constituencies , each returning one Member of Parliament ( MP ) to the House of Commons . In the May 2015 general election , all nine constituencies of the county elected Conservative MPs . The current constituencies of Somerset are Bridgwater and West Somerset , North East Somerset , North Somerset , Bath , Somerton and Frome , Taunton Deane , Wells , Yeovil , and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Residents of Somerset also form part of the electorate for the South West England constituency for elections to the European Parliament . = = Local government = = The ceremonial county of Somerset consists of a two @-@ tier non @-@ metropolitan county , which is administered by Somerset County Council and five district councils , and two unitary authority areas ( whose councils combine the functions of a county and a district ) . The five districts of Somerset are West Somerset , South Somerset , Taunton Deane , Mendip , and Sedgemoor . The two unitary authorities — which were established on 1 April 1996 following the break @-@ up of the short @-@ lived county of Avon — are North Somerset , and Bath & North East Somerset . These unitary authorities formed part of the administrative county of Somerset before the creation of Avon ( a county created to cover Bristol and its environs in north Somerset and south Gloucestershire ) in 1974 . Bath however was a largely independent county borough during the existence of the administrative county of Somerset ( from 1889 to 1974 ) . In 2007 , proposals to abolish the five district councils in favour of a unitary authority ( covering the existing two @-@ tier county ) were rejected following local opposition . West Somerset is the least populous district ( except for the two sui generis districts ) in England . = = = Civil parishes = = = Almost all of the county is covered by the lowest / most local form of English local government , the civil parish , with either a town or parish council ( a city council in the instance of Wells ) or a parish meeting ; some parishes group together , with a single council or meeting for the group . The city of Bath ( the area of the former county borough ) and much of the town of Taunton are unparished areas . = = Emergency services = = All of the ceremonial county of Somerset is covered by the Avon and Somerset Constabulary , a police force which also covers Bristol and South Gloucestershire . The police force is governed by the elected Avon and Somerset Police and Crime Commissioner . The Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service was formed in 2007 upon the merger of the Somerset Fire and Rescue Service with its neighbouring Devon service ; it covers the area of Somerset County Council as well as the entire ceremonial county of Devon . The unitary districts of North Somerset and Bath & North East Somerset are instead covered by the Avon Fire and Rescue Service , a service which also covers Bristol and South Gloucestershire . The South Western Ambulance Service covers the entire South West of England , including all of Somerset ; prior to February 2013 the unitary districts of Somerset came under the Great Western Ambulance Service , which merged into South Western . The Dorset and Somerset Air Ambulance is a charitable organisation based in the county . = = Culture = = Somerset has traditions of art , music and literature . Wordsworth and Coleridge wrote while staying in Coleridge Cottage , Nether Stowey . The writer Evelyn Waugh spent his last years in the village of Combe Florey . The novelist John Cowper Powys ( 1872 @-@ 1963 ) lived in the Somerset village of Montacute from 1885 until 1894 and his novels Wood and Stone ( 1915 ) and A Glastonbury Romance ( 1932 ) are set in Somerset . Traditional folk music , both song and dance , was important in the agricultural communities . Somerset songs were collected by Cecil Sharp and incorporated into works such as Holst 's A Somerset Rhapsody . Halsway Manor near Williton is an international centre for folk music . The tradition continues today with groups such as The Wurzels specialising in Scrumpy and Western music . The Glastonbury Festival of Contemporary Performing Arts takes place most years in Pilton , near Shepton Mallet , attracting over 170 @,@ 000 music and culture lovers from around the world to see world @-@ famous entertainers . The Big Green Gathering which grew out of the Green fields at the Glastonbury Festival is held in the Mendip Hills between Charterhouse and Compton Martin each summer . The annual Bath Literature Festival is one of several local festivals in the county ; others include the Frome Festival and the Trowbridge Village Pump Festival , which , despite its name , is held at Farleigh Hungerford in Somerset . The annual circuit of West Country Carnivals is held in a variety of Somerset towns during the autumn , forming a major regional festival , and the largest Festival of Lights in Europe . In Arthurian legend , Avalon became associated with Glastonbury Tor when monks at Glastonbury Abbey claimed to have discovered the bones of King Arthur and his queen . What is more certain is that Glastonbury was an important religious centre by 700 and claims to be " the oldest above @-@ ground Christian church in the World " situated " in the mystical land of Avalon . " The claim is based on dating the founding of the community of monks at AD 63 , the year of the legendary visit of Joseph of Arimathea , who was supposed to have brought the Holy Grail . During the Middle Ages there were also important religious sites at Woodspring Priory and Muchelney Abbey . The present Diocese of Bath and Wells covers Somerset – with the exception of the Parish of Abbots Leigh with Leigh Woods in North Somerset – and a small area of Dorset . The Episcopal seat of the Bishop of Bath and Wells is now in the Cathedral Church of Saint Andrew in the city of Wells , having previously been at Bath Abbey . Before the English Reformation , it was a Roman Catholic diocese ; the county now falls within the Roman Catholic Diocese of Clifton . The Benedictine monastery Saint Gregory 's Abbey , commonly known as Downside Abbey , is at Stratton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Fosse , and the ruins of the former Cistercian Cleeve Abbey are near the village of Washford . The county has several museums ; those at Bath include the American Museum in Britain , the Museum of Bath Architecture , the Herschel Museum of Astronomy , the Jane Austen Centre , and the Roman Baths . Other visitor attractions which reflect the cultural heritage of the county include : Claverton Pumping Station , Dunster Working Watermill , the Fleet Air Arm Museum at Yeovilton , Nunney Castle , The Helicopter Museum in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , King John 's Hunting Lodge in Axbridge , Blake Museum Bridgwater , Radstock Museum , Museum of Somerset in Taunton , the Somerset Rural Life Museum in Glastonbury , and Westonzoyland Pumping Station Museum . Somerset has 11 @,@ 500 listed buildings , 523 scheduled monuments , 192 conservation areas , 41 parks and gardens including those at Barrington Court , Holnicote Estate , Prior Park Landscape Garden and Tintinhull Garden , 36 English Heritage sites and 19 National Trust sites , including Clevedon Court , Fyne Court , Montacute House and Tyntesfield as well as Stembridge Tower Mill , the last remaining thatched windmill in England . Other historic houses in the county which have remained in private ownership or used for other purposes include Halswell House and Marston Bigot . A key contribution of Somerset architecture is its medieval church towers . Jenkins writes , " These structures , with their buttresses , bell @-@ opening tracery and crowns , rank with Nottinghamshire alabaster as England 's finest contribution to medieval art . " Bath Rugby play at the Recreation Ground in Bath , and the Somerset County Cricket Club are based at the County Ground in Taunton . The county gained its first Football League club in 2003 , when Yeovil Town won promotion to Division Three as Football Conference champions . They had achieved numerous FA Cup victories over football League sides in the past 50 years , and since joining the elite they have won promotion again — as League Two champions in 2005 . They came close to yet another promotion in 2007 , when they reached the League One playoff final , but lost to Blackpool at the newly reopened Wembley Stadium . Yeovil achieved promotion to the Championship in 2013 after beating Brentford in the playoff final . Horse racing courses are at Taunton and Wincanton . In addition to English national newspapers the county is served by the regional Western Daily Press and local newspapers including : The Weston & Somerset Mercury , the Bath Chronicle , Chew Valley Gazette , Somerset County Gazette , Clevedon Mercury Mendip Times , and the " West Somerset Free Press . Television and radio are provided by BBC Somerset , Heart West Country , The Breeze ( Yeovil & South Somerset ) Yeovil , and HTV , now known as ITV Wales & West Ltd , but still commonly referred to as HTV . The Flag of Somerset , representing the ceremonial county , has been registered with the Flag Institute following a competition in July 2013 . = = Transport = = Somerset has 6 @,@ 531 km ( 4 @,@ 058 mi ) of roads . The main arterial routes , which include the M5 motorway , A303 , A37 , A38 , A39 , A358 and A361 give good access across the county , but many areas can only be accessed via narrow country lanes . Rail services are provided by the West of England Main Line through Yeovil Junction , the Bristol to Exeter Line , Heart of Wessex Line which runs from Bristol Temple Meads to Weymouth and the Reading to Taunton Line . The key train operator for Somerset is First Great Western , and other services are operated by South West Trains and CrossCountry . Bristol Airport , located in North Somerset , provides national and international air services . The Somerset Coal Canal was built in the early 19th century to reduce the cost of transportation of coal and other heavy produce . The first 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) , running from a junction with the Kennet and Avon Canal , along the Cam valley , to a terminal basin at Paulton , were in use by 1805 , together with several tramways . A planned 11 @.@ 7 km ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) branch to Midford was never built , but in 1815 a tramway was laid along its towing path . In 1871 the tramway was purchased by the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway ( S & DJR ) , and operated until the 1950s . The 19th century saw improvements to Somerset 's roads with the introduction of turnpikes , and the building of canals and railways . Nineteenth @-@ century canals included the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal , Westport Canal , Glastonbury Canal and Chard Canal . The Dorset and Somerset Canal was proposed , but little of it was ever constructed and it was abandoned in 1803 . The usefulness of the canals was short @-@ lived , though some have now been restored for recreation . The 19th century also saw the construction of railways to and through Somerset . The county was served by five pre @-@ 1923 Grouping railway companies : the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) ; a branch of the Midland Railway ( MR ) to Bath Green Park ( and another one to Bristol ) ; the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway , and the London and South Western Railway ( L & SWR ) . The former main lines of the GWR are still in use today , although many of its branch lines were scrapped under the notorious Beeching Axe . The former lines of the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway closed completely , as has the branch of the Midland Railway to Bath Green Park ( and to Bristol St Philips ) ; however , the L & SWR survived as a part of the present West of England Main Line . None of these lines , in Somerset , are electrified . Two branch lines , the West and East Somerset Railways , were rescued and transferred back to private ownership as " heritage " lines . The fifth railway was a short @-@ lived light railway , the Weston , Clevedon and Portishead Light Railway . The West Somerset Mineral Railway carried the iron ore from the Brendon Hills to Watchet . Until the 1960s the piers at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Clevedon , Portishead and Minehead were served by the paddle steamers of P and A Campbell who ran regular services to Barry and Cardiff as well as Ilfracombe and Lundy Island . The pier at Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea was used for commercial goods , one of the reasons for the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway was to provide a link between the Bristol Channel and the English Channel . The pier at Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea is the shortest pier in the UK . In the 1970s the Royal Portbury Dock was constructed to provide extra capacity for the Port of Bristol . For long @-@ distance holiday traffic travelling through the county to and from Devon and Cornwall , Somerset is often regarded as a marker on the journey . North – south traffic moves through the county via the M5 Motorway . Traffic to and from the east travels either via the A303 road , or the M4 Motorway , which runs east – west , crossing the M5 just beyond the northern limits of the county . = = Education = = State schools in Somerset are provided by three local education authorities : Bath and North East Somerset , North Somerset , and the larger Somerset County Council . All state schools are comprehensive . In some areas primary , infant and junior schools cater for ages four to eleven , after which the pupils move on to secondary schools . There is a three @-@ tier system of first , middle and upper schools in the Cheddar Valley , and in West Somerset , while most other schools in the county use the two @-@ tier system . Somerset has 30 state and 17 independent secondary schools ; Bath and North East Somerset has 13 state and 5 independent secondary schools ; and North Somerset has 10 state and 2 independent secondary schools , excluding sixth form colleges . Some of the county 's secondary schools have specialist school status . Some schools have sixth forms and others transfer their sixth formers to colleges . Several schools can trace their origins back many years , such as The Blue School in Wells and Richard Huish College in Taunton . Others have changed their names over the years such as Beechen Cliff School which was started in 1905 as the City of Bath Boys ' School and changed to its present name in 1972 when the grammar school was amalgamated with a local secondary modern school , to form a comprehensive school . Many others were established and built since the Second World War . In 2006 , 5 @,@ 900 pupils in Somerset sat GCSE examinations , with 44 @.@ 5 % achieving 5 grades A @-@ C including English and Maths ( compared to 45 @.@ 8 % for England ) . Sexey 's School is a state boarding school in Bruton that also takes day pupils from the surrounding area . The Somerset LEA also provides special schools such as Newbury Manor School , which caters for children aged between 10 and 17 with special educational needs . Provision for pupils with special educational needs is also made by the mainstream schools . There is also a range of independent or public schools . Many of these are for pupils between 11 and 18 years , such as King 's College , Taunton and Taunton School . King 's School , Bruton , was founded in 1519 and received royal foundation status around 30 years later in the reign of Edward VI . Millfield is the largest co @-@ educational boarding school . There are also preparatory schools for younger children , such as All Hallows , and Hazlegrove Preparatory School . Chilton Cantelo School offers places both to day pupils and boarders aged 7 to 16 . Other schools provide education for children from the age of 3 or 4 years through to 18 , such as King Edward 's School , Bath , Queen 's College , Taunton and Wells Cathedral School which is one of the five established musical schools for school @-@ age children in Britain . Some of these schools have religious affiliations , such as Monkton Combe School , Prior Park College , Sidcot School which is associated with the Religious Society of Friends , Downside School which is a Roman Catholic public school in Stratton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Fosse , situated next to the Benedictine Downside Abbey , and Kingswood School , which was founded by John Wesley in 1748 in Kingswood near Bristol , originally for the education of the sons of the itinerant ministers ( clergy ) of the Methodist Church . = = = Further and higher education = = = A wide range of adult education and further education courses is available in Somerset , in schools , colleges and other community venues . The colleges include Weston College , Bridgwater College , Bath College , Frome Community College , Richard Huish College , Somerset College of Arts and Technology , Strode College and Yeovil College . Somerset County Council operates Dillington House , a residential adult education college located in Ilminster . The University of Bath and Bath Spa University are higher education establishments in the north @-@ east of the county . The University of Bath gained its Royal Charter in 1966 , although its origins go back to the Bristol Trade School ( founded 1856 ) and Bath School of Pharmacy ( founded 1907 ) . It has a purpose @-@ built campus at Claverton on the outskirts of Bath , and has 15 @,@ 000 students . Bath Spa University , which is based at Newton St Loe , achieved university status in 2005 , and has origins including the Bath Academy of Art ( founded 1898 ) , Bath Teacher Training College , and the Bath College of Higher Education . It has several campuses and 5 @,@ 500 students .
= Peter Chao = Davin Tong , better known by his alias Peter Chao ( born 1987 ) , is a Canadian comedic vlogger and YouTube personality , known for his unconventional portrayals of Asian stereotypes , best friends with Aaron Wu which alongside other politically incorrect videos have drawn mixed criticism from several sources . Born and raised in New Brunswick , Canada , Tong is the second son of " Chinese immigrants " , while his character Chao was born and raised in Hong Kong . Tong is bilingual , speaking both fluent English and Cantonese . = = Early life and education = = Davin Tong was born and raised in New Brunswick , Canada , the second son of " Chinese immigrants " . He produced an early version of Paper Trail , a minute @-@ long short film pertaining to a neighbor caught stealing newspapers , with director Travis Grant . The film caught the Vancouver Film School 's attention and it subsequently issued scholarships to them . Tong graduated in 2008 . = = Background = = = = = Development = = = Tong realised his flair for vlogging when one of his first YouTube uploads , about a Chinese restaurant run by Indians , garnered around 15 @,@ 000 views . Under the username pyrobooby , Tong adopted the guise of " Chinese Guy " , and later Peter Chao . Tong described the character as born and raised in Hong Kong , and " a zany Chinese immigrant forced into Canada by his prostitute mother . Instead of listening to his mother to go to school , he decided to pursue comedy on YouTube . " = = = Style and image = = = Chao is seen in almost every video as sporting a pair of sunglasses , a habit which kindled viewer interest . Tong attributes the sunglasses as contributing to Chao 's " cool factor " . In the videos , Chao puts on a " thick , over @-@ the @-@ top Cantonese " and " fresh @-@ off @-@ the @-@ boat " accent . Chao also parodies popular songs , such as the Justin Bieber hits " As Long as You Love Me " and " Boyfriend " , as well as criticizing and poking fun at other people , usually with profane language . Fans of Chao are referred to as " Chao Nation " . Beth Hong of The Vancouver Observer writes that Chao is an example of a " FOB " or a " Honger " . Tong – speaking in character – refutes this , stating that " a FOB is a fresh @-@ off @-@ the @-@ boat immigrant that come [ sic ] all the way from China to study in North America . Don 't look at me , I 'm not a FOB . I 'm Peter Chao . FOBs can 't speak a lick of English . " = = = Reception = = = Tong 's character Chao has drawn mixed reception , often being mistaken as a real person . As a result for posting racist content , the account had been previously suspended for a period of fourteen days after showing a video deemed to mock African @-@ Americans . Gabriella Nomura of The Vancouver Sun has branded Chao as " a breath of politically incorrect fresh air " , while Kevin Tang of Amped Asia has called him " racist , sexist , vulgar , and self @-@ deprecating " but also " one of the most funny Youtube celebrities " . a @-@ Tunes.net said that Chao 's blackface performance , a mockery of African American people , had " crossed the line " . However , viewership has been positive . The " Canton Style " music video – a parody of Korean singer @-@ rapper Psy 's " Gangnam Style " – amassed 1 @.@ 1 million views within three days of its uploading . Another of Tong 's uploads , " Chinese Guy Eats Sooo Loud ! " has close to 2 million hits . His videos are , as of 2011 , the number one and two most watched in Canada . Tong has said , in response to audience comments that his performances are " racist " , that everything is " done for comedy . I 'm not really racist against anybody . I take stereotypes and I make them outlandish so everybody can laugh . " = = = Professional Wrestling = = = Chao has appeared frequently in Elite Canadian Championship Wrestling beginning July 6 , 2013 in Port Coquitlam , B.C. where Colt Cabana taught him a few things about wrestling . He was a part of ECCW Ballroom Brawl at the Commodore Ballroom in January 2014 , the largest attendance for independent wrestling in Vancouver in the last 25 years . = = Discography = = = = = Music videos = = = = = Filmography = = = = = Commercials = = = = = = Film = = = = = = Theatre and Stage = = =
= Cyclone Gene = Severe Tropical Cyclone Gene was the deadliest storm as well as the most damaging tropical cyclone of the 2007 – 08 South Pacific cyclone season east of 160ºE . RSMC Nadi monitored Gene as the 12th tropical disturbance , as well as the fourth tropical cyclone and the third severe tropical cyclone to form west of 160ºE during the 2007 – 08 South Pacific cyclone season . Gene was also recognised by RSMC Nadi as the fifth tropical cyclone and fourth severe tropical cyclone to form within the South Pacific Ocean during the 2007 @-@ 08 season . On January 25 , a tropical disturbance formed within the Fijian Archipelago and was designated as Tropical Disturbance 12F . The next day it was upgraded to a tropical depression , whilst on January 27 , RSMC Nadi named the depression as Cyclone Gene . Later that day Gene made landfall on Fiji , and caused 8 deaths and $ 51 million ( 2008 , F $ ) . Cyclone Gene then slowly intensified to a category three cyclone on both the Saffir Simpson Hurricane Scale and the Australian Cyclone Intensity Scale . Gene then took a turn to the south moving towards 25 ° S which marks the edge of RSMC Nadi 's area of responsibility with the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre ( TCWC ) in Wellington , New Zealand . Gene then crossed 25 ° S on February 3 and Nadi released their final advisory . Cyclone Gene continued as a Tropical Cyclone for three days before becoming an extratropical cyclone . Early on February 6 TCWC Wellington released their final advisory on tropical cyclone Gene as they declared it as extratropical . Cyclone Gene caused widespread damage to several of Fiji 's main islands , including Viti Levu , Vanua Levu , Taveuni , Yasawa , Mamanuca , and other outlying island groups , while killing a total of 8 people . The cyclone also caused severe damage to Vanautu 's Futuna island after its outerbands lashed the island with gale force windspeeds and heavy rain for 12 hours . = = Meteorological history = = On January 26 , the Fiji Meteorological Service 's Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Nadi , Fiji and the United States Armed Forces Joint Typhoon Warning Center started to monitor a weak tropical disturbance that had developed within the monsoon trough about 290 km ( 180 mi ) to the northeast of the Fijian dependency of Rotuma . The disturbance initially moved towards the southeast before it recurved and started to move towards the southwest and Fiji during the next day , while gradually developing further in an area of low vertical windshear . At 1800 UTC on January 27 , the JTWC reported that the disturbance had developed into Tropical Cyclone 15P and started to issue warnings on it as the 1 @-@ minute windspeeds had become equivalent to a tropical storm . Over the next 6 – 12 hours , the disturbance moved towards the southwest and hugged Vanua Levu 's southeastern coast , under the influence of a mid level ridge of high pressure that was located to the southeast of the system . 15P 's development was hindered while it was located over land , however it did not weaken significantly because it was located in an area of favourable upper level conditions . While over land the system moved towards the south @-@ southwest and moved into the Bligh Waters , where it started to rapidly intensify as convection erupted around the system . As a result , before the system made landfall on Viti Levu , RSMC Nadi reported that the system had intensified into a category 1 tropical cyclone , on the Australian intensity scale and named it Gene . The system then made landfall shortly after 0600 UTC near Lautoka , before it started to move westwards and passed near Nadi before it moved out of the archipelago . Early on January 29 as the system moved westwards , RSMC Nadi reported that Gene had intensified into a category two tropical cyclone before it briefly weakened into a Category 1 because of the effects of a moderate amount of vertical windshear . However , the system quickly reintensified and by 1200 UTC the next day had become a category 3 Severe Tropical Cyclone and equivalent to a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . On January 31 , while the storm was moving closer to Vanuatu , Gene attained peak winds of 150 km / h ( 95 mph10 min ) & 185 km / h ( 115 mph 1 @-@ min ) Thus , Cyclone Gene was a Category 3 cyclone on the Australian scale and the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . During February 1 , as Cyclone Gene was moving to the west , Gene recurved and started moving towards the south and missed Vanuatu . The next day cyclone Gene started to temporarily weaken again by becoming a category two cyclone with winds speeds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 min ) . This came as cyclone Gene approached 25 ° S which marks the edge of RSMC Nadi 's area of responsibility , to the south of 25 ° S the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre ( TCWC ) in Wellington , New Zealand monitors tropical cyclones , south of 25 ° S. As Gene crossed in to TCWC Wellington 's area of responsibility , Cyclone Gene started to re @-@ intensify becoming a severe tropical cyclone again with peak winds of 120 km / h ( 105 mph 10 min ) however this re @-@ intensification only lasted for 12 hours before Gene began to weaken for the final time by becoming a tropical cyclone that day . Gene slowly weakened over the next couple of days as it moved towards the south east . The JTWC then issued its final warning on February 6 as Cyclone Gene was finishing its extratropical transition , and had also become fully embedded within the baroclinic zone . TCWC Wellington continued to monitor the extratropical remnants of Gene until February 9 , after the sustained windspeeds had dropped to below 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . = = Preparations , impact and aftermath = = = = = Fiji = = = On January 27 , RSMC Nadi issued strong wind warnings for Fiji , as 12F was expected to affect Fiji but not develop into a tropical cyclone until it had moved out of the archipelago . However , as 12F rapidly developed into a tropical cyclone during that day , RSMC Nadi was forced to issue gale force wind warnings for various parts of Fiji including Vanua Levu , Viti Levu , Beqa , Vatulele , Lomaiviti , Yasawa and Mamanuca . When Cyclone Gene hit Fiji , it caused widespread minor damage on both of the main islands of Fiji including Vanua Levu and Viti Levu as well as a few of the other minor islands in Fiji which included Taveuni & the Yasawa group of islands . Power cuts were reported in at least half of Fiji including Suva and Nadi however power was quickly restored to these areas . Within Fiji over 340 people evacuated to 61 evacuation centres which were opened by the Fijian government . There was also 61 houses completely flattened by cyclone Gene . The effects of Cyclone Gene were compounded by continuous heavy rainfall and subsequent floods in most parts of Viti Levu . As a result , there was significant disruption to water supplies , with several sources becoming contaminated and destroyed as a result there were several cases of Typhoid reported in Fiji with at least 1 person dying from typhoid . There was also seven other deaths from cyclone Gene , five of these were directly related whilst two people were also killed as an indirect result of Cyclone Gene from house fires while using candles to light their homes when the power went out . Within their end of season report RSMC Nadi reported that the total cost of Cyclone Gene was F $ 51 million ( 2008 ) , ( $ 35 million 2008 USD ) . = = = Vanuatu = = = After exiting the Fijian archipelago of islands , Cyclone Gene moved towards the west across the South Pacific , towards Vanuatu , and was predicted to affect the archipelago between January 31 and February 2 . However , during January 31 , the system started to re @-@ curve towards the southeast and as a result did not make landfall on the island , but Gene 's outerbands produced gale force winds and heavy rain on various southern Vanuatuan islands for about 12 hours . However the system only caused no deaths and severe damage to Futuna island , while sparing other nearby islands . On Futuna Island , Gene caused damages to buildings , Plants used for weaving and generating income , trails , native and non native homes , waterlines , food gardens , food producing plants , crops , and other critical structures and littered footpaths with fallen trees and debris . As a result of damages to waterlines from falling debris , flooding and contaminated drinking water were reported in some villages with pipes openly leaking . After an aerial survey found that more than 70 % of garden crops had been damaged by Gene , the Vanuatu Government declared Futuna island a disaster zone .
= Drakengard = Drakengard is an action role @-@ playing game developed by Cavia for the PlayStation 2 . It was published in Japan ( on September 11 , 2003 ) and North America ( March 2 , 2004 ) by Square Enix and in European territories ( May 21 , 2004 ) by Take @-@ Two Interactive . A Europe @-@ exclusive mobile phone adaptation was co @-@ developed and co @-@ published by Square Enix and Macrospace for Vodafone devices in August 2004 . The game is the first installment of the Drakengard series and features a mixture of ground @-@ based hack @-@ and @-@ slash , aerial combat , and role @-@ playing elements which have become a staple of the series . The story is set during a religious war between two factions — the Union and the Empire — with the war tipping in favor of the Empire . The player controls Caim , a deposed prince of the Union , in his quest for vengeance against the Empire . Wounded in battle while protecting his sister Furiae , he is forced to make a pact with a red dragon named Angelus . As they journey together , they join with Hierarch Verdelet on a quest to prevent the Empire from destroying magical seals that keep the world in balance : Furiae acts as the central seal , and her death will drop the world into chaos . Takamasa Shiba and Takuya Iwasaki conceived the game as a hybrid between the popular Dynasty Warriors series and Namco 's aerial combat game Ace Combat . It was Shiba 's first project as a producer . The dark story was created by director Taro Yoko and Sawako Natori , who wrote the majority of the script . The music was written by Nobuyoshi Sano and Takayuki Aihara . Drakengard sold well in Japan and received mixed to positive reviews in the west : reviewers praised the game 's story and music , but were mixed about the graphics and criticized the gameplay for being repetitive . = = Gameplay = = Drakengard is an action role @-@ playing game featuring three types of gameplay : ground missions , aerial missions , and Free Expedition Mode . The gameplay modes are called Ground Mode , Strafe Mode , and Air Mode . In some levels , players can switch between ground @-@ based and aerial combat . Ground @-@ based gameplay primarily has the player controlling the main protagonist , Caim . He has access to three types of attack : a standard sword @-@ slash , a magic attack and a dash attack that throws enemies to the ground . Additional weapons can be accessed and swapped via the menu . Weapons gain experience levels through use , dealing more damage as a result . Each has a four @-@ level cap . The player can access up to eight weapons during a mission . Pressing the attack button repeatedly while in combat with enemy units triggers combos , and pressing another button mid @-@ combo will trigger a special attack which will temporarily incapacitate enemy units in the immediate area . The player can also temporarily switch between Caim and an assigned ally , who shares similar attacks but deals more damage . These allies are gained in optional levels and can only be summoned a limited number of times . In aerial combat missions , players control Caim 's dragon partner Angelus . During these moments , players are directed against multiple aerial targets that must be destroyed in order to win . As Angelus gains experience points through combat , she levels up and is able to do more damage – similar to the weapons used in ground @-@ based combat . Boss battles are all located in these aerial stages . Angelus has access to two types of standard fire attacks : a free @-@ aim blast that causes high damage , and homing bolts that can hit multiple targets but do less damage . Homing shots can be dodged or countered by some enemy types later in the game . Angelus can also perform a special area @-@ affecting magical attack that damages or kills multiple enemy units . She can be used to quickly traverse battle areas during primarily ground @-@ based missions . Players can summon Angelus during certain ground @-@ based missions and play her in Strafe Mode . Controls are identical to ground @-@ based combat . Pressing the select button causes Caim to dismount Angelus . Caim and Angelus level up during combat in different ways : as Caim levels up , their shared health meter grows , while Angelus ' leveling increases the damage her attacks do to enemy units . Players can navigate the game world and select missions via a world map accessed between levels . While playing , a mini @-@ map allows the player to see enemy locations , and a full @-@ screen map can be switched to that covers the entire area and shows mission objectives . Drakengard 's levels are called verses , and the verses are grouped across thirteen chapters . Each level has a time limit of one hour for players to complete them . Normal levels are numbered , while additional levels are marked by Roman numerals . The game features five endings : the normal ending and four additional endings which are unlocked when certain conditions are met , such as completing optional chapters or obtaining powerful weapons . = = Plot = = = = = Setting and characters = = = Drakengard takes place in a medieval dark fantasy world called Midgard . The world is protected from falling into chaos by the Seals , objects magically linked to a woman chosen as the Goddess of the Seal . If the seals and the Goddess were destroyed , malevolent beings known as the Watchers would enter the world to destroy humanity . A key element of the world is the ability for a human and a beast to form a pact , a ritual that ties their souls together and grants great power . Their lives become bound by the pact , and the human pays a price for it in the form of some attribute ( e.g. their voice , their eyesight or their ability to age ) . During the events of Drakengard , the Union , which protects the Seals , is in the midst of a religious war with the Empire , a power led by a cult who believe that destroying the seals will bring them good fortune . The main characters are Caim ( カイム , Kaimu ) , a deposed prince of the Union , and Angelus ( アンヘル , Anheru , lit . " Angel " ) , a red dragon . Joining Caim and Angelus are Leonard ( レオナール , Reonāru ) , a hermit who loses his brothers in an attack by the Empire ; Arioch ( アリオーシュ , Ariōshu ) , an elf woman driven mad by the murder of her family ; Seere ( セエレ , Sēre ) , a young boy from the Empire whose village was destroyed by their forces ; and Verdelet ( ヴェルドレ , Verudore ) , a priest in charge of protecting the Goddess Seal . Other prominent characters are Furiae ( フリアエ , Furiae ) , Caim 's sister and the current Goddess of the Seal ; Inuart ( イウヴァルト , Iuvaruto ) , Furiae 's former fiance ; and Manah ( マナ , Mana ) , Seere 's sister , leader of the enemy cult and the game 's main antagonist . = = = Story = = = Drakengard opens with Caim in the midst of a battle to protect his sister from the Empire . During the battle , Caim is injured , and going to Furiae 's castle finds Angelus severely wounded from torture . Despite their mutual mistrust , Caim and Angelus agree to make a pact and save each other . After repelling the attack , Furiae and Inuart go with Caim to find safety , encountering Verdelet on their travels . Eventually , Furiae and Inuart are captured by the Empire , and Inuart is tortured and brainwashed by Manah . Verdelet and Caim travel to each of the three Seals , but each time arrive too late to stop them being destroyed . Along the way , Caim and Verdelet are joined by Leonard and Seere , and take along Arioch to protect others from her madness . Eventually , the Union and the Empire engage in battle and the Union are victorious . After the battle , however , the Union 's surviving troops are decimated by an unknown force and the Empire 's troops return to life . Caim and Angelus travel to a fortress that has appeared in the sky , where they find that Furiae has killed herself , breaking the final seal . Inuart , seeing her body , is released from his brainwashing and takes her away . Returning to the Imperial capital , Caim and Angelus confront Manah , eventually doing battle with her . Defeated , Manah asks them to kill her , but Angelus declares that she must live with her crimes . Angelus then offers herself as the new Goddess of the Seal for Caim 's sake . As Verdelet performs the ritual , Angelus tells Caim her name before fading away . Subsequent playthroughs and extra chapters reveal further details about the characters . Leonard 's self @-@ imposed seclusion is because he was trying to suppress his pedophilia , and the guilt at his brothers ' deaths stems from the fact that he gave in to his cravings and left them unprotected . Arioch 's madness takes the form of cannibalism of children , in the belief that they would be safe from harm within her . Furiae is also revealed to feel romantic love for Caim , which led to Inuart becoming jealous and vulnerable to Manah 's influence . During the events leading to the third ending , Manah reveals Furiae 's feelings for Caim , who shows revulsion at the revelation : due to this and the Watchers ' influence , Furiae stabs herself . Manah was abused by her and Seere 's mother , but Seere was never subjected to the abuse , leading him to feel guilty . The abuse Manah received and her longing for love eventually drove her insane , and she was chosen to become the Watchers ' agent . There are four possible alternative endings . In the second ending , Inuart uses a magical object called a " Seed of Resurrection " to resurrect Furiae : while successful , the Seed turns her into a monster , and she kills Inuart . Caim is forced to kill her , but not before clones of her are produced from other Seeds to destroy humanity . In the third ending , after Furiae 's suicide , Caim and Angelus stop Inuart 's attempt to resurrect her and confront Manah , who is killed by another dragon . With the dragons now being driven to destroy mankind , Angelus breaks her pact with Caim and fights him to the death . Caim then prepares to die fighting the other dragons . In the fourth ending , after the group save Furiae and see the extent of Manah 's madness , Seere has his Golem pact partner kill Manah . Caim , Seere , Leonard and Arioch escape from the collapsing fortress , while Inuart and Furiae are killed inside . With Manah dead , the Watchers descend on the Imperial capital , and during the fight against them , Arioch and Leonard are killed . A giant queen monster appears in the city that kills Caim and Angelus , and Seere uses his powers to seal the city and the Watchers in a timeless zone for eternity , nullifying their threat . In the fifth ending , Caim and Angelus attack the queen and the three disappear through a portal . After engaging the queen monster in a rhythm game in modern @-@ day Tokyo , the two destroy it , and are then shot down by a fighter jet . This ending leads into the events of Nier = = Development = = The original idea for Drakengard originated between Takamasa Shiba and Takuya Iwasaki when they were working at Cavia . It was conceived as an aerial battle game similar to Ace Combat . The four @-@ year development was Shiba 's first project as a producer . The team developing the game went under the moniker of " Project Dragonsphere " . As development progressed , ground @-@ based battles were also incorporated after the success in Japan of Dynasty Warriors 2 . Creating the change from ground to aerial gameplay was exceptionally difficult for the team as they encountered problems with the PlayStation 2 hardware . Jun Iwasaki , president and chief executive officer of Square Enix USA , described Drakengard as a " perfect hybrid of genres " , citing its story and gameplay as reasons why it would be enjoyed by players who wanted a " deeper action game " . Speaking in 2013 , Shiba commented that Cavia had been inexperienced in creating action games , and as such it was not up to the standards of its contemporaries . The game 's battle scenes were inspired by films such as the 1999 version of The Mummy and its spin @-@ off The Scorpion King , as well as films like Dragonheart and epic films from Asia . Iwasaki was unable to take up the position of director because of other projects he was involved with : the position instead went to Taro Yoko . During production , the team were asked to make multiple adjustments and changes to its content by Drakengard 's advisory board . It was annoying enough for Yoko that he decided at the time not to make another Drakengard . Drakengard was first shown off to the western public at E3 2003 . It underwent multiple changes for its western release . The original title , Drag @-@ On Dragoon , was chosen for its sound , but was not considered right for the western market . Because of this , it was changed to Drakengard . In addition , some of the more mature themes , such as references to incest and sexual taboos , were censored in the western localization . It also underwent major debugging and an alteration in the angle of the in @-@ game camera before its European release . While Square Enix published the title in Japan and North America , Take @-@ Two Interactive was chosen to publish it in European territories . The mobile port was part of Square Enix 's plans to branch out into the European mobile game market . It was co @-@ developed with London @-@ based mobile developer Macrospace as part of a collaboration between Square Enix and Vodafone , designed to function on the Vodafone live ! service . It was first released in Germany , then made available in the United Kingdom , Spain and Italy . = = = World design = = = The setting , mythos and landscape were primarily inspired by the folklore of Northern Europe , while other elements drew from Japanese @-@ style revisionism . According to Shiba , multiple elements of the story and world were created to be dark , sad and serious in tone , in contrast to the likes of Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy . One of the core narrative threads , involving romantic feelings between siblings , was inspired in Yoko 's mind by the anime series Sister Princess . Another series that inspired the team was Neon Genesis Evangelion , with a comparison being drawn between them due to a shared trait : while having standard premises , darker narrative elements were hidden in its content . The central narrative theme was " Immorality " , which was mostly demonstrated by writer Sawako Natori through the characters . Multiple endings were made because Yoko was told that the game would not have a sequel . The characters ' stories were created by Yoko and Iwasaki , who independently created the character backgrounds : Yoko took charge of Seere , Leonard and Arioch , while Iwasaki was involved in developing Verdelet , Inuart and Caim . In an interview concerning her role in the game , Natori admitted to feeling embarrassed by her writing when hearing Sota Murakami and Natsuki Yamashita , who voiced Seere and Manah , speak their lines . Caim , the main protagonist , was meant to be an examination of the typical action game hero , which Yoko felt should not have a happy ending in a story focused on violence . The nature of Caim and Angelus ' relationship underwent changes during development : Yoko had conceived their relationship as a parasitic one , but Iwasaki wanted to create a different type of romance , and so wrote the love story for the two of them . The actor who portrayed the two was Shinnosuke Ikehata : though originally cast for the role of Caim , his versatility also got him the role of Angelus . Inuart was originally designed as the main protagonist of Drakengard , with him being a " useless hero " . A pivotal scene in the game , where he first clashes with Caim , became one of the ways Yoko was able to properly project his vision of the game 's world . Furiae was designed by Yoko as both an explanation for Caim and Inuart 's rivalry , and as a representation of his distaste for the kind of forgettable character she represented . The relationship between Caim and Furiae , as well as their ultimate fates , was Yoko 's response to the standard happy ending found in most role @-@ playing games at the time , which he felt did not fit in with a protagonist who had killed hundreds during their quest . Caim and Furiae were respectively based around Guts from Berserk and Rei Ayanami from Neon Genesis Evangelion , with Caim being codenamed " Guts " during development . Verdelet was portrayed as the " despicable elder " , who cared for no @-@ one except himself : his personality was intended to be both ineffectual and bossy , even in the face of catastrophe . Manah 's role in Drakengard was designed to represent unloved children . The second ending was principally inspired by this and his dislike for Sister Princess . The fifth ending , a boss battle in modern @-@ day Tokyo , was created as a joke ending in the same vein as the Silent Hill series and an unexpected twist for players who were expecting an upbeat tone after the previous endings . This ending 's title was also a respective tribute to The End of Evangelion . Character designs were done by Kimihiko Fujisaka . Drakengard was his first job as a character designer : his designs were firmly seated within the Medieval European aesthetic . To achieve this , he imagined that he had been sent back to that historical period . His designs were inspired by the character designs of Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest . Caim was one of the earliest characters created for Drakengard . In Inuart 's design , Fujisaka incorporated heavy armor into his design to give a more forceful impression for players . His ultimate role and final design were based around the idea of him being Caim 's rival . The black dragons ' design did not impress Shiba , who considered cutting him from the final product . Manah 's red clothing was designed to evoke both its status as the game 's key color , and her status as the leader of the Cult of the Watchers . Shiba approved of the design , feeling that it contrasted nicely with Furiae 's predominantly white design . Fujisaka also helped design Furiae 's monster form for the game 's second ending . In hindsight , Fujisaka was dissatisfied with his work on Drakengard , particularly his work on Caim . The game 's monsters were designed by Taro Hasegawa . = = = Music = = = The music was composed by Nobuyoshi Sano and Takayuki Aihara : the two used excerpts from pieces of classical music ( selected by Aihara ) , then rearranged , remixed and layered them . Their main objective was to create music that emulated the gameplay , as well as the story and general narrative theme of " madness " . The music was intended to be " experimental " and " expressionistic " rather than " commercial " . The theme song , " Exhausted " ( 尽きる , Tsukiru ) , was composed by Sano , written by Natori and sung by Eriko Hatsune . The soundtrack was originally released in two volumes under the names Drag @-@ On Dragoon Original Soundtrack Vol.1 and Drag @-@ On Dragoon Original Soundtrack Vol.2 , released on October 22 and November 21 , 2003 , respectively . The soundtrack was re @-@ released on April 20 , 2011 , as a two @-@ disc set under the title Drag @-@ On Dragoon Original Soundtrack . = = Reception = = Drakengard sold more than 122 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release in Japan , taking Mobile Suit Gundam : Encounters in Space 's place at the top of the sales charts . By the end of 2003 , it had sold 241 @,@ 014 copies . Gaming magazine Famitsu ranked it as the 50th best @-@ selling title of 2003 , and sold well enough that it was made part of Square Enix 's Ultimate Hits series , re @-@ releases of popular titles . Its strong sales were attributed by the team to its cinematic story and similarity to the popular Dynasty Warriors series . In Europe , the game sold 110 @,@ 000 units by November 2004 . According to GameSpot , Drakengard received favorable reviews in Japan . Famitsu gave it an overall score of 29 / 40 . After the game 's reveal at E3 , multiple video game publications , including Official PlayStation Magazine , IGN and Game Informer , praised its promising story and mixture of gameplay genres . The game received " average " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . The story received the highest amount of praise . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham called it the game 's " biggest strength " , praising the edgy themes explored and the balance between fantasy and realism . He also praised the multiple parallels with Neon Genesis Evangelion . The reviewer for Computer and Video Games ( CVG ) praised " the maturity and wit of the dialogue and unfolding plot " , noting that they stood alongside other Square Enix RPGs of the time . VideoGamer.com 's Adam Jarvis praised the game 's storytelling style , saying that while it became " a little bogged down at various points , it is deep enough to keep your interest throughout the game . " GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin said that " though the story itself is awkwardly paced and is sometimes difficult to keep up with , it becomes one of the main motivating factors for wanting to get all the way through to the end of the game . " The graphics received mixed responses . Kasavin said the game " looks decent but , ultimately , not all that good " . He criticized the bland environments and awkward movements for enemy units and the playable character , but praised the design of the dragon . Game Informer was more positive , praising the graphical detail and cutscenes and the look of enemy units , despite finding pop @-@ up issues and framerate dips . Jarvis praised the design of the main cast , but cited the repetitive enemy design and dark environments as detracting elements . Dunham praised the character and monster designs as well as the full @-@ motion cutscenes , but was less impressed by the repetitive human enemy designs , bland environments and low draw distance . The full @-@ motion videos were also praised by the CVG reviewer . Reaction to the sound design was mixed to positive . Dunham praised the majority of the British @-@ style voice acting , but called the music " disappointing " . Game Informer cited the low number of background tracks and voice acting " straight out of a renaissance festival " as poorer parts of the game . Kasavin praised the voice acting and called the music " the most nerve @-@ racking and most intense aspect of the game . " Jarvis was also positive , praising the sound design for battles , most of the voice acting and the music , which " [ helped ] create a suitably dark atmosphere . " Reception of the gameplay was mixed to negative , with Dunham saying it suffered the same problems as its derivative games despite its easy entertainment value , while Jarvis called the options in gameplay " fairly limited " . The CVG reviewer praised the aerial segments of gameplay , calling them the most entertaining , and found that the standard combat served to embellish the protagonist 's " kick @-@ ass persona , making him more than just another anonymous dragon rider " . The main criticism was repetition in the gameplay . Kasavin was exceptionally critical , saying that the gameplay both made the process of playing laborious and detracted from the main story . Game Informer called the gameplay " fun , but [ lacking ] any semblance of depth . " = = Legacy = = Drakengard received two novelizations by Emi Nagashima ( writing as Jun Eishima ) and Takashi Aizawa . The game 's events were retold again in a special story titled Drakengard 1 @.@ 3 , which followed on from the spin @-@ off manga Drag @-@ On Dragoon : Shi ni Itaru Aka . In March 2014 , Hardcore Gamer 's Jahanzeb Khan favorably referred to the game as a precursor to the TV adaptation of the book series A Song of Ice and Fire in its handling of taboo themes and violence . The game was considered successful enough in Japan by Square Enix that a sequel was commissioned . Drakengard 2 was again directed by Shiba , but Yoko was replaced as director by Akira Yasui , resulting in numerous thematic changes . The sequel takes place eighteen years after the events of Drakengard 's first ending . An attempt to create another title in the series resulted in the spin @-@ off Nier , which retains links and themes from the main series . Nier takes place over a thousand years after the events of Drakengard 's fifth ending . When Cavia was absorbed by AQ Interactive after Nier 's release , a future attempt by Shiba to continue the series was unsuccessful . A prequel , Drakengard 3 , was released in 2013 , with multiple staff members returning to their original roles .
= Milk shark = The milk shark ( Rhizoprionodon acutus ) is a species of requiem shark , and part of the family Carcharhinidae , whose common name comes from an Indian belief that consumption of its meat promotes lactation . The largest and most widely distributed member of its genus , the milk shark typically measures 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) long , and can be found in coastal tropical waters throughout the eastern Atlantic and the Indo @-@ Pacific regions . Occurring from the surface to a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) , this species is common near beaches and in estuaries , and has been recorded swimming up rivers in Cambodia . Juveniles are known to inhabit tidal pools and seagrass meadows . The milk shark has a slender body with a long , pointed snout and large eyes , and is a nondescript gray above and white below . This shark can be distinguished from similar species in its range by the long furrows at the corners of its mouth , and seven to 15 enlarged pores just above them . Among the most abundant sharks within its range , the milk shark feeds primarily on small bony fishes , but also takes cephalopods and crustaceans . In turn , it often falls prey to larger sharks and possibly marine mammals . In common with other members of its family , this species is viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained by a placental connection . Females give birth to one to eight young either during a defined breeding season or throughout the year , depending on location . The reproductive cycle is usually annual , but may be biennial or triennial . Large numbers of milk sharks are caught by artisanal and commercial fisheries in many countries for meat , fins , and fishmeal . Despite this , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as being of Least Concern , because its wide distribution and relatively high productivity seemingly allow present levels of exploitation to be sustained . = = Taxonomy and phylogeny = = The German naturalist Eduard Rüppell published the first scientific description of the milk shark , as Carcharias acutus ( the specific epithet means " sharp " in Latin ) , in his 1837 Fische des Rothen Meeres ( Fishes of the Red Sea ) . It has since been listed under several different genera , including Carcharhinus and Scoliodon , before finally being placed in the genus Rhizoprionodon via synonymization with the type species , R. crenidens . As Rüppell did not mention a type specimen , in 1960 , Wolfgang Klausewitz designated a 44 cm ( 17 in ) -long male caught off Jeddah , Saudi Arabia as the lectotype for this species . The common name " milk shark " comes from a belief held in India that eating this shark 's meat enhances lactation . Other names for this species include fish shark , grey dog shark , little blue shark , Longmans dogshark , milk dog shark , sharp @-@ nosed ( milk ) shark , Walbeehm 's sharp @-@ nosed shark , and white @-@ eye shark . A 1992 phylogenetic analysis by Gavin Naylor , based on allozymes , found that the milk shark is the most basal of the four Rhizoprionodon species examined . The extinct R. fischeuri , known from Middle Miocene ( 16 – 12 Ma ) deposits in southern France and Portugal , may be the same as R. acutus . = = Distribution and habitat = = The milk shark has the widest distribution of any Rhizoprionodon species . In the eastern Atlantic Ocean , it is found from Mauritania to Angola , as well as around Madeira and in the Gulf of Taranto off southern Italy . In the Indian Ocean , it occurs from South Africa and Madagascar northward to the Arabian Peninsula , and eastward to South and Southeast Asia . In the Pacific Ocean , this species occurs from China and southern Japan , through the Philippines and Indonesia , to New Guinea and northern Australia . The milk shark likely once had a contiguous distribution by way of the Tethys Sea , until during the Miocene epoch , when eastern Atlantic sharks were isolated from Indo @-@ Pacific sharks by the collision of Asia and Africa . Occurring close to shore from the surf zone to a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) , the milk shark favors turbid water off sandy beaches and occasionally enters estuaries . In Shark Bay , Western Australia , juvenile milk sharks inhabit seagrass meadows composed of Amphibolis antarctica and Posidonia australis . Although some sources state this species avoids low salinities , it has been reported several times from fresh water in Cambodia , as far upstream as the Tonlé Sap . Milk sharks may be found anywhere in the water column from the surface to the bottom . Off KwaZulu @-@ Natal , South Africa , its numbers fluctuate annually with a peak in summer , suggesting some form of seasonal movement . = = Description = = The largest member of its genus , off West Africa the milk shark has been reported to reach 1 @.@ 78 m ( 5 @.@ 8 ft ) and 22 kg ( 49 lb ) for males , and 1 @.@ 65 m ( 5 @.@ 4 ft ) and 17 kg ( 37 lb ) for females , though there is uncertainty regarding the species identity of these specimens . Even if accepted , these figures are considered exceptional and most individuals do not exceed 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) in length . Generally , females are heavier and attain a greater maximum size than males . The milk shark has a slender build with a long , pointed snout , large , round eyes with nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) , and no spiracles . On each side of the head behind the corner of the jaw , there are usually seven to 15 enlarged pores . The nostrils are small , as are the adjacent triangular skin flaps . There are long furrows at the corners of the mouth on both the upper and lower jaws . The tooth rows number 24 – 25 in both jaws . The upper teeth are finely serrated and strongly oblique ; the lower teeth have a similar shape , though the serrations are smaller and the tips curve gently upward . The teeth of juveniles are smooth @-@ edged . The broad , triangular pectoral fins originate below the third or fourth gill slits , and are no longer than the front margin of the first dorsal fin . The anal fin is about twice as long as the second dorsal fin and preceded by long ridges . The first dorsal fin originates over the pectoral fin free rear tips , and the much smaller second dorsal fin originates over the last third of the anal fin base . The dorsal fins do not have a ridge between them . The lower lobe of the caudal fin is well @-@ developed and the upper lobe has a ventral notch near the tip . This shark is plain gray , brown @-@ gray , or purple @-@ gray above , and white below . The leading edge of the first dorsal fin and the trailing edge of the caudal fin may be dark , and the trailing edges of the pectoral fins may be light . = = Biology and ecology = = One of the most ( if not the most ) abundant near @-@ shore sharks within its range , the milk shark feeds mainly on small benthic and schooling bony fishes . Occasionally squid , octopus , cuttlefish , crabs , shrimp , and gastropods are also taken . In Shark Bay , the most important prey are silversides , herring , smelt @-@ whitings , and wrasses ; this is also the only local shark species that preys on the Waigeo seaperch ( Psammoperca waigiensis ) , found in seagrass beds avoided by other sharks . In the Gulf of Carpentaria , it feeds mainly on halfbeaks , herring , and mullets , and is also a major predator of penaeid prawns . Smaller sharks eat proportionately more cephalopods and crustaceans , switching to fish as they grow older . Many predators feed on the milk shark , including larger sharks such as the blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus limbatus ) and Australian blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus tilstoni ) , and possibly also marine mammals . Off KwaZulu @-@ Natal , the decimation of large sharks by the use of gillnets to protect beaches has led to a recent increase in milk shark numbers . A known parasite of this species is the copepod Pseudopandarus australis . There is some evidence that male and female milk sharks segregate from each other . = = = Life history = = = Like other requiem sharks , the milk shark is viviparous ; females usually have a single functional ovary ( on the left ) and two functional uteruses divided into separate compartments for each embryo . The details of its life history vary across different parts of its range . Females generally produce young every year , though some give birth every other year or even every third year . Mating and parturition take place in spring or early summer ( April to July ) off western and southern Africa , and in winter off India , Alternately , off Oman parturition occurs year @-@ round with a peak in spring . Parturition also occurs continuously in Australian waters ; in the Herald Bight of Shark Bay , the number of newborns peaks in April and again in July . One proposed explanation for the lack of reproductive seasonality in these subpopulations is a lengthier and / or more complex reproductive cycle than has been detected ( such as a period of dormancy in embryonic development , though there is presently no evidence of this occurring ) . Females do not store sperm internally . The litter size ranges from one to eight , with two to five being typical , increasing with female size . In Omanese waters , females on average outnumber males in a litter by more than 2 : 1 , and all @-@ female litters are not uncommon . Similar but less extreme sex imbalances have also been reported from litters of milk sharks off Senegal and eastern India . The reason for this imbalance is unknown , and it has not been observed in related species such as the Atlantic sharpnose shark ( R. terraenovae ) . Gestation of the embryos takes around a year and proceeds in three phases . In the first phase , lasting two months to an embryonic length of 63 – 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) , the embryo relies on yolk for sustenance and gas exchange occurs across its surface integument and possibly also the yolk sac . During the second phase , which also lasts for two months to an embryonic length of 81 – 104 mm ( 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 1 in ) , the external gill filaments develop and the yolk sac begins to be resorbed , the embyo ingesting histotroph ( a nutritious substance secreted by the mother ) in the meantime . In the third phase , lasting six to eight months , the depleted yolk sac is converted into a placental connection through which the fetus receives nourishment until birth . Young sharks are typically born at a length of 32 @.@ 5 – 50 @.@ 0 cm ( 12 @.@ 8 – 19 @.@ 7 in ) and weigh 127 – 350 g ( 0 @.@ 280 – 0 @.@ 772 lb ) . There is an atypical record of a female , caught off Mumbai , carrying a fetus only 23 @.@ 7 cm ( 9 @.@ 3 in ) long that was already nearly fully developed , long before gestation was complete . Pregnant females make use of inshore nursery areas to give birth , taking advantage of the warmer waters and abundant food ; known nursery areas include the Banc d 'Arguin National Park off Mauritania , and Cleveland Bay and Herald Bight off Australia . In Herald Bight , large groups of small milk sharks can be found in shallow tidal pools , as well as in seagrass beds where they are sheltered from predators by the dense , tall vegetation . The sharks move out of these coastal embayments when they mature . Males and female milk sharks mature at lengths of 84 – 95 cm ( 33 – 37 in ) and 89 – 100 cm ( 35 – 39 in ) respectively off West Africa , 68 – 72 cm ( 27 – 28 in ) and 70 – 80 cm ( 28 – 31 in ) respectively off southern Africa , and 63 – 71 cm ( 25 – 28 in ) and 62 – 74 cm ( 24 – 29 in ) respectively off Oman . These discrepancies in maturation size may be a result of regional variation or incidental selection from heavy fishing pressure . The growth rate for milk sharks off Chennai have been calculated as 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in the first year , 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in the second year , 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) in the third year , 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in the fourth year , 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in the fifth year , and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) per year from then on . The age at maturation is thought to be 2 – 3 years , and the maximum lifespan is at least 8 years . = = Human interactions = = The milk shark is harmless to humans because of its small size and teeth . Caught using longlines , gillnets , trawls , and hook @-@ and @-@ line , this shark is marketed fresh or dried and salted for human consumption , and is also used for shark fin soup and fishmeal . Its abundance makes it a significant component of artisanal and commercial fisheries across its range . Off northern Australia , it ranks among the most common sharks caught in trawls , and comprises 2 % and 6 % of the annual gillnet and longline catches , respectively . This species is also one of the most commercially important sharks caught off Senegal , Mauritania , Oman , and India . Some sport fishers regard it as a game fish . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed the milk shark under Least Concern ; despite being heavily fished , it has a wide distribution and remains fairly common . The reproductive characteristics of this species suggests it is capable of withstanding a somewhat high level of exploitation , though not as much as the grey sharpnose shark ( R. oligolinx ) or Australian sharpnose shark ( R. taylori ) . In the 1980s and early 1990s , stock assessments of the milk shark off India 's Verval coast concluded catches by gillnet and trawl fisheries were below the maximum sustainable level . However , these studies were based on methodologies that have subsequently been proven unreliable for shark populations . Moreover , fishing pressure in the region has increased substantially since the assessments were conducted .
= 2009 – 10 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season = The 2009 – 10 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season marked the continuation of competitive basketball among Big Ten Conference members that began in 1904 . On October 16 , 2009 five schools celebrated Midnight Madness to mark the beginning of the 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . Michigan State , Ohio State , and Purdue ended the season tied for the conference championship with win – loss records of 14 – 4 , followed by Wisconsin at 13 – 5 . In the 2010 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , Ohio State defeated Minnesota for the championship , and the conference named Evan Turner as the tournament 's most outstanding player . The conference earned five bids to the 2010 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament by the Co @-@ Champions , runner @-@ up and tournament runner @-@ up . Big Ten teams posted a 9 – 5 overall record including three Sweet Sixteen appearances and one Final Four appearance . Two members of the conference received invitations to play in the 2010 National Invitation Tournament ( NIT ) , in which they posted a 2 – 2 record . 2010 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year Evan Turner received multiple first team 2010 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ Americans and National Player of the Year recognitions . Trévon Hughes , E 'Twaun Moore , Kalin Lucas and Robbie Hummel also received various All @-@ American recognitions . Moore was also recognized as an Academic All @-@ American . = = Preseason = = On October 16 , 2009 Illinois , Indiana , Michigan State , Michigan , and Minnesota celebrated Midnight Madness , and several other schools celebrated it in the subsequent days . Michigan State , Purdue and Michigan were ranked in the top 25 by all preseason polls . The entire 2008 – 09 All @-@ Big Ten Conference first @-@ team returned : Manny Harris MICH ; Kalin Lucas MSU ; Evan Turner OSU ; Talor Battle PSU ; and JaJuan Johnson PUR . The 24 @-@ member Big Ten media panel selected Lucas as the preseason conference player of the year , and he was joined on the first team preseason All @-@ Big Ten team by Harris , Turner , Battle and Robbie Hummel PUR . The same media panel selected Michigan State as the preseason conference favorite followed by Purdue and Ohio State . Various publications released their preseason predictions for conference standings and All @-@ Big Ten teams . Predicted Big @-@ Ten Results Big Ten Media select only the top three teams Pre @-@ Season All @-@ Big Ten Teams Preseason national polls = = = Preseason watch lists = = = On August 19 , 2009 , the Wooden Award preseason watch list included eight Big Ten players . The watch list was composed of 50 players who were not transfers , freshmen or medical redshirts . The list will be reduced to a 30 @-@ player mid @-@ season watch list in December and a final national ballot of about 20 players in March . On October 29 , the Naismith College Player of the Year watch list of 50 players was announced . In late February , a shorter list of the Top 30 was compiled in preparation for a March vote to narrow the list to the four finalists . = = Player of the week = = = = = In season honors = = = Players of the week Throughout the conference regular season , the Big Ten offices named a player of the week each Monday . = = Regular season = = November The season opened with the Big Ten Conference holding the leadership with six teams ranked among the preseason top 25 in both the AP Poll and the Coaches ' Poll , setting a new conference record for the most teams ranked to open a season . The season also opened with the entire 2008 – 09 first team All @-@ Big Ten players returning . Both Manny Harris ( November 14 ) and Evan Turner ( November 9 ) recorded triple doubles in the opening week of the season marking the first times a Big Ten player has accomplished the feat since January 13 , 2001 . Six of the eleven conference teams started at least one freshman . The following week , three schools ( Michigan State , Illinois and Iowa ) participated in ESPN 's Tuesday , November 17 24 @-@ hour hoops marathon across its family of networks ( ESPN , ESPN2 , ESPNU & ESPN360 ) . Michigan State 's Magic Johnson and Jud Heathcote were inducted into the National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame on November 22 . With his 341st victory , Tom Izzo became Michigan State 's all @-@ time leader in basketball coaching victories . Turner became the second player in conference history to be named conference player of the week three weeks in a row . On November 28 , both Ohio State and Michigan State scored 100 points , marking the first time two conference teams have done so since December 22 , 1997 . December For the second time in the season , two teams scored 100 points on the same night on December 5 . For the first time in eleven attempts , the Big Ten won the ACC – Big Ten Challenge . In his 275th game , Bo Ryan reached the 200 @-@ win milestone with Wisconsin Badgers men 's basketball . In the same week , Tom Crean raised his record to 200- – 125 . The Big Ten entered intraconference play tied with the Big East Conference by having five ranked teams . Northwestern entered conference play on its longest winning streak in 16 years ( 9 ) , and Purdue reached the 11 – 0 mark for the second time and had a perfect record at the end of December for the first time since the 1936 – 37 season . January Purdue ran its record to 14 – 0 to start the season , which tied the Glenn Robinson @-@ led 1993 – 94 Purdue Boilermakers for the best start in school history . Four Big Ten athletes ( Talor Battle , Harris , Trevon Hughes and Lucas ) were named as finalists for the 2010 Bob Cousy Award to lead all conferences . Harris , Lucas , Robbie Hummel and Turner were also selected Midseason Top 30 finalists for the 2010 John Wooden Award . On January 12 , Hummel and Turner became only the third pair of opposing Big Ten players to post 30 points against each other in one night . Michigan State established a new school record by winning its first eight conference games and extended the streak to nine by the end of the month . February On February 8 Turner recorded his fifth Conference Player of the Week award and eighth of his career surpassing the former conference record held by Glenn Robinson and Jim Jackson , who each had seven career and tied Robinson 's single @-@ season record with five . Two weeks later he set the single @-@ season record with his sixth recognition when he averaged 24 @.@ 5 points , 8 @.@ 5 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists against two ranked opponents ( No. 4 Purdue and at No. 11 Michigan State ) . Three Big Ten players made the February Top 30 midseason Naismith College Player of the Year watch list : Hummel , Lucas and Turner . Hummel and Turner were selected among the 16 finalists for the 2010 Oscar Robertson Trophy . March Turner was selected as one of six finalists for the Bob Cousy Award . Lucas , Hummel and Turner were included on the final 26 @-@ man ballot for the Wooden Award . = = Rankings = = During the season , seven of the Big Ten teams received enough votes to be ranked and an eight team received voted during several weekly polls . Michigan State and Purdue were ranked during every weekly poll during the season . = = Preconference = = = = = Tournaments = = = Big Ten teams emerged victorious in the following tournament : * Although these tournaments include more teams , only 4 play for the championship . = = = ACC – Big Ten Challenge = = = The Big Ten Conference won the 11th annual ACC – Big Ten Challenge for the first time in the challenge 's history . = = Conference play = = The 2009 – 10 season marked the third consecutive year that every Big Ten men ’ s basketball conference regular @-@ season and tournament game was nationally televised . In excess of 100 games appeared nationally on CBS , ESPN , ESPN2 or the Big Ten Network every Tuesday , Wednesday , Thursday , Saturday and Sunday during conference play beginning on December 29 . All ten games of the March 11 – 14 , 2010 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament were nationally televised . With an eighteen @-@ game in @-@ conference schedule , each team met eight teams twice ( home and away ) and the two other teams only once . The following were the one @-@ time meetings for this season . = = Conference honors = = Two sets of conference award winners were recognized by the Big Ten - one selected by league coaches and one selected by the media . = = = All @-@ Big Ten Academic team = = = The Big Ten Conference had 33 men 's basketball letterwinners who were in at least their second academic year at their institution and who maintained a cumulative grade point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 0 or higher during the winter semester to earn Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference honors . Purdue 's Mark Wohlford who was a senior economics major had a perfect Winter GPA . These student @-@ athletes were eligible to be named Distinguished Scholar Awardees if they maintained a 3 @.@ 7 GPA for the entire academic year . = = National awards & honors = = = = = National awards = = = Turner was named the winner of the Oscar Robertson Trophy by the United States Basketball Writers Association as the consensus choice by voters in all nine geographical districts . Fox and Sporting News selected Turner as National Player of the Year . He was also recognized the National Association of Basketball Coaches ' Division I Player of the Year and was honored as the Naismith Award recipient . In addition to his basketball honors , Turner was selected as the male Big Ten Athlete of the Year for all sports . = = = NABC = = = The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District teams on March 16 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , 240 student @-@ athletes , from 24 districts were chosen . The selection on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America teams announced at the 2009 NABC Convention in Detroit . The following list represented the Big Ten players chosen to the list . ( All Big Ten schools are within District 7 for the 2009 – 10 season . ) = = = USBWA = = = On March 9 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association released its 2009 – 10 Men 's All @-@ District Teams , based on voting from its national membership . There were nine regions from coast to coast , and a player and coach of the year were selected in each . The following lists all the Big Ten representatives selected within their respective regions . = = = Academic honors = = = = = = = CoSIDA = = = = On February 4 , 2010 , the College Sports Information Directors of America ( CoSIDA ) and ESPN the Magazine selected their Academic All @-@ Americans from throughout college basketball . CoSIDA has selected Academic All American teams since 1952 . To be nominated , a student @-@ athlete must be a starter or important reserve with at least a 3 @.@ 30 cumulative grade point average ( on a 4 @.@ 0 scale ) at his / her current institution . Nominated athletes must have participated in at least 50 percent of the team ’ s games at the position listed on the nomination form ( where applicable ) . No student @-@ athlete is eligible until he has completed one full calendar year at his current institution and has reached sophomore athletic eligibility . In the cases of transfers , graduate students and two @-@ year college graduates , the student @-@ athlete must have completed one full calendar year at the nominating institution to be eligible . Nominees in graduate school must have a cumulative GPA of 3 @.@ 30 or better both as an undergrad and in grad school . Michigan 's Zack Novak was a District 4 first @-@ team 2009 Academic All @-@ District Men ’ s Basketball Team selection and Purdue 's E 'Twaun Moore was a District 5 selection , making them 2 of the 40 finalists for the 15 @-@ man Academic All @-@ American team . On February 22 , Moore was selected as a second @-@ team Academic All @-@ American . = = = = Big Ten Distinguished Scholar Award = = = = Purdue 's senior economics major Mark Wohlford was the conference 's only men 's basketball distinguished scholar by achieving the minimum grade @-@ point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 7 or higher . = = = All @-@ American = = = Sporting News selected Evan Turner as a first @-@ team All @-@ American and Trevon Hughes as a fifth @-@ team All @-@ American . Turner was also a first team selection by Associated Press ( AP ) , Fox Sports , United States Basketball Writers Association , National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) and Yahoo ! Sports . Yahoo ! recognized E ’ Twaun Moore as a third @-@ team selection and both Trevon Hughes and Kalin Lucas as honorable mentions . Fox recognized Robbie Hummel as a third @-@ team selection , while the NABC recognized him as a second team selection . The AP recognized Moore , Hummel and Lucas as honorable mentions . As top 10 finalists for the Lowe 's Senior CLASS Award , Chris Kramer ( 1st team ) and Raymar Morgan ( 2nd team ) were regarded as Senior All @-@ Americans . = = Postseason = = = = = Big Ten Tournament = = = Evan Turner of the champion Buckeyes was named Tournament Most Outstanding Player . He was joined on the All @-@ Tournament team by Ohio State teammates William Buford and David Lighty , former high school teammate Demetri McCamey of Illinois and Devoe Joseph of Minnesota . Turner led Ohio State with late game heroics in the first two games and a championship game record total number of points in the finals . = = = NCAA Tournament = = = In the NCAA tournament , the Big Ten Conference earned 5 invitations . These teams combined for 9 wins , and three teams reached the sweet sixteen round and Michigan State reached the final four . = = = National Invitation Tournament = = = The Big Ten earned two postseason National Invitation Tournament invitations . Its teams combined for 2 wins and 2 losses , with Illinois earning both wins . = = = Other tournaments = = = The Big Ten did not have any entrants in the other post season tournaments . = = = 2010 NBA Draft = = = Turner was the only Big Ten player selected in the 2010 Draft . The following All @-@ Big Ten performers were listed as seniors : Trévon Hughes , Jason Bohannon , and DeShawn Sims . The following were All @-@ Big Ten underclassmen , who declared early with the intent to hire agents : Evan Turner and Manny Harris . Neither withdrew his name from the draft @-@ eligible list before the May 8 deadline . The following were All @-@ Big Ten underclassmen who entered their name in the draft but who did not hire agents and opted to return to college : Talor Battle , Mike Davis , JaJuan Johnson , Demetri McCamey , and E 'Twaun Moore .
= Bohemian waxwing = The Bohemian waxwing ( Bombycilla garrulus ) is a starling @-@ sized passerine bird that breeds in the northern forests of Eurasia and North America . It has mainly buff @-@ grey plumage , black face markings and a pointed crest . Its wings are patterned with white and bright yellow , and some feather tips have the red waxy appearance that give this species its English name . The three subspecies show only minor differences in appearance . Females are similar to males , although young birds are less well @-@ marked and have few or no waxy wingtips . Although the Bohemian waxwing 's range overlaps those of the cedar and Japanese waxwings , it is easily distinguished from them by size and plumage differences . The breeding habitat is coniferous forests , usually near water . The pair build a lined cup @-@ shaped nest in a tree or bush , often close to the trunk . The clutch of 3 – 7 eggs is incubated by the female alone for 13 – 14 days to hatching . The chicks are altricial and naked , and are fed by both parents , initially mostly with insects , but thereafter mainly fruit . They fledge about 14 – 16 days after leaving the egg . Many birds desert their nesting range in winter and migrate farther south . In some years , large numbers of Bohemian waxwings irrupt well beyond their normal winter range in search of the fruit that makes up most of their diet . Waxwings can be very tame in winter , entering towns and gardens in search of food , rowan berries being a particular favourite . They can metabolise alcohol produced in fermenting fruit , but can still become intoxicated , sometimes fatally . Other hazards include predation by birds of prey , infestation by parasites and collisions with cars or windows . The Bohemian waxwing 's high numbers and very large breeding area mean that it is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . = = Taxonomy = = The waxwings are a family , Bombycillidae , of short @-@ tailed stocky birds with soft plumage , a head crest and distinctively patterned wings and tails . There are three species , the Bohemian , cedar , and Japanese waxwings . DNA studies and shared features such as a relatively large size , grey underparts and similar undertail patterns suggest that the Japanese and Bohemian waxwings are most closely related within the genus . Although only the cedar and Bohemian waxwings normally have red tips on their wing feathers , this feature is occasionally shown by the Japanese waxwing , suggesting that this was originally a whole @-@ family characteristic that has been lost in one species , rather than an indicator of a close relationship . DNA analysis confirms that the cedar waxwing diverged early from the other members of the family . Outside the genus , the closest relatives of the waxwings are believed to be the silky @-@ flycatchers , the palmchat , and the grey hypocolius , all of which have sometimes been included in the Bombycillidae . The Bohemian waxwing was described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Lanius Garrulus . The waxwings were moved to their own genus , Bombycilla , by Vieillot in 1808 . The genus name Bombycilla comes from the Greek bombux , " silk " and the Modern Latin cilla , " tail " ; this is a direct translation of the German Seidenschwanz , " silk @-@ tail " , and refers to the silky @-@ soft plumage of the bird . The species name garrulus is the Latin for talkative and was applied to this bird , as " Garrulus Bohemicus " , by Conrad Gessner in 1555 ; the term is a reference to a supposed likeness to the Eurasian jay ( Garrulus glandarius ) rather than to the waxwing 's vocalisations . The English name " waxwing " refers to the bright red tips of the secondary feathers on its wings , which look like drops of sealing wax , while " Bohemian " follows Gessner 's usage , and may refer to the Romani , alluding to the bird 's wanderings , or to its presumed origin from Bohemia . " Waxwing " and " Bohemian waxwing " were first recorded in 1817 , the former as a reference to Vieillot 's separation of this bird from the " chatterers " . There are three recognised subspecies : B. g. garrulus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) : the nominate subspecies . Breeds in northern Europe from northern Sweden east to the Ural Mountains . B. g. centralasiae ( Poliakov , 1915 ) : breeds from the Urals eastwards across northern Asia . B. g. pallidiceps ( Reichenow , 1908 ) : breeds in northwestern North America . The differences between these forms are small and clinal , and the species could be possibly considered as monotypic . The fossil record includes Pleistocene deposits from the UK and the Carpathian Mountains . = = Description = = The Bohemian waxwing is a starling @-@ sized bird 19 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) in length with a 32 – 35 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 6 – 14 @.@ 0 in ) wingspan , and an average weight of 55 g ( 1 @.@ 9 oz ) . It is short @-@ tailed , mainly brownish @-@ grey , and has a conspicuous crest on its head . The male of the nominate subspecies has a black mask through the eye and a black throat . There is a white streak behind the bill and a white curve below the eye . The lower belly is a rich chestnut colour and there are cinnamon @-@ coloured areas around the mask . The rump is grey and the tail ends in a bright yellow band with a broad black border above it . The wings are very distinctive ; the flight feathers are black and the primaries have markings that produce a yellow stripe and white " fishhooks " on the closed wing . The adult 's secondaries end in long red appendages with the sealing wax appearance that gives the bird its English name . The eyes are dark brown , the bill is mainly black , and the legs are dark grey or black . In flight , the waxwing 's large flocks , long wings and short tail give some resemblance to the common starling , and its flight is similarly fast and direct . It clambers easily through bushes and trees but only shuffles on the ground . The soft , dense feathers are kept in good condition by preening . The red waxy tips are the extended and flattened ends of feather shafts , pigmented with astaxanthin and enclosed in a transparent sheath . A study of the cedar waxwings showed that the red tips are few or absent until the third year of life for that related species . All adult waxwings have a complete moult annually between August and January . Juveniles moult at the same time but retain their flight and some other wing feathers . The female Bohemian waxwing is very similar to the male , but has a narrower yellow terminal band to the tail , a less defined lower edge to the black throat and slightly less distinctive wing markings . Juveniles are duller than adults , with whiter underparts , only a few red wing tips , no black on the throat and a smaller black face mask . Compared to the nominate subspecies , eastern B. g. centralasiae is paler , greyer and has little reddish @-@ brown behind the bill . The American subspecies B. g. pallidiceps has more colouring on the cheeks and forehead than the nominate form and is otherwise generally duller in appearance . The range of the Bohemian waxwing overlaps those of both the other members of the genus . The cedar waxwing is smaller than the Bohemian ; it has browner upperparts , a white undertail and a white line above the black eye patch . Adult cedar waxwings have a yellowish belly , and all ages have less strongly patterned wings than the Bohemian waxwing . The Japanese waxwing is easily distinguished from its relatives ; it has a red terminal band to the tail , the black mask extends up the rear of the crest , and there is no yellow stripe or red tips on the wings . The Bohemian waxwing 's call is a high trill sirrrr . It is less wavering and lower @-@ pitched than that of the cedar waxwing , and longer and lower @-@ pitched than the call of the Japanese waxwing . Other calls are just variants of the main vocalisation ; a quieter version is used by chicks to call parents , and courtship calls , also given during nest construction , have a particularly large frequency range . Although not a call as such , when a flock takes off or lands , the wings make a distinctive rattling sound that can be heard 30 m ( 98 ft ) away . = = Distribution and habitat = = The Bohemian waxwing has a circumpolar distribution , breeding in northern regions of Eurasia and North America . In Eurasia , its northern nesting limit is just short of the treeline , roughly at the 10 ° C July isotherm , and it breeds south locally to about 51 ° N. Most birds breed between 60 – 67 ° N , reaching 70 ° N in Scandinavia . The North American subspecies breeds in the northwestern and north central areas of the continent , its range extending southwards beyond the US border in the Rocky Mountains . This waxwing is migratory with much of the breeding range abandoned as the birds move south for the winter . Migration starts in September in the north of the range , a month or so later farther south . Eurasian birds normally winter from eastern Britain through northern parts of western and central Europe , Ukraine , Kazakhstan and northern China to Japan . North American breeders have a more southeasterly trend , many birds wintering in southeast Canada , with smaller numbers in the north central and northeastern US states . Birds do not usually return to the same wintering sites in successive years . One bird wintering in the Ukraine was found 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) to the east in Siberia in the following year . In some years , this waxwing irrupts south of its normal wintering areas , sometimes in huge numbers . The fruit on which the birds depend in winter varies in abundance from year to year , and in poor years , particularly those following a good crop the previous year , the flocks move farther south until they reach adequate supplies . They will stay until the food runs out and move on again . In what may be the largest ever irruption in Europe , in the winter of 2004 – 2005 , more than half a million waxwings were recorded in Germany alone . This invasion followed an unusually warm , dry breeding season . In 1908 , an American flock 60 – 90 m ( 200 – 300 ft ) wide was noted as taking two to three minutes to fly over . The breeding habitat is mature conifers , often spruce although other conifers and broadleaf trees may also be present . More open , wet areas such as lakes and peat swamps with dead and drowned trees are used for feeding on insects . Lowlands , valleys and uplands are used in Eurasia , although mountains tend to be avoided . However , the North American subspecies nests in Canada at altitudes between 900 – 1 @,@ 550 m ( 2 @,@ 950 – 5 @,@ 090 ft ) . Outside the breeding season , the waxwing will occupy a wide range of habitats as long as suitable fruits such as rowan are available . It may be found by roads , in parks and gardens or along hedges or woodlands edges . It shows little fear of humans at this time . In winter , waxwings roost communally in dense trees or hedges , sometimes with American robins , fieldfares or other wintering species . = = Behaviour = = = = = Breeding = = = Bohemian waxwings start their return from the wintering grounds in February or March , but northern breeders do not reach their breeding areas until April or early May . This monogamous species nests mainly from mid June to July . Waxwings are not highly territorial , and , although normally solitary breeders , several pairs may nest close together where there are a number of good nest sites . Males may sometimes deter rivals from approaching their mates , and females may squabble over nest sites . Aggression is shown by sleeking down the feathers and crest , showing the black throat , and opening the bill . The breeding display is almost the opposite of this ; the male erects his body and crest feathers , and turns his head away from the female . The male may repeatedly present a gift of a small item , often food , to his partner , placing it in her open bill . In about 90 % of cases , this display does not lead to copulation . Older males have more red tips to the wings and are preferred by females . The nest , built by both sexes , is a cup of thin twigs lined with softer material such as fine grass , moss , fur or lichen . It is constructed 1 @.@ 3 – 15 m ( 4 – 50 ft ) above the ground in a pine or scrub , commonly close to the trunk . The eggs are a glossy pale blue spotted with black and grey and the clutch is 3 – 7 eggs , although five or six is most common . The average size of the egg is 24 mm × 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in × 0 @.@ 71 in ) , and it weighs 3 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 13 oz ) , of which 5 % is shell . The eggs are incubated for 13 – 14 days by the female alone . She is fed regurgitated berries by her mate , and rarely leaves the nest . The chicks are altricial and naked , and have bright red mouths ; they are fed by both parents , although the male brings most of the food , mainly insects , in the first few days . The young are subsequently fed largely with fruit . The chicks fledge about 14 – 16 days after hatching . They are fed by the adults for about two weeks after fledging . Breeding densities of this waxwing are typically low compared to other passerines , usually less than ten birds per square kilometre ( 26 per square mile ) even in good habitat , although up to 35 · 6 birds per square kilometre ( 92 per square mile ) have been found in Russia . One brood each year is normal . Maximum recorded ages are 5 years 10 months in North America and more than 13 years 6 months in Europe . The average life expectancy is unknown . Significant causes of death include predation , collisions with windows and cars , and poisoning by road salt consumed when drinking . = = = Feeding = = = Waxwings are primarily fruit eaters , but also consume insects during the breeding season . Mosquitoes and midges are the most common prey , but many other insects and some spiders are eaten . They are caught mainly by flycatching from an open perch , but some may be picked off vegetation . Fruit is normally picked from trees , sometimes from the ground , and is usually swallowed whole . In the summer , Vaccinium and Rubus species and Canada buffaloberry are important items of their diet , while cotoneaster , juniper , haws , rose hips and apples predominate outside the breeding season . Rowan berries are a favourite food , and are eaten whenever available . Waxwings can eat huge numbers of berries , each bird sometimes consuming several hundred a day , more than double its own weight . One individual was recorded as eating between 600 and 1 @,@ 000 cotoneaster berries in six hours , and defecating every four minutes . Waxwings travel significant distances when feeding and help to disperse the fruit seeds . Waxwings forage in large flocks , sometimes of several hundred birds , which enables them to overwhelm birds such as mistle thrushes attempting to defend their fruit trees . Fruit is rich in sugar but deficient in other nutrients , so it must be eaten in large quantities . Bohemian waxwings have a large liver which helps to convert sugar to energy . They can metabolise ethanol produced from the fermentation of those sugary fruits more efficiently than humans , but may still become intoxicated , sometimes fatally . Waxwings often drink water or eat snow in winter , since the sugar in their fruit diet tends to dehydrate the birds through an osmotic effect . In the summer , the fruits are juicier and water is less of a problem . In the past , the arrival of waxwings sometimes coincided with epidemics of cholera or plague , and led to the old Dutch and Flemish name Pestvogel , " plague bird " . The juniper berries on which they fed were thought to offer protection , and people consumed the fruit and burned branches to fumigate their houses . = = Predators and parasites = = Waxwings are preyed upon by birds of prey including rough @-@ legged buzzards , Eurasian sparrowhawks , prairie falcons , and great grey shrikes . Merlins attack winter flocks , including those in cities . When alarmed , Bohemian waxwings " freeze " with bill and neck pointing upwards . If this fails , they fly , calling noisily . Bohemian waxwings are not brood parasitised by the common cuckoo or its relatives in Eurasia because the cuckoo 's young cannot survive on a largely fruit diet . In North America , the waxwing 's breeding range has little overlap with brown @-@ headed cowbird , another parasitic species . Nevertheless , eggs of other birds placed in a Bohemian waxwing 's nest are always rejected . This suggests that in the past , perhaps 3 million years ago , the ancestral waxwing was a host of a brood parasitic species , and retains the rejection behaviour acquired then . Parasitic mites include Syringophiloidus bombycillae , first identified on this species , and the nasal mite Ptilonyssus bombycillae . Blood parasites include Trypanosoma species , and a Leucocytozoon first identified in this waxwing . Bohemian waxwings may carry flatworms and tapeworms , but levels of parasitic worm infestation are generally low . = = Status = = The global population of the Bohemian waxwing has been estimated at more than three million birds , and the breeding range covers about 12 @.@ 8 million km2 ( 4 @.@ 9 million mi2 ) . Although this species ' population , as of 2013 , appears to be declining , the decrease is not rapid nor large enough to trigger conservation vulnerability criteria . Given its high numbers and huge breeding area , this waxwing is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . The woodlands used by this species are well to the north of major human populations , and the birds can use disturbed habitats , so there are no serious long @-@ term threats to this species .
= Tales from the Public Domain = " Tales from the Public Domain " is the fourteenth episode of The Simpsons thirteenth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 17 , 2002 . It is the third trilogy episode of the series , which had become annual since the twelfth season 's " Simpsons Tall Tales " , consisting of three self @-@ contained segments that are based on historical stories . The first segment puts Homer Simpson in the role of Odysseus in the ancient Greek epic poem Odyssey . The second segment tells the story of Saint Joan of Arc , and the third and final segment lampoons William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet . The episode was written by Andrew Kreisberg , Josh Lieb and Matt Warburton , and Mike B. Anderson served as the director . Show runner and executive producer Al Jean stated that the episode was " very fun for the writers " to do because it " allow [ ed ] them to parody great works of literature . " On the other hand , Anderson stated that the episode was " much harder " to direct than others because , like with Treehouse of Horror episodes , the animators had to make as many character designs for one act as they would for one normal episode . In its original American broadcast , the episode was seen by more than 4 % of the population between ages 18 and 49 . Following its release on DVD and Blu @-@ ray however , the episode received mixed reviews from critics . = = Plot = = Homer is told that he has an overdue book from the library , which he checked out when Bart was a baby . He says that he had intended to read to Bart every day , but various things had gotten in his way . Before he returns it , he reads from the book , telling three stories . = = = D 'oh , Brother Where Art Thou ? = = = In this story , Homer is Odysseus , and delivers the King of Troy ( Ned Flanders ) a Trojan horse . He and his crew , including Apu , Lenny , Moe , Professor Frink and Carl , kill all of Troy 's citizens and win . However , he refuses to sacrifice a sheep , angering the gods , Zeus ( Mayor Quimby ) , Dionysus ( Barney ) , and Poseidon ( Captain Horatio McCallister ) . Dionysus tries to destroy Odysseus with a lightning bolt , but misses and instead destroys the island of Atlantis . Poseidon literally blows Odysseus and his crew to the Sirens ( Patty and Selma ) and visit Circe ( Lindsey Naegle ) , who turns his crew into pigs , whom Odysseus eats . Circe orders Odysseus to go through Hades , crossing the River Styx ( which has the Styx song " Lady " playing during the crossing ) , in order to go home so he can see Penelope ( Marge ) and Telemachus ( Bart ) . When he arrives back to Ithaca , he spears all of the suitors ( Krusty the Klown , Kirk Van Houten , Groundskeeper Willie , Mr. Burns , and Sideshow Mel ) trying to please Penelope . Penelope decides to take him back , though he leaves to go to Moe 's ( even though Moe is killed and eaten by Odysseus earlier in the episode ) . = = = Hot Child in the City = = = Lisa is Joan of Arc , who leads the French against the English in the Hundred Years ' War , which Homer implies was also called " Operation Speedy Resolution " . Despite her family 's concern , she joins the army , where she has new ideas about defeating the enemy . She meets the King of France ( Milhouse ) . During a battle , the English capture Joan and put her on trial . She is accused of witchcraft , and sentenced to death . When Lisa claims that she was following God 's will , Groundskeeper Willie reveals that he too was chosen by God , but to lead the English armies against the French . God 's voice then excuses himself by revealing that the two were never supposed to meet . The use of Groundskeeper Willie ( Scottish character ) and the flag of the English army ( Union Flag of Great Britain ) are obvious inaccuracies , as England and Scotland were separate states and many Scottish fought with France during the Hundred Years War . As they read the end , Joan of Arc is being burnt at the stake , still waiting for God to save her ( the real Joan had said several days earlier that her voices had spoken to her of martyrdom ) . Shocked , Lisa asks Homer if she was really burned to death . Marge then interrupts , claiming that Joan of Arc was rescued by Sir Lancelot , and they get married and live in a spaceship . She then rips out the last page and eats it , remarking that it is easier to chew than the video of Bambi . = = = Do the Bard , Man = = = Bart is Prince Hamlet in this Simpsons version of William Shakespeare 's classic . His uncle Claudius ( Moe ) marries Gertrude ( Marge ) after killing King Hamlet ( Homer ) by way of poison . The King returns to his son as a ghost , telling him of the betrayal and requesting that his death be avenged . Prince Hamlet ( Bart ) , with the help of a professional actor ( Krusty ) , puts on a play to make Claudius reveal himself to be guilty ; however , Hamlet 's reaction leads everyone to believe that he is crazy , so Ophelia ( Lisa ) decides to " out @-@ crazy " him by prancing around and singing a stupid song , eventually jumping out the window and into the moat where she drowns . Because Hamlet knows what he did , Claudius attempts to kill him . Hamlet , aiming to kill Claudius , accidentally kills Polonius ( Chief Wiggum ) . His son , Laertes ( Ralph Wiggum ) , proposes to duel Prince Hamlet for revenge . As his " practice stab , " Laertes kills himself , and Hamlet proceeds to murder Claudius . Rosencarl and Guildenlenny ( Carl and Lenny ) , meanwhile , have been covered in poison and kill each other with a high five . Hamlet walks away to celebrate , but he slips on some blood and dies . Seeing a big mess she does not want to clean up , Gertrude commits suicide by hitting herself in the head with a mace . Bart thinks Hamlet was boring despite every character being murdered , but Homer tells him that the story led to the film Ghostbusters , and all the Simpsons dance to the theme . = = Production = = " Tales from the Public Domain " was directed by Mike B. Anderson and written by Andrew Kreisberg , Josh Lieb and Matt Warburton . It originally aired on March 17 , 2002 on the Fox network . " Tales from the Public Domain " is the third trilogy episode produced for the series , the other two being " Simpsons Bible Stories " from season 10 , and " Simpsons Tall Tales " from season 12 . Al Jean , the show runner for the episode , stated that trilogy episodes are " very fun for the writers " to do because it allows them to parody " great works of literature " and condense them into one act each . Before writing the episode , the writers had decided that one of the segments would feature Lisa as the main character . According to Jean , the writers found it very difficult to find a historical story for Lisa because there are " so few [ historical stories ] that star women " . They had the same problem when pitching stories for " Simpsons Tall Tales " , in which they resorted to giving Lisa the role of " Connie Appleseed " , a feminization of the historical figure Johnny Appleseed . The writers eventually settled on Saint Joan of Arc . According to the episode 's supervising producer Don Payne , Scottish actor David Tennant watched " Do the Bard , Man " along with the cast of Hamlet during their first rehearsal . The segment has also been used in schools to teach students about Shakespeare ’ s literary work . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Anderson stated that trilogy episodes , like the Treehouse of Horror episodes , are " much harder " to direct than normal ones because the animators have to make as many designs for each act as they would for one normal episode . In the scene in which Joan gets torched by the English , Jean specifically ordered Anderson to " make sure she doesn 't get burned " , even though she was surrounded by flames . Jean explained in the commentary that , when Mike Scully was show runner for The Simpsons , Jean learned that " people do not wanna see changes in [ the characters ' ] basic design " when the character gets hurt . He added that , because the viewer is " so attached to the characters , [ the viewers ] don 't wanna see ... especially Lisa , get hurt in any way . " In order to make Homer 's ghost in the third segment transparent , the animators had to " double expose " him ; Homer 's cels were first shot normally and then with a diminished opacity . In the first segment , clouds can be seen moving behind Zeus . The clouds were animated by airbrushing the cels and then moving them slowly in order to make it " look heavenly " . = = Cultural references = = Each segment is based on and include references to historical stories ; " D 'oh Brother , Where Art Thou " takes its story from the ancient Greek epic poem the Odyssey , while taking its name from the movie O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( also based on the Odyssey ) , " Hot Child in the City " is based on the life and legend of Saint Joan of Arc , a French peasant girl who , as a teenager , led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years ' War , and " Do the Bard , Man " spoofs William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet , while the title takes its name from " Do the Bartman " , a song performed by Bart early in the series . The song that the sirens are singing in the first segment is a parody on the 1978 disco song " Copacabana " by Barry Manilow . In order to return to Ithaca , Homer crosses the river Styx , in which the dead can be seen dancing " Lady " by the band Styx . In the second segment , the captain resembling Chief Wiggum is initially leading the French army . The soldier resembling Lou points out that the captain " keeps switching back from French and English . " The scene satirizes films like Doctor Zhivago in which the Russians speak with a British accent even though they are in Russia . At the end of the act , Marge can be seen eating the page which shows Joan 's demise and , say " Well , it 's easier to chew than that Bambi video . " The scene is a reference to a scene in the Disney film Bambi , in which Bambi 's mother is shot to death by hunters . In the beginning of the third act , Bart argues that modern writers like Steven Bochco , one of the creators of the television series NYPD Blue , are more talented than Shakespeare . Bochco saw the episode with his children and was so flattered that he sent The Simpsons staff some NYPD Blue merchandise . After the ghost of Homer has spoken to Bart , he leaves Bart 's room by flying through the wall , causing slime to appear on the wall . This is a reference to Slimer , a ghost from the Ghostbusters franchise who has a similar function . = = Release = = In its original American broadcast on March 17 , 2002 , " Tales from the Public Domain " , along with a new episode of Malcolm in the Middle , received more than a full rating point more than ABC 's showing of the film Snow White : The Fairest of Them All , which received a 3 @.@ 1 rating among adults between ages 18 and 49 , according to Nielsen Media Research . This means that the episode was watched by more than 4 % of the American population of said demographic at the time of its broadcast . On August 24 , 2010 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Thirteenth Season on DVD and Blu @-@ ray . Following the release of The Simpsons thirteenth season , " Tales from the Public Domain " received mixed reviews from critics . Colin Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that The Simpsons trilogy episodes " tend to be pretty spotty . " Of the three stories , Jacobsson liked " Do the Bard , Man " the most , although he overall found the episode to be " mediocre " . Adam Rayner of Obsessed with Film wrote that , even though the episode " has a few laughs " , it " just feels half @-@ hearted " , and , writing for 411Mania , Ron Martin described the episode as being " just a lazy way out for the writers " . Giving the episode a negative review , Nate Boss of Project : Blu wrote that the episode is " awful " and " Kinda annoying " , and that it " has been done so many times , it 's hardly all that funny " . On the other hand , Casey Broadwater of Blu @-@ ray.com wrote that he is " particularly fond of [ the episode ] " and Rosie Fletcher of Total Film considered it to be a " stand @-@ out " episode in the season . The Vulture column of New York magazine named it one of the ten best episodes of the show 's later era .
= Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class battleship = The Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class ( Russian : Императрица Мария ) battleships were the first dreadnoughts built for the Black Sea Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy . All three ships were built in Nikolayev during World War I ; two of the ships were built by the Rossud Dockyard and the third was built by the Associated Factories and Shipyards of Nikolayev ( Russian : ONZiV ) . Two ships were delivered in 1915 and saw some combat against ex @-@ German warships that had been ' gifted ' to the Ottoman Empire , but the third was not completed until 1917 and saw no combat due to the disorder in the navy after the February Revolution earlier that year . Imperatritsa Mariya was sunk by a magazine explosion in Sevastopol harbor in 1916 . Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya , having been renamed Svobodnaya Rossiya in 1917 , was scuttled in Novorossiysk harbor in 1918 to prevent her from being turned over to the Germans as required by the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . The crew of Volia , as Imperator Aleksander III had been renamed in 1917 , voted to turn her over to the Germans . They were only able to make one training cruise before they had to turn her over the victorious Allies in 1918 as part of the armistice terms . The British took control of her , but turned her over to the White Russians in 1920 who renamed her General Alekseyev . She only had one operable gun turret by this time and she provided some fire support for the Whites , but it was not enough . They were forced to evacuate the Crimea later that year and sailed with Wrangel 's fleet to Bizerte ( Tunisia ) where she was interned by the French . She was eventually scrapped there during the 1930s to pay her docking fees . = = Design and development = = The Naval Ministry began planning a class of dreadnoughts for the Black Sea Fleet in 1910 when they learned that the Ottomans were on the verge of ordering dreadnoughts of their own from the British . This rumor proved to false , but the Russians had decided that they should continue the design process for the time when the Ottomans did procure dreadnoughts of their own . Preliminary specifications were issued on 12 August 1910 for a design based on that of the Gangut @-@ class battleships then being built for the Baltic Fleet . 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) was thought to be excessive in the confined environs of the Black Sea so the new design was capable of only 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) which allowed more weight to be devoted to more guns or heavier armor . A main armament of a dozen 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in four triple turrets was specified in the same ' linear ' non @-@ superfiring arrangements as the Ganguts . The sixteen 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) anti @-@ torpedo boat guns of the Ganguts were replaced by twenty 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns to counter the ever @-@ increasing size of torpedo boats . The maximum elevation of the 12 @-@ inch guns was to be increased to 35 ° , 10 ° more than in the Gangut @-@ class ships , and turret armor was to be increased from 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) to 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) . A design competition was announced in July 1911 , but there were not many contenders . The Naval Ministry favored the design from the Russud Works and gave preliminary orders for three ships on 2 September , even before the competition was concluded in November . Russud 's design was unsurprisingly selected and the government transferred designers from the government @-@ owned Baltic Works as well as a complete set of drawings for the Gangut @-@ class to speed up the detailed design process . = = = General characteristics = = = The ships of the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class were 168 meters ( 551 ft 2 in ) long overall , had a beam of 27 @.@ 43 meters ( 90 ft 0 in ) and at full load a draft of 8 @.@ 36 meters ( 27 ft 5 in ) . They displaced 23 @,@ 413 long tons ( 23 @,@ 789 t ) at standard load . High @-@ tensile steel was used throughout the hull with mild steel used only in areas that did not contribute to structural strength . The hull was subdivided by 18 transverse watertight bulkheads . The engine room was divided by two longitudinal bulkheads and a double bottom was provided . Their designed metacentric height was 1 @.@ 76 meters ( 5 ft 9 in ) . Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya was slightly larger than her half @-@ sisters because ONZiV enlarged her in an effort to counter the usual problem Russian battleships had with weight . She was 168 meters ( 551 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline and had a beam of 28 @.@ 07 meters ( 92 ft 1 in ) ; 4 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 47 m ) longer and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) wider than her half sisters . Her exact draft is not known , but she had a draft of 8 @.@ 7 meters ( 28 ft 7 in ) on trials . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 644 long tons ( 25 @,@ 039 t ) at load , over 900 long tons ( 914 t ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 783 long tons ( 24 @,@ 165 t ) . Imperatritsa Mariya proved to be very bow @-@ heavy in service and tended to ship large amounts of water through her forward casemates . The ammunition for the forward 12 @-@ inch guns was reduced from 100 to 70 rounds each while the 130 mm ammunition was reduced from 245 to 100 rounds per gun in an attempt to compensate for her trim . This did not fully cure the problem , but Imperatritsa Mariya was lost before any other changes could be implemented . This did not fully cure the problem so Volia 's , as she was known by then , forward pair of 130 mm guns were removed while she was fitting out . Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya did not suffer from the same degree of trim by the bow by virtue of her greater size and retained her forward guns . = = = Propulsion = = = The two Russud @-@ built ships were fitted with four Parsons @-@ type steam turbines imported from John Brown & Company of the United Kingdom while Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya 's turbines were built by ONZiV with technical assistance from Vickers Limited . They were designed for a total of 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 388 kW ) ( 27 @,@ 000 shp ( 20 @,@ 134 kW ) in Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya ) , but produced over 33 @,@ 000 shp ( 24 @,@ 608 kW ) on trials . 20 mixed @-@ firing triangular Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers powered the turbines at a working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 atm ( 1 @,@ 773 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Their designed speed was 21 knots . Their maximum coal capacity ranged from 1 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 300 long tons ( 1 @,@ 727 to 2 @,@ 337 t ) plus 420 to 630 long tons ( 427 to 640 t ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of approximately 1 @,@ 640 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 037 km ; 1 @,@ 887 mi ) at full speed or 2 @,@ 960 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 482 km ; 3 @,@ 406 mi ) at economical speed . All of their electrical power was generated by three main Curtis 360 kilowatt turbo generators and two 200 kilowatt auxiliary units . = = = Armament = = = The main armament of the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . The guns were identical to those used in the Gangut @-@ class ships , but the turrets were of a new and roomier design . The fore and aft turrets could traverse a total of 310 ° while the middle turrets covered an arc of 130 ° on each side . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 25 ° and could be loaded at any angle between − 5 ° and + 15 ° ; their rate of fire was supposed to three rounds per minute up to 15 ° of elevation . The turrets could elevate at 3 – 4 ° per second and traverse at a rate of 3 @.@ 2 ° per second . 100 rounds per gun were carried at full load . The guns fired 470 @.@ 9 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 038 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 762 m / s ( 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 230 meters ( 25 @,@ 400 yd ) . The secondary armament consisted of twenty 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 @-@ caliber B7 Pattern 1913 guns mounted in casemates . They were arranged in two groups , six guns per side from the forward turret to the rear funnel and the remaining four clustered around the rear turret . Three guns per side were situated to fire ahead as that was the most likely direction of attack by torpedo boats as anticipated by the Naval General Staff . Their rate of fire ranged from five to eight rounds per minute and they were provided with 245 rounds per gun . They had a maximum range of about 15 @,@ 364 meters ( 16 @,@ 802 yd ) with a 36 @.@ 86 @-@ kilogram ( 81 @.@ 3 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 823 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . No anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament was originally planned . In October 1916 , the Naval Ministry specified that four 37 @-@ caliber 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns of a new design were to be fitted , but they never entered service . The two older ships had three or four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) / 50 @-@ caliber Pattern 1892 guns mounted on turret roofs . The 75 mm gun had maximum elevation of 50 ° . It fired a 12 @.@ 63 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 73 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 750 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 12 – 15 rounds per minute . It had a maximum ceiling of less than 16 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) . Volia used four of the newer 30 @-@ caliber 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) ' Lender ' AA guns , mounted on the fore and aft turrets . This had a maximum depression of 5 ° and a maximum elevation of 65 ° . It fired a 14 @.@ 33 @-@ pound ( 6 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 929 ft / s ( 588 m / s ) . It had a rate of fire of 10 – 12 rounds per minute and had a maximum ceiling of 19 @,@ 000 ft ( 5 @,@ 800 m ) . Four underwater 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes were also fitted , two on each broadside in a compartment immediately abaft the forward magazine . Imperatritsa Mariya 's trials revealed problems with her magazine cooling systems where the heat generated by the ventilation system mostly negated the cooling effects of the refrigeration system . Her sisters shared this problem , which may have contributed to the magazine fire suffered by Imperatritsa Mariya that led to her loss in 1916 . The two older ships mounted Zeiss 5 @-@ meter ( 16 ft 5 in ) rangefinders on each conning tower , but Volia was given four 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) Barr and Stroud rangefinders , one for each turret . These would provide data for the central artillery post to calculate , using the standard Geisler mechanical computer , and then transmit to the guns for the gun crew to follow . = = = Armor = = = The full @-@ scale armor trials with the hulk of the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Chesma greatly affected the armor protection of the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class ships . The Krupp cemented armor plates were sized to match the frames to provide support for their joints and they were locked together by a type of mortise and tenon joint to better distribute the shock of a shell 's impact . The waterline belt had a maximum thickness of 262 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 33 in ) . It was continued forward and aft of the citadel by plates 217 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) and 175 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) thick . These reduced to 125 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) and then to 75 millimeters just before the bow . Aft the belt thinned to 125 millimeters all the way to the stern . It had a total height of 5 @.@ 25 meters ( 17 @.@ 2 ft ) , 3 @.@ 5 meters ( 11 ft ) of which was above the design waterline and 1 @.@ 75 meters ( 5 ft 9 in ) below . It was backed by 75 millimeters of wood to make a better fit between the hull and the armor . The forward end of the citadel was protected by other armor and the transverse bulkhead was therefore only 25 @.@ 4 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 00 in ) thick , barely enough to consider as splinter protection . However , the rear bulkhead had no other protection and was 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . These thin bulkheads left the end magazines very vulnerable to shells fired from bearings in front of or behind the ship . The upper belt was 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick and had a height of 2 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) . It thinned to 75 mm forward of the casemates all the way to the bow . The casemates were also protected by a 25 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) transverse bulkhead from axial fire as well as a 25 mm screen between each casemate . Behind the side armor was an inboard longitudinal splinter bulkhead that was 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick , but the casemates had their own separate 25 mm splinter bulkhead . The main gun turrets had sides 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick with 125 mm roofs . 50 mm plates protected the gun ports and 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) bulkheads separated each gun . The barbettes were 250 mm thick , but reduced to 125 mm below the upper deck , except in the forward and rear turrets which thinned only to 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The forward conning tower sides were 300 millimeters ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick with a 200 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) roof and 250 mm supporting tube which reduced to 100 mm below the upper deck . The rear conning tower also had 300 mm sides and a 250 mm support tube , but the roof was only 100 mm thick . The funnel uptakes were protected by 75 mm of armor above the upper deck , but this reduced to 19 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) below it . The upper deck was 37 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 48 in ) thick while the middle deck was 25 mm thick over the armored citadel . Outside the citadel the middle deck was 37 @.@ 5 mm thick and the lower deck was 25 mm thick . Underwater protection was minimal as there was only an unarmored watertight bulkhead behind the upwards extension of the double bottom . = = Construction = = All three ships were laid down on 30 October 1911 , but this was just a ceremonial event as the design had not yet been finalized nor the contracts signed . A contract was finally signed on 13 April 1912 with Russud that specified delivery dates of 2 September 1915 for both Imperatritsa Mariya and Imperator Aleksander III . Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya was built to a larger design that added over two million gold rubles to her cost and delayed the start of her construction three months after her half @-@ sisters . Despite the demanding schedule the ships suffered from a number of delays during construction . On 10 February 1914 changes were ordered by the Naval Ministry to incorporate the lessons learned from the full @-@ scale armor trials conducted using the Chesma . This added almost 500 long tons ( 508 t ) of weight to the ships and raised their cost by 220 @,@ 000 – 250 @,@ 000 rubles . Other delays were incurred after the war began as imported components took longer to reach the shipyards and factories switched over to war production . The construction of Imperator Aleksander III was deliberately delayed in order to accelerate the completion of her two sisters and some of her turrets were transferred to Imperatritsa Mariya as well . = = Service history = = = = = Imperatritsa Mariya = = = Imperatritsa Mariya ( Russian : Императрица Мария , " Empress Maria " ) was launched on 19 October 1913 and arrived in Sevastopol on 13 July 1915 , where she completed her fitting out during the next few months and conducted sea trials . She provided cover while the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships conducted shore bombardment missions in October 1915 . She encountered the ex @-@ German light cruiser Midilli twice during 1916 , but the cruiser escaped with nothing more than splinter damage . On 20 October 1916 , she capsized and sank in Sevastopol harbor after a magazine fire and subsequent explosion . Following a complex salvage operation , she was eventually raised and placed in drydock in May 1918 . However , in the chaos of the Russian Revolution and subsequent Civil War , no further repair work was done , and the ship was scrapped beginning in 1926 . Her guns and their turrets , which had fallen out of the ship when she capsized , were later salvaged in 1931 – 33 . Two of the guns were used in the 30th Coast Defense Battery defending Sevastopol during World War II , also known as Maksim Gor 'kii I by the Germans . = = = Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya = = = Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya ( Russian : Императрица Екатерина Великая , " Empress Catherine the Great " ) was launched on 6 June 1914 and completed on 18 October 1915 . She was originally named Ekaterina II until 27 June 1915 and was renamed Free Russia ( Russian : Svobodnaya Rossiya ) in 1917 . She engaged the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben while the latter was in Turkish service as Yavuz Sultan Selim only once , but failed to inflict anything more severe than splinter damage . She also encountered Midilli on 16 April 1916 , but the cruiser used her higher speed to escape . She was scuttled on 18 June 1918 in Novorossiysk to prevent her from being turned over to the Germans as required by the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . No attempt was made to salvage her during the 1920s , but the 12 @-@ inch shells were salvaged from her wreck until a magazine explosion was triggered in 1930 by the explosive charges used to gain access to the shells . = = = Imperator Aleksander III = = = Imperator Aleksander III ( Russian : Император Александр Третий , " Emperor Alexander III " ) was launched on 2 April 1914 , renamed Freedom ( Russian : Воля — Volia ) in 1917 and then General Alekseyev ( Russian : Генерал Алексеев ) in 1920 . The ship did not take part in operations during World War I due to long delays in the delivery of its machinery from Britain , but was able to go to sea by 1917 and conduct a series of trials . On 1 May 1918 she sailed from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk to avoid capture by advancing German troops . While at Novorossiysk she received an order to scuttle on 19 June 1918 , but the majority of the crew refused to do so and decided to return to Sevastopol . Upon arrival she was disarmed and only guards were left on board , but the Germans took control on 1 October . She made a brief cruise with a German crew on 15 October , but her guns were still inoperable . After Germany 's surrender she was turned over to the British , who moved her to İzmit in Turkey . In 1919 the British brought her back to the Black Sea and turned her over to the White Russian forces , where she fought in the Russian Civil War against the Red Army , mainly carrying out shore bombardments . With the collapse of the White Russian armies in Southern Russia in 1920 , the battleship assisted in their evacuation to French @-@ owned Tunisia , where she was interned in Bizerte . She was eventually scrapped there to pay her docking fees . The French stored her guns and later donated them to the Finns during the Winter War , although they did not arrive until after the end of the war . The Germans captured four of these 12 @-@ inch and some 130 mm guns in transit in Narvik harbor when they invaded Norway in April 1940 . Both the Finns and Germans used these guns as coastal artillery . The Germans emplaced all four guns , after rebuilding them to accept German ammunition , in armored turrets in ' Batterie Mirus ' on Guernsey . The Finns used three of the 12 @-@ inch guns to repair railway guns that had fallen into their hands in 1941 . They were used throughout the Continuation War and the Finns were forced in 1944 to surrender them to the Soviets who used them until the 1990s .
= Ben Paschal = Benjamin Edwin " Ben " Paschal ( October 13 , 1895 – November 10 , 1974 ) was an American baseball outfielder who played eight seasons in Major League Baseball from 1915 to 1929 , mostly for the New York Yankees . After two " cup of coffee " stints with the Cleveland Indians in 1915 and the Boston Red Sox in 1920 , Paschal spent most of his career as the fourth outfielder and right @-@ handed pinch hitter of the Yankees ' Murderers ' Row championship teams of the late 1920s . Paschal is best known for hitting .360 in the 1925 season while standing in for Babe Ruth , who missed the first 40 games with a stomach ailment . During his time in baseball , Paschal was described as a five @-@ tool player , who excelled at running , throwing , fielding , hitting for average and power . However , his playing time with the Yankees was limited because they already had future Baseball Hall of Famers Ruth and Earle Combs , and star Bob Meusel , in the outfield . Paschal was considered one of the best bench players in baseball during his time with the Yankees , and sportswriters wrote how he would have started for most other teams in the American League . He was one of the best pinch hitters in the game during the period , at a time when the term was still relatively new to baseball . = = Early career = = The son of farmers , Paschal was born in Enterprise , Alabama and grew up in nearby Sanford . He played collegiate sports at the University of Alabama , before beginning his professional career with Dothan of the Georgia State League , where he played with future Hall of Fame player Bill Terry . Paschal played in 64 games , with a .280 batting average , and his ability attracted the attention of scouts in the area . Signed as a pinch hitter for the Cleveland Indians at age 19 , Paschal appeared in nine games , collecting one hit on August 16 , which broke up a no @-@ hitter by Bernie Boland with two outs in the ninth inning . The Indians declared Paschal too inexperienced , and he was sent to the Muskegon Reds of the Central League . The league disbanded in the middle of the 1917 season , and Paschal became a free agent . After a two @-@ year break from baseball because of World War I , Paschal moved on to the Charlotte Hornets of the South Atlantic League , where he played from 1920 to 1923 . He finished third in the league in batting average in 1920 . While in the Southern League , he was nicknamed " the man who hits sticks of dynamite " . At the conclusion of 1920 season , Paschal was purchased by the Boston Red Sox , with an option to keep him if he met certain playing expectations . He appeared in nine games for the Red Sox ; his first game brought three hits against pitcher José Acosta of the Washington Senators , and in total he batted .357 with five runs batted in ( RBI ) , but the Red Sox believed he lacked fielding experience and he returned to Charlotte . In August 1921 , Paschal was sold to the Rochester Red Wings . However , while sliding in a match on August 20 , 1921 , he suffered a broken leg which sidelined him for the rest of the season and voided the contract with the Red Wings . He was hitting .317 at the time of the injury . In 1922 , Paschal played in 142 games , hitting .326 with 18 home runs and improved these figures in 1923 , achieving 200 hits , 22 triples and 26 home runs in 141 games for a batting average of .351 , the fourth best in the league . Paschal began the 1924 season with the Atlanta Crackers of the Southern Association . He scored 136 runs , while batting .341 and stealing 24 bases . = = Yankees career = = The New York Yankees bought Paschal from the Crackers near the end of the 1924 season and he played in four games . His only three hits , as well as three RBI , came in a defeat by Detroit Tigers on September 19 . During spring training , Paschal narrowly escaped serious injury which travelling on a bus . The vehicle rolled backwards down a hill and Paschall , along with several other teammates , jumped off the bus before it hit a tree at high speed . The media expected Paschal to be Babe Ruth 's understudy prior to the 1925 season , but Ruth collapsed at an Asheville , North Carolina train station just before the regular season 's start . Emergency surgery for a " intestinal abscess " left him hospitalized for six weeks . Originally , Paschal was only to be used against left @-@ handed pitchers , but Yankees manager Miller Huggins named him as Ruth 's temporary replacement in the outfield . In the first game of the year , Paschal hit a home run in a 5 – 1 win against the defending World Series @-@ champion Washington Senators . After another game @-@ winning home run against the Senators two weeks later , the New York press noted that he was " making fans forget about Babe Ruth " . Paschal 's weakness against right @-@ handed pitchers prompted the Yankees to acquire veteran outfielder Bobby Veach , but his declining skills allowed Paschal to retain his position in the team , and another game @-@ winning home run against the Cleveland Indians on May 23 . At the time , Paschal was fifth in the league in batting average at .403 , behind Sammy Hale , Ty Cobb , Tris Speaker , and teammate Earle Combs . His six home runs in May were an equal record ( with Joe Gordon ) for the most home runs hit by a rookie in a month until Shane Spencer achieved nine in September 1998 . Ruth returned to the lineup on June 1 , relegating Paschal to the bench . In July , an injury to Combs allowed Paschal to start several games in center field , and a further injury to Joe Dugan allowed Paschal to start throughout the majority of August and all of September , as Bob Meusel moved to third base to cover Dugan . He hit two home runs during a September 8 game against the Red Sox , but his season ended when he was hit on the leg with a pitch on September 12 against the Philadelphia Athletics . In 89 games , Paschal 's batting average for the season was .360 , 70 points higher than Ruth , with 12 home runs and 56 RBI . Paschal began the 1926 season as the fourth outfielder . He was sent a new contract for the 1926 season , but after threatening to hold out for more money . Paschal signed the new contract on February 17 for an estimated $ 7 @,@ 000 ( 94 @,@ 000 today ) . He began the season as a pinch hitter , but injuries quickly took their toll on the Yankees . Paschal started most of July and August , replacing an injured Meusel , who broke a bone in his right foot . Paschal hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run in a victory against the Indians on July 9 . With the Yankees in a close pennant race in mid @-@ August , Paschal hit a home run in a loss to the Detroit Tigers . Further successes came with a vital pinch @-@ hit double in a win against the Athletics on September 6 and a home run on September 8 . The Yankees clinched the pennant on September 15 , and Paschal scored the game @-@ winning single . The Yankees faced the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1926 World Series , and Paschal , pinch @-@ hitting for Joe Dugan , singled in Lou Gehrig tying the contest at 2 – 2 in the ninth inning of Game 5 . Tony Lazzeri hit a sacrifice fly in the tenth to win the game for the Yankees , but they lost the next two games and the Series . He had played in 96 games , hitting seven home runs with 32 runs batted in . Before the 1927 season , Paschal returned his playing contract unsigned because of a salary dispute . By that time , the Yankees were forming the nucleus of what became the Murderers ' Row teams of the late 1920s . He signed for an estimated $ 8 @,@ 000 ( 109 @,@ 000 today ) , a 13 % raise . In the season @-@ opening win against the Athletics , right field starter Babe Ruth struck out twice and popped out , forcing Huggins to replace him with Paschal in the sixth inning . As the last man ever to pinch @-@ hit for Ruth , Paschal singled . In one of his few starts of the 1927 season , Paschal was a single short of hitting for the cycle , and almost had three home runs . Replacing the injured Bob Meusel , Paschal hit two home runs , a triple that was yards shy of a home run , and a double which bounced off the right @-@ field stands during an 11 – 2 rout of the Indians . Paschal did not play in the Yankees ' 1927 World Series victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates . Overall he played in 50 games , primarily as a pinch hitter . After the season , Paschal was discussed as a trade for Boston Red Sox pitcher Red Ruffing , but discussions fell apart ( Ruffing was later acquired in a proposed trade during the 1930 season ) . Paschal was used heavily as a pinch hitter during the 1928 season . Huggins credited Paschal 's timely pinch @-@ hitting as part of the Yankees ' success that season . One of the few highlights of his season was his RBI pinch @-@ hit double in the 10th inning that helped the Yankees beat the Chicago White Sox on August 4 . Paschal played in 65 games that season , having a .316 batting average . He shared center field duties with Cedric Durst for an injured Earle Combs during the Yankees ' win over the Cardinals in the 1928 World Series . He started the first and last games of the series on a platoon situation ; Paschal faced left @-@ handed pitchers and Durst faced right @-@ handed pitchers . Before the 1929 season , Paschal and Durst were mentioned in several trade rumors , and Paschal was rarely used , appearing in only 42 games as a sixth outfielder in the season . A rare start came on June 1 against the White Sox , when he scored a run . On July 2 , Paschal hit a pinch @-@ hit home run for Herb Pennock in the seventh inning of a game against the Red Sox to give the Yankees a 3 – 2 win . He played in 42 games in his final season in the majors , posting a .208 batting average in 81 at @-@ bats . During his time with the Yankees , Paschal was considered a quiet player with a colorless personality . His appearances were limited by the presence of future Hall of Famers Ruth and Combs , and star Bob Meusel in the outfield . He was part a group including Lou Gehrig and Mark Koenig which preferred watching a film to partying after a game ; they were dubbed the team 's " movie crowd " . = = Later career = = After the 1929 season , Paschal was part of a trade for catcher Bubbles Hargrave , with Wilcy Moore and Johnny Grabowski , to the St. Paul Saints of the American Association ( AA ) . In one 1930 game against the Toledo Mud Hens , Paschal had four hits and four RBI in a 23 – 4 win that broke the AA record for most runs scored in a game . In 144 games , Paschal finished the 1930 season with 204 hits , 10 home runs and a .350 batting average . The following season , Paschal played 121 games to hit .336 , while his average in 1932 was .325 in 147 games . During one game in the 1932 season , Paschal had three doubles and three singles , tying the AA record for most hits in a game . His skills declined during the 1933 season ; in 130 games he hit just .272 with seven home runs . He left St. Paul and signed as a free agent with the Knoxville Smokies on December 30 , 1933 . The St. Petersburg Evening Independent reported a few months later that Paschal was " struggling to keep his job " in the minors . He was released by Knoxville and signed with the Scranton Miners of the New York – Penn League . After a few games with the Miners , Paschal returned home to North Carolina , where he accepted a managerial job for a semi @-@ professional baseball team in Catawba County . Paschal was married with a child , Ben Jr . He died in Charlotte , North Carolina at the age of 79 , and is interred at Sharon Memorial Park .
= 2002 Pacific hurricane season = The 2002 Pacific hurricane season was a slightly above average Pacific hurricane season that saw three tropical cyclones reach Category 5 intensity on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . The strongest storm this year was Hurricane Kenna , which reached Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It made landfall near Puerto Vallarta , located in the Mexican state of Jalisco , on October 25 . The hurricane killed four people and was the third most powerful hurricanes to ever strike the western coast of Mexico , hitting with winds of 140 mph ( as well as the strongest landfall in terms of windspeed since Hurricane Madeline in 1976 ) . Elsewhere , Tropical Storm Julio made landfall in Mexico , and Tropical Storm Boris dumped torrential rain along the Mexican coast , despite remaining offshore . The season officially began on May 15 , 2002 for the Eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 2002 for the Central Pacific . It ended on November 30 for both regions . These dates delimit the time when most tropical cyclones form in this part of the Pacific Ocean . The first system formed on May 24 and the final depression dissipated on November 16 . Other storms were individually unusual . Hurricanes Elida and Hernan also reached Category 5 intensity , but neither caused any damage . Hurricane Fausto had no effect on land , but it regenerated into a weak tropical storm at an abnormally high latitude . = = Season summary = = The 2002 Pacific hurricane season officially started May 15 , 2002 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 2002 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 2002 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . In practice , however , the season lasted from May 24 , the formation date of its first system , to November 16 , the dissipation date of the last . There were 15 tropical storms in the eastern Pacific Ocean in the 2002 season . Of those , eight became hurricanes , of which six became major hurricanes by reaching Category 3 or higher on the Saffir Simpson Scale . Three reached Category 5 intensity , a record shared with the 1994 season . Four tropical depressions formed and dissipated before reaching the intensity of a tropical storm . In the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , one tropical storm and two hurricanes formed , with one of the hurricanes intensifying into a major hurricane . In the eastern Pacific proper , the season saw below average activity in terms of the number of total storms and hurricanes , but about average activity in terms of major hurricanes . A moderately strong El Niño , ongoing during the season , may have contributed to the disproportionate number of major hurricanes , as well as reduced activity in the Atlantic . Also of note was an unusual gap in storm formation during the first three weeks of August in this season , histrocally a prime period for tropical cyclone formation . Only three systems , Tropical Storms Boris and Julio and Hurricane Kenna , had significant impact on land . Julio and Kenna caused the only two landfalls this year . Most of the season 's impact , including all casualties and most of the damage , was caused by Kenna . In addition to the above systems , an area of convection persisted near a developing circulation about 575 mi ( 925 km ) west @-@ southwest of Johnston Atoll on July 18 . An upper @-@ level low to the northeast provided outflow , and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center issued a tropical cyclone formation alert early on July 19 . Although not classified by the CPHC , the Japan Meteorological Agency remarked that a tropical depression had developed by early on July 20 , just east of the International Date Line . Soon after , it crossed into the western Pacific and briefly intensified into Tropical Storm Kalmaegi . = = Storms = = = = = Hurricane Alma = = = A complex formation involving a tropical wave and a gale over the Gulf of Tehuantepec formed Tropical Depression One @-@ E on May 24 . It slowly strengthened into the first tropical storm of the season two days later . Alma then turned north , moving near the edge of a subtropical ridge over Mexico . Its rate of intensification picked up , and Alma became a hurricane on May 28 . Alma reached Category 3 intensity on May 30 . The hurricane began to weaken almost immediately thereafter under the influence of wind shear and cool water . Alma rapidly fell apart , and degenerated into a weak low pressure area by June 1 . The hurricane did not impact land . A special feature about Alma was that it was one of only five Pacific major hurricanes in May . = = = Tropical Storm Boris = = = On June 8 , an area of disturbed weather that had absorbed a tropical wave spawned Tropical Depression Two @-@ E. It became a tropical storm the next day . After peaking on June 9 , with a pressure of 997 mb , steering currents collapsed and Boris stalled out in the ocean between two ridges of high pressure . Shear increased , and the cyclone weakened to a depression on June 10 . The next day , Boris degenerated into a remnant low . The remnant drifted east and then southeast before dissipating on June 12 . Boris dumped heavy rains on sections of the Mexican coast . The maximum amount was 10 @.@ 60 inches ( 269 mm ) at San Felipe Usila . These rains damaged several homes at an unspecified location . In addition , rainfall damaged several homes in Tequila , Jalisco , but the National Hurricane Center believes that Boris likely did not cause the rain . No deaths were attributed to this storm . = = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ E = = = A tropical wave that crossed Central America organized and developed into a tropical depression on June 27 . Contrary to forecasts , the depression did not strengthen further because of strong wind shear . By June 29 , the depression had become a remnant low , which was observed as a swirl of clouds for a few more days before dissipating . = = = Tropical Storm Cristina = = = An area of disturbed weather near Panama drifted to a location south of Puerto Ángel , Oaxaca , and organized into Tropical Depression Four @-@ E on July 9 . It moved westward through a hostile environment of strong shear . The wind shear disrupted the cyclone 's convection and weakened its circulation . Despite the shear , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm early on July 12 and was named Cristina . This broke down the steering ridge , and Cristina turned to the north and peaked on July 14 . Then , the wind shear won out and Cristina quickly weakened . Cristina dissipated into a swirl of clouds on July 16 , without ever threatening land . No impact was reported . = = = Hurricane Douglas = = = A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on July 8 and crossed the Atlantic without much development . In the Caribbean , showers increased , but wind shear prevented development . The wave crossed into the eastern Pacific on July 16 , and wind shear decreased to allow the convection to organize . Tropical Depression Five @-@ E developed on July 20 about 395 miles ( 636 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . At that time , gradual strengthening was anticipated . The depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Douglas . Around that time , most of the deep convection was situated south of the atmospheric circulation . Initially expected to become a hurricane only briefly , late on July 21 , the NHC reported that Douglas had become a hurricane . Upon becoming a hurricane , Douglas was situated in low wind shear environment ; however , Hurricane Douglas was expected to reach cold waters in 36 hours , and thus was not predicted to become a major hurricane . Douglas became a Category 2 hurricane on July 22 , reaching peak winds of 105 miles per hour ( 170 km / h ) . Douglas held this intensity for 18 hours as it traveled westward . When Douglas weakened from its peak intensity , it had an organized cloud pattern , but the thunderstorm activity was weakening , typical of most Pacific hurricanes that reach cooler waters . The weakening briefly stopped after Douglas went through an eyewall replacement cycle , but Douglas was downgraded to a tropical storm late on July 24 as the storm only had a small area of deep convection left . Tropical storm Douglas briefly stopped weakening as convection increased , only to fade away again hours later . The storm was downgraded to a tropical depression early on July 26 , and later that day degenerated into a remnant low pressure area . The remnant low dissipated the next day . = = = Hurricane Elida = = = A tropical wave generated into Tropical Depression Six @-@ E on July 23 . It moved westward and reached storm strength 12 hours after it formed . Elida rapidly deepened , developing a pinhole eye , and becoming a hurricane on July 24 and further reaching major hurricane intensity six hours later . Elida 's rapid intensification continued , becoming a Category 5 hurricane for six hours on July 25 . Despite moving over warm waters , Elida began to weaken because it began an eyewall replacement cycle . When the cycle ended , the cyclone was over cooler water and unsteadily weakened . Elida fell to a tropical storm on July 27 , then degenerated into a remnant low and turned to the northeast . The remnant dissipated over the open ocean about 535 mi ( 861 km ) west of Los Angeles . Elida is one of the fastest intensifying eastern Pacific hurricanes . Its rate of intensification is rivaled only by 1997 's Linda and 2015 's Patricia . Elida had no direct impact on land . However , it did send heavy waves along the shores of Mexico . No one was killed and no damage was reported . = = = Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E = = = A tropical wave that had reached the Eastern Pacific from Africa was first spotted on July 23 . The wave continued westward with little development occurring until August 3 , when convection increased . After additional slow organization , the wave was classified as Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E on August 6 near the tip of Baja California . The system did not strengthen much , and development was halted when wind shear destroyed the system on August 8 . The depression never came near land and hence no one was killed or injured . Like Tropical Depression Three @-@ E , this cyclone was forecast to reach tropical storm intensity , but it never did . = = = Hurricane Fausto = = = After a rather lengthy lull punctuated by only Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E , a tropical wave formed Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E on August 21 . Initially taking a westward track , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Fausto on August 22 . It turned to the west @-@ northwest and stayed on that path for the next six days . Fausto steadily strengthened and intensified into a hurricane on August 22 . It continued to intensify , peaking as a Category 4 on August 24 , and also substantially increased in size . The hurricane began to weaken thereafter , and was a minimal tropical storm by the time it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on August 27 . The tropical cyclone dropped to a depression and degenerated into a non @-@ convective swirl of clouds on August 28 . Fausto 's remnants passed north of the Hawaiian Islands uneventfully until they interacted with a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) on August 30 . In combination with warm waters , a tropical depression with some subtropical features developed . At this time it was located around latitude 30 ° N. By September 1 , Fausto had redeveloped into a tiny but tropical ministorm . Its rebirth was brief , however , as a mid @-@ latitude cyclone absorbed the system early on September 3 . Fausto 's regeneration north of Hawaii was unusual but not unprecedented . The other time this happened since 1966 was in the 1975 season . That time , another TUTT absorbed the remnant of Hurricane Ilsa , which led to the formation of an unnamed hurricane at high latitude . Other tropical cyclones have strengthened north of Hawaii , but the actual formation of one is rare . = = = Tropical Storm Alika = = = An area of convection acquired a closed circulation and became Tropical Depression One @-@ C on August 22 . It stayed disorganized for the next several days . It organized more fully and intensified into a tropical storm on August 25 and was named Alika . After peaking as a moderately strong tropical storm on August 25 , wind shear caused by the pre @-@ Ele tropical depression and an upper @-@ level low near Hawaii weakened the storm to a depression on August 27 . Alika dissipated the next day , having never threatened land . = = = Tropical Storm Genevieve = = = A tropical wave formed Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E on August 26 . It was upgraded to a tropical storm and named Genevieve the next day . It moved westward and nearly strengthened to a hurricane , peaking in intensity on August 28 . At that point , the cyclone encountered cooler waters , which caused it to weaken slowly , weakening to a depression on August 30 . The depression hung on until it lost convection on the September 2 . A swirl of remnant clouds persisted for a few more days . Genevieve had no impact on land , with no reports of casualties or damage being received by the National Hurricane Center . = = = Hurricane Ele = = = An eastern extension of the monsoon trough south of Hawaii organized into Tropical Depression Two @-@ C on August 27 and strengthened into Tropical Storm Ele six hours later . Despite the nearby presence of Alika , Ele developed rapidly and strengthened into a hurricane on August 28 . After contributing to the dissipation of Alika , Ele continued intensifying . It reached Category 2 intensity late on August 28 and quickly became a major hurricane six hours later . The hurricane then crossed the International Date Line and became a typhoon in the 2002 Pacific typhoon season . Typhoon Ele turned to the northwest after crossing the dateline and continued to strengthen . It reached Category 4 before turning north and weakening again . After briefly restrengthening back into a Category 4 , the typhoon weakened and turned to the northwest . Ele was downgraded to a tropical storm on September 7 , a depression on September 9 , and then dissipated shortly afterwards . Ele did not affect land . = = = Hurricane Hernan = = = A weak wave in the ITCZ organized into Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E on August 30 . It headed west @-@ northwest and quickly intensified into a tropical storm and eventually , a hurricane . Hernan then began rapidly deepening , reaching Category 5 intensity on September 1 . It maintained that intensity for 12 hours before tracking over cooler waters . The storm weakened steadily , with wind shear contributing to its deterioration . Hernan then degenerated into a remnant low on September 6 . The low turned to the southwest and dissipated three days later . Hernan passed close enough to Socorro Island to bring strong winds to the island . In addition , the hurricane 's large and powerful wind field caused waves between 12 foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) and 20 foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in height and strong rip currents on the southwest coast of California . Other than the aforementioned regions , Hernan had no significant impact on land . = = = Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E = = = Of the four tropical depressions this season that did not become named storms , only Eleven @-@ E threatened land . An area of disturbed weather associated with a tropical wave formed into a tropical cyclone on September 5 . It tracked northwestward , before turning southwest . It weakened into a remnant low on September 8 . The remnant turned north and dissipated on September 10 offshore of the Baja California peninsula . The cyclone was nearly a tropical storm when it peaked on September 6 . It was forecast to become a tropical storm and pass close to the peninsula . This prompted a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch . With the weakening of the cyclone the watch and warning were discontinued . No damage or casualties were reported in association with this tropical cyclone . = = = Tropical Storm Iselle = = = Part of the same tropical wave that formed Tropical Depression Seven in the Atlantic basin organized into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E on September 15 . It strengthened further into Tropical Storm Iselle the next day . The storm headed northwest and paralleled the coast of Mexico , nearly strengthening into a hurricane late on September 17 . While near its peak intensity , a trough abruptly recurved the system to the northeast . Wind shear also increased , and Iselle consequently fell apart on satellite imagery . It weakened to a depression on September 19 . Iselle then degenerated into a remnant low the next day and rapidly degenerated , dissipating on September 20 . Iselle never made landfall . Iselle threatened parts of southwestern Mexico and warnings and watches were issued for that area . Heavy rains were reported over parts of the Baja California Peninsula . The highest amount of rainfall was 6 @.@ 16 inches ( 156 mm ) at Guadeloupe and Mulege , Baja California Sur . There were no reports of damage or casualties . = = = Tropical Storm Julio = = = An area of convection and disturbed weather , possibly related to outflow from Hurricane Isidore in the Atlantic basin , developed a circulation on September 23 and organized into Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E on September 25 . The depression headed northward and strengthened into a tropical storm that same day . Julio turned to the northwest and peaked in intesty as a minial tropical storm near Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán . On September 26 , Juli made landfall . The storm rapidly dissipated over Mexico . Three fatalities were reported from Julio . However , in Guerrero , around 100 houses in Acapulco and Zihuatanejo were damaged or washed away by flash flooding . The highest rainfall reported was 16 @.@ 10 inches ( 409 mm ) at Zihuatanejo and La Unión , Guerrero . = = = Hurricane Kenna = = = A disturbance possibly associated with a tropical wave organized into Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E on October 22 . It strengthened into a tropical storm that same day and a hurricane on October 23 . The next day , Kenna became the third Category 5 hurricane of the season . A trough over Mexico recurved the hurricane , and it started accelerating towards Mexico . Despite moving over waters that were still warm , wind shear weakened the system to a minimal Category 4 by the time of its landfall over Mexico late on October 25 . Mountainous terrain rapidly weakened Kenna , and the system dissipated early on October 26 . Hurricane Kenna was the third @-@ strongest Pacific hurricane to make landfall on record . It was also the second @-@ strongest October hurricane in any season , and the third strongest Pacific hurricane overall . In San Blas , Nayarit , 8 @,@ 800 people were affected ; 1 @,@ 540 houses were damaged or destroyed , which was 80 % to 90 % of houses in the town . In Santiago Ixcluintla , 3 @,@ 770 houses were damaged . Agriculture in the affected area was disrupted . Farmers required aid , and many fruit crops were destroyed . Tourism in Puerto Vallarta was disrupted , with much of the damage to hotels . Insurance companies reported that Kenna 's total damage was $ 96 million ( 2002 USD ) . Kenna killed four people in Mexico and injured over a hundred . The low death toll is likely due to massive evacuations in San Blas , Nayarit , and elsewhere ahead of the hurricane . = = = Tropical Storm Lowell = = = A weak tropical wave located over the open Pacific Ocean organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E on October 22 . It strengthened into a tropical storm the next day . Shortly afterwards , wind shear increased . Lowell 's convection was disrupted , and its center of circulation became exposed . The cyclone crossed into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on October 26 . The shear relaxed , and the depression restrengthened into a tropical storm . Lowell drifted in slow steering currents until it approached Hurricane Huko . The proximity of Huko caused a gradual weakening in Lowell , and it dissipated on October 31 . = = = Hurricane Huko = = = In late October , an active monsoon trough persisted south of Hawaii along 10 ° N latitude , developing an area of convection on October 24 . Later that day , the disturbance was classified as Tropical Depression Three @-@ C about 850 mi ( 1 @,@ 370 km ) south @-@ southeast of Honolulu . Initially poorly organized , it moved to the north and steadily intensified , becoming Tropical Storm Huko early on October 26 while turning northwestward . Late on October 28 , Huko reached hurricane strength , but its close proximity to Tropical Storm Lowell and a brief increase in wind shear weakened it back to a tropical storm on October 30 . Shortly after turning to the west , conditions allowed for Huko to re @-@ attain hurricane strength on October 31 while it was passing around 140 mi ( 225 km ) south of Johnston Atoll . On November 2 , a ridge caused the hurricane to accelerate , and the next day it crossed the International Date Line into the Western Pacific , becoming a typhoon . While passing near Johnston Atoll , the outer rainbands of the hurricane produced wind gusts up to 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) and locally heavy rainfall . The remnants of Huko later reentered the basin , eventually affecting California . The system was responsible for heavy rains , causing flooding along a small stream in Bakersfield . Total damage was approximately $ 23 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ) . = = = Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E = = = Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E formed from a disturbance in the intertropical convergence zone . Despite being located in a hostile environment , it managed to organize into a tropical depression on November 14 . It was briefly forecast to strengthen into a tropical storm . However , wind shear prevented that from occurring . Consequently , the depression degenerated into a remnant low on November 16 and dissipated soon after that . = = Other storms = = = = = Tropical Depression Kalmaegi = = = According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Japan Meteorological Agency , on July 17 a tropical depression formed east of the International Dateline , and 3 days later it exited CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database . As it entered into western Pacific , it strengthened as a tropical storm and received the name Kalmaegi . = = Accumulated Cyclone Energy = = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) is a measure of the activity of a hurricane season . It is calculated by squaring the windspeed of a cyclone with at least tropical storm @-@ force winds every six hours , summing the results , and dividing that total by 104 . As a tropical cyclone does not have gale @-@ force winds until it becomes a tropical storm , tropical depressions are not included in these tables . For all storms , ACE is given to three significant figures . The ACE in the east Pacific proper ( 140 ° W to North America ) is given ; the ACE in the central Pacific ( the International Date Line to 140 ° W ) is given in parentheses . The table includes the ACE for Ele and Huko accumulated only when those storms were located east of the dateline ; their ACE west of the dateline is part of the totals of the 2002 typhoon season . The National Hurricane Center uses ACE to rank hurricane seasons as above @-@ normal , near @-@ normal , and below @-@ normal . It defines below @-@ normal as having an ACE less than 95 * 104 kn2 ; It defines above normal as having an ACE above 150 * 104 kn2 along with the numbers of any two of the following above average : tropical storms ( 15 ) , hurricanes ( 9 ) , or major hurricanes ( 4 ) ; It defines near @-@ normal as having an ACE between 100 * 104 kn2 and 150 * 104 kn2 , or an ACE above 150 * 104 kn2 with fewer than two of the numbers of the following above average : tropical storms ( 15 ) , hurricanes ( 9 ) , or major hurricanes ( 4 ) . The 2002 season had a total of fifteen tropical storms , eight hurricanes , and 6 major hurricanes . The total ACE of the season was 101 * 104 kn2 in the east Pacific proper . This qualifies the 2002 season as near to slightly above normal . = = Storm names = = The following names were used for named storms that formed in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean during 2002 . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2008 season . This is the same list used for the 1996 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 2002 are shown below . Three of them , Alika , Ele , and Huko , were used throughout the course of the year . = = = Retirement = = = The World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 2003 , Kenna . It was replaced in the 2008 season by Karina .
= Little Miss Sunshine = Little Miss Sunshine is a 2006 American black comedy @-@ drama road film and the directorial film debut of the husband @-@ wife team of Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris . The screenplay was written by first @-@ time writer Michael Arndt . The film stars Greg Kinnear , Steve Carell , Toni Collette , Paul Dano , Abigail Breslin and Alan Arkin , and was produced by Big Beach Films on a budget of US $ 8 million . Filming began on June 6 , 2005 and took place over 30 days in Arizona and Southern California . The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 20 , 2006 , and its distribution rights were bought by Fox Searchlight Pictures for one of the biggest deals made in the history of the festival . The film had a limited release in the United States on July 26 , 2006 , and later expanded to a wider release starting on August 18 . Little Miss Sunshine had an international box office gross of $ 100 @.@ 5 million . The film was nominated for four Academy Awards , including Best Picture , and won two : Best Original Screenplay for Michael Arndt and Best Supporting Actor for Alan Arkin . It also won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Feature and received numerous other accolades . = = Plot = = Sheryl Hoover is an overworked mother of two living in Albuquerque , New Mexico . Her brother , Frank , is a scholar of French author Proust and a homosexual , temporarily living at home with the family after having attempted suicide . Sheryl 's husband Richard is a Type A personality striving to build a career as a motivational speaker and life coach . Dwayne , Sheryl 's son from a previous marriage , is a Nietzsche @-@ reading teenager who has taken a vow of silence until he can accomplish his dream of becoming a test pilot . Richard 's foulmouthed father , Edwin , recently evicted from a retirement home for snorting heroin , lives with the family . Olive , the daughter of Richard and Sheryl and the youngest of the Hoover family , is an aspiring beauty queen who is coached by Edwin . Olive learns she has qualified for the " Little Miss Sunshine " beauty pageant that is being held in Redondo Beach , California in two days . Her parents and Edwin , who has been coaching her , want to support her , and Frank and Dwayne cannot be left alone , so the whole family goes . Because they have little money , they go on an 800 @-@ mile road trip in their yellow Volkswagen Type 2 . Family tensions play out on the highway and at stops along the way , amidst the aging VW van 's mechanical problems . When the van breaks down early on , the family learns that they must push the van until it is moving at about 20 mph before it is put into gear , at which point they have to run up to the side door and jump in . Later on , the van 's horn starts honking unceasingly by itself . Throughout the road trip , the family suffers numerous personal setbacks and discover their need for each other 's support . Richard loses an important contract that would have jump @-@ started his motivational business . Frank encounters the ex @-@ boyfriend who , in leaving him for an academic rival , had prompted his suicide attempt . Edwin dies from a heroin overdose , resulting in the family smuggling the body out of a hospital and nearly having it discovered by the police . During the final leg of the trip , Dwayne discovers that he is color blind , which means he cannot become a pilot , a realization that prompts him to break his silence , and shout his anger and disdain for his family . The climax takes place at the beauty pageant . After a frantic race against the clock the family arrives at the hotel , and are curtly told by a pageant organizer that they are a couple minutes past the deadline . A sympathetic hired hand instead offers to register Olive on his own time . As Olive prepares for the pageant , the family sees Olive 's competition : slim , hypersexualized pre @-@ teen girls with teased hair and capped teeth . They wear lip gloss , adult @-@ like swimsuits , and glamorous evening wear while performing highly elaborate dance numbers with great panache . It quickly becomes apparent that Olive ( plain , chubby , wearing large eyeglasses , and untrained in beauty pageant conventions ) is a mere amateur by comparison . As Olive 's turn to perform in the talent portion of the pageant draws near , Richard and Dwayne recognize that Olive is certain to be humiliated , and wanting to spare her feelings , run to the dressing room to talk her out of performing . Sheryl , however , insists that they " let Olive be Olive " , and Olive goes on stage . Olive 's hitherto @-@ unrevealed dance that her Grandpa Edwin had choreographed for her is performed to Rick James ' song " Super Freak " . Olive scandalizes and horrifies most of the audience and pageant judges with a burlesque performance that she joyfully performs while oblivious to their reactions . The pageant organizers are enraged and demand Sheryl and Richard remove Olive from the stage . Instead of removing her , one by one the members of the Hoover family join Olive on stage , dancing alongside her to show their support . The family is next seen outside the hotel 's security office where they are given their freedom in return for a promise never to enter a beauty pageant in the state of California again . Piling into the van with the horn still honking , they happily smash through the barrier of the hotel 's toll booth and head back to their home in Albuquerque . = = Cast = = Greg Kinnear as Richard Hoover Toni Collette as Sheryl Hoover ( née Ginsberg ) Steve Carell as Frank Ginsberg Abigail Breslin as Olive Hoover Paul Dano as Dwayne Hoover Alan Arkin as Edwin Hoover Bryan Cranston as Stan Grossman Dean Norris as State Trooper McCleary Wallace Langham as Kirby Beth Grant as Pageant Official Jenkins Mary Lynn Rajskub as Pageant Assistant Pam Matt Winston as Pageant MC = = Production = = = = = Casting = = = When choosing the cast for the film , directors Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris were assisted by casting directors Kim Davis and Justine Baddely who had worked with them on previous music videos . The directors had initially settled on Greg Kinnear to portray Richard Hoover . However , for the character of Sheryl Hoover , they considered several actresses before deciding on Australian actress Toni Collette . Davis and Baddely traveled to " every English @-@ speaking country " to search for the actress to portray Olive Hoover , and they finally chose actress Abigail Breslin through an audition when she was six . Paul Dano was cast as Dwayne two years before production began and in preparation for portraying his character , spent a few days taking his own vow of silence . Alan Arkin , who portrayed Edwin Hoover , was initially considered too young for the role . The role of Frank , the suicidal Proust scholar , was originally written for Bill Murray , and there was also studio pressure for Robin Williams . The directing duo chose Steve Carell for the role a few months before filming began , and in an interview revealed : " When we met with Steve Carell , we didn 't know he could do this based upon what he had done . But when we met with him and talked to him about the character , the tone of the movie and the way we were approaching it , he was right on the same page with us " . Although known to Comedy Central viewers for many years as a correspondent on the highly rated satirical news program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , at the time Carell was cast for Little Miss Sunshine , he was relatively unknown in Hollywood . Producers of the film were worried that he was not a big enough star and did not have much acting experience . = = = Script and development = = = The script was written by Michael Arndt and was originally about an East Coast road trip from Maryland to Florida , but was shifted to a journey from New Mexico to California because of budget issues . Arndt started the script on May 23 , 2000 and completed the first rough draft by May 26 . He had initially planned on shooting the film himself by raising several thousand dollars and using a camcorder . Instead , he gave the screenplay to producers Ron Yerxa and Albert Berger who teamed up with Deep River Productions to find a potential director . The producers met directors Dayton and Faris while producing Election and in turn gave the script to them to read in 2001 . The directors commented later on the script stating : " This film really struck a chord . We felt like it was written for us . " The script was purchased from first @-@ time screenwriter Arndt for $ 250 @,@ 000 by Marc Turtletaub , one of the film 's producers , on December 21 , 2001 . Yerxa and Berger remained as producers as they were responsible for finding the directors and cinematographer , assisting in the ending re @-@ shoot , and helping bring the film to the Sundance Film Festival . The film was pitched to several studios , and the only interested studio was Focus Features who wanted to film it in Canada . After the studio attempted to have the film be more centered on the character Richard Hoover , and Arndt disagreed , he was fired and replaced by another writer . The new writer added several scenes , including Richard 's confrontation with the character who dismisses his motivational technique business . A corporate change brought in a new studio head and Arndt was rehired when the new writer left after four weeks of rewriting the script . After two years of pre @-@ production , Focus Features dropped the film in August 2004 . Marc Turtletaub paid $ 400 @,@ 000 to Focus Features to buy back the rights to the film and for development costs . He also paid for the $ 8 million budget , allowing Little Miss Sunshine to then be filmed . = = = Filming = = = Principal photography began on June 6 , 2005 . Filming took place over 30 days in Arizona and southern California , with scenes shot in keeping with the chronological order of the script . Arndt re @-@ wrote the ending to the film six weeks before the film 's release at the Sundance Film Festival , and this was filmed in December 2005 . Post @-@ production was completed four days before its screening on nine screens at the Sundance Film Festival , where it had its premiere . The film was dedicated to Rebecca Annitto , the niece of producer Peter Saraf and an extra in scenes set in the diner and the convenience store , who was killed in a car accident on September 14 , 2005 . = = = = Volkswagen T2 Microbus = = = = When writing the script , Arndt chose the Volkswagen T2 Microbus to use for the road trip based on his experience with the vehicle and its practicality for filming : " I remember thinking , it 's a road trip , what vehicle are you going to put them in ? And [ the ] VW bus just seems logical , just because you have these high ceilings and these clean sight lines where you can put the camera . In the front windshield looking back and seeing everybody . " Five VW Microbuses were used for the family car as some were modified for different filming techniques . Three of the vans had engines , and the two without were mounted on trailers . During pre @-@ production , the cinematographer used a basic video camera and set it up at angles inside the van to determine the best locations to shoot from during filming . Many of the problems associated with the van that were included in the plot ( a broken clutch , a stuck horn , and a detached door ) , were based on similar problems that writer Arndt experienced during a childhood trip that involved the same type of vehicle . While filming the scenes where the family pushes the van to get it started , a stunt coordinator was used to ensure the safety of the actors . In an interview , actor Greg Kinnear jokingly described how the scenes were filmed when he was driving : " I was going like 50 miles an hour in this ' 71 VW van that doesn 't have side air bags . Basically you 'd wait for this huge camera truck to come whizzing in front of us with the camera . ' Okay , go ! ' I mean , it was insanity ; it 's the most dangerous movie I 've ever made . " While filming the scenes in the van , the actors would at times remain in the vehicle for three or four hours a day . For scenes in which Alan Arkin 's character was swearing excessively , Breslin had her headphones on and could not hear the dialogue , just like her character in the film . Only when she saw the film did she know what was being said . On July 25 , 2006 Fox Searchlight Pictures invited VW bus owners to a screening at Vineland Drive @-@ In theater in Industry , California . Over 60 of the vans were present at the screening . = = = = Pageant = = = = Prior to writing the script , Arndt read in a newspaper about Arnold Schwarzenegger speaking to a group of high school students and saying " If there 's one thing in this world I hate , it 's losers . I despise them . " As a result , Arndt developed his script lampooning the thought process : " And I thought there 's something so wrong with that attitude ... I wanted to ... attack that idea that in life you 're going up or you 're going down ... So to a degree a child beauty pageant is the epitome of the ultimate stupid meaningless competition people put themselves through . " Co @-@ director Jonathan Dayton also commented on the importance of the pageant to the film : " As far as the pageant goes , it was very important to us that the film not be about pageants . It 's about being out of place , it 's about not knowing where you 're going to end up ... " All the girls acting as participants in the beauty pageant , except Abigail Breslin , were veterans of real beauty pageants . They looked the same and performed the same acts as they had in their real @-@ life pageants . To prepare for filming , the directors attended several pageants in Southern California and met with a coordinator to learn more about the pageant process . A mother of a contestant in the film claimed that the film overplayed practices that the contestants go through : " Most pageants aren ’ t quite like that , with shaving the girls ’ legs , spraying them with fake tans and putting on so much makeup . " When Focus Features initially wanted to film in Canada , the directors opposed it , believing the costs of flying all of the pageant girls and their families would be excessive . The contestants and their families instead spent two weeks filming in a hotel in Ventura with most of the equipment and costumes being provided by the contestants ' parents . To make Breslin 's character the " plump " figure as shown in the film , she had to wear a padded suit during filming . For Olive 's final scene involving her dancing routine , Breslin spent two weeks preparing with a choreographer . = = Release = = = = = Sundance Film Festival = = = Following the film 's premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 20 , 2006 , several studios placed bids ; Fox Searchlight Pictures won , offering $ 10 @.@ 5 million , plus 10 % of all the gross revenues . The deal occurred less than a day after the premiere and was one of the biggest deals made in the history of the festival . The previous year 's festival had the film Hustle & Flow receive $ 9 million from Paramount Classics and in 1999 , Happy , Texas received $ 10 million from Miramax Films . = = = Box office = = = Little Miss Sunshine initially opened in seven theaters in the U.S. in its first week , earning $ 498 @,@ 796 . On July 29 , 2006 , the first Saturday after its initial limited release , Little Miss Sunshine earned a $ 20 @,@ 335 per @-@ theater average gross . It had the highest per @-@ theater average gross of all the films shown in the United States every day for the first 21 days of its release , until being surpassed by the IMAX film Deep Sea 3D on August 15 . In its third week of release Little Miss Sunshine entered the list of top ten highest grossing American films for the week . It remained in the top ten until the 11th week of release , when it dropped to 11th place . The highest position it reached was third , which occurred in its fifth week of release . The largest number of theaters the film appeared in was 1 @,@ 602 . Internationally , the film earned over $ 5 million in Australia , $ 3 million in Germany , $ 4 million in Spain , and $ 6 million combined in the United Kingdom , Ireland , and Malta . Little Miss Sunshine has had gross receipts of $ 59 @,@ 891 @,@ 098 in the U.S. and $ 40 @,@ 632 @,@ 083 internationally for a total of $ 100 @,@ 523 @,@ 181 . = = = Critical reception = = = On Rotten Tomatoes , the film received a 91 % " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 210 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Little Miss Sunshine succeeds thanks to a strong ensemble cast that includes Greg Kinnear , Steve Carell , Toni Collette , Alan Arkin , and Abigail Breslin , as well as a delightfully funny script . " On Metacritic , the film holds a score of 80 out of 100 , based on 36 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews . " Michael Medved gave Little Miss Sunshine four stars ( out of four ) saying that " ... this startling and irresistible dark comedy counts as one of the very best films of the year ... " and that directors Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris , the movie itself , and actors Alan Arkin , Abigail Breslin , and Steve Carell deserved Oscar nominations . Joel Siegel issued a rarely awarded ' A ' rating , saying that " Orson Welles would have to come back to life for this not to make my year @-@ end Top 10 list . " Stella Papamichael of BBC News called the film " a winning blend of sophistication and silliness " . USA Today 's Claudia Puig commented on Breslin 's depiction of Olive Hoover , " If Olive had been played by any other little girl , she would not have affected us as mightily as it did . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly labeled the film with a ' C ' rating , calling the characters " walking , talking catalogs of screenwriter index @-@ card data . " Jim Ridley of The Village Voice called the movie a " rickety vehicle that travels mostly downhill " and a " Sundance clunker . " Liam Lacey of Globe and Mail criticized the film , stating " Though Little Miss Sunshine is consistently contrived in its characters ' too @-@ cute misery , the conclusion , which is genuinely outrageous and uplifting , is almost worth the hype . " Anna Nimouse of National Review wrote that the " film is praised as a ' feel @-@ good ' film , perhaps for moviegoers who like bamboo under their fingernails . If you are miserable , then Little Miss Sunshine is the film for you . " Paste Magazine named it one of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) , ranking it at # 34 . Jim Emerson , editor for RogerEbert.com , reflected on the film 's themes , writing " Little Miss Sunshine shows us a world in which there 's a form , a brochure , a procedure , a job title , a diet , a step @-@ by @-@ step program , a career path , a prize , a retirement community , to quantify , sort , categorize and process every human emotion or desire . Nothing exists that cannot be compartmentalized or turned into a self @-@ improvement mantra about ' winners and losers . ' " Brian Tallerico of UGO.com also focused on the film 's themes : " Little Miss Sunshine teaches us to embrace that middle ground , acknowledging that life may just be a beauty pageant , where we 're often going to be outdone by someone prettier , smarter , or just plain luckier , but if we get up on that stage and be ourselves , everything will turn out fine . " = = = Home media = = = The DVD was released on December 19 , 2006 . It includes a dual @-@ disc widescreen / full screen format , two commentary tracks , four alternate endings , and a music video by DeVotchKa . In its first week of release , DVD sales totaled $ 19 @,@ 614 @,@ 299 and it was the sixth @-@ most sold DVD of the week . By September 16 , 2008 gross domestic DVD sales totaled $ 55 @,@ 516 @,@ 832 . Rentals of the film from its release through April 15 , 2007 totalled $ 46 @.@ 32 million . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on February 10 , 2009 . = = Accolades = = Little Miss Sunshine was nominated for and won multiple awards from numerous film organizations and festivals . It was nominated for four Academy Awards and was awarded two at the 79th Academy Awards : Michael Arndt received " Best Original Screenplay " and Alan Arkin received " Best Supporting Actor " . In addition , the AFI Awards deemed it the " Movie of the Year " , while the BAFTA Awards awarded it two awards out of six nominations with " Best Screenplay " for Arndt and " Best Actor in a Supporting Role " for Arkin . The Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards , Screen Actors Guild ( SAG ) , and Washington D.C. Area Film Critics commended the film for its ensemble cast . Then 10 @-@ year @-@ old Abigail Breslin was nominated for several Best Supporting Actress and Breakthrough Performance awards . The Deauville Film Festival awarded the film the " Grand Special Prize " while the Palm Springs International Film Festival awarded it the " Chairman 's Vanguard Award " . The Independent Spirit Awards awarded it four awards out of five nominations , including " Best Feature " and " Best Director " . The film 's soundtrack was nominated for " Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture , Television , or Other Visual Media " at the Grammy Awards , but lost to Walk The Line . The film also had multiple nominations at the MTV Movie Awards , Satellite Awards , Chicago Film Critics Association Awards , and Golden Globe Awards , among others . = = = Academy Awards producers controversy = = = There was some controversy concerning how many producers should receive an award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for their work in producing the film . In 1999 , the Academy decided that up to a maximum of three producers are eligible to be included in an award for a film . The rule was implemented to prevent a large number of involved filmmakers to appear on stage when a film was receiving an award . The Producers Guild of America ( PGA ) has not set a limit of producers that can be honored for a film . In the case of Little Miss Sunshine , there were five producers ( Marc Turtletaub , Peter Saraf , Albert Berger , Ron Yerxa , and David Friendly ) and the Academy did not want to include Berger and Yerxa . The two producers were responsible for finding the script , introducing the directors to the other producers , choosing the cinematographer , assisting in the re @-@ shoot of the ending , and helping bring the film to the Sundance Film Festival . The Academy acknowledged that the two were partners in the production process , but declared that only individual producers are recognized by the Academy . Deeming the two producers ' work as a collective effort , the Academy refused to consider either Berger or Yerxa for the award . Producer David Hoberman commented on the support for honoring all five producers , stating " If there are five people actually involved in producing a movie , there 's no reason why someone who 's made a good enough film to be nominated for an Academy Award should be precluded from being rewarded for the work they did . " Lynda Obst who was affiliated with an Academy Award producer committee , also commented : " By and large , five people don 't make a movie . If this is an exception , then it 's a sad situation . But you don 't destroy a rule for an exception . " The PGA had previously honored all five of the producers . Albert Berger , reacting to the Academy 's decision while at a panel for the film , stated " No matter what the academy decided , we produced this movie . " In June 2007 , the Academy announced that they would allow exceptions for films that had more than three producers in the future , stating " The committee has the right , in what it determines to be a rare and extraordinary circumstance , to name any additional qualified producer as a nominee . " = = Music = = = = = Score = = = The score for Little Miss Sunshine was written by the Denver band DeVotchKa and composer Mychael Danna . Performed by DeVotchKa , much of the music was adapted from their pre @-@ existing songs , such as " How It Ends " , which became " The Winner Is " , " The Enemy Guns " and " You Love Me " from the album How It Ends , and " La Llorona " from Una Volta . Directors Dayton and Faris were introduced to DeVotchKa 's music after hearing the song " You Love Me " on Los Angeles ' KCRW radio station . The directors were so impressed with the music that they purchased iPods for cast members containing DeVotchKa albums . Mychael Danna was brought in to help arrange the pre @-@ existing material and collaborate with DeVotchKa on new material for the film . The Little Miss Sunshine score was not eligible for Academy Award consideration due to the percentage of material derived from already written DeVotchKa songs . The DeVotchka song " Til the End of Time " received a nomination for a 2006 Satellite Award as " Best Original Song " . Both DeVotchKa and Danna received 2007 Grammy nominations for their work on the soundtrack . = = = Soundtrack = = = The soundtrack reached # 42 on the " Top Independent Albums " and 24 on " Top Soundtracks " in the U.S. for 2006 . It contains two songs by Sufjan Stevens ( " No Man 's Land " and " Chicago " ) , and songs by Tony Tisdale ( " Catwalkin ' " ) and Rick James ( " Super Freak " ) . Two additional songs in the film that were written by Gordon Pogoda — " Let It Go " and " You 've Got Me Dancing " ( the latter of which he co @-@ wrote with Barry Upton ) — are featured during the pageant scenes near the end of the film . " Super Freak " , the source music danced to by Olive during the pageant competition , was introduced during post @-@ production by a suggestion from the music supervisor . Arndt 's screenplay had called for Prince 's song " Peach " ; during filming , the ZZ Top song " Gimme All Your Lovin ' " was used . = = Stage musical = = See Little Miss Sunshine ( musical ) A musical based on the film , with music and lyrics by William Finn and book and direction by James Lapine , was workshopped at the Sundance Institute Theatre Lab at White Oak in Yulee , Florida October 25 through November 7 , 2009 . It then premiered at the La Jolla Playhouse from February 15 through March 27 , 2011 . The cast features Hunter Foster , Malcolm Gets , Georgi James , Dick Latessa , Jennifer Laura Thompson , and Taylor Trensch . On March 11 , 2011 Malcolm Gets left the show . Ensemble member Andrew Samonsky took over the role of Uncle Frank , and understudy Ryan Wagner took over the role of Joshua Rose until the show closed on March 27 , 2011 . The musical premiered at Second Stage Theatre on October 15 , 2013 ( previews ) , and officially on November 14 , 2013 . The production closed on December 15 , 2013 . The cast features Hannah Rose Nordberg as Olive Hoover , Stephanie J. Block as Sheryl Hoover , Rory O ’ Malley as Frank Hoover , Wesley Taylor as Joshua Rose , Josh Lamon as Buddy , David Rasche as Grandpa Hoover , Jennifer Sanchez as Miss California and Logan Rowland as Dwayne Hoover .
= Roughtail stingray = The roughtail stingray ( Dasyatis centroura ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae , with separate populations in coastal waters of the northwestern , eastern , and southwestern Atlantic Ocean . This bottom @-@ dwelling species typically inhabits sandy or muddy areas with patches of invertebrate cover , at a depth of 15 – 50 m ( 49 – 164 ft ) . It is seasonally migratory , overwintering in offshore waters and moving into coastal habitats for summer . The largest whip @-@ tail stingray in the Atlantic , the roughtail stingray grows up to 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) across and 360 kg ( 800 lb ) in weight . It is plain in color , with an angular , diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc and a long , whip @-@ tail tail bearing a subtle fin fold underneath . The many thorns on its back and tail serve to distinguish it from other stingrays that share its range . Often found lying on the bottom buried in sediment , the roughtail stingray is a generalist predator that feeds on a variety of benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . It is aplacental viviparous , with the embryos receiving nourishment initially from yolk , and later from histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . In the northwestern Atlantic , females bear an annual litter of 4 – 6 young in fall and early winter , after a gestation period of 9 – 11 months . By contrast , in the Mediterranean there is evidence that females bear two litters of 2 – 6 young per year after a gestation period of only four months . Rays in the northwestern Atlantic are also larger at birth and at sexual maturity than those from the Mediterranean . The venomous tail spine of the roughtail stingray is potentially dangerous to humans . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species under Least Concern overall and in the northwestern Atlantic , where it is not commercially utilized . However , in the Mediterranean and southwestern Atlantic it is subject to heavy fishing pressure and has been assessed as Near Threatened . = = Taxonomy and phylogeny = = The first description of the roughtail stingray was published by American naturalist Samuel Mitchell in one of the earliest North American works on ichthyology , a short treatise on the fishes of New York in the 1815 first volume of Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York . Mitchell based his account on specimens caught off Long Island , though did not designate any types , and named the new species Raja centroura , from the Greek centoro ( " pricker " ) in reference to its thorns . Subsequent authors moved this species to the genus Dasyatis . This ray may also be referred to as rough @-@ tailed stingray , rough @-@ tailed northern stingray , or thorny stingray . The taxonomy of the roughtail stingray is not fully resolved , with the disjunct northwestern Atlantic , southwestern Atlantic , and eastern Atlantic populations differing in life history and perhaps representing a complex of different species . Lisa Rosenberger 's 2001 phylogenetic analysis of 14 Dasyatis species , based on morphology , found that the roughtail stingray is the sister species to the broad stingray ( D. lata ) , and that they form a clade with the southern stingray ( D. americana ) and the longtail stingray ( D. longa ) . The close relationship between the roughtail and southern stingrays was upheld by a genetic analysis published by Leticia de Almeida Leao Vaz and colleagues in 2006 . The roughtail and broad stingrays are found in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans respectively , and therefore likely diverged before or with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama ( c . 3 Ma ) . = = Distribution and habitat = = The roughtail stingray is broadly but discontinuously distributed in the coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean . In the western Atlantic , it occurs from the Georges Bank off New England southward to Florida , the Bahamas , and the northeastern Gulf of Mexico ; there are also scattered reports from Venezuela to Argentina and on the Barrier reef in Belize . In the eastern Atlantic , it occurs from the southern Bay of Biscay to Angola , including the Mediterranean Sea , Madeira , and the Canary Islands . A single record from Quilon , India was likely a misidentification . One of the deepest @-@ diving stingrays , the roughtail stingray has been recorded to a depth of 274 m ( 899 ft ) in the Bahamas and regularly occurs down to 200 m ( 660 ft ) in the Mediterranean . However , it is most common at a depth of 15 – 50 m ( 49 – 164 ft ) . This bottom @-@ dwelling species favors live @-@ bottom habitat ( patches of rough terrain that are densely encrusted by sessile invertebrates ) , and also frequents adjacent open areas of sand or mud . Rays in the northwestern Atlantic do not usually enter brackish water , whereas those off West Africa have been recorded from the lower reaches of large rivers . The favored temperature range of the roughtail stingray is 15 – 22 ° C ( 59 – 72 ° F ) , which is the most important factor determining its distribution . It conducts seasonal migrations off the eastern United States : from December to May , this ray is found over the middle and outer parts of the continental shelf from Cape Hatteras in North Carolina to Florida , with larger rays occurring further south than smaller ones . In the spring , the population moves north of the Cape and towards the coast into bays , inlets , and saltier estuaries , though preserving the north @-@ south gradient of body sizes . A similar migration , from shallow coastal waters in summer to deeper offshore waters in winter , apparently occurs in the Mediterranean . Pregnant females tend to be found apart from other individuals . = = Description = = The roughtail stingray has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disk 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 3 times as wide as long , with straight to gently sinuous margins , rather angular outer corners , and a moderately long , obtuse snout . The eyes are proportionally smaller than other stingrays in its range and immediately followed by larger spiracles . There is a curtain of skin between the nostrils with a finely fringed posterior margin . The mouth is bow @-@ shaped with a row of six papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) across the floor . The seven upper and 12 – 14 lower tooth rows at the center are functional , though the total number of tooth rows is much greater . The teeth are arranged with a quincunx pattern into flattened surfaces ; each has a tetragonal base with a blunt crown in juveniles and females , and a pointed cusp in adult males . The pelvic fins have nearly straight margins and angular tips . The tail is long and whip @-@ like , measuring some 2 @.@ 5 times the length of the disc . A long , saw @-@ toothed spine is placed atop the tail at around half a disc length back from the tail base ; sometimes one or two replacement spines are also present in front of the existing one . Behind the spine , there is a long ventral fin fold that is much lower than that of the southern stingray . Individuals under 46 – 48 cm ( 18 – 19 in ) across have completely smooth skin . Larger rays develop increasing numbers of distinctive tubercles or bucklers ( flat @-@ based thorns ) over the middle of the back from the snout to the tail base , as well as dorsal and lateral rows of thorns on the tail . The bucklers vary in size , with the largest of equal diameter to the eye , and may bear up to three thorns each . This species is a uniform dark brown or olive above , and off @-@ white below without dark fin margins . Among the largest members of its family , the roughtail stingray can reach 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) across , 4 @.@ 3 m ( 14 ft ) long , and 360 kg ( 800 lb ) in weight . Females grow larger than males . = = Biology and ecology = = The roughtail stingray is reportedly not highly active , spending much time buried in the sediment . It is a generalist predator whose diet generally reflects the most available prey in its environment . It mainly captures prey off the bottom , but also opportunistically takes free @-@ swimming prey . A variety of invertebrates , as well as bony fishes such as sand lance and scup , are known to be consumed . Off Massachusetts , the main prey are crabs ( Cancer ) , bivalves ( Mya ) , gastropods ( Polinices ) , squid ( Loligo ) and annelid worms . In Delaware Bay , most of its diet consists of the shrimp Cragon septemspinosa and the blood worm Glycera dibranchiata ; the overall dietary composition there is nearly identical to that of bluntnose stingrays ( D. say ) that share the bay . The shrimp Upogebia affinis is a major food source off Virginia . Off Florida , crustaceans ( Rananoides , Ovalipes , Sicyonia brevirostris , and Portunus ) and polychaete worms are the most important prey . Sharks and other large fishes , in particular the great hammerhead ( Sphyrna mokarran ) , prey upon the roughtail stingray . The live sharksucker ( Echeneis naucrates ) is sometimes found attached to its body . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium woodsholei , Anthocephalum centrurum , Lecanicephalum sp . , Oncomegas wageneri , Polypocephalus sp . , Pterobothrium senegalense , and Rhinebothrium maccallumi , the monogenean Dendromonocotyle centrourae , and the leech Branchellion torpedinis . Like other stingrays , the roughtail stingray is aplacental viviparous : the developing embryo is initially sustained by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , containing proteins , lipids , and mucus ) delivered by the mother through finger @-@ like projections of the uterine epithelium called " trophonemata " . Only the left ovary and uterus are functional in adult females . Off the eastern United States , reproduction occurs on an annual cycle with mating in winter and early spring . After a gestation period of 9 – 11 months , females give birth to 4 – 6 ( typically five ) young in fall or early winter . The newborns measure 34 – 37 cm ( 13 – 15 in ) across . Off North Africa , birthing occurs in June and December , indicating either that females bear two litters per year with a four @-@ month gestation period , or that there are two cohorts of females bearing one litter per year with a ten @-@ month gestation period . The newborns are much smaller than those in the northwestern Atlantic at 8 – 13 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) across , which would be consistent with a shorter gestation period . The size at maturity also differs between the two regions : off the eastern United States males and females mature at 130 – 150 cm ( 51 – 59 in ) and 140 – 160 cm ( 55 – 63 in ) across respectively , while off North Africa males and females mature at 80 cm ( 31 in ) and 66 – 100 cm ( 26 – 39 in ) across respectively . = = Human interactions = = With its large size and long , venomous spine , the roughtail stingray can inflict a severe wound and can be very dangerous for fishers to handle . However , it is not aggressive and usually occurs too deep to be encountered by beachgoers . It has been reported to damage farmed shellfish beds . The pectoral fins or " wings " are sold for human consumption fresh , smoked , or dried and salted ; the rest of the ray may also be processed to obtain fishmeal and liver oil . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the roughtail stingray as of Least Concern worldwide , while noting that as a large , slow @-@ reproducing species it is susceptible to population depletion . In the northwestern Atlantic , the roughtail stingray is listed under Least Concern ; it is not targeted or utilized by commercial fisheries , though inconsequential numbers are captured incidentally in trawls and on demersal longlines . Historically , it was sometimes ground up for fertilizer . In the Mediterranean , intensive fishing occurs in the habitat of the roughtail stingray , and it is caught incidentally by artisanal and commercial fishers using trawls , longlines , gillnets , and handlines . Though no specific data is available on this species , declines of other species and its intrinsic susceptibility to depletion have led it to be assessed as Near Threatened in the region . In the southwestern Atlantic , the roughtail stingray and other large rays are heavily fished using demersal trawls , gillnets , longlines , and hook @-@ and @-@ line ; this fishing pressure is liable to increase due to growing commercial interest in using large stingrays for minced fish products . Anecdotal reports suggest that landings of this species are decreasing , leading to a regional assessment of Near Threatened .
= John Bull ( locomotive ) = John Bull is a British @-@ built railroad steam locomotive that operated in the United States . It was operated for the first time on September 15 , 1831 , and it became the oldest operable steam locomotive in the world when the Smithsonian Institution operated it in 1981 . Built by Robert Stephenson and Company , the John Bull was initially purchased by and operated for the Camden and Amboy Railroad , the first railroad in New Jersey , which gave John Bull the number 1 and its first name , " Stevens " . ( Robert L. Stevens was president of the Camden and Amboy Railroad at the time . ) . The C & A used the locomotive heavily from 1833 until 1866 , when it was removed from active service and placed in storage . After the C & A 's assets were acquired by the Pennsylvania Railroad ( PRR ) in 1871 , the PRR refurbished and operated the locomotive a few times for public displays : it was fired up for the Centennial Exposition in 1876 and again for the National Railway Appliance Exhibition in 1883 . In 1884 the locomotive was purchased by the Smithsonian Institution as the museum 's first major industrial exhibit . In 1939 the employees at the PRR 's Altoona , Pennsylvania , workshops built an operable replica of the locomotive for further exhibition duties , as the Smithsonian desired to keep the original locomotive in a more controlled environment . After being on static display for the next 42 years , the Smithsonian commemorated the locomotive 's 150th birthday in 1981 by firing it up , making it the world 's oldest surviving operable steam locomotive . Today , the original John Bull is on static display once more in the Smithsonian 's National Museum of American History in Washington , D.C. The replica John Bull is preserved at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania . = = Construction and initial use = = The John Bull was built in Newcastle , England , by Robert Stephenson and Company for the Camden and Amboy Railroad ( C & A ) , the first railroad built in New Jersey . It was dismantled and then shipped across the Atlantic Ocean in crates aboard the Allegheny . C & A engineer Isaac Dripps reconstructed the locomotive to the best of his ability ( the shipment did not include any drawings or instructions to assemble the locomotive ) and ran it for the first time in September 1831 . On November 12 , 1831 , Robert Stevens ( then president of the C & A ) repaid some political debts by inviting several members of the New Jersey legislature and some local dignitaries , including Napoleon 's nephew Prince Murat , for rides behind the newly delivered locomotive over a short test track . The prince 's wife , Catherine Willis Gray , made a point of hurrying onto the train so she could be declared the first woman to ride a steam @-@ powered train in America . Until the railroad construction was completed , the locomotive was placed in storage ; horse @-@ drawn cars served the construction efforts until 1833 . The C & A applied both numbers and names to their first locomotives , giving this engine the number 1 and officially naming it Stevens ( after the C & A 's first president , Robert L. Stevens ) . However , through regular use of the engine , crews began calling it the old John Bull , a reference to the cartoon personification of England , John Bull . Eventually the informal name was shortened to John Bull and this name was so much more widely used that Stevens fell out of use . In September 1836 the John Bull and two coaches were shipped by canal to Harrisburg , and became the first locomotive to operate there . = = Mechanical modifications and early exhibitions = = Stephenson built the locomotive originally as an 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 ( an 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 is the Whyte notation for a steam locomotive with two powered axles and no unpowered leading or trailing axles ) . The locomotive 's power was transmitted to the driving axles through pistons that were mounted under the boiler between the two front wheels and in front of the front axle . These inside cylinders ' main rods were connected to a rear crank axle with a connecting rod between the two axles to power the front axle . Due to poorer quality track than was the norm in its native England , the locomotive had much trouble with derailment ; the C & A 's engineers added a leading truck ( an assembly consisting of an unpowered axle with smaller diameter wheels that was connected to the frame and pushed in front of the locomotive ) to help guide the engine into curves . The leading truck 's mechanism necessitated the removal of the coupling rod between the two main axles , leaving only the rear axle powered . Effectively , the John Bull became a 4 @-@ 2 @-@ 0 ( a locomotive with two unpowered axles , one powered main axle , and no trailing axles ) . Later , the C & A also added a pilot ( " cowcatcher " ) to the lead truck . The cowcatcher is an angled assembly designed to deflect animals and debris off of the railroad track in front of the locomotive . To protect the locomotive 's crew from the weather , the C & A also added walls and a roof ( a cab ) to the rear of the locomotive where the controls were located . C & A workshop crews also added safety features such as a bell and headlight . After several years serving as a switching engine ( a locomotive used for moving railroad cars around within a railroad yard ; also known as a shunter ) and stationary boiler , the John Bull was retired in 1866 and stored in Bordentown , New Jersey . Toward the end of its life in revenue service , the locomotive worked as a pump engine and as the power for a sawmill . The C & A was soon absorbed into the United New Jersey Railroad and Canal Company ( 1869 ) which itself was merged into the Pennsylvania Railroad ( PRR ) in 1871 . The PRR saw the potential publicity to be gained by exhibiting such an old engine , showing it at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia ; PRR workshop staff then " back @-@ dated " the engine ( by replacing some original parts with parts that " looked " old or by removing them entirely ) . The exhaust stack was replaced with a straight tube of metal and the cab walls and roof were removed . The PRR then exhibited the engine in 1883 at the National Railway Appliance Exhibition in Chicago , Illinois . In 1885 , the Smithsonian Institution accepted the donation of the John Bull from the PRR as the Institution 's first large engineering artifact . = = Smithsonian Institution and locomotive restoration = = At the exhibition in 1883 , the Pennsylvania Railroad ended up resolving two problems at once . In the Smithsonian Institution , the railroad was able to find a home for the historic locomotive , as well as a suitable new employer for a young civil engineer named J. Elfreth Watkins . Watkins had been involved in an accident on the railroad in New Jersey a few years before the exhibition . He had lost a leg in the accident , so he was no longer suited to the physical demands of railroad work , although the railroad did employ him as a clerk for a while after his accident . The PRR employed his engineering experience as an expert curator for the Smithsonian 's new Arts and Industries Building , which was opened in 1880 . The locomotive 's first public exhibition at the Smithsonian occurred on December 22 , 1884 , where it was displayed in the East Hall of the Arts and Industries building . The locomotive remained on display in this location for nearly 80 years , but it was transported for display outside the museum on certain rare occasions . The most significant display in this time occurred in 1893 when the locomotive traveled to Chicago for the World 's Columbian Exposition . The Pennsylvania Railroad , like many other railroads of the time , put on grand displays of their progress ; the PRR arranged for the locomotive and a couple of coaches to be delivered to the railroad 's Jersey City , New Jersey , workshops where it would undergo a partial restoration to operating condition . The PRR was planning an event worthy of the locomotive 's significance to American railroad history — the railroad actually planned to operate the locomotive for the entire distance between New Jersey and Chicago . The restoration was supervised by the PRR 's chief mechanical officer , Theodore N. Ely . Ely was confident enough in its 50 @-@ mile ( 80 @.@ 5 km ) test run to Perth Amboy , New Jersey ( which took two hours and fifteen minutes ) , that the governors of all the states that the locomotive was to pass through and the then President of the United States , Grover Cleveland , were invited to ride behind the engine on its first leg toward Chicago . The John Bull was to pull a few passenger cars in a train that would carry dignitaries and representatives of the press . The train traveled to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , in the charge of one locomotive crew . From Philadelphia , local engineers ( train drivers ) were employed to ride on the locomotive 's footplate as pilots to advise the operators for the trip over the local engineers ' territories for the rest of the journey to Chicago . Traveling at 25 to 30 miles per hour ( 40 to 48 km / h ) , the train departed from the Pennsylvania Railroad 's Jersey City station at 10 : 16 a.m. on April 17 and reached Chicago on April 22 . The locomotive operated during the exhibition giving rides to the exhibition 's attendees , and then the train left Chicago on December 6 for the return trip to Washington . The locomotive arrived back in Washington on December 13 . In 1927 the John Bull again traveled outside the museum . The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was celebrating its centenary that year in its Fair of the Iron Horse in Baltimore , Maryland . Since the locomotive 's original tender ( fuel and water car ) had deteriorated beyond repair and was dismantled in 1910 , the PRR built a replica of the tender at its Altoona , Pennsylvania , workshops . The locomotive was also refurbished in Altoona for operation during the fair . This fair was the last steam up for the locomotive until 1980 . = = ( Mostly ) static display = = After the locomotive returned to the Smithsonian , it remained on static display . In 1930 the museum commissioned the Altoona Works to build a second replica of the locomotive 's tender for display with the locomotive in the museum . This time , however , the replica tender re @-@ used some of the fittings that the museum had retained when the original tender was dismantled twenty years earlier . The Smithsonian recognized the locomotive 's age in 1931 , but , since the museum didn 't have the funds to refurbish the locomotive for full operation again , it was decided to run the locomotive in place ( with the driving wheels lifted off the rails using jacks ) with compressed air . The museum borrowed an 1836 coach from the Pennsylvania Railroad to display on the track behind the newly rebuilt tender , and the locomotive 's 100th birthday was officially celebrated on November 12 , 1931 . The locomotive 's semi @-@ operation was broadcast over the CBS radio network with Stanley Bell narrating the ceremonies for the radio audience . The PRR again borrowed the locomotive from 1933 to 1934 for the Century of Progress exhibition in Chicago . Unlike its earlier jaunt to Chicago , for this trip , the railroad hauled and displayed it as a static exhibit . While this exhibit was progressing , the Altoona Works were busy again building a replica ; this time the replica was an operable copy of the locomotive . The replica was then operated in 1940 at the New York World 's Fair , while the original locomotive and rebuilt tender returned to the Smithsonian . The original locomotive was displayed outside the museum one more time in 1939 at the New York World 's Fair , but the museum 's curators decided that the locomotive was becoming too fragile for repeated outside exhibits . It was then placed in somewhat permanent display back in the East Hall where it remained for the next 25 years . In 1964 the locomotive was moved to its current home , the National Museum of American History , then called the Museum of History and Technology . The John Bull had remained on static display for another 15 years , but the locomotive 's significance as one of the oldest locomotives in existence , or its use on the first railroad in New Jersey , was not very plainly noted in the display 's literature . As 1981 and the locomotive 's 150th birthday approached , the Smithsonian started discussions on how best to commemorate the locomotive 's age and significance . There was very little question that special publications and exhibits would be prepared , but museum officials were left with the thought that the exhibit could still be so much more than that . Many superficial inspections were performed on the locomotive in 1980 and it was found to be in relatively sound mechanical condition . There wasn 't a significant amount of deterioration noted in these early inspections , and when the wheels were jacked off the rails , as they had been 50 years earlier , the axles were found to be freely operable . One morning in January 1980 , before the museum opened to the public , museum officials used compressed air to power the cylinders and move the wheels through the connecting rods for the first time since its last semi @-@ operation . After the compressed air blew some dirt and debris out of the locomotive 's exhaust stack , it was soon running smoothly . The running gear seemed to be in good order , but it was still unknown if the boiler could still handle the pressure of steam and a live fire again . The museum asked the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company to inspect the locomotive 's boiler for operation . The inspections were conducted after hours at the museum ( from 6 : 30 p.m. to 4 : 00 a.m. ) over three days and included electromagnetic , ultrasonic , and radiographic tests . The tests did reveal a few flaws , but it was projected that the engine could operate at a reduced boiler pressure of 50 psi ( 340 kPa or 3 @.@ 5 kgf / cm ² ) ; as delivered to the Camden & Amboy , the boiler was rated for 70 psi ( 480 kPa ) or 4 @.@ 9 kgf / cm ² . The Smithsonian 's staff , after a few further hydrostatic tests , were confident that the locomotive could again operate under its own power . The items that needed repair were repaired , and on Oct. 14 , 1980 , the locomotive was successfully field @-@ tested on the Warrenton Branch Line in Fauquier County between Calverton and Casanova , Virginia . The site was selected , because at the time , only one freight train per week used the branch line . On September 15 , 1981 , the locomotive operated under steam on a few miles of branch line near the Potomac River within Washington , D.C. With this exhibition , the locomotive became the oldest operable steam locomotive ( and oldest self @-@ propelled vehicle ) in the world . The original John Bull is housed on static display at the National Museum of American History in Washington , D.C. The replica of the John Bull , built in 1939 , is owned and preserved by the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania and is , as of 2009 , their only operational piece of equipment . = = Timeline = = June 18 , 1831 : The John Bull is constructed by Stephenson and Company in England . July 14 , 1831 : The John Bull departs Liverpool aboard the ship Allegheny bound for Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . September 4 , 1831 : The John Bull arrives in Philadelphia . September 15 , 1831 : The John Bull makes its first runs in New Jersey under its own power . November 12 , 1831 : Robert Stevens hosts a group of New Jersey politicians on a series of trial runs pulled by the John Bull . 1833 : The John Bull is one of a few locomotives operating on the newly completed Camden and Amboy Railroad . 1866 : The John Bull is retired from regular service . 1876 : The John Bull is displayed at the United States Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia . 1883 : The Pennsylvania Railroad displays John Bull at the National Railway Appliance Exhibition in Chicago , Illinois . 1884 : The Smithsonian Institution acquires the John Bull from the Pennsylvania Railroad 1893 : The John Bull operates at the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . 1910 : The original tender , now deteriorated beyond repair , is dismantled by Smithsonian staff . Usable fittings from the tender are placed in storage . 1927 : The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad borrows the John Bull to operate at the Fair of the Iron Horse in Baltimore , Maryland . 1930 : A replica tender is commissioned by the Smithsonian and built by the Pennsylvania Railroad using the fittings previously salvaged from the original tender ; the new tender is displayed with the locomotive at the museum . November 12 , 1931 : The Smithsonian celebrates the locomotive 's 100th " birthday , " using compressed air to operate the stationary engine ( stabilized on jacks ) within the museum 's exhibit hall . 1933 – 1934 : The Pennsylvania Railroad borrows the John Bull to display it at the Century of Progress Exhibition in Chicago . 1939 : The original John Bull is displayed in the opening of the New York World 's Fair 1940 : A replica of the John Bull , built by engineers at the Pennsylvania Railroad 's Juniata Shops in Altoona , Pennsylvania , is displayed at the New York World 's Fair , and the original is returned to the Smithsonian . October 14 , 1980 : The John Bull is restored to operating condition , and tested on the Warrenton Branch Line in Fauquier County , Virginia . September 15 , 1981 : The John Bull operates in Washington , D.C. , on the 150th anniversary of its first use , becoming the oldest operable steam locomotive ( and oldest self @-@ propelled vehicle ) in the world . 1985 : The John Bull is carried aboard an airplane for an exhibition in Dallas , Texas , making it the oldest locomotive in the world to travel by air .
= Kashrut = Kashrut ( also kashruth or kashrus , כַּשְׁרוּת ) is the set of Jewish religious dietary laws . Food that may be consumed according to halakha ( Jewish law ) is termed kosher / ˈkoʊʃər / in English , from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér ( כָּשֵׁר ) , meaning " fit " ( in this context , fit for consumption ) . Among the numerous laws that form part of kashrut are the prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals ( such as pork , shellfish ( both Mollusca and Crustacea ) and most insects , with the exception of certain species of kosher locusts ) , mixtures of meat and milk , and the commandment to slaughter mammals and birds according to a process known as shechita . There are also laws regarding agricultural produce that might impact on the suitability of food for consumption . Most of the basic laws of kashrut are derived from the Torah 's Books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy . Their details and practical application , however , are set down in the oral law ( eventually codified in the Mishnah and Talmud ) and elaborated on in the later rabbinical literature . While the Torah does not state the rationale for most kashrut laws , many reasons have been suggested , including philosophical , practical and hygienic . Over the past century , there have developed numerous rabbinical organizations that certify products , manufacturers , and restaurants as kosher , usually using a symbol ( called a hechsher ) to indicate their support . Currently , about a sixth of American Jews or 0 @.@ 3 % of the American population fully keep kosher , and many more abstain from some non @-@ kosher foods , especially pork . = = Explanations = = = = = Philosophical = = = Jewish philosophy divides the 613 mitzvot into three groups — laws that have a rational explanation and would probably be enacted by most orderly societies ( mishpatim ) , laws that are understood after being explained but would not be legislated without the Torah 's command ( edot ) , and laws that do not have a rational explanation ( chukim ) . Some Jewish scholars say that kashrut should be categorized as laws for which there is no particular explanation , since the human mind is not always capable of understanding divine intentions . In this line of thinking , the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of God 's authority , and man must obey without asking why . However , Maimonides believed that Jews were permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah . Some theologians have said that the laws of kashrut are symbolic in character : Kosher animals represent virtues , while non @-@ kosher animals represent vices . The 1st century BCE Letter of Aristeas argues that the laws " have been given ... to awake pious thoughts and to form the character " . This view reappears in the work of the 19th century Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch . The Torah prohibits " seething the kid ( goat , sheep , calf ) in its mother 's milk " . While the Bible does not provide a reason , it has been suggested that the practice was perceived as cruel and insensitive . Hasidism believes that everyday life is imbued with channels connecting with Divinity , the activation of which it sees as helping the Divine Presence to be drawn into the physical world ; Hasidism argues that the food laws are related to the way such channels , termed sparks of holiness , interact with various animals . These sparks of Holiness are released whenever a Jew manipulates any object for a holy reason ( which includes eating ) ; however , not all animal products are capable of releasing their sparks of holiness . The Hasidic argument is that animals are imbued with signs that reveal the release of these sparks , and the signs are expressed in the biblical categorization of ritually clean and ritually unclean . According to Christian theologian Gordon J. Wenham , the purpose of kashrut was to help Jews maintain a distinct and separate existence from other peoples ; he says that the effect of the laws was to prevent socialization and intermarriage with non @-@ Jews , preventing Jewish identity from being diluted . Wenham argued that since the impact of the food laws was a public affair , this would have enhanced Jewish attachment to them as a reminder of their distinct status as Jews . = = = Medical = = = There have been attempts to provide empirical support for the view that Jewish food laws have an overarching health benefit or purpose , one of the earliest being from Maimonides in his Guide for the Perplexed . In 1953 , David Macht , an Orthodox Jew and proponent of the theory of biblical scientific foresight , conducted toxicity experiments on many kinds of animals and fish . His experiment involved lupin seedlings being supplied with extracts from the meat of various animals ; Macht reported that in 100 % of cases , extracts from ritually unclean meat inhibited the seedling 's growth more than that from ritually clean meats . At the same time , these explanations are controversial . Scholar Lester L. Grabbe , writing in the Oxford Bible Commentary on Leviticus , says " [ a ] n explanation now almost universally rejected is that the laws in this section [ Leviticus 11 – 15 ] have hygiene as their basis . Although some of the laws of ritual purity roughly correspond to modern ideas of physical cleanliness , many of them have little to do with hygiene . For example , there is no evidence that the ' unclean ' animals are intrinsically bad to eat or to be avoided in a Mediterranean climate , as is sometimes asserted . " = = Prohibited foods = = The laws of kashrut can be classified according to the origin of the prohibition ( Biblical or rabbinical ) and whether the prohibition concerns the food itself or a mixture of foods . Biblically prohibited foods include : Non @-@ kosher animals and birds ( based on Leviticus 11 : 3 – 8 and Deuteronomy 14 : 3 – 21 ) : mammals require certain identifying characteristics ( cloven hooves and being ruminants ) , while birds require a tradition that they can be consumed . Fish require scales and fins ( thus excluding catfish , for instance ) . All invertebrates are non @-@ kosher apart from certain types of locust , on which most communities lack a clear tradition . No reptiles or amphibians are kosher . Carrion ( nevelah ) : meat from a kosher animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of shechita . Injured ( terefah ) : an animal with a significant defect or injury , such as a fractured bone or particular types of lung adhesions . Blood ( dam ) : blood of kosher mammals and fowl is removed through salting , with special procedures for the liver , which is very rich in blood . Particular fats ( chelev ) : particular parts of the abdominal fat of cattle , goats and sheep must be removed by a process called nikkur . The twisted nerve ( gid hanasheh ) : the sciatic nerve , as according to Genesis 32 : 32 the patriarch Jacob 's was damaged when he fought with an angel , cannot be eaten and is removed by nikkur . Limb of a living animal ( ever min ha @-@ chai ) : in Genesis 9 : 4 , God forbade Noah and his descendants to consume a limb torn from a live animal . Hence , Jewish law considers this prohibition applicable even to non @-@ Jews , and therefore , a Jew may not give or sell such meat to a non @-@ Jew . Untithed food ( tevel ) : produce of the Land of Israel requires the removal of certain tithes , which in ancient times were given to the Kohanim ( priests ) , Levites and the poor ( terumah , maaser rishon and maaser ani respectively ) or taken to the Old City of Jerusalem to be eaten there ( maaser sheni ) . Fruit during the first three years ( orlah ) : according to Leviticus 19 : 23 , fruit from a tree in the first three years after planting cannot be consumed ( both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora ) . This applies also to the fruit of the vine — grapes , and wine produced from them . New grain ( chadash ) : in Leviticus 23 : 14 the Bible prohibits newly grown grain ( planted after Passover the previous year ) until the second day of Passover ; there is debate as to whether this law applies to grain grown outside the Land of Israel . Wine of libation ( yayin nesekh ) : wine that may have been dedicated to idolatrous practices . Biblically prohibited mixtures include : Mixtures of meat and milk ( basar be @-@ chalav ) : this law derives from the broad interpretation of the commandment not to " cook a kid in its mother 's milk " ( Exodus 23 : 19 , Exodus 34 : 26 , and Deuteronomy 14 : 21 ) ; other non @-@ kosher food may be used for other benefit ( e.g. sold to non @-@ Jews ) , but mixtures of meat and milk are prohibited even with regards to other benefit . Plants grown together ( kilayim ) : in the Land of Israel plants are to be grown separately and not in close proximity according to Leviticus 19 : 19 and Deuteronomy 22 : 9 – 11 . A specific subdivision of this law is kil 'ei ha @-@ kerem , the prohibition of planting any grain of vegetable near a grapevine ; this law applies to Jews throughout the world , and one may not derive benefit from the produce . Rabbinically prohibited foods include : Non @-@ Jewish milk ( chalav akum ) : milk that may have an admixture of milk from non @-@ kosher animals ( see below for current views on this prohibition ) . Non @-@ Jewish cheese ( gevinat akum ) : cheese that may have been produced with non @-@ kosher rennet . Non @-@ Jewish wine ( stam yeinam ) : wine that while not produced for idolatrous purposes may otherwise have been poured for such a purpose or alternatively when consumed will lead to intermarriage . Food cooked by a non @-@ Jew ( bishul akum ) : this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage . Non @-@ Jewish bread ( pat akum ) : this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage . Health risk ( sakanah ) : certain foods and mixtures are considered a health risk , such as mixtures of fish and meat . = = = Permitted and forbidden animals = = = Only meat from particular species is permissible . Mammals that both chew their cud ( ruminate ) and have cloven hooves can be kosher . Animals with one characteristic but not the other ( the camel , the hyrax , and the hare because they have no cloven hooves , and the pig because it does not ruminate ) are specifically excluded ( Leviticus 11 : 3 – 8 ) . In 2008 , a rabbinical ruling determined that giraffes and their milk are eligible to be considered kosher . The giraffe has both split hooves and chews its cud , characteristics of animals considered kosher . Findings from 2008 show that giraffe milk curdles , meeting kosher standards . Although kosher , the giraffe is not slaughtered today because the process would be very costly . Giraffes are difficult to restrain , and their use for food could cause the species to become endangered . Non @-@ kosher birds are listed outright ( Deuteronomy 14 : 12 – 18 ) but the exact zoological references are disputed and some references refer to families of birds ( 24 are mentioned ) . The Mishnah refers to four signs provided by the sages . First , a dores ( predatory bird ) is not kosher . Additionally , kosher birds possess three physical characteristics : an extra toe in the back ( which does not join the other toes in supporting the leg ) , a zefek ( crop ) , and a korkoban ( gizzard ) with a peelable lumen . However , individual Jews are barred from merely applying these regulations alone ; an established tradition ( masorah ) is necessary to allow birds to be consumed , even if it can be substantiated that they meet all four criteria . The only exception to this is turkey . There was a time when certain authorities considered the signs enough , so Jews started eating this bird without a masorah because it possesses all the signs ( simanim in Hebrew ) . Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher ( Leviticus 11 : 9 – 12 ) . Shellfish and other non @-@ fish water fauna are not kosher . Here is a list of kosher species of fish . Insects are not kosher except for certain species of kosher locust . Generally any animal that eats other animals , whether they kill their food or eat carrion ( Leviticus 11 : 13 – 31 ) , is not kosher , as well as any animal that was partially eaten by other animals ( Exodus 22 : 30 @-@ 31 ) . = = = Separation of meat and milk = = = Meat and milk ( or derivatives ) cannot be mixed in the sense that meat and dairy products are not served at the same meal , served or cooked in the same utensils , or stored together . Observant Jews have separate sets of dishes , and sometimes different kitchens , for meat and milk , and wait anywhere between one and six hours after eating meat before consuming milk products . The milchig and fleishig ( lit. milky and meaty ) utensils and dishes are the commonly referred to Yiddish delineations between dairy and meat ones respectively . = = = Kosher slaughter = = = Mammals and fowl must be slaughtered by a trained individual ( a shochet ) using a special method of slaughter , shechita ( Deuteronomy 12 : 21 ) . Among other features , shechita slaughter severs the jugular vein , carotid artery , esophagus , and trachea in a single continuous cutting movement with an unserrated , sharp knife . Failure of any of these criteria renders the meat of the animal unsuitable . The body must be checked after slaughter to confirm that the animal had no medical condition or defect that would have caused it to die of its own accord within a year , which would make the meat unsuitable . These conditions ( treifot ) include 70 different categories of injuries , diseases , and abnormalities whose presence renders the animal non @-@ kosher . It is forbidden to consume certain parts of the animal , such as certain fats ( chelev ) and the sciatic nerves from the legs . As much blood as possible must be removed ( Leviticus 17 : 10 ) through the kashering process ; this is usually done through soaking and salting the meat , but the liver , as it is rich in blood , is grilled over an open flame . Fish ( and kosher locusts , for those who follow the traditions permitting them ) must be killed before being eaten , but no particular method has been specified in Jewish law . Legal aspects of ritual slaughter are governed not only by Jewish law but civil law as well . = = = Kosher utensils = = = Utensils used for non @-@ kosher foods become non @-@ kosher , and make even otherwise kosher food prepared with them non @-@ kosher . Some such utensils , depending on the material they are made from , can be made suitable for preparing kosher food again by immersion in boiling water or by the application of a blowtorch . Food prepared in a manner that violates the Shabbat ( Sabbath ) may not be eaten ; although in certain instances it is permitted after the Shabbat is over . = = = Passover laws = = = Passover has special dietary rules , the most important of which is the prohibition on eating leavened bread or derivatives of this , which are known as chametz . This prohibition is derived from Exodus 12 : 15 . Utensils used in preparing and serving chametz are also forbidden on Passover unless they have been ritually cleansed ( kashered ) . Observant Jews often keep separate sets of meat and dairy utensils for Passover use only . In addition , some groups follow various eating restrictions on Passover that go beyond the rules of kashrut , such as not eating gebrochts or garlic . = = = Produce of the Land of Israel = = = Biblical rules also control the use of agriculture produce . For produce grown in the Land of Israel a modified version of the biblical tithes must be applied , including Terumat HaMaaser , Maaser Rishon , Maaser Sheni , and Maaser Ani ( untithed produce is called tevel ) ; the fruit of the first three years of a tree 's growth or replanting are forbidden for eating or any other use as orlah ; produce grown in the Land of Israel on the seventh year obtains k 'dushat shvi 'it , and unless managed carefully is forbidden as a violation of the Shmita ( Sabbatical Year ) . Some rules of kashrut are subject to different rabbinical opinions . For example , many hold that the rule against eating chadash ( new grain ) before the 16th of the month Nisan does not apply outside the Land of Israel . = = = Vegetables = = = Many vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods acquire a hechsher , certifying that a Rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher . The hechsher usually certifies that certain vegetables have been checked for insect infestation and steps have been taken to ensure that cooked food meets the requirements of bishul Yisrael . Vegetables such as spinach and cauliflower must be checked for insect infestation . The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning varies by species , growing conditions , and views of individual rabbis . = = = Pareve foods = = = Some processes convert a meat or dairy product into a pareve ( neither meat nor dairy ) one . For example , rennet is sometimes made from stomach linings , yet is acceptable for making kosher cheese , but such cheeses might not be acceptable to some vegetarians , who would eat only cheese made from a vegetarian rennet . The same applies to kosher gelatin , an animal product , derived from kosher animal sources . Other gelatin @-@ like products from non @-@ animal sources such as agar agar and carrageenan are pareve by nature . Fish gelatin is derived from fish and is therefore ( like all kosher fish products ) pareve . Eggs are also considered pareve despite being an animal product . Kashrut has procedures by which equipment can be cleaned of its previous non @-@ kosher use , but that might be inadequate for those with allergies , vegetarians , or adherents to other religious statutes . For example , dairy manufacturing equipment can be cleaned well enough that the rabbis grant pareve status to products manufactured with it . Nevertheless , someone with a strong allergic sensitivity to dairy products might still react to the dairy residue , and that is why some products that are legitimately pareve carry " milk " warnings . = = = Genetically modified foods = = = With the advent of genetic engineering , a whole new type of food has been brought into the world , and scholars in both academia and Judaic faith have differing viewpoints on whether these new strains of foods are to be considered kosher or not . The first genetically modified animal approved by the FDA for human consumption is the AquAdvantage salmon , and while salmon is normally an acceptably kosher food , this modified organism has a gene from a nonkosher organism . Some put forth that this intermixing of species is against the teachings of the Talmud and thus against Jewish Law and nonkosher . Others argue that the one in sixty parts law of kashrut is of significance , and that the foreign gene accounts for the less than 1 / 60 of the animal and thus the modified salmon is kosher . = = Supervision and marketing = = = = = Hashgacha = = = Certain foods must be prepared in whole or in part by Jews . This includes grape wine , certain cooked foods ( bishul akum ) , cheese ( g 'vinat akum ) , and according to some also butter ( chem 'at akum ) ; dairy products ( Hebrew : חלב ישראל chalav Yisrael " milk of Israel " ) ; and bread ( Pas Yisroel ) . = = = Product labeling standards = = = Although reading the label of food products can identify obviously non @-@ kosher ingredients , some countries allow manufacturers to omit identification of certain ingredients . Such " hidden " ingredients may include lubricants and flavorings , among other additives ; in some cases , for instance , the use of natural flavorings , these ingredients are more likely to be derived from non @-@ kosher substances . Furthermore , certain products , such as fish , have a high rate of mislabeling , which may result in a non @-@ kosher fish being sold in a package labeled as a species of kosher fish . Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish religious authorities to have their products certified as kosher : this involves a visit to the manufacturing facilities by an individual rabbi or a committee from a rabbinic organization , who will inspect the production methods and contents , and if everything is sufficiently kosher a certificate would be issued . Manufacturers sometimes identify the products that have received such certification by adding particular graphical symbols to the label . These symbols are known in Judaism as hechsherim . Due to differences in kashrut standards held by different organizations , the hechsheirim of certain Jewish authorities may at times be considered invalid by other Jewish authorities . The certification marks of the various rabbis and organisations are too numerous to list , but one of the most commonly used in the United States of America is that of the Union of Orthodox Congregations , who use a U inside a circle ( " O @-@ U " ) , symbolising the initials of Orthodox Union . In Britain , a commonly used symbol is the " KLBD " logo of the London Beth Din . A single K is sometimes used as a symbol for kosher , but since many countries do not allow letters to be trademarked ( the method by which other symbols are protected from misuse ) , it only indicates that the company producing the product claims that it is kosher . Many of the certification symbols are accompanied by additional letters or words to indicate the category of the product , according to Jewish law ; the categorisation may conflict with legal classifications , especially in the case of food that Jewish law regards as dairy , but legal classification does not . D — Dairy DE — Dairy equipment M — Meat , including poultry Pareve — Food that is neither meat nor dairy Fish P — Passover @-@ related ( P is not used for Pareve ) In many cases constant supervision is required because , for various reasons , such as changes in manufacturing processes , products that once were kosher may cease to be so . For example , a kosher lubricating oil may be replaced by one containing tallow , which many rabbinic authorities view as non @-@ kosher . Such changes are often co @-@ ordinated with the supervising rabbi , or supervising organisation , to ensure that new packaging does not suggest any hechsher or kashrut . In some cases , however , existing stocks of pre @-@ printed labels with the hechsher may continue to be used on the now non @-@ kosher product . An active grapevine among the Jewish community discusses which products are now questionable , as well as products which have become kosher but whose labels have yet to carry the hechsher . Some newspapers and periodicals also discuss kashrut products . Products labeled kosher @-@ style are non @-@ kosher products that have characteristics of kosher foods , such as all @-@ beef hot dogs , or are flavored or prepared in a manner consistent with Ashkenazi practices , like dill pickles . The designation usually refers to delicatessen items . = = = History of kosher supervision and marketing = = = In 1911 Procter & Gamble became the first company to advertise one of their products , Crisco , as kosher . Over the next two decades , companies such as Lender 's Bagels , Maxwell House , Manischewitz , and Empire evolved and gave the kosher market more shelf @-@ space . In the 1960s , Hebrew National hotdogs launched a " we answer to a higher authority " campaign to appeal to Jews and non @-@ Jews alike . From that point on , " kosher " became a symbol for both quality and value . The kosher market quickly expanded , and with it more opportunities for kosher products . Menachem Lubinsky , founder of the Kosherfest trade fair , estimates as many as 14 million kosher consumers and $ 40 billion in sales of kosher products in the USA . In 2014 the Israeli Defense Forces decided to allow female kosher supervisors to work in its kitchens on military bases , and the first women kosher inspectors were certified in Israel . = = = Legal usage = = = Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase kosher in a product 's labelling unless the producer can show that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws ; however , different jurisdictions often define the legal qualifications for conforming to Jewish dietary laws differently . For example , in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the kashrut nature , in others the rules of kosher are fully defined in law , and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations . In several cases , laws restricting the use of the term kosher have later been determined to be illegal religious interference . = = = Costs = = = In the United States the cost of certification for mass @-@ produced items is typically minuscule , and is usually more than offset by the advantages of being certified . In 1975 The New York Times estimated the cost per item for obtaining kosher certification at 6 @.@ 5 millionths of a cent ( $ 0 @.@ 000000065 ) per item for a General Foods frozen @-@ food item . According to a 2005 report by Burns & McDonnell , most US national certifying agencies are non @-@ profit , only charging for supervision and on @-@ site work , for which the on @-@ site supervisor " typically makes less per visit than an auto mechanic does per hour " . However , re @-@ engineering an existing manufacturing process can be costly . Certification usually leads to increased revenues by opening up additional markets to Jews who keep kosher , Muslims who keep halal , Seventh @-@ day Adventists who keep the main laws of Kosher Diet , vegetarians , and the lactose @-@ intolerant who wish to avoid dairy products ( products that are reliably certified as pareve meet this criterion ) . According to the Orthodox Union , one of the largest kashrut organizations in the United States , " when positioned next to a competing non @-@ kosher brand , a kosher product will do better by 20 % " . In some European communities there is a special tax imposed on the purchase of kosher meat to help support the community 's educational institutions . In 2009 delegates at a meeting of the Rabbinical Council of Europe broadly agreed that the tax which supports the rabbinate , mikvo ’ os and other communal facilities should be reduced . " While the supermarket Tesco sells a whole chicken for £ 2 , its kosher counterpart of similar weight costs five to six times more . " = = Society and culture = = = = = Adherence = = = A 2013 survey found that 22 % of American Jews surveyed say they kept kosher in the home . Many Jews observe kashrut partially , by abstaining from pork or shellfish , or not drinking milk with a meat dish . Some keep kosher at home but will eat in a non @-@ kosher restaurant . In 2012 , one analysis of the specialty food market in North America estimated that only 15 % of Kosher consumers were Jewish . A sizable non @-@ Jewish segment of the population views kosher certification as an indication of wholesomeness . Muslims , Hindus , and people with allergies to dairy foods often consider the kosher @-@ pareve designation as an assurance that a food contains no animal @-@ derived ingredients , including milk and all of its derivatives . However , since kosher @-@ pareve foods may contain honey , eggs , or fish , strict vegetarians cannot rely on the certification . = = = Linguistics = = = Kosher ( Hebrew : כשר ) in Ancient Hebrew means be advantageous , proper , suitable , or succeed according to the Brown @-@ Driver @-@ Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon . In Modern Hebrew , it generally refers to kashrut but can also sometimes mean " proper " . For example , the Babylonian Talmud uses kosher in the sense of virtuous , when referring to Darius I as a " kosher king " ; Darius , a Persian King , assisted in building the Second Temple . In English , kosher often means legitimate , acceptable , permissible , genuine , or authentic . The word kosher is also part of some common product names . Sometimes it is used as an abbreviation of koshering , meaning the process for making something kosher ; for example , kosher salt is a form of salt with irregularly shaped crystals , making it particularly suitable for preparing meat according to the rules of kashrut , because the increased surface area of the crystals absorbs blood more effectively.At other times it is used as a synonym for Jewish tradition ; for example , a kosher dill pickle is simply a pickle made in the traditional manner of Jewish New York City pickle makers , using a generous addition of garlic to the brine , and is not necessarily compliant with the traditional Jewish food laws .
= Charlotte Stuart , Duchess of Albany = Charlotte Stuart , styled Duchess of Albany ( 29 October 1753 – 17 November 1789 ) was the illegitimate daughter of the Jacobite pretender Prince Charles Edward Stuart ( ' Bonnie Prince Charlie ' or the ' Young Pretender ' ) and his only child to survive infancy . Her mother was Clementina Walkinshaw , who was mistress to the Prince from 1752 until 1760 . After years of abuse , Clementina left him , taking Charlotte with her . Charlotte spent most of her life in French convents , estranged from a father who refused to make any provision for her . Unable to marry , she herself became a mistress with illegitimate children , taking Ferdinand de Rohan , Archbishop of Bordeaux , as her lover . She was finally reconciled with her father in 1784 , when he legitimised her and created her Duchess of Albany in the Jacobite Peerage . She left her own children with her mother , and became her father 's carer and companion in the last years of his life , before dying less than two years after him . Her three children were raised in anonymity ; however , as the only grandchildren of the pretender , they have been the subject of Jacobite interest since their lineage was uncovered in the 20th century . = = Royal parentage = = Charlotte Stuart was born on 29 October 1753 at Liège to Charles and his mistress Clementina Walkinshaw , whom he had met during the Jacobite rising of 1745 ( when he came to Scotland from France in an attempt to regain by force the thrones of England , Scotland and Ireland , which had been lost by his grandfather , James II and VII , in 1689 ) . Clementina ( 1720 – 1802 ) was the youngest of the ten daughters of John Walkinshaw of Barrowhill ( 1671 – 1731 ) . The Walkinshaws owned the lands of Barrowfield and Camlachie , and her father had become a wealthy Glasgow merchant ( founding the textile village of Calton ) . However , he was also an Episcopalian and a Jacobite who had fought for the Prince 's father in the rising of 1715 , been captured at the Battle of Sheriffmuir , before escaping from Stirling Castle and fleeing to Europe . In 1717 , he had been pardoned by the British Government and returned to Glasgow , where his youngest daughter was born probably at Camlachie . However , Clementina was largely educated on the Continent , and later converted to Roman Catholicism . In 1746 , she was living at the home of her uncle Sir Hugh Paterson at Bannockburn , near Stirling . The Prince came to Sir Hugh 's home in early January 1746 where he first met Clementina , and he returned later that month to be nursed by her from what appears to have been a cold . Given that she was living under her uncle 's protection , it is not thought the two were lovers at this time . After the defeat of the Prince 's rebellion at Culloden in April 1746 , Charles fled Scotland for France . In the following years , he had a scandalous affair with his 22 @-@ year @-@ old first cousin Louise de Montbazon ( who was married to his close friend , and whom he deserted when she became pregnant ) and then with the Princess of Talmont , who was in her 40s . In 1752 , he heard that Clementina was at Dunkirk and in some financial difficulties , so he sent 50 louis d 'or to help her and then dispatched Sir Henry Goring to entreat her to come to Ghent and live with him as his mistress . Goring , who described Clementina as a " bad woman " , complained of being used as " no better than a pimp " , and shortly after left Charles 's employ . However , by November 1752 , Clementina was living with Charles , and was to remain as his mistress for the following eight years . The couple moved to Liège where Charlotte , their only child , was born on 29 October 1753 and baptised into the Roman Catholic faith at the church of Sainte Marie @-@ des @-@ Fonts . = = Separation from father ( 1760 – 1783 ) = = The relationship between prince and mistress was disastrous . Charles was already a disillusioned , angry alcoholic when they began living together , and he became violent towards , and insanely possessive of , Clementina , treating her as a " submissive whipping post " . Often away from home on " jaunts " , he seldom referred to his daughter , and when he did , it was as " ye cheild " . During a temporary move to Paris , the Prince 's lieutenants record ugly public arguments between the two , and that his drunkenness and temper were damaging his reputation . By 1760 , they were in Basel , and Clementina had had enough of Charles 's intoxication and their nomadic lifestyle . She contacted his staunchly Roman Catholic father , James Stuart ( ' the Old Pretender ' ) , and expressed a desire to secure a Catholic education for Charlotte and to retire to a convent . ( In 1750 , during an incognito visit to London , Charles had nominally disavowed Roman Catholicism for the Anglican Church . ) James agreed to pay her an annuity of 10 @,@ 000 livres and , in July 1760 , there is evidence to suggest he aided her escape from the watchful Charles , with the seven @-@ year @-@ old Charlotte , to the convent of the Nuns of the Visitation in Paris . She left a letter for Charles expressing her devotion to him but complaining she had had to flee in fear of her life . A furious Charles circulated descriptions of them both , but it was to no avail . = = = Appeals from France = = = For the next twelve years , Clementina and Charlotte continued to live in various French convents , supported by the 10 @,@ 000 livre pension granted by James Stuart . Charles never forgave Clementina for depriving him of " ye cheild " , and stubbornly refused to pay anything for their support . On 1 January 1766 James died , but Charles , ( now considering himself de jure Charles III of Scotland , England and Ireland ) still refused to make any provision for the two , forcing Clementina , now styling herself " Countess Alberstroff " , to appeal to his brother Cardinal Henry Stuart for assistance . Henry gave them an allowance of 5 @,@ 000 livres , but in return extracted a statement from Clementina that she had never been married to Charles – a statement she later tried to retract . This lower amount forced them to find cheaper lodgings in the convent of Notre Dame at Meaux @-@ en @-@ Brie . In 1772 , the Prince , then aged fifty @-@ one , married the nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Princess Louise of Stolberg @-@ Gedern ( who was only a year older than Charlotte ) . Charlotte , now in penury , had consistently been writing to her father for some time , and she now desperately entreated him to legitimise her , provide support , and bring her to Rome before an heir could be born . In April 1772 , Charlotte wrote a touching , yet pleading , letter to " mon Augusta Papa " which was sent via Principal Gordon of the Scots College in Rome . Charles relented and offered to bring Charlotte to Rome ( he was now resident in the Palazzo Muti – the residence of the Stuarts @-@ in @-@ exile ) , but only on condition she would leave her mother behind in France . This she loyally refused to do , and Charles , in fury , broke off all discussions . = = = Mistress of an Archbishop = = = Towards the end of 1772 , Clementina and Charlotte unexpectedly arrived in Rome to press their desperate cause in person . ( The trip pushed Clementina further into debt . ) However , the Prince reacted angrily , refusing even to see them , forcing their helpless return to France , from where Charlotte 's pleading letters continued . Three years later , Charlotte , now in her twenty @-@ second year and already in poor health , ( she was apparently suffering from a liver ailment shared by the Stuarts ) decided her only option was to marry as soon as possible . Charles , however , refused to give permission either for her to marry or to take the veil , and she was left awaiting his royal pleasure . Lacking legitimacy or permission , Charlotte was unable to marry . Thus , she otherwise sought a protector and provider . Probably unbeknown to Charles , she became the mistress of Ferdinand Maximilien Mériadec de Rohan , Archbishop of Bordeaux and Cambrai . Ferdinand de Rohan – related by blood to the house of Stuart as well as Bourbon and Lorraine – was also unable to marry legitimately , having entered the Church as a younger son of a noble house . By him , she had three children : two daughters , Marie Victoire and Charlotte , and finally a son , Charles Edward . Her children were kept secret , and remained largely unknown until the 20th century . When Charlotte eventually left France for Florence , she entrusted the children – and she was only just recovering from her son 's birth – to the care of her mother , and it appears that few , and certainly not her father , knew of their existence . = = Reconciliation = = Only after his childless marriage to Louise was over , and Charles had fallen seriously ill , did he take an interest in Charlotte . She was now thirty , and she had not seen her father since she was seven . On 23 March 1783 , he altered his will to make her his heir and , a week later , signed an act of legitimisation . This act , recognising her as his natural daughter and entitling her to succeed to his private estate , was sent to Louis XVI of France . Henry Stuart , however , contested the legitimisation as being irregular and confusing to the succession . Louis XVI eventually did confirm the act and register it with the Parlement of Paris , but not until 6 September 1787 . In July 1784 , having granted Louise a legal separation , Charles summoned Charlotte to Florence , where he was now resident and , in November , installed her in the Palazzo Guadagni as Duchess of Albany , styling her " Her Royal Highness " – and appointing her to the Order of the Thistle . Nevertheless , being illegitimate at birth , Charlotte still had no right of succession to the Stuart claim to the British throne . However , by this stage , the claims were of little value . European rulers had long since ceased to take Charles seriously . Even Pope Pius VI was refusing to recognise his royal title , and the famous Casanova had wittily called him the " pretender @-@ in @-@ vain " . He was reduced to styling himself the ' Count d 'Albany ' . That a Stuart restoration was now less than unlikely did not prevent the Prince presenting Charlotte as the next generation of the cause . He had medals struck for her , bearing the figure of Hope , the map of England , and the Stuart arms with legends such as " Spes Tamen Est Una " ( there is one hope ) . He also had her idealised in art ; the Scottish artist Gavin Hamilton was commissioned to draw her in chalk in the neo @-@ classical style , whilst Hugh Douglas Hamilton painted a flattering portrait in a tiara . = = = Companion to her father = = = When Charlotte arrived to live with her father in 1784 , he was an ailing alcoholic . She found his physical state disgusting , and he was suffering from mental degeneration and using a litter for travel . He did , however , introduce Charlotte into society , allowing her to wear his mother 's famous Sobieska jewellery . She continually , and unsuccessfully , sought gifts of jewels or money from her close @-@ fisted father ; but this was probably largely out of a concern for the welfare of her mother and children . Within a month of arriving at Florence , she did manage to persuade her father to provide at last for Clementina . By this time , Charlotte was also in poor health , suffering from an ailment that would result in her death from " obstruction of the liver " just two years after her father . Indeed , shortly after she arrived in Florence , a protruding growth forced her to have clothes altered . Charlotte sorely missed her mother ( whom she vainly hoped Charles would allow to come to Rome ) and her children , writing to her mother as many as 100 times in a single year ; she also feared that Rohan would take another lover ; all this is revealed in her dispirited letters home , as she awaited Charles 's death . = = = Final months = = = In December 1785 , she enlisted the help of Henry Stuart to get Charles back to the Palazzo Muti in Rome . There , Charlotte remained her father 's carer and companion and did her best to make his life bearable until he died of a stroke two years later ( 31 January 1788 ) . Her sacrifice for him was considerable — she was torn between an evident affection for her father and her mother and three children left behind in Paris . Charlotte survived her father by only twenty @-@ two months and never saw her children again . On 9 October 1789 , she arrived at the Palazzo Vizzani Sanguinetti ( now Palazzo Ranuzzi ) in Bologna , the home of her friend the Marchesa Giulia Lambertini @-@ Bovio . She died there at age 36 of liver cancer ( 17 November 1789 ) . In her will , written just three days before her death , Charlotte left her mother , Clementina , a sum of 50 @,@ 000 livres and an annuity of a further 15 @,@ 000 . However , it was two years before Henry Stuart , her executor , and now considered by Jacobites to be King Henry IX , would release the money . Indeed , he only agreed to do this when Clementina signed a " quittance " renouncing , on behalf of herself and her descendants , any further claim on the estate . Charlotte was buried in the Church of San Biagio , near where she died . When the church was pulled down by the French in 1797 , Charlotte 's remains were moved to the Oratorio della Santissima Trinità . When it closed in 1961 , her monument ( and possibly her remains ) were moved to the nearby Chiesa della Santissima Trinità . = = Legacy = = For many years , Charlotte 's three children remained unknown to history , and it was believed that the direct line of James II and Mary of Modena ended with the death of Henry in 1807 . However , in the 1950s , research by the historians Alasdair and Hetty Tayler revealed the existence of two daughters and a son . Historian George Sherburn then discovered the letters from Charlotte to her mother , from which he wrote his biography of Charles Edward . = = = Children = = = It appears that Clementina lived on in Fribourg , Switzerland , until her death in 1802 and that it was she who reared Charlotte 's children in deliberate anonymity . Their identities were concealed by a variety of aliases and ruses , not even being mentioned in Charlotte 's detailed will . The will makes reference only to Clementina and to Charlotte 's desire that Clementina might be able to provide for " her necessitous relations " . The reason these children remained secret can be explained by the fact that the relationship between Rohan , the Archbishop , and Charlotte , who had been forbidden to marry , was highly illicit and would have been scandalous . Marie Victoire Adelaide ( born 1779 ) and Charlotte Maximilienne Amélie ( born 1780 ) were thought to have been placed in the care of Thomas Coutts , the London banker , and a distant relative of the Walkinshaws . They remained in anonymity and were believed to have been simply absorbed into English society . Charlotte 's son , Charles Edward , born in Paris in 1784 , followed a different path . Calling himself ' Count Roehenstart ' ( Rohan + Stuart ) , he was educated by his father 's family in Germany , became an officer in the Russian army , and a general in the Austrian service . He travelled widely — visiting India , America , and the West Indies — before coming to England and Scotland . He told such tall tales of his origins and adventures that few believed his claims to royal descent . Indeed , it was not until the 20th century that historian George Sherburn established that he was indeed who he had claimed to be . He died in Scotland in 1854 as the result of a coach accident near Stirling Castle and was buried at Dunkeld Cathedral , where his grave can still be seen . He married twice but had no issue . Occasionally , it has been suggested that Prince Charles married Clementina Walkinshaw , and thus that Charlotte was legitimate and could legally claim to be her father 's successor . However , there are no records to substantiate this claim , and the affidavit signed by Clementina on 9 March 1767 explicitly disavows the idea . Further , Charles 's initial disavowal of Charlotte speaks against her legitimacy . It was generally believed that Charlotte 's daughters also died without issue . However , according to Peter Pininski 's research , Charlotte 's elder daughter , Marie Victoire , did have issue . Pininski 's 2002 book suggested that Jules @-@ Hercule , Prince de Guéméné and Duke of Montbazon , elder brother of Ferdinand de Rohan ( and aide de camp to Henry Stuart in 1745 ) recognised Charlotte 's offspring as his own – thus giving her status in that tight family . The book claimed that in 1793 , at the outbreak of the French revolution , the Rohan family scattered ; and Marie Victoire de Rohan went to relatives in Poland . There , she met and married Paul Anthony Louis Bertrand de Nikorowicz , a Polish nobleman and son of a banker . They had a son , Antime , before she was widowed four years later . ( She later remarried twice : first to James d 'Auvergne , a British naval captain , who died after 14 months , and then finally to Jean de Pauw , a French army officer . ) Antime was to have a son , Charles , and a daughter , Julia @-@ Thérèse , who married Count Leonard Pininski and became Peter Pininski 's great @-@ great @-@ grandmother . Pininski 's evidence for his thesis has been described as " often indirect , if not elliptical " ; the Rohans were a large family , and it is easy to confuse its many members . A former chairman of the Royal Stuart Society , however , stated that Pininski 's evidence seemed " genuine " , and genealogist Hugh Massingberd described it as " painstakingly researched ... proof to surely the most sceptical pedant 's satisfaction " . Pininski 's hypothesis has since been disputed by Marie @-@ Louise Backhurst in a 2013 article . Backhurst contends that the Charlotte 's second daughter , who was always called Victoire Adelaide , was married firstly at St Roch , Paris , in 1804 to a military doctor in the service of Napoleon , Pierre Joseph Marie de St Ursin ( 1763 – 1818 ) . By de St Ursin she was the mother of Theodore Marie de St Ursin who was born in Paris about 1809 – 10 and who was still resident in Paris in 1823 , although his history has not been found . His mother married again in 1823 to one Corbet James D 'Auvergne , although her place and date of death have not been found . Backhurst examined Madame Nikorowicz 's baptism , marriage and death , and gives her name as Marie Victoire de Thorigny , and Backhurst suggests that she was more likely to have been the illegitimate daughter of Jules , Prince de Rohan , brother of Ferdinand and thus a first cousin to Victoire Adelaide . Pininski argues that Backhurst 's interpretation is based on a destroyed document that was " reconstituted " seventy years later and that no document confirms the birth of Marie Victoire 's son , whereas Pininski 's publications provide original archival documents and fully describe the context . = = = In Jacobite folklore = = = Charlotte Stuart 's story did not take long to enter into the Jacobite folklore . The Scots poet , Robert Burns ( 1759 – 96 ) , a near contemporary , wrote a number of works celebrating the tragic romanticism of the Jacobite cause . Amongst them was The Bonnie Lass of Albanie , a lament to Charlotte Stuart probably written at the time of her death . Indeed , evidence from an unpublished collection of letters from Burns to Robert Ainslie reveals the Poet 's fascination with Charlotte , in that he considered naming one of his own illegitimate children Charlotte after her . = = Ancestors = = Genealogy of Charlotte Stuart in three generations
= Australian Crawl = Australian Crawl ( often called Aussie Crawl or The Crawl by fans ) were an Australian rock band founded by James Reyne ( lead vocals / piano ) , Brad Robinson ( rhythm guitar ) , Paul Williams ( bass ) , Simon Binks ( lead guitar ) and David Reyne ( drums ) in 1978 . David Reyne soon left and was replaced by Bill McDonough ( drums , percussion ) . They were later joined by his brother Guy McDonough ( vocals , rhythm guitar ) . The band was named after the front crawl swimming style also known as the Australian crawl . Australian Crawl were associated with surf music and sponsored a surfing competition in 1984 . However , they also handled broader social issues such as shallow materialism , alcoholism , car accidents , and cautionary tales of romance . After their 1980 debut album , The Boys Light Up reached No. 4 , Australian Crawl had two No. 1 albums ; 1981 's Sirocco and 1982 's Sons of Beaches . Their early singles reached the top 25 but none broke into the Top Ten ; their best performing single was No. 1 hit " Reckless " which showed a more mature approach than earlier hits , and came from their 1983 Semantics EP . Upheaval within the band occurred from 1983 onwards . First Bill McDonough left , then his brother Guy McDonough died in 1984 , then various other members left . Their 1985 release Between a Rock and a Hard Place was expensive but sales were disappointing ; and they disbanded early in 1986 . The band 's status as an icon on the Australian music scene was acknowledged by induction into the 1996 Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Hall of Fame . Founding guitarist Brad Robinson was unable to attend the Hall of Fame induction in person , as he was hospitalised with lymphoma and died two weeks later . = = Biography = = = = = 1975 – 1979 = = = The band Spiff Rouch formed in 1976 in the Mornington Peninsula suburb of Mount Eliza on the outskirts of Melbourne . The group lineup featured James Reyne , brothers Bill and Guy McDonough , Paul Williams , Robert Walker and Simon Binks . Reyne had previously played drums for Archie Slammit and the Doors . By early 1978 Spiff Rouch had separated into two groups : The Flatheads ( including the McDonough brothers and Walker , along with Sean Higgins and Nigel Spencer ) and Australian Crawl . The original lineup for the latter was Reyne as vocalist , Binks on lead guitar , Williams on bass guitar , along with Reyne 's younger brother David Reyne on drums and schoolmate Brad Robinson on rhythm guitar . Australian Crawl performed their first live gig in October 1978 and toured the pub circuit . David Reyne left the group in 1979 to finish his acting course , later becoming an actor and TV presenter as well as drumming for Cats Under Pressure and the Chantoozies ( 1986 – 1990 ) . He was replaced in Australian Crawl by Bill McDonough . The group 's popularity in the Mornington Peninsula area increased with further pub gigs , then they gained audiences with university students and inner city residents . Once the band ’ s escalating popularity brought them into Melbourne they caught the attention of Little River Band ’ s guitarist David Briggs , who helped them gain a recording contract with EMI and he produced their first single . " Beautiful People " ( 1979 ) reached No. 22 on the National charts . Reyne had co @-@ written the song with guitarist Mark Hudson in 1975 . The track included references to the shallow materialism of residents of Toorak and to the Bombay Rock night club in Brunswick . Just days before recording " Beautiful People " Reyne had been hit by a car in Swanston Street , Melbourne , breaking bones in both wrists , an episode later chronicled in the track " Indisposed " . Australian Crawl made one of the most memorable debuts on Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) TV series Countdown performing " Beautiful People " as Reyne still had both arms encased in plaster . " Beautiful People " remains one of their most popular songs according to listeners of Triple M in 2007 . = = = 1980 = = = Australian Crawl 's debut album The Boys Light Up ( 1980 ) , also produced by Briggs for EMI , had a number of hit singles with songwriting shared around the group and beyond . Tracks from this album included the previously released single " Beautiful People " , the title track ( written by Reyne and Mark Hudson ) ; " Indisposed " ( Brad Robinson , James Robinson , Reyne , Bill McDonough ) and " Downhearted " ( Sean Higgins , Guy McDonough , Bill McDonough ) ( from The Flatheads ) . Brad Robinson 's father James Robinson was a Federal Arbitration Court Justice . " The Boys Light Up " , their second single , was almost banned from radio play due to its explicit lyrics . Many listeners believed the chorus lyrics were about smoking marijuana but Reyne has stated that it was about smoking tobacco cigarettes at school . It also reached No. 22 on the National charts and became their signature song and their most popular track especially live . Their third single " Downhearted " charted higher at # 12 and was a cautionary tale of romance gone wrong . The Boys Light Up reached No. 4 on the Australian album charts and remained in the charts for an unbroken 101 weeks . It sold five times platinum : over 280 @,@ 000 copies , and became one of the biggest Australian albums of the 1980s . Singer / guitarist / songwriter Guy McDonough ( ex @-@ The Flatheads and Bill 's younger brother ) joined the group in October 1980 . Rock journalist and commentator , Glenn A. Baker compared Australian Crawl with various fellow Australian bands : Australian Crawl seemed to step out of a tourism poster ... Spruce , lean , tanned and young ... They swam , they surfed , they radiated a healthy , wholly Australian aura ... If Skyhooks has personified the bodgie larrikin and Cold Chisel the hard drinking working class man , Australian Crawl turned the bronzed lifesaver into a pop idol ... Crawl songs seemed to eulogise hedonism , adventure and the great outdoors for an audience that couldn 't be bothered with Midnight Oil 's politics . However , according to James Reyne some people accused them of being demonic . He said whenever you bumped into the member of Little River Band who had found God , he 'd tell him " you shouldn 't be playing that , it 's demonic " . = = = 1981 – 1982 = = = In 1981 , Australian Crawl recorded their second album , Sirocco with producer Peter Dawkins in Sydney . Named for Errol Flynn 's yacht , the album peaked at No. 1 on the Australian album chart on 3 August and remained there for six weeks . At about this time Robinson was married to actress Kerry Armstrong , later an Australian Film Institute Award winner , who co @-@ wrote a track " Easy On Your Own " for the album . Sirocco spawned the hit singles " Things Don 't Seem " ( May , No. 11 National charts ) and " Errol " ( August , # 18 ) . It also included " Oh No Not You Again " ( November ) . Of these , " Errol " about womanising Tasmanian @-@ born actor Flynn is the band 's third most popular song of all . Another track from the album , " Lakeside " , became a popular radio inclusion . 1981 Australian End of Year Album Charts has Sirocco at No. 2 behind Double Fantasy by John Lennon and ahead of AC / DC 's Back in Black making it the best charting album by an Australian act . Another track on this album , Unpublished Critics has been compared several times to the later song " Sweet Child o ' Mine " by US band Guns N ' Roses as acknowledged , by its writer , James Reyne . He was responding to media comments in May 2015 about the possibility of plagiarism by the American band . On the wave of this popularity the band toured extensively playing to huge crowds at Melbourne 's Myer Music Bowl ( 100 @,@ 000 ) , Sydney 's Domain ( 90 @,@ 000 ) , the Narara Rock festival ( 70 @,@ 000 ) , smashing attendance records at indoor venues in Brisbane and Perth . They were voted Countdown 1981 Most Popular Group , and James Reyne was voted 1980 and 1981 Most Popular Male Performer . Sons of Beaches ( 1982 ) was recorded in Hawaii with expatriate Australian Mike Chapman producing . The album had a rougher , rock ' n ' roll edge than its glossy pop rock predecessors and featured the No. 17 hit " Shut Down " ( June ) . It also included a re @-@ recorded version of " Downhearted " and became their second album to reach No. 1 on the Australian albums chart and remained there for five weeks . EMI issued the album in the USA . Two further singles , " Daughters of the Northern Coast " ( August ) and " Runaway Girls " ( November ) failed to reach the Australian Top 40 . Over 1982 – 1983 Reyne was filmed with Australian actresses Rebecca Gilling and Wendy Hughes in the television miniseries Return to Eden , which was screened in September 1983 . For Reyne 's role of playboy tennis professional Greg Marsden , he was given the 1984 " Most Popular New Talent Award " at the TV Week Logie Awards . Reyne later declared he was not very good in the part , declining many acting offers since . During breaks in filming , the singer accepted an offer from Paul Christie ( Mondo Rock ) and Kevin Borich to join their part @-@ time band The Party Boys with Harvey James from Sherbet and Graham Bidstrup from The Angels . The group played a short run of shows around Sydney venues and played covers exclusively . The resultant album , Live at Several 21sts , peaked at No. 9 on the national chart . = = = 1983 – 1984 = = = Soon after Reyne finished acting for Return to Eden , Bill McDonough left due to tensions within the band . The remaining members then recorded the EP Semantics ( 1983 ) with Bidstrup ( from The Party Boys , later a founder of GANGgajang ) on drums . The four track EP contained their best @-@ known song , " Reckless " ( aka " Don 't Be So Reckless " , " She Don 't Like That " ) which was written by Reyne , and went to No. 1 on the Australian singles chart on 28 November . John Watson ( Kevin Borich Express ) then came in as a permanent replacement for McDonough . The live album Phalanx was something of a stop @-@ gap measure between studio albums , nevertheless it reached No. 4 during December . The band 's biggest overseas break came when Duran Duran took the band as support on certain legs of their " Sing Blue Silver " tour of the UK . US label Geffen Records signed Australian Crawl and issued Semantics ( 1984 ) as an album ( with the four songs from the EP and re @-@ recordings of tracks from past Australian records ) for the American market . In April 1984 Australian Crawl became the first Australian band to sponsor an ASP surfing competition . The Rip Curl / Australian Crawl Bell 's Beach Surfing Festival was won by Australian surfer , Cheyne Horan . In June 1984 the band was forced off the road when Guy McDonough was admitted to hospital in Melbourne ; he died soon after of viral pneumonia . Australian Crawl regrouped with Mark Greig on guitar ( ex @-@ Runners ) for a series of live performances in late 1984 . Prior to Guy 's death , he had recorded demos with his brother Bill McDonough ( drums , percussion ) , Sean Higgins ( synthesisers ) and Nigel Spencer ( bass , synthesisers ) , ( all former The Flatheads ) ; and Mick Hauser ( saxophone ) and Michael Bright ( guitar ) . Bill McDonough assembled the tapes and produced Guy McDonough 's posthumous album My Place on Wheatley Records in April 1985 . Singles " My Place " / " Things Don 't Seem " and " What 's in it For Me " / " Hook , Line and Sinker " were also released . " Things Don 't Seem " written by Guy McDonough and Sean Higgins , had been released as an Australian Crawl single in 1981 off Sirocco . Tracks from these sessions were re @-@ mastered and released on Lost & Found in 1996 . = = = 1985 – 1986 = = = By 1985 the group recorded their last studio album , Between a Rock and a Hard Place , with English producer Adam Kidron . It was released in Australia on Australian Crawl 's own label Freestyle Records . The album , which allegedly cost $ 400 @,@ 000 to record , was a mishmash of styles and a commercial disaster ( it peaked at No. 12 in August 1985 but slipped out of the Top 40 two weeks later ) . None of the singles had any Top 40 chart success . Harry Brus ( Kevin Borich Express ) replaced long @-@ standing bass player Paul Williams in May 1985 . The band performed three songs for the July 1985 Oz for Africa concert — part of the global Live Aid program — " Reckless ( Don 't Be So ) " , " Two Can Play " and " The Boys Light Up " . It was broadcast in Australia ( on both Seven Network and Nine Network ) and on MTV in the US . When the album virtually failed to chart , the band was ready to split but had to go out on tour to pay off its debts . On 27 January 1986 , their final Melbourne concert was recorded and released as the live album The Final Wave in October . The band performed its final concert on 1 February at the Perth Entertainment Centre . We really enjoy Perth , and have a lot of friends there , so it was a conscious decision to play our final show there . Besides , everybody expected us to play the last show back in Melbourne , so stuff ' em . In seven years , Australian Crawl had sold over a million records in Australia , with five of its albums and an EP reaching the Australian Top 5 Album Charts , two of which had been No. 1 hits . A cumulative total of eleven weeks at Number 1 on the Albums Charts places them equal fourth for Australian groups behind Skyhooks , The Seekers and Midnight Oil . = = = Post 1986 = = = In 1985 , Lin Buckfield ( Electric Pandas ) and Reyne released a duet single " R.O.C.K. " / " Under My Thumb " . After Australian Crawl disbanded , Reyne went on to a solo career . His first few singles failed to chart but 1987 's " Fall of Rome " and the self @-@ titled album that followed were the beginning of a string of hits that lasted until the early 1990s . In 1992 he and James Blundell had a hit with a cover of The Dingoes ' " Way Out West " ( # 2 , May 1992 ) . Reyne also formed Company of Strangers that year with former Sherbet lead singer Daryl Braithwaite , Simon Hussey and Jef Scott . Company of Strangers only released one self @-@ titled album , Company of Strangers in 1992 , which produced the hits " Motor City ( I Get Lost ) " ( # 26 , September 1992 ) , " Sweet Love " ( # 21 , January 1993 ) and " Daddy 's Gonna Make You a Star " ( # 35 , March 1993 ) . In 1993 Reyne appeared as Tina Turner 's manager Roger Davies in What 's Love Got to do With It ? . He featured in twelve episodes of State Coroner during 1998 and in 2003 's The Postcard Bandit . Reyne lives on the Mornington Peninsula with his partner , Tina , and a daughter . He has released his eighth solo studio album , Every Man a King ( 2007 ) and still performs occasionally . Almost immediately after the split Robinson became manager of Chantoozies ( with early Crawl drummer David Reyne ) . Their first single , " The Witch Queen of New Orleans " ( 1986 ) , a cover of Redbone 's song , reached No. 4 on the National charts . Robinson then moved into a career in television ( with Network Ten 's Page One ) and as a co @-@ producer of documentaries . In the 1990s he became the manager for the Reyne brothers and worked as an agent for the Advantage Sports Management Group . This included managing Australian tennis player Mark Philippoussis . Three years after being diagnosed with lymphoma , Robinson died on 13 October 1996 . The band was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in 1996 , weeks before Robinson 's death . Binks played in the Broderick Smith Band in 1988 . He was injured in a 1995 car crash at a council roadworks that left him slightly brain @-@ damaged . A court in 2006 awarded him $ 330 @,@ 253 in damages , down from an estimated $ 750 @,@ 000 because he was said to be over the legal limit . Binks later disputed the alcohol reading as belonging to another driver and stated the remuneration mostly went to his lawyers . A 2007 appeal by the council , saw amount awarded further reduced to $ 304 @,@ 750 . Australian Crawl compilation Lost & Found was released in 1996 and contained seven of the tracks from Guy McDonough 's solo album My Place which were remastered . Compilers and producers of Lost & Found were Bill McDonough and Peter Blyton . Lost & Found tracks from My Place include " Too Many People " a duet sung by Guy McDonough with Colin Hay of Men at Work . Some My Place tracks used on Lost & Found have Reyne singing backing vocals . As of 2007 , Bill McDonough was working in the construction industry . Williams who had left the band in 1985 , was working in music @-@ related retail . In 2001 the Australian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) , as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations , compiled a list of the Top 30 Australian songs , with " Reckless ( Don 't Be So ) " coming in at number nineteen . On 14 October 2002 , EMI released a two @-@ CD Greatest Hits package called The Definitive Collection , which contained songs from the band and from James Reyne 's solo career . In October 2007 , eleven Australian Crawl tracks were featured in the Triple M Essential 2007 Countdown of songs ( positions are voted by listeners out of the best 2007 songs of all time ) . They were " Hoochie Gucci Fioruci Mama " # 1673 ; " Lakeside " # 1354 ; " Indisposed " # 956 ; " Downhearted " # 728 ; " Oh No Not You Again " # 587 ; " Shut Down " # 415 ; " Things Don 't Seem " # 371 ; " Boys Light Up " # 305 ; " Errol " # 227 ; " Beautiful People " # 153 ; and " Reckless " # 39 . = = Members = = Chronological list : Simon Binks — guitars ( 1978 – 1984 , 1985 – 1986 ) David Reyne — drums ( 1978 ) James Reyne — vocals , guitars , keyboards , harmonica ( 1978 – 1986 ) Brad Robinson ( d . 1996 ) — guitars , keyboards ( 1978 – 1986 ) Paul Williams — bass guitar ( 1978 – 1985 ) Bill McDonough — drums ( replaced David Reyne ) ( 1978 – 1983 ) Guy McDonough ( d . 1984 ) — vocals , guitar ( 1980 – 1984 ) Graham " Buzz " Bidstrup — drums ( replaced Bill McDonough ) ( 1983 ) John Watson – drums ( replaced Bidstrup ) ( 1983 – 1986 ) Mark Greig – guitars ( replaced Guy McDonough ) ( 1984 – 1986 ) Simon Hussey – guitars , keyboards ( replaced Binks on Between a Rock and a Hard Place ) ( 1984 ) Harry Brus – bass guitar ( replaced Williams ) ( 1985 – 1986 ) = = Discography = = = = = Studio albums and EP = = = The Boys Light Up ( 1980 ) Sirocco ( 1981 ) Sons of Beaches ( 1982 ) Semantics ( EP ) ( 1983 ) Semantics ( US LP ) ( 1984 ) Between a Rock and a Hard Place ( 1985 ) = = = Live recordings = = = Phalanx ( 1983 ) The Final Wave ( 1986 ) = = = Compilations = = = Crawl File ( 1984 ) Lost & Found ( 1996 ) More Wharf : Greatest Hits ( 1998 ) Reckless : 1979 @-@ 1995 credited to Australian Crawl and James Reyne ( 2000 ) The Definitive Collection ( 2002 ) The Greatest Hits ( 2014 )
= Reinhold von Werner = Reinhold von Werner ( 10 May 1825 – 26 February 1909 ) was a Prussian and later Imperial German naval officer in the 19th century , eventually reaching the rank of vice admiral . He commanded warships during the three wars of German Unification , the Second Schleswig War , the Austro @-@ Prussian War , and the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1864 , 1866 , and 1870 – 1871 , respectively , and during a naval intervention during a revolution in Spain in 1873 . His actions off Spain , considered extreme by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , resulted in his court @-@ martial . He was promoted two years after the intervention in Spain , but was forced into retirement after a major feud with Albrecht von Stosch three years later . Werner wrote numerous books during and after his naval career , and also founded a periodical on maritime topics . He was ennobled in 1901 and died in February 1909 . = = Early life = = Reinhold Werner was born on 10 May 1825 , in the town of Weferlingen , Prussia in what is now Saxony @-@ Anhalt . He served for several years in the merchant marine in the 1830s and 1840s , during which he made several voyages to the East Indies . While in the merchant marine , he was given the nickname Schweizer ( Swiss ) , as his North German shipmates found his accent to be particularly foreign compared to their native Plattdeutsch . = = Naval career = = In 1849 , Werner became an officer in the German Reichsflotte ( Imperial Fleet ) , which had been organized the year before . In 1852 , he transferred to the Preussische Marine ( Prussian Navy ) , at the age of 22 . The Preussische Marine accepted only ten applicants to the officer corps that year . Werner was the only officer in the first group who was directly commissioned as a lieutenant ; the other nine became officer cadets . He was promoted to the rank of kapitänleutnant ( captain lieutenant ) in 1856 . While commanding the warship Elbe , he participated in a naval expedition to the Far East in 1859 – 1862 . = = = Wars of German Unification = = = During the Second Schleswig War of 1864 , Werner commanded a corvette against Danish naval forces . Werner fought with distinction at the Battle of Jasmund , under the command of Eduard von Jachmann ; Werner 's ship , Nymphe , was badly damaged during the engagement and her crew suffered 13 casualties . The Danes successfully blocked the Prussian attempt to break through the Danish blockade , however , and forced them to return to Swinemünde . Werner and the rest of the fleet stationed there remained in port for the rest of the war . At the outbreak of the Austro @-@ Prussian War , in the summer of 1866 , Werner was given command of a small squadron in the North Sea consisting of the ironclad warship SMS Arminius and a flotilla of small steam gunboats . Werner used the force to launch several troop landings against the Kingdom of Hanover , an ally of Austria . Werner led most of the landings himself ; his activities forced the surrender of several Hanoverian coastal batteries and several cities , including Emden and Stade . On 15 June , Werner and his squadron assisted 13 @,@ 500 men commanded by General Edwin von Manteuffel in their crossing of the Elbe River and assault of the city of Hanover . After the Austro @-@ Prussian War , Werner was given command of the dock facilities in Danzig , a position he held until 1873 . In 1870 , the Franco @-@ Prussian War broke out , during which Werner was given command of the new ironclad Kronprinz . The two other broadside ironclads , Friedrich Carl and SMS König Wilhelm , suffered from chronic engine problems which prevented Admiral Jachmann from using the force offensively . Nevertheless , Werner sortied from Wilhelmshaven several times to trade shots with the blockading French fleet . Directly after the war with France , Werner pledged his support to General Albrecht von Stosch , who had been proposed as the new commander of the German fleet . In the fall of 1872 , Werner commanded a training cruise to South America ; his squadron consisted of Friedrich Carl , Elisabeth , Albatross , and Vineta . While on the cruise , Werner received orders to return most of the squadron to Europe to participate in an international intervention in Spain . Only Albatross remained in the Americas . = = = Intervention in Spain = = = In early 1873 , the First Spanish Republic was beset with the Cantonal Revolution . Werner commanded the ironclad Friedrich Carl ( his flagship ) and a pair of unarmored vessels on a naval intervention mission . The ships joined a British squadron that had been patrolling the southern Spanish coast . Admiral Werner , the senior commander in the group , was given command of the Anglo @-@ German force . A rebel faction of the Spanish Navy had seized four of the country 's seven ironclads . Werner 's squadron blockaded two rebel ironclads in the port of Cartagena after they had bombarded a coastal town . While steaming off Alicante , Friedrich Carl encountered the rebel armed steamer Vigilante , seized the vessel , and returned it to the Spanish national government . Werner ordered Friedrich Carl and the British ironclad HMS Swiftsure to attack two of the rebel ships — Vitoria and Almansa — without authorization from London or Berlin . The rebel vessels had attempted to extort the port of Almería . In the brief engagement , the Anglo @-@ German force overwhelmed the rebels and seized both ships , which were subsequently turned over to the Spanish government . A captured rebel leader was briefly held on board Friedrich Carl . The rebels considered declaring war on Germany over the affair , but eventually decided against it . Admiral Werner 's blockade eventually forced the rebels to surrender , after which Friedrich Carl returned to Germany . Upon being informed of Werner 's actions , Chancellor Otto von Bismarck relieved him of command . Bismarck ordered a court @-@ martial for Werner on the charge of exceeding his orders . Bismarck also prohibited the Imperial Navy from conducting " gunboat diplomacy " in the future . Werner 's career as a sea @-@ going captain was effectively ended despite support from Kaiser Wilhelm I and his grandson , Wilhelm II ; he held only shore commands for the remainder of his career . He commanded the imperial dockyard in Wilhelmshaven for a year before being transferred to Kiel as the commander of the Baltic station . Werner partly blamed Stosch , who had agreed with Bismarck in his assessment of Werner 's activities , for his disgrace . This marked the beginning of a long and public feud between the two officers . = = = Forced retirement = = = In 1875 , Werner was promoted to konteradmiral ( rear admiral ) . In the aftermath of the accidental collision between SMS König Wilhelm and SMS Grosser Kurfürst , which resulted in the loss of the latter , Werner and Stosch argued , a disagreement that ultimately resulted in Werner 's forced retirement . Werner , then the chief of the Baltic station , presided over a commission that investigated the handling of the incident by Konteradmiral Batsch , a protégé of Stosch . The investigation heavily criticized Batsch as well as Stosch 's policies . Many naval officers — including Batsch — felt Stosch 's policies were more appropriate for the army than the navy . Alfred von Tirpitz , later the architect of the German High Seas Fleet , characterized Stosch 's policies as more befitting an infantry regiment than an armored warship , which was a " complicated microcosm of technology . " Stosch fought back against his critics , and targeted Werner in particular , who Stosch felt was primarily responsible for allowing the investigation to become a forum for officers opposed to Stosch . In addition to revenge for the handling of the investigation , Stosch sought to force Werner from the navy to remove one of only two officers senior in rank to Batsch , his protégé . Despite his popularity , particularly with Kaiser Wilhelm I and his son , Werner was unable to resist Stosch 's efforts to force his ouster . On 15 October 1878 , he requested retirement . In 1898 , the navy nominated him to be promoted to vizeadmiral ( vice admiral ) . = = Later life = = After leaving the navy , Werner became an author and ardent supporter of German naval expansion . He continued his feud with Stosch , going so far as to ally himself with Otto von Bismarck , who had sought Werner 's imprisonment five years earlier for his conduct off Spain . He also joined the rightist Free Union for Naval Lectures , founded on 16 November 1899 ; the union conducted a series of public lectures on the importance of the navy throughout Germany . Werner had begun writing in the 1860s , while still in the navy . He wrote a series of books , including accounts of the German expedition to the Far East from 1859 to 1862 and the development and expansion of the German fleet . In 1864 , he founded the periodical Hansa in Hamburg , which was concerned with topics relating to seamanship and coast guard activities . He was elevated to the nobility in 1901 and granted the right to use " von " in his name , and died on 26 February 1909 .
= Batwoman = Batwoman is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics . In all incarnations , the character is a wealthy heiress who becomes inspired by the superhero Batman and chooses , like him , to put her wealth and resources towards a war on crime as a masked vigilante in her home of Gotham City . The identity of Batwoman is shared by two heroines in mainstream DC publications ; both women are named Katherine Kane , with the original Batwoman commonly referred to by her nickname Kathy and the modern incarnation going by the name Kate . Batwoman was created by Bob Kane and Sheldon Moldoff with writer Edmond Hamilton under the direction of editor Jack Schiff , as part of an ongoing effort to expand Batman 's cast of supporting characters . Batwoman began appearing in DC Comics stories beginning with Detective Comics # 233 ( 1956 ) , in which she was introduced as a love interest for Batman in order to combat the allegations of Batman 's homosexuality arising from the controversial book Seduction of the Innocent ( 1954 ) . When Julius Schwartz became editor of the Batman @-@ related comic books in 1964 , he removed non @-@ essential characters including Batwoman , Bat @-@ Girl , Bat @-@ Mite , and Bat @-@ Hound . Later , the 1985 limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths retroactively established that Batwoman had never existed , though her alter ego Kathy Kane continued to be referred to occasionally . After a long hiatus , Batwoman was reintroduced to DC continuity in 2006 in the seventh week of the publisher 's year @-@ long 52 weekly comic book . Reintroduced as Kate Kane , the modern Batwoman began operating in Gotham City in Batman 's absence following the events of the company @-@ wide crossover Infinite Crisis ( 2005 ) . The modern Batwoman is written as being of Jewish descent and as a lesbian in an effort by DC editorial staff to diversify its publications and better connect to modern @-@ day readership . Described as the highest @-@ profile gay superhero to appear in stories published by DC , Batwoman 's sexual orientation drew wide media attention following her reintroduction , as well as both praise and criticism from the general public . In December 2014 , DC Comics announced that they were canceling the Batwoman series . = = Publication history = = = = = Kathy Kane ( 1956 – 1979 , 2013 – present ) = = = Kathy Kane is primarily associated with the Silver Age of Comic Books . In the aftermath of the attacks on comics in the early 1950s , the Batwoman was the first of several characters that would make up the ' Batman Family ' . Since the family formula had proven very successful for the Superman franchise , editor Jack Schiff suggested to Batman creator , Bob Kane , that he create one for the Batman . A female was chosen first , to offset the charges made by Fredric Wertham that Batman and the original Robin , Dick Grayson , were homosexual . Kathy Kane and alter ego Batwoman first appeared in Detective Comics # 233 ( July 1956 ) . In the character 's debut issue , Batwoman is introduced as a female rival to the crime @-@ fighting prowess of Batman : " There 's only one Batman ! That 's been said many times and has always been true , for no other man has ever rivaled Batman as a champion of the law , nor matched his superb acrobatic skill , his scientific keenness , his mastery of disguise and detective skill ! But now , in one suspenseful surprise after another , Batman finds he has a great rival in the mysterious and glamorous girl ... The Batwoman ! " She was a costumed crime @-@ fighter like Batman , yet in many ways not an exact counterpart . For example , the contents of her utility purse were actually weapons disguised as stereotypical feminine products such as lipstick , cosmetic compacts , charm bracelets , and hair nets . Batwoman appeared regularly in the pages of Batman and Detective Comics through the early 1960s . Although letters from fans indicated Batwoman had become popular with readers , editor Julius Schwartz considered the heroine , as well as other Batman @-@ related characters , to be inappropriate for the new direction he planned to take the Batman universe . Following the revamp to Detective Comics in 1964 , Batwoman was removed from the series . The ' new ' Batgirl , Barbara Gordon , not only replaced Batwoman as Batman 's female counterpart , she surpassed the original heroine in popularity . Batgirl also proved to be more appropriate for her time period and the realistic approach DC Comics began taking with its characters . Unlike Batwoman , Gordon 's Batgirl used a utility belt and various gadgets similar to Batman 's , in addition to being a skilled martial artist and possessing a doctorate in her civilian identity . Despite requests from readers to revive Batwoman , DC 's editorial staff initially declined to bring the character out of retirement , considering the fact that she was specifically created to be a love interest for Batman . ... Batwoman and Bat @-@ Girl were there because romance seemed to be needed in Batman [ and Robin ] ' s life . But thanks to the big change and a foresighted editor , these hapless females are gone for good . In their place stands a girl who is a capable crime @-@ fighter , a far cry from Batwoman who constantly had to be rescued by [ sic ] Batman . However , with the launch of the Batman Family comic book series in 1975 , readers continued to request for Batwoman to appear in new stories . One reader states : it is totally beyond me why you ignored Batwoman in your first two issues ... I can understand your reluctance to go back to the days where everybody in Gotham had a Bat @-@ identity , but you can 't wipe out Batwoman that easily ... I was counting on her making the scene in a new story , perhaps coming out of retirement to offer assistance to your Dynamite Duo [ Batgirl and Robin ] . Batwoman was brought back in Batman Family # 10 ( 1979 ) as " Batgirl 's guest heroine " when she comes out of retirement to assist Batgirl in defeating Killer Moth and Cavalier . However , in Detective Comics # 485 ( August – September 1979 ) , Batwoman is killed by the League of Assassins ( assisted by the Bronze Tiger ) . Editor Dennis O 'Neil later stated in an interview , " we already had Batgirl , we didn 't need Batwoman . " The issue marked the final appearance of the Earth @-@ 1 Kathy Kane . An Earth @-@ 2 version appeared in Brave and The Bold # 182 ( January 1982 ) . This Kathy Kane retired from crime @-@ fighting when that world 's Batman married Catwoman . She comes out of retirement to help a grown @-@ up Robin and Earth @-@ 1 Batman battle Hugo Strange . The Kathy Kane version of Batwoman was restored to modern continuity by writer Grant Morrison in flashback sequences in various issues of his run on the Batman @-@ related titles , most explicitly in Batman Incorporated # 4 ( 2011 ) . This issue reveals the origin of the original Batwoman in current DC Universe continuity ; she is Bruce 's aunt by marriage . After she was widowed , she and Bruce fought side by side and were lovers for a time until it appeared she was killed . In that time , she worked reluctantly as a member of the spy organisation Spyral , which had employed her to uncover Batman 's identity . Her biological father was also revealed to be the Nazi scientist Otto Netz ( Doctor Dedalus ) . In 2013 , in Morrison 's final Batman Incorporated issue , Morrison then reveals that Kathy is alive working as an assassin for Spyral . Kathy then makes a few fleeting appearances in Grayson ( 2014 – 2016 ) , referred to primarily as Agent Zero . In Grayson # 8 , during a fraught encounter between Dick Grayson and acting Spyral head Mr Minos , Kathy shows up to assassinate him . = = = Kate Kane ( 2006 – present ) = = = The limited series Infinite Crisis ( 2005 ) , written as a sequel to the 1985 maxi @-@ series Crisis on Infinite Earths , altered DC Comics continuity . Subsequently , all comic book titles published by DC Comics skip forward one year and a new maxi @-@ series entitled 52 retroactively chronicles the 52 weeks which directly followed Infinite Crisis . When DC editors called for a redesign of Batwoman , comic book artist Alex Ross drew inspiration from the modified Batgirl costume he designed for Barbara Gordon , seven years prior to Kate Kane 's debut in the limited comic book series 52 . Ross and comic book author Paul Dini initially planned to revive the former Batgirl Barbara Gordon using an updated version of the character 's original costume , with red accents in place of the traditional yellow . However , since Gordon served as one of a very small number of disabled superheroes of DC Comics as Oracle , DC 's editorial staff decided to revitalize the original Batwoman instead . In an interview with Newsarama , Ross states " They had me change the mask and hair to make it a bit more Batwoman , rather than Batgirl ... I pointed out to them that the mask makes her look like the Huntress a little overall — but there weren 't many options . The original mask that I had in there when it was to be a Batgirl design was the complete head cover that we 've seen , so they did need something different from that . " Unlike the Silver Age Kathy Kane , who was romantically attracted to Batman , the new version of Kane is a lesbian . Her sexual orientation was announced at the same time the character was revealed in the spring of 2006 . Stories appeared on television news outlets such as CNN , general news magazines such as USA Today , and gay culture magazines such as Out . The modern Katherine " Kate " Kane made her first comic book appearance in issue # 7 of the maxi @-@ series 52 ( 2006 ) , where Kane is revealed to have been romantically involved with Renee Montoya , a former Gotham City Police detective ( who later takes up the mantle of the Question after the original hero dies ) . When questioned about the editorial decision to make Batwoman a gay character in an interview with Wizard Entertainment , DC Comics Senior Vice President and Executive Editor Dan DiDio stated " It was from conversations we ’ ve had for expanding the DC Universe , for looking at levels of diversity . We wanted to have a cast that is much more reflective of today ’ s society and even today ’ s fanbase . One of the reasons we made her gay is that , again when you have the Batman Family — a series of characters that aren ’ t super @-@ powered and inhabit the same circle and the same city — you really want to have a point of difference . It was really important to me to make sure every character felt unique . " Batwoman 's sexual orientation initially gathered mixed reviews , ranging from praise to outrage . A reviewer at Out asserts " Batwoman will be the highest profile gay superhero to ever grace the pages of DC Comics . " Although several LGBT organizations such as GLAAD have praised DC Comics for attempting to diversify their characters , some have observed that Batwoman is not the first gay or lesbian character to appear in comic books , nor is she the only lesbian to be associated with the Batman series . In the character 's civilian identity as a socialite , Katherine Kane is acquainted with Bruce Wayne and is friends with a doctor named Mallory . She is presented as having porcelain white skin , several tattoos , and a clothing style defined as punk @-@ psychobilly @-@ goth in her civilian persona . The character is also Jewish , and celebrates Hanukkah with Renee Montoya during the events of 52 . Her father is an ex @-@ colonel and in Detective Comics # 854 , it is stated she is the cousin of Bette " Flamebird " Kane . The younger Kate also has a stepmother named Catherine Kane , making Catherine the aunt of Bette . At the 2008 New York Comic Con , it was announced that Batwoman would be among the characters appearing in a new Justice League comic book written by James Robinson . That year , Batwoman briefly took over as the lead character in Detective Comics , starting with # 854 @.@ with DC saying at the 2009 New York Comic Con that she would be DC Comics ' highest profile gay superhero . Detective Comics # 854 would introduce Alice , a new villain for Kate who is also revealed to be her twin sister , Elizabeth Kane . From 2010 , the character began appearing in the self @-@ titled series Batwoman . After an introductory " zero " issue in 2010 , the series launched fully in 2011 with Batwoman # 1 along with DC 's company @-@ wide renumbering of its titles that year . Writers J.H. Williams III and W. Haden Blackman chose to expand Kate 's supporting cast both in terms of her family ( the Kanes , including Elizabeth , Bette and other relatives ) , and the " Batman Family " she is more loosely connected to . Issue seventeen was also a milestone as it featured Kate proposing to her girlfriend , Maggie Sawyer . In September 2013 , co @-@ authors J.H. Williams and W. Haden Blackman announced that they would leave Batwoman after the December issue because of conflicts with DC over storylines . They remarked that they were not allowed to expand Killer Croc 's back story , keep their original ending , or show Kate and Maggie getting married . This announcement follows a February 2013 announcement that Batwoman # 17 will feature the proposal between Kate and Maggie . DC Comics announced that Batwoman cannot get married because " heroes shouldn 't have happy personal lives " . In December 2014 , it was announced that the series would be cancelled in March at issue forty , along with twelve other series . In 2016 , it was announced that Batwoman would be one of the lead characters in the DC Comics Rebirth revamp of Detective Comics , which returned to its original numbering with issue # 934 . = = Fictional character biography = = = = = Kathy Kane = = = In the original pre @-@ Crisis continuity , Kathy Kane , a wealthy Gotham City heiress and former circus performer , decides to use her skills and resources to become a costumed crime @-@ fighter . This is partly out of altruism and partly to attract the romantic attentions of Batman . During the Silver Age of Comics , Batwoman guest @-@ starred occasionally in Batman stories published from 1956 to 1964 . While Batman wished for Kane to retire from crime @-@ fighting due to the danger , she remained his ally , even when she temporarily became a new version of Catwoman . In 1961 , Batwoman was joined by her niece Betty Kane , the Bat @-@ Girl . Kathy and Betty were romantically interested in Batman and Robin , respectively . Robin seemed to return Bat @-@ Girl 's affection , while Batman remained aloof . In 1964 however , DC dropped Batwoman , as well as Bat @-@ Girl , Ace the Bat @-@ Hound , and Bat @-@ Mite from the Batman titles , which were undergoing a revamp under editor Julius Schwartz that eliminated many of the sci @-@ fi elements that were introduced in the 1950s . However , Batwoman continues to make appearances in stories published during the next few years in the Batman @-@ Superman team @-@ up book World 's Finest . The character would later reappear in the late 1970s , made guest appearances in the Batman Family and Freedom Fighters comic book series , often fighting crime alongside Barbara Gordon , who had become the new Batgirl . In a story depicting Batwoman as a retired crimefighter , she becomes the owner of a circus , which she keeps until killed by the League of Assassins and the brainwashed Bronze Tiger . During this period , DC began heavily using the Multiverse storytelling device which posited that the publisher 's earliest stories ( from the Golden Age of Comic Books ) took place on the parallel world of Earth @-@ Two . DC visited the concept of an older Batwoman in Brave and the Bold # 182 ( 1982 ) , in a story titled " Interlude on Earth @-@ 2 " . In this story , which features pre @-@ Crisis Earth @-@ One Batman accidentally arriving on Earth @-@ Two to battle the Earth @-@ Two Hugo Strange alongside the adult Earth @-@ Two Dick Grayson ( Robin ) , Batwoman is portrayed as middle @-@ aged and still in love with the now @-@ deceased Commissioner Bruce Wayne of Earth @-@ Two . Later , the conclusion of the publisher 's 1985 maxi @-@ series Crisis on Infinite Earths altered DC Universe continuity , subsequently changing the character histories of Batwoman and Bat @-@ Girl . In the new continuity , Kathy Kane did exist , though her persona as Batwoman had been erased . Bat @-@ Girl never existed either , but a superheroine named Flamebird was introduced who had a somewhat similar costume and similar name , " Bette Kane " . Despite the erasure of both Kathy Kane as Batwoman and Betty Kane as Bat @-@ Girl , there were references to both heroines in post @-@ Crisis publications . In Alan Moore 's Batman : The Killing Joke , Batman stares at a photograph that portrays Bat @-@ Girl , Batwoman , Ace the Bat @-@ Hound , and Bat @-@ Mite — characters that did not exist in continuity at the time . In Planet Krypton # 1 , which was part of The Kingdom storyline , a Hypertime ghost of Batwoman haunts the Planet Krypton restaurant . Batman briefly recognizes her as " Kathy " , but then quickly denies knowing her . Kathy , sans her Batwoman identity , was also referenced in a few post @-@ Crisis publications . According to The DC Comics Encyclopedia : The Definitive Guide to The Characters of the DC Universe ( 2004 ) , Kathy was described as a wealthy former circus stuntwoman that had inherited her father 's fortune and later became acquainted with Bruce Wayne as a Gotham socialite . She eventually became a crime fighting ally to Batman , although she never used the Batwoman name . The encyclopedia entry explains that she eventually purchased a circus and was murdered by a member of the League of Assassins ; however , Bronze Tiger was not her killer . Her murder was again recalled in Suicide Squad # 38 . During the Beast Boy miniseries , Flamebird tried to post bail for Beast Boy with money " borrowed from Aunt Kathy . " Flamebird further mentioned that " Aunty Kathy 's in Gotham " in Teen Titans # 39 . The introduction of Kate Kane as the new Batwoman following the continuity @-@ altering events of Infinite Crisis in 2005 allowed the company to revisit elements of the Kathy Kane character it did away with following Crisis on Infinite Earths ; Batman writer Grant Morrison explicitly set out to treat Batman 's entire publication history as his backstory . In Detective Comics # 824 ( 2006 ) , the Penguin refers to Kate Kane as the new Batwoman , implying for the first time since 1985 that there was an earlier Batwoman . Later Kathy appears in a flashback story in Batman # 682 ( 2009 ) , in a panel showing Batman and the original Batwoman kissing , with Robin showing his distrust of her and Bat @-@ Girl . In this story , Kathy is referred to as " Katy " Kane . In Batman # 686 , Batman 's butler Alfred mentions that Bruce Wayne was once romantically involved with Kathy . Grant Morrison later chose to heavily reimagine Kathy Kane in 2011 for his Batman Incorporated series . It is established that Kathy Kane was born Katherine Webb , and that she had been an aspiring independent film director prior to marrying a millionaire named Nathan Kane , the son of Roderick and Elizabeth Kane and brother of Martha ( Kane ) Wayne , Bruce Wayne 's mother . Nathan and Kathy were madly in love with one another , and it was Nathan who ended up buying Kathy her circus as a birthday present . After Nathan 's untimely death , Kathy was approached by a young man known only as Agent @-@ 33 , who recruited her into a covert spy organization called Spyral . As part of her first assignment , Kathy was tasked with tracking down Batman and discovering his true identity . Donning a female variation of Batman 's costume in order to gain his attention , she embarked on a career as a costumed crime @-@ fighter while attempting to get close to Batman . Her plan succeeded but the two fell in love with one another , despite Kathy legally being Wayne 's aunt . As a result , she refused to reveal his identity to her superiors at Spyral . Later , Kathy was confronted by the head of Spyral , a Nazi supervillain named Dr. Dedalus ( Otto Netz ) who claimed to be her real father and threatened to expose her to Batman unless she continued her mission . Heartbroken , she broke off her relationship with Bruce in order to save him from Dedalus ' plan . In the present , Batman and the South American vigilante El Gaucho are told by the villainess Scorpiana that El Gaucho was responsible for Kathy 's murder , as he had originally been Agent @-@ 33 prior to becoming a superhero . Batman tells Gaucho that Scorpiana must be lying since Kathy had been killed by the League of Assassins , but Gaucho claims that there is some truth in her accusations , and that Batman wouldn 't understand . In the follow @-@ up one @-@ shot Batman Incorporated : Leviathan Strikes , students of an assassin training facility masquerading as St. Hadrian 's Finishing School For Girls in England are shown wearing variations of Kathy 's Batwoman costume , with the original masks replaced by skulls . Later , these women are shown to be agents of Spyral , dedicated to hunting down Talia al Ghul , whose organisation Leviathan is waging war with Batman . Kathy reappears alive in the concluding issue of Batman Incorporated , in which she shoots Talia al Ghul dead in the Batcave . Identifying herself as St Hadrian 's headmistress and requesting Batman not to go looking for her , she thanks Batman for leading Talia into her trap and reports to Spyral headquarters that one more international criminal has been killed . Later , when Dick Grayson fakes his death and goes to work for Spyral , he works under the direction of the scheming Mr Mynos , who during a tense confrontation with Dick is assassinated by Kane , who is identified only as the current Agent Zero ; she is the real head of Spyral . When Dick tries to leave the organisation behind , he knows he cannot because of the " Hypnos " implanted in his brain which allow him to hypnotise others and disguise his appearance , but also permit Spyral to monitor him always . Kathy , face disguised by hypnos , pursues Dick to Gotham and tells him to take the day to say goodbye to his friends but that he cannot leave Spyral . He travels to Gotham City and reveals he is alive to Robin , Red Robin , Red Hood and Batgirl , and communicates with them by secret code . Acting on Dick 's orders , they hack the Spyral hypnos so that on their next encounter , Dick can see Agent Zero 's true face . Dick 's hypnos reveal Agent Zero 's identity , but not the name Kathy ; it surrenders up the alternative name Luka Netz , Kathy 's birth name . It is later revealed that her full name is Katrina " Luka " Netz and that she has an antagonistic relationship with her sister , Frau Netz ( Elisabeth Netz ) . = = = Kate Kane = = = = = = = Origins and early career = = = = In 52 # 7 , Kate Kane is introduced ( although she is referred to as Kathy on several occasions ) . No Origins titles have been presented for Kate Kane ; her fictional backstory is presented in Detective Comics through the use of exposition and flashbacks . In their early childhood , Katherine Rebecca " Kate " Kane and her sister Elizabeth " Beth " Kane were identical twins and were very close to each other . On their twelfth birthday , Kate and Beth were taken by their mother , Gabrielle " Gabi " Kane , to an expensive restaurant for chocolate and waffles , their favorite dish . On the way to the restaurant , a group of gunmen attacked the family and took them hostage , killing their bodyguard in the process . After learning of her family 's kidnapping , Kate 's father Colonel Jacob " Jake " Kane led a rescue mission to save his captured family , which ended with Kate 's mother executed and Beth apparently killed after being caught in the crossfire between the kidnappers and soldiers . Years later , Jake marries Catherine Hamilton Kane . Kate is attending the United States Military Academy , where she receives excellent grades and ranks at the top of her class . However , when it is alleged that she is in a lesbian relationship with another student , Kate 's commanding officer asks her to disavow the allegation . Telling the officer that she refuses to lie and violate the code of the Academy , Kate admits to being lesbian and is forced to leave the school . When she confronts her father with the news , he supports her and affirms that she upheld her honour and integrity . She then moves back to Gotham City where she attends college and pursues a wild social lifestyle . Kate is eventually pulled over for speeding by a young Renee Montoya , who was just a traffic cop at this point . The two date for several months and break up following a fight where Kate berates Renee for keeping her sexuality hidden from her colleagues and family ; after Renee expresses concern about Kate 's lack of direction , when it 's revealed she 's not been attending college . While attempting to call Renee and apologize for her behavior , Kate is attacked by a mugger who wants her wallet and cell phone . Using her military training , Kate easily defeats the criminal just as Batman arrives and helps her off the ground . She is then shown fixated by the Bat Signal as Batman flees the scene . Inspired by her encounter with the caped crusader , Kate begins fighting crime using stolen military body armor and weaponry . After being confronted by Jake , Kate accepts his offer for assistance and begins an intense two years of training across the globe . Upon returning to Gotham , Kate discovers that her father has created a Batsuit for her , along with an arsenal of experimental weaponry based on Batman 's known gadgetry and a bunker hidden in the Kane home . The first reference to the modern Batwoman is made by the Penguin in Detective Comics # 824 who suggests Batman bring a date to the opening of his club , asking , " Why don 't you bring that new Batwoman ? I hear she 's kind of hot . " In 52 # 7 ( 2006 ) the new Batwoman is introduced . Kane is revealed to have been intimately involved with former Gotham City police detective Renee Montoya and is heiress to one of the wealthiest families in Gotham , owning that which the Wayne family does not . In her third appearance in issue # 11 of 52 entitled " Batwoman Begins , " Kane assists Montoya and her partner the Question in a mystery revolving around a warehouse owned by Kane 's family . When Montoya and the Question are attacked sometime later by Whisper A 'Daire 's shapeshifting minions , Kane intervenes as Batwoman and rescues them . In 52 # 28 ( 2006 ) , after Montoya learns that the " Book of Crime , " a sacred text of Intergang , contains a prophecy foretelling the brutal murder of the " twice named daughter of Kane , " she and the Question return to Gotham , joining forces with Batwoman in issue # 30 in order to avert Intergang 's plans . Batwoman later appears in a story written by Greg Rucka for the DC Infinite Holiday Special ( 2006 ) . As Batwoman continues the case , she is joined by Nightwing , who has recently returned to Gotham and becomes infatuated with her . On Christmas Eve , he gives her an ' official ' Batarang . She also celebrates Hanukkah with Renee , and the two kiss shortly before Christmas . This story introduced some of Kane 's background , including the fact that she is Jewish . In issue # 48 of 52 ( 2007 ) , when Intergang realizes that the image of Batwoman in the Crime Bible and the cited " twice @-@ named daughter of Cain " were one and the same , they ransack Kane 's apartment , kidnapping her with the intention to sacrifice her . Montoya arrives too late to stop the ritual , finding Kate bound and gagged to an altar as prophet Bruno Mannheim plunges a knife through her heart . In the ensuing confrontation , the freed Batwoman pulls the knife out of her own chest to stab Mannheim , and then collapses in Renee 's arms . She survives her wounds after Renee stops the bleeding in time , however , and as she recuperates in her penthouse , Renee , disguised in her new alter ego as the Question , shines the Bat @-@ Signal into her apartment and asks , " Are you ready ? " = = = = 2007 – 2009 : Countdown , Final Crisis = = = = Batwoman subsequently appears in the fifty @-@ two issue weekly series Countdown , intended to act as a prelude to DC 's summer crossover event the following year . Batwoman appears in Countdown # 39 ( 2007 ) , after the Question confronts Trickster and Pied Piper , having trailed them from the Penguin 's Iceburg Lounge nightclub . Batwoman also makes an appearance in the miniseries Crime Bible : The Five Lessons of Blood ( 2007 ) alongside the Question . Batwoman is seen again on the final page of Grant Morrison 's Final Crisis # 3 ( 2008 ) , one month after the Anti @-@ Life Equation was released , as a new Female Fury along with Wonder Woman , Catwoman , and Giganta . Her costume bears resemblance to the dead Fury Mad Harriet . She is also seen in Final Crisis : Revelations # 3 attacking the Question after having just been infected with the Anti @-@ Life Equation . = = = = 2009 – 2010 : Detective Comics lead feature = = = = Following the events of Final Crisis and Battle for the Cowl , in which Bruce Wayne has supposedly died and is replaced by Dick Grayson , Kate becomes the lead of Detective Comics from issue 854 to 863 . In the first story , entitled " Elegy " , Batwoman is seen investigating the arrival of a new leader of the Religion of Crime to Gotham . She briefly meets Batman ( it is intentionally left ambiguous whether or not it is Dick Grayson or Bruce Wayne ) to discuss her findings . Kate demonstrates greater knowledge of the Religion of Crime , and even corrects Batman by saying there 's 13 and not 12 covens of the religion in Gotham . Batman concedes the case to her , and comments on the length of her hair ( though panels on the same page reveal the long red wig hides her actual hair , styled short ) . Aspects of her personal life are also revealed , including her relationship with her ex @-@ colonel father ; serving as Batwoman 's ally , whom she addresses as " sir . " The strain of her late night vigilante activity has also taken a toll on her romantic relationships . Her lateness and night time absences are interpreted by her girlfriend as an on the side liaison with another woman . She breaks the relationship off as she believes Kate is not ready to commit to an exclusive relationship . A past traumatic incident is also alluded to which she claims still haunts her . As she vaguely describes the experience , her face is shown superimposed on the page over a restrained girl with a bag over her head . She later tracks down the new leader of the Religion of Crime : an elaborately costumed woman named Alice . Over the course of the conflict that ensues , Batwoman observes that Alice only speaks in quotations from Lewis Carroll , believing herself to be Alice Liddell . Alice denies a connection to the Mad Hatter . While attending a party thrown for the Gotham Police Department , Kate meets and flirts with detective Maggie Sawyer , and runs into her cousin Bette Kane ( better known as the Teen Titans member Flamebird ) . Kate is apparently unaware of her cousin 's vigilante activities , and inadvertently hurts her feelings when she cuts her off in the middle of a conversation to answer her cell phone . While dancing with Maggie , Kate discovers that Alice has kidnapped her father and plans to destroy Gotham by spreading a deadly airborne chemical from a hijacked airplane , thus succeeding where Mannheim failed . Batwoman boards the plane and defeats Alice 's subordinates , eventually stopping the plot and rescuing her father in the process . However , Alice is accidentally thrown from the plane , only to be caught by Batwoman . Alice then shocks her by saying that Batwoman has " Our father 's eyes , " apparently revealing that she is in fact Kate 's sister Beth ( who was believed to have been killed years ago ) . With Batwoman stunned by the revelation , Alice stabs her in the wrist with a knife . Batwoman is forced to release her grip , sending Alice to her apparent demise in the river below . In the aftermath of this discovery , Kate locks herself in her crime lab and tries to come to terms with what just happened , while the police struggle in vain to find any sign of Alice 's corpse . These scenes are depicted amongst numerous flashback sequences that comprise most of the issue . Throughout them , back story is provided from her childhood that depicts Kate , her twin sister Beth , and their mother being kidnapped . While Kate 's father is able to rescue her , it appears as though both her sister and mother have been killed by the time he arrives . Batwoman appears in the miniseries Cry for Justice , a set @-@ up for a new ongoing Justice League title . When the Justice League of America splits up following Bruce Wayne 's death and a disastrous confrontation with the Shadow Cabinet , Green Lantern Hal Jordan leads a group of superheroes to Gotham in order to track down the supervillain known as Prometheus . Kate is shown stalking the heroes from the rooftops after they encounter Clayface . Batwoman later contacts both Leagues at the JLA Watchtower , informing them she encountered and engaged supervillain Delores Winters , who mysteriously collapsed and died right as she was about to be taken into custody . The heroes request that Kate bring the body up to them , but she declines , telling them that she is much too busy due to a rash of criminal uprisings going on in Gotham . Firestorm is then sent to retrieve the corpse from Kate and bring it to the team , who discover that Dolores was forced into fighting by means of a mind control device . In a text piece included in Justice League : Cry for Justice # 6 , writer James Robinson revealed that Batwoman was initially intended to be part of his new Justice League line @-@ up , but this plan fell apart after Cry For Justice was shortened into a miniseries rather than an ongoing title . This explains why Batwoman is present on the cover of the first issue , and why she was initially said to be a member of the team when the book was first announced . Later , Kate appears as part of Batman and Robin : Blackest Knight . Batwoman is kidnapped by cultists and taken to London in order for her to once again be sacrificed . She is sealed within a coffin and taken underground to the last remaining Lazarus Pit in order for the ritual to begin . She is saved by the timely intervention of Dick Grayson and British superheroes Knight and Squire . After learning that Grayson plans on placing Bruce Wayne 's corpse into the pit in order to revive him , Kate strongly protests , but he simply ignores her . True to Kate 's warnings , Bruce ( in reality an insane clone created by Darkseid ) emerges from the Pit and attacks the heroes . As the battle takes place , the cultists who kidnapped Kate detonate explosives surrounding the Pit , causing a massive cave @-@ in . Grayson discovers Kate , buried alive and with extensive injury to her spine and legs , and tries to help her . Kate is healed after being placed inside the Pit , and she returns to Gotham with the others . Before leaving to return to her home , Grayson flirts with Kate by telling her that he has a thing for red @-@ haired crime @-@ fighters ( a reference to his previous love interests , Barbara Gordon and Starfire ) , apparently unaware of Kate 's sexuality . Batwoman also begins hunting down a crazed serial killer known as the Cutter , who has been abducting young women and cutting off parts of their face in order to create the perfect woman . He eventually kidnaps Bette , but Kate tracks the killer to his lair and attacks him . During the fight , Batwoman reveals her identity to Bette when she mentions her tennis career , and in the aftermath Bette is seen in her Flamebird outfit , saying that she wants to be Kate 's new partner . = = = = 2010 – 2015 : self @-@ titled series = = = = In 2010 , DC announced that Batwoman would star in a series with art by J. H. Williams III , who would also co @-@ write the series with writer W. Haden Blackman . Artist Amy Reeder Hadley would also contribute art , alternating story arcs with Williams . The series ' introductory " zero issue " was released on November 24 , 2010 . The launch of Batwoman # 1 was originally scheduled for February 2011 , then delayed until spring ; in early March it was announced that Batwoman # 1 would be released sometime in Fall 2011 . In September 2013 , J. H. Williams III announced that he together with Blackman quit the series after alleging creative difference with the producers , citing a sudden change to not allow Batwoman to marry her partner as Williams and Blackman had planned . Batwoman appears as a member of an all @-@ female team of heroes created by Wonder Woman to repel a faux @-@ alien invasion of Washington DC masterminded by Professor Ivo . After the battle is over , Kate asks Wonder Woman if she 'd like to accompany Kate and the other heroines to a bar in order to celebrate , but Wonder Woman politely turns them down in order to attend the college graduation ceremony of her old friend , Vanessa Kapatelis . In Batman Inc . Batwoman later appears while tracking down a gangster named Johnny Valentine , who is wanted for his connection to the murders of three marines . She tracks him to a local circus , the same one once owned by her predecessor , Kathy Kane . While chasing Valentine through a haunted house , Batwoman is attacked by what appears to be Kathy 's ghost . Batwoman struggles with and eventually defeats the " ghost " , who is revealed to be nothing more than a blonde @-@ haired female assassin clad in a wig and a replica of Kathy 's costume . Kate realizes that she recognizes the assassin , and asks her father to run a facial @-@ recognition scan . While Kate restrains her attacker , her father reveals that Valentine is connected to a supervillain operating out of South America , and tells Kate that she needs to get down there to find out what is going on . = = = = 2016 – present : return to Detective Comics = = = = When a group of mysterious villains begin targeting Gotham 's vigilantes , Batman recruits Batwoman to help run a " boot camp " for young heroes , consisting of Red Robin , Orphan , Spoiler and Clayface . = = Other versions = = The 1996 limited series Kingdom Come by Mark Waid and Alex Ross presents a Batwoman portrayed as a Batman admirer from Jack Kirby 's Fourth World . Her costume mixed Kirby @-@ esque elements with those of the original costume . The character rode a giant bat @-@ winged dog named Ace . Batman : Dark Knight Dynasty ( 1997 ) features Vice @-@ President Brenna Wayne who becomes Batwoman in order to stop Vandal Savage . Wayne discovers a conspiracy against her family after investigating the last thirteen generations of the Wayne family . The Kingdom : Planet Krypton ( February 1999 ) references the Silver Age Batwoman . The Kingdom introduced the concept of Hypertime , in which characters who had been removed from continuity still exist in alternate timelines . A Planet Krypton theme restaurant ( modeled after Planet Hollywood ) finds itself " haunted " by silent " Hypertime ghosts " of characters who are no longer part of DC continuity . Batman comes face to face with Batwoman and says , " Kathy ? " Later , Batman says there is no possible way he could know her . JLA : The Nail ( 1998 ) by Alan Davis features Selina Kyle adopting a Batwoman costume based on the costume worn by Kathy Kane . The 2004 sequel , JLA : Another Nail , features her fashioning her own Batwoman persona . Superman / Batman # 24 ( November 2005 ) presents a world where the genders of the characters are reversed with Helena Wayne as Batwoman . DC later placed this alternate reality as " Earth 11 " in the post @-@ Infinite Crisis multiverse . In the Teen Titans storyline " Titans Tomorrow " ( 2005 ) , Bette Kane is Batwoman , and wears a costume similar to Kathy 's pre @-@ Crisis one . In the follow up storyline , " Titans of Tomorrow ... Today ! " ( 2007 ) , Bette Kane remains Flamebird and former Batgirl Cassandra Cain becomes Batwoman . In the Flashpoint universe , Kate Kane is a member of Team 7 , an elite unit of soldiers led by Grifter . Kate , along with most of the team , is killed during a botched attack on a Jihadist training camp in Flashpoint : Lois Lane and the Resistance # 2 ( July 2011 ) . In Batman ' 66 # 2 , Kathy Kane is Bruce 's Wayne 's date to a concert by Chandell . She later rescues Batman from an attack by the Siren that causes him to experience a series of bizarre hallucinations . During the hallucinations Batman briefly sees Kathy as a woman wearing the Silver Age Batwoman costume . In the comic book adaptation of Injustice : Gods Among Us , Batwoman ( Kate Kane ) appears as a member of Batman 's Insurgency . She is also married to Renee Montoya in this continuity . At the end of the Year Three series she and Huntress fight Wonder Woman of Superman 's Regime , with the latter being accidentally killed by the Amazon ; while Wonder Woman is shocked by this , a furious Kate beats her into submission . Her grudge towards Wonder Woman continues into Year Four , where she also suffers the death of Renee after she overdosed on enhancement pills . When the Regime and the Greek Gods battle at the Hall of Justice , Kate gets revenge on Wonder Woman by strangling her with her own Lasso of Truth , recreating Huntress ' experience . However , while she acknowledged she wants Diana dead , she lets her live as a sign that she is a better person . In Year Five , when an underground resistance is built up and named after the Joker , she confronts them in their hideout and tells them the Joker is not a man who should be honored . In Batwoman : Futures End # 1 , five years into the future , Kate Kane was turned into a vampire and unable to control her thirst for blood , she began attacking people . She was eventually killed , when her sister Beth drove a stake through her heart . In DC Bombshells , which take place in an alternate history version of World War II , there are four versions of the character : Kate Kane operates in Gotham City as the hero , Batwoman , while also being the mysterious # 52 of the Gotham Knights baseball team . She gets to save the Wayne family from a mugger , making her a true hero to the eyes of a young Bruce Wayne . Kate has had some military experience and currently runs her father ’ s company , handling it through the Depression . She is also in a relationship with Detective Maggie Sawyer . She is later enlisted by Amanda Waller to fight in the war along with several other heroines . Before she leaves Gotham , Kate makes her cousin Bette , another baseball player from the rival Gotham Griffins team , the new protector of the city . Katherine Webb , a member of the Kane family and the aunt to both Kate and Bette , is the Headmistress of Pinkney Orphanage . She was left in charge of the orphanage by Kate before she left Gotham . Headmistress Webb is a xenophobic woman , who uses the orphans to make robots in order to protect the country from foreigners , whom she characterizes as " evil " . She is later defeated by a team of Batgirls , including Bette , who come to the orphanage to save the orphans . Kathleen " Kathy " Duquesne , an auto mechanic and the leader of a team of Batgirls , who protect the city during Batwoman 's absence . Along with Kathy , the team includes Nell Little , Harper Row and later on Alysia Yeoh and Bette Kane . Upon meeting Bette , Kathy immediately recognizes her as a baseball player and later figures out her real identity as well as her connection to Batwoman but promises to keep it a secret . The Batgirls save the orphans of Pinkney Orphanage from the devious Headmistress and later expand their team , welcoming Tim Drake , Cullen Row and Felicity Smoak , and creating a Bat family . Sonia Alcana appears as an officer of Gotham City Police Department , partnered with Crispus Allen and working with Maggie Sawyer to aid Batwoman into her fight against crime in the city . = = In other media = = = = = Television = = = In the The Batman animated series , the name ' Batwoman ' was occasionally used . In the two @-@ parter " Batgirl Begins " , Barbara Gordon wanted to be called ' Batwoman ' before settling with the Batgirl name . The episode " Artifact " shows Martha Wayne mistakenly identified as ' Batwoman ' along with Thomas Wayne as Batman and their son ( instead of Dick Grayson ) as Red Robin . Batwoman appears in the Batman : The Brave and the Bold episode " The Criss Cross Conspiracy ! " , voiced by Vanessa Marshall . Though visually based on the Kathy Kane Batwoman , the character is never actually called ' Batwoman ' and is also original character Katrina Moldoff , the heiress to the Moldoff Circus fortune . On his Formspring page , Brave and the Bold director Ben Jones confirmed that the decision to rename the character was brought about after DC Comics voiced concerns about the episode 's depiction of the character having a negative impact on the new Batwoman comic book series , the first issue of which launched less than a month after the episode 's initial air date . She is portrayed as a thrill seeker and a trained circus acrobat whom Batman dislikes due to her crime fighting occasionally endangering innocent bystanders . = = = Film = = = Batwoman appeared in the direct @-@ to @-@ video animated film Batman : Mystery of the Batwoman , voiced by Kyra Sedgwick . In this storyline , which conforms to the continuity of the DC animated universe , Batwoman is a new vigilante operating in Gotham City who is willing to use lethal force to achieve her goals . She targets the illegal operations of the Penguin and crime bosses Rupert Thorne and Carlton Duquesne . Viewed as a threat , Batman investigates Batwoman in an attempt to uncover her identity and bring her , as well as her targets , to justice . In his investigation , Batman suspects three different women to be Batwoman : Gotham Police Detective Sonia Alcana ( voiced by Elisa Gabrielli ) , Dr. Roxanne " Rocky " Ballantine ( voiced by Kelly Ripa ) and Kathleen " Kathy " Duquesne ( voiced by Kimberly Brooks ) . ( The name Kathy Duquesne is a thinly @-@ veiled reference to Kate Kane . In the DVD and Blu @-@ ray special features , the producers explain that DC didn 't want the filmmakers to use Kate Kane in a family @-@ friendly movie due to the violence associated with her character . ) It 's eventually revealed that all three women have been posing as Batwoman with grudges against the crime bosses , each acting at a different point to draw suspicion from all three of them . Batwoman makes a cameo in Batman vs. Robin . During one of Batman 's nightmares , she 's one of the fallen bodies next to Damian Wayne 's Batman . Batwoman appears in Batman : Bad Blood . She is voiced by actress Yvonne Strahovski . This version of Batwoman has military training but is berated by Batman for using live guns and ammunition in combat . She is shown flirting with Renee Montoya , who comes to her house at the end of the movie . = = = Video games = = = The Kate Kane version of Batwoman appears in DC Universe Online video game , voiced by Christina J. Moore . Kate Kane 's Batwoman appears as a DLC playable character in Lego Batman 3 : Beyond Gotham . Kate Kane is featured in Batman : Arkham Knight . She is heard on Bruce Wayne 's answering machine where she mentions her marriage to Maggie Sawyer , ( confirming that she is indeed a lesbian in the Arkham @-@ Verse ) . Kate mentions that Bruce taught her the importance of keeping up appearances , hinting that she has already become Batwoman .
= SS Irish Oak ( 1919 ) = The SS Irish Oak was an Irish @-@ operated steamship which was sunk in the North Atlantic during World War II by a German submarine . As the West Neris she had been built in the US and operated by the United States Shipping Board . In 1941 , she was chartered by Irish Shipping Limited , to transport wheat and fertilizer from North America to Ireland . Sailing as a clearly marked neutral vessel , not in convoy , she was nonetheless torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 607 on 15 May 1943 midway between North America and Ireland . The crew were rescued . At the time there were conflicting reports that she had not and allegations that she had warned a nearby convoy of the presence of a U @-@ boat . The British nationality of her captain became an issue in the Irish general election of June 1943 , there were diplomatic exchanges between the United States and Ireland , and questions raised in the British House of Commons . The U @-@ boat 's captain received a mild reprimand . = = Construction = = Southwestern Shipbuilding of San Pedro , California , was organized in 1918 to build cargo ships for the United States Shipping Board . As Yard No. 11 , the ship was built to Design 1019 , launched on 24 August 1918 and completed in December 1919 . Her displacement was 5 @,@ 589 tons , length 410 feet 5 inches ( 125 @.@ 10 m ) , with a beam of 54 feet 3 inches ( 16 @.@ 54 m ) , and a depth of 27 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 28 m ) . Propelled by a triple expansion steam engine built by the Llewellyn Iron Works of Los Angeles , with cylinders of 24 @.@ 5 inches ( 62 cm ) , 42 @.@ 5 inches ( 108 cm ) and 72 inches ( 180 cm ) bore and 48 inches ( 120 cm ) stroke , the ship could make 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) . = = West Neris = = West Neris had been built for the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) and operated by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , her port of registry being New Orleans . In 1928 , she was sold to the Mississippi Steamship Company . She was sold back to the USSB in 1933 . With the abolition of the USSB , she was transferred to the United States Shipping Board Bureau in 1935 , and laid up in New Orleans . During this period the ship was neglected and the condition of her engine deteriorated . In 1937 she was transferred to the United States Maritime Commission . On 26 September 1941 she was chartered to Irish Shipping Ltd , through United States Lines at £ 3 @,@ 245 per month . = = Irish Oak = = = = = Background = = = At the outbreak of World War II Ireland had very few ships , and the United States instructed its ships not to enter the " war zone " . Acting for the Irish Government , Minister Frank Aiken negotiated the charter of two oil @-@ burning steamships from the United States Maritime Commission ’ s reserve fleet . These were the West Neris and the West Hematite . Two Irish crews travelled to New Orleans to take over the ships , which they did on 9 September 1941 . The West Neris was renamed Irish Oak and West Hematite was renamed Irish Pine . Both were chartered by government owned Irish Shipping Limited ( ISL ) and managed by the Limerick Steamship Company , with their port of registry changed to Dublin . The Irish Oak was captained by Matthew Moran of Wexford ; the Irish Pine by Frank Dick of Islandmagee , with Samuel McNamara of Belfast as Chief Engineer . = = = Initial sailing , convoys and delays = = = Destined to carry wheat and phosphate fertilizer , both ships sailed initially from New Orleans for St John 's in October 1941 , to take on cargoes of wheat bound for Ireland . Since insurers such as Lloyd 's of London charged higher premiums for ships not in convoy , the Irish Oak and the Irish Pine were painted war @-@ time camouflage in preparation for sailing in @-@ convoy . Irish Pine joined Convoy SC 56 and arrived in Dublin on 11 December 1941 . In contrast , Irish Oak experienced a number of serious mishaps and setbacks : Chief Engineer R. Marsh , of Dublin , suffered a heart attack and was hospitalised in New Orleans ; another engineer , O ’ Keefe of Dún Laoghaire , was severely burned in a boiler room blow @-@ back and hospitalised in St John ; and a locally recruited Greek replacement engineer caused difficulties , was reported to the Canadian authorities by the captain , and jailed . Initially Irish Oak sailed with Convoy SC 52 , which departed from Sydney , Nova Scotia on 29 October 1941 . On 3 November the convoy was attacked by U @-@ 202 and U @-@ 203 and lost four ships ; it turned back for Sydney and arrived on 5 November . But neglect had left the Irish Oak in poor condition . Ships from SC 52 were merged with Convoy SC 53 and Irish Oak sailed with it , but had to return to Sydney . Her next attempt was with Convoy SC 55 , which departed Sydney on 16 November 1941 and arrived at Liverpool on 5 December , but again engine problems struck and she was towed to Saint John , New Brunswick . Irish Oak remained in St. John for four months while efforts were made to repair her engine . Eventually she had to be towed to Boston for repairs . The voyage from New Orleans to Dublin - including repairs - took nine months : Irish Oak berthed in Dublin on 6 July 1942 . = = = Out of convoy sailings = = = The crew of the Irish Oak became acutely uneasy after her engine failed and she was left behind by SC 55 , dead in the water , to wait for a tugboat ; this , coupled with the experiences of other Irish ships , especially in OG 71 , the " Nightmare Convoy " in August 1941 , resolved Irish crews and owners to sail as neutrals , out @-@ of @-@ convoy . Thereafter Irish ships were clearly marked and fully lit , usually sailing out @-@ of @-@ convoy on a direct course , and they always answered SOS calls for assistance . Irish ships rescued 534 men ; yet lost 20 % of their seamen . Irish Shipping Limited built up its fleet to 15 ships . Two ships were lost , Irish Oak , and Irish Pine , on which 33 lives were lost . The ISL ships alone saved some 166 lives . = = = The Stornest = = = At 04 : 44 on 14 October 1942 , in very bad weather , Irish Oak received a distress call from British ship Stornest , a straggler from convoy ONS 136 , torpedoed by U @-@ 706 . Irish Oak answered the call and altered course . Six minutes later Stornest radioed Irish Oak that they were abandoning ship in life @-@ rafts , having lost their lifeboats in the heavy seas . Irish Oak continued to relay Stormest 's SOS and spent ten hours searching for survivors in a westerly gale . The rescue tug Adherent , the anti @-@ submarine trawler Drangey and two corvettes from convoy ONS 137 joined the search , to no avail . Stornest 's crew of 29 and ten gunners were lost at sea . A week later Captain Matthew Moran was fatally injured while boarding at the Dublin quayside , when the gangway collapsed beneath him . He was replaced by Captain Eric Jones ( see Crew ) . = = = Encounter with U @-@ 650 = = = On 14 May 1943 , Irish Oak was en route from Tampa , Florida , to Dublin with a cargo of 8 @,@ 000 tons of phosphate fertiliser . Smoke from an allied convoy was visible ahead in the distance ; in general Irish ships were sailing out @-@ of @-@ convoy at this time . At 2.23pm German U @-@ boat U @-@ 650 came alongside . There was no contact or exchange between the vessels . They continued alongside each other all afternoon . At nightfall Irish Oak turned on her lights , in accordance with her neutral status . Apparently satisfied , U @-@ 650 departed during the night . Irish Oak continued sailing astern of Convoy SC 129 . As it happened , on the same day U @-@ 642 reported that an aircraft carrier ( the escort carrier HMS Biter with the 5th Escort Group ) was joining the convoy ; in fear of the aircraft , the stalking U @-@ boats were ordered to " break off operations against convoy " . = = = Torpedoed = = = As dawn broke next morning , 15 May 1943 , a torpedo hit Irish Oak at 8 : 19am ( 12 : 19 German Summer Time ) . Two torpedoes were launched , one missed , the other struck her port side and exploded . At the time it was uncertain which submarine had launched the torpedoes . Its periscope remained visible as lifeboats were lowered . The submarine waited until the lifeboats were well clear before firing a coup de grâce at 9 : 31 am . Irish Plane , Irish Rose and Irish Ash responded to the SOS . The survivors were located by Irish Plane at 4 : 20 pm . Irish Oak lies in position 47 ° 51 ′ N 25 ° 53 ′ W , almost midway between Newfoundland and Ireland . = = = Landfall = = = The survivors landed at Cobh on 19 May . They were welcomed by Samuel Roycroft , a director of both the Limerick Steamship Company and of Irish Shipping Limited . They lunched at the Imperial Hotel , Cork . On arrival in Dublin on 21 May , they were welcomed by Peadar Doyle , the Lord Mayor , and hosted to lunch at Leinster House , home of the Dáil Éireann ( Ireland 's parliament ) , on 24 May . It was common practice for crews ' wages to be stopped when a ship was sunk . Famed Labour leader James Larkin raised the issue of the survivors ' treatment in the Dáil Éireann . Citing the crew member who was told by the Labour exchange to ' go and get his record card ' , which was lost when Irish Oak sank , he suggested that the Dáil Éireann ask the German Consul @-@ General to send a submarine to retrieve it . = = Aftermath = = = = = British = = = At the time it was not known which submarine had sunk Irish Oak . The survivors knew only that it was not U @-@ 650 . In the House of Commons Sir William Davidson called for a formal protest , because Irish Oak had not warned the convoy , and Douglas Lloyd Savory called for an end of coal exports to Ireland . No official action was taken : Ireland was exporting food to Britain at the time . Also , Paul Emrys @-@ Evans revealed that the convoy knew about the U @-@ boat ; the British stance was that , as it already knew of the presence of both Irish Oak and U @-@ 607 , there was no need for Irish Oak to have warned the convoy . = = = Irish = = = During World War I the South Arklow Lightvessel Guillemot , operated by the Commissioners of Irish Lights , had given warning of a U @-@ boat . In consequence on 28 March 1917 UC @-@ 65 surfaced , ordered the crew into their lifeboat , and sank the Guillemot . Against this background the sinking of Irish Oak became a hotly debated issue . The Irish Government 's stance was that Irish Oak had not warned the Allied convoy of a U @-@ boat presence , as stated by Éamon de Valera in the Dáil , and by Irish Shipping Limited . De Valera went on to say that it was " ... no business of Irish ships to give any information to anyone " . A rumour to the contrary was picked up by the Irish Labour Party . James Everett asked : " Was information given to the British convoy that a submarine was sighted the night before ? " Discussion in the Dáil during the run @-@ up to the General Election , focused on the possibility that a warning had been transmitted and demands were made to know the nationality of the captain ( a British subject ) : Bill Norton : " Would the Taoiseach state the nationality of the master of the ship ? " Éamon de Valera : " I do not know it . " James Hickey : " I think the Taoiseach should take a deep interest in finding out the nationality of the captains of our ships . " William Davin : " Is the Taoiseach aware that a recommendation was submitted that Irish nationals should get preference for these ships ? " Norton , Hickey and Davin were Labour Party members . Luke Duffy , secretary of the Labour Party , said that the " ... government was guilty of duplicity and near belligerency behind a facade of neutrality . They had placed foreign nationals on the bridge of Irish ships ... " . The party issued an advertisement condemning the " criminal conduct of the Fianna Fáil Government in sending brave men to their doom on the Irish Oak " . Responding to allegations that Irish Oak had acted in such a way as to endanger her neutral status , Irish Shipping Limited stated : " ... whether ... any information had been conveyed to a British convoy that a submarine had been sighted . The company states in the most explicit manner that there is no foundation whatever for the suggestion contained in the question . No such message was sent . Seán MacEntee ( Fianna Fáil Party ) placed a counter advertisement in the Irish Times titled " Licence to Sink , " saying that the Labour Party sought to justify the sinking of the Irish Oak ; " But for these ships many of our people might have been hungry , would have been idle " ... " If our people were hungry and idle they would be more ready to listen to their pernicious doctrines " . After the election William Davin complained of " the unfounded allegations and the slanderous and libellous statements made against members of this { sic Labour } Party " ... " had the audacity to charge members of this Party , during the recent election campaign , with having condoned the sinking of the Irish Oak . Could anything be more scandalous , or more untrue ? " Although Labour increased its representation and de Valera 's Fianna Fáil party lost seats in the General Election , Éamon de Valera remained in power with the support of the Farmers ' Party . = = = American = = = It was not known at the time which submarine had sunk Irish Oak , only that it was not U @-@ 650 . Irish Shipping Limited was negotiating a lease of the SS Wolverine from the United States . The U.S. State Department intervened , asking why Ireland had not protested to Germany for the sinking . The Irish replied that they protested other sinkings when the attacker was known . They protested the attacks on the colliers Glencullen and Glencree . They referred to the attack on the MV Kerlogue by two unidentified aircraft , initially denied by the British but admitted when shell fragments of British manufacture were found . No further American ships were leased or sold to Ireland . = = = German = = = Not until after the war was it learned U @-@ 607 had sunk Irish Oak . This action , and U @-@ 607 's report , were not well received . Her Captain , Oberleutnant zur See Wolf Jeschonnek , claimed Irish Oak was a Q @-@ ship with false Irish markings , sailing without lights . " The Second Lieutenant excused the sinking by saying that " IRISH OAK " was obviously a " Q " ship . He alleged that she was sailing at night without lights , zigzagging , and travelling at fourteen knots , although she appeared capable of barely half that speed . " Flag Officer U @-@ boats said it ought not to have happened , but could be attributed to an understandable mistake by an eager captain . " The precise observance of Irish neutrality and of all Flag Officer U @-@ boats ' strict orders in this connection is the duty of all U @-@ boat captains and is in the most immediate and pressing interests of the German Reich " . U @-@ 607 was sunk , while in convoy with two other U @-@ boats , in the Bay of Biscay on 13 July 1943 by a Sunderland flying boat of 228 Squadron Royal Air Force , assisted by a Halifax of 58 Squadron . Oberleutnant Jeschonnek and six of his crew were taken prisoner ; the rest perished . Nine days after the sinking of Irish Oak , on 24 May 1943 , Admiral Dönitz ordered a U @-@ boat withdrawal from the Atlantic . Of their operational fleet , 41 U @-@ boats – or 25 % – had been lost in Black May , against a total of 50 Allied merchant ships destroyed . The Battle of the Atlantic was over . = = Crew = = The crew of the Irish Oak when she was sunk on 15 May 1943 , all of whom were rescued : Eric Jones had been captain of the SS Luimneach when it was sunk by gunfire from U @-@ 46 on 4 September 1940 . He then captained the SS Edenvale , which was bombed on 17 October 1941 . Thomas Donohue ( Second Mate ) went on to captain MV Kerlogue , replacing Desmond Fortune who was unable to walk following the RAF attack on it . James Burke ( Radio Officer ) had served on SS Oropesa which was torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 96 , with 106 lives lost . = = Official Numbers , Code Letters and Call Signs = = Official Numbers , a forerunner to IMO Numbers , were : West Neris - United States Official Number 219439 . Irish Oak - United Kingdom Official Number 189859 . Code Letters : West Neris - LVFP until 1933 . Call signs , the replacement of code letters from 1934 : KOTK from 1934 . Irish Oak - EINY . = = Other ships named Irish Oak = = In 1949 , Irish Shipping Limited acquired a new Irish Oak ( Official Number 174596 ) . Built for ISL by J. Readhead and Sons Ltd . , South Shields ; Bill Norton complained that it was to be British built . It would be immortalised in Frank McCourt ’ s book “ ’ Tis ” . In 1967 she was sold to Proverde Shipping of Greece and renamed Vegas . In 1979 , en route from Piraeus to Vietnam , she ran aground near Jeddah , was re @-@ floated but sold for breaking up . In 1973 , Irish Shipping Limited acquired another Irish Oak , a bulk carrier motor ship with a diesel engine . Irish Oak , 16 @,@ 704 GRT , 25 @,@ 649 DWT , was in service with Irish Shipping until 1982 .
= Jim Gannon = James Paul " Jim " Gannon ( born 7 September 1968 ) is a former footballer who is now manager of National League North side Stockport County . He started and finished his career as a player in Ireland , but made most of his professional appearances in the English Football League at Stockport County , where supporters elected him as a member of the Hall of Fame . Gannon began his playing career at Dundalk , but moved to English club Sheffield United in 1989 . The next year he transferred to Stockport County , following a short loan spell with Halifax Town . He spent the next ten years at Stockport , becoming one of the club 's most loyal servants , and helped the club to second @-@ place finishes in both the Second Division and Fourth Division , as well as two Football League Trophy finals . After leaving the club in 2000 , he spent a season with Crewe Alexandra , before returning to Ireland with Shelbourne , winning two League of Ireland Premier Division titles in his three years there . Starting a career in management , he took charge of his first club Dundalk in 2004 . After a season in Ireland he returned to Stockport County as manager . There he led the club to promotion from League Two via the play @-@ offs in 2008 . Leading County to safety in League One despite a ten @-@ point deduction for entering administration , he lost his job as part of a cost @-@ cutting measure . Heading to Scottish Premier League side Motherwell , he managed the club in the Europa League , but left after just 25 games in charge . He took charge of Championship side Peterborough United in 2010 , but stayed at the struggling club for only two months , turning down a four @-@ year contract . In January 2011 he was appointed manager of Port Vale , but lasted just ten weeks in the job . He returned to Stockport in November 2011 , as the club 's director of football and manager , before being sacked in January 2013 . He took charge at Northwich Victoria in December 2013 . He spent just over two years with Northwich before returning to manage Stockport County for the third time in January 2016 . = = Early life = = Gannon was born in Southwark , South London and moved with his family to Ireland at a young age . He considers himself to be ' a working class Irish Catholic ' . = = Playing career = = = = = Early career = = = In 1987 he received his start in higher level football with Irish club Turlough O 'Connor 's Dundalk . Whilst with the club he played in both the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , in a highly successful period in the club 's history . During his spell at the club they did the Irish double , winning both the FAI Cup and topping the League of Ireland Premier Division in 1987 – 88 . His performances for Dundalk earned him a £ 70 @,@ 000 move to Sheffield United in April 1989 . However he was unable to break into the first team at Bramall Lane . He spent a brief time in 1989 – 90 on loan at struggling Halifax Town , making two appearances for the " Shaymen " . = = = Stockport County = = = In 1990 he moved to Stockport County , who paid United between £ 40 @,@ 000 and £ 75 @,@ 000 for his services . He remained at the club for ten years , during which the club would win promotion on two occasions , and make four Wembley appearances . On 10 March 1993 , Gannon verbally abused Stoke City player Mark Stein , who reacted by assaulting Gannon . Gannon made a formal complaint to the police and as a result Stein was later required to appear in court for the attack . The two players ' confrontation continued the following month after Gannon 's then @-@ girlfriend spat at Stein in a post @-@ match interview . Stein was given a conditional discharge after the court accepted he was under " extreme provocation " from what he claimed was racial abuse . During his early days at the club Gannon was criticised by supporters for his performances , but he soon won them over after moving from centre @-@ half to become a goalscoring midfielder . Stockport fans named him ' The Ghost ' , due to his knack of ' ghosting ' in at the back of the box to score from crosses . He was also nicknamed ' Big Jimbo ' . In 1990 – 91 , County achieved promotion from the Fourth Division as runners @-@ up . In 1992 he made his first trip to Wembley Stadium , as Stockport lost 1 – 0 to Stoke City in the Football League Trophy final . During the same season , Stockport also reached the Third Division play @-@ off Final , but were defeated at Wembley . The following year , County again reached the League Trophy Final , but lost 2 – 1 to Port Vale . In January 1994 Gannon joined Notts County on a brief loan spell to help him overcome some personal problems . Returning to Stockport , he finished the season with his fourth trip to Wembley in two years , as County were denied promotion from the Second Division by a 2 – 1 defeat to Burnley . The team finally achieved promotion from the division in 1996 – 97 as runners @-@ up . This promotion was built on a strong defence , of which Gannon and fellow centre @-@ back Sean Connelly were a major part . The following season , County achieved an eighth @-@ place finish in the First Division . He played under the management of Danny Bergara , Dave Jones , Gary Megson , and Andy Kilner . On 21 March 2000 , during a game with Manchester City , he ruptured his anterior cruciate ligaments , keeping him out of action for several months . He was awarded a testimonial against Manchester City in August 2000 , but got into a dispute with the club over the financial arrangements . He then left the club in November 2000 , and issued employment tribunal proceedings for unfair dismissal . = = = Later career = = = The following month he joined Dario Gradi 's Crewe Alexandra on non @-@ contract terms . After ten games with Crewe , he returned to Ireland . Following a break from football to obtain qualifications in accountancy , Gannon signed with Shelbourne in August 2001 . Despite being appointed as captain upon his arrival , he initially struggled to get into the first team during the 2001 – 02 League Championship winning season , and considered a move back to England . However he found himself a key member of the defence when new manager Pat Fenlon took over . Under Fenlon , Gannon helped the " Shels " to a second @-@ place finish in 2002 – 03 , and also played in the 2002 – 03 UEFA Champions League qualifying rounds , scoring past Hibernians in a 2 – 2 draw at the Ta ' Qali National Stadium . He did not feature extensively in the club 's 2003 League Championship winning side . Gannon holds a unique record , having scored in all four English divisions , the FA Cup , the Football League Cup , the Full Members Cup , the English League play @-@ offs , the League of Ireland , the FAI Cup , the League of Ireland Cup , and the UEFA Champions League . He has received two distinguished honours from Stockport 's supporters since leaving the club – being elected to the Stockport Hall of Fame and as Honorary Vice President of the Hatters Independent Supporters Club . His 479 club appearances puts him in third spot in Stockport 's all @-@ time appearance list and his 65 goals are ninth in their scoring records . = = Managerial career = = = = = Dundalk = = = In June 2004 he was appointed to his first managerial post , taking charge of Dundalk , who were also the first club in Gannon 's professional playing career . The side finished sixth in the League of Ireland First Division in the 2004 season . On 14 November 2005 , Gannon confirmed his resignation from Dundalk after his position had been called into question as his chief supporters , vice @-@ chairman Tom Baldwin and chief executive Sean Connolly , left the club . This left Dundalk without a manager for their final match of the 2005 season , in which they had already secured a comfortable mid @-@ table position in Ireland 's second tier of association football . Prior to Gannon 's departure , the team had drawn ten consecutive matches . = = = Stockport County = = = = = = = 2005 – 06 = = = = In November 2005 , Gannon was appointed as director of Stockport County 's centre of excellence for girls . After the resignation of Chris Turner as Stockport County manager on Boxing Day 2005 , Gannon was appointed as caretaker manager with the team nine points adrift of safety at the bottom of League Two , facing potential relegation from the Football League . County went undefeated in Gannon 's first four league games in charge . After three weeks , this upturn in results saw Gannon offered the job full @-@ time , which allowed him to guide County to safety . The club won more than twice as many points in the second half of the season than they did in the first . Believing that safety would be assured on the final day of the season , he was proved correct as they managed to avoid relegation with a final day draw with champions Carlisle United . Comparisons were made to Sam Allardyce . As a committed Stockport fan , and already a legend at the club for his ten years as a player , he was loved by many County supporters . After delaying talks , he accepted a one @-@ year rolling contract in the summer . = = = = 2006 – 07 = = = = At the beginning of the 2006 – 07 season , Gannon and Stockport announced they had drawn up a five @-@ year plan to take the club to the Championship . Results on the field followed this statement of intent , with Gannon leading County to a League record nine consecutive victories without conceding a goal . Gannon lodged a complaint with The Football Association against Bristol Rovers when a fixture was postponed due to a waterlogged pitch , as he felt not enough was done to ready the pitch , and also a complaint with regard to the referee 's handling of the situation . Gannon was later incensed with the FA when the same referee was allowed to take charge of the postponed fixture , which Rovers won 2 – 1 . Gannon also branded approaches from Manchester City and Liverpool questionable and unprofessional after the two Premier League clubs swooped for youngsters being trained in Stockport County 's development squads . During the season , Gannon and Stockport began to form a close relationship with Alan Lord , the founder of Football Development School ProFootball4u . Anthony Pilkington , who began to feature in County 's first team in the second half of this season , was developed through Lord 's school . At the end of the season , Lord was taken on at County as a scout and development team coach ; he would later follow Gannon to Motherwell . County missed out on the League Two play @-@ offs due to results on the final day of the season , missing out on goal difference despite a 5 – 0 victory over Darlington . = = = = 2007 – 08 = = = = The 2007 – 08 season started with a friendly marking the death of Danny Bergara , the manager who had brought Gannon to County as a player in 1990 . The friendly was against Cardiff City , managed by Dave Jones , who also managed County whilst Gannon was a player at the club . On 12 February , Gannon had to leave his father critically ill in hospital in Ireland to lead his team out to a 4 – 1 victory over Rotherham United . Later in the year Gannon publicly criticised Paul Ince and the MK Dons after he felt the " Dons " were poor sports in their 3 – 2 victory over County that ensured Ince 's side promotion out of the division . County finished the 2007 – 08 season fourth in the league , and subsequently won their play @-@ off semi @-@ final against Wycombe Wanderers 2 – 1 on aggregate . The club had previously visited Wembley four times , and Gannon had played on all four occasions . He did as a manager what he could never do as a player , and guided Stockport victory at Wembley . The 3 – 2 win over Rochdale earned Gannon 's club promotion to League One . He refused to give a post @-@ match interview to Sky Sports following a nine @-@ month dispute with the company over a broken Skybox . Nevertheless , having quickly taken Stockport from the foot of League Two and into League One on a meagre budget , Gannon had established himself as one of the most highly rated young managers in the lower leagues . In the summer he sold Liam Dickinson to Derby County for £ 750 @,@ 000 – a player signed by previous manager , Chris Turner from Woodley Sports for a nominal fee just over two years previous . = = = = 2008 – 09 = = = = Gannon led County to an impressive start to the season following their promotion , and they spent Christmas in the play @-@ off places with the best away record in the division . The new year started uncomfortably for Gannon ; with media speculation linking him with a move away from Edgeley Park , and the club announcing they were in financial difficulty , he took interviews reassuring fans of his intent to stick by County . Gannon stuck to his one @-@ year rolling deal after rejecting new contract offers from the club . After a touch @-@ line argument with then @-@ club captain Gareth Owen , Gannon gave a forthright interview explaining that disciplinary action would be taken , and Owen would be stripped of the captaincy . Owen , who was later released by the club , did not play another game for County . Meanwhile , Gannon was left threatening police action over a strong challenge that left Stockport striker Matty McNeil unconscious and in hospital . On 24 February 2009 Stockport agreed to allow Gannon to hold talks with Brighton & Hove Albion , who were seeking to fill the managerial position left vacant by Micky Adams . He suggested that his family would play a large part in his decision to move clubs , with Stockport 's financial troubles looming but uprooting his family to move to Brighton being undesirable . Gannon was made favourite to be given the job by several bookmakers , and he met with Brighton chairman Dick Knight on the 25th , before announcing on the 26th that he had chosen not to take the job . Knight had indicated that Gannon was his first choice for the job , and former Stockport players now at Brighton had shown their desire for Gannon to be given the job . However , Gannon turned down the opportunity and vowed stay with at the Edgeley Park club . During the final weeks of the season , County were placed into Administration and docked 10 points , leaving them placed dangerously close to the relegation places . On 6 May 2009 , soon after the final game of the season , Gannon was made redundant as manager of Stockport along with assistant boss Peter Ward . This was done by the administrators in order to slash the wage bill . = = = Motherwell = = = As speculation of a move to Hibernian came to nothing ( despite his being installed as the bookmaker 's favourite ) , Gannon instead was confirmed as manager of Scottish Premier League side Motherwell at the end of June 2009 , two days before the club 's Europa League first round qualifying tie against Llanelli of Wales . To do this he fended off competition from Aidy Boothroyd , Lawrie Sanchez , and Steve Staunton . At the start of his reign he had a limited squad , and had to draft in youth players for the Llanelli game . The club had sold off some of their best players , whilst loan deals had ended for others . He also brought in Peter Ward as assistant manager . " He has a very very good tactical sense , he is a great motivator of players , he works particularly well with young players and brings them on , which is important at a club the size of Motherwell , and he has boundless enthusiasm " . After taking the job , Gannon said that he hoped to bring in up to six players , most of them from England to bolster a squad threadbare after summer exits . On 2 July , his first game in charge in the Europa League first round qualifying first leg , Motherwell lost 1 – 0 against Llanelli . However , on the away leg in Wales , the " Steelmen " recorded a 3 – 0 win to send them into the next round . Motherwell then beat Flamurtari Vlorë 8 – 2 on aggregate after an 8 – 1 victory in the home leg . Motherwell were then knocked out by Romanian side FC Steaua București 6 – 1 on aggregate . Gannon was sent to the stand in Motherwell 's Europa League match against Bucharest ; however Gannon later stated he did not know why he , or his assistant manager were sent off by Spanish referee Carlos Clos Gómez . His first league victory was a 3 – 1 win over Kilmarnock at Fir Park . Gannon was named Manager of the Month for October 2009 , but he warned of a clear out in the January transfer window . His young team impressed , but proved to be inconsistent . Gannon had a dispute with the SFA head of referee development Hugh Dallas , following Gannon 's criticism of Scottish referees . Gannon had claimed the standard of refereeing was " bringing the game into disrepute " . He suggested a league table for referees . He then felt the official response to his criticisms to be disrespectful . Following this he temporarily refused to speak to the media , claiming he did not wish to cause further controversy . He also criticised his predecessor Mark McGhee , after McGhee speculated in the press on possible transfers of Motherwell players . As well as this he had a public @-@ falling out with club captain Stephen Craigan . On 28 December , Gannon was sacked by Motherwell , with the club indicating that Gannon was " not fully committed to the club " as the reason for their decision . He had been rumoured to be looking for other jobs . Gannon was reportedly working under a temporary contract , and was yet to sign a longer term deal as had been expected . Though the board were satisfied with results on the pitch , they felt that the relationship between Gannon and the directors had broken down . Dubbed a ' loose Gannon ' , it was seen that either he or club captain Craigan would leave the club . Despite this he was praised for his signings from the English leagues , and for the good open passing football his young side could play whilst at their best . Motherwell went on to finish the season in fifth place under Craig Brown . = = = Peterborough United = = = On 2 February 2010 Gannon was appointed manager of Peterborough United , following the sacking of Mark Cooper . The " Posh " lay bottom of the Championship , nine points adrift of safety . He aimed to restore ' pride ' in the club , and offered a fresh start to unsettled players . He won his first game in charge , leading The Posh to a 1 – 0 victory over QPR on 6 February . His contract due to expire in the summer , the club were keen to tie him down to a longer deal . There soon came confusion over the exact role of the manager and others at the club in terms of recruiting new players . He utilised unique tactical formations , which earned him comparisons to Martin O 'Neill . He was particularly experimental with the front line , and was willing to use the loan market to bring in fresh talent . On 24 March , it was announced Gannon would leave Peterborough at the end of the season . Unable to avoid relegation despite a vast upturn in results , he announced that family commitments made him unwilling to stay for longer . Gannon had been satisfied with the board 's contract offer , but his family still resided in Stockport . He was replaced by Gary Johnson on 6 April , following Gannon 's own recommendation of Johnson . Though Gannon insisted that this was not ultimately his decision , but instead was down to the board . Striker Liam Dickinson was sad to seem him go , and told the media that Gannon would have little trouble finding a new management post . = = = Port Vale = = = In January 2011 , Gannon was one of three candidates reported to have impressed in interviews for the vacant Port Vale job , making him one of the favourites for the position . However , Paul Simpson 's dismissal at Stockport County led to hopes of a return to the club for some County fans . Therefore , he was installed as the bookies favourite to become the next Port Vale manager , and also the bookie 's favourite for the Stockport job . Gannon was confirmed as the manager of Port Vale on 6 January 2011 , succeeding Micky Adams at the helm of the promotion chasing club , signing a contract that lasted until summer 2012 . Saying that finishing outside of the top seven would be a failure , the Cheshire @-@ based manager 's first task after ' burying the hatchet ' with Gareth Owen was to look for a new striker . Two weeks into his reign club captain Tommy Fraser left the club by mutual consent , as signs of what would be an unhappy relationship between club and manager quickly came to the surface . Gannon then brought in Romaine Sawyers and Kayleden Brown on loan from West Bromwich Albion , Jay O 'Shea on loan from Birmingham City , Exodus Geohaghon on loan from Peterborough United , and striker Tom Pope on loan from Rotherham United . Losing four of his first five games in charge , Gannon was forced to respond to criticism over his team selections and substitutions , and announced plans to expand the club 's non @-@ playing staff . On 1 February the players met with the Chairman and rumours spread that Gannon had ' lost the dressing room ' , as comparisons were made with the tenure of Brian Clough in The Damned United . Yet the next day an O 'Shea volley gave Vale a 1 – 0 win over promotion rivals Rotherham United to give Gannon his first win in charge at the club . However tension remained , as proven at the end of the month when it was reported that Gannon left the team bus on a pre @-@ match journey after rowing with assistant manager Geoff Horsfield . Gannon had previously told the press his staff were ' underqualified ' , though insisted any changes would be ' implemented at a later stage ' and that Horsfield was a ' great assistant ' . It was later reported in the national media that Horsfield had requested a day off to deal with a family matter , Gannon then granted him permission but subsequently wrote a letter to the board complaining of his conduct . An unnamed director then handed the letter to Horsfield , who confronted Gannon over the issue , brandishing the letter as proof when Gannon denied its existence . This came on the same day that local paper The Sentinel ran an editorial that questioned his loan signings , his decision to drop Gary Roberts and branded his tactics and team selections as baffling . Having returned to the team to steer his side to a 2 – 1 victory over Aldershot , Gannon said " there 's been misrepresentation in the media over my part in this . I 'm completely the innocent party " . The club informed Horsfield that he would face a disciplinary hearing , whilst Gannon would not be asked to defend his actions and would merely provide a witness statement . The club took no action , and after Horsfield spent two weeks at home the pair returned to work as before . He continued to exploit the loan market , signing Dominic Blizzard from Bristol Rovers , a midfielder who played under him at Stockport . Results continued to go against the Vale though , as on 19 March they lost 3 – 0 at Accrington Stanley , and as a result dropped out of the play @-@ off zone for the first time in the season . Ugly post @-@ match scenes at the Crown Ground saw Geohaghon confront fans who singled him out for abuse , whilst Gannon was ushered quietly out of the back door . Roberts told the media " I don 't think the manager likes me and , to be honest , I don 't like him " . Rumours circulated that Gannon would soon be on his way out . These rumours were proved accurate two days later , as Gannon 's departure was confirmed by the club . Hugely unpopular with Vale supporters , his sacking was " quick and with little emotion " , whilst his poor man @-@ management skills helped to earn him the dubious honour of having the shortest reign in the club 's history . Despite this he did receive credit for spotting the potential talent in a teenage Sam Morsy , and for bringing Tom Pope to the club . Gannon himself made a statement on his website declaring his disappointment in the club 's decision to terminate his contract after such a short period of time , and also bemoaned that he " wasn 't able to add many new players [ to the squad ] " . The " Valiants " continued to struggle under caretaker manager Mark Grew , winning just two of their remaining ten games , and finishing 2010 – 11 in eleventh place . = = = Return to Stockport County = = = Following the resignation of Dietmar Hamann in November 2011 , speculation came of a return to Stockport County for Gannon ; when questioned on the possibility , club chairman Lord Snape stated that should he apply for the position then " he 'd merit very serious consideration " . In the thirty months since Gannon 's departure , the club had seen five full @-@ time managers come and go , suffered relegation into the Conference National , and had not won back @-@ to @-@ back games since February 2009 . On 14 November , he was revealed as the club 's director of football , a position leaving him " responsible for all football matters including 1st team selection and transfers " ; Willie McStay remained at the club , as his assistant . When he took charge Stockport were seventeenth in the league , just two points above the relegation zone , having won just three of their opening twenty games . He stated that his aim for 2011 – 12 was to avoid letting the club slip to a third successive relegation . After losing his first five games in charge , including a 7 – 0 thumping from Grimsby Town at Blundell Park , Gannon admitted that the club 's finances limited his ability to change personnel . He also stated that " if I didn 't take the job , this club would 've had a real chance of dying ... I 'm not proud to be the manager of a club that loses 7 – 0 ... but this is my team now ... It has always been my club , so it 's my responsibility to make things better , and over time we will . " He released striker Antonio German , defender Chris Blackburn , and seven goal top @-@ scorer Nick Chadwick in the January transfer window . He then signed defender Joe Connor on non @-@ contract terms , and teenagers Aaron Cole and Danny Rowe on loan . His first win in his second spell at the club came on New Year 's Day , in a 3 – 2 victory over Barrow at Edgeley Park . He then re @-@ signed former players Paul Turnbull and Matty Mainwaring on loan . Worried by the situation at crisis clubs Darlington and Kettering Town , Gannon cancelled the contracts of veterans Matt Glennon , John Miles , Mark Lynch , and Ryan McCann . He brought in 23 @-@ year @-@ old Telford defender Sean Newton and 18 @-@ year @-@ old Sunderland keeper Lewis King on loan , whilst signing 19 @-@ year @-@ old Lancaster City midfielder Danny Hattersley on a permanent transfer . The " Hatters " secured their Conference status with two games to spare , after a 1 – 1 home draw with Braintree Town on 14 April , having lost just twice in the league at Edgeley Park since Gannon 's return . Stockport finished the campaign in 16th place , 10 points above the drop and 20 points below the play @-@ off zone . In preparation for the 2012 – 13 season , Gannon signed defenders Sean Newton and James Tunnicliffe , and took back Paul Turnbull on loan once again . However he was disappointed to lose striker Tom Elliott , who rejected a contract offer to switch to Cambridge United . He also appointed long @-@ time associate Alan Lord as his assistant . However County found themselves struggling in the league , and Gannon blamed the predicament on the board 's decision to slash the wage budget in the summer . An angry Lord Snape told the press that " I 'm getting pretty fed up of watching part @-@ time teams beat Stockport County . Changes are going to be made unless things improve . Jim Gannon 's pretty good at telling me how this club should be run . Well I 'm going to tell him that I 'm not impressed by the way the team is being run . If we lose a couple of our next games , we 're in a relegation battle with a much bigger budget than most of the teams down there with us , which quite frankly is not good enough . " Fourteen months into his second spell at Edgeley Park and with County sitting in the relegation zone , Gannon was relieved of his duties as Stockport manager on 16 January 2013 following the 3 – 1 home defeat by Mansfield Town . = = = Northwich Victoria = = = On 9 December 2013 it was announced that Gannon would become the new manager of Northern Premier League Division One North side Northwich Victoria . He replaced Lee Ashcroft , who resigned as manager and became director of football after picking up a ten match ban for sexist abuse . The " Vics " ended the 2013 – 14 season in ninth place . They reached the play @-@ offs in the 2014 – 15 campaign , losing to Bamber Bridge at the semi @-@ final stage . He took the club on a successful FA Cup run in the 2015 – 16 campaign , leaving them as the lowest rank team in the competition when they were knocked out by League Two side Northampton Town in the Second Round . Northwich had led 2 – 0 with eight minutes to play before a late comeback from Northampton . = = = Third spell at Stockport County = = = Gannon became manager of Stockport County , now in the National League North , for the third time in his career on 18 January 2016 . Gannon started off well , taking the team to the Cheshire Senior Cup final and up to ninth in the table with a sequence of seven games unbeaten , including five victories , in the run up to Easter . = = Managerial style = = Gannon is one of few managers in the lower leagues to hold a full UEFA Pro Licence . Priding himself on playing flowing football in the lower leagues of the English game , Gannon has repeatedly spoken out against clubs he feels play too physically , and referees he feels do not give his players enough protection . As a manager in England , Scotland and Ireland , his teams have picked up fair play awards . He has stated that this fair play approach is based on his belief that it is " good principles that lead to good football " . " My philosophy is good passing football , it is how I believe the game should be played and it brings out the best in players . It inspires them and motivates them to play football in the right manner . " Gannon has also been called a ' tactical maverick ' due to his unusual formations . These formations include 3 – 4 – 1 – 2 , 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 , 4 – 1 – 2 – 3 , and his preferred set @-@ up of 4 – 2 – 3 – 1 . He has stated that he prefers formations that use four lines of players ( as opposed to three lines in the classic 4 – 4 – 2 ) due to the added depth in defence and presence in midfield , and was inspired to use the formations by Carlo Ancelotti . He has also stated that he prefers the 4 – 3 – 3 formation to the 4 – 4 – 2 formation , and has criticised the way he perceives 4 – 4 – 2 to be ' ingrained in the culture ' of English football . He is known to be extremely thorough and meticulous in preparing his players for games . Of an outspoken nature , he has had public fallings out with players , referees , chairmen , opposition players and managers , and authorities . The Guardian surmised this by saying that " the feeling about Gannon is that it is His Way or the Highway . " = = Statistics = = = = = Playing statistics = = = Sourced from Jim Gannon profile at the English National Football Archive ( subscription required ) = = = Managerial statistics = = = As of match played 27 April 2016 . = = Honours = = = = = As player = = = Dundalk League of Ireland Premier Division champion : 1987 – 88 FAI Cup winner : 1988 Stockport County Football League Second Division runner @-@ up : 1996 – 97 Football League Fourth Division runner @-@ up : 1990 – 91 Football League Trophy runner @-@ up : 1992 , 1993 Shelbourne League of Ireland Premier Division : 2001 – 02 , 2003 League of Ireland Premier Division runner @-@ up : 2002 – 03 = = = As manager = = = Stockport County Football League Two play @-@ offs winner : 2008 Cheshire Senior Cup winner : 2016 Individual Scottish Premier League Manager of the Month : October 2009
= Tim Cross = Major General Timothy Cross , CBE ( born 19 April 1951 ) is a retired British Army officer and military logistics expert . He was commissioned in 1971 into the Royal Army Ordnance Corps and went on to serve in Germany , Northern Ireland and Cyprus , interspersed with staff duties and further education . He was posted to Paris in 1984 , where he was involved in the development of the MILAN anti @-@ tank weapon , before returning to his regiment as a company commander . He took command of 1 Ordnance Battalion in 1990 and was tasked with running logistics for 1st Armoured Division during the Gulf War . He went on to serve as Commander , Logistic Support for 3rd Infantry Division in 1992 . Cross served his first of three tours in the Balkans , attached to the Implementation Force ( IFOR ) , in 1995 – 1996 . His second was in 1997 , with the Stabilisation Force ( SFOR ) , where he commanded 101 Logistic Brigade , and his third in 1999 with the Kosovo Force ( KFOR ) . During his tour with KFOR , he was responsible for co @-@ ordinating multinational troops and civilian agencies in establishing refugee camps in the aftermath of the Kosovo War . He was later appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) for his service with KFOR . Cross was promoted to major general ( two @-@ star rank in NATO terms ) in 2000 and served as Director General , Defence Supply Chain until 2002 , when he became involved in planning for the forthcoming invasion of Iraq . He was the most senior British officer involved in the planning and in the Coalition Provisional Authority . His last command was as General Officer Commanding , Theatre Troops , Iraq . Since retiring from the Army in 2007 , Cross has been critical of the planning for Iraq after the removal of Saddam Hussein 's government , giving evidence to the Iraq Inquiry that he urged politicians to delay the invasion and calling the post @-@ war planning " woefully thin " . He serves as an advisor to the House of Commons Defence Select Committee and to several private companies , and is a visiting lecturer at several British universities . A convert to Christianity , he is a licensed lay reader in the Church of England and affiliated with several Christian organisations . Cross is married , with three children . = = Early life = = Cross is the son of Sidney George and Patricia Mary Cross . Having always wanted to be a soldier , he applied to join the Army at the age of fourteen , but was rejected due to his age . He joined the Army Cadet Force in 1964 and , after his secondary education , was accepted to study at Welbeck Defence Sixth Form College , before attending the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in 1969 . = = Early military career = = Cross started at Sandhurst in 1969 and was commissioned into the Royal Army Ordnance Corps as a second lieutenant on 30 July 1971 . His first tour was in West Germany , with the British Army of the Rhine ( BAOR ) in 1971 , after which he undertook an in @-@ service degree at the Royal Military College of Science ( now part of the Defence College of Management and Technology ) . He was promoted to lieutenant in 1973 . Having graduated as a Bachelor of Science in 1975 , he served a tour with 22 Air Defence Regiment , Royal Artillery , with responsibility for the regiment 's new Rapier missiles . Promoted to captain in 1977 , he went on to train as an Ammunition Technical Officer ( ATO ) and was posted to Northern Ireland in 1978 , where he was involved in explosive ordnance disposal along with inspection duties . Returning to the BAOR in 1979 , Cross served as Adjutant to 1 Ordnance Battalion , before a tour in Cyprus , attached to the United Nations peace @-@ keeping force in 1981 . He studied for an MSc in guided weapons at Staff College , Camberley from 1982 to 1983 and was promoted major on 30 September 1983 . Between 1984 and 1985 , he was posted to Paris as a British liaison to the MILAN anti @-@ tank missile programme , after which he rejoined 1 Ordnance Battalion as the company commander of 12 Ordnance Company . He was promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel on 30 June 1988 . Returning to Staff College , Camberley later that year as a member of the Directing Staff , he was heavily involved in the modernisation of the Command and Staff Course . In 1990 , Cross returned again to Germany to take command of 1 Ordnance Battalion , in which he had previously been adjutant and a company commander , and , in a double @-@ hatted post , was appointed Commander Supply , 1st Armoured Division . In the latter role , he was posted to Kuwait and later Iraq , as part of Operation Granby during the Gulf War . After Iraq , Cross was appointed the first Commander , Logistic Support for 3rd Infantry Division in late 1992 . During a re @-@ organisation of the Army in 1993 , the Royal Army Ordnance Corps was amalgamated to become part of the newly formed Royal Logistic Corps ( RLC ) , into which Cross transferred and was promoted to colonel . Having completed the Higher Command and Staff Course earlier in 1995 , he returned to 3rd Division and served in Bosnia as part of NATO 's Implementation Force in 1995 and 1996 . = = High command = = Cross was promoted to brigadier on 30 June 1996 . He was appointed Director , Materiel Supply and Distribution ( Army ) , a post which became Director , Materiel Support ( Army ) in 1997 as a result of re @-@ organisation , based in Andover , Hampshire . At the end of 1997 , he took command of the British National Support Element in the Balkans , responsible for supplying the British contingent of the NATO @-@ led Stabilisation Force ( SFOR ) . At the same time , he commanded the Combat Service Support Group , later renamed 101 Logistic Brigade . He returned to the UK in April 1998 , only to be told that he would be returning to the Balkans in January 1999 as part of the Kosovo Force ( KFOR ) . In this role , he was responsible for the humanitarian effort in the aftermath of the Kosovo War , establishing and maintaining refugee camps in Macedonia and Albania . He was tasked with commanding multinational troops , as well as coordinating the humanitarian efforts of personnel from the British Department for International Development , United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) and multiple non @-@ governmental organisations . Speaking about his service with KFOR , he later called it a " challenging and demanding deployment " and " the first time that I have come face to face with a large @-@ scale humanitarian crisis . " He went on to say that the most challenging part was the military working alongside large numbers of civilian agencies and that the Army needed to learn how to better work with such organisations — a need he said was " widely recognised " outside the military . In recognition of his service in the Balkans , Cross was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2000 New Year Honours List . From January to August 2000 , Cross attended the Royal College of Defence Studies , after which he was promoted to major general ( two @-@ star rank ) and appointed Director General , Defence Supply Chain . While Director General , he was responsible for the establishment of the United Kingdom 's Joint Force Logistic Component for the forthcoming operations in Iraq and became involved in planning for the invasion of the country . In early 2003 , he became the British representative to the United States Department of Defense 's Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance , later the Coalition Provisional Authority following the invasion , and one of three deputies to American Lieutenant General Jay Garner . Cross was involved in coordinating the reconstruction of the country following the fall of Saddam Hussein 's government , and was the most senior British officer involved in post @-@ war planning for the country . Shortly after the invasion of Iraq , he appeared on BBC Breakfast with Frost , speaking to presenter Peter Sissons about his role . He praised the military campaign and went on to talk about the challenges of rebuilding the country , saying " I think in relative terms we are not as badly off as me might have feared " , but agreed that there were insufficient " people on the ground " to ensure security in the aftermath of the invasion and removal of Saddam Hussein 's government . He was later deeply critical of the planning made for post @-@ war Iraq , and stated that he attempted to raise the issue of insufficient planning with politicians . However , he was never " overly concerned " by warnings from aid agencies of a massive humanitarian crisis in the aftermath of the invasion which , in the event , never materialised , though he admitted he had been too optimistic about the state of the Iraqi infrastructure . In the Breakfast with Frost interview , he drew an analogy with London , " if you imagine going into London and every Ministry building is completely empty of furniture , completely empty of people , most of the windows blown out , just trying to find the people who work in those Ministries , the equivalent of the Home Office and [ finding ] out who worked there , getting them back to work , beginning to pay their salaries which we 're now beginning to do , and encouraging them to come back and work with us is bound to take a bit of time . " Cross was given the honorary title of Colonel Commandant , Royal Logistic Corps on 5 April 2003 . On 9 October 2004 , he was appointed General Officer Commanding , Theatre Troops , Iraq — commander of all British Army combat personnel in the Iraq War . He retired from active service on 20 January 2007 , retaining the honorary title of Colonel Commandant , Royal Logistic Corps and , in April 2007 , was given the further ceremonial appointment of Honorary Colonel , 168 Pioneer Regiment ( Volunteers ) , Royal Logistic Corps . = = Retirement = = Cross has lectured both in the UK and elsewhere since his retirement and is a visiting professor at several British universities including the University of Nottingham , University of Reading and Cranfield University . He serves as an advisor to a number of organisations . Since 2007 , he has been army advisor to the House of Commons Defence Select Committee , as well as a defence advisor for Fujitsu and other companies . He is a non @-@ executive chairman at Asuure Ltd , a British security company , and serves as a director at the Centre for International Humanitarian Cooperation and the Humanitarian International Services Group . Following his retirement , Cross attacked US foreign policy on Iraq , calling the plans " fatally flawed " shortly after General Sir Mike Jackson — Chief of the General Staff at the time of the invasion and also recently retired — called the same plans " intellectually bankrupt " . In a 2009 interview , Cross praised the planning for the invasion and the removal of Saddam Hussein , but said that he " was very keen that we thought through carefully the postwar aspects of what we were going to do once the military campaign was over . And I think it 's now very public knowledge that that was not well handled . It was not well thought through , it was not well executed . And we lived with the consequences of that . " On 7 December 2009 , Cross publicly testified before the Iraq Inquiry , having previously argued that the proceedings should be held in public as , eventually , they were . He gave evidence about the post @-@ war planning done prior to the invasion of Iraq , stating that he had urged Prime Minister Tony Blair and his aide , Alastair Campbell , to delay the invasion two days prior to the beginning of the conflict . Cross told Sir John Chilcot , the inquiry chairman , that preparations for Iraq after the removal of Saddam Hussein were " woefully thin " . He went on to tell the inquiry that " although I was confident that we would secure a military victory , I offered my view that we should not begin that campaign until we had a much more coherent postwar plan . " In an interview for The Independent in January 2010 , Cross , speaking again about post @-@ war Iraq , claimed " A lot of senior generals were frustrated that they didn 't have sufficient resources " , and singled out both Blair and Clare Short , Secretary of State for International Development at the time of the invasion , as well as criticising the system in which funding was allocated for the Iraq campaign . = = Personal life = = Cross , a resolute Christian , converted to Christianity while on leave from a posting to Cyprus in 1981 . He visited Jerusalem over the Easter weekend and was inspired by a retired British Army officer he met there to convert . After converting , he considered leaving the Army , but has said in interviews that he reconciled his beliefs with his military service , contending that " the British Army as a community [ ... ] recognises the issue of spirituality and goodness and righteousness and justice and evil and wrong probably far more than most " . He is a licensed lay reader in the Church of England and has involvement with a number of Christian organisations , including as a trustee of the British and Foreign Bible Society and a former president of the Armed Forces Christian Union . In an interview for the Christian Broadcasting Network in 2009 , he said " The moral component of fighting power is about leadership , it 's about ethics , it 's about culture , it 's about how do you get people to fight and embedded within that is an element of justice and righteousness . [ I ] f you lose the moral component , you lose everything . I think we – collectively in the West – have gone through 30 - 40 years really of pretending that this moral component is not important , and that I don 't need to have a biblical foundation in my life . And I challenge that . " He has written on the subject in the British Army Review , an in house publication aimed at generating professional debate , where he described ideas of a secular Army as ' tripe ' and ' dangerously wrong ' and the rewrite of the motto of the Girl Guides , removing reference to God , as ' vapid and anodyne ' . He married Christine in 1972 . The couple live in Surrey and have two sons — one of whom is serving in the Royal Navy — one daughter and two grandchildren . Cross lists his interests as golf , sailing , walking , reading and writing — having written chapters and introductions for several books and papers .
= Priya Cooper = Priya Naree Cooper , OAM ( born 2 October 1974 ) is an Australian world champion disabled swimmer , winning nine Paralympic gold medals as well as world records and world championships . She competed in the Australian 1992 , 1996 and 2000 Summer Paralympics swimming team with an S8 classification . She was twice the co @-@ captain of the Australian Paralympic team , including at the 2000 Paralympic Games in Sydney , and carried the Australian flag at the closing ceremonies for the 1992 and 1996 Summer Paralympics . Cooper has cerebral palsy and spends much of her time in a wheelchair . She attended university , working on a course in health management . After she ended her competitive Paralympic career , she became a commentator , and covered the swimming events at the 2002 Commonwealth Games . = = Early life = = Priya Naree Cooper was born on 2 October 1974 in Perth , Western Australia . She was born with cerebral palsy , and spends 75 % of her time in a wheelchair . As a youngster , her mother encouraged her to try out several sports , including tap dancing and ballet . With her father 's encouragement , Cooper first started swimming in her backyard pool when she was six years old . Her first swimsuit was a bikini . Her father taught her to swim while making her wear big yellow floaties . She started competitive swimming at school carnivals . In the first one she competed in , she finished sixth in the F @-@ division 50 m butterfly . She was informed about disabled athletes by a teacher at school . Her initial reaction to learning about disabled sport was to question if she was " disabled enough " to compete . She made her first national team appearance when she was in year 12 in school , after winning twelve gold medals in national swimming meets . By that time , Cooper had already begun serious training , waking up at 4 a.m. to get pool time . = = Competitive athletic career = = Cooper is a world champion disabled swimmer , winning nine Paralympic gold medals as well as world records and world championships . She represented Wheelchair Sports Western Australia at the 1991 National Wheelchair Games , winning nine gold medals . Her home pool was the Swan Park Leisure Centre in Midvale , Western Australia . She had a number of coaches over the course of her competitive career , including Matthew Brown and Frank Ponta . Cooper made her Paralympic debut at the 1992 Summer Paralympics in Barcelona , at the age of 17 . She was in danger of not going to the 1992 Paralympics because of funding issues for the Australian Paralympic Federation . The Federation made an emergency appeal for funding from the public in order to cover the cost of transporting the Australian team to Barcelona . A variety of small donations allowed Cooper and other Australian athletes to compete . She won three Gold and two Silver medals , and broke two World records and three Paralympic records . She was offered a non @-@ residential Australian Institute of Sport Athletes with a Disability swimming scholarship in 1993 and supported until 2000 . She was a co @-@ captain of the Australian team at the 1996 Summer Paralympics , where she competed in six individual events and two relay events in the S8 class , winning five gold medals , four individual and one team , and one silver and one bronze medal . She set several world records at the 1996 Paralympic Games in Atlanta in the 200 m medley and the 400 m freestyle swimming events . She also set personal bests in the 100 m backstroke and 100 m freestyle . Her world record time in the 400 m freestyle was 5 : 11 @.@ 47 , her 100 m backstroke time was 1 : 23 @.@ 43 , and her 100 m freestyle time was 1 : 12 @.@ 08 . In 1998 , Cooper competed at the Paralympic Swimming World Championships in Christchurch , New Zealand . She set a world record in the 400m freestyle at the event . She set another world record in the S8 classification , with an 800m freestyle time of 10 : 40 @.@ 03 , three seconds faster than the previous record . She also won a gold medal in the 200m individual medley , with a finish that was half a second away from beating her own previous world record . Cooper competed in the Sporting Wheelies and Disabled Association @-@ sponsored 1998 Queensland Championships in five swimming events . She and Brad Thomas were invited to attend as special guest competitors . While attending , Cooper also hosted a coaching clinic with Thomas . In 1999 , Cooper moved to Sydney , the location of the 2000 Summer Paralympics , to prepare for the games . She had been living there for eighteen months at the time of those games . Her family continued to live in Perth and the move was an adjustment period for her . She helped to make several instructional videos for Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games ( SOCOG ) to help train volunteers for the games . In preparation for the 2000 Paralympics , the Australian Paralympic Committee created a CD to help with fundraising . She participated in this by choosing the song " Ashes " by The Superjesus and singing it onstage during the CD 's launch . At the 2000 Summer Paralympics , her last games , she was the co @-@ captain of the Australian Paralympic team . Coming into the 2000 Games , there were some concerns that she would not be able to compete because of a shoulder injury . She was worried about how receptive Australians and the world would be in terms of disabled sport prior to the Paralympics being hosted in Australia . She was surprised when the Paralympic Games started at how supportive Australians and international visitors were of athletes at the 2000 Paralympic Games . She won the 400 m freestyle and took three bronze medals in the 100 m freestyle , 4 x 100 m freestyle relay and 4 x 100 m medley relay events . After the Games , Cooper believed that they had a long reaching societal impact in terms of creating a better image for disabled people around the country and helping to increase acceptance of them as part of Australian society . She also believed that the Games would help increase spectatorship for Paralympic sports around the country . Cooper 's swimming style relied on upper body strength , with her legs trailing behind her . Despite her love of water , Cooper had a fear of swimming in the open water of the ocean . To help overcome this fear , she competed in the 2002 open water 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) Rottnest Channel Swim in Western Australia . = = Recognition = = Cooper was selected to carry the Australian flag at the closing ceremonies for the 1992 and 1996 Summer Paralympics . She was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia in 1993 , was named the 1995 Paralympian of the Year , was the Young Australian of the Year for Sport in 1999 , received an Australian Sports Medal in 2000 , and was inducted into the Western Australian Hall of Champions in 2006 . In 1998 , Cooper won a Dairy Farmers Sporting Chance award in swimming . That year , she also won a Curtin University of Technology John Curtin Medal . In 1999 , she won the APC Merit Award . Cooper was chosen to officially open the Perth Hockey Stadium at Curtin University in 2009 . She attended the tenth anniversary celebrations for the Sydney Olympic and Paralympic Games held at Sydney Olympic Park in 2010 . In October 2015 , she became the fourth Paralympian to be inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame . = = Personal life = = Cooper studied at Curtin University , where she graduated with a degree in health promotion and media . She was also a public speaker , attending events to talk about disabilities . Cooper had a volunteer position , where she worked as a scriptwriter for a radio station in Perth . At the age of 27 Cooper became a commentator for the 2002 Commonwealth Games , covering the swimming events . She is a Therapy Focus Ambassador , and a member of the Disabilities and Carer Council . She is actively involved in raising funds for several charities , and was part of the Great Pram Push event held in East Fremantle , Western Australia , a charity event that raised funds for the Starlight Children 's Foundation and the Children 's Leukaemia and Cancer Research Foundation . Cooper is married to Paralympic swimmer Rodney Bonsack and has two children .
= XYZ Affair = The XYZ Affair was a political and diplomatic episode in 1797 and 1798 , early in the administration of John Adams , involving a confrontation between the United States and Republican France that led to an undeclared war called the Quasi @-@ War . The name derives from the substitution of the letters X , Y and Z for the names of French diplomats Hottinguer ( X ) , Bellamy ( Y ) , and Hauteval ( Z ) in documents released by the Adams administration . An American diplomatic commission was sent to France in July 1797 to negotiate problems that were threatening to break out into war . The diplomats , Charles Cotesworth Pinckney , John Marshall , and Elbridge Gerry , were approached through informal channels by agents of the French Foreign Minister Talleyrand , who demanded bribes and a loan before formal negotiations could begin . Although such demands were not uncommon in mainland European diplomacy of the time , the Americans were offended by them , and eventually left France without ever engaging in formal negotiations . Gerry , seeking to avoid all @-@ out war , remained for several months after the other two commissioners left . His exchanges with Talleyrand laid groundwork for the eventual end to diplomatic and military hostilities . The failure of the commission caused a political firestorm in the United States when the commission 's dispatches were published . It led to the undeclared Quasi @-@ War ( 1798 to 1800 ) . Federalists who controlled the government took advantage of the national anger to build up the nation 's military . They also attacked the Jeffersonian Republicans for their pro @-@ French stance , and Elbridge Gerry ( a nonpartisan at the time ) for what they saw as his role in the commission 's failure . = = Background = = In the wake of the 1789 French Revolution , relations between the new French Republic and the American administration of President George Washington became strained . In 1792 France and the rest of Europe went to war , a conflict in which Washington declared American neutrality . However , both France and Great Britain , the major naval powers in the war , seized ships of neutral powers ( including those of the United States ) that traded with their enemies . With the Jay Treaty , ratified in 1795 , the United States reached an agreement on the matter with Britain that angered members of the Directory that governed France . The French Navy consequently stepped up its efforts to interdict American trade with Britain . By the time John Adams assumed the presidency in early 1797 , the matter was reaching crisis proportions . In March 1797 , not long after assuming office , President Adams learned that Charles Cotesworth Pinckney had been refused as U. S. minister because of the escalating crisis , and that American merchant ships had been seized in the Caribbean . Popular opinion in the United States on relations with France was divided along largely political lines : Federalists took a hard line , favoring a defensive buildup but not necessarily advocating war , while Republicans expressed solidarity with the Republican ideals of the French revolutionaries and did not want to be seen as cooperating with the Federalist Adams administration . Jefferson looked at the Federalists as monarchists who were linked to Britain and therefore hostile to American values . = = Commission to France = = In late May 1797 Adams ' cabinet met to discuss French relations and to choose a special commission to France . Adams initially proposed that John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry join Pinckney on the commission , but his cabinet objected to the choice of Gerry because he was not a strong Federalist . Francis Dana was chosen instead of Gerry , but he declined to serve , and Adams , who considered Gerry one of the " two most impartial men in America " ( he himself being the other ) , submitted his name to the United States Senate in Dana 's stead without consulting his cabinet . Adams , in introducing the matter to Congress , made a somewhat belligerent speech in which he called for a vigorous defense of the nation 's neutrality and expansion of the United States Navy , but stopped short of calling for war against France . Congress approved this choice of commissioners , and Adams instructed them to negotiate similar terms to those that had been granted to Britain in the Jay Treaty . The commissioners were also instructed to refuse loans , but to be flexible in the arrangement of payment terms for financial matters . Marshall left for Europe in mid @-@ July to join Pinckney , with Gerry following a few weeks later . The political divisions in the commission 's makeup were reflected in their attitudes toward the negotiations : Marshall and Pinckney , both Federalists , distrusted the French , while Gerry ( who was then opposed to political parties ) was willing to be flexible and unhurried in dealing with them . The French Republic , established in 1792 at the height of the French Revolution , was by 1797 governed by a bicameral legislative assembly , with a five @-@ member Directory acting as the national executive . The Directory was undergoing both internal power struggles and struggles with the Council of Five Hundred , the lower chamber of the legislature . Ministerial changes took place in the first half of 1797 , including the selection in July of Charles Maurice de Talleyrand as foreign minister . Talleyrand , who had recently spent a few years in the United States , was openly concerned about the establishment of closer ties between the U. S. and Britain . The Directory , generally not well @-@ disposed to American interests , became notably more hostile to them in September 1797 , when an internal coup propelled several anti @-@ Americans into power . These leaders , and Talleyrand , viewed President Adams as hostile to their interests , but did not think that there was significant danger of war . In part based on advice imparted to French diplomats by Thomas Jefferson , Talleyrand decided to adopt a measured , slow pace to the negotiations . The American commission arrived in Paris in early October , and immediately requested a meeting with Talleyrand . After an initial brief meeting ( in which Talleyrand only provisionally accepted the commissioners ' credentials ) , a longer meeting was held a week later . Talleyrand sought from the commissioners an explanation for the speech Adams had made in May , which had angered Directory members ; his motivation was to determine how favorably the commissioners were disposed to the negotiations . If they responded in an unfavorable manner , the Directory would refuse to accept their credentials . The commissioners first learned of Talleyrand 's expected demand on October 14 through an indirect channel . They decided that no explanation would be given for Adams ' speech . = = = Initial meetings = = = What followed were a series of meetings that took place outside formal diplomatic channels . On October 17 , Nicholas Hubbard , an Englishman working for a Dutch bank used by the Americans ( and who came to be identified as " W " in the published papers ) , notified Pinckney that Baron Jean @-@ Conrad Hottinguer , whom Hubbard described only as a man of honor , wished to meet with him . Pinckney agreed , and the two men met the next evening . Hottinguer ( who was later identified as " X " ) relayed a series of French demands , which included a large loan to the French government and the payment of a £ 50 @,@ 000 bribe to Talleyrand . Pinckney relayed these demands to the other commissioners , and Hottinguer repeated them to the entire commission , which curtly refused the demands , even though it was widely known that diplomats from other nations had paid bribes to deal with Talleyrand . Hottinguer then introduced the commission to Pierre Bellamy ( " Y " ) , who he represented as being a member of Talleyrand 's inner circle . Bellamy expounded in detail on Talleyrand 's demands , including the expectation that " you must pay a great deal of money . " He even proposed a series of purchases ( at inflated prices ) of currency as a means by which such money could be clandestinely exchanged . The commissioners offered to send one of their number back to the United States for instructions , if the French would suspend their seizures of American shipping ; the French negotiators refused . Not long after this standoff , Talleyrand sent Lucien Hauteval ( " Z " ) to meet with Elbridge Gerry . The two men knew each other , having met in Boston in 1792 . Hauteval assured Gerry of Talleyrand 's sincerity in seeking peace , and encouraged him to keep the informal negotiations open . He reiterated the demands for a loan and bribe . A week later ( notably after the signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio , which ended the five @-@ year War of the First Coalition between France and most of the other European powers ) , Hottinguer and Bellamy again met with the commission , and repeated their original demands , accompanied by threats of potential war , since France was at least momentarily at peace in Europe . Pinckney 's response was famous : " No , no , not a sixpence ! " The commissioners decided on November 1 to refuse further negotiations by informal channels . Publication of dispatches describing this series of meetings would form the basis for the later political debates in the United States . = = = Later negotiations = = = The commissioners soon discovered that only unofficial channels were open to them . Over the next several months , Talleyrand sent a series of informal negotiators to meet with and influence the commissioners . Some of the informal avenues were closed down ( Gerry , for instance , informed Hauteval that they could no longer meet , since Hauteval had no formal authority ) , and Talleyrand finally appeared in November 1797 at a dinner , primarily to castigate the Americans for their unwillingness to accede to the demand for a bribe . In late November Talleyrand began maneuvering to separate Gerry from the other commissioners . He extended a " social " dinner invitation to Gerry , which the latter , seeking to maintain communications , planned to attend . The matter heightened distrust of Gerry by Marshall and Pinckney , who sought guarantees that Gerry would limit any representations and agreements he might consider . Despite seeking to refuse informal negotiations , all of the commissioners ended up having private meetings with some of Talleyrand 's negotiators . The commissioners eventually divided over the issue of whether to continue informal negotiations , with the Federalists Marshall and Pinckney opposed , and Gerry in favor . This division was eventually clear to Talleyrand , who told Gerry in January 1798 that he would no longer deal with Pinckney . In February Talleyrand gained approval from the Directory for a new bargaining position , and he maneuvered to exclude Marshall from the negotiations as well . The change in strategy alarmed a number of American residents of Paris , who reported the growing possibility of war . Around this time Gerry , at Talleyrand 's insistence , began keeping secret from the other commissioners the substance of their meetings . All three commissioners met with Talleyrand informally in March , but it was clear that the parties were at an impasse . This appeared to be the case despite Talleyrand 's agreement to drop the demand for a loan . Both sides prepared statements to be sent across the Atlantic stating their positions , and Marshall and Pinckney , frozen out of talks that Talleyrand would only conduct with Gerry , left France in April . Their departure was delayed due to a series of negotiations over the return of their passports ; in order to obtain diplomatic advantage , Talleyrand sought to force Marshall and Pinckney to formally request their return ( which would allow him to later claim that they broke off negotiations ) . Talleyrand eventually gave in , formally requesting their departure . Gerry , although he sought to maintain unity with his cocommissioners , was told by Talleyrand that if he left France the Directory would declare war . Gerry remained behind , protesting the " impropriety of permitting a foreign government to [ choose ] the person who should negotiate . " He however remained optimistic that war was unrealistic , writing to William Vans Murray , the American minister to The Netherlands , that " nothing but madness " would cause the French to declare war . Gerry resolutely refused to engage in further substantive negotiations with Talleyrand , agreeing only to stay until someone with more authority could replace him , and wrote to President Adams requesting assistance in securing his departure from Paris . Talleyrand eventually sent representatives to The Hague to reopen negotiations with William Vans Murray , and Gerry finally returned home in October 1798 . = = Reaction in the United States = = While the American diplomats were in Europe , President Adams considered his options in the event of the commission 's failure . His cabinet urged that the nation 's military be strengthened , including the raising of a 20 @,@ 000 man army and the acquisition or construction of ships of the line for the navy . He had no substantive word from the commissioners until March 1798 , when the first dispatches revealing the French demands and negotiating tactics arrived . The commission 's apparent failure was duly reported to Congress , although Adams kept secret the mistreatment ( lack of recognition and demand for a bribe ) of the diplomats , seeking to minimize a warlike reaction . His cabinet was divided on how to react : the general tenor was one of hostility toward France , with Attorney General Charles Lee and Secretary of State Timothy Pickering arguing for a declaration of war . Democratic @-@ Republican leaders in Congress , believing Adams had exaggerated the French position because he sought war , united with hawkish Federalists to demand the release of the commissioners ' dispatches . On March 20 , Adams turned them over , with the names of some of the French actors redacted and replaced by the letters W , X , Y , and Z. The use of these disguising letters led the business to immediately become known as the " XYZ Affair " . The release of the dispatches produced exactly the response Adams feared . Federalists called for war , and Democratic @-@ Republicans were left without an effective argument against them , having miscalculated the reason for Adams ' secrecy . Congress authorized the acquisition of twelve frigates , and made other appropriations to increase military readiness . Despite calls for a formal war declaration , Adams steadfastly refused to ask Congress for one . On July 7 , 1798 , Congress annulled the 1778 Treaty of Alliance , and two days later authorized attacks on French warships . = = = Partisan responses = = = Federalists used the dispatches to question the loyalty of pro @-@ French Democratic @-@ Republicans ; this attitude contributed to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts , restricting the movements and actions of foreigners , and limiting speech critical of the government . Federalists were otherwise divided on the question of war , and the Democratic @-@ Republicans painted hawkish Federalists as warmongers seeking to undermine the republic by military means . Elbridge Gerry was placed in a difficult position upon his return to the United States . Federalists , spurred by John Marshall 's accounts of their disagreements , criticized him for abetting the breakdown of the negotiations . These bitterly harsh and partisan comments turned Gerry against the Federalists , and he eventually ended up joining with the Democratic @-@ Republicans in 1800 . = = Political reaction in France = = When news reached France of the publication of the dispatches and the ensuing hostile reaction , the response was one of fury . Talleyrand was called to the Directory to account for his role in the affair . He denied all association with the informal negotiators , and enlisted the assistance of Gerry in exposing the agents whose names had been redacted , a charade Gerry agreed to participate in . In exchange Talleyrand confirmed privately to Gerry that the agents were in fact in his employ , and that he was , contrary to statements made to the Directory , interested in pursuing reconciliation . President Adams later wrote that Talleyrand 's confession to Gerry was significant in his decision to continue efforts to maintain peace . Gerry , in his private report on the affair to Adams in 1799 , claimed credit for maintaining the peace , and for influencing significant changes in French policy that lessened the hostilities and eventually brought a peace treaty . The warlike attitude of the United States and the start of the Quasi @-@ War ( a naval war between the two countries that was fought primarily in the Caribbean ) convinced Talleyrand that he had miscalculated in his dealings with the commissioners . In response to the diplomatic overtures he made to William Vans Murray in The Hague , President Adams sent negotiators to France in 1799 who eventually negotiated an end to hostilities with the Treaty of Mortefontaine ( whose negotiations were managed in part by Marshall , then Secretary of State ) in September 1800 . This agreement was made with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte , who had overthrown the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799 , and it was ratified by the United States Senate in December 1801 .

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