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= 15th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 15th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Formed in 1914 as part of the all @-@ volunteer Australian Imperial Force from Queensland and Tasmanian recruits , the battalion fought during the Gallipoli Campaign and on the Western Front during the First World War . It was disbanded after the war in 1919 , but later re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time Citizens Forces unit based in Queensland in 1921 , consisting of a mixture of volunteers and conscripts . Economic pressures and limited manpower resulted in the battalion being amalgamated with other battalions a couple of times during the inter @-@ war years . In mid @-@ 1939 , as rising tensions in Europe led to an expansion of the Australian military , the battalion was re @-@ formed in its own right . During the Second World War the 15th Battalion was mobilised for wartime service and initially undertook defensive duties in Australia before taking part in the fighting against the Japanese in New Guinea and Bougainville in 1943 – 45 . The battalion was disbanded in 1946 and never re @-@ raised .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
= = = = Formation and service at Gallipoli = = = =
The 15th Battalion was originally raised as part of the all @-@ volunteer Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) in September 1914 . Drawing personnel from volunteers from Queensland and Tasmania , it formed part of the 4th Brigade , along with the 13th , 14th , and 16th Battalions . With an authorised strength of 1 @,@ 023 men , the battalion initially consisted of eight companies , of which six came from Queensland and two from Tasmania . The Queensland companies concentrated at Enoggera in September and began initial training , while the Tasmanians formed at Claremont in October . In late November , the battalion concentrated at Broadmeadows , Victoria , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James Cannan , who later rose to become Quartermaster General during World War II . Many of the battalion 's officers and non @-@ commissioned officers had previously served in the Citizens Forces and a few had fought in South Africa during the Boer War or in India with the British Army . Following a short period of training , the battalion embarked for overseas on the transport ship SS Ceramic in late December 1914 , after marching through the streets of Melbourne . Initially it had been planned to send the Australians to fight against the Germans on the Western Front , but overcrowding and poor conditions in the training camps in the United Kingdom had resulted in the first Australian contingent , the 1st Division , being sent to Egypt instead . There they commenced training and briefly undertook defensive duties around Kantara , when Ottoman forces raided the Suez Canal .
Travelling via Albany , Western Australia , and then through the Suez Canal , the 4th Brigade disembarked at Alexandria on 3 February 1915 and moved into camp at Heliopolis , where it was assigned to Major General Alexander Godley 's New Zealand and Australian Division . Upon arrival , the battalion was reorganised by merging the eight companies into four larger companies , designated ' A ' through to ' D ' . Shortly afterwards , the battalion 's first draft of reinforcements arrived and an extensive period of training in the desert followed throughout February and March . Finally , on 10 April , the 15th Battalion was moved by train to Alexandria , where it embarked upon the troopships Seeang Bee and Australind , bound for Gallipoli . After leaving Alexandria , the 15th Battalion sailed to Mudros , where the Allied force assembled prior to the assault . Assigned to the follow @-@ up waves , the 15th Battalion landed at Anzac Cove on the afternoon of 25 April 1915 . As the Ottoman defenders checked the Allied advance inland , on arrival the 15th Battalion was rushed into the line on the left flank of the beachhead . As the advance inland stalled , the battalion became isolated and threatened with destruction until Cannan withdrew his force to a more tenable position . Later , they helped shore up the line before occupying positions around " Pope 's Hill " and " Russell 's Top " , where they joined an attack on 1 May . After that , they occupied " Quinn 's Post " , and defended it against a strong Ottoman counterattack on 19 May . Further fighting occurred around the battalion 's position as the Ottoman troops began tunnelling under the " no man 's land " that divided the two lines . Counter @-@ mining actions were undertaken , but on 29 May a significant attack was put in against the 15th Battalion 's position and they were briefly forced back before restoring the situation with a strong counterattack .
After this a period of stalemate fell across the peninsula . In early June , the 15th Battalion , its strength having fallen to below 600 men , was withdrawn from Quinn 's Post to recuperate in a quiet sector known as " Rest Gully " . Over the next two months , due to illness , the battalion 's personnel were almost completely replaced . It received several drafts of reinforcements , amounting to over 500 men , including its transport element , and by early August it had reached a strength of 720 men . On 6 August , the Allies launched an offensive in an effort to try to break the deadlock , during which the 15th Battalion attacked the Abdel Rahman Bair heights , which was known to the Australians as " Hill 971 " , before later supporting the 14th Battalion 's attack on " Hill 60 " . Casualties were heavy , and on 13 September the battalion was withdrawn for a brief rest on Lemnos , its strength having fallen to just 11 officers and 136 other ranks . They returned to Gallipoli early in November , occupying a position in Hay Valley , as winter began . They remained there until being evacuated on 13 December on the transport Carron , as part of the main Allied withdrawal . The battalion 's casualties during the campaign amounted to 10 officers and 380 other ranks killed , and one officer and 17 other ranks captured .
= = = = Fighting on the Western Front = = = =
Following the evacuation from Gallipoli , the AIF was re @-@ organised in Egypt . This saw the splitting of the veteran battalions to provide cadres for new battalions as the AIF 's infantry divisions in Egypt were doubled . As a part of this process , the 15th Battalion provided personnel to the 47th Battalion , and the 4th Brigade became part of the Australian 4th Division . After a further period of training , in June 1916 the battalion sailed for France aboard the transport Transylvania . After landing at Marseilles , the 15th Battalion moved to northern France via rail to Beilleul , moving into the line around Bois Grenier for a brief period on 15 June . Amidst the carnage of the Battle of the Somme which was launched in July , the following month , the 15th Battalion was committed to fighting on the Western Front for the first time , entering the line around Pozières on 5 August , as the 4th Division relieved the shattered 2nd .
During the relief , the battalion suffered heavy shelling , which , after it had moved into trenches in front of the village along the sunken road to Courcellette , was followed by a brief German attack that was repulsed and resulted in the battalion capturing 20 Germans . In the days that followed , the battalion worked to improve their defensive line , digging saps towards the German trenches while patrols were sent out into no man 's land . Late on 8 August , the 15th put in an attack alongside a British battalion from the Suffolk Regiment , on their left . Amidst heavy shelling and machine @-@ gun crossfire , the attack stalled following the loss of almost all of the officers in the assaulting companies ; nevertheless , despite progress on their left , they succeeded in capturing part of the German line , but were ordered to withdraw the following day . On the night of 9 August , a second attack was put in , in concert with the 16th Battalion , which succeeded in securing part of the German line , despite heavy shelling . At noon the following day , the 15th was relieved as the 4th Brigade was withdrawn from the line and replaced by the 13th . Casualties during the battalion 's first battle on the Western Front were high : 90 killed and 370 wounded .
Following this , the 15th Battalion moved to Mouquet Farm , where they supported an attack by the 14th Battalion and carried out defensive duties . They remained there until early September , when they were withdrawn back to Warloy and then to Reingheist , via Doulens . Before this occurred , on 30 August , the 15th experienced a change in command , as Cannan , who had been promoted to brigadier @-@ general , was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Terence McSharry . The remainder of the year was spent in the Ypres salient , around St Eloi and Boorlartbeek , before winter fell on the Western Front . It was the worst winter in Europe in 40 years , and the men suffered heavily from sickness and the cold as they rotated through the line , conducting defensive duties and labouring before moving to Gueudecourt , and then later Lagnicourt , in the new year .
As winter passed , in an effort to shorten their lines and move into prepared positions , the Germans fell back towards the Hindenburg Line . After the Allies advanced to follow up the withdrawal , the battalion fought its first major battle of 1917 in early April , around Bullecourt , where the 4th Brigade attacked as a complete formation for the first time since Gallipoli . Committed without the protection of an artillery barrage , expecting tank support to win the day , the 4th Brigade suffered heavy casualties ; on the first night , the tanks broke down and on the second , they had proven unable to breach the enemy defences , leaving the infantry to force their way through . After less than 10 hours of fighting , 2 @,@ 339 soldiers from the 4th lay dead or wounded , out of 3 @,@ 000 committed , including 400 from the 15th ; by the end of the attack , only 52 men from the battalion 's assault force remained uninjured . They were subsequently withdrawn from the line back to farmland around the village of Doulien where the battalion was rebuilt , eventually reaching a strength of 719 personnel of all ranks .
In mid @-@ 1917 , the Australians were moved to Belgium as the focus of British operations shifted to the Ypres sector in an effort to draw German attention away from the French . The first effort came around Messines , on the southern flank , where a series of tunnels were dug under the German lines . On 7 June , 19 mines were detonated and in the ensuing fighting , the British captured Messines Ridge . Assigned a support role , the 15th Battalion was held in reserve and did not take part in the attack . The following day , it was committed to hold the gains that had been made during the attack , relieving the New Zealanders around Gooseberry Farm . The 15th remained in the Ypres sector and subsequently took part in the fighting around Polygon Wood during the Third Battle of Ypres in September . In November 1917 , the battalion was withdrawn from the line for a three @-@ month rest , spending the winter around Templeux @-@ la @-@ Fosse and Hollebeke .
In early 1918 , the collapse of Tsarist Russia enabled the Germans to transfer a significant number of troops to the Western Front and in March , having amassed 192 divisions , they launched an offensive against the British forces in the Somme . Heavily outnumbered , the British and Dominion troops were pushed back by the initial onslaught and the Australian Corps was thrown into the line in an effort to stem the tide . The 15th Battalion was moved initially to Bavincourt before securing Hebuterne late in the month , where they experienced a heavy artillery bombardment before turning back a German attack . Later , after being relieved by a battalion of the Royal Fusiliers , they moved to Rossignol Farm . Throughout April , while the 13th and 15th Brigades fought significant actions around Villers @-@ Bretonneux , the battalion received several drafts of reinforcements , bringing it up to a total of 57 officers and 955 other ranks as it prepared to move up to replace the 15th Brigade in late April . Following their arrival , they undertook a support role , constructing defences before moving on to Freschencourt on 22 May , remaining there until they marched at the end of the month to Hamelet near Corbie , where they conducted several patrol actions .
As the German advance in the Amiens sector exhausted itself , in June the Allies began to prepare for their own offensive , conducting a series of small @-@ scale advances which became known as " peaceful penetrations " . That month , a number of American troops were assigned to the battalion to gain experience , as the United States began building up its forces on the Western Front . Lieutenant General John Monash , having taken over as commander of the Australian Corps from William Birdwood , decided to launch a combined arms attack to reduce the salient that had developed in front of Amiens around Hamel and straighten the line .
On 4 July , Australian and American forces attacked Hamel . Assigned the task of attacking a German strong point designated the " Pear Trench " , the 15th , with an attached company of Americans , suffered the highest losses of any Australian battalion committed to the battle , losing nine officers and 231 other ranks out of the 636 men committed . The losses began even before the assault , when some of the preparatory barrage dropped short on their forming @-@ up point . In the darkness the three tanks that had been assigned to support their attack temporarily became lost , and as a consequence , the 15th 's initial attack went in without armoured support . Coming up against strong resistance from well @-@ sited machine @-@ gun posts , the advance was held up until they were overcome by Lewis gun teams and section @-@ level fire and movement , which allowed the battalion to gain the Pear Trench . The 15th Battalion 's sole Victoria Cross recipient , Private Henry Dalziel , received his award for his actions during this time while serving as a " number two " within a Lewis @-@ gun team , rushing a German machine @-@ gun post with a revolver . After taking the Pear Trench , the battalion exploited the position moving into the Vaire Trench and Hamel Wood in concert with the tanks that had finally arrived . Following the capture of the village , the battalion defended the captured ground before being relieved by the 49th Battalion late on 5 July .
After Hamel , the battalion moved to Hangaard Wood , and on 8 August the Allies launched the Hundred Days Offensive around Amiens . Two days before the advance , the battalion suffered a heavy setback when their commanding officer , McSharry , was mortally wounded in a bombardment around Vaire , while trying to rescue a wounded soldier . In his stead , Major Burford Sampson temporarily took command . Advancing from around Hamel , the battalion attacked the village of Cerisy , and despite enduring a gas attack they succeeded in capturing around 350 Germans . As further advances followed , more actions followed around Lihu Farm and Jeancourt as the 15th Battalion continued to fight around the " Hindenburg Outpost Line " until late September , by which time it had taken heavy casualties , with a strength of just over 300 men . On the eve of the battalion 's final battle , Sampson handed over command to Lieutenant Colonel Charles Johnston . The battles of 1918 had depleted the Australians , inflicting heavy casualties that they had been unable to replace as recruitment in Australia had fallen . In October , at the request of the Australian prime minister , Billy Hughes , they were withdrawn from the line for rest and reorganisation . They did not return to action before the armistice was signed in November 1918 , after which the battalion 's strength was slowly reduced as men were individually repatriated back to Australia as part of the demobilisation process . The battalion ceased to exist on 27 March 1919 , having been reduced to company strength .
During the war , the battalion lost 1 @,@ 194 men killed and 2 @,@ 187 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Victoria Cross , one Companion of the Order of the Bath , two Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George , 13 Distinguished Service Orders ( DSOs ) , two Members of the Order of the British Empire , 30 Military Crosses ( MCs ) , 28 Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) , 180 Military Medals ( MMs ) , nine Meritorious Service Medals ( MSMs ) , 64 Mentions in Despatches ( MIDs ) and eight foreign awards .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
In 1921 , following the conclusion of the demobilisation process , the government undertook a review of Australia 's military requirements and decided to re @-@ organise its part @-@ time military forces to perpetuate the numerical designations of the AIF units . As a result , the 15th Battalion was re @-@ raised in Brisbane , Queensland , within the 1st Military District . Personnel were drawn from the 2nd Battalion , 15th Infantry Regiment , which traced its lineage to the 8th Infantry ( Oxley Battalion ) that had been raised in 1912 from part of the 1 / 9th Australian Infantry Regiment . In 1927 , the battalion received its battle honours from the First World War . Territorial designations were introduced at this time , and the battalion became known as the " Oxley Regiment " in recognition of its connection to the Oxley region . It was also granted the motto Caveant Hostes and , the following year , the battalion became allied with the East Yorkshire Regiment .
Initially the strength of the Citizens Forces units was maintained through a mixture of voluntary and compulsory service ; in 1929 – 1930 , however , the newly elected Scullin Labor government terminated compulsory service and replaced the Citizens Forces with an all @-@ volunteer " Militia " . Funding was cut heavily , and training opportunities were also reduced . This , combined with economic pressure caused by the Great Depression , which made it difficult for part @-@ time soldiers to maintain their livelihoods while continuing their training commitments , meant that the number of volunteers fell sharply . Consequently , a number of infantry battalions were disbanded or amalgamated . As a result of this decision , the 15th Battalion was merged with the 9th to form the 9th / 15th Battalion . A memorial plaque to the battalion was unveiled in ANZAC Square , in Brisbane , in 1932 . In 1934 , the 9th / 15th was split and the 15th merged with the 26th Battalion to form the 15th / 26th Battalion . This formation was split in July 1939 , as part of a hasty expansion of Australia 's military force as tensions in Europe raised concerns about the country 's preparedness in the event of a future war . Upon re @-@ forming , the 15th Battalion established its drill hall near the Brisbane Cricket Ground .
= = = Second World War = = =
= = = = Garrison duty in Australia and service in New Guinea = = = =
After the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , due to the provisions of the Defence Act , which precluded the Militia from being sent outside Australian territory to fight , the decision was made to raise an all @-@ volunteer force for overseas service known as the " Second Australian Imperial Force " ( 2nd AIF ) . This force was dispatched to the Middle East to fight against the Germans and Italians , while in Australia the compulsory service scheme was re @-@ established in January 1940 and the Militia was called up for short periods of continuous service – up to 90 days – on a rotational basis to improve the overall readiness of Australia 's military forces . The 15th Battalion was partially mobilised for continuous service in mid @-@ 1940 and , in August that year , the battalion sent a detachment of 200 men to undertake garrison duty in Territory of Papua . As part of the 7th Brigade , the detachment was stationed at " Three Mile Camp " near Port Moresby . Later in the year , the detachment was transferred to the 49th Battalion , which remained in Papua .
Meanwhile , the rest of the 15th Battalion remained in Brisbane , serving in a part @-@ time capacity . In November and December 1941 , the battalion received three large drafts of conscripts – consisting of several hundred individuals – who were attached to the battalion to receive three months of compulsory full @-@ time training as war loomed in the Pacific . Many of the conscripts received at this time were university students and most had no previous military experience , although some had served as volunteers in the Militia prior to their call up . Initially , these personnel were formed into separate training companies , receiving three months of continuous training at Chermside , with the university students completing a shorter period of just 60 – 70 days , to fit in with their semester break . Later , in February 1942 , once they had completed their period of mandatory training , the conscripts were either released from service , or moved into the battalion 's four rifle companies where they served alongside volunteers on full @-@ time service .
Following Japanese victories in Malaya , Singapore and elsewhere in the Pacific in late 1941 and early 1942 , the whole 15th Battalion was mobilised for wartime service and tasked with undertaking defensive duties along the coast of south @-@ east Queensland , based at Caloundra , due to concerns of a potential invasion . The invasion did not occur and , in mid @-@ 1942 , the 15th Battalion was transferred to the 29th Brigade . Consisting of the 42nd and 47th Battalions , the 29th was part of the 5th Division , and was moved north to Townsville , where the battalion served as a garrison force .
In January 1943 , the 29th Brigade was deployed to New Guinea to serve as garrison troops in areas that had been recently secured by Allied forces . The 15th Battalion was initially sent to Milne Bay , remaining there for six months . It moved to Buna in July , but did not remain there long , transferring to Morobe a few weeks later . While there , the battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Jack Amies , appealed to the battalion to volunteer for service as part of the AIF . While some already had , the majority of the men were still classified as Militia personnel , which meant that the battalion was restricted in where it could serve and was liable to be broken up . To be classified as an AIF battalion , under the provisions of the newly passed Defence ( Citizen Military Forces ) Act 1943 , 65 per cent or more of the personnel had to volunteer for service outside Australian territory . The response was considerable and , by August , the battalion was gazetted as an AIF battalion . Later that month , as the Australians fought to secure Komiatum , the battalion moved on barges to Nassau Bay , and was committed to combat for the first time , occupying a position around Mount Tambu , known as " Davidson 's Ridge " , before marching to Tambu Bay . Arriving on 23 August , the battalion was initially placed into divisional reserve , as the 29th Brigade was committed to the drive on Salamaua .
The campaign was to proceed in conjunction with the effort to capture Lae . As the Japanese garrison there was pressed by the 7th Division advancing from the Markham Valley and the 9th Division advancing along the coast from beaches east of the town , the Japanese hurriedly sought to reinforce Lae , moving about 6 @,@ 000 troops from Salamaua to the south . Sensing an opportunity , in early September the 3rd Division began a drive north on Salamaua from Wau . On 31 August , the battalion joined the fighting , advancing around the right flank of the US 162nd Infantry Regiment and attacking the junction between the Lokanu and Scout Ridges . Over the course of 10 days of heavy fighting and hard going up the steep slopes , it gained the position , securing it by 9 September . The battalion had lost 10 men killed and 47 wounded in the process , but had killed 107 Japanese . The following day , the 15th advanced towards Nuk Nuk as Japanese resistance crumbled . Hard @-@ pressed , the Japanese garrison had begun to withdraw from Salamaua , completing the process just before the Allies entered the town on 11 September . The battalion 's total casualties in the fighting around Salamaua between April and September numbered 11 killed and 50 wounded .
Following the fall of the town , as the remainder of the 5th Division was rested , the 15th Battalion , which had seen less action due to being held in reserve , was committed to pursuing the withdrawing Japanese . The battalion advanced north towards the Markham River , and on 14 September two companies were transported by barge in an effort to get behind the fugitives and cut them off , but they arrived about an hour too late . On 17 September , the battalion established a large ambush site along the coast south of the river to prevent the fleeing Japanese from evacuating by the sea . The following day , the ambush was sprung as a platoon @-@ sized group attempted to get away . After being beaten back into the jungle , they launched an attack on one of the Australian positions that was blocking their escape . In the ensuing hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting , 13 Japanese were killed and one prisoner taken . Further minor clashes followed as the 15th patrolled north and , by late October , it entered Lae . The battalion subsequently took up defensive duties around the town as the 29th Brigade was assigned the task of holding Lae to free up troops from the 7th Division for operations in the Finisterre Range further to the west .
= = = = Fighting on Bougainville = = = =
The battalion remained in the vicinity of Lae until June 1944 , when it was withdrawn to Australia . It established itself at Strathpine , before moving to Samford , in the greater Brisbane area . After a period of leave , the battalion was re @-@ organised in preparation for employment in the Bougainville campaign , remaining with the 29th Brigade , which was transferred to the 3rd Division . The 3rd had adopted the " jungle divisional " establishment , and the battalion 's authorised strength fell from 910 to 803 .
To free up US troops for service in the Philippines , the Australians took over from the US garrison on Bougainville , and the 3rd Division arrived around Torokina , on Bougainville , in November 1944 . Prior to their arrival , the US garrison had maintained a defensive posture , but the Australians launched a limited @-@ scale offensive on the island which evolved into three main drives in the north , south and in the centre of the island . The 15th Battalion embarked on the transport Cape Victory at Pinkenba on 23 November , and arrived on Bougainville on four days later . Along with the rest of the 29th Brigade , it relieved the US 182 Infantry Regiment , and was assigned to the southern drive towards Buin , where the main Japanese force was based . Its first involvement with the campaign came in December , when the 15th Battalion departed the Jaba River and led the 29th Brigade 's advance along the western coast towards the Tavera River . Upon reaching the river , in order to skirt around the thick jungle , a company was sent up the Adele River on a barge , while the rest of the battalion advanced inland along the Mendai Road . By January 1945 , the 15th was joined by the 29th Brigade 's other two battalions and together they fought through to Mawaraka , before being relieved by the 15th Battalion 's old formation , the 7th Brigade . They were subsequently sent back to Torokina for rest , remaining there until early July 1945 .
At that point , the 29th Brigade was committed to the fighting again , moving to the Mivo River , where it took over the advance from the 15th Brigade . As the 15th Battalion advanced to relieve the 57th / 60th Battalion , it clashed with Japanese units and , on 3 July , as a company from the 47th Battalion came under heavy attack , one the 15th Battalion 's platoons was dispatched with two tanks in support to provide assistance . Heavy fighting continued throughout the afternoon following their arrival , during which at least 20 Japanese were killed . The 15th Battalion occupied a position around Sisikatekori and along Killen 's Track , in the southern sector of the brigade 's area , while the Australians made preparations to resume the advance towards the Buin stronghold . The most @-@ forward battalion , on 6 July it was subjected to heavy attacks as the Japanese sought to infiltrate the Australian forward positions and cut their lines of communication . As a result of these attacks , the plan to advance was cancelled temporarily .
Patrols from the 15th were sent out daily to wrest the initiative and frequent actions followed , sometimes involving contacts with Japanese forces up to 70 strong . These small @-@ scale actions culminated in a large @-@ scale attack on ' D ' Company on 9 July , in which 34 Japanese were killed and two captured for the loss of two Australians killed and four wounded . After this , patrols were sent out across the Mivo , but strong Japanese resistance , and heavy rain , frustrated the 15th 's efforts to carry out a detailed reconnaissance of the opposite bank , effectively halting the Australian advance and ending significant combat in the island 's south . The battalion was able to send patrols across the Mivo in early August , although at least one man was swept downstream in the swollen waters , and a number of clashes occurred between 3 and 5 August . On 3 August , a small patrol killed six Japanese after surprising a platoon to the east of the Mivo River , and the following day a further 19 Japanese were killed in clashes with the 15th Battalion , while one soldier from the battalion was killed and another wounded when the Japanese exploded a mine by remote control next to the Buin Road . On 5 August , a patrol from the 15th was able to penetrate as far as the Wapiai River and preparations began for the battalion to resume the advance on 17 August . The advance was cancelled a week later in anticipation of a Japanese surrender , following news of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and the battalion 's involvement in the fighting on Bougainville came to an end . Its battle casualties during the campaign are listed by Gavin Long , the Australian official historian , as five officers and 102 other ranks killed or wounded .
= = = = Disbandment and legacy = = = =
The battalion concentrated around Torokina in October , in preparation for post @-@ war demobilisation . As its personnel were repatriated back to Australia or transferred to other units for further service , its strength dwindled . In mid @-@ December , the battalion 's remaining personnel embarked upon the transport River Loddon and sailed for Brisbane , arriving there on Christmas Eve . The demobilisation process continued at Chermside and the battalion was finally disbanded on 28 March 1946 . The Australian War Memorial lists the battalion 's casualties during the Second World War as 42 men killed and 105 wounded . Its personnel received the following decorations : two Officers of the Order of the British Empire , four MCs , two DCMs , 11 MMs and 35 MIDs .
Following its disbandment in 1946 , although other Militia battalions were re @-@ raised when the Citizens Military Force was established in 1948 , the 15th Battalion has remained off the Australian Army 's order of battle . In 1961 , the battalion was finally awarded its battle honours for the Second World War . At the same time , it was entrusted with those earned by its corresponding 2nd AIF battalion , the 2 / 15th Battalion . In May 2002 , Alec Campbell , the last surviving Australian veteran of Gallipoli , died at the age of 103 . A member of the 15th Battalion , Campbell had enlisted from Tasmania at the age of 16 and arrived on the peninsula as a reinforcement in the final stages of the campaign . He was later wounded , and evacuated due to illness prior to the final evacuation of all Allied forces in December 1915 .
= = Alliances = =
The 15th Battalion held the following alliance :
United Kingdom – East Yorkshire Regiment ( 1928 – 46 ) .
= = Battle honours = =
The 15th Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
First World War : Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bullecourt , Messines 1917 , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Passchendaele , Arras 1918 , Ancre 1918 , Hamel , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Hindenburg Line , Epéhy , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 , Anzac , Landing at Anzac , Defence of Anzac , Suvla , Sari Bair , Gallipoli 1915 , and Egypt 1915 – 16 .
Second World War : South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Tambu Bay , Sio , Adele River , Mawaraka , Mivo Ford , and Lae – Nadzab .
In 1961 , the battalion – although no longer on the Australian Army 's order of battle – was entrusted with the battle honours awarded to the 2 / 15th Battalion for its service with the 2nd AIF during World War II . The honours it inherited at this time were : North Africa 1941 – 42 ; El Adem Road ; Alam el Halfa ; West Point 23 ; Finschhafen ; Scarlet Beach ; Bumi River ; Defence of Scarlet Beach ; Nongora ; Borneo ; Brunei ; Miri ; Defence of Tobruk ; The Salient 1941 ; El Alamein ; South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 ; Lae – Nadzab ; Liberation of Australian New Guinea ; and Sio .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the 15th Battalion :
First World War
Lieutenant Colonel James Cannan ;
Lieutenant Colonel Terrence McSharry ;
Major Burford Sampson ;
Lieutenant Colonel Charles Johnston ; and
Lieutenant Colonel John Corrigan .
Second World War
Lieutenant Colonel Jack Amies ;
Lieutenant Colonel Fredrick Edmunds ;
Lieutenant Colonel Herbert McDonald ; and
Lieutenant Colonel William Oliver .
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= Dragons of Despair =
Dragons of Despair is the first in a series of 16 Dragonlance adventures published by TSR , Inc . ( TSR ) between 1984 and 1988 . It is the start of the first major story arc in the Dragonlance series of Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) role @-@ playing game modules , a series of ready @-@ to @-@ play adventures for use by Dungeon Masters in the game . This series provides a game version of the original Dragonlance storyline later told in the Dragonlance Chronicles trilogy of novels . This module corresponds to the events told in the first half of the novel Dragons of Autumn Twilight by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman . Its module code is DL1 , which is used to designate it as the first part of the Dragonlance adventure series .
= = Plot summary = =
As with most D & D adventures , the exact storyline varies based on the actions that the game 's players choose for their player characters ( PCs ) , although a general course of action is assumed by the adventure . The story begins with the PCs meeting up in the elven settlement of Solace after five years of unsuccessful individual quests to find any sign of " true clerics " . A series of wilderness encounters are used to direct the PCs to find the Blue Crystal Staff and take it to the ancient ruined city of Xak Tsaroth .
In the jungle @-@ covered subterranean ruins of Xak Tsaroth the player characters search for knowledge of the ancient gods of good , and first encounter the invading draconians . They also find baby dragons and encounter Khisanth , an ancient black dragon . The PCs follow the fleeing dragon down a well , where they must negotiate the first level of a dungeon typical of Dungeons & Dragons adventures , filled with draconians , gully dwarf slaves , and other monsters .
On the second level of the dungeon the PCs must confront and defeat Khisanth . This is an extremely challenging task for the party. but if they have her Blue Crystal Staff , they will be aided by the goddess Mishakal . The adventure ends with the PCs recovering the Disks of Mishakal , allowing for the return of true clerics to Krynn for the first time in over 300 years .
= = Publication history = =
First published in March 1984 , seven months before the first Dragonlance novel , this module is the first Dragonlance product released . In January and February there were small teaser advertisements — each less than a quarter page — in Dragon magazine , simply showing the Dragonlance logo and the text " coming soon " .
The scenario is the first of an epic series set on the world of Krynn . The March 1984 issue of Dragon contained a short story titled " The Test of the Twins " by Margaret Weis , along with a sidebar describing Dragonlance as " an epic adventure usable with the AD & D game system , and will be detailed through a series of TSR products – books , games , modules , and even miniature figures . " In the same issue a full @-@ page teaser advertisement showed a black @-@ and @-@ white version of the painting from the cover of Dragons of Despair with the text " Play the epic series ... Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Dragonlance " .
The module consisted of a 32 @-@ page book with an outer folder . The cover of Dragons of Despair features a painting by Clyde Caldwell depicting the black dragon Khisanth fighting three heroes — Goldmoon , Tanis Half @-@ Elven , and Caramon Majere — from the books upon which the adventure is based . This module features the first appearance of Draconians and Aghar ( Gully Dwarves ) in the game , and new locations such as Xak Tsaroth , Solace and Haven . It is the first appearance of the pre @-@ generated player characters ( PCs ) that form the Heroes of the Lance group of characters – Tanis Half @-@ Elven , Sturm Brightblade , Caramon Majere , Raistlin Majere , Flint Fireforge , Tasslehoff Burrfoot and Goldmoon . Riverwind is played as a non @-@ player character ( NPC ) by the Dungeon Master . Tika Waylan makes her first appearance as an NPC ; she is available for use as a PC and joins up with the Heroes of the Lance in Chapter 7 of Dragons of Flame . The villainous hobgoblin lord Fewmaster Toede also makes his first appearance .
The original concept of the module was done by Tracy Hickman , who " designed a world and an heroic adventure to go with it " . The module was edited by Michael Williams . The module 's design staff included Tracy Hickman , Harold Johnson , Douglas Niles , Carl Smith , and Michael Williams . The module features cover art by Clyde Caldwell and interior artwork by Jeff Easley .
= = = Reprints and revisions = = =
The original series was updated to Advanced Dungeons & Dragons second edition and repackaged as the three Dragonlance Classics modules , using module code DLC . DLC1 Dragonlance Classics Volume 1 reprinted Dragons of Despair , along with Dragons of Flame , Dragons of Hope , and Dragons of Desolation , in 1990 .
In 1999 Wizards of the Coast published a new revision of the original Dragonlance story , including Dragons of Despair , in Dragonlance Classics : 15th Anniversary Edition as part of their TSR 's Silver Anniversary line . In 2000 the entire DL module series was reprinted exactly as the originals but in a smaller size . This printing was available as two slip case sets , with Dragons of Despair included in Dragonlance Volume 1 : DL1 – DL8 . The four chapters of Dragons of Autumn , an updated version of some Dragonlance modules converting them to Dungeons & Dragons version 3 @.@ 5 , corresponds to the material in Dragons of Despair .
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons : Heroes of the Lance is a video game based on Dragons of Despair released in 1988 . It is a horizontally scrolling fighting game that represents the events of the module . Dragons of Despair has also been converted into the Neverwinter Nights computer game format . The adaptation requires both the Shadows of Undrentide and Hordes of the Underdark expansion packs as well as the original game .
= = Reception = =
The game module was positively received . It placed 25th on a 2004 list of the " The 30 Greatest D & D adventures of All Time " , the only Dragonlance module to make the list .
Steve Hampshire reviewed the scenario for Imagine magazine . He " enjoyed this module a lot " and felt it was " well @-@ detailed and original , and plays well " . Hampshire found it " good value " , his only problem having been reading " the rather flowery prose without being laughed down by the players " .
A review by Graham Staplehurst in White Dwarf magazine , issue # 60 , gave the module an 8 out of 10 overall , and noted that the lack of things such as gold and clerics in the adventure world " don 't destroy the feel of the scenario , whilst creating a very novel atmosphere " . Staplehurst felt that the adventure was " ... very much taken off from Lord of the Rings with a powerful magic item to be taken at all costs to the aggressor 's innermost defences and through them . The characters will have to get past a nice new race of humanoids as well as a couple of other monster @-@ concepts . The artwork ( aside from the cover ) is good and usable in the adventure . Another good product . " In his 1991 book Heroic Worlds , Lawrence Schick described the scenarios as " heavy @-@ handed in channelling the players to follow the plot " .
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= Diabetic ketoacidosis =
Diabetic ketoacidosis ( DKA ) is a potentially life @-@ threatening complication in people with diabetes mellitus . It happens predominantly in those with type 1 diabetes , but it can occur in those with type 2 diabetes under certain circumstances . DKA results from a shortage of insulin ; in response the body switches to burning fatty acids and producing acidic ketone bodies that cause most of the symptoms and complications .
DKA may be the first symptom of previously undiagnosed diabetes , but it may also occur in people known to have diabetes as a result of a variety of causes , such as intercurrent illness or poor compliance with insulin therapy . Vomiting , dehydration , deep gasping breathing , confusion and occasionally coma are typical symptoms . DKA is diagnosed with blood and urine tests ; it is distinguished from other , rarer forms of ketoacidosis by the presence of high blood sugar levels . Treatment involves intravenous fluids to correct dehydration , insulin to suppress the production of ketone bodies , treatment for any underlying causes such as infections , and close observation to prevent and identify complications .
DKA is a medical emergency , and without treatment it can lead to death . DKA was first described in 1886 ; until the introduction of insulin therapy in the 1920s , it was almost universally fatal . It now carries a mortality of less than 1 % with adequate and timely treatment .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The symptoms of an episode of diabetic ketoacidosis usually evolve over the period of about 24 hours . Predominant symptoms are nausea and vomiting , pronounced thirst , excessive urine production and abdominal pain that may be severe . Those who measure their glucose levels themselves may notice hyperglycemia ( high blood sugar levels ) . In severe DKA , breathing becomes labored and of a deep , gasping character ( a state referred to as " Kussmaul respiration " ) . The abdomen may be tender to the point that an acute abdomen may be suspected , such as acute pancreatitis , appendicitis or gastrointestinal perforation . Coffee ground vomiting ( vomiting of altered blood ) occurs in a minority of people ; this tends to originate from erosion of the esophagus . In severe DKA , there may be confusion , lethargy , stupor or even coma ( a marked decrease in the level of consciousness ) .
On physical examination there is usually clinical evidence of dehydration , such as a dry mouth and decreased skin turgor . If the dehydration is profound enough to cause a decrease in the circulating blood volume , tachycardia ( a fast heart rate ) and low blood pressure may be observed . Often , a " ketotic " odor is present , which is often described as " fruity " , often compared to the smell of pear drops whose scent is a ketone . If Kussmaul respiration is present , this is reflected in an increased respiratory rate .
Small children with DKA are relatively prone to cerebral edema ( swelling of the brain tissue ) , which may cause headache , coma , loss of the pupillary light reflex , and progress to death . It occurs in 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 % of children with DKA , and has been described in young adults , but is overall very rare in adults . It carries a 20 – 50 % mortality .
= = Cause = =
DKA most frequently occurs in those who already have diabetes , but it may also be the first presentation in someone who had not previously been known to be diabetic . There is often a particular underlying problem that has led to the DKA episode ; this may be intercurrent illness ( pneumonia , influenza , gastroenteritis , a urinary tract infection ) , pregnancy , inadequate insulin administration ( e.g. defective insulin pen device ) , myocardial infarction ( heart attack ) , stroke or the use of cocaine . Young people with recurrent episodes of DKA may have an underlying eating disorder , or may be using insufficient insulin for fear that it will cause weight gain .
Diabetic ketoacidosis may occur in those previously known to have diabetes mellitus type 2 or in those who on further investigations turn out to have features of type 2 diabetes ( e.g. obesity , strong family history ) ; this is more common in African , African @-@ American and Hispanic people . Their condition is then labeled " ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes " .
Drugs in the gliflozin class ( SGLT2 inhibitors ) , which are generally used for type 2 diabetes , have been associated with diabetic ketoacidosis with remarkably low blood sugars ( " euglycemic DKA " ) . This may be because they were being used in people with type 1 diabetes , but in those with type 2 diabetes it may be as a result of an increase in glucagon levels .
= = Mechanism = =
Diabetic ketoacidosis arises because of a lack of insulin in the body . The lack of insulin and corresponding elevation of glucagon leads to increased release of glucose by the liver ( a process that is normally suppressed by insulin ) from glycogen via glycogenolysis and also through gluconeogenesis . High glucose levels spill over into the urine , taking water and solutes ( such as sodium and potassium ) along with it in a process known as osmotic diuresis . This leads to polyuria , dehydration , and compensatory thirst and polydipsia . The absence of insulin also leads to the release of free fatty acids from adipose tissue ( lipolysis ) , which are converted through a process called beta oxidation , again in the liver , into ketone bodies ( acetoacetate and β @-@ hydroxybutyrate ) . β @-@ Hydroxybutyrate can serve as an energy source in the absence of insulin @-@ mediated glucose delivery , and is a protective mechanism in case of starvation . The ketone bodies , however , have a low pKa and therefore turn the blood acidic ( metabolic acidosis ) . The body initially buffers the change with the bicarbonate buffering system , but this system is quickly overwhelmed and other mechanisms must work to compensate for the acidosis . One such mechanism is hyperventilation to lower the blood carbon dioxide levels ( a form of compensatory respiratory alkalosis ) . This hyperventilation , in its extreme form , may be observed as Kussmaul respiration .
In various situations such as infection , insulin demands rise but are not matched by the failing pancreas . Blood sugars rise , dehydration ensues , and resistance to the normal effects of insulin increases further by way of a vicious circle .
As a result of the above mechanisms , the average adult with DKA has a total body water shortage of about 6 liters ( or 100 mL / kg ) , in addition to substantial shortages in sodium , potassium , chloride , phosphate , magnesium and calcium . Glucose levels usually exceed 13 @.@ 8 mmol / L or 250 mg / dL .
DKA is common in type 1 diabetes as this form of diabetes is associated with an absolute lack of insulin production by the islets of Langerhans . In type 2 diabetes , insulin production is present but is insufficient to meet the body 's requirements as a result of end @-@ organ insulin resistance . Usually , these amounts of insulin are sufficient to suppress ketogenesis . If DKA occurs in someone with type 2 diabetes , their condition is called " ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes " . The exact mechanism for this phenomenon is unclear , but there is evidence both of impaired insulin secretion and insulin action . Once the condition has been treated , insulin production resumes and often the person may be able to resume diet or tablet treatment as normally recommended in type 2 diabetes .
The clinical state of DKA is associated , in addition to the above , with the release of various counterregulatory hormones such as glucagon and adrenaline as well as cytokines , the latter of which leads to increased markers of inflammation , even in the absence of infection .
Cerebral edema , which is the most dangerous DKA complication , is probably the result of a number of factors . Some authorities suggest that it is the result from overvigorous fluid replacement , but the complication may develop before treatment has been commenced . It is more likely in those with more severe DKA , and in the first episode of DKA . Likely factors in the development of cerebral edema are dehydration , acidosis and low carbon dioxide levels ; in addition , the increased level of inflammation and coagulation may , together with these factors , lead to decreased blood flow to parts of the brain , which then swells up once fluid replacement has been commenced . The swelling of brain tissue leads to raised intracranial pressure ultimately leading to death .
= = Diagnosis = =
= = = Investigations = = =
Diabetic ketoacidosis may be diagnosed when the combination of hyperglycemia ( high blood sugars ) , ketones in the blood or on urinalysis and acidosis are demonstrated . In about 10 % of cases the blood sugar is not significantly elevated ( " euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis " ) .
Arterial blood gas measurement is usually performed to demonstrate the acidosis ; this requires taking a blood sample from an artery . Subsequent measurements ( to ensure treatment is effective ) , may be taken from a normal blood test taken from a vein , as there is little difference between the arterial and the venous pH . Ketones can be measured in the urine ( acetoacetate ) and blood ( β @-@ hydroxybutyrate ) . When compared with urine acetoacetate testing , capillary blood β @-@ hydroxybutyrate determination can reduce the need of admission , shorten the duration of hospital admission and potentially reduce the costs of hospital care . At very high levels , capillary blood ketone measurement becomes imprecise .
In addition to the above , blood samples are usually taken to measure urea and creatinine ( measures of kidney function , which may be impaired in DKA as a result of dehydration ) and electrolytes . Furthermore , markers of infection ( complete blood count , C @-@ reactive protein ) and acute pancreatitis ( amylase and lipase ) may be measured . Given the need to exclude infection , chest radiography and urinalysis are usually performed .
If cerebral edema is suspected because of confusion , recurrent vomiting or other symptoms , computed tomography may be performed to assess its severity and to exclude other causes such as stroke .
= = = Criteria = = =
Diabetic ketoacidosis is distinguished from other diabetic emergencies by the presence of large amounts of ketones in blood and urine , and marked metabolic acidosis . Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state ( HHS , sometimes labeled " hyperosmolar non @-@ ketotic state " or HONK ) is much more common in type 2 diabetes and features increased plasma osmolarity ( above 320 mosm / kg ) due to profound dehydration and concentration of the blood ; mild acidosis and ketonemia may occur in this state , but not to the extent observed in DKA . There is a degree of overlap between DKA and HHS , as in DKA the osmolarity may also be increased .
Ketoacidosis is not always the result of diabetes . It may also result from alcohol excess and from starvation ; in both states the glucose level is normal or low . Metabolic acidosis may occur in people with diabetes for other reasons , such as poisoning with ethylene glycol or paraldehyde .
The American Diabetes Association categorizes DKA in adults into one of three stages of severity :
Mild : blood pH mildly decreased to between 7 @.@ 25 and 7 @.@ 30 ( normal 7 @.@ 35 – 7 @.@ 45 ) ; serum bicarbonate decreased to 15 – 18 mmol / l ( normal above 20 ) ; the person is alert
Moderate : pH 7 @.@ 00 – 7 @.@ 25 , bicarbonate 10 – 15 , mild drowsiness may be present
Severe : pH below 7 @.@ 00 , bicarbonate below 10 , stupor or coma may occur
A 2004 statement by the European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society ( for children ) uses slightly different cutoffs , where mild DKA is defined by pH 7 @.@ 20 – 7 @.@ 30 ( bicarbonate 10 – 15 mmol / l ) , moderate DKA by pH 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 2 ( bicarbonate 5 – 10 ) and severe DKA by pH < 7 @.@ 1 ( bicarbonate below 5 ) .
= = Prevention = =
Attacks of DKA can be prevented in those known to have diabetes to an extent by adherence to " sick day rules " ; these are clear @-@ cut instructions to person on how to treat themselves when unwell . Instructions include advice on how much extra insulin to take when sugar levels appear uncontrolled , an easily digestible diet rich in salt and carbohydrates , means to suppress fever and treat infection , and recommendations when to call for medical help .
People with diabetes can monitor their own ketone levels when unwell and seek help if they are elevated .
= = Management = =
The main aims in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis are replacing the lost fluids and electrolytes while suppressing the high blood sugars and ketone production with insulin . Admission to an intensive care unit or similar high @-@ dependency area or ward for close observation may be necessary .
= = = Fluid replacement = = =
The amount of fluid replaced depends on the estimated degree of dehydration . If dehydration is so severe as to cause shock ( severely decreased blood pressure with insufficient blood supply to the body 's organs ) , or a depressed level of consciousness , rapid infusion of saline ( 1 liter for adults , 10 ml / kg in repeated doses for children ) is recommended to restore circulating volume . Slower rehydration based on calculated water and sodium shortage may be possible if the dehydration is moderate , and again saline is the recommended fluid . Very mild ketoacidosis with no associated vomiting and mild dehydration may be treated with oral rehydration and subcutaneous rather than intravenous insulin under observation for signs of deterioration .
A special but unusual consideration is cardiogenic shock , where the blood pressure is decreased not due to dehydration but due to inability of the heart to pump blood through the blood vessels . This situation requires ICU admission , monitoring of the central venous pressure ( which requires the insertion of a central venous catheter in a large upper body vein ) , and the administration of medication that increases the heart pumping action and blood pressure .
= = = Insulin = = =
Some guidelines recommend a bolus ( initial large dose ) of insulin of 0 @.@ 1 unit of insulin per kilogram of body weight . This can be administered immediately after the potassium level is known to be higher than 3 @.@ 3 mmol / l ; if the level is any lower , administering insulin could lead to a dangerously low potassium level ( see below ) . Other guidelines recommend delaying the initiation of insulin until fluids have been administered . It is possible to use rapid acting insulin analogs injections under the skin for mild or moderate cases .
In general , insulin is given at 0 @.@ 1 unit / kg per hour to reduce the blood sugars and suppress ketone production . Guidelines differ as to which dose to use when blood sugar levels start falling ; some recommend reducing the dose of insulin once glucose falls below 16 @.@ 6 mmol / l ( 300 mg / dl ) but other recommend infusing glucose in addition to saline to allow for ongoing infusion of higher doses of insulin .
= = = Potassium = = =
Potassium levels can fluctuate severely during the treatment of DKA , because insulin decreases potassium levels in the blood by redistributing it into cells via increased sodium @-@ potassium pump activity . A large part of the shifted extracellular potassium would have been lost in urine because of osmotic diuresis . Hypokalemia ( low blood potassium concentration ) often follows treatment . This increases the risk of dangerous irregularities in the heart rate . Therefore , continuous observation of the heart rate is recommended , as well as repeated measurement of the potassium levels and addition of potassium to the intravenous fluids once levels fall below 5 @.@ 3 mmol / l . If potassium levels fall below 3 @.@ 3 mmol / l , insulin administration may need to be interrupted to allow correction of the hypokalemia .
= = = Bicarbonate = = =
The administration of sodium bicarbonate solution to rapidly improve the acid levels in the blood is controversial . There is little evidence that it improves outcomes beyond standard therapy , and indeed some evidence that while it may improve the acidity of the blood , it may actually worsen acidity inside the body 's cells and increase the risk of certain complications . Its use is therefore discouraged , although some guidelines recommend it for extreme acidosis ( pH < 6 @.@ 9 ) , and smaller amounts for severe acidosis ( pH 6 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 0 ) .
= = = Cerebral edema = = =
Cerebral edema , if associated with coma , often necessitates admission to intensive care , artificial ventilation , and close observation . The administration of fluids is slowed . The ideal treatment of cerebral edema in DKA is not established , but intravenous mannitol and hypertonic saline ( 3 % ) are used — as in some other forms of cerebral edema — in an attempt to reduce the swelling .
= = = Resolution = = =
Resolution of DKA is defined as general improvement in the symptoms , such as the ability to tolerate oral nutrition and fluids , normalization of blood acidity ( pH > 7 @.@ 3 ) , and absence of ketones in blood ( < 1 mmol / l ) or urine . Once this has been achieved , insulin may be switched to the usual subcutaneously administrered regimen , one hour after which the intravenous administration can be discontinued .
In people with suspected ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes , determination of antibodies against glutamic acid decarboxylase and islet cells may aid in the decision whether to continue insulin administration long @-@ term ( if antibodies are detected ) , or whether to withdraw insulin and attempt treatment with oral medication as in type 2 diabetes . Generally speaking , routine measurement of C @-@ peptide as a measure of insulin production is not recommended unless there is genuine doubt as to whether someone has type 1 or type 2 diabetes .
= = Epidemiology = =
Diabetic ketoacidosis occurs in 4 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 0 per 1000 people with type 1 diabetes annually . In the United States , 135 @,@ 000 hospital admissions occur annually as a result of DKA , at an estimated cost of $ 2 @.@ 4 billion or a quarter to a half the total cost of caring for people with type 1 diabetes . There has been a documented increasing trend to hospital admissions . The risk is increased in those with an ongoing risk factor , such as an eating disorder , and those who cannot afford insulin . About 30 % of children with type 1 diabetes receive their diagnosis after an episode of DKA .
= = History = =
The first full description of diabetic ketoacidosis is attributed to Julius Dreschfeld , a German pathologist working in Manchester , United Kingdom . In his description , which he gave in an 1886 lecture at the Royal College of Physicians in London , he drew on reports by Adolph Kussmaul as well as describing the main ketones , acetoacetate and β @-@ hydroxybutyrate , and their chemical determination . The condition remained almost universally fatal until the discovery of insulin in the 1920s ; by the 1930s , mortality had fallen to 29 % , and by the 1950s it had become less than 10 % . The entity of cerebral edema due to DKA was described in 1936 by a team of doctors from Philadelphia .
Numerous research studies since the 1950s have focused on the ideal treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis . A significant proportion of these studies have been conducted at the University of Tennessee Health Science Center and Emory University School of Medicine . Treatment options studied have included high- or low @-@ dose intravenous , subcutaneous or intramuscular ( e.g. the " Alberti regime " ) insulin , phosphate supplementation , need for a loading dose of insulin , and appropriateness of using bicarbonate therapy in moderate DKA . Various questions remain unanswered , such as whether bicarbonate administration in severe DKA makes any real difference to the clinical course , and whether an insulin loading dose is needed in adults .
The entity of ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes was first fully described in 1987 after several preceding case reports . It was initially thought to be a form of maturity onset diabetes of the young , and went through several other descriptive names ( such as " idiopathic type 1 diabetes " , " Flatbush diabetes " , " atypical diabetes " and " type 1 @.@ 5 diabetes " ) before the current terminology of " ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes " was adopted .
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= Mind 's Eye ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Mind 's Eye " is the sixteenth episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on April 19 , 1998 on the Fox network . It was written by Tim Minear and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Mind 's Eye " received a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 and was watched by 16 @.@ 53 million viewers . The episode received moderately positive reviews , with many critics praising Taylor 's performance as Glenn .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a murder that seems to have been committed by a blind woman , Marty Glenn ( Lili Taylor ) , but Mulder suspects that she is capable of seeing images in some other way . Eventually , it is revealed that Glenn , while blind , can see the actions of her murderous father via her mind 's eye .
" Mind 's Eye " was inspired by the concept of " remote viewing " , or being able to see events beyond the range of normal vision . Minear sought to make Glenn the opposite of Audrey Hepburn 's character in the 1967 film Wait Until Dark , in which Hepburn played the part of an innocent but terrorized blind woman . " Mind 's Eye " marked the rare television appearance of Taylor , who primarily worked on well @-@ regarded independent films . In fact , Taylor herself requested to appear in the series .
= = Plot = =
In Wilmington , Delaware , while Marty Glenn ( Lili Taylor ) is walking around her apartment , she experiences a vision : someone brandishing a knife approaches a man standing in front of a bathroom sink . Later , local police are called to a motel , where they find a murdered man on the bathroom floor . Marty is discovered hiding in the shower holding a bloody sponge . The police arrest her , only to realize that she is blind . Detective Lloyd Pennock ( Blu Mankuma ) calls in Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) because he believes Marty ( who has been blind since birth ) possesses a " sixth sense " that makes her capable of committing this crime .
During an interrogation , it becomes obvious that Marty , who is being uncooperative , possesses knowledge of the crimes that only the guilty party should know . Mulder decides to administer a polygraph while Scully looks over the crime scene . In the bathroom , Scully discovers a leather glove hidden behind an old razor disposal bin . Mulder , meanwhile , becomes convinced that Marty somehow did observe the murder . Suddenly , Marty experiences another vision : the murderer approaches a woman , Susan Forester , at a bar . In the vision , Marty is able to see the name of the bar . When her premonition ends , she requests to make a phone call ; she calls the bar and warns a man named Gotts ( Richard Fitzpatrick ) to leave Forester alone . Later , Scully shows the glove to Marty , who informs her that her fingerprints were found on it and that it fits her . Pennock concludes that the evidence is enough to charge Marty , but Mulder still does not think she did it . Scully proposes that Marty may not be blind , and an eye examination is undertaken . During the test , Marty experiences another vision and Mulder points out that the measurement mode screen used to gauge whether Marty can see has a reaction . Despite this , the examiner concludes Marty is truly blind . Mulder , however , believes Marty 's ocular reaction is a physical response to an image in her mind 's eye . After the district attorney concludes that charging a blind woman solely based on fingerprints would not be enough to convict her , Marty is released .
While walking home , Marty experiences a vision of Gotts attacking Forester . Marty eventually makes her way to the crime scene where she finds the victim 's body . She returns to the police station and confesses to the murders . To convince the police that she is the murderer , Marty tells Pennock where Gotts hid the heroin he stole from the first victim , but none of the prints on the heroin belong to Marty , furthering Mulder 's argument that she is , in fact , innocent . Mulder approaches Marty and tells her that he researched her mother 's murder — she died from a stab wound to the kidney , the same way Gotts kills his victims . Mulder concludes that Marty was given her ability when her then @-@ pregnant mother was killed by Gotts ; it is revealed that Gotts is actually Marty 's father and that he had spent thirty years ( her whole life ) in prison until being paroled . Marty sends Mulder and Scully to the bar that Gotts was last seen at , while Pennock takes her back to her apartment to pick up some things before entering protective custody . While packing , Marty has a vision of Gotts in the apartment lobby ; she knocks Pennock out , takes his gun and waits . Mulder figures out that Marty had been experiencing Gotts ' sight for the thirty years he was in prison ; in effect spending her whole life in prison . Mulder and Scully arrive at Marty 's apartment to find Gotts dead by his daughter 's hands . Marty is convicted of his murder and is sentenced to prison , but she is finally free of her father 's vision .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Mind 's Eye " was written by Tim Minear — his second credit for the series — and directed by Kim Manners . He was inspired to write the episode after hearing about the concept of " remote viewing " . Purportedly , the process allows one to view events — either through one 's eyes , or through the eyes of others — beyond the range of normal vision . Reportedly , the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency spent $ 20 million on a research project to determine if the ability exists .
Minear initially had trouble conceptualizing his idea , noting that " it might be a good idea for a short story , but how do you make the whole thing work visually ? " To combat this issue , Minear decided to make the remote viewer blind . He sought to make the blind woman " not Audrey Hepburn " , a reference to the 1967 film Wait Until Dark , in which Hepburn played the part of an innocent but terrorized blind woman . He later said , " I wanted to make [ Glenn ] a bitch , because the fact is that disability doesn 't necessarily ennoble a person . " After several meetings with fellow writers John Shiban , Vince Gilligan , and Frank Spotnitz — who provided storyboard support — Minear was allowed to begin work on the episode .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
" Mind 's Eye " marked the rare television appearance of Lili Taylor , who primarily worked on well @-@ regarded independent films . Taylor was cast as Glenn ; initially , the producers for the show felt that Taylor would not be interested , but she actually was a fan of the show and series co @-@ star Anderson . Taylor , in fact , had contacted the series ' casting director , Rick Milikan , and requested a role . Blu Mankuma , who played the part of Detective Pennock , had previously appeared in the first season episode " Ghost in the Machine " . Mulder 's line " even if the gloves do fit – you can still acquit " , a reference to the leather gloves of the O. J. Simpson murder case , was improvised by Duchovny during filming .
During the filming of the episode , art director Greg Loewen pointed out that , in her apartment , Glenn would not need lamps and ceiling lights . The lighting department for the show , however , countered that " although The X @-@ Files was a dark show , it wasn 't that dark . " The " staccato " and " nightmarish " remote visions that Glenn experiences were created in post @-@ production by visual effects supervisor Laurie Kallsen @-@ George .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Mind 's Eye " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on April 19 , 1998 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on February 10 , 1999 . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 16 @.@ 53 million viewers . " Mind 's Eye " also was nominated for several Emmy Awards . Taylor was nominated for an award in the category of Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series — a nomination shared by fellow X @-@ Files guest star Veronica Cartwright — although Cloris Leachman won . Editor Casey O Rohrs was nominated for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing .
The episode received moderately positive reviews from television critics , with many praising Taylor 's performance as Glenn . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it a B + . He was slightly critical that Glenn 's ability to see visions was not sufficiently expanded upon ; he ultimately called Mulder 's explanation " crap " . However , Handlen praised guest star Taylor and Duchovny , noting that " Taylor is convincing in the role , and Duchovny does a good job making his lines sound more logical than they actually are . " He ultimately concluded that the entry is " not a bad episode , exactly " but that " it 's far from a great one . " John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a positive review and awarded it an 8 out of 10 . He labeled the episode " a strong stand @-@ alone installment " helped by the " powerful " chemistry between Duchovny and Taylor . He noted that " there are some interesting philosophical themes at work " . Keegan concluded that " [ t ] he lack of context within the season arc itself could have worked against it , but the episode manages to stand on its own . "
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris drew comparisons between the installment and the third season episode " Oubliette " . However , she noted that because " the new episodes doesn 't have the specific connection ' Oubliette ' drew between Lucy and Mulder 's sister Samantha , it doesn 't touch the heart as deeply . " She did , however , praise Taylor 's performance , writing " it is [ Taylor ] who makes ' Mind 's Eye ' truly memorable . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two called the entry " solid , if unspectacular " , noting that , once the premise is developed , " there 's really not much depth to be mined from it . " Shearman and Pearson , however , concluded that " the episode works nonetheless , thanks to a superb central performance from Lili Taylor [ who ] gives the best guest star turn of the year , lending a strength , an anger , and a redeeming humour to a blind woman who has adapted the world to her disability . "
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= Hiram Wesley Evans =
Hiram Wesley Evans ( September 26 , 1881 – September 14 , 1966 ) was Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan , an American white supremacist group , from 1922 to 1939 . A native of Alabama , Evans attended Vanderbilt University and became a dentist . He operated a small , moderately successful practice in Texas until 1920 , when he joined the Klan 's Dallas chapter . He quickly rose through the ranks and was part of a group that ousted William Joseph Simmons from the position of Imperial Wizard , the national leader , in November 1922 . Evans succeeded him and sought to transform the group into a political power .
Although Evans had led the kidnapping and torture of a black man while leader of the Dallas Klan , as Imperial Wizard he publicly discouraged vigilante actions , fearing that they would hinder his attempts to gain political influence . In 1923 , Evans presided over the largest Klan gathering in history , attended by over 200 @,@ 000 , and endorsed several successful candidates in 1924 elections . He moved the Klan 's headquarters from Atlanta to Washington , D.C. , and organized a march of 30 @,@ 000 members — the largest march in the organization 's history — on Pennsylvania Avenue . Evans ' efforts notwithstanding , the Klan was buffeted by damaging publicity in the early 1920s , partially because of leadership struggles between Evans and his rivals , which hindered his political efforts . In the 1930s , the Great Depression significantly decreased the Klan 's income , prompting Evans to work for a construction company to supplement his pay . He resigned his position with the Klan in 1939 , after disavowing anti @-@ Catholicism . He was succeeded by his chief of staff , James A. Colescott . The next year , Evans faced accusations of involvement in a government corruption scandal in Georgia ; he was fined $ 15 @,@ 000 after legal proceedings .
Evans sought to promote a form of nativist , Protestant nationalism . In addition to his white supremacist ideology , he fiercely condemned Catholicism , unionism , and communism , which were associated with recent immigrants from eastern and southern Europe . He argued that Jews formed a non @-@ American culture and resisted assimilation , although he denied being an anti @-@ Semite . Historians credit Evans with refocusing the Klan on political activities and recruiting outside the Southern United States ; the Klan grew most in the Midwest and industrial cities . However , they note that the political influence and membership gains he sought were transitory . Some commentators argue that Evans was more focused on money and power than any particular ideology .
= = Early life and education = =
Hiram Wesley Evans was born in Ashland , Alabama , on September 26 , 1881 , and moved to Hubbard , Texas , with his family as a child . The son of Hiram Martin Evans , a judge , and his wife , Georgia Evans , the younger Evans graduated from Vanderbilt University . Shortly after , he became a dentist , receiving his license in 1900 . He married Bam Hill in 1923 ; they had three children together .
Evans established a small , moderately successful dentistry practice in downtown Dallas that provided inexpensive services . Rumors later arose that his dental qualifications were " a bit shady " . A Protestant , Evans attended a church belonging to the Disciples of Christ denomination . He was also a Freemason . Evans described himself as " the most average man in America " . Of average height and somewhat overweight , Evans was well dressed , a skilled speaker , and very ambitious .
= = Initial Klan service = =
Conceived by its founders as a continuation of the Reconstruction @-@ era Klan ( controversially linked to General Nathan Bedford Forrest ) , the revived Ku Klux Klan had been established in Atlanta in 1915 . Evans joined in 1920 , leaving his dental practice so that he could dedicate all his time to the group . In 1921 , Evans was elected as " exalted cyclops " , a recruiting position sometimes referred to as kleagle , in the Dallas Klan No. 66 . When he was elected , the Dallas Klan had recently received a " self @-@ ruling charter " from the Atlanta @-@ based leadership and was the group 's largest chapter . That same year , Evans was appointed to the position of " great titan " ( executive ) of the " Realm of Texas " and proceeded to lead a successful membership drive for the state 's Klan .
Evans initially supported violence against minorities , remembering a lynching he witnessed as a child . With the Texas Klan , he sought to create " black squads " to attack minorities . He joined several Klan members in kidnapping and torturing a black bellhop , ostensibly because they suspected he was involved in pandering prostitutes . Atlanta @-@ based leaders pressured Evans to curb racial violence in Dallas ; around that time , the Texas Klan had received significant negative publicity after castrating an African @-@ American doctor . Although Evans was not morally opposed to violence against minorities , he publicly condemned vigilante activity because he feared that it would attract government scrutiny and hinder potential Klan @-@ backed political campaigning . This change of stance led the leader of the Houston Klan to accuse him of hypocrisy . Although Evans later took credit for a decrease in lynchings in the Southern United States during the 1920s , several Klan members claimed that he surreptitiously encouraged — and presided over — acts of violence against minorities .
In 1921 , Evans was assigned to oversee the Klan 's national membership drive at the behest of their publicists , Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke . In 1922 , the group 's leadership made Evans the " Imperial kligrapp " , a role similar to national secretary , in which capacity he oversaw operations in 13 states . He received a base salary of $ 7 @,@ 500 and traveled throughout the country , regularly meeting with local Klan leaders .
= = Early national leadership = =
In 1922 , Evans joined a group of Klan activists , including Tyler , Clarke , and D. C. Stephenson , in a " coup " against William Joseph Simmons , the group 's leader . They deceived Simmons into agreeing to a reorganization of the Klan that removed his practical control ; Simmons said that they had claimed that if he remained the Imperial Wizard of the Klan , discord would hamper the organization . Evans gained power and was formally ensconced as Imperial Wizard of the Klan at a November 1922 " Klovokation " in Atlanta , Georgia . Although a legal battle between Evans and Simmons ensued , during which time Simmons was titular " emperor " , Evans retained control . He initially said that he had been unaware of a pending coup until after his selection . However , by the end of their feud , he described Simmons as the " leader of Bolshevik Klansmen betraying the movement " and later expelled the former leader .
As leader of the Klan , Evans advanced a form of nativist , white supremacy that cast Protestantism as a fundamental part of American patriotism . To Evans , whiteness and Protestantism were equally valued , and sometimes conflated : he said the Klan supported the " uncontaminated growth of Anglo @-@ Saxon civilization " . He maintained that white Protestants had the exclusive right to govern the U.S. because of their descent from early colonists , whom he described as fleeing Europe for the U.S. to escape its societal bounds . He admitted that many Klan members were of rural , uneducated backgrounds but argued that power should be given to " the common people of America " . In a pamphlet entitled Ideals of the Ku Klux Klan , Evans described the Klan as follows :
This is a white man 's organization .
This is a gentile organization .
It is an American organization .
It is a Protestant organization .
Under Evans , the Klan supported a mix of right- and left @-@ wing political positions , which were described by Thomas Pegram of Loyola University Maryland as " too much of a patchwork to be considered an ideological system " . Klan literature spoke highly of politicians such as Woodrow Wilson , William Jennings Bryan , and Grover Cleveland . Evans borrowed numerous concepts from the writings of Lothrop Stoddard and Madison Grant , American writers of the period who promoted eugenics and scientific racism , and attempted to cast his platforms as based in science . Evans attacked immigrants by arguing that they would promote ideologies such as anarchism and communism , were threats to national unity , and were involved with bootlegging during Prohibition . He considered immigrants " ignorant , superstitious , religious devotees " intent on earning money in the U.S. before retiring to their homelands . However , he supported immigration of those he deemed " Nordic " .
Evans also argued against miscegenation and Catholic and Jewish immigration , on the grounds that they were threats to genetic " good stock " , a racial division which was then widely supported among white Americans . Evans opposed Catholicism because he believed that the Catholic Church sought to take control of the U.S. government ; he also questioned American Catholics ' loyalty to their country , writing that they were subject to their priests , and , as such , to the entire Roman Catholic hierarchy and the Pope . In other writings he expressed fears that the Catholic Church , in alliance with Jews and non @-@ white Protestant groups , was becoming increasingly active in politics and thus blurring the separation of church and state .
Under Evans ' leadership , the Klan became active in Indiana and Illinois , rather than focusing on the Southeastern U.S. as it had done in the past . It also grew in Michigan , where 40 @,@ 000 members , more than half its total , lived in Detroit . It became characterized as an organization prominent in urban areas of the Midwest , where it attracted native @-@ born Americans competing for industrial jobs with recent immigrants . It also attracted members in Nebraska , Colorado , Oregon and Washington .
Evans appointed Stephenson , his early collaborator , as kleagle and Grand Dragon of Indiana . The relationship between the two leaders quickly became acrimonious ; Stephenson clashed with Evans over the distribution of membership fees and became embittered after Evans refused to help fund the purchase of a school in Indiana . Although Stephenson believed that Evans deliberately thwarted his attempt to purchase the school to limit his power , Evans unexpectedly promoted Stephenson to Grand Dragon of the " northern realm " in July 1923 . The historian Leonard Joseph Moore of McGill University contends that Evans paid particular attention to the Indiana Klan out of financial self @-@ interest : it was then the largest state branch .
The political scientist Arnold S. Rice writes that Evans also worked on a series of changes , advertised as reforms , to the Klan structure and sought to promote a positive public opinion of the Klan ; Evans felt that his organization should be able to reach out to those who were " struggling with the moral decay and economic distress of the 20th century " . He increased the Klan 's surveillance of members before and after initiation , expelling those considered to be of " questionable morals " . He also worked to increase Klan involvement in local policing and denounced acts of violence committed by Klan members , promoting the Klan as a symbol of lawfulness . These efforts , although successful in reducing the number of attacks , were ultimately unable to sway public opinion in the Klan 's favor .
= = Internal conflicts under Evans ' tenure = =
Evans became embroiled in several internal Klan conflicts that gained media exposure . In January 1921 , he and a group of grand dragons expelled the publicist Clarke , who had been critical of Evans ' efforts to involve the Klan in electoral politics . Evans also clashed with Henry Grady , a judge from North Carolina who served in the Klan from 1922 to 1927 , reaching the rank of Grand Dragon . Before Evans gained control of the Klan , Grady had been considered a potential successor to Simmons . After Grady dismissed a Klan @-@ backed law that would have banned the Knights of Columbus , a Catholic fraternal service organization , Evans revoked his membership . Grady subsequently leaked his correspondence with Evans to the media .
In August 1923 , Evans participated in a Klan parade in the heavily Catholic borough of Carnegie , Pennsylvania , which was attacked by local residents . One member of the Klan was killed ; Evans declared him a martyr and hoped that the death would inspire new recruits . The incident gave a fillip to the Klan 's recruitment efforts , but increased Stephenson 's animosity toward Evans , on whom he blamed the incident . Stephenson 's proclivity for ostentation irritated Evans . Although Stephenson left his official Klan position after a short tenure , under his leadership the Klan 's northern supporters had begun to rival those in the South . He had been a skilled campaigner and demagogue , and he remained a well @-@ known advocate of the Klan 's platforms after resigning . Evans avoided publicly clashing with him , fearing that it would hurt the candidacies of Klan @-@ backed politicians : Stephenson was closely involved in the successful gubernatorial candidacy of Indiana Klan @-@ member Edward L. Jackson , and the Klan members had significant electoral gains in that state in 1924 , including the election of several candidates to the state legislature . After these victories , Stephenson showed further disdain for Evans .
Although membership in the Klan was limited to men , Simmons — after losing control of the national organization — attempted to create a parallel white supremacist organization for women . Evans established a women 's group and sued him . Evans won the lawsuit , leading to a public war of words with Simmons , whose lawyer was soon murdered by Evans ' press agent , an event in which Evans denied complicity . In 1924 , Evans paid Simmons $ 145 @,@ 000 for a promise to abandon the latter 's claim to Klan leadership .
Afterward , Evans moved the Klan 's national headquarters to Washington , D.C. , where the murder of Simmon 's lawyer had received less publicity . To Evans ' consternation , Stephenson also formed a women 's auxiliary group . Evans and Stephenson subsequently exchanged allegations of sexual impropriety . Police charged Stephenson with the kidnapping , rape and murder of a young woman ; he maintained that the charges were orchestrated by Evans . After a sensational trial , Stephenson was convicted of second degree murder and given a life sentence ; the publicity about the leader 's behavior caused thousands of members to abandon the Klan .
= = Klan growth and political activism = =
In the early years of Evans ' tenure , the Klan reached record enrollment ; estimates of its peak range from 2 @.@ 5 to 6 million members , although records are poor and the figure cannot be accurately determined . He also dramatically increased the organization 's total assets , more than doubling them from July 1922 to July 1923 . Evans changed the way that chapter leaders were paid : he insisted that they receive a fixed salary rather than commissions based on membership fees in a move that lowered their income . Although previous Imperial Wizards had lived in lavish properties , Evans initially settled in an apartment after his promotion . The sociologist Rory McVeigh of the University of Notre Dame argues that this increase in membership was owing to the Klan 's exploitation of a " favorable political context " , particularly one in which native @-@ born white @-@ settler Americans were fearful after increased immigration caused them to compete for jobs and housing in many cities . Evans had high hopes for the Klan , saying in 1923 that he aimed to reach ten million members . That year , he spoke at the largest Klan gathering in history , a Fourth of July meeting in rural Indiana that was attended by over 200 @,@ 000 .
Evans sought to include more members from the Southwestern U.S. in leadership ; previously the Klan had been led by people from the Southeast . In 1922 , Evans supported the successful U.S. Senate candidacy of the Texas politician Earle Bradford Mayfield , an event that demonstrated that Klan @-@ supported candidates could win prominent offices . The next year , Evans returned to Texas for the state fair , where 75 @,@ 000 people gathered for a " Klan day " celebration . He devoted funds to fighting Jack C. Walton , the anti @-@ Klan governor of Oklahoma ; to the group 's joy , Walton was impeached and removed from office in 1923 . However , the Oklahoma legislature soon passed several anti @-@ Klan bills .
Evans published instructions for local Klan leaders that detailed how to run meetings , recruit new members , and speak to local gatherings . He advised leaders to avoid " raving hysterically " in favor of " [ a ] scientific ... presentation of facts " . In addition , he urged them to forbid members from bringing their Klan regalia home from meetings and to perform background checks on applicants . He instructed Klan members to shun vigilantism but to assist police and attempted , with some success , to recruit police officers into the Klan . Emphasizing the difference between his organization and the more violent 19th @-@ century Ku Klux Klan , Evans formed Klan @-@ themed groups for children . As the Klan attempted to portray itself as a movement led by cultured , well @-@ educated people , its leaders spoke about education in the U.S. Evans believed that public schools could create a homogeneous society and saw education advocacy as an effective form of public relations .
In his writings on the subject , he cited the nation 's illiteracy rate as evidence that American public schools were failing ; he considered low teacher salaries and child labor key obstacles to reform . He supported the idea of a federal Department of Education , hoping that it would lead to improvements in public schools that would help " Americanize the foreigners " and thwart recruitment efforts of Catholic schools . Evans wrote four books in the mid to late 1920s , The Menace of Modern Immigration ( 1923 ) , The Klan of Tomorrow ( 1924 ) , Alienism in the Democracy ( 1927 ) , and The Rising Storm ( 1929 ) .
After the Klan gained respect and political influence in parts of the U.S. , Evans hoped to replicate this on a national scale . Political involvement was controversial among the organization 's members , and Evans issued contradictory statements on the issue , publicly disavowing it but surreptitiously attempting to sway politicians . Apart from fundamental Klan issues , different local groups often held varying political ideologies ; as such , by insisting on specific political stances , Evans would have risked alienating members . Although many of his hopes were never realized , Evans saw several Klansmen elected to high offices and , in the mid @-@ 1920s , the group was frequently discussed by political commentators . In 1924 , the group convinced Republican Party leaders to avoid criticizing them , prompting Time to put Evans on its cover . That year , the Klan supported Calvin Coolidge in his successful candidacy for president of the U.S. Although Coolidge opposed many key Klan platforms , with the exception of immigration restrictions and prohibition , he was the only major @-@ party candidate who did not condemn them . Nonetheless , Evans declared Coolidge 's victory a great success for the Klan . Although Republican leaders refrained from attacking the Klan , they were hesitant to support candidates promoted by the group . Significant discussion of the Klan also took place at the Democratic Party 's convention ; senator and Democratic presidential primary nominee Oscar Underwood decried them as " a national menace " . Evans ' attempts to elect Klansmen to public offices in 1924 saw limited success , although they achieved their goals in Indiana .
= = Decline of the Klan = =
Although the Klan had four million members in 1924 , the group 's membership quickly shrank after Stephenson 's widely publicized trial . The Indiana Klan lost more than 90 % of its members by the end of the proceedings , and there were mass resignations in other states as well . Other scandals emerged , further damaging Klan enrollment . Although the Colorado Klan had seen strong growth , Evans asked the Grand Dragon , John Galen Locke , to resign after local corruption scandals in 1925 involving Klan members who served as police . Evans ' request was poorly received by Colorado Klan members ; local enrollment subsequently plummeted . He encountered difficulties with Klan leaders in Pennsylvania in 1926 , after many of them concluded that he was too autocratic . In response , he revoked the charters of several local Klan groups and removed John Strayer , a state legislator , from his position of authority in the Klan . When the Pennsylvania groups continued to refer to themselves as the Ku Klux Klan , Evans sued them in federal court . Pennsylvania Klan members launched a detailed legal offensive against Evans and other Klan leaders , alleging misdeeds , including participation in kidnappings and lynchings . Evans ' suit was unsuccessful and , as many newspapers reported the scandalous allegations aired in court , the Pennsylvania Klan suffered a serious decline in membership and support .
In response to the decline in Klan membership , in 1926 , Evans organized a Klan parade in Washington , D.C. , hoping that a large turnout would demonstrate the Klan 's power . About 30 @,@ 000 members attended , making it the largest parade in the group 's history . Evans was disappointed , however , as he had expected double the attendance and the march did not staunch the drop in membership . That year , Evans attempted to rally U.S. senators to vote against a bill supporting a proposed world court . He was unsuccessful , however , and several Klan @-@ backed senators followed Calvin Coolidge and supported the bill . In 1928 , Evans opposed the candidacy of the New York Democratic governor Al Smith for president , emphasizing the threat of Smith 's Catholic faith . After the Republican Herbert Hoover won the election , Evans boldly claimed responsibility for Smith 's loss ; but most of the solidly Democratic South had rejected Hoover and voted for Smith against the Klan 's advice .
In 1929 , Evans acknowledged that membership levels had declined but predicted a dramatic turnaround would soon occur . His prediction was inaccurate . This loss of members resulted in a Klan that was a skeleton of its former self . Historians have attributed this loss of membership to ineptness and hypocrisy on the part of Klan leadership . McVeigh argues that the Klan 's inability to form alliances with other political groups led to the sharp loss of political power and solidarity within the group .
= = Changes in focus = =
Although many Democratic Klan members initially supported the 1932 presidential campaign of Franklin D. Roosevelt , the Klan later officially turned against him because of his acceptance of endorsements from minorities and labor unions . After Roosevelt 's election , Evans fiercely opposed the New Deal , describing it as a " great danger " to the nation ; he argued that it was a " Jewish " policy that endangered American freedom , reserving particular scorn for Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr . , who was Jewish . Evans ' statements about Jews were sometimes contradictory : he argued that he was not an anti @-@ Semite but maintained that Jews were materialistic and resisted assimilation . The Klan subsequently launched an offensive against organized labor . In the 1930s , Evans fiercely condemned communism and unionism . Around that time , Evans began to suspect that government agencies had been infiltrated by communists . He focused his attacks on the Congress of Industrial Organizations , claiming that they sought to " flout law and promote social disorder " .
Although Evans bemoaned commercialism and attributed it to the effects of liberalism , he supported capitalism and sought to form ties between business leaders and the Klan . He condemned corporate greed , alleging that wealthy elites ' desire for cheap labor led to increased immigration . In his view , corporations had changed the Eastern U.S. so that it no longer reflected " true Americanism " , a concept he believed could only be understood by " legitimate Americans " such as himself . He blamed an influx of unskilled laborers for lowering wages in the U.S. Evans believed that U.S. immigration policy should restrict the immigration of unskilled workers , except for those needed on farms .
In 1934 , Evans encountered public controversy after it was revealed that he intended to travel to Louisiana to campaign against the Democratic governor Huey Long , who planned to run in the 1936 presidential election . Long learned of Evans ' plans and condemned him in a speech at the Louisiana State Legislature , deriding him as a " tooth @-@ puller " and an " Imperial bastard " and warning of grave consequences should he follow through with his plans . After learning of the potential opposition , Evans cancelled his plans , although he retorted that Long – who based his campaign on Americanist themes – was " un @-@ American " .
= = Downfall and death = =
In the 1930s , the Klan 's public support nearly vanished and their membership dropped to about 100 @,@ 000 people , primarily concentrated in the South , having lost most of their members in the Midwest and West . At that time , James A. Colescott , Evans ' handpicked chief of staff , increasingly shouldered Evans ' responsibilities . After the Great Depression further damaged the Klan 's finances , the group 's leadership sold their Atlanta headquarters in 1936 . Around that time , Evans announced his intention to retire .
Although anti @-@ Catholicism had been a consistent platform of the Klan , before leaving the organization , Evans renounced his anti @-@ Catholicism and pronounced a " new era of religious tolerance " . In 1939 , he said that " in no other time in history has there been more need for all people who believe in the same Father and same Son to stand together . " That year , Evans also publicly expressed an interest in learning aspects of Judaism to better understand the Old Testament . Chester L. Quarles , a professor of criminal justice at the University of Mississippi , argues that Evans repudiated anti @-@ Catholicism owing to his desire to fight unions and communism and his fear of having too many enemies at one time .
After Evans sold the Klan 's former headquarters , it was purchased by the Catholic Church . The Cathedral of Christ the King was later built on the site . Evans attended the building 's dedication and spoke highly of the service , surprising many observers . His attendance at the service was his last significant public appearance as Imperial Wizard : he stepped down soon afterwards , having become deeply unpopular with members of the Klan , who felt that he had embraced their enemies . He resigned on June 10 , 1939 , and was replaced as Imperial Wizard by Colescott .
Evans ' service as Imperial Wizard proved to be a lucrative position , allowing him to maintain a large residence in a prestigious Atlanta neighborhood . In the mid @-@ 1930s , however , Klan funds dwindled , and he worked for a Georgia @-@ based construction company selling products to the Georgia Highway Board . At the same time , he was a staunch supporter of Georgia governor Eurith D. Rivers , whom he had previously employed as a lecturer . Owing to the political support that he provided the administration , Evans was allowed to sell to the highway board without bidding against other contractors . In 1940 , the state of Georgia charged Evans and a member of the state highway board with price fixing . The Attorney General of Georgia , Ellis Arnall , directed legal proceedings against Evans that resulted in a $ 15 @,@ 000 fine .
Meanwhile , Colescott attempted to resuscitate the waning second Klan through an " administration of action " and stricter enforcement of the Klan 's stated policies ; he also led extensive recruitment campaigns . Despite concerns by opponents that the Klan would regain full force after the conclusion of World War II , it was unable to improve its membership and was under pressure from the Internal Revenue Service for failure to pay taxes . Through a decree on April 23 , 1944 , Colescott formally disbanded the Klan . Locally sponsored groups continued to use the name , but lacked the united leadership of the earlier Klan .
As late as 1949 , Evans served as a commentator on Klan activities , speaking as the former Imperial Wizard . He died on September 14 , 1966 , in Atlanta , Georgia .
= = Appraisal = =
David A. Horowitz , a historian at Portland State University , credits Evans with changing the Klan " from a confederation of local vigilantes into a centralized and powerful political movement " . Fellow historian William D. Jenkins of Youngstown State University maintains that Evans was " personally corrupt and more interested in money or power than a cause " . During Evans ' tenure as Imperial Wizard , the New York Times characterized the Klan 's leadership as " shrewd schemers " . However , Rice suggests that Evans ' reforms would never have been successful , as the Klan remained a white supremacist organization that " automatically made enemies of ... anyone who happened to be foreign @-@ born , Negro , Catholic , Jewish , or opposed to bigotry and chauvinism . "
An editorial in The New York Times during Evans ' tenure as Klan leader described him as " severe and logical " in his writing , while the historian Richard Hofstadter described Evans ' writings as not immoderate in tone . The communications specialist Nicolas Rangel Jr. of the University of Houston – Downtown suggests that this vernacular prevented some Americans from recognizing the extremist nature of Evans ' views .
Evans ' ideology was attacked by numerous contemporaries ; these criticisms began early in his Klan career . David Lefkowitz , rabbi of Temple Emanu @-@ El in Dallas , assailed Evans ' assertion that Jews did not assimilate , emphasizing American experiences shared by Jews and Christians , such as military service in World War I. James Weldon Johnson , leader of the NAACP , responded to Evans ' promotion of white supremacy by contending that " all races are mixed " . Other well @-@ known adversaries of Evans included the minister and theologian Reinhold Niebuhr , who opposed the Klan in Detroit in 1925 , describing them as " one of the worst specific social phenomena which the religious pride of a people has ever developed . " The Dallas Morning News publisher George Dealey and Atlanta journalist Ralph McGill opposed him , the latter deriding him for his hypocrisy and false claims about minorities .
Several publications , however , gave positive coverage to Evans , although not necessarily his work with the Klan . In 1927 , the New York Times congratulated Evans on his " modest and engaging exposition of ' Americanism ' " . Although the Klan disowned Evans for reaching out to the Catholic Church , popular opinion was more positive . In 1939 , the Palm Beach Daily News described the meeting between Evans and Cardinal Dennis Joseph Dougherty as stirring both religious and secular circles ; favorable coverage of the meeting was found in several other publications . Dougherty said that he had found Evans " intensely interested in religious subjects " outside Protestantism .
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= Hina Rabbani Khar =
Hina Rabbani Khar ( Urdu : حنا ربانی کھر ; born 19 November 1977 ) is a Pakistani stateswoman who served as the 26th Foreign Minister of Pakistan between February 2011 till March 2013 – the youngest person and the first woman to hold the position .
Hailing from an influential feudal family , she studied business at LUMS and Amherst before entering politics as a member of national assembly in 2002 and becoming a junior minister responsible for economic policy under the Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz . She joined the Pakistan Peoples Party and was re @-@ elected to the national assembly in 2008 . In 2009 , she became the Minister of State for Finance and Economic Affairs and the same year became the first woman to present the national budget .
She was appointed by Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani as the Foreign Minister of Pakistan in July 2011 following the resignation of Mehmood Qureshi , and served until the 2013 election . During her time at the foreign ministry she resumed talks with India , which had derailed since the Mumbai attacks . She also led an unsuccessful move to grant India most favoured nation status . While on a visit to Bangladesh , she issued an unconditional apology from Pakistan for atrocities carried out during the Liberation War of 1971 .
During her two year long appointment as the country 's foreign minister she attracted significant global attention on her appearance and status as Pakistan 's first women foreign minister . She was interviewed by Charlie Rose , CBS News and Washington Post among others . She served as a high @-@ ranking member of the Central Executive Committee of the Pakistan Peoples Party from 2008 until 2013 , when she retired from politics . However , she continues to remain a member of Pakistan People 's Party and a public speaker on foreign policy . She has written op @-@ ed 's for Newsweek Pakistan and was interviewed by Mehdi Hasan at the Oxford Union in December 2015 .
= = Early life and family = =
Hina was born into a feudal Muslim Jat family of Khar clan in Multan , Punjab , Pakistan . Khar is the daughter of powerful oligarch and retired politician Ghulam Noor Rabbani Khar . Her father was a prominent national politician and formerly served as a member of the National Assembly . She is niece of Ghulam Mustafa Khar , former Governor and Chief Minister of Punjab , and the cousin of actress and model Aaminah Haq .
Khar is co @-@ owner of a restaurant chain named the " Polo Lounge " . The initial branch opened at the Lahore Polo Ground in 2002 . A second Polo Lounge has since opened in Islamabad 's Saidpur Village .
= = = Education = = =
Khar is a graduate of the Lahore University of Management Sciences ( LUMS ) where she holds a BSc ( with honors ) in Economics conferred in 1999 . She subsequently attended the University of Massachusetts at Amherst in the United States where she earned a MSc in Business Management , attained in 2002 .
Khar has retained ties with her alumnus institution , LUMS , long after her graduation . In 2012 , she delivered a lecture at LUMS on " Foreign policy and Young Democracy " . In 2012 , she helped secure funding for the Abdus Salam Institute of Physics and spoke highly of notable theorist Dr. Abdus Salam at LUMS .
= = Career = =
Hina Rabbani Khar came to national prominence in the national political arena through Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz in 2004 , who appointed her to the Finance Ministry . In the 2002 general elections , she successfully contested and secured the parliamentary constituency of her father , veteran politician Ghulam Noor Rabbani Khar , after most members of her family were disqualified . With the financial support of her father , she campaigned on a newly founded PML ( Q Group ) platform against the Pakistan Muslim League .
Khar was elected as a member of the National Assembly , representing the NA @-@ 177 ( Muzaffargarh @-@ II ) constituency in Punjab , a constituency her father had represented previously . A new law requiring all parliamentary candidates to hold a university degree had meant he could not run that year . The Guardian wrote , " In deference to local sensibilities about the place of women , her landlord father Noor addressed rallies and glad @-@ handed voters ; Hina stayed largely at home , with not even her photo appearing on the posters . " In 2005 , she was elevated to the position of deputy minister of economic affairs under Shaukat Aziz . As deputy minister , she dealt extensively with the donor community during the 2005 earthquake that hit Northern Pakistan .
In 2007 , she made an unsuccessful attempt to renew her alliance with PML @-@ Q , but the party denied her a ticket platform to campaign for re @-@ election in 2008 . She was later invited by the senior members of the Pakistan Peoples Party and successfully campaigned for her constituency for a second time . The PPP secured a plurality of the votes and formed a left @-@ wing alliance with the Awami National Party , MQM and PML @-@ Q.
= = = Minister of State for Economic Affairs = = =
Khar came to prominence during the Shaukat Aziz government and was appointed Minister of State for Economic Affairs in 2004 , a post she retained until 2007 . In 2008 , after successfully defending her constituency , she was appointed Minister of State for Finance and Economic Affairs in the cabinet of Yousaf Raza Gillani . She worked on the financial budget and economic policies in the absence of the then Finance Minister and on 13 June 2009 she successfully presented the 2010 federal budget in the Parliament and has the distinction of being the first woman politician to present the Pakistani budget in the National Assembly .
= = = Foreign minister = = =
Khar was appointed as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs — the deputy head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs — on 11 February 2011 , as part of Gillani 's cabinet reshuffle . After Shah Mehmood Qureshi 's resignation as Foreign Minister , she became acting Minister of Foreign Affairs on 13 February 2011 . She was formally appointed as Foreign Minister on 18 July and was sworn in on 19 July , becoming the youngest and first female Minister of Foreign Affairs . President Asif Ali Zardari , who succeeded Pervez Musharraf in 2008 , said the appointment was " a demonstration of the government 's commitment to bring women into the mainstream of national life " . She was appointed foreign minister during a difficult time in Pakistan : when the country 's armed forces were confronting extreme elements in Western Pakistan and anti @-@ American emotions ran high over the Raymond Davis incident .
Shortly after her appointment , she visited India and held peace talks with her Indian counterpart , S. M. Krishna . Relations between the two countries had been suspended following the 2008 Mumbai attacks , resuming in February 2011 . The Indian media reported extensively on her fashion and appearance — the Birkin bag , the sunglasses , the Jimmy Choo stilettos and the pearl necklaces , for example . She held talks with leaders of the Hurriyat Conference before meeting Indian government representatives , a decision which was criticised by the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , India 's main opposition party , which said it was a breach of protocol and demanded an inquiry into the matter . In August 2011 she visited China and held talks with Yang Jiechi , the Chinese Foreign Minister . Hindustan Times reported that , in contrast to her reception in India , she was largely ignored by Chinese media .
The NATO strike which killed 24 Pakistani troops was one of the most notable incidents during her tenure and Foreign Minister Khar vigorously stated that the government of Pakistan and defense committees had approved a measure — similar to a parliamentary resolution put forward after bin Laden 's May 2011 death — that formally bars NATO and ISAF forces from using Pakistan 's supply routes . On 6 June 2012 , Pakistan renewed its call for a U.S. apology over the killing of 24 soldiers in U.S. warplane attacks at the Salala checkpost , as Khar argued that " higher principles should take precedence over politically popular considerations " . Khar challenged the U.S. to " live up to its democratic ideals by respecting the will of Pakistan ’ s elected legislature " , Foreign Policy magazine said in a Doha @-@ datelined report on its interview with the top Pakistani diplomat . On 15 December 2011 , when the United States suspended financial aid to Pakistan , Khar warned her counterpart Hillary Clinton that the United States will be responsible for defeat in the war on terror as Pakistan could not fight the war alone .
On 21 January 2012 , Khar secretly left for Moscow with an agenda of strengthening bilateral relations . Khar and her foreign service officers made tremendous efforts to reach out to countries such as Russia in the wake of strained ties with the United States . On this trip she extended an invitation to the Russian leadership to visit Pakistan and to reaffirm cooperation and bilateral commitment and support to promote stability and peace in Afghanistan for " Afghan @-@ led and Afghan @-@ owned " efforts for national reconciliation in the country . On 12 August 2012 , while speaking at the 16th Summit of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement in Tehran , Khar maintained that " growing confrontation over Iran ’ s nuclear program was threatening further instability in the broader region , and a peaceful resolution of this issue is still possible on the basis of reciprocal confidence @-@ building measures and security assurances against external threat . "
During her short visit to Bangladesh on 9 November 2012 , Khar was approached by the Foreign Minister of Bangladesh Dipu Moni to settle pending post @-@ independence issues , emphasizing especially an unconditional apology from Pakistan for the genocide it had carried out during the Liberation War of 1971 . Khar reiterated that Pakistan had regretted its 1971 actions on different occasions since 1974 and called for the two countries to move ahead together . She urged Moni and the Prime Minister of Bangladesh , Sheikh Hasina , to bury the past .
= = Personal life = =
Khar is married to Feroze Gulzar and has two daughters , Annaya and Dina .
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= Dime Store ( Portland , Oregon ) =
The Dime Store was a short @-@ lived restaurant in Portland , Oregon , in the United States . It was established by Dayna McErlean , with additional conceptual development from Jeremy Larter . The restaurant opened in 2014 , replacing Leo 's Non @-@ Smoking Coffee Shop , a diner which had operated for thirty years . The Dime Store 's menu included diner classics such as burgers and milkshakes , along with all @-@ day breakfast and weekend brunch specials . Despite receiving a positive critical reception , the restaurant closed in November 2015 .
= = Description = =
The Dime Store was a restaurant housed in the first floor corner of the Medical Dental Building ( 837 Southwest 11th Avenue ) in downtown Portland . Its menu was created by Claire Miller and included American diner classics such as burgers , ice cream floats , milkshakes , sundaes , and other desserts , as well as upscale diner food and healthy food options with a farmers ' market influence .
The all @-@ day breakfast menu included buttermilk biscuits and gravy , Water Avenue coffee , fried egg sandwiches , pancakes , and scrambled egg specials . The lunch menu included sandwiches ( BLT , club , falafel , grilled cheese , meatloaf ) , salads , and soups . The Dime Store 's weekend brunch menu featured Eggs Benedict , French @-@ style omelettes , and the " Boss @-@ Lady 's Breakfast " , which included braised greens , fried egg , and sausage . Brunch cocktails included Bloody Marys , mimosas , and Salty Dogs . Its beer , cocktail , and wine selection was curated by Nick Ramsdell . One milkshake special featured Salt & Straw , a Portland @-@ based artisanal ice cream company .
The restaurant featured a horseshoe @-@ shaped kiosk @-@ style counter displaying coffee , pastries , sandwiches , and a variety of 25 periodicals supplied by The City Reader , a Modern Newsstand on Southeast Division . It was described as a " shinier " version of the coffee shop which had occupied the same space for thirty years prior , with grey and red linoleum flooring and teal pleather or vinyl seating .
= = History = =
The restaurant replaced Leo 's Non @-@ Smoking Coffee Shop , which was owned by Peter and Jane Chan for thirty years . When Leo 's closed in February 2014 , rumors had already circulated about restaurateur and developer Dayna McErlean 's plans to open a more upscale diner . The Dime Store 's concept was created by McErlean and Jeremy Larter , and was inspired by the soda shops they both experienced growing up on the East Coast . Prior to the restaurant 's opening , plans were to serve breakfast and lunch during mid @-@ week hours , with the potential to later add happy hour and family @-@ friendly dinner options , as well as outdoor seating .
The Dime Store opened in the early summer of 2014 ( June – July ) , with a grand opening on June 16 . It began operating with a limited menu during the hours of 7am to 3pm ; hours were later extended to 6pm . The restaurant 's weekend brunch launched in July , offering a larger menu from 9am to 3pm .
The restaurant closed in November 2015 . The owners posted online , " It was a hard decision but sadly we have decided to close our doors . Thanks to everyone that 's supported us and have dined with us . We will miss you all and happy holidays ! " Willamette Week 's Martin Cizmar attributed the diner 's closure to its location and lack of nearby foot traffic . Oregon Liquor Control Commission documentation from March 2016 shows an application for a tradename update to The Daily Feast .
= = Reception = =
Fodor 's called The Dime Store " bright and hip " , offering " office workers and hotel guests a much @-@ appreciated source of seasonally driven , well @-@ prepared comfort fare " . Cizmar wrote a positive review of the restaurant in August 2014 , in which he paid tribute to Leo 's and described his two $ 1 extras ( an egg on his BLT and maple syrup for his pancakes ) as " the best two dollars [ he ] spent all week " . That same month , Thrillist contributor Drew Tyson included the diner in his list of the " 11 Best New Restaurants in Portland " , writing :
Billing itself as a " finer diner " , this old @-@ school space feels a bit like the diner in Twin Peaks . There 's a magazine and candy counter in one corner that no one seems to touch ; just quick enough service that once you start questioning whether or not you 'll get another cup of coffee , one arrives ; plus a menu full of classics . All @-@ in @-@ all it 's one of the only places you can go in Downtown and feel like you 're transported somewhere else entirely .
The Portland Mercury 's Andrea Damewood wrote :
Dime Store is its own thing , a great place to grab lemony eggs benedict and a Water Avenue coffee on a Sunday without a massive line . Sure , there 's vintage milk bottles as water pitchers , " Hound Dog " blasting from the speakers , and a big @-@ old 1950s vibe going on — but you 're not going to feel like some asshat in a retro @-@ themed chain here ... There 's no life @-@ changing or avant @-@ garde cooking happening at Dime Store . You won 't see coffee mayo and duck bologna like Vitaly Paley 's crew puts out at Penny Diner . You won 't find the greasy hash browns available at the actual old @-@ school diners . But that 's kind of the point . Dime Store is a sweet slice of nostalgia with just the right nod to current dining realities .
In 2015 , The Oregonian included the diner 's " Dime Burger " as one of five " burger classics " in its list of the city 's " 100 best Cheap Eats " . The newspaper later included The Dime Store in its list of the " top 10 Portland restaurant closings of 2015 " .
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= Simon Bolivar Buckner =
Simon Bolivar Buckner ( April 1 , 1823 – January 8 , 1914 ) was an American soldier and politician who fought in the United States Army in the Mexican – American War and in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War . He later served as the 30th Governor of Kentucky .
After graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point , Buckner became an instructor there . He took a hiatus from teaching to serve in the Mexican – American War , participating in many of the major battles of that conflict . He resigned from the army in 1855 to manage his father @-@ in @-@ law 's real estate in Chicago , Illinois . He returned to his native state of Kentucky in 1857 and was appointed adjutant general by Governor Beriah Magoffin in 1861 . In this position , he tried to enforce Kentucky 's neutrality policy in the early days of the Civil War . When the state 's neutrality was breached , Buckner accepted a commission in the Confederate Army after declining a similar commission to the Union Army . In 1862 , he accepted Ulysses S. Grant 's demand for an " unconditional surrender " at the Battle of Fort Donelson . He was the first Confederate general to surrender an army in the war . He spent five months as a prisoner of war . After his release , Buckner participated in Braxton Bragg 's failed invasion of Kentucky and near the end of the war became chief of staff to Edmund Kirby Smith in the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department .
In the years following the war , Buckner became active in politics . He was elected governor of Kentucky in 1887 . It was his second campaign for that office . His term was plagued by violent feuds in the eastern part of the state , including the Hatfield – McCoy feud and the Rowan County War . His administration was rocked by scandal when state treasurer James " Honest Dick " Tate absconded with $ 250 @,@ 000 from the state 's treasury . As governor , Buckner became known for vetoing special interest legislation . In the 1888 legislative session alone , he issued more vetoes than the previous ten governors combined . In 1895 , he made an unsuccessful bid for a seat in the U.S. Senate . The following year , he joined the National Democratic Party , or " Gold Democrats " , who favored a gold standard policy over the Free Silver position of the mainline Democrats . He was the Gold Democrats ' candidate for Vice President of the United States in the 1896 election , but polled just over one percent of the vote on a ticket with John M. Palmer . He never again sought public office and died January 8 , 1914 .
= = Early life = =
Simon B. Buckner ( Sr. ) , was born at Glen Lily , his family 's estate near Munfordville , Kentucky . He was the third child and second son of Aylett Hartswell and Elizabeth Ann ( Morehead ) Buckner . Named after the " South American soldier and statesman , Simón Bolívar , then at the height of his power " , Buckner did not begin school until age nine , when he enrolled at a private school in Munfordville . His closest friend in Munfordville was Thomas J. Wood , who would become a Union Army general opposing Buckner at the Battle of Perryville and the Battle of Chickamauga during the Civil War . Buckner 's father was an iron worker , but found that Hart County did not have sufficient timber to fire his iron furnace . Consequently , in 1838 , he moved the family to southern Muhlenberg County where he organized an iron @-@ making corporation . Buckner attended school in Greenville , and later at Christian County Seminary in Hopkinsville .
On July 1 , 1840 , Buckner enrolled at the United States Military Academy . In 1844 he graduated eleventh in his class of 25 and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Infantry Regiment . He was assigned to garrison duty at Sackett 's Harbor on Lake Ontario until August 28 , 1845 , when he returned to the Academy to serve as an assistant professor of geography , history , and ethics .
= = Service in the Mexican – American War = =
In May 1846 , Buckner resigned his teaching position to fight in the Mexican – American War , enlisting with the 6th U.S. Infantry Regiment . His early duties included recruiting soldiers and bringing them to the Texas border . In November 1846 , he was ordered to join his company in the field ; he met them en route between Monclova and Parras . The company joined John E. Wool at Saltillo . In January 1847 , Buckner was ordered to Vera Cruz with William J. Worth 's division . While Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott besieged Vera Cruz , Buckner 's unit engaged a few thousand Mexican cavalry at a nearby town called Amazoque .
On August 8 , 1847 , Buckner was appointed quartermaster of the 6th Infantry . Shortly thereafter , he participated in battles at San Antonio and Churubusco , being slightly wounded in the latter battle . He was appointed a brevet first lieutenant for gallantry at Churubusco and Contreras , but declined the honor in part because reports of his participation at Contreras were in error — he had been fighting in San Antonio at the time . Later , he was offered and accepted the same rank solely based on his conduct at Churubusco .
Buckner was again cited for gallant conduct at the Battle of Molino del Rey , and was appointed a brevet captain . He participated in the Battle of Chapultepec , the Battle of Belen Gate , and the storming of Mexico City . At the conclusion of the war , American soldiers served as an army of occupation , which left them time for leisure activities . Buckner joined the Aztec Club , and in April 1848 was a part of the successful expedition of Popocatépetl , a volcano southeast of Mexico City . Buckner was accorded the honor of lowering the American flag over Mexico City for the last time during the occupation .
= = Interbellum = =
After the war , Buckner accepted an invitation to return to West Point to teach infantry tactics . Just over a year later , he resigned the post in protest over the academy 's compulsory chapel attendance policy . Following his resignation , he was assigned to a recruiting post at Fort Columbus .
Buckner married Mary Jane Kingsbury on May 2 , 1850 , at her aunt 's home in Old Lyme , Connecticut . Shortly after their wedding , he was assigned to Fort Snelling and later to Fort Atkinson on the Arkansas River in present @-@ day Kansas . On December 31 , 1851 , he was promoted to first lieutenant , and on November 3 , 1852 , he was elevated to captain of the commissary department of the 6th U.S. Infantry in New York City . Previously , he had attained only a brevet to these ranks . Buckner gained such a reputation for fair dealings with the Indians , that the Oglala Lakota tribe called him Young Chief , and their leader , Yellow Bear , refused to treat with anyone but Buckner .
Before leaving the Army , Buckner helped an old friend from West Point and the Mexican – American War , Captain Ulysses S. Grant , by covering his expenses at a New York hotel until money arrived from Ohio to pay for his passage home . On March 26 , 1855 , Buckner resigned from the Army to work with his father @-@ in @-@ law , who had extensive real estate holdings in Chicago , Illinois . When his father @-@ in @-@ law died in 1856 , Buckner inherited his property and moved to Chicago to manage it .
Still interested in military affairs , Buckner joined the Illinois State Militia of Cook County as a major . On April 3 , 1857 , he was appointed adjutant general of Illinois by Governor William Henry Bissell . He resigned the post in October of the same year . Following the Mountain Meadows massacre , a regiment of Illinois volunteers organized for potential service in a campaign against the Mormons . Buckner was offered command of the unit and a promotion to the rank of colonel . He accepted the position , but predicted that the unit would not see action . His prediction proved correct , as negotiations between the federal government and Mormon leaders eased tensions between the two .
In late 1857 , Buckner and his family returned to his native state and settled in Louisville . Buckner 's daughter , Lily , was born there on March 7 , 1858 . Later that year , a Louisville militia known as the Citizens ' Guard was formed , and Buckner was made its captain . He served in this capacity until 1860 , when the Guard was incorporated into the Kentucky State Guard 's Second Regiment . He was appointed inspector general of Kentucky in 1860 .
= = Civil War = =
In 1861 Kentucky governor Beriah Magoffin appointed Buckner adjutant general , promoted him to major general , and charged him with revising the state 's militia laws . The state was torn between Union and Confederacy , with the legislature supporting the former and the governor the latter . This led the state to declare itself officially neutral . Buckner assembled 61 companies to defend Kentucky 's neutrality .
The state board that controlled the militia considered it to be pro @-@ secessionist and ordered it to store its arms . On July 20 , 1861 , Buckner resigned from the state militia , declaring that he could no longer perform his duties due to the board 's actions . That August he was twice offered a commission as a brigadier general in the Union Army — the first from general in chief Winfield Scott , and the second from Secretary of War Simon Cameron following the personal order of President Abraham Lincoln — but he declined . After Confederate Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus , Kentucky , violating the state 's neutrality , Buckner accepted a commission as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army on September 14 , 1861 , and was followed by many of the men he formerly commanded in the state militia . When his Confederate commission was approved , Union officials in Louisville indicted him for treason and seized his property . ( Concerned that a similar action might be taken against his wife 's property in Chicago , he had previously deeded it to his brother @-@ in @-@ law . ) He became a division commander in the Army of Central Kentucky under Brig. Gen. William J. Hardee and was stationed in Bowling Green , Kentucky .
= = = Fort Donelson = = =
After Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant captured Fort Henry on the Tennessee River in February 1862 , he turned his sights on nearby Fort Donelson on the Cumberland . Western Theater commander Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston sent Buckner to be one of four brigadier generals defending the fort . In overall command was the influential politician and military novice John B. Floyd ; Buckner 's peers were Gideon J. Pillow and Bushrod Johnson .
Buckner 's division defended the right flank of the Confederate line of entrenchments that surrounded the fort and the small town of Dover , Tennessee . On February 14 , the Confederate generals decided they could not hold the fort and planned a breakout , hoping to join with Johnston 's army , now in Nashville . At dawn the following morning , Pillow launched a strong assault against the right flank of Grant 's army , pushing it back 1 to 2 miles ( 2 to 3 km ) . Buckner , not confident of his army 's chances and not on good terms with Pillow , held back his supporting attack for over two hours , which gave Grant 's men time to bring up reinforcements and reform their line . Buckner 's delay did not prevent the Confederate attack from opening a corridor for an escape from the besieged fort . However , Floyd and Pillow combined to undo the day 's work by ordering the troops back to their trench positions .
Late that night the generals held a council of war in which Floyd and Pillow expressed satisfaction with the events of the day , but Buckner convinced them that they had little realistic chance to hold the fort or escape from Grant 's army , which was receiving steady reinforcements . General Floyd , concerned he would be tried for treason if captured by the North , sought Buckner 's assurance that he would be given time to escape with some of his Virginia regiments before the army surrendered . Buckner agreed and Floyd offered to turn over command to his subordinate , Pillow . Pillow immediately declined and passed command to Buckner , who agreed to stay behind and surrender . Both Generals Floyd and Pillow left to leave General Buckner to surrender to the Union Forces . Pillow and Floyd were able to escape , as did cavalry commander Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest .
That morning , Buckner sent a messenger to the Union Army requesting an armistice and a meeting of commissioners to work out surrender terms . He may have been hoping Grant would offer generous terms , remembering the assistance he gave Grant when he was destitute , but Grant 's reply was curt , with the famous quotation , " No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted . I propose to move immediately upon your works . " To this , Buckner responded :
SIR : — The distribution of the forces under my command , incident to an unexpected change of commanders , and the overwhelming force under your command , compel me , notwithstanding the brilliant success of the Confederate arms yesterday , to accept the ungenerous and unchivalrous terms which you propose .
The asperity of these notes was only superficial ; Buckner greeted his old friend warmly when Grant arrived to accept the surrender . They joked about their time in Mexico and the incompetence of General Pillow [ 35 ] . Grant offered to loan Buckner money to see him through his impending imprisonment , but Buckner declined . As an additional note Buckner paid for then Captain Grant 's lodging in New York City after the Mexican War when Grant was destitute . Also Buckner acted as a pall bearer and paid for Grant 's funeral and provided Grant 's widow a financial monthly payment so she could live out her years . The surrender was a humiliation for Buckner personally , but also a strategic defeat for the Confederacy , which lost more than 12 @,@ 000 men and much equipment , as well as control of the Cumberland River , which led to the evacuation of Nashville .
= = = Invasion of Kentucky = = =
While Buckner was a Union prisoner of war at Fort Warren in Boston , Kentucky Senator Garrett Davis unsuccessfully sought to have him tried for treason . On August 15 , 1862 , after five months of writing poetry in solitary confinement , Buckner was exchanged for Union Brig. Gen. George A. McCall . The following day he was promoted to major general and ordered to Chattanooga , Tennessee , to join Gen. Braxton Bragg 's Army of Mississippi .
Days after Buckner joined Bragg , both Bragg and Maj. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith began an invasion of Kentucky . As Bragg pushed north , his first encounter was in Buckner 's home town of Munfordville . The small town was important for Union forces to hold if they wanted to maintain communication with Louisville while pressing southward to Bowling Green and Nashville . A small force under the command of Col. John T. Wilder guarded the town . Though vastly outnumbered , Wilder refused requests to surrender on September 12 and September 14 . By September 17 , however , Wilder recognized his difficult position and asked Bragg for proof of the superior numbers he claimed . In an unusual move , Wilder agreed to be blindfolded and brought to Buckner . When he arrived , he told Buckner that he ( Wilder ) was not a military man and had come to ask him what he should do . Flattered , Buckner showed Wilder the strength and position of the Confederate forces , which outnumbered Wilder 's men almost 5 @-@ to @-@ 1 . Seeing the hopeless situation he was in , Wilder informed Buckner that he wanted to surrender . Any other course , he later explained , would be " no less than willful murder . "
Bragg 's men continued northward to Bardstown where they rested and sought supplies and recruits . Meanwhile , Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell 's Army of the Ohio , the main Union force in the state , was pressing toward Louisville . Bragg left his army and met Kirby Smith in Frankfort , where he was able to attend the inauguration of Confederate Governor Richard Hawes on October 4 . Buckner , although protesting this distraction from the military mission , attended as well and gave stirring speeches to the local crowds about the Confederacy 's commitment to the state of Kentucky . The inauguration ceremony was disrupted by the sound of cannon fire from an approaching Union division and the inaugural ball scheduled for that evening was canceled .
Based on intelligence acquired by a spy in Buell 's army , Buckner advised Bragg that Buell was still ten miles from Louisville in the town of Mackville . He urged Bragg to engage Buell there before he reached Louisville , but Bragg declined . Buckner then asked Leonidas Polk to request that Bragg concentrate his forces and attack the Union army at Perryville , but again , Bragg refused . Finally , on October 8 , 1862 , Bragg 's army — not yet concentrated with Kirby Smith 's — engaged Maj. Gen. Alexander McCook 's corps of Buell 's army and began the Battle of Perryville . Buckner 's division fought under General Hardee during this battle , achieving a significant breakthrough in the Confederate center , and reports from Hardee , Polk , and Bragg all praised Buckner 's efforts . His gallantry was for naught , however , as Perryville ended in a tactical draw that was costly for both sides , causing Bragg to withdraw and abandon his invasion of Kentucky . Buckner joined many of his fellow generals in publicly denouncing Bragg 's performance during the campaign .
= = = Later Civil War service = = =
Following the Battle of Perryville , Buckner was reassigned to command the District of the Gulf , fortifying the defenses of Mobile , Alabama . He remained there until late April 1863 , when he was ordered to take command of the Army of East Tennessee . He arrived in Knoxville on May 11 , 1863 , and assumed command the following day . Shortly thereafter , his department was converted into a district of the Department of Tennessee under Gen. Bragg and was designated the Third Corps of the Army of Tennessee .
In late August , Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside approached Buckner 's position at Knoxville . Buckner called for reinforcements from Bragg at Chattanooga , but Bragg was being threatened by forces under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans and could not spare any of his men . Bragg ordered Buckner to fall back to the Hiwassee River . From there , Buckner 's unit traveled to Bragg 's supply base at Ringgold , Georgia , then on to Lafayette and Chickamauga . Bragg was also forced from Chattanooga and joined Buckner at Chickamauga . On September 19 and 20 , the Confederate forces attacked and emerged victorious at the Battle of Chickamauga . Buckner 's Corps fought on the Confederate left both days , the second under the " wing " command of Lt. Gen. James Longstreet , participating in the great breakthrough of the Union line .
After Chickamauga , Rosecrans and his Army of the Cumberland retreated to fortified Chattanooga . Bragg held an ineffective siege against Chattanooga , but refused to take any further action as the Union forces there were reinforced by Ulysses S. Grant and reopened a tenuous supply line . Many of Bragg 's subordinates , including Buckner , advocated that Bragg be relieved of command . Thomas L. Connelly , historian of the Army of Tennessee , believes that Buckner was the author of the anti @-@ Bragg letter sent by the generals to President Jefferson Davis . Bragg retaliated by reducing Buckner to division command and abolishing the Department of East Tennessee .
Buckner was given a medical leave of absence following Chickamauga , returning to Virginia , where he engaged in routine work while recovering his strength . His division was sent without him to support Longstreet in the Knoxville Campaign , while the remainder of Bragg 's army was defeated in the Chattanooga Campaign . Buckner served on the court martial of Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws after that subordinate of Longstreet 's was charged with poor performance at Knoxville . Buckner was briefly given command of Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood 's division in February 1864 , and on March 8 , he was given command of the reestablished Department of East Tennessee . The department was a shell of its former self — less than one @-@ third its original size , badly equipped , and in no position to mount an offensive . Buckner was virtually useless to the Confederacy here , and on April 28 , he was ordered to join Edmund Kirby Smith in the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department of the Confederacy .
Buckner had difficulty traveling to the West , and it was early summer before he arrived . He assumed command of the District of West Louisiana on August 4 . Shortly after Buckner arrived at Smith 's headquarters in Shreveport , Louisiana , Smith began requesting a promotion for him . The promotion to lieutenant general came on September 20 . Smith placed Buckner in charge of the critical but difficult task of selling the department 's cotton through enemy lines .
As news of Gen. Robert E. Lee 's surrender on April 9 , 1865 , reached the department , soldiers deserted the Confederacy in droves . On April 19 , Smith consolidated the District of Arkansas with the District of West Louisiana ; the combined district was put under Buckner 's command . On May 9 , Smith made Buckner his chief of staff . Rumors began to swirl in both Union and Confederate camps that Smith and Buckner would not surrender , but would fall back to Mexico with soldiers who remained loyal to the Confederacy . Though Smith did cross the Rio Grande , he learned on his arrival that Buckner had traveled to New Orleans on May 26 and arranged terms of surrender . Smith had instead instructed Buckner to move all the troops to Houston , Texas .
At Fort Donelson , Tennessee , Buckner had become the first Confederate general of the war to surrender an army ; at New Orleans , he became the last . The surrender became official when Smith endorsed it on June 2 , ( Only Brigadier General Stand Watie held out longer ; he surrendered the last Confederate land forces on June 23 , 1865 ) .
Conditions set forth in Buckner 's surrender were the following :
" All acts of hostility on the part of both armies are to cease from this date . "
The officers and men are to be " paroled until duly exchanged . "
All Confederate property was to be turned over to the Union .
All officers and men could return home .
" The surrender of property will not include the side arms or private horses or baggage of officers " and enlisted men .
" All ' self @-@ disposed persons ' who return to ' peaceful pursuits ' are assured that may resume their usual avocations . . . " . "
= = Postbellum life = =
The terms of Buckner 's parole in Shreveport , Louisiana , on June 9 , 1865 , prevented his return to Kentucky for three years . He remained in New Orleans , worked on the staff of the Daily Crescent newspaper , engaged in a business venture , and served of the board of directors of a fire insurance company , of which he became president in 1867 . His wife and daughter joined him in the winter months of 1866 and 1867 , but he sent them back to Kentucky in the summers because of the frequent outbreaks of cholera and yellow fever .
Buckner returned to Kentucky when he was eligible in 1868 and became editor of the Louisville Courier . Like most former Confederate officers , he petitioned the United States Congress for the restoration of his civil rights as stipulated by the 14th Amendment . He recovered most of his property through lawsuits and regained much of his wealth through shrewd business deals .
On January 5 , 1874 , after five years of suffering with tuberculosis , Buckner 's wife died . Now a widower , Buckner continued to live in Louisville until 1877 when he and his daughter Lily returned to the family estate , Glen Lily , in Munfordville . His sister , a recent widow , also returned to the estate in 1877 . For six years , these three inhabited and repaired the house and grounds which had been neglected during the war and its aftermath . On June 14 , 1883 , Lily Buckner married Morris B. Belknap of Louisville , and the couple made their residence in Louisville . On October 10 of the same year , Buckner 's sister died , and he was left alone .
On June 10 , 1885 , Buckner married Delia Claiborne of Richmond , Virginia . Buckner was 62 ; Claiborne was 28 . Their son , Simon Bolivar Buckner , Jr . , was born on July 18 , 1886 .
= = Political career = =
Buckner had a keen interest in politics and friends had been urging him to run for governor since 1867 , even while terms of his surrender confined him to Louisiana . Unwilling to violate these terms , he instructed a friend to withdraw his name from consideration if it was presented . In 1868 , he was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention that nominated Horatio Seymour for president . Though Buckner had favored George H. Pendleton , he loyally supported the party 's nominee throughout the campaign .
In 1883 , Buckner was a candidate for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination . Other prominent candidates included Congressman Thomas Laurens Jones , former congressman J. Proctor Knott , and Louisville mayor Charles Donald Jacob . Buckner consistently ran third in the first six ballots , but withdrew his name from consideration before the seventh ballot . The delegation from Owsley County switched their support to Knott , starting a wave of defections that resulted in Jones ' withdrawal and Knott 's unanimous nomination . Knott went on to win the general election and appointed Buckner to the board of trustees for the Kentucky Agricultural and Mechanical College ( later the University of Kentucky ) in 1884 . At that year 's state Democratic convention , he served on the committee on credentials .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
Delegates to the 1887 state Democratic convention nominated Buckner unanimously for the office of governor . A week later , the Republicans chose William O. Bradley as their candidate . The Prohibition Party and the Union Labor Party also nominated candidates for governor . The official results of the election gave Buckner a plurality of 16 @,@ 797 over Bradley .
Buckner proposed a number of progressive ideas , most of which were rejected by the legislature . Among his successful proposals were the creation of a state board of tax equalization , creation of a parole system for convicts , and codification of school laws . His failed proposals included creation of a department of justice , greater local support for education and better protection for forests .
Much of Buckner 's time was spent trying to curb violence in the eastern part of the state . Shortly after his inauguration , the Rowan County War escalated to vigilantism , when residents of the county organized a posse and killed several of the leaders of the feud . Though this essentially ended the feud , the violence had been so bad that Buckner 's adjutant general recommended that the Kentucky General Assembly dissolve Rowan County , though this suggestion was not acted upon . In 1888 , a posse from Kentucky entered West Virginia and killed a leader of the Hatfield clan in the Hatfield @-@ McCoy feud . This caused a political conflict between Buckner and Governor Emanuel Willis Wilson of West Virginia , who complained that the raid was illegal . The matter was adjudicated in federal court , and Buckner was cleared of any connection to the raid . Later in Buckner 's term , feuds broke out in Harlan , Letcher , Perry , Knott , and Breathitt counties .
A major financial scandal erupted in 1888 when Buckner ordered a routine audit of the state 's finances which had been neglected for years . The audit showed that the state 's longtime treasurer , James " Honest Dick " Tate , had been mismanaging and embezzling the state 's money since 1872 . Faced with the prospect that his malfeasance would be discovered , Tate absconded with nearly $ 250 @,@ 000 of state funds . He was never found . The General Assembly immediately began impeachment hearings against Tate , convicted him in absentia , and removed him from office . State auditor Fayette Hewitt was censured for neglecting the duty of his office , but was not implicated in Tate 's theft or disappearance .
During the 1888 session , the General Assembly passed 1 @,@ 571 bills , exceeding the total passed by any other session in the state 's history . Only about 150 of these bills were of a general nature ; the rest were special interest bills passed for the private gain of legislators and those in their constituencies . Buckner vetoed 60 of these special interest bills , more than had been vetoed by the previous ten governors combined . Only one of these vetoes was overridden by the legislature . Ignoring Buckner 's clear intent to veto special interest bills , the 1890 legislature passed 300 more special interest bills than had its predecessor . Buckner vetoed 50 of these . His reputation for rejecting special interest bills led the Kelley Axe Factory , the largest axe factory in the country at the time , to present him with a ceremonial " Veto Hatchet " .
When a tax cut passed over Buckner 's veto in 1890 drained the state treasury , the governor loaned the state enough money to remain solvent until tax revenue came in . Later that year , he was chosen as a delegate to the state 's constitutional convention . In this capacity , he unsuccessfully sought to extend the governor 's appointment powers and levy taxes on churches , clubs , and schools that made a profit .
= = = Later career = = =
After his term as governor , Buckner returned to Glen Lily . In 1895 , he was one of four candidates nominated for a seat in the U.S. Senate — the others being the incumbent , J. C. S. Blackburn ; outgoing governor John Y. Brown ; and congressman James B. McCreary . The Democratic party split over the issue of bimetalism . Buckner advocated for a gold standard , but the majority of Kentuckians advocated " Free Silver " . Seeing that he would not be able to win the seat in light of this opposition , he withdrew from the race in July 1895 . In spite of his withdrawal , he still received 9 of the 134 votes cast in the General Assembly .
At the 1896 Democratic National Convention in Chicago , the Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan for president and adopted a platform calling for the free coinage of silver . Gold standard Democrats opposed Bryan and the free silver platform . They formed a new party — the National Democratic Party , or Gold Democrats — which Buckner joined . At the new party 's state convention in Louisville , Buckner 's name was proposed as a candidate for vice president . He was given the nomination without opposition at the party 's national convention in Indianapolis . Former Union general John Palmer was chosen as the party 's nominee for president .
Palmer and Buckner both had developed reputations as independent executives while serving as governors of their respective states . Because they had served on opposite sides during the Civil War , their presence on the same ticket emphasized national unity . The ticket was endorsed by several major newspapers including the Chicago Chronicle , Louisville Courier @-@ Journal , Detroit Free Press , Richmond Times , and New Orleans Picayune . Despite these advantages , the ticket was hurt by the candidates ' ages , Palmer being 79 and Buckner 73 . Further , some supporters feared that voting for the National Democrat ticket would be a wasted vote and might even throw the election to Bryan . Ultimately , Palmer and Buckner received just over one percent of the vote in the election .
Following this defeat , Buckner retired to Glen Lily but remained active in politics . Though he always claimed membership in the Democratic party , he opposed the machine politics of William Goebel , his party 's gubernatorial nominee in 1899 . In 1903 , he supported his son @-@ in @-@ law , Morris Belknap , for governor against Goebel 's lieutenant governor , J. C. W. Beckham . When the Democrats again nominated William Jennings Bryan in the 1908 presidential election , Buckner openly supported Bryan 's opponent , Republican William Howard Taft .
At 80 years of age , Buckner memorized five of Shakespeare 's plays because cataracts threatened to blind him , but an operation saved his sight . On a visit to the White House in 1904 , Buckner asked President Theodore Roosevelt to appoint his only son as a cadet at West Point , and Roosevelt quickly agreed . His son would later serve in the U.S. Army and be killed at the Battle of Okinawa , making him the highest @-@ ranking American to have been killed by enemy fire during World War II .
Following the deaths of Stephen D. Lee and Alexander P. Stewart in 1908 , Buckner became the last surviving Confederate soldier with the rank of lieutenant general . The following year , he visited his son , who was stationed in Texas , and toured old Mexican – American War battlefields where he had served . In 1912 , his health began to fail . He died on January 8 , 1914 , after a week @-@ long bout with uremic poisoning . He was buried in Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort , Kentucky .
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= Bernard Levin =
Henry Bernard Levin CBE ( 19 August 1928 – 7 August 2004 ) was an English journalist , author and broadcaster , described by The Times as " the most famous journalist of his day " . The son of a poor Jewish family in London , he won a scholarship to the independent school Christ 's Hospital and went on to the London School of Economics , graduating in 1952 . After a short spell in a lowly job at the BBC selecting press cuttings for use in programmes , he secured a post as a junior member of the editorial staff of a weekly periodical , Truth , in 1953 .
Levin reviewed television for The Manchester Guardian and wrote a weekly political column in The Spectator noted for its irreverence and influence on modern parliamentary sketches . During the 1960s he wrote five columns a week for The Daily Mail on any subject that he chose . After a disagreement with the proprietor of the paper over attempted censorship of his column in 1970 , Levin moved to The Times where , with one break of just over a year in 1981 – 82 , he remained as resident columnist until his retirement , covering a wide range of topics , both serious and comic .
Levin became a well @-@ known broadcaster , first on the weekly satirical television show That Was The Week That Was in the early 1960s , then as a panellist on a musical quiz , Face the Music , and finally in three series of travel programmes in the 1980s . He began to write books in the 1970s , publishing 17 between 1970 and 1998 . From the early 1990s , Levin developed Alzheimer 's disease , which eventually forced him to give up his regular column in 1997 , and to stop writing altogether not long afterwards .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Levin was born in London , the second child and only son of Philip Levin , a tailor of Jewish Bessarabian descent , and his wife , Rose , née Racklin . Philip Levin abandoned the family and moved to South Africa when Levin was three . The two children were brought up with the help of their maternal grandparents , who had emigrated from Lithuania at the turn of the 20th century . Levin wrote of his childhood , " My home was not a religious one ; my grandfather read the scriptures to himself silently and struggled through a little English ; my grandmother , who could read no language at all , lit a candle on the appropriate days , as did my mother , though for her it was not really a religious sign . My uncles were quite secular ... and had hardly anything to do with the religion of their father and grandfathers " . In The Guardian after Levin 's death , Quentin Crewe wrote , " His illiterate grandparents ' stories about life in Russia must have instilled in him the passionate belief in the freedom of the individual that lasted his whole life . In return , as he grew older , he used to read to them . Bernard could not read Hebrew , but he could get by in Yiddish " .
Rose Levin was a capable cook , and , though the household was not well off , Levin was well fed and acquired an interest in food that in adult life became one of the regular themes of his journalism . The cuisine was traditional Jewish , with fried fish as one cornerstone of the repertoire , and chicken as another – boiled , roast , or in soup with lokshen ( noodles ) , kreplach or kneidlach . As an adult Levin retained his love of Jewish cookery along with his passion for French haute cuisine .
The Levin household was not especially musical , though it had a piano which Judith was taught to play ; Rose Levin bought her son a violin and paid for lessons , convinced that he was " destined to be the next Kreisler or Heifetz " . Levin persevered ineptly for two and a half years and then gave up with relief . The experience put him off music for some time , and it was only later that it became one of his passions , a frequent topic in his writing .
Levin was a bright child , and , encouraged by his mother , he worked hard enough to win a scholarship to the independent school Christ 's Hospital in the countryside near Horsham , West Sussex . His housemaster was D.S. ( " Boom " ) Macnutt , the school 's head of Classics . Macnutt was a strict , even bullying , teacher , and was feared rather than loved by his pupils , but Levin learned Classics well , and retained a lifelong love of Latin tags and quotations in his writing . He battled on many fronts at Christ 's Hospital : he was a Jew at a Church of England establishment ; he was from a poor family ; he was slight of stature ; he was utterly indifferent to sport ; he adopted a Marxist stance , hanging the Red Flag from a school window to celebrate the Labour victory in 1945 . In the local streets , the school 's conspicuous uniform , including a cloak and tight stockings , attracted unwanted attention . Levin 's biographer Bel Mooney writes of this period , " Jeers put iron in his soul " . Among the consolations of Christ 's Hospital was its thriving musical life . At concerts by the school orchestra ( whose members included Levin 's contemporary , Colin Davis ) , Levin listened seriously to music for the first time . The food at the school was no such consolation ; according to Levin it was so appalling that there must be something better to be found , and from his late teens he sought out the best restaurants he could afford .
Levin hoped to go to the University of Cambridge , but , as his obituarist in The Times wrote , he " was not considered Oxbridge material " . He was accepted by the London School of Economics ( LSE ) , where he studied from 1948 to 1952 . His talents were recognised and encouraged by LSE tutors including Karl Popper and Harold Laski ; Levin 's deep affection for both did not prevent his perfecting a comic impersonation of the latter . Levin became a skilled debater ; he wrote for the student newspaper The Beaver , on a range of subjects , not least opera , which became one of his lifelong passions .
Having graduated from the LSE in 1952 , Levin worked briefly as a tour guide , and then joined the BBC 's North American Service . His job was to read all the newspapers and weekly magazines , selecting articles that might be useful for broadcasting .
= = = Journalism = = =
In 1953 , Levin applied for a job on the weekly periodical Truth . The paper had recently been taken over by the liberal publisher Ronald Staples who together with his new editor Vincent Evans was determined to cleanse it of its previous right @-@ wing racist reputation . Levin 's noticeably Jewish surname , together with such skills as he had acquired in shorthand and typing , gained him immediate acceptance . He was offered the post of " general editorial dogsbody , which was exactly what I had been looking for " . After a year , Evans left and was succeeded by his deputy , George Scott ; Levin was promoted in Scott 's place . He wrote for the paper under a variety of pseudonyms , including " A.E. Cherryman " .
While still at Truth , Levin was invited to write a column in The Manchester Guardian about ITV , Britain 's first commercial television channel , launched in 1955 . Mooney describes his television reviews as " notably punchy " and The Times wrote , " Levin took out his shotgun and let loose with both barrels " . Levin gave the opening programmes a kindly review , but by the fourth day of commercial television he was beginning to baulk : " There has been nothing to get our teeth into apart from three different brands of cake @-@ mix and a patent doughnut " . Thereafter , he did not spare the network : " cliché succeeded to cliché " ; " a mentally defective aborigine who was deaf in both ears would have little difficulty in leaving ' Double Your Money ' £ 32 richer than when he entered " ; and after the network 's first hundred days he attributed its viewing figures to the " number of people who are sufficiently stupid to derive pleasure from such programmes " .
= = = The Spectator = = =
In 1956 , Levin found himself in irreconcilable disagreement with Truth 's support of the Anglo @-@ French military action in the Suez Crisis . The proprietor and editor of the long @-@ established weekly The Spectator , Ian Gilmour , invited Levin to join his staff . Levin left Truth and became the political correspondent of The Spectator . He declared that he was no expert in politics , but Gilmour advised him , " review it as you would review television " . Levin wrote his column under the pseudonym " Taper " , from the name of a corrupt political insider in Disraeli 's 1844 novel Coningsby . He followed Gilmour 's advice , becoming , as The Guardian 's Simon Hoggart said , " the father of the modern parliamentary sketch " :
Until then sketch writers were basically on the side of the MPs . Their job was to convey to voters the majesty of our legislators ' oratory , to remind us of the surpassing importance of their deliberations . A predecessor of mine published his collected works as The Glory of Parliament . Levin had truck with none of that nonsense . As he said later , he treated the old place as if it were a theatre . ' I was watching a farce , from the front row of the stalls , with a glass of champagne in my hand.'
Levin made no pretence of even @-@ handedness . There were politicians he liked and politicians he did not like . For those in the latter category , " Taper 's lacerations wounded " . He invented unflattering nicknames ; he wrote later , " I did not ( though I wish I had ) think of calling Sir Hartley Shawcross Sir Shortly Floorcross , but I did call Sir Reginald Manningham @-@ Buller Sir Reginald Bullying @-@ Manner " . When the latter was elevated to the peerage as Lord Dilhorne , Levin renamed him Lord Stillborn .
Taper was not Levin 's only work for The Spectator . He wrote on a wide range of subjects , from a campaign for the release of three Arabs imprisoned by the British authorities , to supporting publication of the banned novel Lady Chatterley 's Lover , and denunciation of the retired Lord Chief Justice , Lord Goddard . The last led to a secret meeting of more than 20 senior judges to see whether Levin could be prosecuted for criminal libel ; there was no prosecution , and his accusations about Goddard 's vindictiveness , deceit and bias have relatively recently been claimed to have been justified . In 1959 , Gilmour , while remaining as proprietor , stepped down as editor and was succeeded by his deputy , Brian Inglis ; Levin took over from Inglis as assistant editor . Later in that year , after the general election victory of another of his bêtes noires , Harold Macmillan , Levin gave up the Taper column , professing himself to be in despair .
Concurrently with his work at The Spectator , Levin was the drama critic of The Daily Express from 1959 , offending many in theatrical circles by his outspoken verdicts . He modelled his reviewing style on that of Bernard Shaw 's musical reviews of the late 19th century . He gave a fellow @-@ critic an edition of Shaw 's collected criticism , writing inside the cover , " ' In the hope that when you come across the phrases I have already stolen you will keep quiet about it " .
Gilmour discouraged any hopes Levin might have had of succeeding Inglis as editor and in 1962 , Levin left both The Spectator and The Daily Express , becoming drama critic of The Daily Mail . He remained there for eight years , and for the last five of them also wrote five columns a week on any subject of his choice .
= = = Television and The Pendulum Years = = =
Although by the early 1960s Levin was becoming a well @-@ known name , his was not yet a well @-@ known face . Meeting him in London the publisher Rupert Hart @-@ Davis did not immediately recognise him : " He looks about sixteen , and at first I thought he was someone ’ s little boy brought along to see the fun – very Jewish , with wavy fairish hair , very intelligent and agreeable to talk to " . In 1963 Levin was invited to appear regularly on BBC television 's new weekly late @-@ night satirical revue , That Was The Week That Was , where he delivered monologues to camera about his pet hates and conducted interviews , appearing as " a tiny figure taking on assorted noisy giants in debate " . The programme , which had a short but much @-@ discussed run , was transmitted live ; this added to its edginess and impact , but also made it prone to disruption . Levin was twice assaulted on air , once by the husband of an actress whose show Levin had reviewed severely , and once by a woman astrologer who squirted him with water .
In 1966 BBC television screened a new musical quiz , Face the Music presented by Joseph Cooper . It ran intermittently until 1984 . Levin was a frequent panel member along with , among others , Robin Ray , Joyce Grenfell , David Attenborough and Richard Baker .
Levin published his first book in 1970 . Called The Pendulum Years , its subtitle , Britain and the Sixties , summed up its subject . In 22 self @-@ contained chapters , Levin considered various aspects of British life during the decade . Among his topics were prominent people including Harold Macmillan and Harold Wilson – dubbed the Walrus and the Carpenter by Levin – and institutions such as the monarchy , the churches and the British Empire in its last days . Among the individual events examined in the book were the 1968 student riots and the prosecution for obscenity of the publishers of Lady Chatterley 's Lover .
Levin 's interest in indexes developed from his work on The Pendulum Years . He compiled his own index for the book , " and swore a mighty oath , when I had finished the task , that I would rather die , and in a particularly unpleasant manner , than do it again " . He contrived to include in his index an obscene joke at the expense of the hapless prosecutor in the Chatterley trial , but found the difficulty of indexing so great that he became a champion of the Society of Indexers . He wrote several articles on the subject , and when reviewing books made a point of praising good indexes and condemning bad ones .
= = = The Times = = =
In June 1970 , during the general election campaign , Levin fell out with the proprietors of The Daily Mail , Lord Rothermere and his son Vere Harmsworth . Levin 's contract guaranteed him absolute freedom to write whatever he chose , but Harmsworth , an unswerving Conservative , attempted to censor Levin 's support for the other major party , Labour . Levin resigned , and immediately received offers from The Guardian and The Times to join them as a columnist . He found both tempting , and at one point " even had a wild notion of suggesting that I should write for both simultaneously " . In the end , he chose The Times , giving as his reason that though the liberal Guardian was more in line with his own politics than the conservative Times , " I wrote more comfortably against the grain of the paper I worked for rather than with it " . His obituarist in The Times adds that the decision may also have been swayed by the better remuneration offered by the paper .
Among the perquisites of the Times appointment were a company car and a large and splendid office at the paper 's building in Printing House Square , London . Levin accepted neither ; he could not drive and he hated to be isolated . He commandeered a desk in the anteroom to the editor 's office , a location that kept him closely in touch with the daily affairs of the paper . It also gave him ready access to the editor , William Rees Mogg , with whom he developed a good friendship . Levin 's brief was to write two columns a week ( later three ) on any subject that he wished . His range was prodigious ; he published nine volumes of his selected journalism of which the first , Taking Sides , covered subjects as diverse as the death watch beetle , Field Marshal Montgomery , Wagner , homophobia , censorship , Eldridge Cleaver , arachniphobia , theatrical nudity , and the North Thames Gas Board .
Within weeks of joining The Times Levin provoked a lawsuit and a strident controversy . The first was in March 1971 , in an article titled " Profit and dishonour in Fleet Street " , accusing Rothermere of underhand conduct and personal avarice during the merger of The Daily Mail and The Daily Sketch . The libel action brought by Rothermere was settled out of court , at substantial cost to the proprietor of The Times , Lord Thomson . Two months later , controversy followed Levin 's renewed condemnation of Lord Goddard immediately after the latter 's death in May 1971 . The legal profession closed ranks and defended Goddard 's reputation against Levin 's attacks . Among those denouncing Levin were Lords Denning , Devlin , Hodson , Parker , Shawcross and Stow Hill . After Levin 's death The Times published an article opining that information made public since 1971 " strongly supported " his criticisms of Goddard . At the time , the lawyers took revenge on Levin by ensuring that his candidacy for membership of the Garrick , a London club much favoured by lawyers and journalists , was blackballed .
At The Daily Mail , Levin had generally been restricted to 600 words for his articles . At The Times he had more licence to spread himself . He appeared in The Guinness Book of Records for the longest sentence ever to appear in a newspaper – 1 @,@ 667 words . He was proud of this , and affected to be outraged when " some bugger in India wrote a sentence very considerably longer " . He maintained that he could construct impromptu a sentence of up to 40 subordinate clauses " and many a native of these islands , speaking English as to the manner born , has followed me trustingly into the labyrinth only to perish miserably trying to find the way out " .
Sometimes Levin wrote about frivolous , even farcical matters , such as a series of mock @-@ indignant articles about the sex @-@ lives of mosquitoes . At other times he wrote about matters of grave moral importance , unfailingly denouncing authoritarian regimes whether of the left or the right . He observed , " I am barred by the governments concerned from entering the Soviet Union and the lands of her empire on the one hand and South Africa on the other . These decrees constitute a pair of campaign medals that I wear with considerable pleasure and I have a profound suspicion of those who rebuke me for partisanship while wearing only one " . He wrote regularly about the arts . Music was a recurrent theme ; he was notorious for his addiction to Wagner , and other favourite composers included Schubert and Mozart . He wrote about performers he admired , including Otto Klemperer , Alfred Brendel , and Kiri Te Kanawa . He turned less regularly to the visual arts , but when he did his views were clear @-@ cut and trenchantly expressed . He wrote of a Pre @-@ Raphaelite exhibition in 1984 , " Never , in all my life , not even at the exclusively Millais exhibition in 1967 , have I seen so much sickening rubbish in one place at one time " . His knowledge and love of literature were reflected in many of his writings ; among his best @-@ known pieces is a long paragraph about the influence of Shakespeare on everyday discourse . It begins :
If you cannot understand my argument , and declare ' It 's Greek to me ' , you are quoting Shakespeare ; if you claim to be more sinned against than sinning , you are quoting Shakespeare ; if you recall your salad days , you are quoting Shakespeare ; if you act more in sorrow than in anger , if your wish is father to the thought , if your lost property has vanished into thin air , you are quoting Shakespeare " .
= = = Arianna Stassinopoulos ( Huffington ) = = =
In 1971 , Levin appeared in an edition of Face the Music along with a new panellist , Arianna Stassinopoulos ( later known as Arianna Huffington ) . He was 42 ; she was 21 . A relationship developed , of which she wrote after his death : " He wasn 't just the big love of my life , he was a mentor as a writer and a role model as a thinker " .
Although Levin had rejected Judaism when a youth , he quested after spirituality . Such religious sympathies as he had , he said , were " with quietist faiths , like Buddhism , on the one hand , and with a straightforward message of salvation , like Christianity , on the other " . With the help of Stassinopoulos he continued to search after spiritual truth . She later wrote , " He tried therapy , he tried Insight , a self @-@ awareness seminar that I had helped to bring to London , he tried a stint in an ashram in India . Lesser souls would have avoided the ridicule that was heaped on him for his spiritual ' search ' by simply keeping it to himself . But he didn 't , because anything he was touched by he had to write about " . In 1980 he wrote extensive accounts in his column about his visit to the Indian commune of the meditation teacher Osho .
Levin was commissioned by the BBC to visit musical festivals around the world , broadcasting a series of talks about them . Together with Stassinopoulos , he visited festivals in Britain , Ireland , continental Europe and Australia . He later wrote a book , Conducted Tour ( 1982 ) on the same subject . By the time it was published he and Stassinopoulos were no longer together . At the age of 30 , she remained deeply in love with him but longed to have children ; Levin never wanted to marry or be a father . She concluded that she must break away , and moved to New York in 1980 .
= = = 1980s = = =
In 1981 Levin took a sabbatical from The Times after Rupert Murdoch bought the paper and Harold Evans succeeded Rees @-@ Mogg as editor . Evans and Levin were friends , but Levin had publicly stated his preference that Charles Douglas @-@ Home should be appointed . Within a year Evans and Murdoch fell out and Evans left in 1982 ; Douglas @-@ Home became editor , and coaxed Levin back , to write two columns a week . On returning to the paper in October 1982 , he began his column with the words , " And another thing " . This mirrored his opening gambit when publication of The Times resumed in 1979 after a printers ' strike lasting nearly a year : his first column then had begun with the word " Moreover " . By the 1980s Levin was sufficiently well known to be the subject of satire himself . The satirical ITV show Spitting Image caricatured him in high @-@ flown discussion with another well @-@ known intellectual in a sketch entitled " Bernard Levin and Jonathan Miller Talk Bollocks " . By now , Levin 's political views were moving to the right , and he was no longer writing so much against the grain of his newspaper . He had come to admire Margaret Thatcher , though not the rest of her party : " But there is one , and only one , political position that , through all the years and all my changing views and feelings , has never altered , never come into question , never seemed too simple for a complex world . It is my profound and unwavering contempt for the Conservative Party " .
Levin never published an autobiography , but his book Enthusiasms , published in 1983 , consists of chapters on his principal pleasures : books , pictures , cities , walking , Shakespeare , music , food and drink , and spiritual mystery . The book is dedicated " To Arianna , with much more than enthusiasm " – they remained loving friends for the rest of his life . It contains a sentence that far outdoes his earlier 1 @,@ 667 word effort in The Times , starting on page 212 and ending four pages later ; it lists the restaurants most esteemed by Levin in Europe , Asia and America .
In the 1980s , Levin made three television series for Channel 4 . The first , Hannibal 's Footsteps , screened in 1985 , showed Levin walking the presumed route taken by Hannibal when he invaded Italy in 218 BC .. The programme followed Levin 's 320 @-@ mile journey from Aigues @-@ Mortes to the crossing into Italy in the Queyras valley . He remained true to his declared intention of eschewing all forms of vehicular transport , and walked all the way , with the exception of his crossing the Rhone , rowing himself in a small boat . He followed this with To the End of the Rhine in 1987 , following the Rhine from its two sources , the Hinterrhein and the Vorderrhein , in Switzerland , to its estuary at Rotterdam , 1 @,@ 233 km ( 766 mi ) to the north . In between he joined the Swiss citizen army on manoeuvres , visited Liechtenstein bankers , zig @-@ zagged the Swiss – German border at Lake Constance , attended the Schubertiade at Hohenems and the opera at Bregenz , took the waters at Baden @-@ Baden , visited the manufacturers of eau de Cologne , and paid tribute to Erasmus at Basle . The last of the three series was in 1989 , A Walk up Fifth Avenue in New York , from Washington Square to the Harlem River . In this series he encountered extremes of wealth and poverty , and met a wide variety of people , some famous ( such as Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and Donald Trump ) and some not ( including a sword @-@ swallowing unicyclist , and a bag lady in Central Park ) . He wrote books based on each of the three series , published in 1985 , 1987 and 1989 respectively .
= = = Last years = = =
Levin began to have difficulty with his balance as early as 1988 , although Alzheimer 's disease was not diagnosed until the early 1990s . From September 1995 his Times column appeared once weekly instead of twice , and in January 1997 the editor , Peter Stothard , concluded , despite a great admiration for Levin , that the weekly column should cease . Levin retired , though he continued to write for the paper occasionally over the next year .
In his last decade , Levin 's partner was the journalist Liz Anderson , who took care of him during the long degenerative phase of his illness . He died in Westminster , London , aged 75 . He is buried in Brompton Cemetery , London . A memorial service was held at the church of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields at which Sir David Frost delivering the eulogy described Levin as " a faithful crusader for tolerance and against injustice who had declared , ' The pen is mightier than the sword – and much easier to write with ' " .
= = Honours and commemorations = =
Levin was appointed CBE for services to journalism in 1990 . The Society of Indexers has instituted an award in Levin 's name ; it is given to " a journalist and author whose writings show untiring and eloquent support for indexers and indexing " . He was president of the English Association , 1984 – 85 , and vice @-@ president 1985 – 88 . He was an honorary fellow of the LSE from 1977 , and a member of the Order of Polonia Restituta , conferred by the Polish Government @-@ in @-@ Exile in 1976 . In its obituary tribute to him , The Times described Levin as " the most famous journalist of his day " .
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= Taxonomy of lemurs =
The taxonomic history of lemurs dates back to 1758 when Carl Linnaeus first classified them , and the taxonomy remains controversial today , with approximately 70 to 100 species and subspecies recognized , depending on how the term " species " is defined . Having undergone their own independent evolution on Madagascar , lemurs have diversified to fill many niches normally filled by other types of mammals . They include the smallest primates in the world , and once included some of the largest . Since the arrival of humans approximately 2 @,@ 000 years ago , lemurs have become restricted to 10 % of the island , or approximately 60 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and many face extinction . Concerns over lemur conservation have affected lemur taxonomy , since distinct species receive increased conservation attention compared to subspecies .
The relationship between the aye @-@ aye and the rest of the lemurs has had the greatest impact on lemur taxonomy at the family rank and above . Genetic analysis of this relationship has also clarified lemur phylogeny and supports the hypothesis that lemurs rafted to Madagascar . Despite general agreement on phylogeny , the taxonomy is still under debate . At the genus level , the taxonomy has been relatively stable since 1931 , but a number of additional genera have been recognized since then .
Since the 1990s , there has been a steep increase in the number of recognized lemur species and subspecies through the discovery of new species , the elevation of existing subspecies to full species status , and the recognition of new species among previously known populations that were not even distinct subspecies . Currently living lemur species are divided into five families and 15 genera . If the extinct subfossil lemurs are included , three families , eight genera , and 17 species would be added to the count . The recent rise in species numbers is due to both improved genetic analysis and a push in conservation to encourage the protection of isolated and distinct lemur populations . Not everyone in the scientific community supports these taxonomic changes , with some preferring instead an estimate of 50 living species .
= = Background = =
Since their arrival on Madagascar , a biogeographically isolated island with a unique mammalian fauna , lemurs have diversified both in behavior and morphology . Their diversity rivals that of the monkeys and apes found throughout the rest of the world , especially when the recently extinct subfossil lemurs are considered . Ranging in size from the 30 g ( 1 @.@ 1 oz ) Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur , probably the world 's smallest primate , to the extinct 160 – 200 kg ( 350 – 440 lb ) Archaeoindris fontoynonti , the largest known prosimian , lemurs evolved diverse forms of locomotion , varying levels of social complexity , and unique adaptations to the local climate . They went on to fill many niches normally occupied by monkeys , squirrels , woodpeckers , and large grazing ungulates . In addition to the incredible diversity between lemur families , there has also been great diversification among closely related lemurs .
The arrival of humans on the island 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 years ago has taken a significant toll , not only on the size of lemur populations , but also on their diversity . Due to habitat destruction and hunting , at least 17 species and 8 genera have gone extinct and many others have become threatened . Historically , lemurs ranged across the entire island inhabiting a wide variety of habitats , including dry deciduous forests , lowland forests , spiny thickets , subhumid forests , montane forest , and mangrove . Today , their collective range is restricted to 10 % of the island , or approximately 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Most of the remaining forests and lemurs are found along the periphery of the island . The center of the island , the Hauts @-@ Plateaux , was converted by early settlers to rice paddies and grassland through slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , known locally as tavy . As erosion depleted the soil , the cyclical forest regrowth and burning ended as the forest gradually failed to return . In 2008 , 41 % of all lemur taxa were threatened with extinction while 42 % were classified on the IUCN Red List as " Data Deficient " .
= = Overview of taxonomic and phylogenetic classification = =
In the first volume of the 10th edition of Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) , Carl Linnaeus , the founder of modern binomial nomenclature , created the genus Lemur to include three species : Lemur tardigradus ( the red slender loris , now known as Loris tardigradus ) , Lemur catta ( the ring @-@ tailed lemur ) , and Lemur volans ( the Philippine colugo , now known as Cynocephalus volans ) . Although the term " lemur " was at first intended for lorises , it was soon applied to the endemic Malagasy primates , which have been known as " lemurs " ever since . The name derives from the Latin term lemures , which refers to the " spirits of the dead " from Roman mythology . According to Linnaeus ' own explanation , the name was selected because of the nocturnal activity and slow movements of the slender loris . Being familiar with the works of Virgil and Ovid and seeing an analogy that fit with his naming scheme , Linnaeus adapted the term " lemur " for these nocturnal primates . However , it has been commonly and falsely assumed that Linnaeus was referring to the ghost @-@ like appearance , reflective eyes , and ghostly cries of lemurs . It has also been speculated that Linnaeus may also have known that the some Malagasy people have held legends that lemurs are the souls of their ancestors , but this is unlikely given that the name was selected for slender lorises from India .
Since the first taxonomic classification of lemurs , many changes have been made to lemur taxonomy . Within the primate order , treeshrews ( order Scandentia ) were considered basal , prosimian primates — close relatives of lemurs — until the 1980s . Colugos , also incorrectly referred to as " flying lemurs " , were once considered lemur @-@ like primates , but were reclassified as close relatives of bats , and more recently as close relatives of primates within their own order , Dermoptera . Primates , together with their closest relatives , the treeshrews , colugos , and long @-@ extinct plesiadapiforms , form the taxonomically unranked Euarchonta clade within the Euarchontoglires . Lorisids , some of which were originally placed in the genus Lemur by Carl Linnaeus , have since been moved into either their own infraorder ( Lorisiformes ) or their own superfamily ( Lorisoidea ) within Lemuriformes .
For the Malagasy primate fauna , taxonomic nomenclature proliferated during the 1800s , with the aid of museum systematists , such as Albert Günther and John Edward Gray , as well as naturalists and explorers , such as Alfred Grandidier . This nomenclature was not sorted out until decades later , when Ernst Schwarz standardized it in 1931 . It was not until the 1990s that this nomenclature started to see a new wave of taxonomic change .
= = Suprageneric classification = =
Although Carl Linnaeus originally grouped the first " lemurs " he classified under the order Primates , lemurs and other non @-@ human primates were later separated from humans by being placed in the order Quadrumana by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1775 . ( He also placed humans in the order Bimana . ) This view was upheld by other famous naturalists and zoologists of the time , including Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire ( who first placed lemurs in Strepsirrhini in 1812 ) , Georges Cuvier , and ( initially ) John Edward Gray . By 1862 , William Henry Flower , a comparative anatomist , was arguing against moving strepsirrhines out of Quadrumana into Insectivora ( a now @-@ abandoned biological grouping ) , claiming that their brain had features transitional between other primates and " inferior " mammals . In 1863 , Thomas Henry Huxley restored the order Primates to include humans , other apes , monkeys , lemurs , and even colugos . However , opposition continued with many specialists arguing that lemurs ( or " Half @-@ apes " ) should be placed in their own order . In 1873 , English comparative anatomist St. George Jackson Mivart countered these arguments and proceeded to define the primates by a list of anatomical features .
Since the 19th century , the classification of lemurs above the genus level has seen many changes . Early taxonomists proposed a variety of classifications for lemurs , but generally separated indriids from other lemurs and placed the aye @-@ aye in a major group of its own ; some classified the dwarf and mouse lemurs with the galagos . In 1915 , William King Gregory published a classification that remained generally accepted over the next decades . He placed all the lemurs together in a " series " Lemuriformes and recognized three families : Daubentoniidae , Indriidae , and Lemuridae ( including the current Cheirogaleidae and Lepilemuridae ) . George Gaylord Simpson 's influential 1945 classification of mammals placed the treeshrews and the fossil Anagale ( both now classified outside Primates ) inside Lemuriformes and classified the fossil families Plesiadapidae and Adapidae in a superfamily Lemuroidea with most of the lemurs .
Although treeshrews , plesiadapids , and the like are now no longer considered to be closely related to lemurs , disagreements persist over the classification of lemurs and related groups , resulting in competing arrangements of the infraorders and superfamilies within Strepsirrhini . In one taxonomy , infraorder Lemuriformes contains all living strepsirrhines in two superfamilies , Lemuroidea for all lemurs and Lorisoidea for the lorisoids ( lorisids and galagos ) . Alternatively , the lorisoids are sometimes placed in their own infraorder , Lorisiformes , separate from the lemurs . Yet another classification published by Colin Groves placed the aye @-@ aye in its own infraorder , Chiromyiformes , while the rest of the lemurs were placed in Lemuriformes and the lorisoids in Lorisiformes .
The classification of several lemur taxa has elicited particular debate . Most significantly , the placement of the aye @-@ aye has been controversial since its introduction to Western science in 1782 , and it has been a topic of debate until very recently . Arguing against Darwin 's theory of natural selection , Richard Owen claimed in 1863 that the aye @-@ aye 's distinct characteristics , including its ever @-@ growing incisors and unique , highly flexible middle finger , are so perfectly adapted for their uses in extractive foraging that they could not have evolved gradually through natural selection . More recently , the aye @-@ aye 's placement has posed problems for the rafting hypothesis for the primate colonization of Madagascar . If this species does not form a monophyletic group with the rest of the lemurs , then multiple colonization events would have had to occur to explain the occurrence of lemurs on Madagascar .
Until Owen published a definitive anatomical study in 1866 , early naturalists were uncertain whether the aye @-@ aye ( genus Daubentonia ) was a primate , rodent , or marsupial . In the late eighteenth century , for example , the aye @-@ aye was classified under the squirrel genus Sciurus . By emphasizing its primate features , such as its postorbital bar , stereoscopic vision , and opposable hallux , over its rodent @-@ like teeth , Owen demonstrated its affinity with other primates . In 1996 , Ankel @-@ Simons demonstrated that the shape and arrangement of the aye @-@ aye 's diminutive deciduous incisors indicate that this genus has a shared ancestry with the toothcombed primates . However , the placement of the aye @-@ aye within the primates remained problematic until very recently . The karyotype of the aye @-@ aye is noticeably different from that of its closest relatives , the lorises and the rest of the lemurs , with a diploid chromosome count of 2n = 30.Template : Harvnp Based on its anatomy , researchers have found support for classifying the genus Daubentonia as a specialized indriid , a sister group to all strepsirrhines , and an indeterminate taxon within the primates . In 1931 , Schwarz labeled the aye @-@ aye as an offshoot of Indriidae , claiming that all lemurs were monophyletic , whereas Reginald Innes Pocock had previously placed the aye @-@ aye outside of the lemurs . In that same year , Anthony and Coupin classified the aye @-@ aye under infraorder Chiromyiformes , a sister group to the other strepsirrhines . Colin Groves upheld this classification in 2005 because he was not entirely convinced the aye @-@ aye formed a clade with the rest of the Malagasy lemurs , despite molecular tests that had shown Daubentoniidae was basal to all Lemuroidea .
Another interpretation of the aye @-@ aye 's origins has once again called into question the single origins of the lemurs . The aye @-@ aye and a fossil strepsirrhine primate from Africa , Plesiopithecus , share similarities in the shape of the skull and the morphology of the lower jaw , which suggest that the latter could be an early relative of the aye @-@ aye . However , the placement of an aye @-@ aye ancestor in Africa would require multiple colonizations of Madagascar by strepsirrhine primates . Molecular tests may offer support , since they show that the aye @-@ aye was the first to diverge in the lemur clade and that the other lemur families did not diverge until much later .
Often classified with the galagos by early students , the cheirogaleids ( dwarf and mouse lemurs ) were placed with the other lemurs from Gregory 's 1915 classification until the early 1970s , when several anthropologists proposed that they were more closely related to lorisoids , based on morphological data . However , relevant genetic studies unanimously place cheirogaleids within the lemuroid clade and Groves himself , who had promoted the cheirogaleid @-@ lorisoid relationship in a 1974 paper , by 2001 regarded the idea as refuted .
Classifications in the first half of the 20th century divided lemurs into three families : Daubentoniidae , Indriidae , and Lemuridae , with the latter including the current Cheirogaleidae and Lepilemuridae . Because of concerns that Lemuridae might not be monophyletic , the family was later split ; in 1982 Tattersall separated the Cheirogaleidae for the dwarf lemurs , mouse lemurs and relatives , and the Lepilemuridae for the sportive lemurs and bamboo lemurs ( including the greater bamboo lemur ) . This classification is still used , except that the bamboo lemurs were moved back to Lemuridae .
From the 1970s to the 1990s , there have been suggestions that the ruffed lemurs might be related to indriids or a sister group to Lemuridae and Indriidae and that the bamboo lemurs are related to the sportive lemurs , but neither view is supported by molecular phylogeny . The sportive lemurs and the extinct koala lemurs ( Megaladapidae ) both lack upper incisors in the permanent dentition , and in 1981 , Groves placed both together in the family Megaladapidae , which he renamed Lepilemuridae in 2005 because that older name takes precedence . Genetic research does not support a close relationship between the sportive and koala lemurs and instead places the koala lemurs as a sister group to Lemuridae ; therefore , the two are now placed in separate families ( Lepilemuridae for the sportive lemurs and Megaladapidae for the koala lemurs ) . The sloth lemurs ( Palaeopropithecidae ) and monkey lemurs ( Archaeolemuridae ) were classified as subfamilies within Indriidae as late as 1982 , but are now recognized as separate families .
The relationships among the families of lemurs have been problematic and have yet to be definitively resolved . Two competing phylogenies exist based on genetic and molecular data . One approach ( Horvath et al . ) looks at a larger number of genes , but among fewer species . This results in Lemuridae being a sister group to Lepilemuridae , Cheirogaleidae , and Indriidae . The other approach ( Orlando et al . ) looks at fewer genes , but more lemur species . Using this analysis , Lepilemuridae becomes the sister group to Lemuridae , Cheirogaleidae , and Indriidae . Both phylogenies agree that the Malagasy primates are monophyletic and that Daubentoniidae ( the aye @-@ aye ) is basal to the lemuroid clade , having split off significantly earlier than the other families . However , two problems create complications for both approaches . First , the four most closely related living lemur families diverged within a narrow window of approximately 10 million years , making it much harder to distinguish the splits with molecular evidence . In addition , these families diverged from their last common ancestor approximately 42 mya ; such distant splits create a lot of noise for molecular techniques .
= = Genus @-@ level classification = =
Early distribution of lemur species among genera differed in a number of ways from current taxonomy . For example , the fork @-@ marked lemurs were initially placed in Lemur and then in Microcebus with the mouse lemurs before being placed in their own genus Phaner , and Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major split the Cheirogaleus medius species group of the dwarf lemurs into a separate genus Opolemur , but this was not accepted . Genus @-@ level taxonomy was largely stabilized by Schwarz in 1931 , but a number of later changes have become accepted :
The ring @-@ tailed lemur , ruffed lemurs , and brown lemurs were once grouped together in the genus Lemur due to a host of morphological similarities . For instance , the skeletons of the ring @-@ tailed lemur and the brown lemurs are nearly indistinguishable . However , ruffed lemurs were reassigned to the genus Varecia in 1962 , and due to similarities between the ring @-@ tailed lemur and the bamboo lemurs , particularly in regards to molecular evidence and scent gland similarities , the brown lemurs were moved to the genus Eulemur in 1988 . The genus Lemur is now monotypic , containing only the ring @-@ tailed lemur .
In 2001 , Colin Groves concluded that despite similarities , the greater bamboo lemur was sufficiently distinct from the bamboo lemurs of the genus Hapalemur to merit its own monotypic genus , Prolemur , in contrast to Schwarz 's 1931 disagreement with Pocock 's decision to separate Prolemur from Hapalemur .
Originally placed in the genus Microcebus ( mouse lemurs ) , the giant mouse lemur was moved to its own genus , Mirza , in 1985 due to its larger size , morphological differences , dental characteristics , and behavior .
The hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur was first placed in the genus Cheirogaleus ( dwarf lemurs ) in 1875 and was later found to have closer affinities with Microcebus . However , its dentition and cranium structure were held sufficiently distinct to merit elevation to its own genus , Allocebus .
In 1948 , paleontologist Charles Lamberton proposed a new sub @-@ genus for the giant ruffed lemurs , Pachylemur , which had previously been placed in the genus Lemur . Since the 1960s , it has been considered its own separate genus , although the two extinct species of giant ruffed lemur have sometimes been grouped under Varecia with their closest relatives .
A new genus of sloth lemur , Babakotia was named in 1990 .
= = Species @-@ level classification = =
There is widespread disagreement on aspects of species @-@ level lemur taxonomy , particularly concerning the recent increase in the number of recognized species . According to Russell Mittermeier , the president of Conservation International ( CI ) , taxonomist Colin Groves , and others , there are currently 101 recognized species or subspecies of extant lemur , divided into five families and 15 genera . Conversely , other experts in the field label this as a possible example of taxonomic inflation , and prefer instead an estimate of at least 50 species . All sides generally agree that the recently extinct subfossil lemurs should be classified in three families , eight genera , and 17 species .
Over the past two decades , the number of recognized lemur species has more than tripled according to some experts . In 1994 , 32 distinct species were named in the first edition of Conservation International 's field guide , Lemurs of Madagascar , and 68 were described in the 2nd edition , published in 2006 . In December 2008 , Russell Mittermeier , Colin Groves , and other experts co @-@ wrote an article in the International Journal of Primatology classifying 99 species and subspecies . In late 2010 , the 3rd edition of Lemurs of Madagascar listed 101 taxa . The number of lemur species is likely to continue growing in the coming years , as field studies , cytogenetic and molecular genetic research continues , particularly on cryptic species , such as mouse lemurs , which cannot be distinguished visually .
This threefold increase in less than two decades has not had universal support among taxonomists and lemur researchers . In many cases , classifications ultimately depends upon which species concept is used . Due to the critical condition that most Malagasy primate populations are in , taxonomists and conservationists sometimes favor splitting them into separate species to develop an effective strategy for the conservation of the full range of lemur diversity . Implicitly , this means that full species status will help grant genetically distinct populations added environmental protection .
The first large wave of new lemur species descriptions came in 2000 , when Colin Groves split two species of dwarf lemur ( Cheirogaleus ) into seven species while Rodin Rasoloarison and colleagues recognized seven species of mouse lemur in western Madagascar . Then in 2001 , Colin Groves elevated the red ruffed lemur ( Varecia rubra ) , five subspecies of brown lemur ( Eulemur albifrons , E. albocollaris , E. collaris , E. rufus and E. sanfordi ) , and four subspecies of sifaka ( Propithecus coquereli , P. deckenii , P. edwardsi , and P. perrieri ) to full species status . Additional elevations of all remaining subspecies within the Eulemur and Propithecus genera were made in the years that followed . These and subsequent changes in taxonomy were largely due to a shift to the phylogenetic species concept , and are not universally endorsed .
By far the most explosive growth in species numbers ( in absolute terms ) has been in the genera Microcebus and Lepilemur . In 2006 , 15 new species of Lepilemur were described , with three new species reported in February , one in June , and 11 in September . Since then , three additional species have been described , one of which turned out to be identical to a previously described species . Genetic and morphological differences seem to suggest that they are cryptic species , but there is still debate whether these merit full species status or should be regarded as subspecies of previously identified , " core " species .
Both brown lemurs and mouse lemurs were initially divided into a small number of species , either with no distinguishable subspecies ( in the case of mouse lemurs ) or with several distinguishable subspecies ( in the case of brown lemurs ) . With molecular research suggesting a more distant split in both genera , these subspecies or undistinguished populations have been promoted to species status .
In the case of mouse lemurs , the rise in species numbers has been only slightly less sudden and dramatic . Classified as one species by Ernst Schwarz in 1931 ( excluding one , Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , that is no longer classified in Microcebus ) , the genus was revised to contain two species , the gray mouse lemur ( Microcebus murinus ) and the brown mouse lemur ( M. rufus ) , after an extensive field study in 1972 showed both living in sympatry in southeastern Madagascar . At the time , the gray mouse lemur was known in the drier parts of the north , west , and south , while the brown mouse lemur inhabited the humid rainforest regions of the east . However , we now know the species diversity and distribution to be significantly more complex . Revisions throughout the 1990s and 2000s identified numerous new species through genetic testing using mitochondrial DNA , demonstrating that the genus is represented by a multitude of cryptic species . Many , but not all of these defined species have been supported by nuclear DNA tests .
However , there are still concerns that species are being identified prematurely . Ian Tattersall , an anthropologist who recognized 42 species of lemur in 1982 , has expressed concern that the geographically organized variety in lemur populations is being recognized with full species status while the number of subspecies in lemur genera has virtually disappeared . He has argued that taxonomists are confusing differentiation and speciation , two processes that are often unrelated , while denying the role of microevolution in evolutionary processes . Still other researchers who emphasize the framework of the " general lineage concept of species " contend that lineage divergence or differentiation demarcates the beginning of a new species .
New species have been identified due to differences in morphology , karyotypes , cytochrome b sequences , and other genetic tests , as well as several combinations of these . When nuclear DNA ( nDNA ) was tested in conjunction with mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) in mouse lemurs , a few species , such as Claire 's mouse lemur ( Microcebus mamiratra ) were demonstrated to be indistinguishable from other closely related species . In such cases , nDNA did not vary , but the mtDNA that had been used to define it as a species was still distinct . Differences in results between nDNA , which is inherited from both parents , and mtDNA , which is inherited from the mother , was attributed to female philopatry , where females remain within or close to the home range into which they were born while males disperse . Since the isolated population known as Claire 's mouse lemur has distinct mtDNA , but not nDNA , it is likely to contain a population descended from a related group of females , but which still disperses and interbreeds with nearby populations .
Traditionally , karyology has been considered when determining species status . For example , in 2006 , three new species of sportive lemur were named based partly on karyotypes . From the lemurs studied so far , the diploid number of chromosomes varies between 2n = 20 and 2n = 66 . In the case of the brown lemurs , the diploid number ranges from 2n = 44 to 2n = 60 while the individual chromosome sizes vary considerably , despite strong similarities in morphology .
Sometimes distinctions are made due to very slight differences in pelage coloration . For instance , three distinctly colored types of mouse lemur were discovered in a multi @-@ year study in Beza Mahafaly Reserve in southern Madagascar , but rather than being separate species , DNA tests revealed that they all belonged to a single species , the reddish @-@ gray mouse lemur ( Microcebus griseorufus ) . For this reason , further research is needed to confirm or deny the recent species splits . Only through detailed studies of morphology , ecology , behavior , and genetics can the true number of lemur species be determined .
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= Ferb Fletcher =
Ferbs " Ferb " Fletcher is a British character on the animated television series Phineas and Ferb . The character , voiced by British actor Thomas Sangster , was created by Phineas and Ferb co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh and first appeared in the show 's pilot episode , " Rollercoaster . "
Ferb and his stepbrother Phineas Flynn spend their days during summer vacation from school striving to have fun . They are featured in the majority of episodes as the A @-@ Plot constructing large scale inventions or taking part in other outlandish activities . Ferb , an engineering genius , allows Phineas to do most of the talking for the pair and is " more of a man of action . " When Ferb does speak , it is almost always a single sentence . In a conversation in the future time of " Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " , it is revealed that he was at Camp David ( hinting that he might be the current President of the United States , although his British background would presumably rule that out ) .
Ferb was named after a set @-@ builder named Frank , whose wife nicknamed him " Ferb " . Frank , a friend of both Povenmire and Marsh , owns several tools and was considered a fitting choice for Ferb 's namesake . In " Vanessassary Roughness " Ferb explains that his name is short for something , but he didn 't get to say it . On Twitter , Povenmire announced that Ferb was actually short for " Ferbs " . He cares for Vanessa Doofenshmirtz ( daughter of Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz ) and saves her in the same episode when she gets tangled up and a lawn mower almost gets her , but he is able to save her with a giant tool which appears to be an exaggerated version of a Swiss Army Knife . In " Summer Belongs To You " Vanessa asks Candace what Ferb is short for ; Candace realizes she doesn 't know herself what it is short for . In the fourth season episode " Act Your Age " , his teenage self appears to be in a relationship with Vanessa . Ferb 's design is based around a rectangle and also shaped like an " F " and is inspired by the style of late animator Tex Avery . As a character , Ferb has been critically well received and appears in several pieces of Phineas and Ferb merchandise , including toys , t @-@ shirts , and a video game .
= = Role in Phineas and Ferb = =
Ferb comes from a blended family , a premise the creators considered underused in children 's programming and which reflected Marsh 's own upbringing . Ferb 's birth mother is never revealed , but the series shows that both Ferb and his father Lawrence hail from the United Kingdom . Lawrence married Ferb 's stepmother Linda after meeting her at a 1990s concert by the ( fictitious ) band Love Händel . Marsh considers explaining the family background " not important to the kids ' lives . They are a great blended family and that 's all we need to know . " Ferb and his family live in the fictional town of Danville , in a large , suburban neighborhood . Throughout their summer vacation , Ferb and Phineas conceive outrageous schemes to defeat boredom while sitting lazily beneath a tree in their backyard . Phineas mainly conceives each project while Ferb spearheads its construction . Their activities are usually beyond the capability of a typical child and have included toy design ( in " Toy to the World " ) ; treasure @-@ hunting ( in " The Ballad of Badbeard " ) ; engineering ( in " It 's About Time ! " ) ; and restaurant management ( in " Chez Platypus " ) . Ferb 's stepsister , Candace , is always trying to get the two in trouble with their mother for their schemes , but is never able to . Ferb hardly ever speaks but he is shown to talk at random times with a British accent . Ferb had a long speech in the episode " The Lizard Whisperer " .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and conception = = =
Ferb was created by Phineas and Ferb co @-@ creators Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh , who originally met as layout artists on the Fox Network animated series The Simpsons . Phineas and Ferb was inspired by their boyhood memories of summer vacation ; Povenmire and Marsh both felt the theme of school in television had fallen to redundancy and wanted to create a series that took place solely in the summertime .
Ferb 's name was derived from that of a mutual friend of Povenmire and Marsh named Frank , who " owns more tools than anyone [ they ] know . " Frank was a set @-@ builder who had worked building and designing sets for shows such as Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Frank 's wife disliked Frank 's name and gave him the unusual nickname " Ferb " .
= = = Design and voice = = =
Ferb was given a simplistic structure so that young audiences would be able to draw him easily . As with the other characters of Phineas and Ferb , Ferb 's design is constructed of geometric shapes in homage to animator Tex Avery . Ferb 's head is based on a rectangle with a wider top than bottom . A square is used for his nose , and an egg @-@ shaped oval is used for his eyes . The eye furthest from the screen is always drawn larger than the other . Povenmire uses a nine @-@ step process to draw Ferb , starting with his head and ending with touch ups .
Ferb was originally going to be voiced by actor Mitchel Musso . However , when Phineas and Ferb was picked up as a full series , Povenmire and Marsh chose to make Ferb British and cast Thomas Sangster as his voice . However , they enjoyed Musso to a level that they recast him as the voice of the character Jeremy Johnson ; although Musso no longer voices a title character , his new role allows him more lines . Sangster himself is a British actor and was among several cast members hired that hailed from England . Marsh himself had lived in the country for seven years and developed a fondness for the culture and people .
= = = Personality = = =
Ferb was devised as a character devoid of ill will . Marsh explained , " It was important to us that [ Phineas and Ferb ] never did anything with any animosity . They never tried to get their sister in trouble or outsmart their mother and get away with it . " Instead , he and his brother create things for the sheer enjoyment of it or to help out others ( " and for the ladies " ) ; for example , Ferb and Phineas carve Candace 's face into Mount Rushmore for her birthday , set up a roller derby for a rematch race with his Grandmother Betty Jo 's old rival , create a haunted house for their friend Isabella to cure her hiccups and make a super @-@ computer to find out what to do for their mom after being so kind to them .
Povenmire and Marsh intended for Ferb 's drive to create be stem primarily from a desire to have fun , and in one episode , " Thaddeus and Thor " , Phineas openly confirms this as his and his brother 's only goal in their daily schemes – though Ferb adds that they also do it " for the ladies . "
In the original pitch to overseas The Walt Disney Company executives , Povenmire and Marsh constructed storyboards and recorded them with dialogue and sound @-@ effects . As a prototype , Ferb did not speak at all . However , after considering comedy 's " big duos " including Wallace and Gromit and Jay and Silent Bob , the creators chose to have Ferb speak at least once in most episodes ( but in " Summer Belongs To You " he spoke nine times and in " The Lizard Whisperer " gives an entire short speech that lasts about 45 seconds ) , but to have him remain silent and allow Phineas to speak for him the majority of the time . Although Ferb 's taciturnity is generally not commented on in the series , Phineas mentions it while he and his brother were in England on the episode " A Hard Day 's Knight " : " I 'll be the top half since I tend to do more of the talking and you will be on the bottom part because of your long spindely legs " . Despite being quiet , Ferb is a polyglot , being able to speak in human , animal , and alien tongues .
Ferb also seems to possess good insight , which is probably the main character trait , other than his silence , distinguishing his character from Phineas . Jean Yoo , an official press member for Disney Channel , notes that when Ferb does speak , " it always shows a greater understanding of the situation than his countenance would indicate . " Ferb also seems to prefer singing to talking . He usually says one sentence per episode , such as " Platypuses are the only mammals to lay eggs , " " Well , he [ Buford ] was all up in my face , " or " Candace , we [ Phineas and Ferb ] are just kids . " He also has a crush on Vanessa Doofenshmirtz .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception for the character has been generally positive . Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media describes him as a " go @-@ to engineering guru " and considers him and Phineas to be " partner [ s ] in crime . " Susan Stewart , reviewing the show in the New York Times , notes that Phineas and Ferb " work on a heroic scale and are apparently not limited by the laws of nature . " Josh Jackson , editor of Paste magazine , listed Ferb 's " dry wit " as the third of five reasons as to why the series is the " Best Kids Show on TV , " writing that " Ferb gets about one line per episode , but it 's always a doozy . "
Ed Stetzer , Richie Stanley , and Jason Hayes , author 's the book Lost and Found : The Younger Unchurched and the Churches That Reach Them , wrote that Ferb and Phineas , along with the cast of High School Musical , are examples of creating a " whole new culture " in households . Stetzer , Stanley , and Hayes continued to write that " [ O ] ur culture has connected with media that shows not only the Cinderella and Prince Charming life we all wish for , but also the life in which we all live with real trials , real joys , and real fears . "
" Backyard Beach , " a song Danny Jacob performs as Ferb in the episode " Lawn Gnome Beach Party of Terror , " became very popular among viewers and was voted as the second best song in the series by viewers in the special 2009 event , " Phineas and Ferb 's Musical Cliptastic Countdown " . The best , according to viewers , was " Gitchee Gitchee Goo " from " Flop Starz , " which Jacob performs in as Ferb . Ferb is also credited as the singer in the music video version of " My Ride from Outer Space " from the episode " The Chronicles of Meap " ( actually performed again by Danny Jacob ) .
= = In other media = =
Besides the series Phineas and Ferb , Ferb has been featured in several other pieces of merchandise from the series . To date , he has appeared in all Phineas and Ferb novelizations , published by Disney Press . Ferb appears in the Nintendo DS video game based on the series , simply titled Phineas and Ferb . Dan Povenmire has said that he saw nothing of the game until its release date , on which he was given a copy for free . Phineas and Ferb made a cameo on " The Straight @-@ A Team " episode of MAD when they decided to beat the Straight A @-@ Team . They appear again in the sketch " DolPhineas and Ferb Tale " where they are spoofed alongside the film Dolphin Tale . Their design in MAD was unrealistic to their regular design .
Plush toys of the character , along with toys representing Phineas and Perry , have been manufactured . Ferb also appears on most of the Phineas and Ferb t @-@ shirts . Ferb is set to appear in the forthcoming comic book series based on the series , though details are unconfirmed . Costumed versions of Ferb and Phineas have appeared in Disneyland , for the pre @-@ taping of the annual Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade .
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= Wreck of the RMS Titanic =
The wreck of the RMS Titanic is located about 370 miles ( 600 km ) south @-@ southeast off the coast of Newfoundland , lying at a depth of about 12 @,@ 500 feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m ) . The liner sunk in 1912 on April 15 , when it hit an iceberg during her maiden voyage .
The wreck lies in two main pieces about a third of a mile ( 600 m ) apart . The bow is still largely recognizable , in spite of its deterioration and the damage it suffered hitting the sea floor , and has a great deal of preserved interiors . The stern is completely ruined due to the damage it suffered while sinking 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) and hitting the ocean floor , and is now just a heap of twisted metal , which may explain why it has barely been explored during expeditions to the Titanic wreck . A substantial section of the middle of the ship broke apart and is scattered in chunks across the sea bed . A debris field covering about 5 by 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km × 4 @.@ 8 km ) around the wreck contains hundreds of thousands of items spilled from ship as she sank , ranging from passengers ' personal effects to machinery , furniture , utensils and coal , as well as fragments of the ship herself . The bodies of the passengers and crew once also lay in the debris field , but have since been entirely consumed by sea creatures , leaving only their shoes lying together in the mud .
Until 1985 , the location and condition of the wreck were unknown . Numerous expeditions tried using sonar to map the sea bed in the hope of spotting the wreck , but failed due to a combination of bad weather , technological difficulties and poor strategy over a massive search area . The wreck was finally located , 13 @.@ 2 miles ( 21 @.@ 2 km ) from the inaccurate position transmitted by Titanic 's crew while the ship was sinking , by a joint French @-@ American expedition led by Jean @-@ Louis Michel of IFREMER and Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution . The key to its discovery was an innovative remotely controlled deep @-@ sea vehicle called Argo , which could be towed above the sea bed while its cameras transmitted pictures back to a mother ship .
Titanic 's wreck has been the focus of intense interest since its discovery and has been visited by numerous expeditions , including salvage operations which have controversially recovered thousands of items which have been conserved and put on public display . The wreckage is too fragile to be raised because its condition has deteriorated in the century it has spent on the seafloor , and the deterioration has increased since its discovery . Many species of marine animals have made Titanic their home , such as rattail fish , spider crabs and brittle starfishes . The Titanic also plays host to great communities of metal @-@ eating bacteria , which as they consume the ship have created rusticles covering most of the hull . The bacteria are slowly devouring Titanic and will gradually reduce her to a spot of rust on the ocean floor with only the remaining scraps of her hull intermingled with her more durable fittings , like the propellers , the Telemotor and the Capstans , which can resist attack by microbes .
Over the years after her sinking , many impractical , expensive and often physically impossible schemes have been put forward to raise the wreck from its resting place . They have included ideas such as filling the wreck with ping @-@ pong balls , injecting it with 180 @,@ 000 tons of Vaseline , or using half a million tons of liquid nitrogen to turn it into a giant iceberg that would float back to the surface .
= = Salvaging Titanic = =
Almost immediately after Titanic sank on 15 April 1912 , proposals were advanced to salvage her from her resting place in the North Atlantic Ocean , despite her exact location and condition being unknown . The families of several wealthy victims of the disaster – the Guggenheims , Astors , and Wideners – formed a consortium and contracted the Merritt and Chapman Derrick and Wrecking Company to raise Titanic . The project was soon abandoned as impractical as the divers could not even reach a fraction of the necessary depth , where the pressure is over 6 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 410 bar ) . The lack of submarine technology at the time as well as the outbreak of World War I also put off such a project . The company considered dropping dynamite on the wreck to dislodge bodies which would float to the surface , but finally gave up after oceanographers suggested that the extreme pressure would have compressed the bodies into gelatinous lumps . ( In fact , this was incorrect . Whale falls , a phenomenon not discovered until 1987 – coincidentally , by the same submersible used for the first manned expedition to Titanic the year before – demonstrate that water @-@ filled corpses , in this case cetaceans , can sink to the bottom essentially intact . The high pressure and cold temperature of the water would have prevented significant quantities of gas forming during decomposition , preventing the bodies of Titanic victims from rising back to the surface . )
In later years , various proposals were put forward to salvage Titanic . However , all fell foul due to practical and technological difficulties , a lack of funding and , in many cases , a lack of understanding of the physical conditions at the wreck site . Charles Smith , an architect from Denver , proposed in March 1914 to attach electromagnets to a submarine which would be irresistibly drawn to the wreck 's steel hull . Having found its exact position , more electromagnets would be sent down from a fleet of barges which would winch Titanic to the surface . An estimated cost of $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( £ 35 @,@ 451 @,@ 827 today ) and its impracticality meant that the idea was not put into practice . Another proposal involved raising Titanic by means of attaching balloons to her hull using electromagnets . Once enough balloons had been attached , the ship would float gently to the surface . Again , the idea got no further than the drawing board .
= = = Salvage proposals in the 1960s and 1970s = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , a hosiery worker from Baldock named Douglas Woolley devised a plan to find Titanic using a bathyscaphe ( like Trieste , used to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench in 1960 ) and raise the wreck by inflating nylon balloons that would be attached to her hull . The declared objective was to " bring the wreck into Liverpool and convert it to a floating museum . " The Titanic Salvage Company was established to manage the scheme and a group of businessmen from West Berlin set up an entity called Titanic @-@ Tresor to support it financially . It fell apart when its proponents found they could not overcome the problem of how the balloons would be inflated in the first place . Calculations showed that it could take ten years to generate enough gas to overcome the water pressure .
A variety of audacious but equally impractical schemes were put forward during the 1970s . One proposal called for 180 @,@ 000 tons of molten wax ( or alternatively , Vaseline ) to be pumped into Titanic , lifting her to the surface . Another proposal involved filling Titanic with ping @-@ pong balls , but overlooked the fact that the balls would be crushed by the pressure long before reaching the depth of the wreck . A similar idea involving the use of Benthos glass spheres , which could survive the pressure , was scuppered when the cost of the number of spheres required was put at over $ 238 million . An unemployed haulage contractor from Walsall named Arthur Hickey proposed to turn Titanic into an iceberg , freezing the water around the wreck to encase it in a buoyant jacket of ice . This , being lighter than liquid water , would float to the surface and could be towed to shore . The BOC Group calculated that this would require half a million tons of liquid nitrogen to be pumped down to the sea bed . In his 1976 thriller Raise the Titanic ! , author Clive Cussler 's hero Dirk Pitt repairs the holes in Titanic 's hull , pumps it full of compressed air and succeeds in making it " leap out of the waves like a modern submarine blowing its ballast tanks " , a scene depicted on the posters of the subsequent film of the book . Although this was an " artistically stimulating " highlight of the film , made using a 55 ft ( 17 m ) model of Titanic , it would not have been physically possible .
Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution had long been interested in finding Titanic . Although early negotiations with possible backers were abandoned when it emerged that they wanted to turn the wreck into souvenir paperweights , more sympathetic backers joined Ballard to form a company named Seasonics International Ltd as a vehicle for rediscovering and exploring Titanic . In October 1977 he made his first attempt to find the ship with the aid of the Alcoa corporation 's deep sea salvage vessel Seaprobe . This was essentially a drillship with sonar equipment and cameras attached to the end of the drilling pipe . It could lift objects from the seabed using a remote @-@ controlled mechanical claw . The expedition ended in failure when the drilling pipe broke , sending 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) of pipe and $ 600 @,@ 000 worth of electronics plunging to the sea bed .
In 1978 , The Walt Disney Company and National Geographic magazine considered mounting a joint expedition to find Titanic , using the aluminium submersible Aluminaut . Titanic would have been well within the submersible 's depth limits , but the plans were abandoned for financial reasons .
The following year , the British billionaire financier and tycoon Sir James Goldsmith set up Seawise & Titanic Salvage Ltd with the involvement of underwater diving and photographic experts . His aim was to use the publicity of finding Titanic to promote his newly established magazine , NOW ! . An expedition to the North Atlantic was scheduled for 1980 but was cancelled due to financial difficulties . A year later , NOW ! folded after 84 issues with Goldsmith incurring huge financial losses .
Fred Koehler , an electronics repairman from Coral Gables , Florida , sold his electronics shop to finance the completion of a two @-@ man deep @-@ sea submersible called Seacopter . He planned to dive to Titanic , enter the hull and retrieve a fabulous collection of diamonds rumored to be contained in the purser 's safe . However , he was unable to obtain financial backing for his planned expedition . Another proposal involved using a semi @-@ submersible platform mounted with cranes , resting on two watertight supertankers , that would winch the wreck off the seabed and carry it to shore . A proponent was quoted as saying , " It 's like the Great Wall of China – given enough time and money and people , you can do anything . " Time , money and people were not forthcoming and the proposal got no further than any of its predecessors .
= = = Jack Grimm 's expeditions , 1980 – 83 = = =
On 17 July 1980 , an expedition sponsored by Texan oilman Jack Grimm set off from Port Everglades , Florida , in the research vessel H.J.W. Fay . Grimm had previously sponsored expeditions to find Noah 's Ark , the Loch Ness Monster , Bigfoot , and the giant hole in the North Pole predicted by the pseudoscientific Hollow Earth hypothesis . To raise funds for his Titanic expedition , he obtained sponsorship from friends with whom he played poker , sold media rights through the William Morris Agency , commissioned a book , and obtained the services of Orson Welles to narrate a documentary . He acquired scientific support from Columbia University by donating $ 330 @,@ 000 to the Lamont – Doherty Geological Observatory for the purchase of a wide @-@ sweep sonar , in exchange for five years ' use of the equipment and the services of technicians to support it . Drs. William B. Ryan of Columbia University and Fred Spiess of Scripps Institution of Oceanography in California joined the expedition as consultants . They nearly stayed ashore when Grimm introduced them to a new consultant – a monkey called Titan , which was trained to point at a spot on the map to supposedly indicate where Titanic was . The scientists issued an ultimatum : " It 's either us or the monkey . " Grimm preferred the monkey , but was prevailed upon to leave it behind and bring the scientists instead .
The results were inconclusive , as three weeks of surveying in almost continuous bad weather during July and August 1980 failed to find Titanic . The problem was exacerbated by technological limitations ; the Sea MARC sonar used by the expedition had a relatively low resolution and was a new and untested piece of equipment . It was nearly lost only 36 hours after it was first deployed when the tail was ripped off during a sharp turn , destroying the magnetometer , which would have been vital for detecting Titanic 's hull . Nonetheless it managed to survey an area of some 500 square nautical miles and identified 14 possible targets .
Grimm mounted a second expedition in June 1981 aboard the research vessel Gyre , with Spiess and Ryan again joining the expedition . To increase their chances of finding the wreck , the team employed a much more capable sonar device , the Scripps Deep Tow . The weather was again very poor , but all 14 of the targets were successfully covered and found to be natural features . On the last day of the expedition , an object that looked like a propeller was found . Grimm announced on his return to Boston that Titanic had been found , but the scientists declined to endorse his identification .
In July 1983 , Grimm went back a third time with Ryan aboard the research vessel Robert D. Conrad to have another look at the " propeller " . This time nothing was found and very bad weather brought an early end to the expedition . It later turned out that Sea MARC had actually passed over Titanic but had failed to detect it , while Deep Tow passed within 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the wreck .
= = Discovery = =
D. Michael Harris and Jack Grimm had failed to find Titanic but their expeditions did succeed in producing fairly detailed mapping of the area in which the ship had sunk . It was clear that the position given in Titanic 's distress signals was inaccurate , which was a major expedition difficulty because it increased the search area 's already @-@ massive size . Despite the failure of his 1977 expedition , Robert Ballard had not given up hope and devised new technologies and a new search strategy to tackle the problem . The new technology was a system called Argo / Jason . This consisted of a remotely controlled deep @-@ sea vehicle called Argo , equipped with sonar and cameras and towed behind a ship , with a robot called Jason tethered to it that could roam the sea floor , take close @-@ up images and gather specimens . The images from the system would be transmitted back to a control room on the towing vessel where they could be assessed immediately . Although it was designed for scientific purposes , it also had important military applications and the United States Navy agreed to sponsor the system 's development , on condition that it was to be used to carry out a number of programmes – many still classified – for the Navy .
The Navy commissioned Ballard and his team to carry out a month @-@ long expedition every year for four years , to keep Argo / Jason in good working condition . It agreed to Ballard 's proposal to use some of the time to search for Titanic once the Navy 's objectives had been met ; the search would provide an ideal opportunity to test Argo / Jason . In 1984 the Navy sent Ballard and Argo to map the wrecks of the sunken nuclear submarines USS Thresher and USS Scorpion , lost in the North Atlantic at depths of up to 9 @,@ 800 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . The expedition found the submarines and made an important discovery . As Thresher and Scorpion sank , debris spilled out from them across a wide area of the seabed and was sorted by the currents , so that light debris drifted furthest away from the site of the sinking . This " debris field " was far larger than the wrecks themselves . By following the comet @-@ like trail of debris , the main pieces of wreckage could be found .
A second expedition to map the wreck of Scorpion was mounted in 1985 . Only twelve days of search time would be left at the end of the expedition to look for Titanic . As Harris / Grimm 's unsuccessful efforts had taken more than forty days , Ballard decided that extra help would be needed . He approached the French national oceanographic agency , IFREMER , with which Woods Hole had previously collaborated . The agency had recently developed a high @-@ resolution side @-@ scan sonar called SAR and agreed to send a research vessel , Le Suroît , to survey the sea bed in the area where Titanic was believed to lie . The idea was for the French to use the sonar to find likely targets , and then for the Americans to use Argo to check out the targets and hopefully confirm whether they were in fact the wreck . The French team spent five weeks , from 5 July to 12 August 1985 , " mowing the lawn " – sailing back and forth across the 150 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 390 km2 ) target area to scan the sea bed in a series of stripes . However , they found nothing , though it turned out that they had passed within a few hundred yards of Titanic in their first run .
Ballard realized that looking for the wreck itself using sonar was unlikely to be successful and adopted a different tactic , drawing on the experience of the surveys of Thresher and Scorpion ; he would look for the debris field instead , using Argo 's cameras rather than sonar . Whereas sonar could not distinguish man @-@ made debris on the sea bed from natural objects , cameras could . The debris field would also be a far bigger target , stretching a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) or longer , whereas Titanic itself was only 90 feet ( 27 m ) wide . The search required round @-@ the @-@ clock towing of Argo back and forth above the sea bed , with shifts of watchers aboard the research vessel Knorr looking at the camera pictures for any sign of debris . After a week of fruitless searching , at 12 @.@ 48 am on Sunday 1 September 1985 pieces of debris began to appear on Knorr 's screens . One of them was identified as a boiler , identical to those shown in pictures from 1911 . The following day , the main part of the wreck was found and Argo sent back the first pictures of Titanic since her sinking 73 years before . The discovery made headlines around the world .
= = = Subsequent expeditions = = =
= = = = 1986 – 1998 = = = =
Following his discovery of the wreck site , Ballard returned to Titanic in July 1986 aboard the research vessel RV Atlantis II . Now the deep @-@ diving submersible DSV Alvin could take people back to Titanic for the first time since her sinking , and the remotely operated vehicle ( ROV ) Jason Jr. would allow the explorers to investigate the interior of the wreck . Another system , ANGUS , was used to carry out photo surveys of the debris field . Jason Jr. descended the ruined Grand Staircase as far as B Deck , and photographed remarkably well preserved interiors , including some chandeliers still hanging from the ceilings .
Between 25 July and 10 September 1987 , an expedition mounted by IFREMER and a consortium of American investors which included George Tulloch , G. Michael Harris , D. Michael Harris and Ralph White made 32 dives to Titanic using the submersible Nautile . Controversially , they salvaged and brought ashore more than 1 @,@ 800 objects . A joint Russian @-@ Canadian @-@ American expedition took place in 1991 using the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh and its two MIR submersibles . Sponsored by Stephen Low and IMAX , CBS , National Geographic and others , the expedition carried out extensive scientific research with a crew of 130 scientists and engineers . The MIRs carried out 17 dives , spending over 140 hours at the bottom , shooting 40 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) of IMAX film . This was used to create the 1995 documentary film Titanica , which was later released in the US on DVD in a re @-@ edited version narrated by Leonard Nimoy .
IFREMER and RMS Titanic Inc . , the successors to the sponsors of the 1987 expedition , returned to the wreck with Nautile and the ROV Robin in June 1993 . Over the course of fifteen days , Nautile made fifteen dives lasting between eight and twelve hours . Another 800 artefacts were recovered during the expedition including a two @-@ tonne piece of a reciprocating engine , a lifeboat davit and the steam whistle from the ship 's forward funnel .
In 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1998 and 2000 , RMS Titanic Inc. carried out an intensive series of dives that led to the recovery of over 4 @,@ 000 items in the first two expeditions alone . The 1996 expedition controversially attempted to raise a section of Titanic itself , a section of the outer hull that originally comprised part of the wall of two First Class cabins on C Deck , extending down to D Deck . It weighed 20 tons , measured 15 by 25 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m × 7 @.@ 6 m ) and had four portholes in it , three of which still had glass in them . The section had come loose either during the sinking or as a result of the impact with the sea bed . Its recovery using diesel @-@ filled floatation bags was turned into something of an entertainment event with two cruise ships accompanying the expedition to the wreck site . Passengers were offered the chance , at $ 5 @,@ 000 per person , to watch the recovery on television screens in their cabins while enjoying luxury accommodation , Las Vegas @-@ style shows and casino gambling aboard the ships . Various celebrities were recruited to enliven the proceedings , including Burt Reynolds , Debbie Reynolds and Buzz Aldrin , and " Grand Receptions " for VIPs were scheduled on @-@ shore where the hull section would be displayed . However , the lift ended disastrously when rough weather caused the ropes supporting the bags to snap . At the moment the ropes broke , the hull section had been lifted to within only 200 feet ( 61 m ) of the surface . It hurtled 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) back down , embedding itself upright on the sea floor . Although the attempt was strongly criticised by marine archaeologists , scientists and historians as a money @-@ making publicity stunt , a second , successful attempt to lift the fragment was carried out in 1998 . The so @-@ called " Big Piece " was conserved in a laboratory in Santa Fe for two years before being put on display at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino .
In 1995 , Canadian director James Cameron chartered the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh and the MIRs to make 12 dives to Titanic . He used the resulting footage to considerable effect in his blockbuster 1997 film Titanic . The discovery of the wreck in 1985 and a National Geographic documentary of Ballard 's 1986 expedition had inspired Cameron to write a synopsis in 1987 of what eventually became the film Titanic : " Do story with bookends of present day scene of wreck using submersibles intercut with memories of a survivor and re @-@ created scenes of the night of the sinking . A crucible of human values under stress . " Cameron 's expedition did not salvage anything from the ship .
= = = = 2000 to present = = = =
The 2000 expedition by RMS Titanic Inc. carried out 28 dives during which over 800 artefacts were recovered , including the ship 's engine telegraphs , perfume vials and watertight door gears . In 2001 , an American couple – David Leibowitz and Kimberly Miller – caused controversy when they were married aboard a submersible that had set down on the bow of Titanic , in a deliberate echo of a famous scene from James Cameron 's 1997 film . The wedding was essentially a publicity stunt , sponsored by a British company called SubSea Explorer which had offered a free dive to Titanic that Leibowitz had won . He asked whether his fiancée could come too and was told that she could – but only if she agreed to get married during the trip . The same company also brought along Philip Littlejohn , the grandson of one of Titanic 's surviving crew members , who became the first relative of a Titanic passenger or crew member to visit the wreck . Cameron himself also returned to Titanic in 2001 to carry out filming for Walt Disney Pictures ' Ghosts of the Abyss , filmed in 3D .
In 2003 and 2004 , the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration carried out two expeditions to Titanic . The first , carried out between 22 June and 2 July 2003 , performed four dives in two days . Its key aims were to assess the current condition of the wreck site and carry out scientific observations to support ongoing research . The stern section , which had previously received relatively little attention from explorers , was specifically targeted for analysis . The microbial colonies aboard Titanic were also a key focus of investigation . The second expedition , from 27 May – 12 June 2004 , saw the return of Robert Ballard to Titanic nearly 20 years after he discovered it . The expedition spent 11 days on the wreck , carrying out high @-@ resolution mapping using video and stereoscopic still images .
2005 saw two expeditions to the Titanic . James Cameron returned for the third and last time to film Last Mysteries of the Titanic . Another expedition searched for previously unseen pieces of wreckage , and led to the documentary Titanic 's Final Moments : Missing Pieces .
RMS Titanic Inc. mounted further expeditions to Titanic in 2004 and 2010 , when the first comprehensive map of the entire debris field was produced . Two autonomous underwater vehicles – torpedo @-@ shaped robots – repeatedly ran backwards and forwards across the 3 by 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km × 8 @.@ 0 km ) debris field , taking sonar scans and over 130 @,@ 000 high @-@ resolution images . This enabled a detailed photomosaic of the debris field to be created for the first time , giving scientists a much clearer view of the dynamics of the ship 's sinking . The expedition encountered difficulties : several hurricanes passed over the wreck site , and the Remora ROV was caught in a piece of wreckage . This same year saw the discovery of the new bacteria living in the rusticles on the Titanic , Halomonas titanicae .
Tourist and scientific visits to Titanic are still continuing ; by April 2012 , 100 years since the disaster and nearly 25 since the discovery of the wreck , around 140 people had visited . On 14 April 2012 ( the 100th anniversary of the ship 's sinking ) , the wreck of the Titanic became eligible for protection as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and in the same month , Robert Ballard , the wreck 's discoverer , has announced of a plan to preserve the wreck of the Titanic by using deep @-@ sea robots to paint the wreck with anti @-@ fouling paint , to help keep the wreck in its current state for all time . The proposed plan that Ballard announced has been outlined in a documentary made to time with the Titanic 's 100th sinking anniversary called Save the Titanic With Bob Ballard where Ballard himself talks about how this proposed paint job on the wreck will work . Ballard says that he proposed to robotically clean and repaint the Titanic with a colour scheme mimicking rusticles because he saw " original anti @-@ fouling paint on the ship 's hull , which was still working even after 74 years on the seabed " when he visited the Titanic in 1986 .
= = Description of the wreck = =
The position of the wreck is a considerable distance from the location transmitted by the ship 's wireless operators before she went down . The initial location was given as 41 ° 44 ′ N 50 ° 24 ′ W , 20 @.@ 8 miles ( 33 @.@ 5 km ) from the wreck . A corrected location was later transmitted as 41 ° 46 ′ N 50 ° 14 ′ W , but this too was inaccurate , by 13 @.@ 2 miles ( 21 @.@ 2 km ) . Titanic is in two main pieces 370 miles ( 600 km ) south @-@ east of Mistaken Point , Newfoundland . The bow is located at 41 ° 43 ′ 57 ″ N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 ″ W and the stern is about 1 @,@ 970 feet ( 600 m ) to the south at 41 ° 43 ′ 35 ″ N 49 ° 56 ′ 54 ″ W. The boilers found by Argo , which mark the point at which the ship went down , are about 600 feet ( 180 m ) east of the stern at 41 ° 43 ′ 32 ″ N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 ″ W.
The two main parts of the wreck of Titanic present a striking contrast . Although fourteen survivors testified that the ship had broken apart as she sank , this testimony was discounted by the official inquiries , and it was supposed that the ship had sunk intact . It is now clear that the stresses on Titanic caused the ship to split apart between the second and third funnels at or just below the surface .
= = = Bow section = = =
The bow section , which measures about 470 feet ( 140 m ) long , is thought to have descended at an angle of about 45 ° . Its distance from the stern was caused by its planing forward horizontally by about 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) for every 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of its descent . During the descent to the sea bed , the funnels were swept away , taking with them the rigging and large lengths of cables . These dragged along the boat deck , tearing away many of the davits and much of the other deck equipment . The foremast was also torn down , falling onto the port bridge area . The ship 's wheelhouse was swept away , possibly after being hit by the falling foremast .
The bow hit the bottom at a speed of about 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , digging about 60 feet ( 18 m ) deep into the mud , up to the base of the anchors . The impact bent the hull in two places and caused it to buckle downwards by about 10 ° under the forward well deck cranes and by about 4 ° under the forward expansion joint . When the bow section hit the sea bed , the weakened decks at the rear , where the ship had broken apart , collapsed on top of each other . The forward hatch cover was also blown off and landed a couple of hundred feet in front of the bow , possibly due to the force of water being pushed out as the bow impacted the bottom .
The area around the bridge is particularly badly damaged ; as Robert Ballard has put it , it looks " as if it had been squashed by a giant 's fist " . Charles R. Pellegrino has proposed that this was the result of a " down @-@ blast " of water , caused by a slipstream that had followed the bow section as it fell towards the sea bed . According to Pellegrino 's hypothesis , when the bow came to an abrupt halt the inertia of the slipstream caused a rapidly moving column of water weighing thousands of tons to strike the top of the wreck , striking it near the bridge . The roof of the officers ' quarters and the sides of the gymnasium were pushed in , railings were blown outwards and vertical steel columns supporting the decks were bent into a C @-@ shape . Large parts of the bow 's interior were demolished by surges of water and violent eddies kicked up by the wreck 's sudden halt . The actual damage made by the iceberg is not visible at the bow as it is buried under mud .
= = = Stern section = = =
The stern section , which measures about 350 feet ( 110 m ) long , suffered catastrophic damage during the descent and in landing on the sea bed . It had not fully filled with water when it sank and the increasing water pressure caused trapped air pockets to implode , tearing apart the hull . Data from a sonar map made during a 2010 expedition showed that the stern section rotated like a helicopter blade as it sank . The rudder appears to have swung over to an angle of about 30 – 45 ° during the stern 's descent , causing the section to follow a tight spiral to the bottom . It probably struck rudder @-@ first , burying most of the rudder in the mud up to a depth of 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The decks pancaked on top of each other and the hull plating splayed out to the sides of the shattered section . The pancaking is so severe that the combined height of the decks , which are piled up on top of the reciprocating engines , is now generally not more than about 12 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) high . No individual deck is more than about 1 foot ( 30 cm ) high .
Large sections of the hull plating seem to have fallen off well before the wreck hit the bottom . One such section , thought to have been from the galleys , separated from the stern in one piece and landed nearby . The force of the water tore up the poop deck and folded it back on itself . The center propeller is totally buried , while the force of the impact caused the two wing propellers and shafts to be bent upwards by an angle of about 20 ° .
A large V @-@ shaped section of the ship just aft of midships , running from the keel upwards through Number 1 Boiler Room and upwards to cover the area under the third and fourth funnels , was believed to have disintegrated entirely when the ship broke up . This was one of the weakest parts of the ship as a result of the presence of two large open spaces – the forward end of the engine room and the aft First Class passenger staircase . The rest of this part of the ship are scattered across the seabed at distances of 130 to 260 feet ( 40 to 79 m ) from the main part of the stern . During the 2010 expedition to map the wreck site , a major chunk of the deck house ( the base of the third funnel ) along with pieces of the third funnel was found . This showed that instead of simply disintegrating into a mass of debris , large sections of the ship broke off in chunks and that the ship broke in half between the second and third funnels , not the third and fourth funnels . Five of the boilers from Number 1 Boiler Room came loose during its disintegration and landed in the debris field around the stern . Experts believe that this tight cluster of the boilers marks the hypocenter of where the ship broke up 12 @,@ 000 feet above . The rest of the boilers are still presumably located in the bow section .
= = = Debris fields = = =
As Titanic broke apart , many objects and pieces of hull were scattered across the sea bed . There are two debris fields in the vicinity of the wreck , each between 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 600 ft ( 610 – 729 m ) long , trailing in a south @-@ westerly direction from the bow and stern . They cover an area of about 2 square miles ( 5 @.@ 2 km2 ) . Most of the debris is concentrated near the stern section of Titanic . It consists of thousands of objects from the interior of the ship , ranging from tons of coal spilled from ruptured bunkers to suitcases , clothes , corked wine bottles ( many still intact despite the pressure ) , bathtubs , windows , washbasins , jugs , bowls , hand mirrors and numerous other personal effects . The debris field also includes numerous pieces of the ship itself , with the largest pieces of debris in the vicinity of the partially disintegrated stern section .
= = Condition and deterioration of the wreck = =
Prior to the discovery of Titanic 's wreck , in addition to the common assumption that she had sunk in one piece , it had been widely believed that conditions at 12 @,@ 000 feet down would preserve the ship virtually intact . The water is bitterly cold at only about 1 – 2 ° C ( 34 – 36 ° F ) , there is no light and the high pressure was thought to be likely to lower oxygen and salinity levels to the point that organisms would not be able to gain a foothold on the wreck . Titanic would effectively be in a deep freeze . The reality has turned out to be very different , and the ship has increasingly deteriorated since she sank in April 1912 . Her gradual decay is due to a number of different processes – physical , chemical and biological . She is situated on an undulating , gently sloping area of seabed in a small canyon swept by the Western Boundary Current . Eddies from the current flow constantly across the wreck , scouring the sea bed and keeping sediment from building up over the hull . The current is strong and often changeable , gradually opening up holes in the ship 's hull . Salt corrosion eats away at the hull and it is also affected by galvanic corrosion .
The most dramatic deterioration has been caused by biological factors . It used to be thought that the depths of the ocean were a lifeless desert , but research carried out since the mid @-@ 1980s has found that the ocean floor is teeming with life and may rival the tropical rainforests for biodiversity . During the 1991 IMAX expedition , scientists were surprised by the variety of organisms that they found in and around Titanic . A total of 28 species were observed , including anemones , crabs , shrimp , starfish and rattail fish up to a yard ( 1 m ) long . Much larger creatures have been glimpsed by explorers . Some of Titanic 's fauna has never been seen anywhere else ; James Cameron 's 2001 expedition discovered a previously unknown type of sea cucumber , lavender with a glowing row of phosphorescent " portholes " along its side . A newly discovered species of bacterium found on the ship has been named Halomonas titanicae , which has been found to cause rapid decay of the wreck . Henrietta Mann , who discovered the bacteria , has estimated that the Titanic will completely collapse possibly as soon as 2025 . The Canadian geophysicist Steve Blasco has commented that the wreck " has become an oasis , a thriving ecosystem sitting in a vast desert . "
The soft organic material aboard and dispersed onto the seabed around the hull would have been the first to disappear , rapidly devoured by fish and crustaceans . Wood @-@ boring molluscs such as Teredo colonized the ship 's decks and interior in huge numbers , eating away the wooden decking and other wooden objects such as furniture , paneling , doors and staircase banisters . When their food ran out they died , leaving behind calcareous tubes . The question of the victims ' bodies is one that has often troubled explorers of the wreck site . When the debris field was surveyed in Robert Ballard 's 1986 expedition , pairs of shoes were observed lying next to each other on the sea bed . The flesh , bones , and clothes had long since been consumed but the tannin in the shoes ' leather had apparently resisted the bacteria , leaving the shoes as the only markers of where a body had once lain . Ballard has suggested that skeletons may remain deep within Titanic 's hull , such as in the engine rooms or third @-@ class cabins . This has been disputed by scientists , who have estimated that the bodies would have completely disappeared by the early 1940s at the latest .
In any event , the molluscs and scavengers did not consume everything organic . Some of the wooden objects on the ship and in the debris field have not been consumed , particularly those made of teak , a dense wood that seems to have resisted the borers . The First Class reception area off the ship 's Grand Staircase is still remarkably intact and furniture is still visible among the debris on the floor . Although most of the corridors have lost their walls , furniture is still in place in many cabins ; in one , a mattress is still on the bed , with an intact and undamaged dresser behind it . Robert Ballard has suggested that areas within the ship or buried under debris , where scavengers may not have been able to reach , may still contain human remains . According to Charles Pellegrino , who dived on Titanic in 2001 , a finger bone encircled by the partial remains of a wedding ring was found concreted to the bottom of a soup tureen that was retrieved from the debris field . It was returned to the sea bed on the next dive .
The longest @-@ lasting inhabitants of Titanic are likely to be bacteria and archaea which have colonized the metal hull of the ship . They have produced " reddish @-@ brown stalactites of rust [ hanging ] down as much as several feet , looking like long needle @-@ like icicles " , as Robert Ballard has put it . The formations , which Ballard dubbed " rusticles " , are extremely fragile and disintegrate in a cloud of particles if touched . The bacteria consume the iron in the hull , oxidizing it and leaving rust particles behind as a waste product . To protect themselves from the seawater , they secrete an acidic viscous slime that flows where gravity takes it , carrying ferric oxides and hydroxides . These form the rusticles . When scientists were able to retrieve a rusticle , it was discovered that it was far more complex than had been imagined , with complex systems of roots infiltrating the metal , interior channels , bundles of fibers , pores and other structures . Charles Pellegrino comments that they seem more akin to " levels of tissue organization found in sponges or mosses and other members of the animal or plant kingdoms . " The bacteria are estimated to be consuming Titanic 's hull at the rate of 400 pounds ( 180 kg ) per day . Roy Collimore , a microbiologist , estimates that the bow alone now supports some 650 tons of rusticles and that they will have devoured fifty per cent of the hull within 200 years .
Since Titanic 's wreck was discovered in 1985 , radical changes have been observed in the marine ecosystem around the ship . The 1996 expedition recorded 75 per cent more brittle stars and sea cucumbers than Ballard 's 1985 expedition , while crinoids and sea squirts had taken root all over the sea bed . Red krill had appeared and an unknown organism had built numerous nests across the seabed from black pebbles . The amount of rusticles on the ship had increased greatly . Curiously , the same thing had happened over about the same timescale to the wreck of the German battleship Bismarck , sunk at a depth of 4 @,@ 791 metres ( 15 @,@ 719 ft ) on the other side of the Atlantic . The mud around the ship was found to contain hundreds of different species of animals . The sudden explosion of life around Titanic may be a result of an increased amount of nutrients falling from the surface , possibly a result of human overfishing eliminating fish that would otherwise have consumed the nutrients .
Many scientists , including Robert Ballard , are concerned that visits by tourists in submersibles and the recovery of artefacts are causing the wreck to decay faster . Underwater bacteria have been eating away at Titanic 's steel and transformed it into rust since the ship sank , but because of the extra damage caused by visitors , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that " the hull and structure of the ship may collapse to the ocean floor within the next 50 years . " The promenade deck has deteriorated significantly in recent years , partly because of damage caused by submersibles landing on the ship . The mast has almost completely deteriorated and has been stripped of its bell and brass light . Other damage includes a gash on the bow section where block letters once spelled Titanic , part of the brass telemotor which once held the ship 's wooden wheel is now twisted and the crow 's nest has completely deteriorated . The Canadian director James Cameron is responsible for some of the more significant damage during his expedition to the ship in mid @-@ 1995 to acquire footage for his 1997 film Titanic . One of the MIR submersibles used on the expedition collided with the hull , damaging both and leaving fragments of the submersible 's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure . Captain Smith 's quarters were heavily damaged by the collapse of the external bulkhead , which exposed the cabin 's interior .
= = Ownership = =
Titanic 's discovery in 1985 sparked a debate over the ownership of the wreck and the valuable items inside and on the sea bed around it . Ballard and his crew did not bring up any artifacts from the wreck , considering such an act to be tantamount to grave robbing . Ballard has since argued strongly " that it be left unmolested by treasure seekers " . As Ballard has put it , the development of deep @-@ sea submersibles has made " the great pyramids of the deep .... accessible to man . He can either plunder them like the grave robbers of Egypt or protect them for the countless generations which will follow ours . " However , within only two weeks of the discovery , a British insurance company claimed that it owned the wreck , and several more schemes to raise it were announced . A Belgian entrepreneur offered trips to Titanic for $ 25 @,@ 000 a head .
Spurred by Ballard 's appeals for the wreck to be left alone , North Carolina Congressman Walter B. Jones , Jr. introduced the RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act in the United States House of Representatives in 1986 . It called for strict scientific guidelines to be introduced to govern the exploration and salvage of Titanic and urged the United States Secretary of State to lobby Canada , the United Kingdom and France to pass similar legislation . It passed the House and Senate by an overwhelming majority and was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on 21 October 1986 . However , the law has been ineffective as the wreck lies outside United States waters , and the Act was set aside by the United States District for the Eastern District of Virginia , Norfolk Division , in 1998 . Although negotiations among the four countries were carried out between 1997 and 2000 , the resulting " Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel R.M.S. Titanic " has been ratified by only the US and the UK .
= = = Litigation and controversy = = =
Only a few days after Ballard 's discovery of the wreck , Jack Grimm – the author of the unsuccessful early 1980s attempts to find Titanic – claimed ownership of it on the grounds that he had allegedly been the first to find it . He announced that he intended to begin salvaging the wreck . He said that he " [ couldn 't ] see them just lie there and be absorbed by the ocean floor . What possible harm can [ salvage ] do to this mass of twisted steel ? "
Titanic Ventures Inc . , a Connecticut @-@ based consortium , co @-@ sponsored a survey and salvage operation in 1987 with the French oceanographic agency IFREMER . The expedition produced an outcry , not least because of the damage that it caused to the wreck . When the crow 's nest bell was pulled from the mast , the crow 's nest itself , where the lookouts first saw the iceberg , collapsed . A Titanic survivor , Eva Hart , was outspoken in her condemnation of what many saw as the looting of a mass grave : " To bring up those things from a mass sea grave just to make a few thousand pounds shows a dreadful insensitivity and greed . The grave should be left alone . They 're simply going to do it as fortune hunters , vultures , pirates ! "
Public misgivings were increased when , on 28 October 1987 , a glitzy television program titled Return to the Titanic Live was broadcast from the Cité des Sciences et de l 'Industrie in Paris with Telly Savalas hosting . In front of a live TV audience , a valise recovered from the sea bed was opened , revealing a number of personal items apparently belonging to Richard L. Beckwith of New York , who survived the sinking . A safe was also opened , revealing a few items of memorabilia and some soggy banknotes . The tone of the event has been described by one commentator as " unsympathetic , lack [ ing ] dignity and finesse , and [ with ] all the superficial qualities of a ' media event ' . " The TV critic of The New York Times , John Corry , called the event " a combination of the sacred and profane and sometimes the downright silly . " Paul Heyer comments that it was " presented as a kind of deep sea striptease " and that Savalas " seemed haggard , missed several cues and at one point almost tripped over a chair " . Controversy persisted after the broadcast when claims were made that the safe had been opened beforehand and that the show had effectively been a fraud .
In the meantime , Marex @-@ Titanic Inc. was formed in 1992 to launch an expedition to the Titanic . Marex @-@ Titanic 's CEO was James Kollar . The company was a subsidiary of Marex International , an international marine salvage firm located in Memphis , Tennessee . In 1992 Marex made a bid to seize control of the artefacts and the wreck itself by suing Titanic Ventures , arguing that the latter had abandoned its claim by not returning to the wreck since the 1987 expedition . It claimed a superior right of salvage based on a " pill bottle " and hull fragment that were said to have been retrieved by Marex . Marex simultaneously sent a vessel , the Sea Mussel , to carry out its own salvage operation . However , the Marex artefacts were alleged to have been illegally retrieved by the 1991 Russian @-@ American @-@ Canadian expedition and Marex was issued with a temporary injunction preventing it from carrying out its plans . In October 1992 the injunction was made permanent and the salvage claims of Titanic Ventures were upheld . The decision was later reversed by an appeals court but Marex 's claims were not renewed . Even so , Titanic Ventures ' control of the artefacts recovered in 1987 remained in question until 1993 when a French administrator in the Office of Maritime Affairs of the Ministry of Equipment , Transportation , and Tourism awarded the company title to the artefacts .
In May 1993 Titanic Ventures sold its interests in the salvage operations and artefacts to RMS Titanic Inc . , a subsidiary of Premier Exhibitions Inc. headed by George Tulloch and Arnie Geller . It had to go through a laborious legal process of having itself legally recognised as the sole and exclusive salvager of the wreck . Its claim was opposed for a while by the Liverpool and London Steamship Protection and Indemnity Association , Titanic 's former insurer , but was eventually settled . It was awarded ownership and salvaging rights by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia on 7 June 1994 in a ruling that declared the company to be the " salvor in possession " of the wreck .
Litigation has continued over the artefacts in recent years . In a motion filed on 12 February 2004 , RMS Titanic Inc. requested that the United States district court enter an order awarding it " title to all the artifacts ( including portions of the hull ) which are the subject of this action pursuant to the Law of Finds " or , in the alternative , a salvage award in the amount of $ 225 million . RMS Titanic Inc. excluded from its motion any claim for an award of title to the objects recovered in 1987 , but it did request that the district court declare that , based on the French administrative action , " the artifacts raised during the 1987 expedition are independently owned by RMST . " Following a hearing , the district court entered an order dated 2 July 2004 , in which it refused to grant comity or recognise the 1993 decision of the French administrator , and rejected RMS Titanic Inc . ' s claim that it should be awarded title to the items recovered since 1993 under the Maritime Law of Finds .
RMS Titanic Inc. appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit . In its decision of 31 January 2006 the court recognised " explicitly the appropriateness of applying maritime salvage law to historic wrecks such as that of Titanic " and denied the application of the Maritime Law of Finds . The court also ruled that the district court lacked jurisdiction over the " 1987 artifacts " , and therefore vacated that part of the court 's 2 July 2004 order . In other words , according to this decision , RMS Titanic Inc. has ownership title to the objects awarded in the French decision ( valued $ 16 @.@ 5 million earlier ) and continues to be salvor @-@ in @-@ possession of the Titanic wreck . The Court of Appeals remanded the case to the District Court to determine the salvage award ( $ 225 million requested by RMS Titanic Inc . ) .
On 24 March 2009 , it was revealed that the fate of 5 @,@ 900 artefacts retrieved from the wreck would rest with a U.S. District Judge 's decision . The ruling was later issued in two decisions on 12 August 2010 and 15 August 2011 . As announced in 2009 , the judge ruled that RMS Titanic Inc. owned the artefacts and her decision dealt with the status of the wreck as well as establishing a monitoring system to check future activity upon the wreck site . On 12 August 2010 , Judge Rebecca Beach Smith granted RMS Titanic , Inc. fair market value for the artefacts but deferred ruling on their ownership and the conditions for their preservation , possible disposition and exhibition until a further decision could be reached . On 15 August 2011 , Judge Smith granted title to thousands of artefacts from the Titanic , that RMS Titanic Inc. did not already own under a French court decision concerning the first group of salvaged artefacts , to RMS Titanic Inc. subject to a detailed list of conditions concerning preservation and disposition of the items . The artefacts can be sold only to a company that would abide by the lengthy list of conditions and restrictions . RMS Titanic Inc. can profit from the artefacts through exhibiting them .
RMS Titanic Inc. has also attempted to secure exclusive physical access to the wreck site . In 1996 , it obtained a court order finding that it had " the exclusive right to take any and all types of photographic images of the Titanic wreck and wreck site . " It obtained another order in 1998 against Deep Ocean Expeditions and Chris Haver , a British Virgin Islands corporation that aimed to run tourist trips to Titanic at a cost of $ 32 @,@ 000 per person ( it now charges $ 60 @,@ 000 ) . This was overturned in March 1999 by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit , which ruled that the law of salvage did not extend to obtaining exclusive rights to view , visit and photograph a wreck . The court pointed out that Titanic is " located in a public place " in international waters , rather than in a private or controllable location to which access could be restricted by the owner . Granting such a right would also create a perverse incentive ; since the aim of salvage is to carry out a salvage operation , leaving property in place so that it could be photographed would run counter to this objective .
= = = Conservation issues = = =
RMS Titanic Inc. has attracted considerable controversy for its approach to Titanic . Two rival camps have formed following the wreck 's discovery : the " conservationists " , championed by RMS Titanic Inc . ' s George Tulloch ( who died in 2004 ) , and the " protectionists " , whose most prominent advocate is Robert Ballard . The first camp has argued that artefacts from around the wreck should be recovered and conserved , while the latter camp argues that the entire wreck site should have been left undisturbed as a mass grave . Both camps agree that the wreck itself should not be salvaged – though RMS Titanic Inc. did not stick to its proclaimed " hands @-@ off " policy when it managed to demolish Titanic 's crow 's nest in the course of retrieving the bell . Its predecessor Titanic Ventures agreed with IFREMER that it would not sell any of the artefacts but would put them on public display , for which it could charge an entry fee .
Tulloch 's approach has undoubtedly resulted in outcomes that would not have been possible otherwise . In 1991 , he presented Edith Brown Haisman , a 96 @-@ year @-@ old survivor of the disaster , with her father 's pocket watch which had been retrieved from the sea bed . She had last seen it on 15 April 1912 when he waved goodbye to his wife and daughter as they left aboard lifeboat 14 . They never saw him again and he presumably went down with the ship . The watch was loaned to Haisman " for life " ; when she died four years later it was reclaimed by RMS Titanic Inc . On another occasion , a steamer trunk spotted in the debris field was found to contain three musical instruments , a deck of playing cards , a diary belonging to one Howard Irwin , and a bundle of letters from his girlfriend Pearl Shuttle . It was first thought that Irwin , a musician and professional gambler , had boarded the ship under a false identity . There was no record of him being among the passengers , even though a ticket had been purchased for him . It turned out that he had stayed ashore but his trunk had been brought aboard the ship by his friend Henry Sutehall , who was among the victims of the disaster . The fragile contents of the trunk were preserved due to the interior being starved of oxygen , which prevented bacteria from consuming the paper . Very few other shipwrecks have yielded readable paper .
On the other hand , the heavily commercialised approach of RMS Titanic Inc. has caused repeated controversy and many have argued that salvaging Titanic is an inherently disrespectful act . The wreck site has been called a " tomb and a reliquary " , a " gravestone for the 1 @,@ 500 people who died " and " hallowed ground " . Titanic historians John Eaton and Charles Haas argue that the salvagers are little more than " plunderers and armchair salvage experts " and others have characterised them as " grave robbers " . The Return to Titanic ... Live ! television show in 1987 was widely condemned as a " circus " , though the 1987 expedition 's scientific and financial leaders had no control over the show . In a particularly controversial episode , RMS Titanic Inc. sold some 80 @,@ 000 lumps of coal retrieved from the debris field in order to fund the rumoured $ 17 million cost of lifting the " Big Piece " of the ship 's hull . It attempted to get around the no @-@ sale agreement with IFREMER by charging the new owners a $ 25 " fee " to act as " conservators " , in order to claim that the coal lumps had not actually been sold . This attracted strong criticism from all sides . Nonetheless , in 1999 Tulloch was ousted by the company 's shareholders and was replaced by Arnie Geller , who promised a more aggressive approach to making a profit . The company declared that it had an " absolute right " to sell recovered gold , coins and currency . It was prevented from doing this by a court order in the United States and IFREMER withdrew its cooperation and its submersibles , threatening a lawsuit .
= = Exhibitions of Titanic artifacts = =
Objects from Titanic have been exhibited for many years , though only a few were retrieved before the discovery of the wreck in 1985 . The Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax , Nova Scotia has a collection of wooden fragments and an intact deckchair plucked from the sea by the Canadian search vessels that recovered the victims ' bodies . Various other museums , including the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich and the SeaCity Museum in Southampton , have objects donated by survivors and relatives of victims , including some items that were retrieved from the bodies of victims . More donated Titanic artefacts are to be found in the Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool and the Titanic Historical Society 's museum in Indian Orchard , Springfield , Massachusetts . The latter 's collection includes items such as the life jacket of Madeleine Astor , the wife of millionaire Titanic victim John Jacob Astor IV , a rivet which was removed from the hull before Titanic went to sea , an ice warning which never reached the bridge , a restaurant menu and a sample square of carpet from a First Class stateroom .
RMS Titanic Inc. organises large @-@ scale exhibitions around the world of artefacts retrieved from the wreck site . After minor exhibitions were held in Paris and Scandinavia , the first major exhibition of recovered artefacts was held at the National Maritime Museum in 1994 – 95 . It was hugely popular , drawing an average of 21 @,@ 000 visitors a week during the year @-@ long exhibition . Since then , RMS Titanic Inc. has established a large @-@ scale permanent exhibition of Titanic artefacts at the Luxor hotel and casino in Las Vegas , Nevada . The 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) exhibit is the home of the " Big Piece " of the hull retrieved in 1998 and features conserved items including luggage , Titanic 's whistles , floor tiles and an unopened bottle of champagne . The exhibit includes a full @-@ scale replica of the ship 's Grand Staircase and part of the Promenade Deck , and even a mock @-@ up of the iceberg . It also runs a travelling exhibition called Titanic : The Artifact Exhibition which has opened in various cities around the world and has been seen by over 20 million people . The exhibition typically runs for six to nine months featuring a combination of artefacts , reconstructions and displays of the ship , her passengers and crew and the disaster itself . In a similar fashion to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington , D.C. , visitors are given a " boarding pass " in the name of an individual passenger at the start of the exhibition . They do not discover the fate of their assigned passenger until the end .
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= Germany – Japan relations =
The Germany – Japan relations ( Japanese : 日独関係 , Hepburn : Nichidokukankei ) and German : Deutsch @-@ japanische Beziehungen ) were established in 1860 with the first ambassadorial visit to Japan from Prussia ( which predated the formation of the German Empire in 1866 / 1870 ) . Japan modernized rapidly after the Meiji Restoration of 1867 , often using German models through intense intellectual and cultural exchange . After 1900 Japan aligned itself with Britain , and Germany and Japan were enemies in World War I. Japan declared war on Germany in 1914 and seized key German possessions in China and the Pacific .
In the 1930s , both countries adopted aggressive militaristic attitudes toward their respective regions . This led to a rapprochement and , eventually , a political and military alliance that included Italy : the " Axis " . During the Second World War , however , the Axis was limited by the great distances between the Axis powers ; for the most part , Japan and Germany fought separate wars , and eventually surrendered separately .
After the Second World War , the economies of both nations experienced rapid recoveries ; bilateral relations , now focused on economic issues , were soon re @-@ established . Today , Japan and Germany are , respectively , the third and fourth largest economies in the world , and benefit greatly from many kinds of political , cultural , scientific and economic cooperation .
According to a late 2012 Bertelsmann Foundation Poll , the Germans view Japan overwhelmingly positively , and regard that nation as less a competitor and more a partner . The Japanese views of Germany are positive as well , with 97 % viewing Germany positively and only 3 % viewing Germany negatively .
= = Country comparison = =
= = History = =
= = = First contacts and end of Japanese isolation ( before 1871 ) = = =
Relations between Japan and Germany date from the Tokugawa shogunate ( 1603 – 1868 ) , when Germans in Dutch service arrived in Japan to work for the Dutch East India Company ( VOC ) . The first well @-@ documented cases are those of the physicians Engelbert Kaempfer ( 1651 – 1716 ) and Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold ( 1796 – 1866 ) in the 1820s and 1860s respectively . Both accompanied the director of the Dutch trading post at Dejima on the obligatory voyage to Edo to pay tribute to the Shogun . Siebold became the author of Nippon , Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan ( Nippon , Archive For The Description of Japan ) , one of the most valuable sources of information on Japan well into the 20th century ; since 1979 his achievements have been recognised with an annual German award in his honour , the Philipp Franz von Siebold @-@ Preis , granted to Japanese scientists . Von Siebold 's second visit to Japan ( 1859 @-@ 1862 ) became a disaster because he tried to influence Dutch politics in Japan and tried to obtain a permanent post as a diplomat in that country .
In 1854 the United States pressured Japan into the Convention of Kanagawa , which ended Japan 's isolation , but was considered an " unequal treaty " by the Japanese public , since the US did not reciprocate most of Japan 's concessions with similar privileges . In many cases Japan was effectively forced into a system of extraterritoriality that provided for the subjugation of foreign residents to the laws of their own consular courts instead of the Japanese law system , open up ports for trade , and later even allow Christian missionaries to enter the country . Shortly after the end of Japan 's seclusion , in a period called " Bakumatsu " ( 幕末 , " End of the Shogunate " ) , the first German traders arrived in Japan . In 1860 Count Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg led the Eulenburg Expedition to Japan as ambassador from Prussia , a leading regional state in the German Confederation at that time . After four months of negotiations , another " unequal treaty " , officially dedicated to amity and commerce , was signed in January 1861 between Prussia and Japan .
Despite being considered one of the numerous unjust negotiations pressed on Japan during that time , the Eulenburg Expedition , and both the short- and long @-@ term consequences of the treaty of amity and commerce , are today honoured as the beginning of official Japanese @-@ German relations . To commemorate its 150th anniversary , events were held in both Germany and Japan from autumn 2010 through autumn 2011 hoping " to ' raise the treasures of [ their ] common past ' in order to build a bridge to the future . "
= = = = Japanese diplomatic mission in Prussia = = = =
In 1863 , three years after von Eulenburg 's visit in Tokyo , a Shogunal legation arrived at the Prussian court of King Wilhelm I and was greeted with a grandiose ceremony in Berlin . After the treaty was signed , Max von Brandt became diplomatic representative in Japan – first representing Prussia , and after 1866 representing the North German Confederation , and by 1871 representing the newly established German Empire .
In 1868 the Tokugawa Shogunate was overthrown and the Empire of Japan under Emperor Meiji was established . With the return of power to the Tenno Dynasty , Japan demanded a revocation of the " unequal treaties " with the western powers and a civil war ensued . During the conflict , German weapons trader Henry Schnell counselled and supplied weapons to the Daimyo of Nagaoka , a land lord loyal to the Shogunate . One year later , the war ended with the defeat of the Tokugawa and the renegotiation of the " unequal treaties " .
= = = Modernization of Japan and educational exchange ( 1871 – 1885 ) = = =
With the start of the Meiji period ( 1868 – 1912 ) , many Germans came to work in Japan as advisors to the new government as so @-@ called " oyatoi gaikokujin " ( お雇い外国人 , " hired foreigners " ) and contributed to the modernization of Japan , especially in the fields of medicine ( Leopold Mueller , 1824 – 1894 ; Julius Scriba , 1848 – 1905 ; Erwin Bälz , 1849 – 1913 ) , law ( K. F. Hermann Roesler , 1834 – 1894 ; Albert Mosse , 1846 – 1925 ) and military affairs ( K. W. Jacob Meckel , 1842 – 1906 ) . Meckel had been invited by Japan 's government in 1885 as an advisor to the Japanese general staff and as teacher at the Army War College . He spent three years in Japan , working with influential persons including Katsura Tarō and Kawakami Soroku , thereby decisively contributing to the modernization of the Imperial Japanese Army . Meckel left behind a loyal group of Japanese admirers , who , after his death , had a bronze statue of him erected in front of his former army college in Tokyo . Overall , the Imperial Japanese Army intensively oriented its organization along Prusso @-@ German lines when building a modern fighting force during the 1880s . The French model that had been followed by the late shogunate and the early Meiji government was gradually replaced by the Prussian model under the leadership of officers such as Katsura Taro and Nogi Maresuke .
In 1889 the ‘ Constitution of the Empire of Japan ’ was promulgated , greatly influenced by German legal scholars Rudolf von Gneist and Lorenz von Stein , whom the Meiji oligarch and future Prime Minister of Japan Itō Hirobumi ( 1841 – 1909 ) visited in Berlin and Vienna in 1882 . At the request of the German government , Albert Mosse also met with Hirobumi and his group of government officials and scholars and gave a series of lectures on constitutional law , which helped to convince Hirobumi that the Prussian @-@ style monarchical constitution was best @-@ suited for Japan . In 1886 Mosse was invited to Japan on a three @-@ year contract as " hired foreigner " to the Japanese government to assist Hirobumi and Inoue Kowashi in drafting the Meiji Constitution . He later worked on other important legal drafts , international agreements , and contracts and served as a cabinet advisor in the Home Ministry , assisting Prime Minister Yamagata Aritomo in establishing the draft laws and systems for local government . Dozens of Japanese students and military officers also went to Germany in the late 19th century , to study the German military system and receive military training at German army educational facilities and within the ranks of the German , mostly the Prussian army . For example , later famous writer Mori Rintarô ( Mori Ōgai ) , who originally was an army doctor , received tutoring in the German language between 1872 and 1874 , which was the primary language for medical education at the time . From 1884 to 1888 , Ōgai visited Germany and developed an interest in European literature producing the first translations of the works of Goethe , Schiller , and Gerhart Hauptmann .
= = = Cooling of relations and World War I ( 1885 – 1920 ) = = =
At the end of the 19th century , Japanese – German relations cooled due to Germany ’ s , and in general Europe 's , imperialist aspirations in East Asia . After the conclusion of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War in April 1895 , the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed , which included several territorial cessions from China to Japan , most importantly Taiwan and the eastern portion of the bay of the Liaodong Peninsula including Port Arthur . However , Russia , France and Germany grew wary of an ever @-@ expanding Japanese sphere of influence and wanted to take advantage of China 's bad situation by expanding their own colonial possessions instead . The frictions culminated in the so @-@ called " Triple Intervention " on 23 April 1895 , when the three powers " urged " Japan to refrain from acquiring its awarded possessions on the Liaodong Peninsula . In the following years , Wilhelm II ’ s nebulous fears of a “ Yellow Peril ” – a united Asia under Japanese leadership , led to further Japanese – German estrangement . Wilhelm II also introduced a regulation to limit the number of members of the Japanese army to come to Germany to study the military system .
Another stress test for German – Japanese relations was the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 / 05 , during which Germany strongly supported Russia . This circumstance triggered the Japanese foreign ministry to proclaim that any ship delivering coal to Russian vessels within the war zone would be sunk . After the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Germany insisted on reciprocity in the exchange of military officers and students , and in the following years , several German military officers were sent to Japan to study the Japanese military , which , after its victory over the tsarist army became a promising organization to study . However , Japan 's growing power and influence also caused increased distrust on the German side .
The onset of the First World War in Europe eventually showed how far German – Japanese relations had truly deteriorated . On 7 August 1914 , only two days after Britain declared war on the German Empire , the Japanese government received an official request from the British government for assistance in destroying the German raiders of the Kaiserliche Marine in and around Chinese waters . Japan , eager to reduce the presence of European colonial powers in South @-@ East Asia , especially on China 's coast , sent Germany an ultimatum on 14 August 1914 , which was left unanswered . Japan then formally declared war on the German Empire on 23 August 1914 thereby entering the First World War as an ally of Britain , France and the Russian Empire to seize the German @-@ held Caroline , Marshall , and Mariana Islands in the Pacific .
The only major battle that took place between Japan and Germany was the siege of the German @-@ controlled Chinese port of Tsingtao in Kiautschou Bay . The German forces held out from August until November 1914 , under a total Japanese / British blockade , sustained artillery barrages and manpower odds of 6 : 1 – a fact that gave a morale boost during the siege as well as later in defeat . After Japanese troops stormed the city , the German dead were buried at Tsingtao and the remaining troops were transported to Japan where they were treated with respect at places like the Bandō Prisoner of War camp . In 1919 , when the German Empire formally signed the Treaty of Versailles , all prisoners of war were set free and returned to Europe .
Japan was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles , which stipulated harsh repercussions for Germany . In the Pacific , Japan gained Germany 's islands north of the equator ( the Marshall Islands , the Carolines , the Marianas , the Palau Islands ) and Kiautschou / Tsingtao in China . Article 156 of the Treaty also transferred German concessions in Shandong to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to China , an issue soon to be known as Shandong Problem . Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations , and a cultural movement known as the May Fourth Movement influenced China not to sign the treaty . China declared the end of its war against Germany in September 1919 and signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921 . This fact greatly contributed to Germany relying on China , and not Japan , as its strategic partner in East Asia for the coming years .
= = = Rapprochement , Axis and World War II ( 1920 – 1945 ) = = =
After Germany had to cede most of former German New Guinea and Kiautschou / Tsingtao to Japan and with an intensifying Sino @-@ German cooperation , relations between Berlin and Tokyo were nearly dead . Under the initiative of Wilhelm Solf , who served as German ambassador to Japan from 1920 to 1928 , cultural exchange was strengthened again , culminating in the re @-@ establishment of the " German @-@ Japanese Society " ( 1926 ) , the founding of the " Japanese @-@ German Cultural Society " ( 1927 ) , and of the " Japanese @-@ German Research Institute " ( 1934 ) .
A temporary strain was put on German @-@ Japanese rapprochement in June 1935 , when the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement was signed between the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany , one of many attempts by Adolf Hitler to improve relations between the two countries . After all , Hitler had already laid down his plans in Mein Kampf , in which he identified England as a promising partner , but also defined Japan as a target of " international Jewry " , and thus a possible ally :
It was not in the interests of Great Britain to have Germany annihilated , but primarily a Jewish interest . And to @-@ day the destruction of Japan would serve British political interests less than it would serve the far @-@ reaching intentions of those who are leading the movement that hopes to establish a Jewish world @-@ empire .
At the time , many Japanese politicians , including Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto ( who was an outspoken critic of an alliance with Nazi Germany ) , were shocked by the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement . Nevertheless , the leaders of the military clique then in control in Tokyo concluded that it was a ruse designed to buy the Nazis time to match the British navy .
= = = = Consolidation of cooperation = = = =
Tokyo 's military leaders proceeded to devise plans assuring the Empire 's supply with resources by eventually creating a " Greater East Asia Co @-@ Prosperity Sphere " . In general , further expansion was envisioned – either northwards , attacking the Soviet Union , a plan which was called Hokushin @-@ ron , or by seizing French , Dutch and / or British colonies to the south , a concept dubbed " Nanshin " . Hitler , on the other hand , never desisted from his plan to conquer new territories in Eastern Europe for Lebensraum ; thus , conflicts with Poland and later with the Soviet Union seemed inevitable .
The first legal consolidation of German @-@ Japanese mutual interests occurred in 1936 , when the two countries then signed the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact , which was directed against the Communist International ( Comintern ) in general and the Soviet Union in particular . After the signing , Nazi Germany 's government also included the Japanese people in their concept of " honorary Aryans " . Yasuhito , Prince Chichibu then attended the 1937 Nuremberg Rally in Germany and met Adolf Hitler , with whom he tried to boost personal relations . Fascist Italy , led by Benito Mussolini joined the pact the same year , initiating the formation of the so @-@ called Axis between Rome , Berlin and Tokyo .
Originally , Germany had a very close relationship with the Chinese nationalist government , even providing military aid and assistance to the Republic of China . Relations soured after the outbreak of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War on 7 July 1937 , and when China shortly thereafter concluded the Sino @-@ Soviet Non @-@ Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union . Eventually Hitler concluded that Japan , not China , would be a more reliable geostrategic partner , notwithstanding the superior Sino @-@ German economic relationship and chose to end his alliance with the Chinese as the price of gaining an alignment with the more modern and powerful Japan . In a May 1938 address to the Reichstag , Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo , the Japanese @-@ occupied puppet state in Manchuria , and renounced the German claims to the former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan . Hitler ordered the end of arm shipments to China , as well as the recall of all German officers attached to the Chinese Army . Despite this move , however , Hitler retained his general perception of neither the Japanese nor the Chinese civilizations being inferior to the German one . In The Political Testament of Adolf Hitler , he wrote :
Pride in one 's own race – and that does not imply contempt for other races – is also a normal and healthy sentiment . I have never regarded the Chinese or the Japanese as being inferior to ourselves . They belong to ancient civilizations , and I admit freely that their past history is superior to our own . They have the right to be proud of their past , just as we have the right to be proud of the civilization to which we belong . Indeed , I believe the more steadfast the Chinese and the Japanese remain in their pride of race , the easier I shall find it to get on with them .
During the late 1930s , though motivated by political and propaganda reasons , several cultural exchanges between Japan and Germany took place . A focus was put on youth exchanges , and numerous mutual visits were conducted ; for instance , in late 1938 , the ship Gneisenau carried a delegation of 30 members of the Hitlerjugend to Tokyo for a study visit .
In 1938 , representative measures for embracing the German @-@ Japanese partnership were sought and the construction of a new Japanese embassy building in Berlin was started . After the preceding embassy had to give way to Hitler 's and Albert Speer 's plans of re @-@ modeling Berlin to the world capital city of Germania , a new and more pompous building was erected in a newly established diplomatic district next to the Tiergarten . It was conceived by Ludwig Moshamer under the supervision of Speer and was placed opposite the Italian embassy , thereby bestowing an architectural emphasis on the Rome @-@ Berlin @-@ Tokyo axis .
Despite tentative plans for a joint German @-@ Japanese approach against the USSR were hinted on in the 1936 Anti @-@ Comintern Pact , the years 1938 and 1939 were already decisive for Japan 's decision to not expand northward ( i.e. , against the USSR ) but to the south . The Empire decisively lost two border fights against the Soviets , the Battles of Lake Khasan and Khalkin Gol , thereby convincing itself that the Imperial Japanese Army , lacking heavy tanks and the like , would be in no position to challenge the Red Army at that time . Nevertheless , Hitler 's anti @-@ Soviet sentiment soon led to further rapprochements with Japan , since he still believed that Japan would join Germany in a future war against the Soviet Union , either actively by invading southeast Siberia , or passively by binding large parts of the Red Army , which was fearing an attack of Japan 's Kwantung Army in Manchukuo , numbering ca . 700 @,@ 000 men as of the late 1930s .
In contrast to his actual plans , Hitler 's concept of stalling – in combination with his frustration with a Japan embroiled in seemingly endless negotiations with the United States , and tending against a war with the USSR – led to a temporary cooperation with the Soviets in the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , which was signed in August 1939 . Neither Japan nor Italy had been informed beforehand of Germany 's pact with the Soviets , demonstrating the constant subliminal mistrust between Nazi Germany and its partners . After all , the pact not only stipulated the division of Poland between both signatories in a secret protocol , but also rendered the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact more or less irrelevant . In order to remove the strain that Hitler 's move had put on German – Japanese relations , the " Agreement for Cultural Cooperation between Japan and Germany " was signed in November 1939 , only a few weeks after Germany and the Soviet Union had concluded their invasion of Poland and Great Britain and France declared war on Nazi Germany .
Over the following year , Japan also proceeded with its expansion plans . The Invasion of French Indochina on 22 September 1940 ( which by then was controlled by the collaborating government of Vichy France ) , and Japan 's ongoing bloody conflict with China , put a severe strain on American @-@ Japanese relations . On 26 July 1940 , the United States had passed the Export Control Act , cutting oil , iron and steel exports to Japan . This containment policy was Washington 's warning to Japan that any further military expansion would result in further sanctions . However , such US moves were interpreted by Japan 's militaristic leaders as signals that they needed to take radical measures to improve the Empire 's situation , thereby driving Japan closer to Germany .
= = = = Formation of the Axis = = = =
With Nazi Germany not only having conquered most of continental Europe including France , but also maintaining the impression of a Britain facing imminent defeat , Tokyo interpreted the situation in Europe as proof of a fundamental and fatal weakness in western democracies . Japan 's leadership concluded that the current state of affairs had to be exploited and subsequently started to seek even closer cooperation with Berlin . Hitler , for his part , not only feared a lasting stalemate with Britain , but also had started planning an invasion of the Soviet Union . These circumstances , together with a shortage in raw materials and food , increased Berlin 's interest in a stronger alliance with Japan . German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop was sent to negotiate a new treaty with Japan , whose relationships with Germany and Italy , the three soon to be called " Axis powers " , were cemented with the Tripartite Pact of 27 September 1940 .
The purpose of the Pact , directed against an unnamed power presumed to be the United States , was to deter that power from supporting Britain , thereby not only strengthening Germany 's and Italy 's cause in the North African Campaign and the Mediterranean theatre , but also weakening British colonies in South @-@ East Asia in advance of a Japanese invasion . The treaty stated that the three countries would respect each other 's " leadership " in their respective spheres of influence , and would assist each other if attacked by an outside party . However , already @-@ ongoing conflicts , as of the signing of the Pact , were explicitly excluded . With this defensive terminology , aggression on the part of a member state toward a non @-@ member state would result in no obligations under the Pact . These limitations can be interpreted as a symptom of the German @-@ Japanese relations of that time being driven by mutual self @-@ interest , underpinned by the shared militarist , expansionist and nationalistic ideologies of their respective governments .
Another decisive limitation in the German @-@ Japanese alliance were the fundamental differences between the two nation 's policies towards Jews . With Nazi Germany 's well @-@ known attitude being extreme Antisemitism , Japan refrained from adopting any similar posture . On 31 December 1940 , Japanese foreign minister Yōsuke Matsuoka , a strong proponent of the Tripartite Pact , told a group of Jewish businessmen :
I am the man responsible for the alliance with Hitler , but nowhere have I promised that we would carry out his anti @-@ Semitic policies in Japan . This is not simply my personal opinion , it is the opinion of Japan , and I have no compunction about announcing it to the world .
On a similar note , both countries would continue to conceal any war crimes committed by the other side for the remainder of the war . The Holocaust was systematically concealed by the leadership in Tokyo , just as Japanese war crimes , e.g. the situation in China , were kept secret from the German public . An example would be the atrocities committed by the Japanese Army in Nanking in 1937 , which were denounced by German industrialist John Rabe . Subsequently , the German leadership ordered Rabe back to Berlin , confiscating all his reports and prohibiting any further discussion of the topic .
After the signing of the Tripartite Pact , mutual visits of political and military nature increased . After German ace and parachute expert Ernst Udet visited Japan in 1939 to inspect the Japanese aerial forces , reporting to Hermann Göring that " Japanese flyers , though brave and willing , are no sky @-@ beaters " , General Tomoyuki Yamashita was given the job of reorganizing the Japanese Air Arm in late 1940 . For this purpose , Yamashita arrived in Berlin in January 1941 , staying almost six months . He inspected the broken Maginot Line and German fortifications on the French coast , watched German flyers in training , and even flew in a raid over Britain after decorating Hermann Göring , head of the German Luftwaffe , with the Japanese " Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun " . General Yamashita also met and talked with Hitler , on whom he commented ,
I felt , that in the mind of Hitler there was much of spiritual matters , transcending material plans . When I met the Führer he said that since boyhood he had been attracted by Japan . He read carefully reports of Japan 's victory over Russia when he was only 17 years old and was impressed by Japan 's astonishing strength .
According to Yamashita , Hitler promised to remember Japan in his will , by instructing the Germans " to bind themselves eternally to the Japanese spirit . " In fact , General Yamashita was so excited that he said : " In a short time , something great will happen . You just watch and wait . " Returning home , the Japanese delegation was accompanied by more than 250 German technicians , engineers and instructors . Soon , Japan 's Air Force was among the most powerful in the world .
On 11 November 1940 , German – Japanese relations , as well as Japan 's plans to expand southwards into South @-@ East Asia , were decisively bolstered when the crew of the German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis boarded the British cargo ship SS Automedon . Fifteen bags of Top Secret mail for the British Far East Command were found , including naval intelligence reports containing the latest assessment of the Japanese Empire 's military strength in the Far East , along with details of Royal Air Force units , naval strength , and notes on Singapore 's defences . It painted a gloomy picture of British land and naval capabilities in the Far East , and declared that Britain was too weak to risk war with Japan . The mail reached the German embassy in Tokyo on 5 December , and was then hand @-@ carried to Berlin via the Trans @-@ Siberian railway . On the initiative of the German naval attaché Paul Wenneker , a copy was given to the Japanese ; it provided valuable intelligence prior to their commencing hostilities against the Western Powers . The captain of the Atlantis , Bernhard Rogge , was rewarded for this with an ornate katana Samurai sword ; the only other Germans so honored were Hermann Göring and Field Marshal Erwin Rommel .
After reading the captured documents , on 7 January 1941 Japanese Admiral Yamamoto wrote to the Naval Minister asking whether , if Japan knocked out America , the remaining British and Dutch forces would be suitably weakened for the Japanese to deliver a deathblow . Thereby , Nanshin @-@ ron , the concept of the Japanese Navy conducting a southern campaign quickly matured and gained further proponents .
= = = = Stalling coordination of joint war plans = = = =
Hitler on the other hand was concluding the preparations for " Operation Barbarossa " , the invasion of the Soviet Union . In order to directly or indirectly support his imminent eastward strike , the Führer had repeatedly suggested to Japan that it reconsider plans for an attack on the Soviet Far East throughout 1940 and 1941 . In February 1941 , as a result of Hitler 's insistence , General Oshima returned to Berlin as Ambassador . On 5 March 1941 , Wilhelm Keitel , chief of OKW issued " Basic Order Number 24 regarding Collaboration with Japan " :
1 . It must be the aim of the collaboration based on the Three Power Pact to induce Japan , as soon as possible , to take active measures in the Far East . Strong British forces will thereby be tied down , and the center of gravity of the interests of the United States of America will be diverted to the Pacific . The sooner she intervenes , the greater will be the prospects of success for Japan in view of the still undeveloped preparedness for war on the part of her adversaries . The Barbarossa operation will create particularly favorable political and military prerequisites for this .
2 . To prepare the way for the collaboration it is essential to strengthen the Japanese military potential with all means available . For this purpose the High Commands of the branches of the Armed Forces will comply in a comprehensive and generous manner with Japanese desires for information regarding German war and combat experience , and for assistance in military economics and in technical matters . Reciprocity is desirable , but this factor should not stand in the way of negotiations . Priority should naturally be given to those Japanese requests which would have the most immediate application in waging war . In special cases the Führer reserves the decisions for himself .
3 . The harmonizing of the operational plans of the two parties is the responsibility of the Naval High Command . This will be subject to the following guiding principles :
a . The common aim of the conduct of war is to be stressed as forcing England to the ground quickly and thereby keeping the United States out of the war . Beyond this Germany has no political , military , or economic interests in the Far East which would give occasion for any reservations with regard to Japanese intentions .
b . The great successes achieved by Germany in mercantile warfare make it appear particularly suitable to employ strong Japanese forces for the same purpose . In this connection every opportunity to support German mercantile warfare must be exploited .
c . The raw material situation of the pact powers demands that Japan should acquire possession of those territories which it needs for the continuation of the war , especially if the United States intervenes . Rubber shipments must be carried out even after the entry of Japan into the war , since they are of vital importance to Germany .
d . The seizure of Singapore as the key British position in the Far East would mean a decisive success for the entire conduct of war of the three powers . In addition , attacks on other systems of bases of British naval power – extending to those of American naval power only if the entry of the United States into the war cannot be prevented – will result in weakening the enemy 's system of power in that region and also , just like the attack on sea communications , in tying down substantial forces of all kinds ( e.g. Australia ) . A date for the beginning of operational discussions cannot yet be fixed .
4 . In the military commissions to be formed in accordance with the Tripartite Pact , only such questions are to be dealt with as equally concern the three participating powers . These will include primarily the problems of economic warfare . The working out of the details is the responsibility of the main commission .with the co @-@ operation of the Armed Forces High Command .
5 . The Japanese must not be given any intimation of the Barbarossa operations .
On 18 March 1941 , at a conference attended by Hitler , Alfred Jodl , Wilhelm Keitel and Erich Raeder , Admiral Raeder stated :
Japan must take steps to seize Singapore as soon as possible , since the opportunity will never again be as favorable ( tie @-@ up of the whole English Meet ; unpreparedness of U.S.A. for war against Japan ; inferiority of the United States Pacific Fleet in comparison with the Japanese ) . Japan is indeed making preparations for this action ; but according to all declarations made by Japanese officers , she will only carry it out if Germany proceeds to land in England . Germany must , therefore , concentrate all her efforts on spurring Japan to act immediately . If Japan has Singapore , all other East Asiatic questions regarding the U.S.A. and England are thereby solved ( Guam , Philippines , Borneo , Dutch East Indies ) . Japan wishes , if possible , to avoid war against the U.S.A. She can do so if she determinedly takes Singapore as soon as possible .
In talks involving Hitler , his foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop , his Japanese counterpart at that time , Yōsuke Matsuoka , as well as Berlin 's and Tokyo 's respective ambassadors , Eugen Ott and Hiroshi Ōshima , the German side then broadly hinted at , but never openly asked for , either invading the Soviet Union from the east or attacking Britain 's colonies in South @-@ East Asia , thereby preoccupying and diverting the British Empire away from Europe and thus somewhat covering Germany 's back . Although Germany would have clearly favored Japan 's attacking the USSR , exchanges between the two allies were always kept overly formal and indirect , as shown in the following statement by Hitler to ambassador Ōshima ( 2 June 1941 ) :
It would , of course , be up to Japan to act as it saw fit , but Japan 's cooperation in the fight against the Soviet Union would be welcomed if the [ Japanese ] advance to the south should run into difficulty because of supply and equipment .
Matsuoka , Ōshima and parts of the Japanese Imperial Army were proponents of Hokushin @-@ ron , Japan 's go @-@ north strategy aiming for a coordinated attack with Germany against the USSR and seizing East Siberia . But the Japanese army @-@ dominated military leadership , namely persons like minister of war Hideki Tōjō , were constantly pressured by the Japanese Imperial Navy and , thus , a strong tendency towards " Nanshin " existed already in 1940 , meaning to go south and exploit the weakened European powers by occupying their resource @-@ rich colonies in South @-@ East Asia . In order to secure Japan 's back while expanding southwards and as a Soviet effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany , the Soviet – Japanese Neutrality Pact was signed in Moscow on 13 April 1941 by Matsuoka on his return trip from a visit to Berlin . Hitler , who was not informed in advance by the Japanese and considering the pact a ruse to stall , misinterpreted the diplomatic situation and thought that his attack on the USSR would bring a tremendous relief for Japan in East Asia and thereby a much stronger threat to American activities through Japanese interventions . As a consequence , Nazi Germany pressed forward with Operation Barbarossa , its attack on the Soviet Union , which started two months later on 22 June without any specific warning to its Axis partners .
Joseph Stalin had little faith in Japan 's commitment to neutrality even before the German attack , but he felt that the pact was important for its political symbolism , to reinforce a public affection for Germany . From Japan 's point of view the attack on Russia very nearly ruptured the Tripartite Pact on which the Empire was depending for Germany 's aid in maintaining good relations with Moscow so as to preclude any threat from Siberia . Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe felt betrayed because the Germans clearly trusted their Axis allies too little to warn them of Barbarossa , even though he had feared the worst since receiving an April report from Ōshima in Berlin that " Germany is confident she can defeat Russia and she is preparing to fight at any moment . " Foreign minister Matsuoka on the other hand vividly tried to convince the Emperor , the cabinet as well as the army staff of an immediate attack on the Soviet Union . However , his colleagues rejected any such proposal , even regarding him as " Hitler 's office boy " by now and pointed out to the fact that the Japanese army , with its light and medium tanks , had no intention of taking on Soviet tanks and aircraft until they could be certain that the Wehrmacht had smashed the Red Army to the brink of defeat .
Subsequently , Konoe removed Matsuoka from his cabinet and stepped up Japan 's negotiations with the US again , which still failed over the China and Indochina issues , however , and the American demand to Japan to withdraw from the Tripartite Pact in anticipation of any settlement . Without any perspective with respect to Washington , Matsuoka felt that his government had to reassure Germany of its loyalty to the pact . In Berlin , Ōshima was ordered to convey to the German foreign minister Ribbentrop that the " Japanese government have decided to secure ' points d 'appui ' in French Indochina to enable further to strengthen her pressure on Great Britain and the United States of America , " and to present this as a " valuable contribution to the common front " by promising that " We Japanese are not going to sit on the fence while you Germans fight the Russians . "
Over the first months , Germany 's advances in Soviet Russia were spectacular and Stalin 's need to transfer troops currently protecting South @-@ East Siberia from a potential Japanese attack to the future defense of Moscow grew . Japan 's Kwantung Army in Manchuria was constantly kept in manoeuvres and , in talks with German foreign minister Ribbentrop , ambassador Oshima in Berlin repeatedly hinted at an " imminent Japanese attack " against the USSR . In fact , however , the leadership in Tokyo at this time had in no way changed its mind and these actions were merely concerted to create the illusion of an eastern threat to the Soviet Union in an effort to bind its Siberian divisions . Unknown to Japan and Germany , however , Richard Sorge , a Soviet spy disguised as a German journalist working for Eugen Ott , the German ambassador in Tokyo , advised the Red Army on 14 September 1941 , that the Japanese were not going to attack the Soviet Union until :
Moscow was captured
the size of the Kwantung Army was three times that of the Soviet Union 's Far Eastern forces
a civil war had started in Siberia .
Toward the end of September 1941 , Sorge transmitted information that Japan would not initiate hostilities against the USSR in the East , thereby freeing Red Army divisions stationed in Siberia for the defence of Moscow . In October 1941 Sorge was unmasked and arrested by the Japanese . Apparently , he was entirely trusted by the German ambassador Eugen Ott , and was allowed access to top secret cables from Berlin in the embassy in Tokyo . Eventually , this involvement would lead to Heinrich Georg Stahmer replacing Ott in January 1943 . Sorge on the other hand would be executed in November 1944 and elevated to a national hero in the Soviet Union .
= = = = Japan enters World War II = = = =
In September 1941 Japan began its southward expansion by expanding its military presence in Indochina ( " securing ' points d 'appui ' " ) and decisively increased the number of stationed personnel and planes . This provoked the United States , the United Kingdom , and other Western governments to freeze Japanese assets , while the US ( which supplied 80 percent of Japan 's oil ) responded by placing a complete oil embargo on the Japanese Empire . As a result , Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in South @-@ East Asia and its prosecution of the war against China , or seizing the natural resources it needed by force . The Japanese military did not consider the former an option as attacking Soviet Russia instead of expanding into South Asia had become a more and more unpopular choice since Japan 's humiliating defeat at the Battle of Khalkin Gol in 1939 and the final rejection of any near @-@ term action in Siberia shortly after Germany began its invasion of the USSR . Moreover , many officers considered America 's oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war . With the harsh oil sanctions imposed by the United States , the Japanese leadership was now even more determined to remain in China . Germany had refused to sell Japan the blueprints to make synthetic oil , so Japan 's only hope for oil was to invade the Dutch East Indies , which would result in war with the United States and Britain . To succeed the Japanese had to neutralize the powerful United States Pacific Fleet , so they could prevent it from interfering with future Japanese movements in South @-@ East Asia and negotiate peace terms from a strong hand .
On 25 November 1941 , Germany tried to further solidify the alliance against Soviet Russia by officially reviving the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact of 1936 , now joined by additional signatories , Hungary and Romania . However , with the Soviet troops around Moscow now being reinforced by East Siberian divisions , Germany 's offensive substantially slowed with the onset of the Russian winter in November and December 1941 . In the face of his failing Blitzkrieg tactics , Hitler 's confidence in a successful and swift conclusion of the war diminished , especially with a US @-@ supported Britain being a constant threat in the Reich 's western front . Furthermore , it was evident that the " neutrality " which the US had superficially maintained to that point would soon change to an open and unlimited support of Britain against Germany . Hitler thus welcomed Japan 's sudden entry into the war with its air raid on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and its subsequent declaration of war on the United States and Britain , just as the German army suffered its first military defeat at the gates of Moscow . Upon learning of Japan 's successful attack , Hitler even became euphoric , stating : " With such a capable ally we cannot lose this war . " Preceding Japan 's attack were numerous communiqués between Berlin and Tokyo . The respective ambassadors Ott and Ōshima tried to draft an amendment to the Tripartite Pact , in which Germany , Japan and Italy should pledge each other 's allegiance in the case one signatory is attacked by – or attacks – the United States . Although the protocol was finished in time , it would not be formally signed by Germany until four days after the raid on Pearl Harbor . Also among the communiqués was another definitive Japanese rejection of any war plans against Russia :
In case Germany demands that we participate in the war against the Soviet Union , we will respond that we do not intend to join the war for the time being . If this should lead to a situation whereby Germany will delay her entry into the war against the United States , it cannot be helped .
Nevertheless , publicly the German leadership applauded their new ally and ambassador Ōshima became one of only eight recipients of the Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle in Gold , which was awarded by Hitler himself , who reportedly said :
You gave the right declaration of war . This method is the only proper one . Japan pursued it formerly and it corresponds with his own system , that is , to negotiate as long as possible . But if one sees that the other is interested only in putting one off , in shaming and humiliating one , and is not willing to come to an agreement , then one should strike as hard as possible , and not waste time declaring war .
Although the amendment to the Tripartite Pact was not yet in force , Hitler chose to declare war on the United States and ordered the Reichstag , along with Italy , to do so on 11 December 1941 , three days after the United States ' declaration of war on the Empire of Japan . His hopes that , despite the previous rejections , Japan would reciprocally attack the Soviet Union , were not realized , as Japan stuck to its Nanshin strategy of going south , not north , and would continue to maintain an uneasy peace with the Soviet Union . Nevertheless , Germany 's declaration of war further solidified German – Japanese relations and showed Germany 's solidarity with Japan , which was now encouraged to cooperate against the British . To some degree , Japan 's actions in South @-@ East Asia and the Pacific in the months after Pearl Harbor , including the sinking of the HMS Prince of Wales and the HMS Repulse , the occupation of the Crown Colonies of Singapore , Hong Kong , and British Burma , and the air raids on Australia , were a tremendous blow to the United Kingdom 's war effort and preoccupied the Allies , shifting British ( including Australian ) and American assets away from the Battle of the Atlantic and the North African Campaign against Germany to Asia and the Pacific against Japan . In this context , sizeable forces of the British Empire were withdrawn from North Africa to the Pacific theatre with their replacements being only relatively inexperienced and thinly spread divisions . Taking advantage of this situation , Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps successfully attacked only six weeks after Pearl Harbor , eventually pushing the allied lines as far east as El Alamein .
Until the attack on the Soviet Union , Germany and Japan were able to exchange materials and personnel using the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway . Afterwards , submarines had to be sent on so @-@ called " Yanagi " ( Willow ) – missions , since the American and British navies rendered the high seas too dangerous for Axis surface cargo ships . However , given the limited capacities of submarines , eyes were soon focused directly on the Mediterranean , the Middle East and British India , all vital to the British war effort . In the long run , Germany and Japan envisioned a partnered linkage running across the British @-@ held Indian subcontinent that would allow for the transfer of weaponry and resources as well as potential joint military operations . After all , the choice of potential trading partners was very limited during the war and Germany was anxious for rubber and precious metals , while the Japanese sought industrial products , technical equipment , and chemical goods . By August 1942 the German advances in North Africa rendered an offensive against Alexandria and the Suez Canal feasible , which , in turn , had the potential of enabling maritime trade between Europe and Japan through the Indian Ocean . On the other hand , in the face of its defeat at the Battle of Midway in June 1942 with the loss of four aircraft carriers , the Japanese Navy decided to pursue all possibilities of gaining additional resources to quickly rebuild its forces . As a consequence , Ambassador Ōshima in Berlin was ordered to submit an extensive " wish list " requesting the purchase of vast amounts of steel and aluminium to be shipped from Germany to Japan . German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop quickly dismissed Tokyo 's proposal , since those resources were vital for Germany 's own industry . However , in order to gain Japanese backing for a new German @-@ Japanese trade treaty , which should also secure the rights of German companies in South @-@ East Asia , he asked Hitler to at least partially agree upon the Japanese demands . It took another five months of arguing over the Reichsmark @-@ Yen @-@ exchange rate and additional talks with the third signatory , the Italian government , until the " Treaty on Economic Cooperation " was signed on 20 January 1943 .
Despite this treaty , the envisioned German @-@ Japanese economic relations were never able to grow beyond mostly propagandistic status . The British kept control of the Suez Canal and submarines with very small cargo capability remained the main method of contact . With the loss of North Africa and the heavy defeat at Stalingrad , Germany was in a defensive posture by early 1943 , and never regained the initiative .
Japan was being outproduced in carriers and was unable to launch any offensives after its defeat at Midway in June 1942 . It was overextended and could not even feed its garrisons on islands across the Pacific . Tokyo 's plan of conquering the Solomons at Australia 's doorstep turned into a continuous retreat for the Japanese of which the defeat on Guadalcanal in early 1943 marked the beginning . Japan 's invasion of India had been halted at Imphal and Kohima , rendering impossible any joint operations against India .
With submarines remaining practically the only link between Nazi @-@ controlled Europe and Japan , trade was soon focused on strategic goods such as technical plans and weapon templates . Only 20 – 40 % of goods managed to reach either destination and merely 96 persons travelled by submarine from Europe to Japan and 89 vice versa during the war as only six submarines succeeded in their attempts of the trans @-@ oceanic voyage : I @-@ 30 ( April 1942 ) , I @-@ 8 ( June 1943 ) , I @-@ 34 ( October 1943 ) , I @-@ 29 ( December 1943 ) , I @-@ 52 ( March 1944 ) , and the German submarine U @-@ 511 ( August 1943 ) . Before I @-@ 29 embarked on her voyage to German @-@ occupied France in December 1943 , she had rendezvoused with the German submarine U @-@ 180 during an earlier mission to the Indian Ocean . During this meeting on 28 April 1943 , Indian freedom fighter Subhas Chandra Bose transferred to I @-@ 29 , thereby becoming the only civilian exchange between two submarines of two different navies in World War II . U @-@ 234 on the other hand is one of the most popular examples of an aborted Yanagi mission in May 1945 . Amongst others , her cargo included examples of the newest electric torpedoes , one crated Me 262 jet aircraft , a Henschel Hs 293 glide bomb , and 560 kg of uranium oxide . Whether the uranium was weapons @-@ grade material has not yet been clarified , however .
On rare occasions , German surface ships were able to reach Japan as well . These included auxiliary cruisers Michel and Thor , which were brought to Yokohama after the Kriegsmarine chiefs realized in the late 1942 that it would not practical for them to return to Germany @-@ controlled European ports . German supply ships ( Uckermark ) and foreign ships captured by German merchant raiders would come to Japanese ports as well .
In the face of their failing war plans , Japanese and German representatives more and more began to deceive each other at tactical briefings by exaggerating minor victories and deemphasizing losses . In several talks in spring and summer 1943 between Generaloberst Alfred Jodl and the Japanese naval attaché in Berlin , Vice Admiral Naokuni Nomura , Jodl downplayed the afore described defeats of the German Army , e.g. by claiming the Soviet offensive would soon run out of steam and that " anywhere the Wehrmacht can be sent on land , it is sure of its untertaking , but where it has to be taken over sea , it becomes somewhat more difficult . " Japan , on the other hand , not only evaded any disclosure of its true strategic position in the Pacific , but also declined any interference in American shipments being unloaded at Vladivostok and large amounts of men and material being transported from East Siberia to the German front in the west . Being forced to watch the continued reinforcement of Soviet troops from the east without any Japanese intervention was a thorn in Hitler 's flesh , especially considering Japan 's apparent ignorance with respect to the recent Casablanca Conference at which the Allies declared only to accept the unconditional surrenders of the Axis nations . During a private briefing on 5 March 1943 , Hitler remarked :
They lie right to your face and in the end all their depictions are calculated on something which turns out to be a deceit afterwards !
As the war progressed and Germany began to retreat further , Japanese ambassador Ōshima never wavered in his confidence that Germany would emerge victorious . However , in March 1945 he reported to Tokyo on the " danger of Berlin becoming a battlefield " and revealing a fear " that the abandonment of Berlin may take place another month " . On 13 April , he met with Ribbentrop — for the last time , it turned out — and vowed to stand with the leaders of the Third Reich in their hour of crisis but had to leave Berlin at once by Hitler 's direct order . On 7 and 8 May 1945 , as the German government surrendered to the Allied powers , Ōshima and his staff were taken into custody and brought to the United States . Now fighting an even more hopeless war , the Japanese government immediately denounced the German surrender as an act of treason and interned the few German individuals as well as confiscated all German property ( such as submarines ) in Japanese territory at the time . Four months later , on 2 September , Japan had to sign its own surrender documents .
= = = = Alleged German @-@ Japanese long @-@ term conspiracy = = = =
After the Second World War was officially concluded with the capitulation of the Empire of Japan , plans for trying the major German and Japanese war criminals were quickly implemented in 1946 . While Japanese officials had to face the Tokyo Trials , major German war crimes were dealt with at the Nuremberg Trials . Here it was the goal of the Allied prosecutors to portray the limited cooperation between the Third Reich and Imperial Japan as a long @-@ planned conspiracy to divide the world among the two Axis @-@ partners and thereby delivering just another demonstration of the common viciousness expressed by alleged joint long @-@ term war plans .
The Nazi plans of aggression called for use of Asiatic allies and they found among the Japanese men of kindred mind and purpose . They were brothers , under the skin .
According to modern historic research , however , such a conspiracy did not exist and is considered Allied propaganda . Although there was a limited and cautious military cooperation between Japan and Germany during the Second World War , no documents corroborating any long @-@ term planning or real coordination of military operations of both powers exist .
= = = Post @-@ WWII developments = = =
= = = = Rebuilding relations and new common interests = = = =
After their defeat in World War II , both Japan and Germany were occupied . Japan regained its sovereignty with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952 and joined the United Nations in 1956 . Germany was split into two states . It was agreed in 1951 to take up diplomatic relations between Japan and the Federal Republic of ( West Germany ) again . The bilateral diplomatic ties between West Germany and Japan were fully restored in 1955 ; between East Germany and Japan in 1973 , the year both German states became UN @-@ members .
Beginning in the 1950s , Japanese companies sought to acquire needed raw materials like steel and chemical products in the German Ruhr region , with a small Japanese business community in Düsseldorf . In 1974 , West Germany and Japan signed an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in science and technology , re @-@ intensifying joint scientific endeavours and technological exchange . The accord resulted in numerous projects , generally focused on marine research and geosciences , life sciences and environmental research . Additionally , youth exchange programs were launched , including a " Youth Summit " held annually since 1974 .
German @-@ Japanese political dealings were enlarged with both countries taking part in the creation of the so @-@ called Group of Six , or simply " G6 " , together with the US , the UK , France and Italy in 1975 as a response to the 1973 oil crisis . The G6 was soon expanded by Canada and later Russia , with G6- , G7- , and later G8- , summits being held annually since then .
Over the following years , institutions , such as in 1985 the " Japanese – German Center " ( JDZB ) in Berlin and in 1988 the " German Institute for Japanese Studies " ( DIJ ) in Tokyo , were founded to further contribute to the academic and scientific exchange between Japan and Germany .
Around the mid @-@ 1980s , German and Japanese representatives decided to rebuild the old Japanese embassy in Berlin from 1938 . Its remains had remained unused after the building was largely destroyed during World War II . In addition to the original complex , several changes and additions were made until 2000 , like moving the main entrance to the Hiroshima Street , which was named in honour of the Japanese city , and the creation of a traditional Japanese Garden .
Post @-@ war relations between Japan and both Germanies , as well as with unified Germany since 1990 , have generally focused on economic and business questions . Germany , dedicated to free trade , continues to be Japan ’ s largest trading partner within Europe . This general posture is also reflected in the so @-@ called " 7 pillars of cooperation " agreed on by Foreign Minister of Japan Yōhei Kōno and Foreign Minister of Germany Joschka Fischer on 30 October 2000 :
Pillar 1 : Contribution for peace and stability of the international community
Pillar 2 : Consolidation of economic and trade relationships , under benefit of globalization impulses .
Pillar 3 : Contribution for a solution of global problems and social duties and responsibilities .
Pillar 4 : Contribution for the stability in the regions ( Korean Peninsula , People 's Republic of China , former Yugoslavia , Russia , South Asia , new independent states , Middle East and Gulf region , Middle and South America , East Timor , Africa )
Pillar 5 : Further constitution of faithful political relations between Japan and Germany
Pillar 6 : Promotion of economic relations
Pillar 7 : Promotion of mutual understanding and the cultural relations
In 2000 , bilateral cultural exchange culminated in the " Japan in Germany " year , which was then followed by the " Germany in Japan " year in 2005 / 2006 . Also in 2005 , the annual German Film Festival in Tokyo was brought into being .
In 2004 , German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan , the promotion of economic exchange activities , youth and sports exchanges as well as exchanges and cooperation in science , technology and academic fields .
= = = = Current relations = = = =
In the late 1990s and early 2000s , Germany and Japan , being the United Nations ' second and third largest funders respectively , demanded a reform of the United Nations Security Council and an increase of the number of its permanent members . For this purpose both nations organized themselves together with Brazil and India to form the so @-@ called " G4 nations " . On 21 September 2004 , the G4 issued a joint statement mutually backing each other 's claim to permanent seats , together with two African countries . This proposal has found opposition in a group of countries called Uniting for Consensus . In January 2006 , Japan announced that it would not support putting the G4 resolution back on the table and was working on a resolution of its own .
Certain inefficiencies with respect to the bilateral cooperation between Germany and Japan were also reflected in 2005 , when former Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa wrote in a commemoration to the 20th anniversary of the Japanese @-@ German Center in Berlin that
the German @-@ Japanese relations are generally good and there are no particular bilateral problems . This results in a certain indifference , which may be considered a problem by now .
Nevertheless , as of 2008 , Japan still was Germany 's second largest trading partner in Asia after China . In 2006 , German imports from Japan totaled € 15 @.@ 6 billion and German exports to Japan € 14 @.@ 2 billion ( 15 @.@ 4 % and 9 % more than the previous year , respectively ) . In 2008 , however , Japanese exports and imports to and from the European Union fell by 7 @.@ 8 and 4 @.@ 8 % after growing by 5 @.@ 8 % in 2007 due to the global financial crisis . Bilateral trade between Germany and Japan also shrank in 2008 , with imports from Japan having dropped by 6 @.@ 6 % and German exports to Japan having declined by 5 @.@ 5 % . Despite Japan having remained Germany 's principal trading partner in Asia after China in 2008 , measured in terms of total German foreign trade , Japan ’ s share of both exports and imports is relatively low and falls well short of the potential between the world ’ s third- and fifth @-@ largest economies .
Unaffected by any stagnating German @-@ Japanese trade relations , the Japanese community in Düsseldorf , home to Europe 's largest Japantown , is growing again after a decline in the 1980s and 1990s . In 2008 , over 8000 Japanese lived in the Düsseldorf area , which features a Japanese school , two kindergartens , three libraries and numerous Japanese clubs . Moreover , over 200 Japanese companies are active in that region , creating over 20 @,@ 000 jobs . The Japanese community is widely considered a great asset for Düsseldorf .
On 14 and 15 January 2010 , German foreign minister Guido Westerwelle conducted his personal inaugural visit to Japan , focusing the talks with his Japanese counterpart , Katsuya Okada , on both nation 's bilateral relations and global issues . Westerwelle emphasized , that
We want to make our joint contribution towards ensuring that this decade is a decade of disarmament – not a decade of armament
and both ministers instructed their Ministries to draw up disarmament initiatives and strategies which Berlin and Tokyo can present to the international community together . Especially with regard to Iran 's nuclear program , it was also stressed that Japan and Germany , both technically capable of and yet refraining from possessing any ABC weapons , should assume a leading role in realizing a world free of nuclear weapons and that international sanctions are considered to be an appropriate instrument of pressure . Furthermore , Westerwelle and Okada agreed to enhance cooperation in Afghanistan and to step up the stagnating bilateral trade between both countries . The visit was concluded in talks with Japan 's Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama , before which the German foreign minister visited the famous Meiji Shrine in the heart of Tokyo .
On Friday 11 March 2011 , the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , the most powerful known earthquake to hit Japan at the time , and one of the five most powerful recorded earthquakes of which Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said , " In the 65 years after the end of World War II , this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan . " hit Honshu . The earthquake and the resulting tsunami not only devastated wide coastal areas in Miyagi Prefecture but also caused the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster triggering a widespread permanent evacuation surrounding the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant . German chancellor Angela Merkel immediately expressed her deepest sympathy to all those affected and promised Japan any assistance it would call for . As a consequence rescue specialists from the Technisches Hilfswerk as well as a scout team of I.S.A.R. Germany ( International Search and Rescue ) were sent to Japan , however parts of the German personnel had to be recalled due to radiation danger near the damaged power plant . Furthermore , the German Aerospace Center provided TerraSAR @-@ X- and RapidEye @-@ satellite imagery of the affected area . In the days after the disaster , numerous flowers , candles and paper cranes were placed in front of the Japanese embassy in Berlin by compassionates , including leading German politicians . Though never materialised , additional proposals for aid included sending special units of the German Bundeswehr to Japan , as the German Armed Forces ' decontamination equipment belongs to the most sophisticated in the world .
On 2 April 2011 , German Foreign Minister Westerwelle visited Tokyo on an Asia voyage , again offering Japan " all help , where it is needed " to recover from the tsunami and subsequent nuclear disaster of the previous month . Westerwelle also emphasised the importance of making progress with a free trade agreement between Japan and the European Union in order to accelerate the recovery of the Japanese economy . Together with his German counterpart , Japanese foreign minister Takeaki Matsumoto also addressed potential new fields of cooperation between Tokyo and Berlin with respect to a reform of the United Nations Security Council .
= = = English = = =
Akira , Kudo . ( 1998 ) Japanese @-@ German Business Relations : Co @-@ operation and Rivalry in the Interwar Period ( Nissan Institute / Routledge Japanese Studies ) ( 1998 )
Baskett , Michael ( 2009 ) . " All Beautiful Fascists ? : Axis Film Culture in Imperial Japan " in The Culture of Japanese Fascism , ed . Alan Tansman . Durham : Duke University Press. pp. 212 – 234 . ISBN 0822344521
Martin , Bernd ( 2005 ) . Japan and Germany in the Modern World . Berghahn Books .
Hübner , Stefan ( 2012 ) , " National Socialist Foreign Policy and Press Instructions , 1933 @-@ 1939 : Aims and Ways of Coverage Manipulation based on the Example of East Asia , " International History Review 34 # 2 pp 271 – 291 @.@ online
Katada , Saori N. , Hanns Maull and Takashi Inoguchi , eds . Global Governance : Germany and Japan in the International System ( 2004 )
Presseisen , Ernst L. ( 1958 ) Germany and Japan – A Study in Totalitarian Diplomacy 1933 – 1941 . The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff .
Spang , Christian W. and Rolf @-@ Harald Wippich ( eds . ) . ( 2006 ) Japanese – German Relations , 1895 – 1945 . War , Diplomacy and Public Opinion ( ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 34248 @-@ 1 ) . London : Routledge. excerpt and text search
Warner , Geoffrey . " From Pearl Harbour to Stalingrad : Germany and its Allies in 1942 , " International Affairs , April 1978 , Vol . 54 Issue 2 , pp 282 – 92
Weinberg , Gerhard L. A World at Arms ( 2nd ed 2013 ) global history of WW2 by leading expert on German diplomacy excerpt and text search
= = = Other languages = = =
Hübner , Stefan ( 2009 ) Hitler und Ostasien , 1904 bis 1933 . Die Entwicklung von Hitlers Japan- und Chinabild vom Russisch @-@ Japanischen Krieg bis zur " Machtergreifung " [ Hitler and East Asia , 1904 to 1933 . The Development of Hitler ’ s Image of Japan and China from the Russo @-@ Japanese War to the " Coming to Power " ] , in OAG @-@ Notizen 9 / 2009 , 22 – 41 @.@ https : / / www.unibw.de / geschichte / neueste / stefanhuebner / oagarticle / at _ download / file
Ishii , Shiro et al . ( ed . ) : Fast wie mein eigen Vaterland : Briefe aus Japan 1886 – 1889 . [ Almost as my own Motherland : Letters from Japan ] . München : Iudicium 1995 .
Kreiner , Josef ( ed . ) . ( 1984 ) Deutschland – Japan . Historische Kontakte [ Germany – Japan . Historical Contacts ] . Bonn : Bouvier .
Kreiner , Josef ( ed . ) . ( 1986 ) Japan und die Mittelmächte im Ersten Weltkrieg und in den zwanziger Jahren [ Japan and the Central Powers in World War I and the 1920s ] . Bonn : Bouvier .
Kreiner , Josef and Regine Mathias ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) Deutschland – Japan in der Zwischenkriegszeit [ Germany – Japan in the inter @-@ war period ] . Bonn : Bouvier .
Pantzer , Peter und Saaler , Sven : Japanische Impressionen eines Kaiserlichen Gesandten . Karl von Eisendecher im Japan der Meiji @-@ Zeit / 明治初期の日本 － ドイツ外交官アイゼンデッヒャー公使の写真帖より ( A German Diplomat in Meiji Japan : Karl von Eisendecher . German / Japanese ) . München : Iudicium , 2007 .
Martin , Bernd and Gerhard Krebs ( eds . ) . ( 1994 ) Formierung und Fall der Achse Berlin – Tôkyô [ Construction and Fall of the Berlin – Tôkyô Axis ] . Munich : Iudicium .
Martin , Bernd . ( 2001 ) Deutschland und Japan im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1940 – 1945 , Vom Angriff auf Pearl Harbor bis zu deutschen Kapitulation . Nikol Verlagsgesellschaft mdH & Co . KG , Hamburg .
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= Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire =
The territory of Crimea , previously controlled by the Crimean Khanate , was annexed by the Russian Empire on 19 April [ O.S. 8 April ] 1783 . The period before the annexation was marked by Russian interference in Crimean affairs , a series of revolts by Crimean Tatars , and Ottoman ambivalence . The annexation began many years of Russian rule in Crimea , which ended with the transfer of the territory to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1954 . Russia annexed Crimea for a second time in March 2014 .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Independent Crimea ( 1774 – 76 ) = = =
Before Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1768 – 74 , the Khanate , populated largely by Crimean Tatars , had been part of the Ottoman Empire . In the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , which was the result of that war , the Ottoman Empire was forced to cede sovereignty over the Khanate , and allow it to become an independent state under Russian influence . Tatars in Crimea had no desire for independence , and held a strong emotional attachment to the Ottoman Empire . Within two months of the signing of the treaty , the government of the Khanate sent envoys to the Ottomans , asking them to " destroy the conditions of independence " . The envoys said that as Russian troops remained stationed in Crimea at Yeni @-@ Kale and Kerch , the Khanate could not be considered independent . Nevertheless , the Ottomans ignored this request , not wishing to violate the agreement with Russia . In the disorder that followed the Turkish defeat , Tatar leader Devlet Giray refused to accept the treaty at the time of its signing . Having been fighting Russians in the Kuban during the war , he crossed the Kerch Strait to Crimea and seized the city of Kaffa ( modern Feodosia ) . Devlet subsequently seized the Crimean throne , usurping Sahib Giray . Despite his actions against the Russians , Russian Empress Catherine the Great recognised Devlet as Khan .
At the same time , however , she was grooming her favourite Şahin Giray , who resided at her court , for the role . As time went on , the rule of Devlet became increasingly untenable . In July of 1775 , he sent a group of envoys to Constantinople to negotiate a reentry of the Crimean Khanate into the Ottoman Empire . This action was in direct defiance of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , which he asked the Ottomans to scrap . Famed diplomat Ahmed Resmî Efendi , who had helped draft the treaty , refused to provide any assistance to the Khanate , not wanting to start another disastrous war with Russia . Empress Catherine gave an order to invade Crimea in November 1776 . Her forces quickly gained control of Perekop , at the entrance to the peninsula . In January 1777 , Russian @-@ supported Şahin Giray crossed into Crimea over the Kerch Strait , much as Devlet had done . Devlet , aware of his impending defeat , abdicated and fled to Constantinople . Şahin was installed as a puppet Khan , infuriating the Muslim population of the peninsula . When he heard this news , Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid I noted " Şahin Giray is a tool . The aim of the Russians is to take Crimea . " Şahin , a member of the ruling House of Giray , attempted a series of reforms to " modernise " the Khanate . These included attempts to centralise power in the hands of the Khan , establishing " autocratic " rule , much as in Russia . Previously , power had been distributed between the leaders of different clans , called beys . He attempted to institute state taxation , a conscripted and centralised army , and to replace the traditional religion @-@ based Ottoman legal system with civil law . These reforms , aimed at disrupting the old Ottoman order , were despised by the Crimean populace .
= = = Crimean revolts ( 1777 – 82 ) = = =
At the behest of Empress Catherine , Şahin allowed Russians to settle in the peninsula , further infuriating Crimeans . A group of these settlers had been sent to Yeni @-@ Kale , which remained under Russian control following the installation of Şahin as Khan . Local residents banded together to prevent the Russian settlement , rebelling against Şahin . He sent the new conscript army he had created to quash the rebellion , only to see his forces defect to the rebels . Revolt spread across the peninsula , and rebel forces advanced on Şahin 's palace in Bakhchisaray . Amidst this rebellion , exiled Crimeans in Constantinople pressed the Ottoman government to act . Bowing to pressure , the government sent a fleet to Crimea , ostensibly to preserve the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca . Russia , however , was quicker to act . Russian forces arrived at Yeni @-@ Kale in February 1778 , crushing the revolt before the Ottoman fleet arrived . When the fleet arrived in March , it found that there were no rebels left to support . It fought a brief skirmish with the Russian navy off Akitar ( modern Sevastopol ) , but was forced to flee . Şahin was reinstated as Khan . Minor skirmishes between the Ottoman and Russian navies continued until October 1778 , when the Ottoman fleet returned defeated to Constantinople .
Over the following years , Şahin continued to try and reform the Khanate . Support for his reform programme remained low , and it was seriously undermined by the decision of Empress Catherine to resettle the Crimean Pontic Greeks on the northern shores of the Azov Sea , outside the Khanate . That community , which was Christian , were an essential part of the Crimean merchant class , and had most readily supported Şahin 's reforms . This resettlement caused significant damage to the Crimean economy , and further weakened the position of the Khan . Recognising defeat in Crimea , the Ottoman Empire signed the Convention of Aynali Kavak in early 1779 . In the agreement , the Ottomans recognised Şahin as Khan of Crimea , promised no further intervention in Crimea , and conceded that Crimea was under Russian influence . Crimeans could no longer expect support from the Ottomans . Şahin 's reforms proceeded , gradually removing Tatars from positions of political influence . For a brief period , Crimea remained peaceful .
A new rebellion , sparked by the continuing marginalisation of Tatars within the Khanate government , started in 1781 . Various clan leaders and their forces came together in the Taman , across the Kerch Strait from Crimea . In April of 1782 , a large portion of Şahin 's army defected to the rebels , and joined them in the Taman . Communication between rebel leaders , including two of Şahin 's brothers , and the Crimean administrative elite was ongoing . Religious ( ulama ) and legal ( kadı ) officials , important parts of the old Ottoman order , openly declared their antipathy for Şahin . Rebel forces attacked Kaffa on 14 May [ O.S. 3 May ] 1782 . Şahin 's forces were swiftly defeated , and he was forced to escape to Russian @-@ controlled Kerch . Rebel leaders elected Şahin 's brother Bahadir Giray as Khan , and sent a message to the Ottoman government seeking recognition . It was not long , however , before Empress Catherine dispatched Prince Grigory Potemkin to restore Şahin to power . No significant opposition was fielded against the invading Russians , and many rebels fled back across the Kerch Strait . As such , the Khan was restored to his position in October 1782 . By this time , however , he had lost the favour of both Crimeans and Empress Catherine . In a letter to a Russian advisor to Şahin , Catherine wrote " He must stop this shocking and cruel treatment and not give them [ Crimeans ] just cause for a new revolt " . As Russian troops entered the peninsula , work on the establishment of a Black Sea port for use by the Empire began . The city of Akitar was chosen as the site of the port , which would go on to house the newly created Black Sea Fleet . Uncertainty about the sustainability of the restoration of Şahin Giray , however , led to an increase of support for annexing Crimea , spearheaded by Prince Potemkin .
= = Annexation ( 1783 ) = =
In March 1783 , Prince Potemkin made a rhetorical push to encourage Empress Catherine to annex Crimea . Having just returned from Crimea , he told her that many Crimeans would " happily " submit to Russian rule . Encouraged by this news , Empress Catherine issued a formal proclamation of annexation on 19 April [ O.S. 8 April ] 1783 . Tatars did not resist the annexation . After years of turmoil , the Crimeans lacked the resources and the will to continue fighting . Many fled the peninsula , leaving for Anatolia . Count Alexander Bezborodko , then a close advisor to the Empress , wrote in his diary that Russia was " forced " to annex Crimea :
The Porte has not kept good faith from the very beginning . Their primary goal has been to deprive the Crimeans of independence . They banished the legal khan and replaced him with the thief Devlet Giray . They consistently refused to evacuate the Taman . They made numerous perfidious attempts to introduce rebellion in the Crimea against the legitimate Khan Şahin Giray . All of these efforts did not bring us to declare war … The Porte never ceased to drink in each drop of revolt among the Tatars … Our only wish has been to bring peace to Crimea … and we were finally forced by the Turks to annex the area .
This view was far from reality . Crimean " independence " had been a puppet regime , and the Ottomans had played little role in the Crimean revolts . Crimea was incorporated into the Empire as Taurida Governorate . Later that year , the Ottoman Empire signed an agreement with Russia that recognised the loss of Crimea and other territories that had been held by the Khanate . The agreement , signed on 28 December 1783 , was negotiated by Russian diplomat Yakov Bulgakov .
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= Parasakthi ( film ) =
Parasakthi ( English : The Goddess ) is a 1952 Indian Tamil @-@ language drama film directed by R. Krishnan and S. Panju . The film stars Sivaji Ganesan in his acting debut , along with S. V. Sahasranamam , S. S. Rajendran , Sriranjani Jr . , and Pandari Bai . It was jointly produced by National Pictures and AVM Productions and is based on a stage drama of the same name , written by Pavalar Balasundaram . The film narrates the misfortunes that befall the members of a Tamil family during World War II , and how the members face their individual fate and reunite at the end .
The screenplay and dialogues for Parasakthi were written by Karunanidhi , who would later become the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu . The film 's soundtrack was composed by R. Sudarsanam . Parasakthi was released on 17 October 1952 , during the festive occasion of Diwali , and faced controversies because of its portrayal of Brahmins and Hindu customs and practices in poor light . The elitarian society including the then ruling State government even demanded the film to be banned .
Despite these protests , the film was critically acclaimed , with praise directed towards its dialogues and the actors ' performances in particular . The film also become a commercial success , and had a theatrical run of over 175 days . Parasakthi also acquired cult status in Tamil cinema and became a trendsetter for dialogues and acting for later Tamil films .
= = Plot = =
Chandrasekaran , Gnanasekaran and Gunasekaran are three Indian immigrant brothers from Madurai , Tamil Nadu living in Rangoon , Burma with Chandrasekaran 's wife Saraswati . Their younger sister Kalyani was raised in their home town by their father Manickampillai . In 1942 , during World War II , the three brothers and Saraswati plan to visit Madurai to attend the impending wedding of Kalyani to a writer named Thangappan . Due to war conditions and bombardment of Burmese ports by Japan , the shipping company offers only one ticket and Gunasekaran , the youngest brother , takes it and leaves for Tamil Nadu . The ship fails to reach on time due to the dangers of the war , and Kalyani 's marriage takes place without any of her brothers present .
Kalyani becomes pregnant . But on the day she delivers her child , Thangappan dies in an accident and Manickampillai dies of shock , leaving Kalyani and her child destitute . Her house gets auctioned off , and she makes her living by selling food on the streets . Gunasekaran , after being stranded at sea for several months , finally arrives in Tamil Nadu at Madras . However , while watching a dance performance , he is robbed of all his belongings after being intoxicated . Impoverished , he becomes enraged at the status of the once glorious Tamil Nadu , and fakes insanity by indulging in numerous tricks to make a living . Gunasekaran finally comes across his destitute sister at Madurai , having learned of their father 's death and her poverty . He continues to play insane and does not reveal his true identity to her due to his poverty , but hovers around her . Kalyani is irritated by the stranger 's behaviour , unaware that he is her brother .
Kalyani is nearly molested by a vagabond named Venu , but is saved by Gunasekaran . She later leaves Madurai and arrives at Tiruchi , where she obtains work as a maid of blackmarketeer Narayana Pillai , who also tries to molest her . She is , however , saved by his wife , and leaves the job . While searching for his sister , Gunasekaran reaches Tiruchi and comes across Vimala , a wealthy woman , to whom he explains the miserable status of him and his sister in the society . After resting in her house for a while , he silently leaves to continue searching for Kalyani .
As Japanese shelling intensifies in Burma , Chandrasekaran and Gnanasekaran decide to return to India . Chandrasekaran , accompanied by Saraswati , reaches Tiruchi safely and becomes a judge , but Gnanasekaran is lost in the journey and loses a leg in the shelling before arriving in India . He begs for a living , forms an association for beggars and tries to reform them . Kalyani reaches Chandrasekaran 's palatial house seeking food , but Chandrasekaran throws her out without recognising her . She later arrives at a temple seeking help , but the pujari ( priest ) also tries to molest her . Frustrated with life and unable to feed her child , Kalyani throws it into a river and attempts suicide , but is soon arrested for killing the child and brought for trial .
At the court , Kalyani defends her act of infanticide with the judge being Chandrasekaran , who after hearing her tragic story realises she is his sister , and faints . Gunasekaran is also brought to the court for having attacked the priest who tried to molest his sister . During his trial , Gunasekaran explains the misfortunes which have befallen him and his family , and justifies his actions . Gunasekaran 's valiant defence in the court awakens everyone on the evils of the society . As the trial proceeds , Vimala arrives and produces Kalyani 's child , which was revealed to have safely fallen in her boat instead of the river . Kalyani and Gunasekaran are pardoned and acquitted by the court , and are finally reunited with Chandrasekaran . Gnanasekaran , while collecting donations for his association of beggars , also joins them unexpectedly . With Vimala and Gunasekaran deciding to get married , the family subsequently inaugurates a welfare home for orphans .
= = Cast = =
Male cast
Sivaji Ganesan as Gunasekaran
S. V. Sahasranamam as Chandrasekaran
S. S. Rajendran as Gnanasekaran
Duraiswamy as Manickampillai
T. K. Ramachandran as Venu
K. M. Nambirajan as Vellai Swamy
Venkatraman as Thangappan
V. K. Ramasamy as Narayana Pillai
K. P. Kamatchi as the pujari ( priest )
M. N. Krishnan as Kuppan
Sakthivel as a servant
D. V. Narayanaswamy as Thambi Durai
V. K. Karthikeyan as the Tamil pandit
Kannadasan as a judge ( uncredited )
Female cast
Sriranjani Jr. as Kalyani
Pandari Bai as Vimala
Susheela as Saraswati
Kannamma as Jolly
Angamuthu as the fruit seller
T. P. Muthulakshmi as Kantha
A. S. Jaya as Parvati
= = Production = =
Parasakthi was a popular Tamil play written by Pavalar Balasundaram , a Tamil scholar . Around the same time , En Thangai ( My Sister ) , written by T. S. Natarajan , became popular . Sivaji Ganesan , at that time a struggling stage actor , acted in En Thangai as " a brother sacrificing his love for the sake of his sightless kid sister . " The pre @-@ production crew at Central Studio , Coimbatore , initially planned to merge these two plays to make a film . However , Natarajan , the author of En Thangai disagreed to the idea , and indeed sold the rights of the play to another producer .
The shooting of the film En Thangai began with Tiruchi Loganathan , then a popular playback artist , playing the lead role of the sacrificing brother . However , he was eventually replaced by actor M. G. Ramachandran . Meanwhile , film distributor P. A. Perumal of National Pictures , with the patronage of A. V. Meiyappan of AVM Productions , bought the film rights of Parasakthi . Karunanidhi , who would later become the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu , was signed to write the script . Ganesan , the stage actor of En Thangai was chosen to play the hero , making his cinematic acting debut . It was Perumal who , in 1950 , gave Ganesan a flight ticket to Madras for the screen test for Parasakthi . Ganesan had simultaneously shot for the film Poongothai , which was supposed to be his actual film to release first , but released much later . He had earlier dubbed for Telugu actor Mukkamala in the 1951 Tamil film Niraparadhi .
Parasakthi , which was jointly produced by National Pictures and AVM Productions , did not begin well for Ganesan . When shooting began and 2000 feet of the film was shot , Meiyappan was dissatisfied with Ganesan 's " thin " physique , and wanted him replaced with actor K. R. Ramaswamy . Perumal refused , and Ganesan was retained . Meiyappan was also satisfied with the final results of the film . The initial scenes of Ganesan which he earlier disliked were reshot . Ganesan was paid a monthly salary of ₹ 250 ( valued at about US $ 52 @.@ 5 in 1952 ) for acting in the film . S. S. Rajendran , who was another successful stage artist , also debuted in Parasakthi after the advice of political leader C. N. Annadurai . According to film historian Film News Anandan , Parasakthi was one of the few films at that time to be " completely driven " by stage artists .
Rajasulochana was initially cast as the female lead , but opted out due to her pregnancy , and was eventually replaced by Telugu actress Sriranjani , Jr . Pandari Bai was also added to the film , after Meiyappan was impressed with her performance in Raja Vikrama ( 1950 ) . Poet Kannadasan declined to work as one of the film 's lyricists , and instead acted in a minor role as a court judge , as he was " determined to take part in the Parasakthi movie " . The cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao , while the songs were choreographed by Heeralal . The film 's climax song " Ellorum Vazha Vendum " featured stock footage of the political leaders C. Rajagopalachari , Periyar E. V. Ramasamy , Bhakthavatchalam , Annadurai , and Karunanidhi .
= = Themes = =
Panju stated that Parasakthi was designed to " create havoc . Of course , it did . We were challenging the social law itself , the basic Constitution itself " . The title song of the film was composed by Bharathidasan , keeping with the demand of the DMK party seeking a sovereign Dravidian nation . The poem glorifies the utopian nature of the Dravidian nation and ends with a long monologue that grieves the present India 's reality . When the female lead Kalyani becomes pregnant , she and her husband Thangappan decide to name the child " Pannirselvam " if it is a boy , and " Nagammai " if it is a girl . The names are references to A. T. Pannirselvam , a prominent and respected leader of the Justice Party and Nagammai , a leading activist in the Self @-@ Respect Movement and the wife of Periyar E. V. Ramasamy . According to film historian Selvaraj Velayutham , Parasakthi was basically oriented to social reform . United News of India ( UNI ) , The Times of India and K. S. Sivakumaran of the Sri Lankan newspaper Daily News have referred to the film as a satire , with UNI describing it as a " sociological satire " .
The film deploys Kalyani 's vulnerability as a widow in a hostile society , with consequent threats to her chastity , especially during the court trial scenes . The name Kalyani was chosen by the script writer to emphasise the contradiction between the meaning of her name indicating auspiciousness and her contrasting penury . The theme is expressed through Gunasekaran 's arguments in the court : " [ My ] sister 's name is Kalyani . An auspicious name [ indeed ] . But there is no ' mangalyam ' around [ her ] neck " . Also , Vimala , who becomes Gunasekaran 's bride , compares herself to Kannagi , a popular symbol of chastity in Tamil culture . Ganesan , who enacted the role of Gunasekaran in Parasakthi , was a DMK activist in real life in 1952 and helped in propagating the theme of Dravida Nadu . The film attempted to bring to light the alleged fraud in the name of religion and presented agnostic views , displaying a powerful critique of the Congress rule in the Madras Presidency .
= = Music = =
The music of Parasakthi was composed by R. Sudarsanam . The lyrics were written by Bharathidasan , T. N. Ramaiah Nadu , Bharathiyar , Karunanidhi , and Udumalai Narayana Kavi . The background score was composed by the Chennai @-@ based Saraswathi Stores Orchestra . Relatively higher importance was given to the film 's dialogues over its music , so the dialogues were sold separately on audio cassettes . Some of the numbers from Parasakthi were based on songs from Hindi films ; one was a rehash from the Urdu film Akeli ( 1952 ) . The number " O Rasikkum Seemane " inspired " Itai Tazhukikkolla " from Periyar ( 2007 ) . The 2010 film Rasikkum Seemane borrows its title from the song of the same name . Annadurai is referenced in the number " Kaa Kaa Kaa " , in the line " Kaakai Annave neengal azhagaana vaayaal pannaga paadureenga " ( " Crow elder , you are singing so melodiously with your beautiful mouth " ) . Credit for that song 's writer is disputed , with film music historian Vamanan attributing it to Udumalai Narayana Kavi , while Sachi Sri Kantha believes Karunandhi wrote the song . " Poomalai " is based on the Urdu song " Sanwariya , Tohe Koi Pukare " from the Pakistani film Dupatta ( 1952 ) . An album containing remixed versions of the songs of Parasakthi was released in on 3 June 2009 , to commemorate Karunanidhi 's 86th birthday .
= = Release = =
= = = Reception = = =
Parasakthi was released on 17 October 1952 , on Diwali day . It was regarded as a " propaganda vehicle for a new political party " and marked the start of cinema 's " starring role in Tamil politics " . Ganesan 's performance in the film 's court scene was also very well received by audience , and was considered to have propelled him to stardom . The film became an instant commercial success , running for over 175 days in several theatres , and was one of the first films to be screened at the Madurai @-@ based Thangam theatre , which was noted as Asia 's largest theatre at the time . Parasakthi 's Telugu @-@ dubbed version of the same name was released in 1957 .
= = = Critical response = = =
P. Balasubramania Mudaliar of Sunday Observer wrote , " The story is simple but it has been made powerful by Mr. Karunanidhi by his beautiful dialogues . Mr. Shivaji Ganesan , who plays the main role dominates from the beginning to the end " and concluded , " If an Academy award were to be given to any picture , I have little doubt that this picture would be entitled on its merits to such an award . " Dinamani Kadir , a Tamil weekly owned by Indian Express Limited ( then known as The Indian Express Group ) , carried an unusually long review of Parasakthi running into three closely printed pages . The review was given a cynical title , " Kandarva Mandalam " ( " The Abode of Kandarvas " ) and it began with a small box @-@ item which read , " Parasakthi : This goddess is abused in a Tamil film with her name " . The reviewer opined , " The main aim of the film is to attach gods . Along with that , the government and society are overtly and covertly attacked . The embittered and agitated reviewer further claimed , " He [ the hero of the film ] , acting as a mad man , threatens and beats the people on the street and grabs whatever they have and eats it . Then he goes to give repeatedly all those economics lectures , rationalist lectures and anti @-@ god lectures . When we see the hero doing all that , it seems as if he is portraying the lives of those who are trying to force such ideas in the ... film . " For the reviewer , thus , the DMK men were living on others ' sweat and preaching unacceptable subsersive ideas .
Film historian Randor Guy said , " 1952 ... an eventful year for Tamil cinema , the beginning of a new period " and added that " The film that ushered in that new era was Parasakthi written for the screen by another fast @-@ rising star Mu . Karunanidhi " , while concluding that the film would be " Remembered for the dialogue and the stunning performance of the new hero . " In an interview with Shobha Warrier of Rediff.com , Tamil film historian S. Theodore Baskaran said , " Sivaji 's best and most memorable films are his early ones " and mentioned that Ganesan was " very lucky to get a role in Parasakthi " , which he praised for the " flowery dialogues " . Film historian S. Muthiah said that Parasakthi " showed Karunanidhi as the master of meaningful screen dialogue that carried forceful messages to the masses " . The Sunday Indian called it " a classic DMK film scripted by M Karunanidhi " . In a 2007 interview with S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu , director Balu Mahendra said , " ' Parasakthi 's ' heavy dialogue ( written in chaste Tamil by the current Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi ) coupled with a stunning performance by newcomer , Sivaji Ganesan , make it a favourite . " Film News Anandan called it " one of the most elaborately plotted melodramas in the Indian cinema " .
= = = Controversies = = =
Post release , Parasakthi was marred by numerous controversies , and was defined as " one of the most controversial films in the history of Tamil cinema " by Theodore Baskaran . It was accused of trying to portray Brahmins in poor light . Abuse of Hindu customs and religious practices evoked strong protests from the Hindu orthodoxy . Scenes like a priest attempting to rape a woman in a temple were found to be very provocative . The social elite and members of the then ruling Congress party demanded the film to be banned . The @-@ then Chief Minister of Madras , C. Rajagopalachari was unhappy with the extremely provocative nature of the film , but allowed it to be screened . One of the reasons stated by them was the dialogue spoken by Ganesan 's character , " Just because you came around chanting names and offered flowers to the stone , would it become a god ? " , which was accused of " mocking the audiences . " His reference to Goddess Parasakthi as a stone created a stir , and the word " stone " was eventually censored from the soundtrack . However , the given message was still " clear and the impact viral . " The State Government requested the Union Government to reconsider the film certification , but they declined , due to a previous examination by a Madras intelligence officer , who stated :
The dialogues for the film have been specially written in a forceful manner by Sri M Karunanidhi , the well known leader of the Dravidian Progression Federation ... The film graphically describes the sufferings and hardships that a young widow with her babe in arms has to face due to poverty and how cruelly society treats her , or illtreats her . The substance of the story by itself is not objectionable . The plot is interesting and the story has a powerful moral appeal , namely that there will be ups and downs in a man 's life and that chastity is the most precious jewel of womanhood .
= = Legacy = =
Parasakthi acquired cult status and changed the character of Tamil cinema . Dialogue writing was given more importance than ever before . Speeches of the film replaced traditional music of artists like M. S. Subbulakshmi , K. B. Sundarambal and others at festivities . The film also had its share in giving the DMK the necessary stimulus to overthrow the Congress party in Tamil Nadu . The dialogues became so popular that " roadside entertainers used to recite long passages from the film in market area of Madras and collect money from bystanders " , and memorising the film 's dialogues became a " must for aspirant political orators " . They were even released separately on gramaphone records . K. Hariharan , the director of L. V. Prasad Film Academy in Chennai , included the film in his 2013 list , " Movies that stirred , moved & shook us " .
In celebration of the film 's 50th year , Ganesan 's autobiography , entitled Enathu Suya Sarithai ( " My Autobiography " ) was released on 1 October 2002 in Tamil , exactly a year after the actor 's death in 2001 . The English version , titled Autobiography of an Actor : Sivaji Ganesan , October 1928 @-@ July 2001 , was released exactly five years later in 2007 . To commemorate 50 years since the release of Parasakthi , a memorial was inaugurated in AVM Studios on 17 October 2002 by Kamal Haasan in the presence of Ganesan 's sons Prabhu and Ramkumar . The memorial stands at the same place where Ganesan first faced the camera . A slab of black granite , the memorial has on its top a brass medallion that bears a close @-@ up of Ganesan uttering his popular opening line " Success " . At its bottom is a rectangular plaque that gives details about the memorial 's inauguration . At the base of the rectangular plaque are two other plaques resembling the pages of an open book and contains the names of the technical crew and all those involved in the making of the film . The visage of Ganesan wearing a hat was designed by Thotta Tharani . The 2003 film Success starring Ganesan 's grandson Dushyant was named after Ganesan 's popular line , but opened to negative reception .
Parasakthi is included with other Ganesan films in 8th Ulaga Adhisayam Sivaji , a compilation DVD featuring Ganesan 's " iconic performances in the form of scenes , songs and stunts " which was released in May 2012 . During the film 's diamond jubilee year celebrations in January 2013 , K. Chandrasekaran , the president of Nadigar Thilagam Sivaji Social Welfare Association said , " Six decades down the line Parasakthi is remembered because it is not just a film , but an epic " . On the centenary of Indian cinema in April 2013 , Forbes India included Ganesan 's performance in the film in its list , " 25 Greatest Acting Performances of Indian Cinema " . Actor Sivakumar stated , " You can ’ t reproduce movies like Parasakthi , Pasamalar , Devadas , Veerapandiya Kattabomman or Ratha Kanneer [ ... ] By remaking such films , you are lowering yourself , while it enhances the original artists ’ image . " The Times of India included Parasakthi in its list , " Top 5 Sivaji Ganesan films on his birthday " .
Vivek parodied the film 's climax in Palayathu Amman ( 2000 ) . A film called Meendum Parasakthi directed by A. Jagannathan was released in 1985 . This film is not related to Parasakthi . Karthi 's performance in his debut film Paruthi Veeran ( 2007 ) was compared by critics with Parasakthi . Malathi Rangarajan , in her review of Citizen ( 2001 ) at The Hindu , mentioned that the court scene during the climax was reminiscent of Parasakthi 's climax . In Sivaji ( 2007 ) , the eponymous character ( Rajinikanth ) who shares his first name with Sivaji Ganesan , utters the dialogue , " Parasakthi hero da " ( " The hero of Parasakthi , man " ) when referring to himself .
Film Heritage Foundation announced in March 2015 that they would be restoring Parasakthi along with a few other Indian films from 1931 to 1965 as a part of their restoration projects carried out in India and abroad in accordance to international parameters . The foundation , however , stated that they would not colourise any of the films as they " believe in the original repair as the way the master or the creator had seen it . " In July 2016 , Ganesan 's other grandson Vikram Prabhu launched a production house named " First Artist " with a still of Ganesan from Parasakthi as part of its logo .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Conan ( 2007 video game ) =
Conan is a 2007 action @-@ adventure video game that puts players in control of the titular hero , Conan the Barbarian , from Robert E. Howard 's fantasy literature . The game was published by THQ for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 game consoles . Its developer , Nihilistic Software , was inspired by the God of War and Ninja Gaiden video games to create an experience featuring gore and nudity .
= = Gameplay = =
Players control Conan the Barbarian from a third @-@ person perspective while attempting to advance through the series of levels that subdivide the game .
Conan can fight with sword and shield , two @-@ handed weapons , or a weapon in each hand . Starting with several basic attacks , the barbarian gains experience points by killing enemies . By exchanging these points for additional attacks , players improve the hero 's fighting abilities . Magic powers complement Conan 's arsenal , including the abilities to turn enemies into stone and conjure firestorms . The game also features context @-@ sensitive action sequences in which players press a sequence of buttons displayed on the screen to complete actions such as killing powerful enemies and interacting with the environment .
The gameplay is the same for each level : Conan moves from area to area , fighting groups of enemies until he reaches the end . At the end of certain levels , the barbarian has to fight a more powerful opponent called a boss . Defeating a boss involves a two @-@ stage process : Conan has to inflict heavy damage on the creature and thus trigger an interactive button @-@ pressing sequence that players have to complete to kill the boss . Several cycles of this process are required to defeat most bosses . Besides combat , button @-@ pressing sequences are also used to interact with the environment , such as knocking down obstacles to create passageways , or as parts of platforming sequences in which Conan climbs walls and jumps from ledge to ledge . Players can save their progress by using special stones that are placed throughout the game .
Conan starts each level with his default one @-@ handed sword , and can pick up shields and other weapons to switch between three styles of attack : fighting with a one @-@ handed weapon , a two @-@ handed weapon , or a weapon in each hand . Each style features several attacks with names like " Cimmerian Charge " and " Black River Rage " . The barbarian can change or stop his attacks at any time , creating many options in combat . When Conan lands a sequence of successive hits on his enemies , he activates his Song of Death , which increases the damage of his attacks for a short time . For defense , Conan can roll under enemy attacks or block them . If the player presses the block button just when an enemy is about to hit the barbarian , an image of a controller button appears on the screen . Pressing the button shown will make Conan execute a gory counterattack , which instantly kills the enemy . Other methods to kill enemies include grabbing and throwing them against other objects , such as spikes and other enemies , or over cliffs .
In addition to physical assaults , Conan can use magic powers to damage enemies . Gaining these powers in later stages of the game , the barbarian can turn opponents into stone , call down fire from the heavens , and summon flocks of ravens to do his bidding . These magical attacks can quickly end fights , but their use is limited by the number of magic points Conan has . When an enemy is killed , colored runes — each one conferring its own special advantage — are released and gathered by the barbarian . Red runes act as experience points , which are exchanged for advanced attacks . Green and blue runes restore Conan 's health and magic points , respectively . The barbarian can also obtain runes by breaking containers and freeing maidens from captivity .
= = Plot and setting = =
In Conan , the hero is on a quest to recover his lost armor and defeat an evil wizard . The game takes place in the world of Hyboria , a creation of Robert E. Howard for his stories about Conan the Barbarian . Conan 's developer , Nihilistic Software , chose several Hyborian locations , such as Kush , Stygia , and the Barachan Isles , to establish a link to the literary world . Hyboria was designed to be a fantasy version of Earth around 10 @,@ 000 BC , and its civilizations were based on those from the Stone to Iron Ages . Nihilistic portrayed the plains of Kush , a fictional Africa , as savannahs with villages of straw huts . Stygia was illustrated as a land filled with structures resembling Egyptian tombs and the Barachan Isles as lushly jungled islands .
= = = Characters = = =
Conan is the protagonist in many of Howard 's stories : a franchise has been built around the character , and Frank Frazetta 's paintings have further elevated the barbarian 's profile in pop culture . Howard presented his barbarian hero as a strong , shrewd , barbaric , and ambitious man in a primitive world of magic . His stories are simple and portray Conan overcoming a series of obstacles to defeat the antagonists with his physical prowess . Nihilistic originally intended to stay faithful to the literature , but the writers strayed from the canon by showing the barbarian as willing to use magic . The literary Conan abhors magic , but Nihilistic reasoned that , in order to restore his armor to its original non @-@ magical state , he is willing to use the magic it has been cursed with .
The developers did , however , stay true to the physical depictions of the barbarian . Reflecting how fights are described in the stories , players can kill foes in the goriest manner — dismembering and disemboweling them . Nihilistic wanted to show that the brutal killings are considered natural by Conan and not executed out of a thirst for blood . The inspiration for Conan 's moves came from several sources , but mostly from Frazetta 's artwork . The animators took several of Conan 's poses straight from the paintings and modeled his movements after those of the characters in the feature animation Tarzan and the action films Troy and Ong Bak . The names of several fighting techniques such as " Gwahlur 's Leap " , " Bel 's Gambit " , and " Camel Punch " were also based on names and events from the Conan stories and films . To garner extra publicity , the publisher THQ hired Golden Globe @-@ winning actor Ron Perlman to provide the voice for Conan .
Typical Conan stories by Howard featured leading females who were occasionally damsels in distress . However , they were also strong and fearless women who would rescue the hero at crucial moments . Nihilistic cast the game 's leading female character , A 'kanna , in this mold ; the warrior queen and Conan aid each other in several parts of the game . By contrast , there are topless , chained @-@ up women scattered across the game 's levels . However , these are only in the game because of the developer 's belief that nudity was integral to a Conan story . Showing their breasts and acting in a burlesque manner , these damsels @-@ in @-@ distress reward players with red runes when rescued .
= = = Story = = =
Howard 's short story , " Queen of the Black Coast " , served as the inspiration for the game 's plot . In the short story , Conan has a brief romance with Bêlit , a pirate queen . Near the end of the story a demonic creature kills Bêlit and Conan seeks revenge . The creature , however , is stronger than Conan , overpowers him , and is about to kill him when Bêlit 's spirit startles it and inspires Conan to kill the beast . The game 's story follows a similar theme with A 'kanna in the role of Bêlit . Told as a campfire story , cut scenes — in the form of static artwork or animation rendered by the game engine — open and close each level with narratives from an elderly A 'kanna .
The story starts at Parad Isle where Conan is raiding a tomb . Instead of finding treasure , he unknowingly frees Graven , a wizard who had been confined in a magical prison for his transgressions . Showing no gratitude , the wizard curses Conan 's armor , scatters it across the world , and teleports the barbarian away . Vowing to retrieve his armor , Conan meets A 'kanna while he is fighting through a pirate base . Teaming up with the barbarian to find his armor , the warrior queen hopes to use its magic to end the curse — the Black Death — that is causing her people to kill each other . Their quest leads players through several locations and boss creatures such as dragons , undead elephants , and krakens . Flashbacks are shown when retrieving a piece of armor after killing certain bosses ; these back @-@ stories tell of Graven 's imprisonment of the gods , his plan to sacrifice his daughter A 'kanna , and his creation of the Black Death to transform the world to his liking .
In the last level , Conan has retrieved all of his armor and returns to Parad Isle to rescue A 'kanna from her father . After a long boss fight and several button @-@ pressing sequences , Conan slays the wizard at the bottom of the ocean . Graven 's defeat frees the gods he had imprisoned , and they bring him back to life for eternal punishment . The story ends with the separation of the barbarian and the warrior queen . Conan goes on to fulfill his destiny to be a king as written in Howard 's stories . A 'kanna , however , grows old in a village , telling stories to children and never forgetting Conan .
= = Development = =
In 2005 , THQ acquired the rights to produce a series of video games featuring Conan the Barbarian and the world of Hyboria . This news came to the attention of Nihilistic Software who had just completed the action game Marvel Nemesis : Rise of the Imperfects . The video game developer was looking to develop an action game similar to God of War for its next project and saw the world of Conan as a good setting . The team quickly built a prototype to demonstrate its concept to THQ and received approval for the project . The video game publisher officially announced the game to the industry on February 26 , 2007 .
Nihilistic decided to use the features of other action games for Conan . While God of War was its inspiration for the camera system , Ninja Gaiden was a great influence on the combat engine . The team wanted to emulate the complexity of Ninja Gaiden 's combat system , with many attacking options and an equal emphasis on being alert to the actions of enemies . Nihilistic also wanted the game to appeal to button mashing players as well as those who want to control their character with finesse . In addition , it designed the game to increase the frequency and difficulty of encounters as players advance through the levels .
Conan was developed to be released on the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3 . Although the architectures of the two consoles were very different , Nihilistic designed its product to perform equally on both of them , using force feedback and motion sensing to enhance the playing experience . Conan was originally scheduled for an early 2008 release , but was brought forward to the second half of 2007 because of THQ 's poor performance in that fiscal year . After the game was released in Europe , Nihilistic made demos of the game available for downloading over Xbox Live and PlayStation Network .
= = = Visual style = = =
The appearance of Howard 's Conan and Hyboria in the popular imagination owes much to Frazetta 's distinctive oil paintings . While Nihilistic 's writers tried to tell a story in Howard 's style , its artists attempted to emulate Frazetta 's style on the electronic display screen . Instead of making each computer representation as realistic as possible , they created models based mainly on their perception of each object 's intrinsic nature . The artists used video graphics technology such as normal mapping technique to emulate brush strokes on the models ' textures . These digital brush strokes were visible on the cliffs in the game . The character models were outlined with light colors instead of dark ones , creating the subtle blend of object and background found in oil paintings , and fog effects allowed the team to recreate Frazetta 's use of shadows in the middle area of the image . To complete the game 's appearance , the artists used darker color palettes , motifs , and themes to present a more serious mood , in harmony with the gore and nudity in the game .
= = = Music = = =
Mike Reagan , a music composer noted for his work in video games such as Darkwatch and God of War , was hired by THQ to write the music for Conan . To begin , he wanted to compose simple but powerful melodies , and looked to Basil Poledouris 's score for the 1982 film Conan the Barbarian for inspiration . As Reagan played development copies of the game , he was influenced by two other works : Igor Stravinsky 's barbaric and sensual ballet music The Rite of Spring , and Bernard Hermann 's score from the 1958 action film The 7th Voyage of Sinbad . Each week , Nihilistic and Reagan updated each other with copies of their work @-@ in @-@ progress , synchronizing their efforts . Reagan also studied with noted percussion artists Denny Seiwell , Emil Richards , and Michael Duffy to gain further insight on the use of drums to accompany the game 's bloody and violent plot . After mastering the soundtrack , he brought the music of Conan to an October 2007 Video Games Live show , performing it live in Los Angeles , United States .
= = Reception = =
Conan received fair @-@ to @-@ good ratings from critics . In 2008 , review aggregator sites Metacritic and GameRankings selected around 80 reviews and calculated average scores of 69 ( out of 100 ) and 70 % for the game , respectively . Most critics agreed that the game 's best selling point was its variety in combat . They had a lot of fun with its easy @-@ to @-@ learn controls , skill customization , and most of all , the varied brutal depictions of Conan 's kills . TeamXbox said that the combat system " blossoms into a complex string of commands that will reward the user ( with gore ) for pressing the right buttons at the right time " . The pounding , militaristic orchestra tunes accompanying the action further enhanced the critics ' experience with the game .
= = = God of war clone = = =
Many critics complained that Conan copied many ideas from God of War . Game Informer referred to this imitation as " [ Conan ] groveling at Kratos ' feet , begging for gameplay wisdom " . A few reviewers , however , found this forgivable and stated that the game was made to be fun without any higher ambitions . Conan 's camera system irritated several critics for failing to provide an adequate view of the situation at certain critical moments . Its puzzles were oversimple and lacked clear directions for proceeding to the next step . The artificial intelligence for the adversaries in the game was found to be predictable and flawed by a few critics . In addition , they found the final encounter with Graven to be overlong and frustrating . Calling the fight " as painful as a trip to the proctologist " , IGN and Game Informer judged it to be one of the worst boss fights in video game history .
= = = Game features = = =
The critics had mixed opinions about three prominent features of the game : voice acting , artwork , and faithfulness to Howard 's writings . Perlman earned acclaim for his vocal performance and gravely voice that matched the game 's dialogue , but he also received criticism for not sounding like a barbarian . A few applauded Nihilistic for capturing the oil painting feel of Frazetta 's art , but several others said that the graphics consisted of drab @-@ looking environments that were jagged @-@ edged and pixelated when zoomed in . Although the animations were rated to be smooth and vivid , the lack of variety among enemy character models was criticized . Several critics also praised Nihilistic for recreating the atmosphere of Howard 's stories . The decision to have Conan use magic was , however , called a " blasphemy " by IGN . G4techTV Canada disagreed and forgave the game on the grounds that it was mostly faithful to the books . Ray Huling of The Escapist said that the game 's developers misunderstood Conan 's appeal to the masses . In the journalist 's opinion , Howard 's depiction of Conan 's brutal physical nature called attention to the dull nature of their lives and offered them a temporary escape . Furthermore , Huling said that Nihilistic used the characteristics of Conan for superficial purposes , and that , in copying the mechanics of another game without any groundbreaking innovations of its own , Nihilistic missed the essence of Howard 's stories and created a shell of what its game could have been .
Despite the generally favorable reviews and success of Howard 's franchise , Critics enjoyed Conan 's combat system and gory kills , but said that the game failed to match the experience offered in God of War . Reactions varied on the game 's depiction of the Conan universe ; several critics praised the emulation of Frank Frazetta 's famous artwork , but others found the game 's graphics drab and of low resolution . Regarding the audio , Golden Globe @-@ winning actor Ron Perlman was both praised and criticized for his voice work as Conan . Composer Mike Reagan received acclaim for the game 's music and later gave live performances of the game 's soundtrack at Video Games Live shows .
= = = Sales = = =
Despite the generally favorable reviews and commercial success of the Conan franchise , Conan sold poorly and failed to recoup THQ 's investment . The publisher publicly announced that the game 's poor sales contributed to their US $ 20 million write @-@ off in fiscal year 2008 .
= = = Mature content = = =
Although the game 's violence was praised by the gaming industry , it was condemned by the National Institute on Media and the Family , which placed Conan on a list of games that parents were urged to avoid buying for their children . Conan 's Mature rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board , largely due to its violent content , made the game a target for a law being pushed in California , United States . Proposed in 2005 , the law was intended to regulate sales of Mature @-@ rated games . It was blocked by a legal challenge from the gaming industry in 2007 , but California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger , who played Conan in the 1982 film , appealed the judgment , seeking to ensure that Conan and other games with similar levels of violence would be sold only to those above the age of 17 . On February 20 , 2009 , His appeal was rejected by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals , who ruled that such a restriction violated the First Amendment to the United States Constitution .
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= SMS Geier =
SMS Geier ( " His Majesty 's Ship Geier — Vulture " ) was an unprotected cruiser of the Bussard class built for the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . She was laid down in 1893 at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , launched in October 1894 , and commissioned into the fleet a year later in October 1895 . The ship was designed for service in Germany 's overseas colonies , which required the comparatively heavy armament of eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and a long cruising radius . She had a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) .
Geier spent the majority of her career on foreign stations , including tours in the Americas , East Asia , and Africa . In 1897 , she was deployed to the Caribbean , and the following year she became involved in the Spanish – American War , crossing the blockade lines around Cuban ports to ferry Europeans out of the war zone to Mexico . After being transferred to the western coast of the Americas in 1899 , Geier was reassigned to China to help suppress the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . She remained in East Asian waters through 1905 before being recalled to Germany for major repairs . In 1911 , the ship was assigned to the colony in German East Africa , though she served little time in the area , as the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 and the Balkan Wars of 1912 – 13 required German warships in the Mediterranean to safeguard German interests . Geier returned to East Africa in early 1914 , but in June that month , the new light cruiser Königsberg arrived , relieving Geier for a second deployment to China .
Geier was still en route to the German base in Tsingtao when war broke out in Europe in August 1914 . She slipped out of still @-@ neutral British Singapore days before Britain declared war on Germany and crossed the central Pacific in an attempt to link up with Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron . While at sea , she captured one British freighter , but did not sink her . In need of engine repairs and coal , Geier put into the neutral United States port at Honolulu , Hawaii in October 1914 , where she was eventually interned . After the American entrance into the war in April 1917 , the US Navy seized Geier and commissioned her as USS Schurz and placed her on convoy duty . She was ultimately sunk following a collision with a freighter off the coast of North Carolina , with one man killed and twelve injured . She rests at a depth of 115 feet ( 35 m ) and is a popular scuba diving site .
= = Design = =
Geier was 83 @.@ 9 meters ( 275 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 10 @.@ 6 m ( 35 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 74 m ( 15 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 918 t ( 1 @,@ 888 long tons ; 2 @,@ 114 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . These provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 610 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 690 km ; 4 @,@ 150 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . Two guns were placed side by side forward , two on each broadside , and two side by side aft . The gun armament was rounded out by five revolver cannon . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes , both of which were mounted on the deck .
= = Service history = =
Geier was ordered under the contract name " F " and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven in 1893 . She was launched on 18 October 1894 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . During her launching ceremony , Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Victor Valois christened the ship . She was commissioned into the German Navy on 24 October 1895 for sea trials . Her trials were completed on 21 January 1896 , and she was decommissioned temporarily in Kiel . During construction , her design was slightly modified based on experience from her sister ships that had already completed their sea trials . Geier 's displacement was increased slightly by around 50 t ( 49 long tons ; 55 short tons ) compared to the other ships of the class and her stern was modified .
= = = First deployment abroad = = =
Geier was recommissioned on 1 December 1897 for her first deployment abroad , to the West Indies . Until then , Germany had relied on school ships to protect German nationals in the region . Rising tensions in Haiti prompted the Admiralstab ( Admiralty Staff ) to send Geier to the Caribbean , replacing the old ironclad Oldenburg that had been scheduled to deploy there . The ironclad König Wilhelm , which had recently been rebuilt into an armored cruiser , was sent to strengthen the German naval contingent . Geier departed Kiel on 9 December and arrived in Charlotte Amalie in the Danish West Indies on 3 January 1898 , where she rendezvoused with the school ships Charlotte and Stein . Charlotte and Stein had already taken care of the situation in Haiti , so Geier went to Santiago de Cuba , where she stayed from 24 March to 6 April . She then received an order to visit Brazilian and Argentinian ports ; stops included Pernambuco in Brazil ( 16 – 20 April ) and Bahía Blanca in Argentina ( 23 April ) . While she was in the latter port , her tour of South America was cut short due to the outbreak of the Spanish – American War .
On 6 May she arrived in Saint Thomas . She thereafter made trips to Santiago de Cuba and San Juan . While in San Juan on 13 – 14 May , Geier witnessed an American squadron under Rear Admiral William T. Sampson bombard the city . The US government permitted Geier to cross the blockade line outside Havana to evacuate twenty civilians of various nationalities and take them to Veracruz in Mexico , arriving on the 29th . There , the governor of the city and the artillery officer from the training ship Zaragoza visited Geier for some practice torpedo launches . While Geier was in Mexico , the German ambassador invited her commander and 27 men to visit Mexico City , where they were received by President Porfirio Díaz . Geier thereafter returned to Cuba . On 16 June , the ship called on the port of Cienfuegos in Cuba . She passed through the American blockade of Santiago de Cuba twice , on 22 – 29 June and 1 – 4 August .
After the war ended , Geier visited New Orleans on 14 October , departing eleven days later for the Caribbean . She then resumed her tour of South America that had been interrupted by the war . She typically stopped in ports where significant numbers of Germans had emigrated . While in Buenos Aires , she received an order to proceed to the west coast of the continent . She transited the Straits of Magellan on 20 – 23 February 1899 and made stops in Valparaiso , Chile , Callao , Peru , and Panama . From 11 to 17 May , she stopped in Puerto San José , Guatemala , where she met a British cruiser ; the two ships were sent there to settle financial disputes with the Guatemalan government . Geier 's tour continued , with stops in Corinto , Nicaragua , Guayaquil , Ecuador , and Puntarenas , Costa Rica While in Corinto , she received orders to proceed further north , to the western coast of the United States and Canada . She stopped in Acapulco before arriving in San Francisco on 14 August , where she underwent a boiler overhaul . On 18 September , she departed San Francisco bound for Vancouver , stopping in Esquimalt en route . On 18 October , she left Vancouver and began her return voyage south . She visited Chilean harbors in January and February 1900 , including Puerto Montt on 14 February , before turning back north , as she had been assigned to the newly @-@ created West American station .
While in Acapulco on 9 July , Geier was ordered to cross the Pacific to join the forces of the Eight Nation Alliance fighting the Boxer Rebellion in Qing China . She left port on 11 July for Yokohama , Japan , by way of Honolulu , Hawaii . She arrived in Chefoo on 29 August , where she joined the ships of the East Asia Squadron . Geier first patrolled the Bohai Sea before docking in Tsingtao at the German @-@ held Kiautschou Bay concession in October . On 28 October , she steamed to Shanghai , where she remained until February 1901 . Geier then steamed up the Yangtze to Chungking , where she replaced her sister ship Bussard . On 5 April , Geier returned to Tsingtao ; on the 29th , she was transferred to the coast of central China , where she replaced another sister , Seeadler . Geier returned to Tsingtao on 18 July , and began a tour of Korean and Japanese ports four days later with the flagship of the East Asia Squadron , Fürst Bismarck . The next twelve months were filled with cruises in the region .
On 15 October 1902 , Geier began a long cruise south to the Dutch East Indies , which also included a stop in Singapore . The ship entered the dry dock in Nagasaki , Japan , for a major overhaul on 2 March 1903 , which lasted until 26 April . At this time , Geier was formally assigned to the East Asia Squadron . The ship resumed its normal routine of cruises in East Asian waters with stops in various ports . In February 1904 , the Russo @-@ Japanese War broke out ; from April to August , Geier was in Chemulpo , which had been captured by the Japanese . By 1905 , the ship was worn out , having spent over seven years on foreign stations . The repair facilities in Tsingtao were insufficient for the amount of work that needed to be done , and so Geier was ordered to return to Germany . She left Tsingtao on 14 January and arrived in Kiel on 16 March , where she was decommissioned for a significant period of repair work . Her three @-@ masted schooner barque rig was reduced to a two @-@ masted topsail schooner rig .
= = = Second overseas deployment = = =
In early 1911 , Geier was recommissioned to replace the unprotected cruiser Sperber on the East African Station , based in German East Africa . On 2 May she left Danzig , arriving in Kiel the following day . There , she was equipped for the deployment abroad . The ship left Kiel on 8 May and arrived in Dar es Salaam on 9 July , where she joined Seeadler . She cruised the colony 's coast , but at the end of September she was ordered to the Mediterranean Sea , as the Italo @-@ Turkish War had broken out on the 29th . At the time , the only German warship in the Mediterranean was the old aviso Loreley , the station ship in Constantinople ; this was a result of the heightened tensions in Europe following the Agadir Crisis in July , as most German warships in European waters had been recalled to Germany .
Geier 's departure for the Mediterranean was delayed by a coal fire in Dar es Salaam , which required her crew to put out . She left East Africa on 2 October and arrived in Piraeus , Greece on 16 October , where she remained until January 1912 . She was then formally assigned to the Mediterranean Division , along with the recently @-@ arrived battlecruiser Goeben . From mid @-@ April to mid @-@ July , she made trips to provide humanitarian assistance in Libya , Palestine , and the Red Sea . These were interrupted by the arrival of Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht Hohenzollern ; the two ships cruised to the island of Corfu in early May . On 17 July , Geier went to Trieste in Austria @-@ Hungary for an overhaul that lasted until 30 September . She thereafter went on a cruise of the eastern Mediterranean and visited several ports .
While she was loading coal in Haifa on 31 January 1913 , a coal dust explosion killed two crew members . While cruising Turkish waters in August , she was ordered to replace the light cruiser Breslau in the international naval blockade of Montenegro during the Second Balkan War . She arrived off the mouth of the Bojana River in Montenegro on 11 August , which she patrolled until 14 October , when she was released for a major overhaul in Triest . After repairs were completed on 4 January 1914 , she was ordered to return to the East Africa Station . She arrived there on 22 February and conducted a survey of the harbor at Tanga . On 6 May , the ship was formally reclassified as a gunboat . The light cruiser Königsberg arrived on 5 June to replace Geier , which was then reassigned to the South Seas Station , where she would in turn replace her sister Condor .
= = = World War I = = =
Geier 's captain learned of the rising tensions in Europe following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria while en route to the Pacific . The ship coaled in Singapore on 25 – 29 July , departing the day after Austria @-@ Hungary declared war on Serbia . Geier thereafter proceeded southeast through the Gaspar Strait , rather than north to Tsingtao , where he would be expected to go . While off Batavia on 1 August , Geier received the order from Maximilian von Spee , the commander of the East Asia Squadron , to join him at Yap . On 3 . August , she received word of the German mobilization and the order to begin cruiser warfare . She coaled at Jampea from the steamer Elmshorn of the Deutsch @-@ Australische Dampfschiffs @-@ Gesellschaft ( DADG ) on 6 August before steaming north through the Buton Strait . Off Celebes she rendezvoused with the DADG steamer Bochum , which acted as her collier .
Geier 's crew made temporary repairs to the ship 's engines and boilers before proceeding north to the Palau Islands . Bochum took Geier under tow to conserve coal . On 20 August , she managed to contact the cruiser Emden , which was detached from the East Asia Squadron and operating as a commerce raider . Emden instructed Geier to rendezvous at the island of Anguar , but she was unable to reach the island before Emden departed . Nevertheless , the two ships met at sea the following day ; one of Geier 's cutters took her commander , Lieutenant Commander Curt Graßhoff , aboard Emden to meet with her captain . Emden then departed for the Molucca Strait , while Geier proceeded to Anguar . After arriving , Geier coaled from the HAPAG steamer Tsingtau . Graßhoff intended to rendezvous with the East Asia Squadron in the central Pacific , and proceeded through the Bismarck Archipelago before turning north to Kusaie . There , on 4 September , Geier captured the British freighter Southport and disabled the ship 's engines before departing . The freighter 's crew repaired the damage , however , and Southport made for Australia where she reported the German gunboat 's presence .
On 11 September , Geier arrived in Majuro , though the East Asia Squadron had already departed the island on 30 August . By this time , the ship 's engines were in such bad shape that she would have been unable to reach Tsingtao , though the point was moot , as Japanese forces had already besieged the port . In addition , opportunities for commerce raiding in the area were slim , and there were no suitably fast steamers available to arm as auxiliary cruisers . Graßhoff therefore decided to follow the East Asia Squadron to South America , despite the slow speed of his ship , which was reduced to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The Norddeutscher Lloyd ( NDL ) steamer Locksun towed Geier to the Marshall Islands , where further repairs were made from 17 to 20 September . By this time , the ship 's coal and water supplies were so low that the ship would not be able to continue past Hawaii . She arrived in Honolulu on 15 October , where the then @-@ neutral Americans requested that Geier be interned . Two Japanese ships — the battleship , Hizen , and the armored cruiser , Asama — had been patrolling in the area . Upon learning of the arrival of Geier , the two ships remained just outside the three mile limit to await Geier 's departure . Graßhoff was able to delay the internment request until 7 November owing to damage to the ship and poor weather . The following day , the US Navy interned Geier .
= = = Service as USS Schurz = = =
The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies on 6 April 1917 . The US Navy seized Geier and refitted her for service in the Navy . The ship was renamed USS Schurz on 9 June , and commissioned on 15 September 1917 , under the command of Commander Arthur Crenshaw . Schurz departed Pearl Harbor on 31 October and escorted Submarine Division 3 to San Diego . Arriving on 12 November , she continued on with the submarines K @-@ 3 , K @-@ 4 , K @-@ 7 , and K @-@ 8 , in early December . At the end of the month , the convoy transited the Panama Canal and proceeded to Honduras . On 4 January 1918 , Schurz was relieved of escort duty . She carried the American consul from Puerto Cortes to Omao and back , after which she sailed for Key West . From Florida , she was transferred to New Orleans and then sailed for Charleston , South Carolina on 1 February where she entered dry dock for periodic maintenance .
Assigned to the American Patrol Detachment , Schurz departed Charleston toward the end of April and , for the next two months , conducted patrols and performed escort duty and towing missions along the east coast and in the Caribbean . On 19 June , she departed New York for Key West . At 0444 on the 21st , southwest of Cape Lookout lightship , she was rammed by the merchant ship Florida . The ship hit Schurz on the starboard side , crumpling that wing of the bridge , penetrating the well and berth deck about 12 feet , and cutting through bunker no . 3 to the forward fire room . One of Schurz 's crewmen was killed instantly ; twelve others were injured . Schurz was abandoned and sank three hours later . The ship was struck from the Navy list on 26 August 1918 .
= = Wreck = =
The wreckage rests at a depth of 115 feet ( 35 m ) with the top of the wreck situated at 95 feet ( 29 m ) . In 2000 , the ship was subject of a Phase II archaeological investigation headed by East Carolina University . The wreck is protected by sovereign immunity and it is therefore illegal to recover artifacts from the site without permission . In 2013 , Scuba Diving magazine named USS Schurz as one of the top ten wreck dives in North Carolina .
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= Antes de las Seis =
" Antes de las Seis " ( English : " Before Six O 'Clock " ) is a song recorded by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira for her ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . Written and produced by the singer and her frequent collaborator Lester Mendez , " Antes de las Seis " is one of the " romantic " songs from the album and is musically a Latin pop ballad . It features a simple piano and acoustic guitar @-@ supplemented beat over which Shakira delivers sad and emotional vocals . Epic Records released the song as the fourth single from Sale el Sol on 21 October 2011 .
Critics gave positive reviews to " Antes de las Seis " , complimenting its lyrical content . The song performed poorly on singles charts , but was moderately successful on airplay charts . It reached number 1 on the Spanish Airplay Chart and peaked at number 14 on the Monitor Latino chart in Mexico . In the United States , it peaked at numbers 21 and 4 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts , respectively . In 2013 , " Antes de las Seis " was certified gold in Mexico .
The song was performed during the encore segment of the concert shows of Shakira 's The Sun Comes Out World Tour in 2010 and 2011 . A recording of its performance at the show in Paris , France , served as the promotional music video of the song . It was also used to promote Shakira 's fourth live album Live from Paris .
= = Background and composition = =
In October 2009 , Shakira released her eighth studio album , She Wolf . The composition of the record shifted from her more traditional Latin pop and pop rock styles , and was primarily an electropop album with combined elements of world and folk music . The album was positively received by most music critics and was praised for its distinguished nature and Shakira 's experimentation with electropop . Commercially , She Wolf was a success , topping charts and attaining gold and platinum certifications in several South American and European territories . However , it performed poorly in the United States and became Shakira 's first studio album since Dónde Están los Ladrones ? ( 1998 ) to miss charting inside the top 10 after it peaked at number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 200 chart . In May 2010 , she wrote and recorded " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , the official song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup , which became a worldwide hit .
Following the global success of the song , Shakira began work on her ninth studio album Sale el Sol . She split the album into three " directions , " one of which she described as " romantic " in nature . Shakira felt it was something she had not " tapped into for the past three years , " and its inclusion in the album resulted in " very intense , very romantic " songs . " Antes de las Seis " is one such song from the album . The Latin pop ballad was written and produced by Shakira and her frequent collaborator Lester Mendez , who had previously worked with her on songs including " Underneath Your Clothes " ( 2002 ) and " La Tortura " ( 2005 ) . The musical instrumentation of the song is simple and consists of a piano and acoustic guitar . According to Jennifer Schaffer from the The Stanford Daily , its " softer " production helps in putting the focus on Shakira 's voice , which she opined had been " stripped to its sensitive core . " The singer delivers sad and emotional vocals that address issues of " longing , regrets and loneliness . " Shakira talked about the deep meaning behind the balladry of the album and expressed difficulty in explaining it , saying : " We all go through hard moments . Whatever happened , it 's right there in the songs . I 've decided that I 'm not going to explain every song this time . It 's hard to explain a song . These songs explain me better than I can explain them . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Antes de las Seis " was chosen as the fourth single from Sale el Sol and was made available to digitally download from the iTunes Store on 21 October 2011 . An announcement confirming its release as a single appeared on Shakira 's official website on 24 October . Although the announcement mentioned that the single would be released to the iTunes Store on 31 October , it had already appeared on there ten days before .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Antes de las Seis " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic highlighted it as an example of Shakira 's versatility and commented that the album " catches its breath on the ballad . " Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly termed the song a " gorgeous ballad " and encouraged readers to download it . Jesus Yanez @-@ Reyes from Northern Arizona News gave " Antes de las Seis " a very positive review and praised its lyrics and Shakira 's " heartfelt " vocal delivery as having the ability " to overcome whatever language barriers may exist between the artist and the listener , truly making it a song of note within the release . " Jennifer Schaffer from the Stanford Daily complimented the sensitivity of the song and commented that " Shakira offers her listeners a far more vulnerable persona " through it . Carlos Macias from Terra Music picked " Antes de las Seis " as his favourite track from the album and commended its lyrics , calling them " classic Shakira " and concluding that " It 'd been a while since the Colombian superstar offered us an insight into her heart . " At the Premios Nuestra Tierra awards ceremony in 2012 , " Antes de las Seis " was nominated for " Mejor Interpretación Pop Del Año " ( " Best Pop Performance of the Year " ) .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Commercially , the song was moderately successful in Hispanic regions . In Mexico , " Antes de las Seis " peaked at number 14 on the Monitor Latino airplay chart . In Spain , it topped the PROMUSICAE airplay chart , although it failed to chart on the main singles chart . Similarly , the song was successful on the Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart in the United States , on which it peaked at number 4 , but performed poorly on the main Hot Latin Songs chart , reaching only number 21 . " Antes de las Seis " is the only single from Sale el Sol to not chart inside the top ten of the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . In 2013 , the Mexican Association of Phonograph Producers ( AMPROFON ) certified " Antes de las Seis " gold for selling 30 @,@ 000 units in Mexico .
= = Promotion = =
The song was included on the set list of Shakira 's The Sun Comes Out World Tour in 2010 and 2011 , and was performed as the opening song of the encore segment of the concert shows . She sang it dressed in a large " feathery " royal blue dress , and towards the end of the performance artificial snow flakes started falling from the sky . A recording of the performance during the concert held at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy arena in Paris , France , served as the music video of " Antes de las Seis " . The video was also used to promote Shakira 's fourth live album Live from Paris .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Washington State Route 339 =
State Route 339 ( SR 339 ) was a 8 @.@ 5 @-@ nautical @-@ mile @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 8 mi ; 15 @.@ 7 km ) ferry route designated as a state highway in the U.S. state of Washington . It connected Vashon Island 's Vashon Heights ferry terminal to downtown Seattle 's Pier 50 , via a passenger @-@ only ferry , the MV Skagit . The ferry was financed by the King County Ferry District ( KCFD ) and tolls collected at Pier 50 . Despite being part of the KCFD , the ferry was operated by Washington State Ferries ( WSF ) . SR 339 was one of only four ferry routes providing access to and from Vashon Island , and had the lowest annual average ridership of the four routes . The state of Washington took over the operation of the ferry route in 1951 , and designated it SR 339 in 1994 . The ferry was discontinued in 2006 and was replaced by a King County Water Taxi route .
= = Route description = =
The entire route of SR 339 was in Puget Sound and was served by the MV Skagit . The passenger @-@ only ferry started out from the Vashon Heights ferry terminal on Vashon Island and headed in a northerly direction , passing Blake Island State Park on the west . It briefly sailed into Kitsap County before the route turned east and passed the Alki Point Light and Alki Point before entering Elliott Bay , and docking at WSF 's Pier 50 , just south of Colman Dock , where the rest of the WSF operated ferries dock in Seattle .
Traveling at a top speed of 25 knots ( 29 mph ) , the MV Skagit made the crossing in about 35 minutes . There were three crossings each direction Monday – Friday , and no service on Saturday or Sunday .
Vashon Island is only connected to the rest of the region via three different WSF ferries departing from the Vashon dock , the other route departing from the Tahlequah dock on the south end of the island . SR 339 was the only passenger @-@ only ferry that served the island ; the other three ferries are auto ferries .
= = History = =
Ferries have provided transportation to and from Vashon Island since the days of the Seattle Mosquito Fleet , but the state government took over the operation of the Vashon Island ferry on June 1 , 1951 . The MV Skagit was built in 1989 , and the ferry began service on the Seattle – Vashon Island route on April 23 , 1990 . The route was designated as a state highway , along with the rest of the state ferry system , in 1994 . In 2003 the average daily ridership was 827 passengers per day , based on a five @-@ day week , compared to 1 @,@ 015 passengers on average when the route operated on a six @-@ day schedule in 1999 . This number has decreased in 2004 , with an average of 529 passengers per day traveling on the ferry . The passenger @-@ only service between Vashion Island and Seattle ended in 2006 . WSF operated and maintained the MV Skagit , but by July 2009 the KCFD was to assume all responsibilities of the operation . The route no longer received state funding , and King County was to be responsible for all costs of the route to be funded by property taxes . The MV Skagit was sold in 2011 to a ferry operator in Tanzania , where it connected Zanzibar to the mainland until it sank on July 18 , 2012 .
The Seattle – Vashon Island run was transferred to the King County Ferry District in 2007 , now operated as a King County Water Taxi route .
= = Tolls = =
Tolls were collected on trips departing Pier 50 ; return trips to Seattle were not charged . The adult toll was $ 8 @.@ 70 , with bicycles assessed an additional $ 1 @.@ 00 toll . Wave2Go is a prepaid toll system which allowed commuters to purchase either 10 ride cards or monthly passes .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was located in Puget Sound , King County .
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= Colbert @-@ class ironclad =
The Colbert class were a pair of armored frigates built for the French Navy during the 1870s . The ships served as the flagships of the commander and deputy commander of the Mediterranean Squadron for most of their careers . The sister ships took part in the French conquest of Tunisia , notably shelling and landing troops in Sfax in 1881 . They were relegated to second @-@ line roles in 1894 – 95 before being condemned in 1900 . The ships were finally sold for scrap in 1909 .
= = Design and description = =
The Colbert @-@ class ships were designed by Constructor Sabattier as improved versions of the ironclad Richelieu and were the last ships authorized by the 1857 Naval Program . They reverted to a single propeller shaft to improve their sailing qualities and to lessen the chance of the propellers being fouled by fallen rigging . As central battery ironclads , they had their armament concentrated amidships . Like most ironclads of their era , they were equipped with a plough @-@ shaped ram . The ships ' crew numbered 774 officers and men . Their metacentric height was low , a little above 0 @.@ 6 meters ( 2 ft ) .
The ships measured 101 @.@ 1 – 102 @.@ 1 meters ( 331 ft 8 in – 335 ft 0 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 57 – 17 @.@ 7 meters ( 57 ft 8 in – 58 ft 1 in ) . They had maximum drafts of 8 @.@ 11 – 8 @.@ 58 meters ( 26 ft 7 in – 28 ft 2 in ) and displaced 8 @,@ 617 – 8 @,@ 814 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 481 – 8 @,@ 675 long tons ) .
While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known , it is believed that reduction of the French Navy 's budget after the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 and out @-@ of @-@ date work practices in French dockyards were likely causes .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Colbert class had a single Wolf three @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod compound steam engine that drove one propeller . The engine was powered by eight oval boilers and was designed for a capacity of 4 @,@ 700 metric horsepower ; 3 @,@ 400 kilowatts ( 4 @,@ 600 ihp ) . On sea trials the engines produced 4 @,@ 652 – 4 @,@ 882 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 422 – 3 @,@ 591 kW ) and the ships reached speeds of 14 @.@ 18 – 14 @.@ 47 knots ( 26 @.@ 26 – 26 @.@ 80 km / h ; 16 @.@ 32 – 16 @.@ 65 mph ) . The ships carried a maximum of 620 metric tons ( 610 long tons ) of coal which allowed them to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 100 km ; 3 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were ship rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 100 square meters ( 23 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Colberts had two 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at the forward corners of the battery , with six additional guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . The side of the upper deck were cut away to improve the ability of the barbette guns to bear fore and aft . One 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) gun was mounted in the forecastle as a chase gun . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of six 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns , four forward of the battery and two aft . These latter two guns were replaced in 1878 by another 240 @-@ millimeter gun as a stern chaser . The ship also mounted four above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes .
All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells . The 18 @-@ caliber 274 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1870 gun fired an armor @-@ piercing , 216 @.@ 0 @-@ kilogram ( 476 @.@ 2 lb ) shell while the gun itself weighed 23 @.@ 21 metric tons ( 22 @.@ 84 long tons ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 434 m / s ( 1 @,@ 424 ft / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 360 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millmeter Modèle 1870 gun weighed 144 @.@ 0 kilograms ( 317 @.@ 5 lb ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 66 metric tons ( 15 @.@ 41 long tons ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 495 m / s ( 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ) and could penetrate 366 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 4 in ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2 @.@ 67 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 63 long tons ) . It fired a 28 @.@ 0 @-@ kilogram ( 61 @.@ 7 lb ) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 466 m / s ( 1 @,@ 529 ft / s ) .
At some point the ship received fourteen to eighteen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) and had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute .
= = = Armor = = =
The Colbert @-@ class ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt that was 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) at the stern . It was backed by 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of wood . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron , backed by 62 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) of wood , and the ends of the battery were closed by transverse armored bulkheads 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick , backed by 480 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 9 in ) of wood . The barbettes were unarmored , but the deck was 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Colbert served as the flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron from 1879 to 1890 when she was placed in reserve . Trident became the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the squadron in 1879 . The sisters bombarded port of Sfax on 15 – 16 July 1881 as the French occupied Tunisia , under the command of Vice Admiral Henri Garnault .
Colbert was recommissioned in 1892 before she was disarmed and paid off in 1895 . Trident was disarmed and placed in reserve in 1886 – 89 , but was recommissioned in 1889 and resumed her role as flagship until she was again placed in reserve in 1894 . The ship served as a gunnery training ship until she was condemned in 1900 . She was renamed Var in 1904 and was sold for scrap five years later . Colbert was also condemned in 1900 and sold for scrap in 1909 .
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= ATLiens =
ATLiens is the second studio album by American hip hop duo OutKast , released on August 27 , 1996 , by LaFace Records . The duo wanted to improve on their 1994 debut album Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik and gain respect for their growing Southern hip hop scene . OutKast recorded ATLiens in sessions at several Atlanta studios — Bosstown Recording Studios , Doppler Recording Studios , PatchWerk Recording Studio , Purple Dragon Studios , and Studio LaCoCo — as well as Chung King Recording Studio and Sound On Sound Recording in New York City .
The record features outer space @-@ inspired production sounds , with OutKast and producers Organized Noize incorporating elements of dub , reggae , and gospel into the compositions . Several songs feature the duo 's first attempts at producing music by themselves . Lyrically , the group discusses a wide range of topics including urban life as hustlers , existential introspection , and extraterrestrial life . The album 's title is a portmanteau of " ATL " ( an abbreviation of Atlanta , Georgia ) and " aliens " , which has been interpreted by critics as a commentary about the feeling of being isolated from American culture .
ATLiens debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart , and it sold nearly 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first two weeks of release . The album was very well received by music critics upon its release , who praised the record 's lyrical content . It has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of two million copies in the United States . The album spawned the singles " Elevators ( Me & You ) " , " ATLiens " , and " Jazzy Belle " . Since its release , ATLiens has been listed by several magazines and critics as one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time .
= = Background = =
In 1994 , OutKast released their debut album , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik , which was recorded when members Big Boi and André 3000 were eighteen years old . Bolstered by the success of the single " Player 's Ball " , the record established OutKast as prominent figures in the Southern hip hop scene . After the album was certified platinum , LaFace Records gave OutKast more creative control and advanced money for their 1996 follow @-@ up album ATLiens . The duo took the opportunity to recreate their image . On a trip to Jamaica with producer Mr. DJ , the two decided to abandon their cornrow hairstyles in favor of a more natural aesthetic , vowing to stop combing their hair . Dungeon Family member Big Rube observed an increase in the duo 's confidence after returning from their first tour , remarking , " They started understanding the power they had in their music . They started showing a swagger that certain artists have — the ones that are stars . " The members also underwent changes in their personal lives ; in 1995 , Big Boi 's girlfriend gave birth to their first child and André 3000 and Total 's Keisha Spivey ended their two @-@ year relationship .
Despite its success , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik had some detractors , including hip hop tastemakers who were unaccustomed to the album 's style . As the East Coast and West Coast hip hop scenes were already well @-@ established at the time , many did not view the South as a legitimate and respectable scene . At the 1995 Source Awards , an award ceremony held by The Source magazine , OutKast won in the " Best Newcomer " category , but were booed upon taking the stage and delivering their acceptance speech ; Big Boi managed to deliver his shout outs , while André 3000 was nervous and said , " The South got somethin ' to say . " The latter recalled how the album was received by some listeners , " People thought that the South basically only had bass music . At first people were looking at us like ' Um , I don 't know . ' " Taken aback by the backlash , André 3000 and Big Boi channelled their frustration in the studio to improve upon their debut .
= = Recording and production = =
After acquiring their own recording studio , the duo immediately started working on new material and assimilated themselves with music recording and studio equipment , as they sought to become more ambitious artists and less dependent on other producers . The two also became more accustomed to playing live , particularly Big Boi , and André 3000 significantly changed his lifestyle , as he adopted a more eccentric fashion sense , became a vegetarian , and stopped smoking marijuana . Having dropped out months before graduation , André 3000 also returned to high school to earn his diploma during the recording of ATLiens .
Before beginning work on ATLiens , André 3000 purchased an SP1200 drum machine , an MPC3000 sampler , a TASCAM mixing board , and turntables with stacks of classic records . Although he had never produced a song before , he used techniques learned from observing the Dungeon Crew at work . " Elevators ( Me & You ) " was the first song the duo created together for the album . The duo refrained from sampling on the album , with Big Boi explaining " I feel like you cheat the listener when you sample . If it 's an old school jam , leave it to the old . We wanna have our own school of music . "
OutKast recorded the album in sessions at several Atlanta studios — Bosstown Recording Studios , Doppler Recording Studios , PatchWerk Recording Studio , Purple Dragon Studios , and Studio LaCoCo — as well as Chung King Recording Studio and Sound On Sound Recording in New York City . For ATLiens , the band aimed for a consistent set of songs in which a listener would not need to skip tracks ; OutKast wrote around 35 songs for the album and reduced them to fourteen . The duo 's songwriting style for the album had no solid structure and was mostly spontaneous ; Big Boi noted , " Stuff 'll just come to you . I 'll be sittin ' in the truck , and I 'll start rhymin ' . People look at me like I 'm crazy , but that 's how it starts . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
Two @-@ thirds of the album is produced by Organized Noize , OutKast 's primary production team . The rest is produced by Earthtone III , a production team that includes OutKast themselves and Mr. DJ . André 3000 and Big Boi produced the songs " Jazzy Belle " and " Elevators ( Me & You ) " . It also has a notably more laid @-@ back , spacey production sound , which they expanded upon on their follow @-@ up album Aquemini . Although the group drew from George Clinton 's outer @-@ space inspired compositions , the band utilizes a more laid @-@ back style as opposed to Clinton 's hard funk leanings . Many tracks feature strong echo and reverb , taking influence from dub and reggae . Andrea Comer of The Hartford Courant perceives an " extraterrestrial feel " in the record 's production .
OutKast also incorporated elements of gospel into the music ; being from the South , the group felt obligated to " stay close to [ their ] slave roots " . The album 's introduction track " You May Die " has been described as " churchy " . " Elevators ( Me & You ) " contains atmospheric elements including echoes , dub @-@ influenced bass , organ riffs , and telephone tones . " 13th Floor / Growing Old " contains a spoken word introduction from Big Rube , somber soul vocals from Debra Killings , and a " Prince @-@ ish " piano riff , while " Wheelz of Steel " features " furious " turntable scratching by Mr. DJ . " Extraterrestrial " offers a break in the continuity of the record as it features no drum beat .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Lyrically , André 3000 and Big Boi abandon the " hard @-@ partying playa characters " of their debut album in favor of more spacey , funky , and futuristic personas on ATLiens . With their lyrics , the duo hoped to reflect on maturity in the wake of the birth of Big Boi 's daughter . André 3000 explained , " It 's like everybody 's talking about sipping champagne and being big time , so we just took it upon ourselves to do something new ... I want my children to say , ' Daddy really said something , he wasn 't just trying to brag on himself . ' " Many songs on ATLiens feature more unconventional subject matter for hip hop . The lyrical content ranges from addressing urban life as hustlers and pimps to extraterrestrial life and space travel . The title track 's chorus expresses Southern pride , while its verses feature André 3000 explaining his newly adopted drug @-@ free lifestyle .
" Elevators ( Me & You ) " illustrates OutKast 's rise to fame , and was inspired by a show the band played at Howard University with P. Diddy in the audience . The song also discusses the unlikely partnership of André 3000 and Big Boi , and uses the metaphor of an elevator for the ups and downs of fame . The final verse illustrates André 3000 dealing with a fan who pretends to have been childhood friends with him . It also references Southern culture , including mentions of Cadillacs and extended family gatherings . " Babylon " reflects on religious attitudes towards sex and illustrates André 3000 's upbringing and his forbidden attractions throughout childhood . " Jazzy Belle " discusses the group 's " increasingly enlightened " view regarding women : " Went from yellin ' ... bitches and hoes to queen thangs " . The album 's closer " 13th Floor / Growing Old " is a meditation on aging and emphasizes Southern hip hop 's legitimacy .
= = Release and promotion = =
ATLiens was released on August 27 , 1996 , by LaFace Records . In September , LaFace created a promotion for the record in conjunction with Blockbuster in which customers could enter to win a 1970s Cadillac car , emphasizing OutKast and Cadillac 's connection with the Southern lifestyle . The record 's inner booklet features a 24 @-@ page comic strip foldout starring the members , who must defend " positive music " against the villain Nosamulli . The strip continues in the artwork for each single released from ATLiens except for " Elevators ( Me & You ) " .
The album 's title is a portmanteau of " ATL " ( an abbreviation of Atlanta , Georgia ) and " aliens " . In his book Icons of Hip Hop : An Encyclopedia of the Movement , Music , and Culture , author Mickey Hess interprets the album 's title as " partly a statement about being from Atlanta , while also signifying on the theme of the group 's name ( by using the term aliens ) framing themselves as societal outcasts . " Mark Bould , author of The Routledge Companion to Science Fiction , observes that the title symbolizes OutKast 's " estrangement from American society " , suggesting that " the inner city of their formative years is out of this world and its hostile conditions . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
ATLiens received critical acclaim from contemporary music critics . Andrea Comer of The Hartford Courant felt that OutKast 's " lyrical acumen shines through " despite " Heltah @-@ Skeltah mumbling and Southern slang " , and stated , " after a few rotations , the alien feeling wears away , and [ the album is ] just out of this world . " Sonia Murray of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution called the album " more thoughtful " than its predecessor , noting , " What the second album lacks in adventurous arrangements it more than makes up for in lyrical dominance . " The Source observed " growth " from OutKast and Organized Noize , and stated , " Big Boi and Dre have gone out of this world into a new dimension of sight , sound and mind " .
Kevin Powell of Rolling Stone felt that , like OutKast 's debut album , ATLiens is " a gritty document of what 's happening here and now , an up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ minute briefing on Southern black ghetto life on which OutKast members Andre and Big Boi cast their feelings of alienation in familiar , realistic characterizations " . Powell asserted that unlike East Coast hip hop 's " hedonistic materialism " or " the gunplay and pimpism " of West Coast hip hop , " Andre and Big Boi display a unique ability to describe ghetto life while offering up life @-@ affirming possibilities , something all too rare in today 's hip @-@ hop nation . " Richard Harrington of The Washington Post enjoyed the record 's " more serious and focused lyrical sensibility " , explaining , " The raps are generally inventive , clever without being cloying , more proof ( if any were needed ) that hip @-@ hop innovation isn 't just an East @-@ West thang . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , and it sold nearly 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first two weeks of release . It ultimately spent 33 weeks on the Billboard 200 chart . Three singles were released for the album — " Elevators ( Me & You ) " on July 5 , 1996 , " ATLiens " in November 1996 , and " Jazzy Belle " in April 1997 . " Elevators ( Me & You ) " reached number 12 and spent 20 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on September 13 , 1996 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . " ATLiens " reached number 35 and spent 17 weeks on the Hot 100 , and " Jazzy Belle " spent 14 weeks and peaked at number 52 on the Hot 100 .
The album was certified platinum by the RIAA on November 6 , 1996 , for shipments of one million copies in the US . By 1998 , it had sold over 1 @.@ 2 million copies . On June 24 , 2003 , the RIAA certified ATLiens double platinum , having shipped two million copies in the US .
= = Legacy = =
In a retrospective review , Allmusic editor Steve Huey viewed the album as OutKast 's " most focused work " and commented that " In addition to the striking musical leap forward , Dre and Big Boi continue to grow as rappers ; their flows are getting more tongue @-@ twistingly complex , and their lyrics more free @-@ associative " . RapReviews critic Steve Juon recommended it to listeners who " want to be challenged by [ their ] hip @-@ hop " and wrote of the album 's aesthetic :
It 's deep . So deep that listening to ATLiens you might feel like drowning , but the smooth vo @-@ cals of Big Boi and the earthy flows of Andre always push you back up to the surface . They are players in the truest sense of the word ; not just playing for ends but playing to win in the ultimate battle of life over death , good over bad , and righteousness over evil . Yet , it 's not that heavy either . This album is nod your head music , shake your ass music . It makes you think and groove at the same time .
In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Roni Sarig felt that , strong rapping notwithstanding , the album 's music " suffers as the duo make their first attempt at self @-@ producing " and stated , " Although ATLiens promised expanded vistas with its interstellar motif , the record delivered something of a sophomore slump ... At best , ATLiens is the sound of an ambitious group searching for its voice . "
In 1998 , the album was selected as one of The Source 's " 100 Best Rap Albums " . In 2000 , Exclaim ! listed the album on their " 100 Records That Rocked 100 Issues of Exclaim ! " list . Hip Hop Connection ranked it number six on their list of " The 100 Greatest Rap Albums 1995 – 2005 " . Complex ranked the album fifth on their list of " The 50 Greatest Sophomore Albums in Hip @-@ Hop History " , its title 15th on " The 50 Best Rap Album Titles Ever " , and the title track 's beat 91st on " The 100 Greatest Hip @-@ Hop Beats of All Time " . Rappers Wiz Khalifa and Dom Kennedy , and DJ Jesse Marco have named ATLiens as one of their favorite albums .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing and samples compiled from album liner notes .
Sample credits
" You May Die ( Intro ) " is an interpolation of " Summer in the City " performed by Quincy Jones .
" Two Dope Boyz ( In a Cadillac ) " contains a sample of " D.E.E.P. " performed by OutKast , and " Danger , She 's a Stranger " performed by The Five Stairsteps .
" ATLiens " contains a sample of " Around the World " performed by Attilio Mineo , and " So Tired " performed by The Chambers Brothers .
" Wheelz of Steel " contains a sample of " Focus III " performed by Focus , " Saturday Night Style " performed by Mikey Dread .
" Jazzy Belle " contains a sample of " It 's Yours " performed by T La Rock and Jazzy Jay , and " Prelude " performed by Lamont Dozier .
" Elevators " contains a sample of " Blue Suede Shoes " performed by Carl Perkins .
" Elevators ( Me & You ) [ ONP 86 Mix ] " contains a sample of " Come in Out of the Rain " performed by Parliament ; the original contains SFX from the video game Super Mario Bros.
" Ova Da Wudz " contain a sample of " Judas " performed by Society of Soul .
" Babylon " contains a sample of " 12 O 'Clock " performed by Vangelis .
" Wailin ' " contains a sample of " To the Establishment " performed by Lou Bond .
" Mainstream " contains a sample of " Sesame Street " performed by Goodie Mob .
" Decatur Psalm " contains a sample of " Cebu " performed by The Commodores .
= = Personnel = =
Compiled from album liner notes .
= = = Musicians = = =
= = = Production = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Dara Torres =
Dara Grace Torres ( born April 15 , 1967 ) is an American former competitive swimmer who is a twelve @-@ time Olympic medalist and former world record @-@ holder in three events . Torres is the first swimmer to represent the United States in five Olympic Games ( 1984 , 1988 , 1992 , 2000 and 2008 ) , and , at age 41 , was the oldest swimmer ever to earn a place on the U.S. Olympic team . At the 2008 Summer Olympics , she competed in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , and 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , and won silver medals in all three events .
Torres has won twelve Olympic medals ( four gold , four silver , four bronze ) , one of three women with the most Olympic women 's swimming medals . She won five medals at the 2000 Summer Olympics when , at age 33 , she was the oldest member of the 2000 U.S. Olympic Swim Team . She has also won at least one medal in each of the five Olympics in which she has competed , making her one of only a handful of Olympians to earn medals in five different Games .
= = Early years = =
Torres was born in Los Angeles , California , the daughter of Edward Torres and Marylu Kauder . Her father was a real estate developer and casino owner , originally from Cuba ; her mother Marylu was a former American model . Torres grew up in Beverly Hills , California , the fifth of six children and the older of two girls . As a 7 @-@ year @-@ old , she followed in the footsteps of her older brothers by joining their community Y.M.C.A. for swimming practice ; afterward , she signed up for the swimming club in Culver City to train . At 14 , she won the national open championship in the 50 @-@ yard freestyle by defeating the then @-@ current champion , Jill Sterkel , a college junior .
She attended the Westlake School for Girls ( now Harvard @-@ Westlake School ) , and competed for the Westlake swim team under coach Darlene Bible from the seventh grade through her sophomore year in high school . She was also a member of the Westlake basketball , gymnastics and volleyball teams . During her 1983 – 84 high school junior year , she left home to swim for the Mission Viejo Nadadores in Mission Viejo , California , while training for her first Olympics under coach Mark Schubert . After the 1984 Olympics , Torres returned to the Westlake School to graduate in 1985 .
= = College swimming career = =
Torres accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where she swam for the Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) competition under coach Randy Reese from 1986 to 1989 . In her four years as a Gator swimmer , Torres won nine Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) individual championships , including the 50 @-@ yard freestyle ( 1987 , 1988 , 1989 ) , 100 @-@ yard freestyle ( 1987 , 1988 , 1989 ) , 200 @-@ yard freestyle ( 1987 ) , and 100 @-@ yard butterfly ( 1988 , 1989 ) ; she was also a member of twelve of the Gators ' SEC championship relay teams . Torres won three NCAA individual national championships ( 50 @-@ yard freestyle , 100 @-@ yard freestyle , 100 @-@ yard butterfly ) in 1988 ; and was a member of six of the Gators ' NCAA championship relay teams , including the 400 @-@ yard freestyle relay in 1986 ; the 200 @-@ yard and 400 @-@ yard medley relays , and the 400 @-@ yard freestyle relay in 1988 ; and the 200 @-@ yard and 400 @-@ yard medley relays in 1989 . She was named the SEC Athlete of the Year in 1988 , SEC Female Swimmer of the Year in 1987 and 1989 , and earned twenty @-@ eight All @-@ American swimming honors — the maximum number possible during a college career . Torres also lettered in volleyball at Florida , playing the sport in her fifth year after having exhausted her NCAA eligibility in swimming .
Torres graduated from the university with a bachelor 's degree in telecommunications in 1990 , and was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great " in 1999 . In November 2013 , she was named as a recipient of the 2014 NCAA Silver Anniversary Award , presented annually to six distinguished former student @-@ athletes on the 25th anniversary of their final school year of athletic eligibility .
= = International swimming career = =
= = = 1984 , 1988 and 1992 Olympics = = =
At the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , Torres was a member of the winning U.S. women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team , swimming in the first @-@ round qualifying heat and earning a gold medal in the event final . Her winning teammates in that final included Nancy Hogshead , Jenna Johnson and Carrie Steinseifer ; Jill Sterkel and Mary Wayte also swam in the event 's second @-@ round qualifying heat .
For the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , Torres qualified for the U.S. Olympic women 's team in one individual event and two relay events . Torres earned a bronze medal for swimming for the third @-@ place U.S. women 's team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay final , together with teammates Mitzi Kremer , Laura Walker and Mary Wayte . She also earned a silver medal for swimming the freestyle leg of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay for the second @-@ place U.S. team in the preliminary heats , but not the final . Individually , Torres also placed seventh in the final of the 100 @-@ meter freestyle event .
Torres qualified for the U.S. Olympic women 's team in a single event for the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . She swam the second leg of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay for the winning U.S. team that included Nicole Haislett , Angel Martino and Jenny Thompson , and earned a gold medal for her efforts in the event final and first @-@ round qualifying heat .
= = = First comeback : 2000 Olympics = = =
After seven years out of competitive swimming , Torres began to train for an Olympic comeback in 1999 under the guidance of coach Richard Quick . She won five medals at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , but saved her best for two of the major relay events of the U.S. Olympic women 's team . She swam the second leg for the winning U.S. women 's team in final of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay that included Amy Van Dyken , Courtney Shealy and Jenny Thompson . Torres won a second gold medal for anchoring the winning U.S. team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , together with teammates B.J. Bedford , Megan Quann and Jenny Thompson in the final . Individually , Torres also earned bronze medals – her first Olympic medals in individual events – in each of the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly and the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , tying teammate and rival Jenny Thompson for third place in the last event . At 33 years old , Torres became the oldest woman to win an Olympic medal in swimming . She was the oldest member of the U.S. Olympic swim team , but won more medals ( 5 ) than any other U.S. team member .
= = = Second comeback : 2008 Olympics = = =
On August 1 , 2007 , at age 40 and just 16 months after giving birth to her first child , Torres won the 100 @-@ meter freestyle at the U.S. Nationals in Indianapolis . On August 4 , she set a new American record in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle of 24 @.@ 53 seconds , breaking her own record of 24 @.@ 63 seconds set at the 2000 Summer Olympics . She lowered her initial American record by 1 @.@ 62 seconds . Torres has broken or lowered her own American record in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle ten times , which is the most by any American swimmer in any event .
At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Trials , Torres returned to the pool and qualified for a spot in her fifth Olympic Games at the age of 41 , a first for an American female swimmer . She became the oldest U.S. Olympic swimmer in history and the first American swimmer to appear in five Olympic Games .
At the trials , she qualified for the event finals in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle and broke the American record with a time of 24 @.@ 38 seconds in the semifinal . In the 50 @-@ meter finals , she broke that record for the ninth time , setting it at 24 @.@ 25 seconds and winning the top American women 's spot in the event . Torres also qualified in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , but later withdrew from the individual 100 @-@ meter freestyle event to focus her efforts on the 50 @-@ meter freestyle and 4 × 100 @-@ meter relay events . On July 30 , at the U.S. swim team 's final training in Singapore , Torres , Amanda Beard and Natalie Coughlin were elected captains of the U.S. Olympic women 's swimming team .
In order to pre @-@ empt any speculation that she might be taking performance @-@ enhancing drugs , Torres volunteered for a new enhanced drug @-@ testing program by the U.S. Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) . " I want to be an open book " , she said . " I want people to know that I 'm 41 , and I 'm doing this right . I 'm clean . " In addition to employing her training team of coach Michael Lohberg , a sprint coach , a chiropractor and two masseuses , Torres used resistance stretching trainers , calling it her " secret weapon " for continued success . Her $ 100 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ year training costs were partially subsidized by her corporate sponsors Speedo , Toyota and Bloomberg L.P.
At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , Torres won a silver medal as the anchor swimmer of the second @-@ place U.S. team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . It was the fifth time in five tries she earned an Olympic medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . With the American relay team 's second @-@ place finish , she became the oldest swimmer to win a medal in Olympic history , surpassing British swimmer William Robinson , who was 38 at the time of the 1908 Summer Olympics .
On August 17 , 2008 , she won the silver medal in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , finishing in a new American record time of 24 @.@ 07 seconds , one one @-@ hundredth ( 0 @.@ 01 ) of a second behind the winner , Britta Steffen . Her second @-@ place time was a new American record , and 0 @.@ 18 of a second faster than she swam at the U.S. Olympic Trials . Thirty @-@ five minutes later , she won another silver medal swimming the freestyle anchor leg for the second @-@ place U.S. team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . Her split on the 4 × 100 medley relay ( 52 @.@ 27 seconds ) was the fastest 100 @-@ meter freestyle split in relay history . The American record for the women 's 100 @-@ meter freestyle as an individual event was 53 @.@ 39 seconds as of August 2008 , making Torres ' time more than a full second faster .
Torres ' twelve Olympic medals tied the all @-@ time medal record for a female Olympic swimmer set by fellow American Jenny Thompson in 2004 ; American Natalie Coughlin subsequently equaled the record in 2012 .
= = = Aftermath and retirement = = =
At the U.S. National Championships in 2009 , Torres won the 50 @-@ meter freestyle with the fourth @-@ best time in the world for the year ( 24 @.@ 42 ) , and she also placed in the 50 @-@ meter butterfly , qualifying her to compete in those events at the 2009 World Championships . This was the first time since 1986 that Torres competed in the World Championships ; she placed eighth in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle and she did not advance beyond the qualifying heats in the 50 @-@ meter butterfly .
Following reconstructive surgery of one of her knees , she began training with the goal of competing in the 2012 Summer Olympics . At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials , she placed fourth in the finals of the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , 0 @.@ 32 of a second behind the winner , Jessica Hardy , and 0 @.@ 09 of a second behind the second qualifier , Kara Lynn Joyce . Only the top two finishers in each trials event qualified for the 2012 U.S. Olympic Team , and as a result , Torres concluded her Olympic career . After the 2012 Trials , Torres announced her retirement from competitive swimming , concluding her career with 12 Olympic medals . Her Olympic career spanned twenty @-@ four years from 1984 to 2008 and five Olympic Games ( 1984 , 1988 , 1992 , 2000 , 2008 ) .
= = Life outside swimming = =
Torres has worked in television as a reporter and announcer for American networks NBC , ESPN , TNT , OLN and Fox News Channel , and hosted the golf show The Clubhouse on the Resort Sports Network . She has also worked as a model , and was the first elite swimmer to model swimwear in the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue , appearing in the 1994 edition . She was elected to the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 2005 .
After 1992 , she married and subsequently divorced sports producer Jeff Gowen . After 2000 , she converted to Judaism before marrying the Israeli surgeon Itzhak Shasha ( her own father had been Jewish ) . Torres and Shasha later divorced . Torres and reproductive endocrinologist David Hoffman began dating after her break @-@ up with Shasha , and they became the parents of Tessa Grace Torres @-@ Hoffman , born in 2006 . After the birth of their daughter , Hoffman , a masters swimmer , persuaded her to begin training again .
Torres is a veteran celebrity swimmer for Swim Across America , a charitable organization that raises funds for cancer research in which she has participated for several years . She is the author of two books : Age is Just a Number : Achieve Your Dreams at Any Stage in Your Life ( with Elizabeth Weil ) , and Gold Medal Fitness : A Revolutionary 5 @-@ Week Program ( with Billie Fitzpatrick ) .
= = World records = =
Women 's 50 @-@ meter freestyle
Women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay
Women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay
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= École L 'Odyssée =
École L 'Odyssée ( French pronunciation : [ ekɔl lɔdiˈse ] , English : " Odyssey School " ) is a public francophone high school in Moncton , New Brunswick , Canada . It is part of the province 's Francophone Sud School District , offering education to students from grade nine to twelve . The school opened on September 30 , 2005 as part of a $ 24 @.@ 2 million project , alongside the adjoining middle school , École Le Mascaret . École L 'Odyssée was conceived as a way to alleviate the overcrowding problem at École Mathieu @-@ Martin in nearby Dieppe , a problem the district has had in the past . The Odyssée @-@ Mascaret project , as well as the future Carrefour de l 'Acadie middle school , replaced the former École Beauséjour and École Vanier complexes . This move allowed the Moncton Hospital to expand , while the Vanier establishment made way for medical offices . On September 9 , 2009 , the school was given permission to begin an $ 884 @,@ 000 expansion for its far side , allowing for a larger space to be reserved for its infirmary and orientation center .
As of September 2010 , the school holds 767 students out of its capacity of 850 , compared to 971 students at École Mathieu @-@ Martin . It is the only French high school in Moncton .
= = History = =
As Moncton 's population grew over the years , overcrowding in high schools soon became a problem : in the 2004 – 05 school year , École Mathieu @-@ Martin – the sole francophone high school in the area – had an enrolment of 1 @,@ 609 students , well above the 2009 – 2010 enrolment of 1 @,@ 025 . When the city 's growth rate climbed from 5 % in the years 1991 – 96 to 6 @.@ 5 % in the years 2001 – 06 , the problem became even more apparent . In fact , prior to construction , the idea of a second francophone complex had been in the minds of the New Brunswick Department of Education since as early as December 20 , 2002 . This idea was later confirmed in New Brunswick 's record @-@ breaking $ 809 million budget for the 2003 – 04 fiscal year , where $ 100 @,@ 000 was allocated to " develop the educational specifications " of the complex . Originally , the project was code named " Moncton School Complex " ( French : Complexe Scolaire de Moncton ) .
On January 12 , 2004 , the two schools were revealed to be attached side @-@ to @-@ side , occupying a combined area of 16 @,@ 000 square meters ( 170 @,@ 000 square feet ) about 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 miles ) from the nearby Université de Moncton . When commenting on the new facility , New Brunswick Premier Bernard Lord said that " [ this ] project offers numerous advantages , from several points of view " , and that " it reflects [ the government 's ] commitment to equipping New Brunswick with a high @-@ calibre education system . " The names for the two schools were picked from submissions sent by the education councils of District 01 and District 03 on March 14 , 2005 . Both schools were announced to be replacing École Beauséjour and École Vanier , two francophone middle schools , which made way for the expansion of the Moncton Hospital and for medical offices , respectively .
A final $ 11 @.@ 2 million was allocated on January 6 , 2005 , which was 23 @.@ 3 % of the $ 48 million Department of Education budget for that fiscal year . On July 15 , 2005 , the school was awarded a $ 60 @,@ 000 federal fund for energy efficiency 39 % below the national energy threshold ; this would save the New Brunswick government $ 115 @,@ 193 per year , or an eventual $ 2 million over 20 years . The province 's educational minister , Madelaine Dubé , said : " It is good to know that our schools can also contribute to protecting our environment . " The school held its inauguration ceremony with Bernard Lord present on September 30 , 2005 , despite its delayed opening a few days after the beginning of the 2005 – 06 school year . Lord spoke of his government 's intention to add schools to the growing number of Francophone institutions in New Brunswick , as well as advancing the state of the province 's education . " Today 's inauguration represents an historic moment for Moncton 's Francophone community , " he said in his speech . " Parents , students and teaching staff now have modern , state of the art facilities . I feel very proud about this project and I am delighted that it is now a reality . " On September 9 , 2009 , a new , $ 884 @,@ 100 permit was awarded to extend L 'Odyssée 's total area by 390 m2 ( 4 @,@ 200 sq ft ) for the expansion of its new infirmary and orientation center .
The city went under scrutiny after the death on November 30 of Erika Frenette , a student at L 'Odyssée , who was struck by a car after crossing an intersection near the school in poor weather conditions . Parents began petitions to install street lights near what they deemed to be a " dangerous [ street corner ] " , and on May 4 , the request was approved .
= = Academics = =
= = = Curriculum = = =
The school 's curriculum is based on a 30 @-@ credit system , requiring a student to receive all 17 mandatory credits and seven optional credits to graduate . Examples of notable courses are law , Esperanto , German , Auto mechanics , carpentry , entrepreneurship , world religions , cooperative education , and leadership . L 'Odyssée also offers exclusive courses in work @-@ life development and speaking Acadian .
A partnership with the Université de Moncton and CCNB Dieppe allows students to take and be credited for select courses off @-@ campus one period per semester at no cost during their senior year . Additionally , Cisco offers a course in server and information sustainment , and the school offers access to ten online courses , including astronomy and world geography . Sports programs are available and credited , including hockey and soccer .
There are two curricular programs , called " Volets " , for students wishing to graduate with honours in science and engineering or art and social sciences . The main differences between the standard curriculum and the two " Volet " programs are the addition of mandatory courses in the domain of the chosen program , and the requirement to complete thirty hours of volunteer duty . A student must gain an average of 80 % in the additional mandatory courses to graduate with honours .
= = = Schedule = = =
École L 'Odyssée operates on a modified version of the controversial concept of block scheduling . Instead of the traditional seven- or eight @-@ period school day , every day students attend four out of the five classes for that semester . The following semester , students attend their remaining five courses in the same fashion , totalling ten courses per year . School days are labelled 1 to 5 , instead of Monday to Friday , with each " day " having a predetermined layout . This type of scheduling prevents courses being cancelled for holidays and school vacations , since in such a case , the schedule resumes with the days shifted forward by the length of the school break . For example , if Monday was designated as Day 1 , and Tuesday was a holiday , Wednesday would be Day 2 , and Thursday would be Day 3 . This type of scheduling , however , does not cover unexpected school cancellations ( for example , school closure due to poor weather ) , due to problems it would cause with the predetermined calendar .
Wednesdays , regardless of the " day " , are cut by one hour throughout the district to compensate for Community of Practice ( French : Communauté d 'apprentissage professionnelles , or " CAP " ) meetings between teachers at the end of the day , to " direct [ the district 's efforts ] towards the educational success of students . " Study hall ( known as the " PAAQ " period , which stands for " Preoccupation de l 'Affectif et de l 'Apprentissage de Qualité " ) is reserved between the first and second period of the day , except for Wednesdays , where the period is removed to compensate for the CAP meetings .
Another difference between L 'Odyssée and other schools is the amount of time allotted between classes . Instead of the usual five @-@ minute intermission , students are given 14 minutes between every period – except for the intermission between the first period and PAAQ , and between lunch and the third period , where students are given five minutes . They receive 57 minutes for their lunch every day , except for Wednesdays , when they get a 55 @-@ minute lunch ( both excluding the five @-@ minute intermission ) .
Although the schedule is identical throughout the school , students must fill in their courses – A through E – as defined by their schedule :
= = = Rankings = = =
Outside rankings for the school have been low compared to the district 's average . In 2010 , a report published by the Atlantic Institute for Market Studies put L 'Odyssée at the bottom of the district 's 22 @-@ school list overall ( one school being unranked ) , based on data from 2005 to 2008 .
In 2005 , the province began including the school in their reports on student dropout rates . At the time , its rates were the highest in the province , with a total of six dropouts for every 100 students enrolled . In contrast , the district average was 0 @.@ 9 dropouts per 100 enrolments , and the provincial average was 2 @.@ 4 dropouts . The following year , the school 's rate dropped to 5 @.@ 4 , remaining three percentage points above the provincial average . In 2007 , it fell 2 @.@ 2 points , down to 3 @.@ 2 dropouts per 100 students , and finally settled at 2 % , 0 @.@ 2 percentage points below the provincial average of 2 @.@ 2 % .
In terms of academic performance , the province releases report cards based on yearly exams to track the progress toward a goal set for 2013 . The exams are held for English classes in the tenth grade , for French classes in the eleventh grade , and for mathematics in the eleventh grade . The report card rates schools based on how many students pass each exam , instead of rating on the average mark on the exam . L 'Odyssée , according to the report , is below both the district and the provincial success rate :
= = Athletics = =
L 'Odyssée offers spots in nearly every NBIAA @-@ organized sport . Players participating under the school 's name are given the nickname " Olympien " ( English : Olympian ) .
= = = Hockey = = =
The hockey teams , male and female , are required to practice every first period of the first semester in a credited course . Students participate in up to three tournaments before the provincials and over 30 games in total . The 2009 – 10 female team finished second in the provincial finals versus the Riverview Blackhawks .
= = = Soccer = = =
The school has four soccer teams : two juniors and two seniors . The male junior team placed first in the 2009 provincial championships .
= = = Track and field = = =
The track and field team at L 'Odyssée has been the recipient of several provincial titles since 2006 . Team members have included Geneviève Lalonde ( 7 @-@ time champion with six provincial records in the 800 m , 1 @,@ 500 m , and 3 @,@ 000 m from 2006 to 2009 and represented Canada at the 2010 World Junior Championships in Athletics ) , Jessica Chamberland ( 6 @-@ time champion with one provincial record in the shot put from 2006 to 2009 ) , and Alexandre Coholan ( 2 @-@ time champion in the 100 m and 200 m , as well as a silver medal in the triple jump ) .
Asterisk ( * ) denotes NBIAA record holding score as of 2012 .
= = = Other sports = = =
L 'Odyssée is home to a cross @-@ country team , a softball and baseball team , two Basketball teams , a golf team , a football team , a swimming team , three curling teams , a badminton team , and a rugby union team . In 2010 , the school 's wrestling team featured a provincial winner in the girls ' 60 kg class . The senior female volleyball team took the silver medal in the 2010 provincial tournament .
= = Activities = =
= = = Jazz / Harmony = = =
The Jazz and Harmony teams , led by instructor Charles Arseneau , act as a side project for the school 's existing music course and has participated in every yearly Heritage Festival since 2005 . The team won a competition in New York in 2009 and six Maestro awards , including the " Outstanding Band Award " , and " Best Solo " . The following year , the team placed second and garnered one Maestro award in Washington .
= = = Improvisation = = =
L 'Odyssée participated in the regional Improvisation competitions in the 2009 – 10 season . The team also participated in the " Gougoune Dorée 2010 " competition , a provincial tournament , and took first place . Sebastien Richard earned the " Most Starred Player " award , while captain Julie Frigault won MVP .
= = = Debate club = = =
The school was among the first to participate in the debut of the provincial debate championship in Caraquet . The team of three received the gold prize on March 22 , 2010 against École Mathieu @-@ Martin in the finals .
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= 2013 Continental Cup of Curling =
The 2013 World Financial Group Continental Cup of Curling was held from January 10 to 13 at the South Okanagan Events Centre in Penticton , British Columbia . The Continental Cup , based on the Ryder Cup of golf , pitted teams from North America against teams from the rest of the World . The tournament featured team events , mixed doubles events , singles competitions , and skins competitions , and the brunt of available points was awarded in the skins competitions . TSN broadcast the event , as it had in previous years .
Team North America was represented by Canada Cup champions Jennifer Jones and Kevin Martin , Tournament of Hearts champion Heather Nedohin , Brier champion Glenn Howard , and the United States men 's and women 's champions Heath McCormick and Allison Pottinger , respectively . Team World was represented by reigning world champion Mirjam Ott , world silver medalist Margaretha Sigfridsson , four @-@ time world junior champion Eve Muirhead , two @-@ time world bronze medalist Niklas Edin , two @-@ time world silver medalist Tom Brewster , and two @-@ time European champion Thomas Ulsrud .
Team World entered the event as the defending champions , but were unseated by Team North America . Team World took an early lead in the first day of the event , but Team North America roared back in the next few days , dominating in the team , mixed doubles , and singles competitions to hold a large lead . Team North America clinched the cup in the second round of skins play after holding back a late Team World comeback , giving Team North America a 5 – 4 edge in the overall cup record . Team North America 's win ensured that no defending champion to date would successfully defend its title from the previous Cup .
= = Competition format = =
Six teams from North America and six teams representing the rest of the World play a series of games against each other in order to win points . The first side to win a majority of the points available wins the cup . Teams compete in four formats : team games , mixed doubles games , singles competitions , and skins games . Team games are regular curling games , with two teams of four playing against each other . Mixed doubles games involve two teams , each consisting of one male and one female , playing against each other . Mixed doubles teams use only six stones per end , one of which is positioned prior to the start of the end . This is in contrast to the eight stones per end used by teams of four in regular curling games . The singles competition involves two teams playing against each other . There are six types of shots contested in the singles competitions . Each curler from each team is assigned to throw at least one type of shot . Points are given based on how well the shot is made . After all of the shots have been thrown , the team with the most points wins the competition . Skins games involve two teams playing against each other , where the objective is to win skins by scoring two or more points with the hammer or stealing points without the hammer . The points for the skins games , which go toward the total points for the cup , are distributed throughout the game , and the teams earn these points by winning skins .
A new points system was implemented in the 2013 Continental Cup of Curling . The total of points available was 60 points , compared to the total of 400 points used in previous years . The mixed doubles , singles , and team games were worth one point each , and ties were worth one half point each to both teams . The skins games were worth a total of five points . All games were eight ends long , and there were no extra ends . Also , six mixed doubles games and six singles competition games were played , as before . However , there were eighteen team games instead of the previous twelve , and there were six skins games instead of the previous eight .
= = Teams = =
The teams were selected from the top teams in each region . Six teams from each region will compete against each other in the competition . Four teams from Canada earn the right to represent Team North America by virtue of winning certain events , namely the Canada Cup of Curling and the Canadian National Championships ( the Brier and the Tournament of Hearts ) . Two teams from the United States are chosen by the United States Curling Association to represent North America , and the teams representing Team World are selected by the World Curling Federation .
The teams in the table below have been announced as representatives of their respective regions .
= = Event summary = =
= = = Day 1 = = =
Team World and Team North America began the event with women 's team play . Mirjam Ott and Allison Pottinger played a high @-@ scoring game which resulted in a win for Ott , and Eve Muirhead scored an early lead over Heather Nedohin and held it to win another point for Team World . Jennifer Jones made a precise draw to tie her game with Margaretha Sigfridsson and secured a half @-@ point for Team North America , averting a sweep by Team World .
Team World held a two @-@ point lead coming into the first mixed doubles round , where they split the three points available with Team North America . The North American pair of John Morris and Kaitlyn Lawes dominated Team World 's Niklas Edin and Christina Bertrup . Heather Nedohin made a game @-@ saving shot with Dean Gemmell to tie their game with Michael Goodfellow and Eve Muirhead , and Christoffer Svae and Carmen Schäfer stole a win over Marc Kennedy and Allison Pottinger after Pottinger was light on a draw .
Team North America closed the two @-@ point gap by one point in men 's team play , where they won two of the three games . Both Niklas Edin of Team World and Kevin Martin of Team North America won close games against Heath McCormick and Tom Brewster , respectively , while Glenn Howard made a double @-@ takeout in the last end to hold his lead and win the game over Thomas Ulsrud . At the end of the day , Team World led Team North America 5 – 4 .
= = = Day 2 = = =
In the morning draw , women 's team play saw Team North America turning the tables on Team World by winning two games and splitting the points for the third . Heather Nedohin held a slight lead over Margaretha Sigfridsson , who tried to win the game in the final end but fell short and tied the game . Jennifer Jones and Mirjam Ott played a back @-@ and @-@ forth game which saw Ott miss a double @-@ takeout attempt for the win , allowing Jones to steal the point . Allison Pottinger stole three in the fifth end against Eve Muirhead and held the lead through the rest of the game , capping off the game with a four @-@ point end .
The singles competition , similar to a skills competition in ice hockey , involved team members from each of the twelve teams attempting six types of shots . Team North America fared well in the singles competition , winning four of the six matchups and earning four points . On the women 's side , the teams skipped by Allison Pottinger and Mirjam Ott scored the highest total of points at 18 points , while on the men 's side , Glenn Howard 's team scored the highest total of points at 22 points .
The evening draw , which consisted of men 's team play , saw Team North America extending their lead to five points . Heath McCormick dominated against Thomas Ulsrud , who lost second Christoffer Svae in the middle of the game due to illness . Kevin Martin established an early lead in the first half of the game versus Niklas Edin and held his lead to win . Glenn Howard had a chance to make the draw a North America sweep , starting off with a small lead against Tom Brewster , but a mistake in the eighth end from Brent Laing led to a chance for Brewster to come back and tie the game , which he did . At the end of the day , Team North America led Team World 13 – 8 .
= = = Day 3 = = =
The morning draw consisted of mixed doubles play , where Team North America dominated Team World and earned the first sweep of three points in the event . Heath McCormick and Jessica Mair dominated Sebastian Kraupp and Maria Prytz , stealing three ends en route to a six @-@ point victory . Glenn Howard and Natalie Nicholson held an early lead over Greg Drummond and Anna Sloan after a four @-@ point second end , but Drummond and Sloan came back to make it a close game . In the end , Howard and Nicholson scored two to win the game . Brent Laing and Jennifer Jones played a back @-@ and @-@ forth game with Torger Nergård and Carmen Küng , but retained control through most of the game and came out with the victory after Küng 's last shot left Team North America having shot stone , effectively giving Laing and Jones the win .
In the afternoon draw , women 's team play saw a split of the three available points . Mirjam Ott pushed out to an early lead against Heather Nedohin , and held her lead against a struggling Nedohin to win . Jennifer Jones played a back @-@ and @-@ forth game with Eve Muirhead , and won on a dramatic finish , tapping a buried stone to score a deuce in the final end . Allison Pottinger held an early lead over Margaretha Sigfridsson , but Sigfridsson rallied with the help of three stolen points and tied the game .
The evening draw saw Team North America extending their lead by one point . Heath McCormick and Tom Brewster played a relatively quick game , with McCormick winning on a draw in the final end . Kevin Martin scored a huge four @-@ point end against Thomas Ulsrud and commanded the rest of the match to secure Team North America 's second win . Glenn Howard came short in winning his match versus Niklas Edin , however , when a failed in @-@ off shot in the sixth end led to a steal by Edin . Edin secured Team World 's only full point in the draw with a double takeout . At the end of the day , Team North America led Team World 19 ½ – 10 ½ .
= = = Day 4 = = =
The afternoon draw consisted of skins play . Allison Pottinger and Margaretha Sigfridsson played in the women 's skins game . Pottinger held an early lead after four straight skins , but Sigfridsson capitalized on missed shots from Pottinger to win the last four skins and the game . Heath McCormick and Niklas Edin played in the men 's skins game , where a series of carryovers saw Edin winning the last skin , worth three and a half points , and the game . A mixed team of John Morris , Beth Iskiw , Ben Hebert , and Jessica Mair played Tom Brewster , Anna Sloan , Scott Andrews , and Claire Hamilton in the mixed skins game . Morris , who skipped against Brewster , held control over the game and limited Brewster in scoring . Brewster won the last point on a draw to the button , giving Team World an 8 – 7 edge in the first round of skins play .
The evening draw also consisted of skins play . Jennifer Jones and Mirjam Ott played in the women 's skins game , in which Jones dominated , scoring four skins and winning four points for Team North America . Glenn Howard and Thomas Ulsrud played in the men 's skins game . Ulsrud played a fairly open game , forcing carryovers for five ends until a misfire from Ulsrud led to Howard making the cup @-@ winning shot , scoring three points with a tap for two points . Ulsrud won the remaining points in the game on a draw to the button . A mixed team of Kevin Martin , Heather Nedohin , Marc Kennedy , and Laine Peters played Eve Muirhead , Greg Drummond , Vicki Adams , and Michael Goodfellow in the mixed skins game . Martin skipped against Muirhead and controlled most of the game , securing four points on four skins before Muirhead took the last skin . Team North America took a 10 ½ – 4 ½ point edge in the second round of skins play , giving them a CAD $ 13 @,@ 000 bonus for winning the skins rounds .
The final score of the event was 37 – 23 , and the winning team , Team North America , received a purse of CAD $ 52 @,@ 000 , CAD $ 2 @,@ 000 per player , in addition to the skins bonus , while the losing team received a purse of CAD $ 26 @,@ 000 , CAD $ 1 @,@ 000 per player .
= = Events = =
All times listed are Pacific Standard Time . The draws for Thursday , Friday , and Saturday were released on Wednesday night , and the draws for Sunday were released on Saturday afternoon .
= = = Thursday , January 10 = = =
Women 's team 8 : 30 am
Mixed doubles 1 : 00 pm
Men 's team 6 : 30 pm
= = = Friday , January 11 = = =
Women 's team 8 : 30 am
Singles 1 : 00 pm
Men 's team 6 : 30 pm
= = = Saturday , January 12 = = =
Mixed doubles 9 : 00 am
Women 's team 1 : 30 pm
Men 's team 6 : 30 pm
= = = Sunday , January 13 = = =
Skins 1 : 00 pm
Skins 5 : 00 pm
= = Statistics = =
The statistics for team play , including team skins play , are listed below . The percentages are calculated for each player by rating their shots in each game . Each shot the player attempts is scored out of four based on how well the shot is made .
= = = Player percentages = = =
= = = = Men = = = =
= = = = Women = = = =
= = = Team percentages = = =
= = = = Men = = = =
= = = = Women = = = =
= = = Perfect games = = =
= = = = Women = = = =
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= Otto Graham =
Otto Everett Graham , Jr . ( December 6 , 1921 – December 17 , 2003 ) was an American football quarterback who played for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . Graham is regarded by critics as one of the most dominant players of his era , having taken the Browns to league championship games every year between 1946 and 1955 , winning seven of them . With Graham at quarterback , the Browns posted a record of 114 wins , 20 losses and four ties , including a 9 – 3 win – loss record in the playoffs . While most of Graham 's statistical records have been surpassed in the modern era , he still holds the NFL record for career average yards gained per pass attempt , with 8 @.@ 98 . He also holds the record for the highest career winning percentage for an NFL starting quarterback , at 0 @.@ 814 . Long @-@ time New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner , a friend of Graham 's , once called him " as great of a quarterback as there ever was . " He is also known for being one of only two people ( the other being Gene Conley — Milwaukee Braves in the 1957 World Series and three Boston Celtics championships from 1959 – 61 ) to win championships in two of the four major American sports — 1946 NBL ( became NBA ) and AAFC Championship , plus 3 more AAFC and 3 NFL championships .
Graham grew up in Waukegan , Illinois , the son of music teachers . He entered Northwestern University in 1940 on a basketball scholarship , but football soon became his main sport . After a brief stint in the military at the end of World War II , Graham played during the 1946 season for the National Basketball League 's Rochester Royals , who won the league championship that year . Paul Brown , Cleveland 's coach , signed Graham to play for the Browns , where he thrived . After he retired from playing football in 1955 , Graham coached college teams in the College All @-@ Star Game and became head football coach at the Coast Guard Academy in Connecticut . After seven years at the academy , he spent three unsuccessful seasons as head coach of the Washington Redskins . Following his resignation , he returned to the Coast Guard Academy , where he served as athletic director until his retirement in 1984 . He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 .
= = Early life and college career = =
Born in Waukegan , Illinois , Graham 's first interest growing up was music . Encouraged by his parents , both of whom were music teachers , he took up several instruments : the piano , violin , cornet and French horn . Graham also excelled in athletics , and attended Northwestern University on a basketball scholarship in 1940 . There he played on the varsity basketball team as a freshman and continued to study music . Graham did not take up football until his sophomore year , when Northwestern coach Pappy Waldorf saw him throwing in an intramural game and invited him to practice with the team . Northwestern 's coaches were impressed with his running and passing , and Waldorf convinced him to sign up . Although football became Graham 's primary sport , he also played baseball and continued on the basketball team . As a senior , he was named a first @-@ team basketball All @-@ American , part of a squad selected by news outlets comprising the best players at each position .
Graham 's first game for the Northwestern Wildcats football team was on October 4 , 1941 , when he caught a Kansas State punt and returned it 90 yards for a touchdown . He ran and passed for two more touchdowns in the 51 – 3 victory . After scoring another pair of touchdowns in a win against Wisconsin , Graham passed to his wide receivers for two touchdowns in a victory over the Ohio State , coached by Paul Brown , the team 's only loss of the 1941 season . Northwestern ended the year with an 11th @-@ place showing in the AP Poll of the best college teams in the country .
As America 's involvement in World War II intensified after the December 7 , 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor , Graham signed up for service alongside many fellow student @-@ athletes , entering the U.S. Navy Air Corps . He was able to stay at Northwestern as he waited to be called for active duty . The Wildcats struggled in 1942 as their players joined the war effort , winning only one game . Graham still had 89 completions , setting a single @-@ season passing record in the Big Ten Conference , a division of major college teams from the Midwestern United States .
The following year , Graham and some of his teammates enlisted in the military but continued to play for Northwestern . Enlistees from other schools also enrolled at Northwestern , where the U.S. Navy had a training station . The 1943 season was a strong one for Northwestern . The team beat the Ohio State , the defending national champions , and a good military team at Great Lakes Naval Station . The Wildcats lost to Notre Dame and Michigan , however , and finished the season with an 8 – 2 record and a ninth @-@ place ranking in the AP Poll . Graham set another Big Ten passing record , was named the conference 's Most Valuable Player , received All @-@ American honors and finished third in Heisman Trophy voting . By the end of his college career , he held a Big Ten Conference record for passing yards with 2 @,@ 132 .
Graham 's career at Northwestern officially ended in February 1944 , when he moved to Colgate University in Hamilton , New York , in the Navy 's V @-@ 5 cadet program , a pilot training course . He played basketball for Colgate before moving to North Carolina Pre @-@ Flight later in 1944 , where he played on the Cloudbusters football team under coaches Glenn Killinger and Bear Bryant .
Impressed by Graham 's performances in Northwestern 's wins over the Ohio State in 1941 and 1943 , Paul Brown came and offered him a contract worth $ 7 @,@ 500 per year ( $ 98 @,@ 581 in 2016 dollars ) in 1945 to play for a professional team he was coaching in Cleveland in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Graham would not receive his salary until he started playing , however , and Brown added a monthly stipend of $ 250 ( $ 3 @,@ 286 in 2016 ) until the end of the war . It was a large amount of money at the time . " All I asked was , where do I sign ? " Graham said later . " Some of the other navy men said I was rooting for the war to last forever . " Graham was also drafted by the National Football League 's Detroit Lions , but he did not sign a contract or play a game with the team as the war wore on .
Large numbers of athletes came home as the conflict wound down in Europe following Germany 's surrender in mid @-@ 1945 . The AAFC 's first season was not set to start until the fall of 1946 , and Graham occupied the intervening months by joining the Rochester Royals of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) , a forerunner of the National Basketball Association . In March 1946 , the Royals swept a best @-@ of @-@ five series against the Sheboygan Redskins to win the NBL title .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cleveland Browns in the AAFC ( 1946 – 1949 ) = = =
By the time Graham was discharged from the Navy late in the summer of 1946 , training camp for Brown 's new team , the Cleveland Browns , had already begun . Concerned that Graham was not ready to start , Brown put in Cliff Lewis at quarterback in the first game of the season . Graham , however , soon replaced Lewis in Brown 's T formation offense . Handing the ball to fullback Marion Motley and throwing to ends Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie , Graham led the team to a 12 – 2 regular @-@ season record and a spot in the championship game against the AAFC 's New York Yankees . The Browns won that game , touching off a period of dominance . The team won each of the AAFC 's four championships between 1946 and 1949 , and had professional football 's second perfect season in 1948 by finishing undefeated and untied .
Graham 's play was crucial to Cleveland 's success . He averaged 10 @.@ 5 yards per pass and had a quarterback rating of 112 @.@ 1 in 1946 , a professional football record until Joe Montana surpassed it in 1989 . Graham was named the AAFC 's Most Valuable Player in 1947 and shared the Most Valuable Player award with Frankie Albert of the San Francisco 49ers in 1948 . He led the league in passing yards between 1947 and 1949 . The AAFC dissolved after the 1949 season , and three of its teams , including the Browns , merged into the more established National Football League . Graham was the AAFC 's all @-@ time leading passer , throwing for 10 @,@ 085 yards and 86 touchdowns .
Graham became the Browns ' uncontested leader , but he was also " just one of the guys , " tackle Mike McCormack said in 1999 . " He was not aloof , which you see a lot of times today . " He was good at spinning and moving in the pocket , skills he learned playing basketball . In his autobiography , Paul Brown praised Graham 's ability to anticipate his receivers ' route @-@ running by watching their shoulders . " I remember his tremendous peripheral vision and his great athletic skill , as well as his ability to throw a football far and accurately with just a flick of his arm , " Brown said . His short passes were hard and accurate , teammates later said , and his long balls were soft . " I used to catch a lot of them one @-@ handed , " Lavelli said . " He had great touch in his hands . " He was nicknamed " Automatic Otto " for his consistency and toughness .
= = = Cleveland Browns in the NFL ( 1950 – 1955 ) = = =
With Graham at the helm , the Browns continued to succeed when they joined the NFL in 1950 . Graham led the Browns to a 10 – 2 record , which set up a playoff against the New York Giants for a spot in the championship game . The Browns ' only two losses of the season had come against the Giants , but in a frozen Cleveland Stadium on December 17 , Cleveland beat New York . With the game tied 3 – 3 in the fourth quarter , Graham gained 45 yards by running with the ball on a long drive to set up a 28 @-@ yard Lou Groza field goal that put the Browns ahead 6 – 3 . A safety after the ensuing kickoff made the final score 8 – 3 .
The win put Cleveland in the NFL championship game against the Los Angeles Rams . Graham 's rushing and passing were again key to the Browns ' 30 – 28 victory . He drove the offense downfield as time expired to set up a last @-@ minute Groza field goal that sealed the win . Graham had 99 yards rushing in the game , adding 298 yards of passing and four touchdowns .
Cleveland posted an 11 – 1 record in 1951 , losing their only game to the San Francisco 49ers in the season opener . That gave the Browns another spot in the championship game , again against the Rams . This time , however , the Rams won 27 – 17 . Graham fumbled the ball in the third quarter , setting up a touchdown that put the Rams ahead 14 – 10 . Three of his throws were intercepted , but he put up 280 yards of passing and a touchdown . After the season , Graham was named the league 's Most Valuable Player .
With Graham at quarterback , Cleveland finished the 1952 season with a 9 – 3 record and faced the Detroit Lions in the NFL championship game . Despite gaining 384 total yards to Detroit 's 258 , Graham and the Browns lost their second straight championship , 17 – 7 . Cleveland had several long drives that ended with missed field goals , and a fourth @-@ quarter touchdown was negated because Graham 's throw to Pete Brewster was first tipped by receiver Ray Renfro ; under rules in place at the time , balls deflected by offensive teammates were automatic incompletions . After the season , as Graham was practicing for the Pro Bowl in Los Angeles on January 2 , 1953 , his six @-@ week @-@ old son Stephen died from a severe cold .
The 1953 season began with a 27 – 0 win over the Green Bay Packers in which Graham passed for 292 yards and ran for two touchdowns . It was the first of 11 straight victories for the Browns , whose only loss came in the final game of the season to the Philadelphia Eagles . Near the end of the season in a game against the 49ers , Graham took a forearm to the face from Art Michalik that opened a gash on his chin requiring 15 stitches . Graham 's helmet was fitted with a clear plastic face mask , and he came back into the game ; the injury helped inspire the development of the modern face mask . Despite an 11 – 1 record , Cleveland lost in the championship game for the third year in a row , falling to the Detroit Lions 17 – 16 . Two of Graham 's passes were intercepted . He said after the game that he wanted to " jump off a building " for letting his teammates down . " I was the main factor in losing , " he said . " If I had played my usual game , we would have won . " Still , Graham finished the season as the NFL 's leading passer and again won the Most Valuable Player award .
Before the start of the Browns ' 1954 training camp , Graham was questioned as part of the Sam Sheppard murder case . Sheppard , an osteopath , was accused of bludgeoning his pregnant wife to death , and Graham and his wife , Beverly , were friends with the couple . Graham told police that while he and Beverly liked the Sheppards , they did not know much about their relationship .
The 1954 season was a transitional one for the Browns . Many of the players who joined the 1946 team had retired or were nearing the end of their careers . Graham , meanwhile , told Brown that he would retire after the season . After losing the first three games , Cleveland won eight in a row and earned another shot at the championship , again against the Lions . This time , the Browns won 56 – 10 as Graham ran for three touchdowns and passed for three more . He announced his retirement after the game .
After Graham 's potential replacements struggled during the 1955 training camp and preseason , Brown convinced Graham to come back and play one more year . He was offered a salary of $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 220 @,@ 839 today ) , making him the highest @-@ paid player in the NFL . The Browns lost the opener against the Washington Redskins , but went on to a 9 – 2 – 1 regular @-@ season record and another chance at a championship . Graham threw two touchdowns and ran for two more as the Browns beat the Rams 38 – 14 . When Brown took Graham out of the game in the fourth quarter , the crowd in the Los Angeles Coliseum gave him a standing ovation . It was the final performance of a 10 @-@ year career in which Graham 's team reached the championship each year and won seven . " Nothing would induce me to come back , " he said later . He was the NFL 's passing leader and Most Valuable Player in 1955 . He also won the Hickok Belt , awarded to the best professional athlete of the year . Without Graham , the Browns floundered the following year and posted a 5 – 7 record , their first @-@ ever losing season .
The Browns ' record with Graham as starting quarterback was 114 – 20 – 4 , including a 9 – 3 record in the playoffs . He still holds the NFL career record for yards per pass attempt , averaging nine . He also holds the record for the highest career winning percentage for an NFL starting quarterback , with 0 @.@ 814 . Graham was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 . Having won seven championships in 10 seasons and reached the championship game in every year he played , Graham is regarded by sportswriters as one of the greatest winners of all time and one of the best professional quarterbacks ever to play the game . He never missed a game in his career .
Graham wore number 60 for much of his career , but he was forced to change it to 14 in 1952 after the NFL passed a rule requiring offensive linemen to wear jersey numbers 50 – 79 so referees could more easily identify ineligible receivers . The Browns retired his number 14 , while 60 remains in circulation . While at Northwestern , Graham wore number 48 .
= = Coaching career = =
When Graham retired from football , he planned to focus on managing the insurance and appliance businesses he owned . In 1957 , however , Graham signed on as an assistant coach for the college squad in the annual College All @-@ Star Game , a now @-@ defunct exhibition contest between the NFL champion and a selection of the best collegiate players from around the country . The next year , he was named head coach of the team . With Graham coaching the all @-@ stars in 1958 , the team beat the Detroit Lions 35 – 19 .
= = = Coast Guard Academy = = =
Following his convincing win in the all @-@ star game , Graham 's friend George Steinbrenner helped get him a job as the head football coach for the Coast Guard Academy in New London , Connecticut . Graham , by then 37 years old , was also named athletic director and given a salary " in five figures " . School officials said the hiring did not mean Coast Guard would " go big time " ; the Division III school played a relatively short schedule at the time against smaller schools in New England . The Coast Guard team had a 3 – 5 record in Graham 's first year as coach in 1959 , but improved steadily over the ensuing three years . The team went undefeated in 1963 , earning the academy its first @-@ ever post @-@ season bowl appearance . Coast Guard lost to Western Kentucky 27 – 0 in the Tangerine Bowl . Graham continued to coach in the College All @-@ Star Game while at Coast Guard , and his college team beat Vince Lombardi 's Green Bay Packers in a 20 – 17 upset in 1963 . Graham was offered coaching jobs in the NFL numerous times during his tenure at Coast Guard , but he said in 1964 that he was content to stay at the small school on a $ 9 @,@ 000 salary . He said he deplored the " win at all costs philosophy " that was necessary to be successful in the professional ranks .
= = = Washington Redskins = = =
Despite his reservations about the professional game , Graham , who moonlighted as a television and radio commentator for the American Football League 's New York Jets in 1964 and 1965 , left Coast Guard after seven years in 1966 to become head coach of the NFL 's Washington Redskins . Graham 's tenure as the Redskins ' coach between 1966 and 1968 was unsuccessful ; the team 's record during that span was 17 – 22 – 3 . In his last season as the coach of the Redskins , calls for his firing had intensified as the team 's performance worsened from a 7 – 7 record to a 5 – 9 record in his third year . The Washington Daily News called for his firing in a front @-@ page editorial in November 1968 . Lombardi took over as the Redskins ' coach in 1969 .
= = = Return to Coast Guard Academy = = =
After being dismissed as the Redskins ' coach , Graham returned to the Coast Guard Academy as athletic director and said he planned to stay there until he retired . He coached the college team in the College All @-@ Star Game in 1970 for his tenth and final time . The college stars lost for the seventh time in a row that year , falling 24 – 3 to the Kansas City Chiefs . He was replaced in 1971 by Blanton Collier , who had retired after succeeding Brown as Cleveland 's head coach .
In 1974 , Graham was named Coast Guard 's football coach once again , although he resigned two years later to focus on his duties as athletic director . In nine years of coaching , Graham 's Coast Guard teams had a combined record of 44 – 32 – 1 . After eight more years as the school 's athletic director , Graham retired in 1984 .
= = Later life and death = =
An avid golfer and tennis player , Graham partnered with New York Yankees great Joe DiMaggio in numerous golf tournaments later in life . He retired to a house on a golf course in Florida . Graham overcame colon cancer in 1977 , but was later plagued by heart ailments and other health problems . He was diagnosed as being in the early stages of Alzheimer 's disease in 2001 , and died of a heart aneurysm in Sarasota , Florida , on December 17 , 2003 . He had two sons and a daughter with his wife Beverly . In 2013 , Northwestern 's fundraising department created The Otto Graham Society to honor his achievements at the school and support its athletics programs . In 2014 a new gymnasium at Waterford Country School was dedicated to Otto Graham 's memory .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Coaching record = =
= = = College = = =
= = = NFL = = =
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= Petroleum industry in Iran =
Iran is an energy superpower and the Petroleum industry in Iran plays an important part in it . In 2004 Iran produced 5 @.@ 1 percent of the world ’ s total crude oil ( 3 @.@ 9 million barrels ( 620 @,@ 000 m3 ) per day ) , which generated revenues of US $ 25 billion to US $ 30 billion and was the country ’ s primary source of foreign currency . At 2006 levels of production , oil proceeds represented about 18 @.@ 7 percent of gross domestic product ( GDP ) . However , the importance of the hydrocarbon sector to Iran ’ s economy has been far greater . The oil and gas industry has been the engine of economic growth , directly affecting public development projects , the government ’ s annual budget , and most foreign exchange sources .
In FY 2009 , the sector accounted for 60 percent of total government revenues and 80 percent of the total annual value of both exports and foreign currency earnings . Oil and gas revenues are affected by the value of crude oil on the international market . It has been estimated that at the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) quota level ( December 2004 ) , a one @-@ dollar change in the price of crude oil on the international market would alter Iran ’ s oil revenues by US $ 1 billion .
In 2012 , Iran , which exports around 1 @.@ 5 million barrels of crude oil a day , was the second @-@ largest exporter among the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries . In the same year , officials in Iran estimated that Iran 's annual oil and gas revenues could reach $ 250 billion by 2015 . However , the industry was disrupted by an international embargo from July 2012 through January 2016 . Iran plans to invest a total of $ 500 billion in the oil sector before 2025 .
= = History = =
= = = The era of international control , 1901 – 1979 = = =
The history of Iran ’ s oil industry began in 1901 , when British speculator William D ’ Arcy received a concession from Iran to explore and develop southern Iran ’ s oil resources . The discovery of oil in 1908 led to the formation in 1909 of the London @-@ based Anglo @-@ Persian Oil Company ( APOC ) . By purchasing a majority of the company ’ s shares in 1914 , the British government gained direct control of the Iranian oil industry , which it would not relinquish for 37 years . After 1935 the APOC was called the Anglo @-@ Iranian Oil Company ( AIOC ) . A 60 @-@ year agreement signed in 1933 established a flat payment to Iran of four British pounds for every ton of crude oil exported and denied Iran any right to control oil exports .
In 1950 ongoing popular demand prompted a vote in the Majlis to nationalize the petroleum industry . A year later , the government of Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadeq formed the National Iranian Oil Company ( NIOC ) . A 1953 coup d ’ état led by British and U.S. intelligence agencies ousted the Mossadeq government and paved the way for a new oil agreement . In 1954 a new agreement divided profits equally between the NIOC and a multinational consortium that had replaced the AIOC . In 1973 Iran signed a new 20 @-@ year concession with the consortium .
Beginning in the late 1950s , many of Iran ’ s international oil agreements did not produce the expected outcomes ; even those oil companies that managed to extract oil in their designated areas contributed very little to the country ’ s total oil production . By the time of the Islamic Revolution of 1978 – 79 , the five largest international companies that had agreements with the NIOC accounted for only 10 @.@ 4 percent of total oil production . During this period , Iran ’ s oil industry remained disconnected from other industries , particularly manufacturing . This separation promoted inefficiencies in the country ’ s overall industrial economy .
In 1973 , at a time when Iran was the second @-@ largest oil exporter in the world and the Arab @-@ Israeli War of October 6 – 25 was pressurizing the price of oil , the Shah of Iran told the New York Times , " Of course the world price of oil is going to rise .... Certainly ! And how ... ; You [ Western nations ] increased the price of wheat you sell us by 300 % , and the same for sugar and cement ... ; You buy our crude oil and sell it back to us , refined as petrochemicals , at a hundred times the price you 've paid to us ... ; It 's only fair that , from now on , you should pay more for oil . Let 's say ten times more . "
= = = The era of nationalized oil , 1979 – present = = =
Following the Revolution , the NIOC took control of Iran ’ s petroleum industry and canceled Iran ’ s international oil agreements . In 1980 the exploration , production , sale , and export of oil were delegated to the Ministry of Petroleum . Initially Iran ’ s post @-@ revolutionary oil policy was based on foreign currency requirements and the long @-@ term preservation of the natural resource . Following the Iran – Iraq War , however , this policy was replaced by a more aggressive approach : maximizing exports and accelerating economic growth . From 1979 until 1998 , Iran did not sign any oil agreements with foreign oil companies . Early in the first administration of President Mohammad Khatami ( in office 1997 – 2005 ) , the government paid special attention to developing the country ’ s oil and gas industry . Oil was defined as inter @-@ generational capital and an indispensable foundation of economic development . Thus , between 1997 and 2004 Iran invested more than US $ 40 billion in expanding the capacity of existing oil fields and discovering and exploring new fields and deposits . These projects were financed either in the form of joint investments with foreign companies or domestic contractors or through direct investment by the NIOC . In accordance with the law , foreign investment in oil discovery was possible only in the form of buyback agreements under which the NIOC was required to reimburse expenses and retain complete ownership of an oil field . Marketing of crude oil to potential buyers was managed by the NIOC and by a government enterprise called Nicoo . Nicoo marketed Iranian oil to Africa , and the NIOC marketed to Asia and Europe . According to IHS CERA estimate , oil revenue of Iran will increase by a third to USD 100 billion in 2011 even though the country is under an extended period of U.S. sanctions .
= = Oil production and reserves = =
Total oil production reached a peak level of 6 @.@ 6 Mbbl / d ( 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) in 1976 . By 1978 , Iran had become the second @-@ largest OPEC producer and exporter of crude oil and the fourth @-@ largest producer in the world . After a lengthy decline in the 1980s , production of crude oil began to increase steadily in 1987 . In 2008 Iran produced 3 @.@ 9 @-@ million @-@ barrels ( 620 @,@ 000 m3 ) per day ( bpd ) and exported 2 @.@ 4 Mbbl / d ( 380 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . Accounting for 5 percent of world production , it returned to its previous position as OPEC ’ s second @-@ largest producer . According to estimates , in 2005 Iran had the capacity to produce 4 @.@ 5 Mbbl / d ( 720 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) ; it was believed that production capacity could increase to 5 Mbbl / d ( 790 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) to 7 Mbbl / d ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , but only with a substantial increase in foreign investment . Iran ’ s long @-@ term sustainable oil production rate is estimated at 3 @.@ 8 Mbbl / d ( 600 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . According to the Iranian government , Iran has enough reserves to produce oil for the next 100 years while oil reserves of other Middle Eastern countries will be depleted in the next 60 years and most other oil @-@ rich countries will lose their reserves within the next 30 years .
In 2006 Iran reported crude oil reserves of 132 @.@ 5 billion barrels ( 2 @.@ 107 × 1010 m3 ) , accounting for about 15 percent of OPEC ’ s proven reserves and 11 @.@ 4 percent of world proven reserves . While the estimate of world crude oil reserves remained nearly steady between 2001 and 2006 , at 1 @,@ 154 billion barrels ( 1 @.@ 835 × 1011 m3 ) , the estimate of Iran ’ s oil reserves was revised upward by 32 percent when a new field was discovered near Bushehr . Market value of Iran 's total oil reserves at international crude price of $ 75 per barrel stands at ~ US $ 10 trillion .
In the early 2000s , leading international oil firms from China , France , India , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Spain , and the United Kingdom had agreements to develop Iran ’ s oil and gas fields . In 2004 China signed a major agreement to buy oil and gas from Iran , as well as to develop Iran ’ s Yadavaran oil field . The value of this contract was estimated at US $ 150 billion to US $ 200 billion over 25 years . In 2009 , China National Petroleum Corp ( CNPC ) signed a deal with the National Iranian Oil Company whereby the former took ownership of a 70 % stake upon promising to pay 90 percent of the development costs for the South Azadegan oil field , with the project needing investment of up to $ 2 @.@ 5 billion . Earlier that year , CNPC also won a $ 2 billion deal to develop the first phase of the North Azadegan oilfield .
A more modest yet important agreement was signed with India to explore and produce oil and natural gas in southern Iran . In 2006 the rate of production decline was 8 percent for Iran ’ s existing onshore oil fields ( furnishing the majority of oil output ) and 10 percent for existing offshore fields . Little exploration , upgrading , or establishment of new fields occurred in 2005 – 6 . However , the threat of American retaliation kept the investment way below the desired levels . It only allowed Iran to continue to keep its oil export at or below its OPEC determined quota level . Today , much of the equipment needed for oil industry are being produced by local manufacturers in Iran . Besides , Iran is among the few countries that has reached the technology and " know @-@ how " for drilling in the deep waters .
= = Oil refining and consumption = =
In 2011 Iran ’ s refineries had a combined capacity of 1 @.@ 457 Mbbl / d ( 231 @,@ 600 m3 / d ) . The largest refineries have the following capacities : Abadan , 350 @,@ 000 bbl / d ( 56 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) ; Esfahan , 284 @,@ 000 bbl / d ( 45 @,@ 200 m3 / d ) ; Bandar @-@ e Abbas , 232 @,@ 000 bbl / d ( 36 @,@ 900 m3 / d ) ; Tehran , 220 @,@ 000 bbl / d ( 35 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) ; Arak , 170 @,@ 000 bbl / d ( 27 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) ; and Tabriz , 100 @,@ 000 bbl / d ( 16 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . In 2004 pipelines conveyed 69 percent of total refined products ; trucks , 20 percent ; rail , 7 percent ; and tankers , 4 percent . Oil refining produces a wide range of oil products , such as liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ) , gasoline , kerosene , fuel oil , and lubricants . As of 2011 Iran is a net exporter of petroleum products thanks to large exports of residual fuel oil , but the refineries cannot meet domestic demand for lighter distillates such as gasoline .
Between 1981 and 2010 , domestic consumption of oil products increased from 0 @.@ 6 Mbbl / d ( 95 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) to 1 @.@ 8 Mbbl / d ( 290 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) — an average annual growth rate of 3 @.@ 7 percent . Between 1981 and 2004 , consumption of gasoline grew by 6 percent annually , but domestic production met only 75 percent of demand for this product . In 2004 the country imported US $ 1 @.@ 6 billion worth of gasoline . By 2006 it imported 41 percent of its gasoline , but by 2010 imports were down to 19 @.@ 5 % of gasoline consumption and heavy investment in new refining capacity may see Iran exporting gasoline by 2015 . Refining capacity increased 18 % in 2010 and the target is to increase refining capacity to 3 @.@ 5 million barrels per day .
= = Trade in oil and oil products = =
In 2006 exports of crude oil totaled 2 @.@ 5 Mbbl / d ( 400 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , or about 62 @.@ 5 percent of the country ’ s crude oil production . The direction of crude oil exports changed after the Revolution because of the U.S. trade embargo on Iran and the marketing strategy of the NIOC . Initially , Iran ’ s post @-@ revolutionary crude oil export policy was based on foreign currency requirements and the need for long @-@ term preservation of the natural resource . In addition , the government expanded oil trade with other developing countries . While the shares of Europe , Japan , and the United States declined from an average of 87 percent of oil exports before the Revolution to 52 percent in the early 2000s , the share of exports to East Asia ( excluding Japan ) increased significantly . In addition to crude oil exports , Iran exports oil products . In 2006 it exported 282 @,@ 000 barrels ( 44 @,@ 800 m3 ) of oil products , or about 21 percent of its total oil product output . Iran plans to invest a total of $ 500 billion in the oil sector before 2025 .
In 2010 , Iran , which exports around 2 @.@ 6 million barrels of crude oil a day , was the second @-@ largest exporter among the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries . Several major emerging economies depend on Iranian oil : 10 % of South Korea ’ s oil imports come from Iran , 9 % of India ’ s and 6 % of Chinese . Moreover , Iranian oil makes up 7 % of Japan ’ s and 30 % of all Greek oil imports . Iran is also a major oil supplier to Spain and Italy . In the same year , officials in Iran estimate that Iran 's annual oil and gas revenues could reach $ 250 billion by 2015 once the current projects come on stream .
According to IHS CERA estimate , oil revenue of Iran will increase by a third to USD 100 billion in 2011 even though the country is under an extended period of U.S. sanctions . As of January 2012 , Iran exports 22 % of its oil to China , 14 % to Japan , 13 % to India , 10 % to South Korea , 7 % to Italy , 7 % to Turkey , 6 % to Spain and the remainder to France , Greece ( & other European countries ) , Taiwan , Sri Lanka , South Africa .
= = Natural gas = =
In addition to the natural gas associated with oil exploration and extraction , an estimated 62 percent of Iran ’ s 32 @.@ 3 trillion cubic meters of proven natural gas reserves in 2006 were located in independent natural gas fields , an amount second only to those of Russia . In 2006 annual production reached 105 billion cubic meters , with fastest growth occurring over the previous 15 years . In 2006 natural gas accounted for about 50 percent of domestic energy consumption , in part because domestic gas prices were heavily subsidized . Natural gas production will reach 700 million cubic meter / day by 2012 and 900 million cubic meter / day by 2015 .
Since 1979 , infrastructure investment by Iranian and foreign oil firms has increased pipeline capacity to support the Iranian gas industry . Between 1979 and 2003 , pipelines to transport natural gas to refineries and to domestic consumers increased from 2 @,@ 000 kilometers to 12 @,@ 000 kilometers . In the same period , natural gas distribution pipelines increased from 2 @,@ 000 kilometers to 45 @,@ 000 kilometers in response to growing domestic consumption . Gas processing plants are located at Ahvaz , Dalan , Kangan , and Marun , in a corridor along the northern Persian Gulf close to the major gas fields . South Pars , Iran ’ s largest natural gas field , has received substantial foreign investment . With its output intended for both export and domestic consumption , South Pars is expected to reach full production in 2015 . However , delays and lower production in the Iranian side due to sanctions is resulting in migration of gas to the Qatari part and a loss for Iran .
The output of South Pars is the basis of the Pars Special Economic Energy Zone , a complex of petrochemical and natural gas processing plants and port facilities established in 1998 on the Persian Gulf south of Kangan . Iran is able to produce all the parts needed for its gas refineries . Iran is now the third country in the world to have developed Gas to liquids ( GTL ) technology .
In the 1980s , Iran began to replace oil , coal , charcoal , and other fossil @-@ fuel energy sources with natural gas , which is environmentally safer . The share of natural gas in household energy consumption , which averaged 54 percent in 2004 , was projected to increase to 69 percent by 2009 . Overall , natural gas consumption in Iran was expected to grow by more than 10 percent per annum between 2005 and 2009 .
With international oil prices increasing and projected to continue increasing , international demand for natural gas and investment in production and transportation of natural gas to consumer markets both increased in the early 2000s . Iran set a goal of increasing its natural gas production capacity to 300 billion cubic meters by 2015 while keeping oil production stable . To achieve this capacity , the government has planned a joint investment worth US $ 100 billion in the oil and gas industry through 2015 .
Market value of Iran 's total natural gas reserves at comparative international energy price of $ 75 per barrel of oil stands at ~ US $ 4 trillion . Following the discovery of a large gas deposit in the Caspian sea ( The Sardar Jangal gas field ) in 2011 estimated at 50 trillion cubic feet ( some 1 @.@ 4 trillion cubic meters ) , Iran could rank first in the world in terms of gas reserves . In addition , Iranian media have reported in 2012 the discovery of gas field " as big as South Pars gas field " in the oil @-@ rich Khuzestan province . In 2011 , Iran signed a contract with Baghdad and Damascus in order to export Iran ’ s gas to Iraq , Syria , Lebanon , the Mediterranean region and eventually Europe . Oman and Kuwait were negotiating an import agreement in 2014 . Once all pipelines become operational , Iran can potentially export a total of more than 200 million cubic meter of natural gas every year to Iraq , India , Pakistan , and Oman .
= = = Major foreign projects = = =
In 2004 Iran signed a contract with France and Malaysia for production and export of natural gas and another agreement with European and Asian companies for expansion and marketing of its natural gas resources . In 2005 Iran exported natural gas to Turkey and was expected to expand its market to Armenia , China , Japan , other East Asian countries , India , Pakistan , and Europe . The first section of a new line to Armenia opened in spring 2007 , as a much @-@ discussed major pipeline to India and Pakistan remained in the negotiation stage .
Among some more recent deals , Switzerland ’ s energy company EGL , signed a 25 @-@ year LNG export deal with Iran ’ s National Iranian Gas Export Company on March 17 , 2007 , reportedly valued at 18 billion . Switzerland will buy 5 @.@ 5 billion cubic meters of Iranian natural gas each year , beginning in 2011 . In April 2007 , OMV , the Austrian partially state @-@ owned energy company , signed letters of intent with Iran , worth an estimated $ 22 @.@ 8 billion ( 22 billion euros ) , for Iran to supply Europe with gas . The United States has expressed strong opposition to both the Swiss and Austrian deals with Iran .
The National Iranian Gas Company ( NIGC ) is expected to finalize a natural gas export deal with Pakistan , with exports set to begin in 2011 . The gas would be transported through a “ Peace pipeline ” , worth about $ 7 @.@ 4 billion . The plan initially also included exporting gas to India , but negotiations have stalled over pricing . Iran also is discussing a gas production and export deal with Turkey . Under the plan , Turkey would assist in developing Iran ’ s South Pars field in exchange for cash or natural gas . Gas would be shipped from Iran to Turkey and Europe via a new pipeline that Turkey plans to build .
Other notable petroleum sector development deals include those with Russia and China . On February 19 , 2008 , Russian state gas company Gazprom announced a deal to establish a joint venture company to develop the offshore Iranian South Pars gas field . A China National Offshore Oil Corporation ( CNOOC ) investment deal , valued at $ 16 billion , to develop Iran ’ s North Pars gas field and to build a liquid natural gas ( LNG ) plant , was supposed to be signed on February 27 , 2008 but has been delayed . The state @-@ operated National Iranian Oil Company ( NIOC ) and CNOOC signed a memorandum of understanding in December 2006 for the project , under which CNOOC would purchase 10 million metric tons per year of LNG for 25 years .
= = Petrochemicals = =
In the early 2000s , an ambitious state petrochemicals project called for expansion of annual output in that industry from 9 million tons in 2001 to 100 million tons in 2015 . Output capacity in 2006 was estimated at 15 million tons . The goal of this expansion is to increase the percentage of Iran ’ s processed petroleum @-@ based exports , which are more profitable than raw materials . In 2005 Iran exported US $ 1 @.@ 8 billion of petrochemical products ( about one @-@ third of total nonoil exports in that year ) . Receiving 30 percent of Iran ’ s petrochemical exports between them , China and India were the major trading partners in this industry . Iran ’ s domestic resource base gives it a unique comparative advantage in producing petrochemicals when international crude oil prices rise . The gain has been greatest in those plants that use liquid gas as their main input . For FY 2006 , the petrochemical industry ’ s share of GDP was projected to be about 2 percent . Iran plans to invest a total of $ 500 billion in the oil sector before 2025 .
Iran ’ s petrochemical industries have absorbed a large amount of private and public investment . In the early 2000s , 43 percent of these investments was financed by Iran ’ s National Petrochemical Company , a subsidiary of the Ministry of Petroleum , which administers the entire petrochemical sector . Another 53 percent is owned by foreign creditors ( more than 100 foreign banks and foreign companies ) , 3 percent by banks , and 1 percent by the capital market . Most of the petrochemical industry ’ s physical capital is imported , and the industry does not have strong backward linkages to manufacturing industries . In 2006 new petrochemical plants came online at Marun and Asaluyeh , and construction began on three others . Iran National Petrochemical Company 's output capacity will increase to over 100 million tpa by 2015 from an estimated 50 million tpa in 2010 thus becoming the world ' second largest chemical producer globally after Dow Chemical with Iran housing some of the world 's largest chemical complexes .
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= Eastbourne manslaughter =
The Eastbourne manslaughter was an 1860 legal case in Eastbourne , England , concerning the death of 15 @-@ year @-@ old Reginald Cancellor ( some sources give his name as Chancellor and his age as 13 or 14 ) at the hands of his teacher , Thomas Hopley . Hopley used corporal punishment with the stated intention of overcoming what he perceived as stubbornness on Cancellor 's part , but instead beat the boy to death .
An inquest into Cancellor 's death began when his brother requested an autopsy . As a result of the inquest Hopley was arrested and charged with manslaughter . He was found guilty at trial and sentenced to four years in prison , although he insisted that his actions were justifiable and that he was not guilty of any crime . The trial was sensationalised by the Victorian press and incited debate over the use of corporal punishment in schools . After Hopley 's release and subsequent divorce trial , he largely disappeared from the public record . The case became an important legal precedent in the United Kingdom for discussions of corporal punishment in schools and reasonable limits on discipline .
= = Background = =
Thomas Hopley , aged 41 at the time of the incident , was a schoolmaster in Eastbourne who ran a private boarding school out of his home at 22 Grand @-@ parade . He was well educated and from a middle @-@ class family , the son of a Royal Navy surgeon and brother of artist Edward Hopley . His household was fairly well off , and he and his wife kept several servants . Hopley was described by Algernon Charles Swinburne as " a person of high attainments and irreproachable character " . He expressed " utopian " educational ideals shared by many Victorian educational theorists . He wrote pamphlets on education topics which included " Lectures on the Education of Man " , " Help towards the physical , intellectual and moral elevation of all classes of society " , and " Wrongs which cry out for redress " advocating the abolition of child labour .
In October 1859 , he was offered £ 180 a year ( compared to an average annual salary of £ 94 for a male public elementary school teacher in 1860 ) to teach Reginald Channell Cancellor , a " robust " boy who had been " given up as ineducable " . Reginald was the son of John Henry Cancellor ( 1799 – 1860 ) , a court master and a " man of fair position " from Barnes , Surrey . The boy had previously been a student at a private school in St. Leonards and under a private tutor . He was not a good student , with contemporary sources suggesting he " had water on the brain " and describing him as " stolid and stupid " . Hopley attributed Cancellor 's failure to learn to stubbornness . On 18 April 1860 he asked the boy 's father for permission to use " severe corporal punishment " to obtain compliance , with permission being granted two days later . Hopley did not possess the cane traditionally used to administer corporal punishment to students , so instead he used a skipping rope and a walking stick .
= = Death = =
Cancellor was found dead in his bedroom on the morning of 22 April . His body was covered , with long stockings over his legs and kidskin gloves on his hands . The only visible part of the body was his face . A medical man of Hopley 's acquaintance named Roberts pronounced that the boy had died of natural causes . When questioned , Hopley suggested that Cancellor died of heart disease and argued that he should be buried immediately . He wrote to the boy 's father requesting the body 's immediate removal and interment . After viewing his son 's dressed body , Cancellor 's father accepted Roberts ' assertion for cause of death and agreed to the burial .
Rumours began to circulate among the Hopleys ' servants , suggesting that Hopley 's wife had spent the night prior to the body 's discovery cleaning up evidence of her husband 's murder of the boy . Reginald 's older brother , Reverend John Henry Cancellor , Jr . ( 1834 – 1900 ) , arrived in Eastbourne from Send , Surrey , on 25 April . He noticed discrepancies in the reports of his brother 's death and requested an autopsy . Hopley asked prominent physician Sir Charles Locock , an acquaintance of the Cancellor family and an obstetrician to the Queen , to examine the body and verify death by natural causes ; Locock believed that Hopley was responsible for the death .
A complete inquest into Cancellor 's death was initiated . His body was taken for autopsy on 28 April and was found to be covered in blood under the gloves and stockings . His thighs were " reduced to a perfect jelly " and his body was covered in bruises and cuts , including two inch @-@ deep holes in his right leg , deep enough to allow the medical examiner , Robert Willis , to touch the bone underneath . Willis reported that other than these injuries , the boy was healthy and his internal organs ( including the heart ) were free of disease . He thus concluded that Cancellor had not died of natural causes , as Hopley had suggested , and noted that the boy had obviously been beaten shortly before his death . A female servant named Ellen Fowler , when questioned by investigators , reported that she had heard Cancellor screaming and being beaten from 10 pm until midnight and that , shortly thereafter , he abruptly fell silent . She also noted traces of blood in the house and on Hopley 's candlestick , which was left outside Cancellor 's bedroom , and evidence that Cancellor 's and Hopley 's clothes had been washed soon before the former was pronounced dead . Two other servants testified in the inquiry and gave similar accounts .
The inquest was unable to determine Cancellor 's exact cause of death , but noted several inconsistencies in Hopley 's explanation of events . He had failed to summon a doctor immediately and , upon questioning , had given outlandish excuses for his failure to do so . Hopley attempted to explain away the blood on the candlestick by attributing it to a broken blister on his hand , but did not offer an explanation for Cancellor 's injuries . Hopley aroused further suspicion when he asked journalists present at the inquest not to include details of the corporal punishment in their stories , " in order to spare the feelings of the deceased family as of my own " . Cancellor 's family was deeply affected by the case , as they had been " disinclined " to see Cancellor beaten ; his father died shortly after the inquest of a " broken heart " .
= = Trial = =
Hopley was arrested in early May and , after a seven @-@ hour preliminary hearing , was released on 16 June on a £ 2 @,@ 000 bail . He and his then @-@ pregnant wife spent the period between the initial hearing and the trial at Uckfield . Hopley was confident that he would be found not guilty . He began composing a pamphlet titled Facts Bearing on the Death of Reginald Channell Cancellor , to be published after the trial ; it was published by an associate of Hopley 's after his conviction and detailed Hopley 's explanation of Cancellor 's death and his justification for his treatment of the boy . The press was extremely hostile , calling for a murder charge to be laid against him . He received a large amount of hate mail from anonymous members of the public .
Hopley 's trial took place at Lewes Assizes on 23 July 1860 . The prosecutors were Parry and Knapp ; Hopley was defended by the serjeant @-@ at @-@ law William Ballantine , who subsequently described Hopley as " distorted " . Throughout his trial , Hopley described himself as reluctant to use corporal punishment . In describing the events preceding Cancellor 's death , Hopley stated that he started crying while beating Cancellor , after which Cancellor presented his lesson and " Hopley took his head on his breast and prayed with him " . Hopley presented testimonials from past students who described him as " kindly " and who noted an infrequent use of violence . Hopley claimed to be a paedagogical follower of John Locke , who had decried the use of corporal punishment except in cases of extreme obstinacy on the part of the student . He argued that , through the application of this theory , the beating that killed Cancellor had been a necessary one .
Robert Willis testified at the trial that there was no possibility that Cancellor 's death had been a result of natural causes . He presented a detailed description of the boy 's injuries , suggesting that they had been sustained over several hours . He also revealed that Cancellor 's skull cavity contained six to eight ounces of fluid , attributing to this fluid the boy 's seeming inability to learn as described by Hopley , but rejected any suggestions that it may have contributed to Cancellor 's death . Cancellor 's brother , Fowler , and Locock all testified against Hopley ; Locock 's testimony was particularly hostile , suggesting that Hopley 's incompetent response to interviews was " tantamount to an admission of guilt " . Other witnesses included the Hopleys ' laundress , Roberts , three members of the coastguard who had seen lights on in the house late at night , a local constable , and the town registrar .
Ballantine 's conduct during the trial was flawed , and he believed Hopley to be insane . Although he promoted the testimonials of former students and argued that a schoolmaster was unlikely to " so lightly jeopardize his ambitions " , he congratulated Locock on the accuracy of his testimony in open court . Ballantine did not call key witnesses like Edward Philpott , another student of Hopley 's who had been at the house that night . Philpott slept in the bedroom beside Cancellor 's and had reported hearing no unusual noises or screams from Cancellor 's room on the night of his death . Neither did Ballantine call Professor John Eric Erichsen of University College Hospital , who had conducted a second autopsy on Cancellor on 11 May and had suggested that " the misleading appearance of the body was attributable to an undiagnosed blood condition akin to haemophilia " . In his memoir Some experiences of a barrister 's life , published in 1883 , Ballantine offered a highly sensationalised account of Cancellor 's death : " the wretched half @-@ witted victim of a lunatic 's system of education was deliberately mangled to death " .
Hopley was convicted of manslaughter , not murder , because of his position as a schoolteacher " endowed with parental authority " . Sir Alexander Cockburn , the Chief Justice of the Court of King 's Bench , presented a summary of the decision :
By the law of England , a parent or a schoolmaster ( who for this purpose represents the parent and has the parental authority delegated to him ) , may for the purpose of correcting what is evil in the child , inflict moderate and reasonable corporal punishment , always , however , with the condition , that it is moderate and reasonable . If it be administered for the gratification of passion or of rage , or if it be immoderate or excessive in its nature or degree , or if it be protracted beyond the child 's powers of endurance , or with an instrument unfitted for the purpose and calculated to produce danger to life and limb : in all such cases the punishment is excessive , the violence unlawful , and if evil consequences to life or limb ensue , then the person inflicting it is answerable to the law , and if death ensues it will be manslaughter .
Cockburn further suggested that Hopley should have realised Cancellor 's cognitive deficiencies and taken these into account in his treatment of the boy .
Hopley was sentenced to four years of penal servitude at Millbank Prison . After being indicted , he wrote : " while anguish shook the frame , the conscience suffered not one pang . I searched and searched among the deepest secrets of my soul , and could not blame myself ... I could look up tranquilly into the face of heaven who knew me to be Not Guilty . " He believed that his actions were justifiable because he had undertaken them in his duty as schoolteacher . He portrayed himself as a victim of public opinion , claiming that " a mournful accident was swelled up into a bloody midnight murder , and how it has been brought about that my unfortunate name has been branded , not simply through the United Kingdom , but through the civilised world , as one of the most execrable monsters or of madmen . " He published a pamphlet arguing that Locock had perjured himself and had conspired with Fowler to influence the outcome of the trial .
= = Reaction and aftermath = =
The trial was sensationalised by contemporary media . The press derided Hopley as " monstrous " , and criticised schoolteachers in general and private schoolteachers in particular . Newspapers published graphic accounts of Cancellor 's injuries and autopsy and further exaggerated the early rumours surrounding his death . Cancellor 's was the first death by corporal punishment to have received broad public interest . To prevent overcrowding , the court issued tickets for admission to the public gallery during the trial ; the courtroom was full an hour before the trial began . After Hopley 's conviction , he issued at least two pamphlets on model education from gaol , which were poorly received by the public . Hopley 's immediate fame was short @-@ lived ; a mere month after his conviction , the press was focused on another case of corporal punishment , that of Caroline Lefevre , whose arms were allegedly burnt by her teacher .
Following Hopley 's release from prison , he became immediately embroiled in a sensationalised divorce trial . His wife , Fanny , had petitioned for divorce on the grounds that he was " unloving " and had mistreated her . She claimed that Hopley had married her as an " educational experiment " , presenting Hopley 's educational theories as evidence of his " lunacy " . She had been 18 years old to Hopley 's 36 at the time of their marriage in 1855 . According to her statements during the trial , Hopley frequently criticised her writing and insisted that the couple 's three children should be raised as " second Christs " . She accused him of physically abusing her from the time of her first pregnancy , beating his first child only days after its birth ( the child was later found to be " brain @-@ damaged " ) , and suggesting that during his prison sentence she should be confined to a workhouse . Hopley responded by claiming that he set rules only to ensure the maintenance of his household and the well @-@ being of his family , and produced a set of romantic letters he had received from Fanny during his incarceration as evidence of her unforced affection for him .
The jury found Hopley guilty of cruelty , but suggested that Fanny had condoned his treatment of her . The judge therefore ruled that her case was insufficient to grant a divorce . The verdict sparked outrage among the public , who believed that " a great injustice had been done " , and that Fanny should not be forced to remain married to an abusive convicted killer . Fanny left England shortly afterwards , allegedly to avoid having to continue living with Hopley .
Hopley largely withdrew from the public eye after the trial , becoming a private tutor in London and publishing pamphlets on spiritualism in the late 1860s . He died at University College Hospital on 24 June 1876 . A retrospective editorial published in The Times in 1960 concluded that Hopley was not " the villain which some persons pictured him to be " ; it noted that at the time of his arrest Hopley had been planning the construction of a " model school " in Brighton and that he had examined architect 's drawings of the school after beating Cancellor .
In 1865 , Cancellor 's death was used in a medical journal article discussing adult hydrocephalus . Despite Willis ' statement that Cancellor had no pre @-@ existing medical condition that would have caused or contributed to his death , author Samuel Wilks suggested not only that Cancellor had hydrocephalus , but that he was consequently more susceptible to physical injury as a result . He pointed to the autopsy finding of fluid in Cancellor 's brain to support his assertions and argued that this effusion would have caused physical weakness .
R v Hopley was used as an archetypal case for legal commentaries about corporal punishment until physical discipline was officially banned in British schools well over a century later . According to education professor Marie Parker @-@ Jenkins , R v Hopley is " the most quoted case of the 19th century involving the issue of corporal punishment " . The case is credited with prompting outcry against corporal punishment among the general public , although contemporary education journals rejected the possibility of abolishing corporal punishment . Hopley 's defence , known as " reasonable chastisement " , became a frequently used response to charges of corporal punishment and was incorporated into the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 . Cockburn 's requirement for " moderate and reasonable " punishment was established as a legal limit to corporal punishment and is still employed in modern legal scholarship .
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= Breakout ( Miley Cyrus album ) =
Breakout is the second studio album by American recording artist Miley Cyrus , released on July 22 , 2008 by Hollywood Records . It is her first record that is not affiliated with the television series Hannah Montana , in which Cyrus portrays the title character Hannah Montana . She co @-@ wrote eight of its thirteen tracks , several of which with the assistance of Antonina Armato and Tim James . The majority of the record was composed as she traveled during her headlining Best of Both Worlds Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) . Overall , Breakout is dominant on pop rock but explores a variety of other musical genres . Lyrical themes addressed in the album relate to breakups and coming of age .
Breakout was met with generally favorable reception from critics , though some believed the tracks were not a significant departure from the Hannah Montana franchise . The album encountered commercial success and introduced Cyrus in new countries . The album peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 for one week selling 370 @,@ 000 copies . It is Cyrus ' third album to do so , and was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Breakout has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States . Elsewhere , Breakout topped the Canadian Albums Chart for two consecutive weeks and the Australian Albums Chart for one week . The album also charted within the top ten in Italy , Japan , and New Zealand .
Three singles were released from Breakout . " 7 Things " was released on June 17 , 2008 as the lead single from the album ; it was commercially successful , reaching the top ten on charts in various countries . It was followed by the Rock Mafia remix of " See You Again " , released on August 25 , 2008 in countries which the original version was not , expanding the success of the song by appearing on charts in several countries . The third single , " Fly on the Wall " was released on February 27 , 2009 as the final single , being unable to duplicate the success of the previous singles .
= = Background = =
Cyrus is a singer @-@ songwriter and actress who starred as Miley Stewart , a girl with a secret double life as the popstar Hannah Montana , on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . Through the television series , Cyrus developed fame as a teen idol and released music while being credited to Hannah Montana . Cyrus ' debut studio album , titled Meet Miley Cyrus , was released as the second disc of the Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus ( 2007 ) double @-@ disc album . Breakout is Cyrus ' second studio album and her first not be affiliated with the Hannah Montana franchise , which was intended to be reflected by the title of the album . She believed it was her " breakout record " , where she was going to " show everyone what Miley Cyrus is all about . " Cyrus further explained the album was also appropriately titled because it portrayed her " stepping away from Hannah but just a little bit different . " She also decided to title the album after the song " Breakout " because it was " one of [ her ] favorite songs " .
Cyrus believed that compared to previous albums , Breakout was " grown @-@ up " and " just a little more creative . " Cyrus aimed to incorporate a sound influenced by rock music , saying " the writing is definitely different ... the lyrics mean more than my last couple of records " . According to Cyrus , the album documented , in depth , the events that occurred in her life in a year span . Most of the songs were written as Cyrus traveled on the Best of Both Worlds Tour from October 2007 to January 2008 . Recording commenced immediately after the tour came to an end , and seized in March 2008 , for Cyrus was to film Hannah Montana : The Movie ( 2009 ) in Tennessee soon after . She expressed that , through each song , a listener could discover something about her and about themselves . Of connecting with her fans through Breakout , she claimed she wanted " girls to feel to be able to feel empowered and just feel like they can kind of rock out " , going on to say that , " listening to this music , I hope they can feel like a reason to dance and just smile and to have fun . This CD is totally age appropriate , specially for me " .
= = Development = =
" Breakout " was written by Ted Bruner , in collaboration with Trey Vittetoe and Gina Schock of the Go @-@ Go 's . It was first recorded by American pop singer Katy Perry , for her second album One of the Boys ( 2008 ) , though it was never included for the album and was passed on to Cyrus , on whose version Perry sings backing vocals . Like most songs on Breakout , Cyrus wrote " 7 Things " while traveling on the Best of Both Worlds Tour , reflecting on her numerous emotions about an ex @-@ boyfriend . She claimed her use of the word " hate " demonstrated how furious she was , at the time . Originally , " 7 Things " was more " soft and nice " but Cyrus says she " went nuts " during the recording process and gave the song a harder sound . She decided to record a cover version of Cyndi Lauper 's " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " from the album She 's So Unusual ( 1983 ) , after speaking with Lauper at the 50th Grammy Awards . The two singers were conversing about music , when Lauper stated , " Well , don 't be scared of anything . People waste their lives being scared . Lasso the moon . But don 't do it because someone tells you it 's the right idea . " Cyrus believed Lauper 's saying encompassed the direction she wanted to take Breakout , ergo she covered " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " . However , she desired for the cover to be completely different from other covers of " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " she heard . She described the process as " almost [ having ] to relearn the song . " About the finished product , Cyrus said , " When you listen to the song , it 's , like , you 're not even sure what it is . It 's something completely new . " " Full Circle " was co @-@ written by Cyrus , Scott Cutler , and Anne Preven about Cyrus ' relationship with Nick Jonas of the Jonas Brothers . " It 's about two people . They 're always gonna come back together no matter what anyone says , the bad people that try to keep you apart " , Cyrus said of the song 's concept .
" Fly on the Wall " was written by Cyrus with the aid of Armato , James , and Devrim Karaoglu . " Fly on the Wall " was intended for the media , regarding " how they think they know everything about [ her ] , when they don 't . They want to be a fly on my wall and watch [ her ] 24 / 7 . " Cyrus explained it was about attempting to avoid paparazzis but they appeared , " not going away like little annoying flies . " Cyrus was inspired to write " Bottom of the Ocean " by her deceased fish , Lyric and Melody , who died when Cyrus was eleven years of age . She said the topic drifted drastically once she began writing . " It 's saying if there 's someone you 've loved but for some reason you can 't love them anymore , you have to take your feelings , scoop them out , and put them at the bottom of the ocean . " Cyrus , Armato , James , Aaron Dudley co @-@ wrote " Wake Up America " , a track about environmentalism . The song was directed towards " the people in the back seat " , children of today 's generation ; she said that , in the future , they would be the ones " driving [ the ] Earth to what it 's gonna be . " " It 's the only one you got , so you gotta take care of it . And if you don 't , there 's gonna be , maybe not for you , right then , and your generation but your kids and their kids ... Every generation has a cycle that 'll carry on for the rest of eternity " , she concluded . Cyrus recorded a cover of Cheyenne Kimball 's " Four Walls " from the album The Day Has Come ( 2006 ) for Breakout , titled " These Four Walls " . The twelfth and final track is a remixed version of the hit " See You Again " , referred to as the Rock Mafia Remix and the 2008 Remix ; " See You Again " was originally released on the Meet Miley Cyrus disc of Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus .
= = Composition = =
Overall , Breakout is dominant on pop rock but explores a variety of other musical genres . The opening track , " Breakout " , is a dance @-@ pop number that begins with a fast beat , composed of chiming electric guitar and drums and later progresses to " the snares skip and the keyboards shimmer " ; " ecstatic beats " pummel throughout . The song 's lyrics are " a girls @-@ only call to fun " that anecdote on feelings about coming of age and the desire to be school @-@ free . The uptempo refrains of " 7 Things " are pop punk influenced . The song is " a three @-@ tempo patchwork quilt " , transitioning " from sensitive breakup song in the strummy verses to punky @-@ pop kiss @-@ off in the double @-@ time choruses . " " 7 Things " ' lyrics list seven traits Cyrus hates about an ex @-@ boyfriend . " The Driveway " is a power ballad whose lyrics regard a breakup , insisting " nothing hurts like losing when you know it 's really gone . " The cover of Cyndi Lauper 's " Girls Just Wanna Have Fun " replaces the subtle reggae undercurrent in the original version with a more rock music driven sound that includes pop punk beats and string stabs . The lyrics of " Girls Just Wanna Have Fun " primarily discuss the " desire to let loose with one 's friends " , touching upon details of the life of an overworked child star . The song " Full Circle " is composed of a several pop rock hooks ; in one of the hooks , Cyrus finishes various words with " Oh , oh , oh ! " . The lyrics describe not quitting a relationship .
" Fly on the Wall " is prominently an electropop song that is also composed of a number of hooks , which yell the song 's title , while the instrumentation relies on electric guitars . Unlike other songs on Breakout , " Fly on the Wall " has Cyrus ' voice processed to sound different . The song 's lyrics taunt " the listener for being on the outside of her inner sanctum " . The target of the message has been interpreted differently by contemporary critics – an ex @-@ boyfriend and the media have most commonly been referred to . " Bottom of the Ocean " is a contemporary ballad that contains a sound reflecting influences from minimalist music . The backdrop for the " feel @-@ bad " love song features ocean wave sounds . The track " Wake Up America " has a " cheeky riff @-@ rock backdrop " as its , while its lyrical content concerns environmentalism , where Cyrus mainly pleads for audiences to give the Earth " just a little attention " . In the first verse , she " admits that she doesn 't know exactly what 's up with this global warming but believes there 's something we should all do about it " . " These Four Walls " is a power ballad accented with country pop elements and twangy vocals and lyrics which speak of an interior narrative . " Simple Song " has " bile " sound and is lyrically about moments in coming of age where a person " can 't tell which way is up , which way is down " and they feel the need to alienate themselves . In " Goodbye " , Cyrus ' vocal performance is more " roosty " with a more " natural @-@ sounding accompaniment " while , in the lyrics , she finds her remembering the " simple things ... until [ she cries ] . " " See You Again " ( Rock Mafia Remix ) is dance @-@ pop number , fusing sultry vocals with techno beats . The track has Cyrus detailing previous scenes and plans to redeem herself .
= = Singles = =
" 7 Things " was released on June 17 , 2008 as the lead single from Breakout , through digital distribution . Following the song 's release , allegations sparked that it was about Nick Jonas of the Jonas Brothers , which Cyrus neither confirmed nor denied . It received mixed reviews from contemporary critics , several of which compared Cyrus to Avril Lavigne . " 7 Things " enjoyed worldwide commercial success , becoming a top ten hit on charts in Australia , Japan , Norway , and the United States . The single was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Brett Ratner and features Cyrus performing the song with a back @-@ up band as many teenage girls lipsync along .
" See You Again " ( Rock Mafia Remix ) was released August 11 , 2008 as the second single from Breakout ; it was only released in countries where the original version was not . The remix was received well by critics for properly combining vocals and music . The remix expanded the success of " See You Again " , appearing on charts in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Germany , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . " See You Again " ( Rock Mafia Remix ) was given a promotional music video , taken from a performance at the 2008 Disney Channel Games .
" Fly on the Wall " was released on February 16 , 2009 as the third and final single from the album . " Fly on the Wall " received critical praise ; several critics claiming it defied teen pop expectations and was Breakout 's best track . However , the song failed to match success of " 7 Things " , reaching its highest peak at number sixteen on the UK Singles Chart . Its music video was directed by Philip Andelman . Inspired by Michael Jackson 's Thriller , the video depicts Cyrus attempting to escape the paparazzi , as they follow her in a parking garage .
= = Promotion = =
The promotion plan was centered on massive performances and interviews to television , radio , and magazines . It was formulated to not be aggressive to give Cyrus a period of rest , after doing many consecutive projects . Cyrus explained ,
" I 'm a kid . That 's why , for the most part , we only did the big publicity and otherwise decided to let the album whatever it was going to do . It was so weird not to do everything in my power to promote my first album under my own name . I am very proud of it and love what we came up with . But I also had to accept the reality of my situation . So much is happening all at once , so many opportunities . I want to make the most of them , but I also need to stay sane . There will be a day , my parents constantly remind me , when I won 't have so much going on . And when that day comes , I don 't want to feel like an empty shell of a person . "
Cyrus first performed songs from Breakout , the title track , " Fly on the Wall " , and " See You Again " ( Rock Mafia Remix ) , at the opening ceremony of the 2008 Disney Channel Games on May 4 , 2008 . Her first live performance of " 7 Things " took place on May 17 , 2008 at the 2008 Zootopia , an annual summer concert put on by radio station Z100 . Later that summer , she promoted Breakout at outdoor concerts hosted by Good Morning America and The Today Show , while hosting the 2008 Teen Choice Awards , and at FNMTV . Cyrus began promotion for Breakout in Europe in fall 2008 , performing the track on the United Kingdom channel GMTV , the French television show Le Grand Journal , and the British singing competition The X Factor among other venues . Cyrus performed several songs from album on April 24 , 2009 in a London Apple Store . These performances were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as a live extended play ( EP ) titled iTunes Live from London .
Well over a year after the Breakout 's release , Cyrus embarked on her second concert tour , the Wonder World Tour , to promote the album and The Time of Our Lives extended play ( EP ) . The tour was Cyrus ' first to not have her costumed as Hannah Montana and was announced in June 2009 , with dates revealed for American venues . Dates for venues in the United Kingdom were later announced . In to order to avoid the extensive scalping that occurred during the Best of Both Worlds Tour , all tickets were sold exclusively through paperless ticket delivery , which would require audiences to bring identification to gain entry into the concert . The tour expanded from September to December 2009 , with a total of fifty @-@ six concerts in North America and Europe . The tour received positive to mixed reviews from critics . Some praised it and deemed it a spectacle , while others believed it lacked profundity and portrayal of Cyrus ' personality . The Wonder World Tour managed to gross over $ 67 @.@ 1 million , $ 15 million which were earned by the singer . The entire European leg sold out within ten minutes , and , at one stop , Cyrus broke the record for the largest attendance at The O2 Arena in London , England with an audience of 16 @,@ 196 . A concert film was released on the limited , deluxe edition of her third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Breakout received generally positive reviews , earning a collective score of 66 out of 100 on Metacritic . Heather Phares of Allmusic commented that Breakout 's title expresses its " purpose nicely " though the music was not drastically different from Hannah Montana 's , adding , " only a handful of songs truly break out from the Montana mold " . Though not being impressed by " nothing [ being ] left to chance " , she concluded , " Even if these songs are derivative of much more established pop divas [ Avril Lavigne and Britney Spears ] , they provide clues to the kind of company Cyrus aims to keep . And while Breakout isn 't as much of a breakthrough as it could be , it still moves Miley closer to an identity and career outside of Hannah . " Kerri Mason of Billboard wrote , " While it 's still age @-@ appropriate for minors , Breakout is for the big kids too " and complimented Cyrus for being a " natural @-@ born popstar . " Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe felt Cyrus mostly succeeded while " trying to please most of the people most of the time " on Breakout . She summarized , " With Breakout , Cyrus has clearly made a choice to break from the shiny , happy ' Hannah Montana ' character , but she hasn 't scuffed her sound up so much that her fans won 't recognize that she 's just being Miley . " Chris William of Entertainment Weekly graded the album a B and noted that the first half of the album was " fun " but the second half became " overly ballad @-@ heavy , " assuming that was the more mature side of Cyrus she had promised . Miakel Wood of the Los Angeles Times stated , " In that respect , Breakout is unlikely fodder for the razzle @-@ dazzle road shows and 3 @-@ D concert films to come . As a portrait of the artist as a young malcontent , though , it 's rarely less than fascinating . "
Ben Ratliff of The New York Times said Cyrus ' attempt to leave Hannah Montana was weak , only being driven by " more gray thoughts " . Ratliff continued , " She eases up on songs with total @-@ affirmation chants about being the captain of her ship ... The lyrics are half @-@ terrible — almost too realistic as teenage thoughts — but the best of them transmit the desired message ... It ’ s a lackluster album , floated by two or three strong singles . " Josh Timmermann of PopMatters believed Breakout was " a just @-@ okay teenpop record with audible suggestions of said singer @-@ songwriter aspirations . To be sure , it ’ s a stronger collection of songs than Moms and Dads with upturned noses ... would probably expect . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine rated the album two and half stars out of five , being disappointed and deeming the songs not to be a " worthy follow @-@ up " to " See You Again " . Cinquemani finished , " For teen @-@ pop , your kid could do worse . You know , like Avril [ Lavigne ] " . Mordechai Shinefield of The Village Voice wrote , " If her lyrical prowess hasn 't caught up to her voice yet , that should only hold promise of things to come . She 's a rare talent ; now she only has to survive until adulthood . " Ash Dosanjh of Yahoo ! Music gave Breakout seven stars out of ten and referred to Cyrus , in Breakout , as the ideal of the American Dream : " a combination of hard work , good Christian living and un @-@ smutty pop " .
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending August 8 , 2008 , Breakout debuted at number @-@ one on the Billboard 200 , thus earning Cyrus a third number @-@ one album on the chart – including albums fully credited to Hannah Montana ; the album sold 371 @,@ 000 copies in its debut week , becoming the fourth @-@ highest sales week of 2008 for a female artist . The following week , Breakout descended to number two , selling 163 @,@ 000 copies . The album spent a total of forty @-@ eight weeks on the Billboard 200 . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments exceeding one million copies . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies since its release . Due to sales of 27 @,@ 000 copies , Breakout entered at number @-@ one on the Canadian Albums Chart on the week ending August 8 , 2008 , maintaining the top spot for two consecutive weeks .
On the week ending September 14 , 2008 , the album entered the Australian Albums Chart at number two . In the succeeding week , it moved to number @-@ one , where it only stayed for a week . Breakout was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments exceeding 35 @,@ 000 copies . Breakout debuted at number four on the New Zealand Albums Chart on the week ending September 8 , 2008 . On the week ending October 13 , 2008 , the album reached its peak at number two on the New Zealand Albums Chart , a position it maintained for two consecutive weeks . Breakout was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for the shipment of more than 15 @,@ 000 copies . In Japan , it peaked at number ten .
On the week ending September 13 , 2008 , the album entered and peaked at number ten on the UK Albums Chart , becoming Cyrus ' first top ten album in the country . It was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for the shipment of 300 @,@ 000 copies . In Ireland , Breakout peaked at number eleven and was certified platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) for shipments exceeding 15 @,@ 000 copies . In mainland Europe , Breakout peaked at number twenty @-@ eight on the European Top 100 Albums Chart , number twelve on the Austrian Albums Chart , number six on the Italian Albums Chart , and number sixteen on the German Albums Chart . On the week ending September 21 , 2008 , the album debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Spanish Albums Chart and , after twenty @-@ six weeks of ascending and descending the chart , it reached its peak at number seven . The album was certified gold by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for the shipment of more than 30 @,@ 000 copies . Breakout experienced similar commercial outcomes throughout the rest of Europe ; it charted within the top twenty on charts in Finland , Norway , and Poland .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Breakout .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= M @-@ 120 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 120 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan in the southwest Lower Peninsula . The highway runs northeast from Muskegon to Hesperia . In between , the road passes through suburban Muskegon , forests and farmland . Some 5 @,@ 900 – 26 @,@ 000 vehicles use the highway each day on average as it runs long a series of roads that follow county lines in the area .
The current highway to bear the M @-@ 120 designation is the third in the state . The first was a spur route in the Lansing area in the 1930s . The second was a route that connected to like @-@ numbered state highways in both Ohio and Indiana . The current M @-@ 120 was originally part of M @-@ 20 until that highway was rerouted between New Era and US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) .
= = Route description = =
The current route starts at Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) where Muskegon Lake and the Muskegon River meet in Muskegon . As it crosses the river , it is known as the Veterans Memorial Causeway , with a section of Veterans Memorial Park between the northbound and southbound sections of the road . This road continues north as Whitehall Road , which connects Muskegon to Whitehall . At Whitehall Road , M @-@ 120 turns east on Holton Road and continues in a northeastern direction through the suburb of North Muskegon . The south side of the roadway abuts residential areas and Reeths @-@ Puffer High School ; the north side is largely undeveloped . M @-@ 120 meets the US 31 freeway in Muskegon Township . Holton Road continues northeasterly past Oak Hill Cemetery and turns northerly at Bard Road . The highway curves to the northeast again through Twin Lake to avoid several lakes in the area . The landscape along the road between Twin Lake and Holton , like much of the overall route of the highway , is woodland . Northeast of Holton , those forests transition to farm land as M @-@ 120 turns to the north . The highway meets B @-@ 31 as it turns north to run along the Muskegon – Newaygo county line .
As M @-@ 120 continues north along the county line , it runs in Holton Township in Muskegon County to the west and Sheridan Township in Newaygo County to the east along Maple Island Road . West of Fremont , the highway meets an intersection with M @-@ 82 and B @-@ 86 . B @-@ 86 runs along the Muskegon – Oceana county line , and M @-@ 82 runs along a township line in Newaygo County . North of this intersection , M @-@ 120 follows the Oceana – Newaygo county line that divides Greenwood Township from Dayton Township . Maple Island Road enters the south side of Hesperia on Division Street . M @-@ 120 terminates at an intersection with M @-@ 20 in the middle of the village , 27 @.@ 901 miles ( 44 @.@ 902 km ) from its starting point .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 120 like all other components of the Michigan state trunkline highway system . As part of these responsibilities , the department tracks traffic volumes along the highway . MDOT uses a metric called average annual daily traffic , which is a calculation of the traffic along a roadway segment for any average day of the year . In 2009 , the highest traffic levels were near the southern terminus at 26 @,@ 736 vehicles each day . The lowest levels MDOT calculated were in Holton at 5 @,@ 936 vehicles daily . The section between the south end and US 31 , M @-@ 120 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . The remainder of the highway has not been listed .
= = History = =
= = = Previous routings = = =
The M @-@ 120 designation was originally used on two different roadways in the state . In 1930 , a road from US 16 for about a mile at the northwest corner of Lansing was numbered M @-@ 120 . In early 1939 , the M @-@ 174 designation replaced the M @-@ 120 moniker on the road . Later that year , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) used the number for a road along the Michigan @-@ Ohio state line . This highway connected to State Route 120 on its east end at the state line and ran west to US 127 at Meridian Road along the Hillsdale – Lenawee county line . By the end of 1940 , M @-@ 120 was extended through Hillsdale County to connect to State Road 120 along the short north – south Michigan – Indiana border . By the middle of 1961 , the M @-@ 120 designation was retired by the MSHD again . The Ohio and Indiana SR 120 highways are still in place today with only the county road in Michigan connecting them .
= = = Current routing = = =
The MSHD 's successor , the Michigan Department of State Highways , realigned the route of M @-@ 20 through Western Michigan in 1969 . In the aftermath of the reroute , the M @-@ 20 designation was moved from Muskegon to New Era . The former routing of M @-@ 20 south of Hesperia to Muskegon was renumbered M @-@ 120 , including a segment that ran concurrently with M @-@ 82 . That concurrency was removed in 1978 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Barra Head =
Barra Head , also known as Berneray ( Scottish Gaelic : Beàrnaraigh ) , is the southernmost of the Outer Hebrides in Scotland . Within the Outer Hebrides , it forms part of the Barra Isles archipelago . Originally , Barra Head only referred to the southernmost headland of Berneray but is now a common name for the entire island . The highest point of the island is Sotan , a Marilyn .
There are numerous prehistoric structures on the island and permanent occupation by 20 – 50 individuals occurred throughout the historic period , peaking in the 19th century . The economy of the residents was based on agriculture , fishing and fowling . The cliffs provide nesting sites for seabirds in such profusion that Berneray has been designated as a Special Protection Area .
The Barra Head Lighthouse , built by Robert Stevenson , has operated since 1833 . From 1931 to 1980 Barra Head was inhabited only by the lighthouse keepers and their wives but the lighthouse is now automated and the island completely uninhabited . The rough seas that surround the island have been used to test prototype lifeboats .
= = Etymology = =
The derivation of the modern name is straightforward , the Old Norse name meaning " Bjorn 's island " becoming Beàrnaraigh in Gaelic and then " Berneray " as an angilicisation . However , as is often the case with Hebridean island names , there are a number of additional complications . There are two fuller Gaelic names - Beàrnaraigh Cheann Bharraigh and Beàrnaraigh an Easbaig meaning " Berneray of Barra Head " and " Berneray of the Bishop " respectively . The former refers to Barra Head the southernmost promontory of the island and the latter name is a reference to the " Bishop 's Isles " an alternative name for the " Barra Isles " , of which archipelago Berneray is a member . " Barra Head " alone is an English language alternative to Berneray for the island name .
= = Geography and geology = =
Berneray lies to the west of the Sea of the Hebrides and south of Mingulay across the Sound of Berneray , which has a strong tidal stream . The wedge @-@ shaped island is 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) long and 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 8 mi ) wide . The topography lacks variety , there being no valley or bays and the few streams are very small . Most of the island consists of gneiss , although the lighthouse was constructed of rock from a small granite quarry .
The seabed to the west is a continuation of the gneiss platform with a depth of between 120 to 140 metres ( 390 to 460 ft ) . The sea floor is largely devoid of sand and there is some evidence of scouring by icebergs . This rocky platform extends south of Barra Head by at least 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) . Due to glacial action the sea channel to the east is significantly deeper than the open ocean to the west , reaching up to 365 metres ( 1 @,@ 198 ft ) .
The rocky north coast has a small landing place at Leac na Fealia to the west and a small jetty at Achduin further east . From there a track leads westward and upward across the slope of the island to the lighthouse . To the west of Achduin the land is relatively flat and low @-@ lying , the area known as " The Aird " ending at Nisam Point which overlooks the little islands of Rubha Niosaim and Sgeir Mhor .
The south coast is dominated by high cliffs , which rise to 190 metres ( 620 ft ) at Skate Point ( Rubha Sgait ) in the south west . Barra Head itself is the southern prominence located mid @-@ way along the south coast . The highest point of the island is Sotan , a Marilyn whose summit lies above high cliffs between Barra Head and Skate Point . This eminence is easily reached from the track that leads from Achduin to the lighthouse that passes just to the north of the summit , which is only 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) from the cliff edge . The skerry of Bird Rock guards the coast far below . The lighthouse is located near the prominence of Sròn an Duin , just east of Skate Point and above the narrow chasm of Sloc na Bèiste ( ravine of the monster ) .
Visiting in 1868 H. J. Elwes wrote :
It was the grandest sight I ever experienced , to look out of the lighthouse on a very stormy day , and see oneself hanging , as it were , over the ocean , surrounded on three sides by a fearful chasm in which the air was so thickly crowded with birds as to produce the appearance of a heavy snowstorm , whilst the cries of these myriads , mingled with the roar of the ocean and the howling of the tremendous gusts of wind coming up from below as if forced through a blast pipe , made it almost impossible to hear a person speak .
= = History = =
Berneray has been inhabited since prehistoric times and Historic Scotland have identified eighty @-@ three archaeological sites on the island , the majority being of a pre @-@ medieval date . There are four chambered tombs , five cists and five other sites assumed to be burial cairns , suggesting a significant settlement in the Neolithic and Bronze Age . The fort of Dùn Briste ( the broken fort ) lies to the north west and a second site nearby dating to the Iron Age was largely destroyed during the construction of the lighthouse . Visiting in the late 17th century the writer Martin Martin described the latter as " having a vacuity round the walls , divided in little apartments " . A century later Edward MacQueen wrote that he believed it had served " as a pharos or watch tower " .
There is also the presumed site of a chapel near MacLean 's Point ( just east of the landing place ) where an incised cross , tentatively dated to between the sixth and ninth centuries was found . Archaeological evidence of the Norse presence in the Hebrides is scant , but boat shaped stone settings found not far from the chapel may be graves from this period of occupation .
Referring to his own time , Martin suggested that life on " Bernera " was not unduly difficult . " It excels other islands of the same extent for cultivation and fishing . The natives never go a fishing while Macneil or his steward is in the island , lest seeing their plenty of fish , perhaps they might take occasion to raise their rents . " In the 18th century the population was over fifty , with settlement concentrated around the north east coast . The 1841 census recorded a population of 30 , rising to 56 in 1881 and then declining again to 36 in nine houses by 1891 . During the 19th century the permanently resident population ( see below ) remained stable at about 20 in two or three families . The number fell to 17 by 1901 , with the last native islanders leaving about 1910 . From this point the three families of the lighthouse keepers were the only residents and the island became uninhabited with the 1980 automation of the light .
= = = Overview of population trends = = =
Notes :
Population ( a ) includes permanent residents only and was not recorded in 1901 .
Population ( b ) also includes lighthouse keepers and , given that many of the censuses were taken in April , temporarily resident fishermen .
= = Traditional economy and culture = =
During the 19th century agriculture was based on crops of barley , potatoes , oats , turnips and cabbages and livestock including sheep and cattle . Ponies were kept , although their use may have been to transport materials to the lighthouse , and goats were also recorded in 1863 . Berneray lacks peat , which had to be brought over from Mingulay at considerable effort . The harvest of the seas remained important , with the island a base for exploiting the rich stocks of white fish by fishermen from several local islands . Seabirds were also an important part of the economy , supplying both food and feathers for sale . Such was the abundance that in 1868 a single fowler caught 600 birds in six to eight hours .
Visiting in 1818 , William MacGillivray , professor of Natural History at Aberdeen University wrote :
On reaching Berneray we landed and soon after betook ourselves to a hut which we found cleared for our reception . We dined on roasted mutton , wild fowls ' eggs , bread , butter and whisky . The goodman of the house came home with a basketful of eggs from the rocks , and some birds he had caught .
The travel writer Isabella Bird arrived in 1863 aboard the Shamrock receiving an " outrageous welcome " from the islanders , despite the fact that amongst the Gaelic @-@ speaking locals only a few had " some very lame sentences in English " . She wrote approvingly that her hosts were " well @-@ dressed , cleanly and healthy looking " and of the " delicious cream , in large clean , wooden bowls . " Duncan Sinclair , the only Protestant on the island purchased a Bible and there was much bartering and bargaining with the islanders paying for their purchases in dried fish . Bird concluded that the island was :
Far out into the Atlantic , exposed to its fullest fury , and generally inaccessible , yet has nursed a population before , rather than behind , those of the other Hebrides . Without any advantages or other religious ordinances than are supplied by the annual visit of a priest from Barra , these very interesting people thirst for education , and would make considerable sacrifices to obtain it .
In 1851 several of the island 's children were described as " scholars at home " and later some youngsters attended the school on Mingulay . The Barra School Board created a " sub @-@ school " on Berneray but it can never have had even as many as ten children in attendance and it closed in 1887 after a few years of operation .
= = Lighthouse = =
Barra Head Lighthouse identifies the southern entrance to The Minch , roughly halfway between the Eilean Glas and Rinns of Islay lighthouses . The 58 foot ( 18 m ) stone tower stands on the west side of the island , at the top of a very steep cliff , making the light 693 feet ( 211 m ) above sea level , with a range of 18 miles ( 29 km ) . There is no shallow water west of Berneray to break the blow of the Atlantic storms and small fish are sometimes thrown onto the grass on the cliff top . In 1836 Sir Archibald Geikie recorded the movement of a 42 long tons ( 43 t ) block of gneiss across 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of ground during a violent storm .
Designed by Robert Stevenson and built by James Smith of Inverness the light was first exhibited on 15 October 1833 . The oil @-@ burning light was converted to incandescent in 1906 and the lighthouse was converted to automatic operation on 23 October 1980 , when the last keepers were withdrawn .
Due to the dangerous landing conditions , Barra Head lighthouse was re @-@ classified by the RNLI as a " Rock Station " early in the 20th century . Two small boats had been swamped and lost in the enormous swell by the slipway at the landing place . The regulations associated with this change prevented both alongside landings by tenders and the lighthouse men keeping dinghies onshore . The departure of the last of the crofting families meant an end to regular links by sea and the regular mist and fog rendered signalling unreliable . A system of wireless communications with Castlebay on Barra was therefore proposed and installed by 1925 .
The pier was built in the late 1930s with the approach of war , when a sophisticated radar system was installed to guard the Western Approaches . This involved the landing of hundreds of steel girders and drums containing steel cables used to create three large radar masts , and a robust " Scots Derrick " was erected to crane them ashore . A small walled cemetery was constructed halfway between the lighthouse and the summit of Sotan for the keepers . This contains the grave of a visiting inspector and those of a number of the keepers ' children . A Blenheim bomber crashed into the cliffs nearby during World War II , but the wreck was not discovered until many years later by a rock climber .
= = Lifeboats = =
In the early 1970s a research project sponsored by BP into a prototype safety boat for Barra Head also assisted the RNLI in developing the Atlantic 21 class lifeboat . The boat used was a Halmatic Atlantic 21 MKIII modified for long @-@ range operations and with full offshore capability . The project involved multi @-@ organisation co @-@ operation and included Halmatic themselves , HM Coastguard and the Royal Marines Amphibious Trials and Testing Unit .
In 2008 the Barra RNLI Life Boat , Edna Windsor was featured on a series of Royal Mail stamps . The first class stamp shows the 17 metres ( 56 ft ) Severn class lifeboat in action in the Sound of Berneray 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south west of Barra in a 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) swell and a 30 kilometres per hour ( 16 kn ) wind .
= = Natural history = =
The National Trust for Scotland purchased the island in 2000 from a local crofters ' syndicate called the Barra Head Isles Sheepstock Company who had owned the island since 1955 . The NTS were able to acquire it through a bequest by Miss J. M. Fawcitt “ to provide an area of natural beauty in memory of her parents and the courage of her late brother , Bernard . ” In 2009 the NTS removed all the sheep from the island , citing the difficulties of maintaining the flock in such a remote location .
Berneray and Mingulay form an important breeding site for around a hundred thousand pairs of seabirds , and are especially important for the razorbill , the two islands having at least 2 @.@ 0 % of the UK 's breeding population in 1985 . Other species present include a variety of gulls , guillemots , puffins , kittiwakes , shags and ( since 1899 ) fulmars . The island is largely covered by maritime grassland , with some machair and heath . Primrose , violets , yellow flag iris and celandine grow abundantly and grey seals are regularly seen by the landing cove . The island is designated as an SSSI and ( with Mingulay ) is a Special Protection Area .
= = Notable residents = =
The island 's best known former resident is Peter Sinclair , aka Pàdraig Mòr or the " Barra Giant " . He was measured at 2 @.@ 03 m ( 6 ft 8 in ) tall aged seventeen in 1866 . He joined a travelling show , but disliked the publicity and returned to the islands to run a dairy in Castlebay in the summer and spend the winters at his home on Berneray .
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= Problem of religious language =
The problem of religious language considers whether it is possible to talk about God meaningfully if the traditional conceptions of God as being incorporeal , infinite , and timeless , are accepted . Because these traditional conceptions of God make it difficult to describe God , religious language has the potential to be meaningless . Theories of religious language either attempt to demonstrate that such language is meaningless , or attempt to show how religious language can still be meaningful . Statements like " God loves me " are discussed largely in Religious Language .
Traditionally , religious language has been explained as via negativa , analogy , symbolism , or myth , each of which describes a way of talking about God in human terms . The via negativa is a way of referring to God according to what God is not ; analogy uses human qualities as standards against which to compare divine qualities ; symbolism is used non @-@ literally to describe otherwise ineffable experiences ; and a mythological interpretation of religion attempts to reveal fundamental truths behind religious stories . Alternative explanations of religious language cast it as having political , performative , or imperative functions .
Empiricist David Hume 's requirement that claims about reality must be verified by evidence influenced the logical positivist movement , particularly the philosopher A. J. Ayer . The movement proposed that , for a statement to hold meaning , it must be possible to verify its truthfulness empirically – with evidence from the senses . Consequently , the logical positivists argued that religious language must be meaningless because the propositions it makes are impossible to verify . Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein has been regarded as a logical positivist by some academics because he distinguished between things that can and cannot be spoken about ; others have argued that he could not have been a logical positivist because he emphasised the importance of mysticism . British philosopher Antony Flew proposed a similar challenge based on the principle that , in so far as assertions of religious belief cannot be empirically falsified , religious statements are rendered meaningless .
The analogy of games – most commonly associated with Ludwig Wittgenstein – has been proposed as a way of establishing meaning in religious language . The theory asserts that language must be understood in terms of a game : just as each game has its own rules determining what can and cannot be done , so each context of language has its own rules determining what is and is not meaningful . Religion is classified as a possible and legitimate language game which is meaningful within its own context . Various parables have also been proposed to solve the problem of meaning in religious language . R. M. Hare used his parable of a lunatic to introduce the concept of " bliks " – unfalsifiable beliefs according to which a worldview is established – which are not necessarily meaningless . Basil Mitchell used a parable to show that faith can be logical , even if it seems unverifiable . John Hick used his parable of the Celestial City to propose his theory of eschatological verification , the view that if there is an afterlife , then religious statements will be verifiable after death .
= = Problem of religious language = =
Religious language is a philosophical problem arising from the difficulties in accurately describing God . Because God is generally conceived as incorporeal , infinite , and timeless , ordinary language cannot always apply to that entity . This makes speaking about or attributing properties to God difficult : a religious believer might simultaneously wish to describe God as good , yet also hold that God 's goodness is unique and cannot be articulated by human language of goodness . This raises the problem of how ( and whether ) God can be meaningfully spoken about at all , which causes problems for religious belief since the ability to describe and talk about God is important in religious life . The French philosopher Simone Weil expressed this problem in her work Waiting for God , in which she outlined her dilemma : she was simultaneously certain of God 's love and conscious that she could not adequately describe him .
The medieval doctrine of divine simplicity also poses problems for religious language . This suggests that God has no accidental properties – these are properties that a being can have which do not contribute to its essence . If God has no accidental properties , he cannot be as he is traditionally conceived , because properties such as goodness are accidental . If divine simplicity is accepted , then to describe God as good would entail that goodness and God have the same definition . Such limits can also be problematic to religious believers ; for example , the Bible regularly ascribes different emotions to God , ascriptions which would be implausible according to the doctrine of divine simplicity .
The theologian Sallie McFague believes that the more recent problem of religious language is based on individual experience , owing to the increased secularisation of society . She notes that human experience is of this world rather than regular encounters with the divine , which makes the experience of God uncommon and potentially unnecessary . Because of this , she argues , religious language is both idolatrous because it fails to express sufficient awe of God , and irrelevant because without adequate words it becomes meaningless .
= = Classical understanding of religious language = =
= = = Via negativa = = =
Jewish philosopher Maimonides believed that God can only be ascribed negative attributes , a view based on two fundamental Jewish beliefs : that the existence of God must be accepted , and that it is forbidden to describe God . Maimonides believed that God is simple and so cannot be ascribed any essential attributes . He therefore argued that statements about God must be taken negatively , for example , " God lives " should be taken as " God does not lack vitality " . Maimonides did not believe that God holds all of his attributes perfectly and without impairment ; rather , he proposed that God lies outside of any human measures . To say that God is powerful , for example , would mean that God 's power is beyond worldly power , and incomparable to any other power . In doing so , Maimonides attempted to illustrate God 's indescribable nature and draw attention to the linguistic limits of describing God .
= = = Analogy = = =
Thomas Aquinas argued that statements about God are analogous to human experience . An analogous term is partly univocal ( has only one meaning ) and partly equivocal ( has more than one potential meaning ) because an analogy is in some ways the same and in some ways different from the subject . He proposed that those godly qualities which resemble human qualities are described analogously , with reference to human terms ; for example , when God is described as good , it does not mean that God is good in human terms , but that human goodness is used as a reference to describe God 's goodness .
Philosopher Taede Smedes argued that religious language is symbolic . Denying any conflict between science and religion , he proposes that ' to believe ' means to accept a conviction ( that God exists , in the context of Christianity ) , which is different from ' knowing ' , which only occurs once something is proven . Thus , according to Smedes , we believe things that we do not know for sure . Smedes argues that , rather than being part of the world , God is so far beyond the world that there can be no common standard to which both God and the world can be compared . He argues that people can still believe in God , even though he cannot be compared to anything in the world , because belief in God is just an alternative way of viewing that world ( he likens this to two people viewing a painting differently ) . Smedes claims that there should be no reason to look for a meaning behind our metaphors and symbols of God because the metaphors are all we have of God . He suggests that we can only talk of God pro nobis ( for us ) and not in se ( as such ) or sine nobis ( without us ) . The point , he argues , is not that our concept of God should correspond with reality , but that we can only conceive of God through metaphors .
In the twentieth century , Ian Ramsey developed the theory of analogy , a development later cited in numerous works by Alister McGrath . He argued that various models of God are provided in religious writings that interact with each other : a range of analogies for salvation and the nature of God . Ramsey proposed that the models used modify and qualify each other , defining the limits of other analogies . As a result , no one analogy on its own is sufficient , but the combination of every analogy presented in Scripture gives a full and consistent depiction of God . The use of other analogies may then be used to determine if any one model of God is abused or improperly applied .
= = = Symbolism = = =
Philosopher Paul Tillich argued that religious faith is best expressed through symbolism because a symbol points to a meaning beyond itself and best expresses transcendent religious beliefs . He believed that any statement about God is symbolic and participates in the meaning of a concept . Tillich used the example of a national flag to illustrate his point : a flag points to something beyond itself , the country it represents , but also participates in the meaning of the country . He believed that symbols could unite a religious believer with a deeper dimension of himself as well as with a greater reality . Tillich believed that symbols must emerge from an individual collective unconsciousness , and can only function when they are accepted by the unconscious . He believed that symbols cannot be invented , but live and die at the appropriate times .
Louis Dupré differentiates between signs and symbols , proposing that a sign points to something while a symbol represents it . A symbol holds its own meaning : rather than merely pointing someone towards another object , it takes the place of and represents that object . He believes that a symbol has some ambiguity which does not exist with a sign . Dupré believes that a symbol may deserve respect because it contains what is signified within itself . A symbol reveals a reality beyond what is already perceived and transforms the ways the current reality is perceived . Dupré differentiates between religious and aesthetic symbols , suggesting that a religious symbol points towards something which " remains forever beyond our reach " . He proposed that a religious symbol does not reveal the nature of what it signifies , but conceals it .
Langdon Brown Gilkey explained religious language and experience in terms of symbolism , identifying three characteristic features of religious symbolism which distinguish it from other language use . Firstly , religious symbolism has a double focus , referring both to something empirical and to something transcendent ; Gilkey argued that the empirical manifestation points towards the transcendent being . Secondly , he believed that religious symbolism concerns fundamental questions of life , involving issues important to an individual or community . Finally , he argued that religious symbols provide standards by which life should be lived .
In the Sikh religious text the Guru Granth Sahib , religious language is used symbolically and metaphorically . In the text , Sikh Gurus repeat that the experiences they have while meditating are ineffable , incognizable , incomprehensible , and transensuous – this means that there is no object of their experience that can be conceptualised . To overcome this , the Sikh Gurus used symbolic and metaphorical language , assuming that there is a resemblance between the mystical experience of the divine ( the sabad ) and those experiencing it . For example , light is used to refer to the spiritual reality .
= = = Myth = = =
William Paden argued that religious language uses myth to present truths through stories . He argued that to those who practice a religion , myths are not mere fiction , but provide religious truths . Paden believed that a myth must explain something in the world with reference to a sacred being or force , and dismissed any myths which did not as " folktales " . Using the example of creation myths , he differentiated myths from scientific hypotheses , the latter of which can be scientifically verified and do not reveal a greater truth ; a myth cannot be analysed in the same way as a scientific theory .
Lutheran theologian Rudolf Bultmann proposed that the Bible contains existential content which is expressed through mythology ; Bultmann sought to find the existential truths behind the veil of mythology , a task known as ' demythologising ' . Bultmann distinguished between informative language and language with personal import , the latter of which commands obedience . He believed that God interacts with humans as the divine Word , perceiving a linguistic character inherent in God , which seeks to provide humans with self @-@ understanding . Bultmann believed that the cultural embeddedness of the Bible could be overcome by demythologising the Bible , a process which he believed would allow readers to better encounter the word of God .
Christian philosopher John Hick believed that the language of the Bible should be demythologised to be compatible with naturalism . He offered a demythologised Christology , arguing that Jesus was not God incarnate , but a man with incredible experience of divine reality . To Hick , calling Jesus the Son of God was a metaphor used by Jesus ' followers to describe their commitment to what Jesus represented . Hick believed that demythologising the incarnation would make sense of the variety of world religions and give them equal validity as ways to encounter God .
= = Alternative explanations of religious language = =
= = = Political = = =
Islamic philosopher Carl Ernst has argued that religious language is often political , especially in the public sphere , and that its purpose is to persuade people and establish authority , as well as convey information . He explains that the modern criticisms of the West made by some sections of Islam are an ideological reaction to colonialism , which intentionally uses the same language as colonialists . Ernst argues that when it is used rhetorically , religious language cannot be taken at face value because of its political implications .
= = = Performative = = =
Peter Donovan argues that most religious language is not about making truth @-@ claims ; instead , it is used to achieve certain goals . He notes that language can be used in alternative ways beyond making statements of fact , such as expressing feelings or asking questions . Donovan calls many of these uses performative , as they serve to perform a certain function within religious life . For example , the words " I promise " perform the action of promising themselves – Donovan argues that most religious language fulfils this function . Ludwig Wittgenstein also proposed that language could be performative and presented a list of the different uses of language . Wittgenstein argued that " the meaning of the language is in the use " , taking the use of language to be performative . The philosopher J. L. Austin argued that religious language is not just cognitive but can perform social acts , including vows , blessings , and the naming of children . He distinguished performative statements as those that do not simply describe a state of affairs , but bring them about . Historian of religion Benjamin Ray uses the performance of rituals within religions as evidence for a performative interpretation of language . He argues that the language of rituals can perform social tasks : when a priest announces that a spiritual event has occurred , those present believe it because of the spiritual authority of the priest . He believed that the meaning of a ritual is defined by the language used by the speaker , who is defined culturally as a superhuman agent .
= = = Imperative = = =
British philosopher R. B. Braithwaite attempted to approach religious language empirically and adopted Wittgenstein 's idea of " meaning as use " . He likened religious statements to moral statements because they are both non @-@ descriptive yet still have a use and a meaning ; they do not describe the world , but the believer 's attitudes towards it . Braithwaite believed that the main difference between a religious and a moral statement was that religious statements are part of a linguistic system of stories , metaphors , and parables .
Professor Nathan Katz writes of the analogy of a burning building , used by the Buddha in the Lotus Sutra , which casts religious language as imperative . In the analogy , a father sees his children at the top of a burning building . He persuades them to leave , but only by promising them toys if they leave . Katz argues that the message of the parable is not that the Buddha has been telling lies ; rather , he believes that the Buddha was illustrating the imperative use of language . Katz believes that religious language is an imperative and an invitation , rather than a truth @-@ claim .
= = Challenges to religious language = =
= = = David Hume = = =
In the conclusion of his Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding , Scottish philosopher David Hume argued that statements that make claims about reality must be verified by experience , and dismissed those that cannot be verified as meaningless . Hume regarded most religious language as unverifiable by experiment and so dismissed it .
Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number ? No . Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact of existence ? No . Commit it then to the flames : for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion .
Hume criticised the view that we cannot speak about God , and proposed that this view is no different from the skeptical view that God cannot be spoken about . He was unconvinced by Aquinas ' theory of analogy and argued that God 's attributes must be completely different from human attributes , making comparisons between the two impossible . Hume 's scepticism influenced the logical positivist movement of the twentieth century .
= = = Logical positivism = = =
The logical positivism movement originated in the Vienna Circle and was continued by British philosopher A. J. Ayer . The Vienna Circle adopted the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements : analytic statements are those whose meaning is contained within the words themselves , such as definitions , tautologies or mathematical statements , while synthetic statements make claims about reality . To determine whether a synthetic statement is meaningful , the Vienna Circle developed a verifiability theory of meaning , which proposed that for a synthetic statement to have cognitive meaning , its truthfulness must be empirically verifiable . Because claims about God cannot be empirically verified , the logical positivists argued that religious propositions are meaningless .
In 1936 , Ayer wrote Language , Truth and Logic , in which he claimed that religious language is meaningless . He put forward a strong empirical position , arguing that all knowledge must either come from observations of the world or be necessarily true , like mathematical statements . In doing so , he rejected metaphysics , which considers the reality of a world beyond the natural world and science . Because it is based on metaphysics and is therefore unverifiable , Ayer denounced religious language , as well as statements about ethics or aesthetics , as meaningless . Ayer challenged the meaningfulness of all statements about God – theistic , atheistic and agnostic – arguing that they are all equally meaningless because they all discuss the existence of a metaphysical , unverifiable being .
Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein finished his Tractatus Logico @-@ Philosophicus with the proposition that " Whereof one cannot speak , thereof one must be silent . " Beverly and Brian Clack have suggested that because of this statement , Wittgenstein was taken for a positivist by many of his disciples because he made a distinction between what can and cannot be spoken about . They argue that this interpretation is inaccurate because Wittgenstein held the mystical , which cannot be described , as important . Rather than dismissing the mystical as meaningless , as the logical positivists did , Wittgenstein believed that while the facts of the world remain the same , the perspective from which they are viewed will vary .
= = = Falsification = = =
The falsification principle has been developed as an alternative theory by which it may be possible to distinguish between those religious statements that may potentially have meaning , and those that are meaningless . It proposes that most religious language is unfalsifiable because there is no way that it could be empirically proven false . In a landmark paper published in 1945 , analytic philosopher Antony Flew argued that a meaningful statement must simultaneously assert and deny a state of affairs ; for example , the statement " God loves us " both asserts that God loves us and denies that God does not love us . Flew maintained that if a religious believer could not say what circumstances would have to exist for their statements about God to be false , then they are unfalsifiable and meaningless .
Using John Wisdom 's parable of the invisible gardener , Flew attempted to demonstrate that religious language is unfalsifiable . The parable tells the story of two people who discover a garden on a deserted island ; one believes it is tended to by a gardener , the other believes that it formed naturally , without the existence of a gardener . The two watch out for the gardener but never find him ; the non @-@ believer consequently maintains that there is no gardener , whereas the believer rationalises the non @-@ appearance by suggesting that the gardener is invisible and cannot be detected . Flew contended that if the believer 's interpretation is accepted , nothing is left of the original gardener . He argued that religious believers tend to adopt counterpart rationalisations in response to any apparent challenge to their beliefs from empirical evidence ; and these beliefs consequently suffer a " death by a thousand qualifications " as they are qualified and modified so much that they end up asserting nothing meaningful . Flew applied his principles to religious claims such as God 's love for humans , arguing that if they are meaningful assertions they would deny a certain state of affairs . He argued that when faced with evidence against the existence of a loving God , such as the terminal illness of a child , theists will qualify their claims to allow for such evidence ; for example they may suggest that God 's love is different from human love . Such qualifications , Flew argued , make the original proposition meaningless ; he questioned what God 's love actually promises and what it guarantees against , and proposed that God 's qualified love promises nothing and becomes worthless .
Flew continued in many subsequent publications to maintain the falsifiability criterion for meaning ; but in later life retracted the specific assertion in his 1945 paper that all religious language is unfalsifiable , and so meaningless . Drawing specifically on the emerging science of molecular genetics ( which had not existed at the time of his original paper ) , Flew eventually became convinced that the complexity this revealed in the mechanisms of biological reproduction might not be consistent with the time known to have been available for evolution on Earth to have happened ; and that this potentially suggested a valid empirical test by which the assertion " that there is no creator God " might be falsified ; " the latest work I have seen shows that the present physical universe gives too little time for these theories of abiogenesis to get the job done . "
It is a presupposition for applying the falsification principle to religious language that some assertions of religious belief or non @-@ belief could potentially have been established purely from empirical evidence , even had none actually been so . When the sceptic challenges the believer to apply a falsification test to their assertions of belief , there is an underlying implication that were that test to be passed , the sceptic would be persuaded to assent to those particular assertions of the believer – even if the believer would not have abandoned his beliefs had the test been failed . In which case , the beliefs of the persuaded sceptic would be meaningful . Flew , in his last years , considered himself to be just such a persuaded sceptic , and hence accepted the term Deist as a valid descriptor for his religious standpoint . Flew nevertheless continued to maintain the non @-@ falsifiability of religious assertions purportedly derived from divine revelation as presented by dogmatic believers , all of which he rejected as meaningless .
= = Analogies of games = =
The analogy of a game was first proposed by Hans @-@ Georg Gadamer in an attempt to demonstrate the epistemic unity of language . He suggested that language is like a game which everyone participates in and is played by a greater being . Gadamer believed that language makes up the fundamental structure of reality and that human language participates in a greater language ; Christianity teaches this to be the divine word which created the world and was incarnate in Jesus Christ .
Ludwig Wittgenstein proposed a calculus theory of language , which maintained that all language should be analysable in a uniform way . Later in his life he rejected this theory , and instead proposed an alternative language @-@ game analogy . He likened the differences in languages to the differences in games , arguing that just as there are many different games , each with different rules , so there are many different kinds of language . Wittgenstein argued that different forms of language have different rules which determine what makes a proposition meaningful ; outside of its language @-@ game , a proposition is meaningless . He believed that the meaning of a proposition depends on its context and the rules of that context . Wittgenstein presented a language game as a situation in which certain kinds of language are used . He provided some examples of language games : " Asking , thanking , greeting , cursing , praying " .
It is as if someone were to say : ' A game consists of moving objects about on a surface according to certain rules ... ' – and we replied : You seem to be thinking of board games , but there are others .
Wittgenstein believed that religion is significant because it offers a particular way of life , rather than confirming the existence of God . He therefore believed that religious language is confessional – a confession of what someone feels and believes – rather than consisting of claims to truth . Wittgenstein believed that religious language is different from language used to describe physical objects because it occupies a different language game .
Dewi Zephaniah Phillips defended Wittgenstein 's theory by arguing that although religious language games are autonomous , they should not be treated as isolated because they make statements about secular events such as birth and death . Phillips argued that because of this connection , religions can still be criticised based on human experiences of these secular events . He maintained that religion cannot be denounced as wrong because it is not empirical .
Peter Donovan criticises the language @-@ games approach for failing to recognise that religions operate in a world containing other ideas and that many religious people make claims to truth . He notes that many religious believers not only believe their religion to be meaningful and true in its own context , but claim that it is true against all other possible beliefs ; if the language games analogy is accepted , such a comparison between beliefs is impossible . Donovan proposes that debates between different religions , and the apologetics of some , demonstrates that they interact with each other and the wider world and so cannot be treated as isolated language games .
= = Parables = =
= = = R. M. Hare = = =
In response to Flew 's falsification principle , British philosopher R. M. Hare told a parable in an attempt to demonstrate that religious language is meaningful . Hare described a lunatic who believes that all university professors want to kill him ; no amount of evidence of kindly professors will dissuade him from this view . Hare called this kind of unfalsifiable conviction a " blik " , and argued that it formed an unfalsifiable , yet still meaningful , worldview . He proposed that all people – religious and non @-@ religious – hold bliks , and that they cannot be unseated by empirical evidence . Nevertheless , he maintained that a blik is meaningful because it forms the basis of a person 's understanding of the world . Hare believed that some bliks are correct and others are not , though he did not propose a method of distinguishing between the two .
= = = Basil Mitchell = = =
Basil Mitchell responded to Flew 's falsification principle with his own parable . He described an underground resistance soldier who meets a stranger who claims to be leading the resistance movement . The stranger tells the soldier to keep faith in him , even if he is seen to be fighting for the other side . The soldier 's faith is regularly tested as he observes the stranger fighting for both sides , but his faith remains strong . Mitchell 's parable teaches that although evidence can challenge a religious belief , a believer still has reason to hold their views . He argued that although a believer will not allow anything to count decisively against his beliefs , the theist still accepts the existence of evidence which could count against religious belief .
= = = John Hick = = =
Responding to the verification principle , John Hick used his parable of the Celestial City to describe his theory of eschatological verificationism . His parable is of two travellers , a theist and an atheist , together on a road . The theist believes that there is a Celestial City at the end of the road ; the atheist believes that there is no such city . Hick 's parable is an allegory of the Christian belief in an afterlife , which he argued can be verified upon death . Hick believed that eschatological verification is " unsymmetrical " because while it could be verified if it is true , it cannot be falsified if not . This is in contrast to ordinary " symmetrical " statements , which can be verified or falsified .
In his biography of Hick , David Cheetham notes a criticism of Hick 's theory : waiting for eschatological verification could make religious belief provisional , preventing total commitment to faith . Cheetham argues that such criticism is misapplied because Hick 's theory was not directed to religious believers but to philosophers , who argued that religion is unverifiable and therefore meaningless . James Morris notes that Hick 's eschatological verification theory has been criticised for being inconsistent with his belief in religious pluralism . Morris argues that such criticism can be overcome by modifying Hick 's parable to include multiple travellers , all with different beliefs , on the road . He argues that even if some beliefs about life after death are unverifiable , Hick 's belief in bodily resurrection can still be verified .
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= Lyon @-@ class battleship =
The Lyon class was a proposed type of battleship which was planned for the French Navy in 1913 , with construction scheduled to begin in 1915 . The class was to have comprised four ships : Lyon , Lille , Duquesne , and Tourville . The first two were named for cities in France , while the rest honored French admirals Abraham Duquesne and Anne Hilarion de Tourville . The design was an improvement on the previous Normandie class , and mounted a fourth quadruple gun turret , for a total of sixteen 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns . Construction was cancelled due to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 before any of the ships could be laid down .
= = Design = =
Starting in 1910 , the French Navy began a dreadnought battleship construction program , starting with the four ships of the Courbet class that year . The three @-@ ship Bretagne class was authorized the next year , and five Normandie @-@ class battleships followed in 1912 . Design work began in 1912 ; the design staff submitted several proposals for the new battleships . Displacements ranged from 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 27 @,@ 000 long tons ; 30 @,@ 000 short tons ) to 29 @,@ 000 t ( 29 @,@ 000 long tons ; 32 @,@ 000 short tons ) ; the various designs featured a main battery of fourteen or sixteen 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns , eight or ten 380 mm ( 15 in ) guns , or twenty 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , in a mix of quadruple or twin gun turrets .
In 1913 , the Navy authorized a fourth class of battleships , Lyon , which was scheduled for 1915 . The design staff determined the 38 cm gun would take too long to design , so the proposals that incorporated these weapons were cancelled . The design staff settled on one of the two 34 cm proposals . The first proposal , which mounted fourteen guns , was a 27 @,@ 500 t ( 27 @,@ 100 long tons ; 30 @,@ 300 short tons ) ship 185 meters ( 607 ft ) long . On 24 November 1913 , the design staff instead chose the slightly larger second design , armed with sixteen guns in four quadruple turrets . The first two ships , Lyon and Lille , were scheduled to be ordered on 1 January 1915 , and Duquesne and Tourville would have followed on 1 April 1915 . World War I broke out in August 1914 , however , and shifting military requirements , particularly for the army , forced the cancellation of the class .
= = = Ships = = =
= = = Characteristics = = =
The ships would have been 190 m ( 620 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 194 @.@ 5 m ( 638 ft ) long overall . They would have had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 65 to 9 @.@ 2 m ( 28 @.@ 4 to 30 @.@ 2 ft ) . Their full load displacement was estimated at 29 @,@ 000 t ( 29 @,@ 000 long tons ; 32 @,@ 000 short tons ) . The propulsion system had not been settled by the time the class was cancelled ; the design staff proposed either the mixed steam turbine and triple expansion engine system used in the first four ships of the preceding Normandie class or the all @-@ turbine system used in the last ship of the previous class , Béarn . They also considered new geared turbines that had proved satisfactory in the new destroyer Enseigne Gabolde . The final design called for a propulsion system rated at 43 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 32 @,@ 000 kW ) with a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . An unknown number of boilers were trunked into two funnels amidships .
Sixteen 340mm / 45 Modèle 1912 guns mounted in four quadruple turrets comprised the main battery . The turrets , which were equipped with electric @-@ hydraulic training and elevation gear , were all mounted on the centerline , though the arrangement is not clear . According to Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , one turret was placed forward , one amidships , and two in a superfiring pair aft . The contemporary Journal of United States Artillery , however , suggests the turrets would have been mounted in two superfiring pairs , forward and aft . The turrets weighed 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) , and were electrically trained and hydraulically elevated . The guns were divided into pairs and mounted in twin cradles ; a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick bulkhead divided the turrets . Each pair of guns had its own ammunition hoist and magazine . They could be fired simultaneously or independently . The guns had a range of 16 @,@ 000 m ( 52 @,@ 000 ft ) and had a rate of fire of two rounds per minute . The shells were 540 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 190 lb ) armor @-@ piercing rounds and were fired with a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) .
The secondary battery was to consist of twenty @-@ four guns , either the 138 @.@ 6 mm / 55 Modèle 1910 or a new automatic model , each singly @-@ mounted in casemates in the hull . The M1910 guns fired a 36 @.@ 5 kg ( 80 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . The ships would also have been equipped with an unknown number of 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) or 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and six torpedo tubes of unknown size , submerged in the hull . The ships would have been protected with a variation of the armor layout of the previous Normandie class . The primary alterations were slightly thinner casemate armor and upper deck plating to compensate for improved armor below the waterline .
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= First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus =
The Greek Revival First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus is located at the intersection of North Street ( New York State Route 174 ) and East Main Street ( also NY 174 ) in the village of Marcellus , New York , and is the oldest of four churches in the village . Marcellus village was founded in 1794 . Local residents with differing religious denominations met in a tavern , until October 1801 when Reverend Caleb Alexander , a missionary active in the central New York area , helped organize the 18 @-@ member Church of Christ . A wooden meeting house was constructed two years later .
By 1819 , the community had built three churches in the environs of Marcellus : the original First Church in Marcellus , its offshoot the Second Church in Skaneateles , New York , and the Third Church on State Road ( now U.S. Route 20 ) . In 1851 , the present church in Greek Revival style was erected and dedicated . The church would undergo substantial alterations over the next century . In 1948 , it was remodelled and dedicated in April 1952 . Commentators have found the structure one of the finest examples of Greek Revival church architecture in Onondaga County ; however , they have expressed some regret in the loss of several original features . The church celebrated its bicentenary in 2001 .
= = Original church ( 1803 – 1851 ) = =
The village of Marcellus was founded 1794 with Presbyterians , Congregationalists , Baptists and villagers of other denominations meeting in a tavern for worship services . Tavern proprietor Deacon Rice was permitted to read sermons , not write them , and Reverend Seth Williston , a missionary active in the area as early as 1800 may have provided spiritual guidance . On October 13 , 1801 , the village 's first worship society , the 18 @-@ member Church of Christ , was organized through the efforts of Rev Caleb Alexander , another missionary active in central New York . In May the following year , the society was incorporated as the Eastern Religious Society of Marcellus . The church was later described as " Presbyterian in its ecclesiastical relations , and at the same time Congregational in its internal policy and arrangement . "
On August 12 , 1802 , the society voted to build a church , and a trustee donated an acre of land at the intersection of Main Street and North Street in the present @-@ day village of Marcellus . In 1803 , construction of the fifty @-@ five by forty @-@ eight feet wooden meeting house was completed with a floor , a board pulpit , and slab seats but without a steeple , a bell , stoves , and ceilings . Congregants warmed themselves with foot stoves , squirrel fur , and the " power of the spirit " .
Itinerant missionaries served the meeting house for its first few years . The church gained its first pastor in 1807 , when Rev Levi Parsons was ordained and installed . That same year , the congregation adopted fifteen articles of faith and a covenant , which remained membership prerequisites for one hundred years . In the same year the church affiliated with the Presbyterian Synod of Albany , three years later becoming a charter member of the Presbytery of Cayuga , which , in 1811 , became part of the newly formed Synod of Geneva . Mr Parsons served until 1833 when he accepted posts in Tully , New York and Otisco , New York . He returned to Marcellus in 1835 , where he remained until 1841 when Rev John Tompkins was appointed .
In 1814 , a steeple was built , an extension to the church added , and the interior painted at a cost of $ 4 @,@ 500 ( $ 50 @.@ 8 thousand today ) . The same year , The Female Charitable Society of Marcellus donated $ 133 @.@ 34 to the Genessee Missionary Society . By 1819 , the church had grown considerably . The Second Church was erected in what is now Skaneateles , New York , and the Third Presbyterian Church of Marcellus was built on State Road ( now U.S. Route 20 ) , which , after twenty prosperous years , experienced declining membership following deaths and migrations . In 1830 , a shed for horses and vehicles was constructed at the First Church . On April 23 , 1833 , the name of the society was changed to the Marcellus First Religious Society , and in 1846 , a house and lot for a parsonage were secured . In 1849 , church land was graded and new horse sheds built .
= = Present church ( 1851 – present ) = =
By 1850 , the First Church was in need of repair and sold for $ 500 ( $ 4 @.@ 5 thousand today ) which , in the agreement , was applied to the construction of a new church on the same site at a cost of $ 3 @,@ 800 . The new church , designed in the then popular Greek Revival style , was dedicated October 13 , 1851 , the fiftieth anniversary of the congregation . Two years after the 1851 construction and dedication of the new church , a bell was fitted to the steeple . The church 's first pastor , Reverend Levi Parsons had been succeeded by Rev John Tompkins . In 1866 , Mr Tompkins died on the eve of his 25th anniversary with the church . Reverends W. S. Franklin and Dwight Scovel were appointed as interim ministers , and , during their tenures , a new pulpit and new furniture were acquired . A change in boundaries , by act of the General Assembly in 1869 , brought the Marcellus Church within the Syracuse Presbytery which was merged with the Cayuga Presbytery . In 1877 , the Women 's Missionary Society was formed . In 1880 , Rev George Smith was appointed , but , in 1882 , accepted a position at Canandaigua Academy . Before Smith left , he celebrated the church 's 80th anniversary on October 13 , 1881 by writing the church 's history .
On Smith 's departure Rev Alex McA . Thornburn was appointed and served five years . Under his leadership , the church perfected its organization as a Presbyterian Church and several ruling elders were elected . However , the corporate name , Eastern Religious Society , remained in effect until November 19 , 1951 , when it was officially changed to the First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus . On November 16 . 1887 , Rev Thornburn was succeeded by Rev A. H. Cameron , who served ten years with the church . In 1893 and 1894 , the church was remodeled once again with new kitchens , a church parlor , and new stained glass windows . The original stoves were replaced with a new heating system . The church began conducting Sunday school classes for those unable to attend services , at Marcellus Falls ( north of town ) and nearby hamlet Shepard Settlement .
Rev Cameron was succeeded in 1897 , by Rev A. K. McNaughton , who served ten years and celebrated the church 's centenary on October 13 , 1901 . McNaughton left in 1907 , and was replaced by Rev F. J. Sauber who served until 1914 when Rev C. C. Frost was appointed . In 1921 , Rev David S. MacGinn was appointed , who served until 1928 . During MacGinn 's years of service , new horse and carriage sheds were constructed for the church , replacing earlier ones built in 1849 . In 1961 , the sheds ( which had been rented @-@ out as car garages ) were torn down to make way for an extension of the church . A severe windstorm destroyed the spire in 1924 ; it was replaced shortly thereafter at a cost of $ 3 @,@ 500 ( $ 31 thousand today ) .
Rev Robert Lloyd Roberts served the Marcellus church during the Great Depression and war years from 1931 to 1944 . His successor Dr. Albert Dutton Stearns , called in 1944 , continued as pastor until 1948 . From 1948 to 1956 , Rev Ralph Miller served the congregation . Under his aegis the body of the building was raised , the sanctuary redone and refurbished , and a basement constructed with the additions of a kitchen , a dining room , a lounge and several classrooms at a cost of $ 65 @,@ 000 ( $ 579 thousand today ) . The church was dedicated after completion of construction in April 1952 . On November 19 , 1951 , the church officially became the First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus . On December 9 , 1956 , Rev Miller was succeeded by Syracuse University graduate Rev Keith Shinaman ; Miss Helen Austin was ordained as the first woman elder one year later . Women make up one @-@ half of the present session of eighteen elders .
Reverend Shinaman remained with the church for over fifty years , but was succeeded by Reverend Bill Grossman , who presently serves the congregation w . In 2001 , the church celebrated its 200th anniversary . Reverend Shinaman died October 10 , 2010 at the age of 88 .
= = Architectural critique = =
Of the church structure itself , it was noted in Architecture Worth Saving in Onondaga County ( 1964 ) that " This is certainly one of the most architecturally distinguished churches in Onondaga County , and a particularly fine example of Greek Revival architecture [ ... ] The interior was unfortunately ' improved ' with new arrangement of pews , and organ , new windows , carpets and chandeliers in 1896 [ ... ] In recent years the steeple was blown down , falling into the nave . Although rebuilt to approximately the original proportions , the transitional detail between the square belfry and the conical spire was unfortunately eliminated . Also regrettable [ ... ] is the recent replacement of the original wood @-@ paneled entrance doors [ ... ] The future of our finest Greek Revival church is uncertain [ ... ] Destruction would be a loss to the entire community . "
= = List of pastors by their ordainment = =
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= Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album =
Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album , sometimes referred to as Connie 's Christmas Album or just Christmas Album , is the second album by the English child singer Connie Talbot , released on 24 November 2008 . The album is made up of Christmas @-@ themed songs , and was recorded in the middle of 2008 . Shortly after the release , Pinnacle Entertainment , the United Kingdom distributor , went into administration . Despite this , the album had some success in Asia and the United States , and Talbot 's third album , Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , included many of the same tracks . Talbot appeared publicly to promote the album , including an appearance on ITV Central in December , and embarked on a tour , making stops around the world . Critics responded warmly to the album , describing Talbot 's voice as " sweet " .
= = Recording and release = =
Talbot 's voice was recorded near her home . Other parts of the album were recorded elsewhere in the UK , as well as in the US , Bulgaria and Hong Kong . Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album contains " a mix of classics and modern Christmas tunes " , and was produced by Simon Hill and Rob May , who produced her first album , Over the Rainbow . Big band arrangements on the album included music from Laurence Cottle Big Band , while the orchestral sections of the more traditional songs were performed by the Bulgarian Symphony Orchestra . The duet on " When a Child Is Born " was performed by Talbot and Ginger Kwan . Describing the recording of the album , Talbot said " I really liked it . I liked all the songs they picked and everything . It was really good and enjoyable . " Five tracks ( " Let it Snow ! " , " Rocking Around the Christmas Tree " , " Jingle Bell Rock " , " Santa Clause Is Coming to Town " and " Frosty the Snowman " ) were recorded in the style of a big band , while the remainder were recorded in a " more traditional " style .
Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album was released on 24 November 2008 . The album was difficult to obtain in Britain after the distributor , Pinnacle Entertainment , went into administration . Talbot 's mother , Sharon , was quoted as saying , " We don 't really know what 's going to happen at the moment ... We think they 'll probably wait and promote the album later this year . It 's a shame , but they can still get the album in Asia and the US . " In 2009 , Talbot 's third album , Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , was released in the United States , with many of the same songs as Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album , but with rerecorded vocals .
= = Publicity = =
Before the release of the album , Talbot recorded a " secret concert " at her primary school . The documentary , Christmas with Connie , was shown on ITV Central on 18 December . Talbot appeared at the HMV Walsall branch the day after the release to sign copies of the album and to meet fans . After the release , Talbot embarked on a promotional tour that made stops around the world , including a performance at Ewha Womans University in Korea , where Over the Rainbow had sold over 30 @,@ 000 copies . Talbot also performed on the A Heart for Children television charity gala in Berlin , Germany , where her performance was described by Viktoria Schiller , writing for The Epoch Times , as " one of the highlights of the evening " . Talbot returned home in mid @-@ December , to have " a quiet family Christmas " . Plans were made for a promotional trip to the US in 2009 .
= = Critical reception and sales = =
Ruth Harrison , writing for FemaleFirst magazine , gave the album 4 / 5 , saying that Talbot has " a great voice when it comes to swing , but lets us down in parts " . Harrison said that Talbot struggled with the " rock sound " associated with " Merry Christmas Everybody " , but said that the vocals on " Ave Maria " are " incredible " , and that the bonus tracks " really are a bonus " . The Leicester Mercury published a review from a nine @-@ year @-@ old critic , Natasha Dattani , who said that Talbot " has a nice voice , it 's very cute " , and added that " older people , like grandparents , will really like " the album . James Whittle , writing for the South China Morning Post , described the album as " chock @-@ a @-@ block with old @-@ time favourites " , calling Talbot " sweet @-@ voiced " .
Despite the problems in the United Kingdom , which left hundreds of copies of the album in warehouses , Amy Bowen of the Walsall Advertiser wrote that the album was proving successful in Asia . In its first week of release , Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album sold 4 @,@ 551 copies worldwide , and , as of December 2009 , it has sold 14 @,@ 913 .
= = Track listing = =
This is the main track listing as given by Allmusic . The ordering of both the main and bonus tracks varies between releases , and different releases have different bonus tracks . For example , the Hong Kong release contained only the bonus tracks " Silent Night " and " White Christmas " .
= = = Bonus tracks = = =
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= Louis XVIII of France =
Louis XVIII ( Louis Stanislas Xavier ; 17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 ) , known as " the Desired " ( le Désiré ) , was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1814 to 1824 except for a period in 1815 known as the Hundred Days . Louis XVIII spent twenty @-@ three years in exile , from 1791 to 1814 , during the French Revolution and the First French Empire , and again in 1815 , during the period of the Hundred Days , upon the return of Napoleon I from Elba .
Until his accession to the throne of France , Louis held the title of Count of Provence as brother of King Louis XVI . On 21 September 1792 , the National Convention abolished the monarchy and deposed King Louis XVI , who was later executed by guillotine . When the young Louis XVII , Louis XVI 's son , died in prison in June 1795 , Louis XVIII succeeded his nephew as titular King .
During the French Revolution and Napoleonic era , Louis XVIII lived in exile in Prussia , the United Kingdom and Russia . When the Sixth Coalition finally defeated Napoleon in 1814 , Louis was placed in what he , and the French royalists , considered his rightful position . Napoleon escaped from his exile in Elba , however , and restored his French Empire . Louis XVIII fled and a Seventh Coalition declared war on the French Empire , defeated Napoleon , and restored Louis XVIII to the French throne .
Louis XVIII ruled as king for slightly less than a decade . The Bourbon Restoration regime was a constitutional monarchy ( unlike the ancien régime , which was absolutist ) . As a constitutional monarch , Louis XVIII 's royal prerogative was reduced substantially by the Charter of 1814 , France 's new constitution . Louis had no children ; therefore , upon his death , the crown passed to his brother , Charles , Count of Artois . Louis XVIII was the last French monarch to die while reigning ; as his successor Charles X ( 1824 @-@ 1830 ) abdicated and both Louis Philippe I ( 1830 @-@ 1848 ) and Napoléon III ( 1852 @-@ 1870 ) were deposed .
= = Youth = =
Louis Stanislas Xavier , styled Count of Provence from birth , was born on 17 November 1755 in the Palace of Versailles , the son of Louis , Dauphin of France , and his wife Maria Josepha of Saxony . He was the grandson of the reigning King Louis XV . As a son of the Dauphin he was a Fils de France . Louis Stanislas was christened Louis Stanislas Xavier six months after his birth in accordance with Bourbon family tradition , being nameless before his baptism . By this act , he became also a Knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit . The name of Louis was bestowed because it was typical of a prince of France ; Stanislas was chosen to honour his great @-@ grandfather King Stanisław I of Poland ; and Xavier was chosen for Saint Francis Xavier , whom his mother 's family held as one of their patron saints .
At the time of his birth , Louis Stanislas was fourth in line to the throne of France , behind his father and his two elder brothers : Louis Joseph Xavier , Duke of Burgundy , and Louis Auguste , Duke of Berry . The former died in 1761 , leaving Louis Auguste as heir apparent until the Dauphin 's own premature death in 1765 . The two deaths elevated Louis Stanislas to second in the line of succession , while Louis Auguste acquired the title Dauphin .
Louis Stanislas found comfort in his governess , Madame de Marsan , Governess of the Children of France , as he was her favourite among his siblings . Louis Stanislas was taken away from his governess when he turned seven , the age at which the education of boys of royal blood and of the nobility was turned over to men . Antoine de Quélen de Stuer de Caussade , Duke of La Vauguyon , a friend of his father , was named his governor .
Louis Stanislas was an intelligent boy , excelling in classics . His education was of the same quality and consistency as that of his older brother , Louis Auguste , despite the fact that Louis Auguste was heir and Louis Stanislas was not . Louis Stanislas ' education was quite religious in nature ; several of his teachers were men of the cloth . La Vauguyon drilled into young Louis Stanislas and his brothers the way he thought princes should " know how to withdraw themselves , to like to work , " and " to know how to reason correctly " .
In April 1771 , Louis Stanislas ' education was formally concluded and his own independent household was established , which astounded contemporaries with its extravagance : in 1773 , the number of servants reached 390 . In the same month his household was founded , Louis was granted several titles by his grandfather , Louis XV : Duke of Anjou , Count of Maine , Count of Perche , and Count of Senoches . During this period of his life he was often known by the title Count of Provence .
On 17 December 1773 , he was ordained as a Grand Master of the Order of St. Lazarus .
= = Marriage = =
On 14 May 1771 , Louis Stanislas married Princess Maria Giuseppina of Savoy . Marie Joséphine ( as she was known in France ) was a daughter of Victor Amadeus , Duke of Savoy ( later King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia ) , and his wife Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain .
A luxurious ball followed the wedding on 20 May . Louis Stanislas was repulsed by his wife , who was considered ugly , tedious , and ignorant of the customs of the court of Versailles . The marriage remained unconsummated for years . Biographers disagree about the reason . The most common theories propose Louis Stanislas ' alleged impotence ( according to biographer Antonia Fraser ) or his unwillingness to sleep with his wife due to her poor personal hygiene . She never brushed her teeth , plucked her eyebrows , or used any perfumes . At the time of his marriage , Louis Stanislas was obese and waddled instead of walked . He never exercised and continued to eat enormous amounts of food .
Despite the fact that Louis Stanislas was not infatuated with his wife , he boasted that the two enjoyed vigorous conjugal relations – but such declarations were held in low esteem by courtiers at Versailles . He also proclaimed his wife to be pregnant merely to spite Louis Auguste and his wife Marie Antoinette , who had not yet consummated their marriage . The Dauphin and Louis Stanislas did not enjoy a harmonious relationship and often quarrelled , as did their wives . Louis Stanislas did impregnate his wife in 1774 , having conquered his aversion . However , the pregnancy ended in a miscarriage . A second pregnancy in 1781 also miscarried , and the marriage remained childless .
= = At his brother 's court = =
On 27 April 1774 , Louis XV fell ill after contracting smallpox and died the following 10 May . The Dauphin , Louis Auguste , succeeded his grandfather as King Louis XVI . As eldest brother of the king , Louis Stanislas received the title Monsieur . Louis Stanislas longed for political influence . He attempted to gain admittance to the king 's council in 1774 , but failed . Louis Stanislas was left in a political limbo that he called " a gap of 12 years in my political life " . Louis XVI granted Louis Stanislas revenues from the Duchy of Alençon in December 1774 . The duchy was given to enhance Louis Stanislas ' prestige , however , the appanage generated only 300 @,@ 000 livres per annum , an amount much lower than it had been at its peak in the fourteenth century .
Louis Stanislas travelled more through France than other members of the royal family , who rarely left the Île @-@ de @-@ France . In 1774 , he accompanied his sister Clotilde to Chambéry on the journey to meet her bridegroom Charles Emmanuel , Prince of Piedmont , heir to the throne of Sardinia . In 1775 , he visited Lyon and also his spinster aunts Adélaïde and Victoire while they were taking the waters at Vichy . The four provincial tours that Louis Stanislas took before the year 1791 amounted to a total of three months .
On 5 May 1778 , Dr. Lassonne , Marie Antoinette 's private physician , confirmed her pregnancy . On 19 December 1778 , the Queen gave birth to a daughter , who was named Marie @-@ Thérèse Charlotte de France and given the honorific title Madame Royale . The birth of a girl came as a relief to the Count of Provence , who kept his position as heir to Louis XVI , since Salic Law excluded women from acceding to the throne of France . However , Louis Stanislas did not remain heir to the throne much longer . On 22 October 1781 , Marie Antoinette gave birth to the Dauphin Louis Joseph . Louis Stanislas and his brother , the Count of Artois , served as godfathers by proxy for Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , the queen 's brother . When Marie Antoinette gave birth to her second son , Louis Charles , in March 1785 , Louis Stanislas slid further down the line of succession .
In 1780 , Anne Nompar de Caumont , Countess of Balbi , entered the service of Marie Joséphine . Louis Stanislas soon fell in love with his wife 's new lady @-@ in @-@ waiting and installed her as his mistress , which resulted in the couple 's already small affection for each other cooling entirely . Louis Stanislas commissioned a pavilion for his mistress on a parcel that became known as the Parc Balbi at Versailles .
Louis Stanislas lived a quiet and sedentary lifestyle at this point , not having a great deal to do since his self @-@ proclaimed political exclusion in 1774 . He kept himself occupied with his vast library of over 11 @,@ 000 books at Balbi 's pavilion , reading for several hours each morning . In the early 1780s , he also incurred huge debts totalling 10 million livres , which his brother Louis XVI paid .
An Assembly of Notables ( the members consisted of magistrates , mayors , nobles and clergy ) was convened in February 1787 to ratify the financial reforms sought by the Controller @-@ General of Finance Charles Alexandre de Calonne . This provided the Count of Provence , who abhorred the radical reforms proposed by Calonne , the opportunity he had long been waiting for to establish himself in politics . The reforms proposed a new property tax , and new elected provincial assemblies that would have a say in local taxation . Calonne 's proposition was rejected outright by the notables , and , as a result , Louis XVI dismissed him . The Archbishop of Toulouse , Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne , acquired Calonne 's ministry . Brienne attempted to salvage Calonne 's reforms , but ultimately failed to convince the notables to approve them . A frustrated Louis XVI dissolved the assembly .
Brienne 's reforms were then submitted to the Parlement of Paris in the hopes that they would be approved . ( A parlement was responsible for ratifying the king 's edicts . Each province had its own parlement , but the Parlement of Paris was the most significant of all . ) The Parlement of Paris refused to accept Brienne 's proposals and pronounced that any new taxation would have to be approved by an Estates @-@ General ( the nominal parliament of France ) . Louis XVI and Brienne took a hostile stance against this rejection , and Louis XVI had to implement a " bed of justice " ( Lit de justice ) , which automatically registered an edict in the Parlement of Paris , to ratify the desired reforms . On 8 May , two of the leading members of the Parlement of Paris were arrested . There was rioting in Brittany , Provence , Burgundy and Béarn in reaction to their arrest . This unrest was engineered by local magistrates and nobles , who enticed the people to revolt against the Lit de Justice , which was quite unfavourable to the nobles and magistrates . The clergy also joined the provincial cause , and condemned Brienne 's tax reforms . Brienne conceded defeat in July and agreed to calling the Estates @-@ General to meet in 1789 . He resigned from his post in August and was replaced by the Swiss magnate Jacques Necker .
In November 1788 , a second Assembly of Notables was convened by Jacques Necker , to consider the makeup of the next Estates @-@ General . The Parlement de Paris recommended that the Estates should be the same as they were at the last assembly , in 1614 ( this would mean that the clergy and nobility would have more representation than the Third Estate ) . The notables rejected the " dual representation " proposal . Louis Stanislas was the only notable to vote to increase the size of the Third Estate . Necker disregarded the notables ' judgment , and convinced Louis XVI to grant the extra representation – Louis duly obliged on 27 December .
= = = The outbreak of the French Revolution = = =
The Estates @-@ General were convened in May 1789 to ratify financial reforms . The Count of Provence favoured a stalwart position against the Third Estate and its demands for tax reform . On 17 June , the Third Estate declared itself a National Assembly , an Assembly not of the Estates , but of the people .
Provence urged the king to act strongly against the declaration , while the king 's popular minister Jacques Necker intended to compromise with the new assembly . Louis XVI was characteristically indecisive . On 9 July , the assembly declared itself a National Constituent Assembly that would give France a Constitution . On 11 July , Louis XVI dismissed Necker , which led to widespread rioting across Paris . On 12 July , the sabre charge of the cavalry regiment of Charles @-@ Eugène de Lorraine , prince de Lambesc , on a crowd gathered at the Tuileries gardens , sparked the Storming of the Bastille two days later .
On 16 July , the Count of Artois left France with his wife and children , along with many other courtiers . Artois and his family took up residence in Turin , the capital city of his father @-@ in @-@ law 's Kingdom of Sardinia , with the family of the Princes of Condé .
The Count of Provence decided to remain at Versailles . When the royal family plotted to abscond from Versailles to Metz , Provence advised the king not to leave , a suggestion he accepted .
The royal family was forced to leave the palace at Versailles on the day after The Women 's March on Versailles , 5 October 1789 . They were re @-@ located to Paris . There , the Count of Provence and his wife lodged in the Luxembourg Palace , while the rest of the royal family stayed in the Tuileries Palace . In March 1791 , the National Assembly created a law outlining the regency of Louis Charles in case his father died while he was still too young to reign . This law awarded the regency to Louis Charles ' nearest male relative in France ( at that time the Count of Provence ) , and after him , the Duke of Orléans ( bypassing the Count of Artois ) . If Orléans were unavailable , the regency would be submitted to election .
The Count of Provence and his wife fled to the Austrian Netherlands in conjunction with the royal family 's failed Flight to Varennes in June 1791 .
= = Exile = =
= = = The early years = = =
When the Count of Provence arrived in the Low Countries , he proclaimed himself de facto regent of France . He exploited a document that he and Louis XVI had written before the latter 's failed escape to Varennes . The document gave him the regency in the event of his brother 's death or inability to perform his role as king . He would join the other princes @-@ in @-@ exile at Coblenz soon after his escape . It was there that he , the Count of Artois , and the Condés proclaimed that their objective was to invade France . Louis XVI was greatly annoyed by his brothers ' behaviour . Provence sent emissaries to various European courts asking for financial aid , soldiers , and munition . Artois secured a castle for the court in exile in the Electorate of Treves , where their maternal uncle , Clemens Wenceslaus of Saxony , was the Archbishop @-@ Elector . The activities of the émigrés bore fruit when the rulers of Prussia and the Holy Roman Empire gathered at Dresden . They released the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791 , which urged Europe to intervene in France if Louis XVI or his family were threatened . Provence 's endorsement of the declaration was not well received in France , either by the ordinary citizens or Louis XVI himself .
In January 1792 , the Legislative Assembly declared that all of the émigrés were traitors to France . Their property and titles were confiscated . The monarchy of France was abolished by the National Convention on 21 September 1792 .
Louis XVI was executed in January 1793 . This left his young son , Louis Charles , as the titular King . The princes @-@ in @-@ exile proclaimed Louis Charles " Louis XVII of France " . The Count of Provence now unilaterally declared himself regent for his nephew , who was too young to be head of the House of Bourbon .
Louis Charles died in June 1795 . His only surviving sibling was his sister Marie @-@ Thérèse , who was not considered a candidate for the throne because of France 's traditional adherence to Salic Law . Thus on 16 June , the princes @-@ in @-@ exile declared the Count of Provence " King Louis XVIII " . The new king accepted their declaration soon after . Louis XVIII busied himself drafting a manifesto in response to Louis XVII 's death . The manifesto , known as " The Declaration of Verona , " was Louis XVIII 's attempt to introduce the French people to his politics . The Declaration of Verona beckoned France back into the arms of the monarchy , " which for fourteen centuries was the glory of France " .
Louis XVIII negotiated Marie @-@ Thérèse 's release from her Paris prison in 1795 . He desperately wanted her to marry her first cousin , Louis @-@ Antoine , Duke of Angoulême , the son of the Count of Artois . Louis XVIII deceived his niece by telling her that her parents ' last wishes were for her to marry Louis Antoine , and she duly agreed to her uncle @-@ king 's wishes .
Louis XVIII was forced to abandon Verona when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the Republic of Venice in 1796 .
= = = 1796 – 1807 = = =
Louis XVIII had been vying for the custody of his niece Marie @-@ Thérèse since her release from the Temple Tower in December 1795 . He succeeded when Francis II , Holy Roman Emperor , agreed to relinquish his custody of her in 1796 . She had been staying in Vienna with her Habsburg relatives since January 1796 . Louis XVIII moved to Blankenburg in the Duchy of Brunswick after his departure from Verona . He lived in a modest two @-@ bedroom apartment over a shop . Louis XVIII was forced to leave Blankenberg when King Frederick William II of Prussia died . In light of this , Marie @-@ Thérèse decided to wait a while longer before reuniting with her uncle .
In 1798 , Tsar Paul I of Russia offered Louis the use of Jelgava Palace in Courland ( now Latvia ) . Paul I also guaranteed Louis 's safety and bestowed upon him a generous pension , however , the tsar later disregarded this allowance . Marie @-@ Thérèse finally joined Louis XVIII at Jelgava in 1799 . In the winter of 1798 – 1799 , Louis XVIII wrote a biography of Marie Antoinette titled Réflexions Historiques sur Marie Antoinette . He attempted to recreate the court life of Versailles at Jelgava , where many old courtiers lived , re @-@ establishing all the court ceremonies , including the lever and coucher ( ceremonies that accompanied waking and bedding , respectively ) .
Marie @-@ Thérèse married her cousin Louis Antoine on 9 June 1799 at Jelgava Palace . Louis XVIII ordered his wife to attend the marriage ceremony in Courland without her long @-@ time friend ( and rumoured lover ) Marguerite de Gourbillon . Queen Marie Joséphine lived apart from her husband in Schleswig Holstein . Louis XVIII was trying desperately to display to the world a united family front . The queen refused to leave her friend behind with unpleasant consequences that rivalled the wedding in notoriety . Louis XVIII knew that his nephew Louis Antoine was not compatible with Marie @-@ Thérèse . Despite this , he still pressed for the marriage , which proved to be quite unhappy and produced no children .
Louis XVIII attempted to strike up a correspondence with Napoleon Bonaparte ( now First Consul of France ) in 1800 . Louis XVIII urged Bonaparte to restore the Bourbons to their throne , but the future emperor was immune to Louis 's requests and continued to consolidate his position as ruler of France .
Louis XVIII encouraged his niece to write her memoirs , as he wished them to be used as Bourbon propaganda . In 1796 and 1803 , Louis also used the diaries of Louis XVI 's final attendants in the same way . In January 1801 , Tsar Paul told Louis XVIII that he could no longer live in Russia . The court at Jelgava was so low on funds that it had to auction some of its possessions to afford the journey out of Russia . Marie @-@ Thérèse even sold a diamond necklace that the Emperor Paul had given her as a wedding gift .
Marie @-@ Thérèse persuaded Queen Louise of Prussia to give her family refuge in Prussian territory . Louise consented , but the Bourbons were forced to assume pseudonyms . With Louis XVIII using the title Comte d 'Isle ( named after his estate in Languedoc ) and at times Comte de Lille , he and his family assumed residence in Warsaw , then part of the province of South Prussia , in the Łazienki Palace from 1801 to 1804 , after an arduous voyage from Jelgava . According to Wirydianna Fiszerowa , a contemporary living there at the time , the Prussian local authorities , wishing to honour the arrivals , had music played , but , wishing to give them a national and patriotic character , chose the La Marseillaise , the hymn of the First French Republic with unflattering allusions to both Louis XVI and Louis XVIII . They later apologised for their mistake . ,
It was very soon after their arrival that they learned of the death of Paul I. Louis hoped that Paul 's successor , Alexander I , would repudiate his father 's banishment of the Bourbons ( which he later did ) . Louis XVIII then intended to set off to the Kingdom of Naples . The Count of Artois asked Louis to send his son , Louis Antoine , and daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Marie @-@ Thérèse , to him in Edinburgh , but they did not at this time . Artois had an allowance from King George III of Great Britain and sent some money to Louis . Louis XVIII 's court in exile was being spied on by French police . The court @-@ in @-@ exile was being financed mainly by interest owed from Francis II on valuables his aunt , Marie Antoinette , had removed from France and had to cut its expenses significantly .
In 1803 , Napoleon tried to force Louis XVIII to renounce his right to the throne of France , but Louis refused . In May 1804 , Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself Emperor of the French . Louis XVIII and his nephew departed for Sweden in July for a Bourbon family conference , where Louis XVIII , the comte d 'Artois , and the duc d 'Angoulême issued a statement condemning Napoleon 's decision to declare himself emperor . The King of Prussia issued a proclamation saying that Louis XVIII would have to leave Prussian territory , which meant leaving Warsaw . Alexander I of Russia invited Louis XVIII to resume residence in Jelgava . Louis XVIII had to live under less generous conditions than those enjoyed under Paul I , and he intended to embark for England as soon as possible .
As time went on , Louis XVIII realised that France would never accept an attempt to return to the Ancien Régime . Accordingly , he created another policy in 1805 with a view toward reclaiming his throne : a declaration that was far more liberal than his former ones . It repudiated his Declaration of Verona , promised to abolish conscription , retain Napoleon I 's administrative and judicial system , reduce taxes , eliminate political prisons , and guarantee amnesty to everyone who did not oppose a Bourbon Restoration . The opinions expressed in the declaration were largely those of the Count of Avaray , Louis 's closest associate in exile .
Louis XVIII was forced once again to leave Jelgava when Alexander of Russia informed him that his safety could not be guaranteed on continental Europe . In July 1807 , Louis boarded a Swedish frigate to Stockholm , bringing with him only the Duke of Angoulême . Louis did not stay in Sweden for long ; he arrived in Great Yarmouth , Norfolk , England , in November 1807 . He took up residence in Gosfield Hall , leased to him by the Marquess of Buckingham .
= = = England = = =
Louis brought his wife and queen , Marie Joséphine , from mainland Europe in 1808 . Louis 's stay at Gosfield Hall did not last long ; he soon moved to Hartwell House in Buckinghamshire , where over one hundred courtiers were housed . The King paid £ 500 in rent each year to the proprietor , Sir George Lee . The Prince of Wales ( the future George IV of Great Britain ) was very charitable to the exiled Bourbons . As Prince Regent , he granted them permanent right of asylum and extremely generous allowances .
The Count of Artois did not join the court @-@ in @-@ exile in Hartwell , preferring to continue his frivolous life in London . Louis 's friend the Count of Avaray left Hartwell for Madeira in 1809 , and died there in 1811 . Louis replaced Avaray with the Comte de Blacas as his principal political advisor . Queen Marie Joséphine died on 13 November 1810 . That same winter , Louis suffered a particularly severe case of gout , which was a recurring problem for him at Hartwell , and he had to be put in a wheelchair .
Napoleon I embarked on an invasion of Russia in 1812 . This war would prove to be the turning point in his fortunes , as the expedition failed miserably and Napoleon was forced to retreat with an army in tatters .
In 1813 , Louis XVIII issued another declaration while at Hartwell . " The Declaration of Hartwell " was even more liberal than his " Declaration of 1805 " , asserting that all those who served Napoleon or the Republic would not suffer repercussions for their acts , and that the original owners of the Biens nationaux ( lands confiscated from the nobles and clergy during the Revolution ) were to be compensated for their losses .
Allied troops entered Paris on 31 March 1814 . Louis , however , was unable to walk , and so sent the Count of Artois to France in January 1814 . Louis XVIII issued letters patent appointing Artois Lieutenant General of the Kingdom in the event of the Bourbons being restored . Napoleon I abdicated on 11 April , five days after his Senate had invited the Bourbons to re @-@ assume the throne of France .
= = Bourbon Restoration = =
= = = Restoration I = = =
The Count of Artois ruled as Lieutenant @-@ General of the kingdom until his brother 's arrival in Paris on 3 May . Upon his return , the king displayed himself to his subjects by creating a procession through the city . He took up residence in the Tuileries Palace the same day . His niece , the Duchess of Angoulême , fainted at the sight of the Tuileries , where she had lived during the time of the French Revolution .
Napoleon 's senate called Louis XVIII to the throne on the condition that he would accept a constitution that entailed recognition of the Republic and the Empire , a bicameral parliament elected every year , and the tri @-@ colour flag of the aforementioned regimes . Louis XVIII opposed the senate 's constitution and stated that he was " disbanding the current senate in all the crimes of Bonaparte , and appealing to the French people " . The senatorial constitution was burned in a theatre in royalist Bordeaux , and the Municipal Council of Lyon voted for a speech that defamed the senate .
The Great Powers occupying Paris demanded that Louis XVIII implement a constitution . Louis responded with the Charter of 1814 , which included many progressive provisions : freedom of religion , a legislature composed of the Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Peers , a press that would enjoy a degree of freedom , and a provision that the Biens nationaux would remain in the hands of their current owners . The constitution had 76 articles . Taxation was to be voted on by the chambers . Catholicism was to be the official religion of France . To be eligible for membership in the Chamber of Deputies , one had to pay over 1 @,@ 000 francs per year in tax , and be over the age of forty . The king would appoint peers to the Chamber of Peers on a hereditary basis , or for life at his discretion . Deputies would be elected every five years , with one fifth of them up for election each year . There were 90 @,@ 000 citizens eligible to vote .
Louis XVIII signed the Treaty of Paris on 30 May 1814 . The treaty gave France her 1792 borders , which extended east of the Rhine . She had to pay no war indemnity , and the occupying armies of the Sixth Coalition withdrew instantly from French soil . These generous terms would be reversed in the next Treaty of Paris after the Hundred Days ( Napoleon 's return to France in 1815 ) .
It did not take Louis XVIII long to go back on one of his many promises . He and his Controller @-@ General of Finance Baron Louis were determined not to let the exchequer fall into deficit ( there was a 75 million franc debt inherited from Napoleon I ) , and took fiscal measures to ensure this . Louis XVIII assured the French that the unpopular taxes on tobacco , wine and salt would be abolished when he was restored , but he failed to do so , which led to rioting in Bordeaux . Expenditures on the army was slashed in the 1815 budget – in 1814 , the military had accounted for 55 % of government spending .
Louis XVIII admitted the Count of Artois and his nephews the Dukes of Angoulême and Berry into the king 's council in May 1814 , upon its establishment . The council was informally headed by Prince Talleyrand . Louis XVIII took a large interest in the goings @-@ on of the Congress of Vienna ( set up to redraw the map of Europe after Napoleon 's demise ) . Talleyrand represented France at the proceedings . Louis was horrified by Prussia 's intention to annex the Kingdom of Saxony , to which he was attached because his mother was born a Saxon princess , and he was also concerned that Prussia would dominate Germany . He also wished the Duchy of Parma to be restored to the Parmese Bourbons , and not to Empress Marie Louise of France , as was being suggested by the Allies . Louis also protested the Allies ' inaction in Naples , where he wanted the Napoleonic usurper Joachim Murat removed in favour of the Neapolitan Bourbons .
On behalf of the Allies , Austria agreed to send a force to the Kingdom of Naples to depose Murat in February 1815 , when it became apparent that Murat corresponded with Napoleon I , which was explicitly forbidden by a recent treaty . Murat never actually wrote to Napoleon , but Louis , intent on restoring the Neapolitan Bourbons at any cost , forged the correspondence , and subsidised the Austrian expedition with 25 million francs .
Louis XVIII succeeded in getting the Neapolitan Bourbons restored immediately . Parma was bestowed upon Empress Marie Louise for life , and the Parmese Bourbons were given the Duchy of Lucca until the death of Marie Louise .
= = = Hundred Days = = =
On 26 February 1815 , Napoleon Bonaparte escaped his island prison of Elba and embarked for France . He arrived with about 1 @,@ 000 troops near Cannes on 1 March . Louis XVIII was not particularly worried by Bonaparte 's excursion , as such small numbers of troops could be easily overcome . There was , however , a major underlying problem for the Bourbons : Louis XVIII had failed to purge the military of its Bonapartist troops . This led to mass desertions from the Bourbon armies to Bonaparte 's . Furthermore , Louis XVIII could not join the campaign against Napoleon in the south of France because he was suffering from another case of gout . Minister of War Marshall Soult dispatched Louis Philippe , Duke of Orléans ( later King Louis Philippe I ) , the Count of Artois , and Marshall MacDonald to apprehend Napoleon .
Louis XVIII 's underestimation of Bonaparte proved disastrous . On 19 March , the army stationed outside Paris defected to Bonaparte , leaving the city vulnerable to attack . That same day , Louis XVIII quit the capital with a small escort at midnight . Louis decided to go first to Lille , and then crossed the border into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , staying in Ghent . Other leaders , most prominently Alexander I of Russia , debated whether in the case of a second victory over the French Empire , the Duke of Orléans should be proclaimed king instead of Louis XVIII .
However , Napoleon did not rule France again for very long , suffering a decisive defeat at the hands of the armies of the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June . The Allies came to the consensus that Louis XVIII should be restored to the throne of France .
= = = 1815 – 1824 = = =
Louis XVIII returned to France promptly after Napoleon 's defeat to ensure his second restoration " in baggage train of the enemy " , i.e. with Wellington 's troops . The Duke of Wellington used King Louis 's person to open up the route to Paris , as some fortresses refused to surrender to the Allies , but agreed to do so for their king . King Louis arrived at Cambrai on 26 June , where he released a proclamation stating that those who served the Emperor in the Hundred Days would not be persecuted , except for the " instigators " . It was also acknowledged that Louis XVIII 's government might have made mistakes during the First Restoration . On 29 June , a deputation of five from the Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Peers approached Wellington about putting a foreign prince on the throne of France . Wellington rejected their pleas outright , declaring that " [ Louis XVIII is ] the best way to preserve the integrity of France " . Wellington ordered the deputies to espouse King Louis 's cause . Louis XVIII entered Paris on 8 July to a boisterous reception : the Tuileries Palace gardens were thronged with bystanders , and , according to the Duke of Wellington , the acclamation of the crowds there were so loud that evening that he could not converse with the king .
Louis XVIII 's role in politics from the Hundred Days onward was voluntarily diminished ; he resigned most of his duties to his council . He and his ministry embarked on a series of reforms through the summer of 1815 . The king 's council , an informal group of ministers that advised Louis XVIII , was dissolved and replaced by a tighter knit privy council , the " Ministère de Roi " . Artois , Berry and Angoulême were purged from the new " ministère " , and Talleyrand was appointed as the first Président du Conseil , i.e. Prime Minister of France . On 14 July , the ministry dissolved the units of the army deemed " rebellious " . Hereditary peerage was re @-@ established to Louis 's behest by the ministry .
In August , elections for the Chamber of Deputies returned unfavourable results for Talleyrand . The ministry wished for moderate deputies , but the electorate voted almost exclusively for ultra @-@ royalists , resulting in the so @-@ called Chambre introuvable . The Duchess of Angoulême and the Count of Artois pressured King Louis for the dismissal of his obsolete ministry . Talleyrand tendered his resignation on 20 September . Louis XVIII chose the Duke of Richelieu to be his new Prime Minister . Richelieu was chosen because he was accepted by Louis 's family and the reactionary Chamber of Deputies .
Anti @-@ Napoleonic sentiment was high in Southern France , and this was prominently displayed in the White Terror , which saw the purge of all important Napoleonic officials from government and the execution of others . The people of France committed barbarous acts against some of these officials . Guillaume Marie Anne Brune ( a Napoleonic marshal ) was savagely assassinated , and his remains thrown into the Rhône River . Louis XVIII deplored such illegal acts , but vehemently supported the prosecution of those marshals that helped Napoleon in the Hundred Days . Louis XVIII 's government executed Napoleon 's Marshal Ney in December 1815 for treason . His confidants Charles François , Marquis de Bonnay , and the Duke de La Chatre advised him to inflict firm punishments on the “ traitors ” .
The king was reluctant to shed blood , and this greatly irritated the ultra @-@ reactionary Chamber of Deputies , who felt that Louis XVIII was not executing enough . The government issued a proclamation of amnesty to the “ traitors ” in January 1816 , but the trials that had already begun were finished in due course . That same declaration also banned any member of the House of Bonaparte from owning property in , or entering , France . It is estimated that between 50 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 officials were purged from the government during what was known as the Second White Terror .
In November 1815 , Louis XVIII 's government had to sign another Treaty of Paris that formally ended Napoleon 's Hundred Days . The previous treaty had been quite favourable to France , but this one took a hard line . France 's borders were retracted to their extent at 1790 . France had to pay for an army to occupy her , for at least five years , at a cost of 150 million francs per year . France also had to pay a war indemnity of 700 million francs to the allies .
In 1818 , the Chambers passed a military law that increased the size of the army by over 100 @,@ 000 . In October of the same year , Louis XVIII 's foreign minister , the Duke of Richelieu , succeeded in convincing the powers to withdraw their armies early in exchange for a sum of over 200 million francs .
Louis XVIII chose many centrist cabinets , as he wanted to appease the populace , much to the dismay of his brother , the ultra @-@ royalist Count of Artois . Louis always dreaded the day he would die , believing that his brother , and heir , Artois , would abandon the centrist government for an ultra @-@ royalist autocracy , which would not bring favourable results .
King Louis disliked the First Prince of the Blood Louis @-@ Philippe d 'Orléans , and took every opportunity to snub him , denying him the title of " Royal Highness " , partly out of resentment for the Duke 's father 's role in voting for Louis XVI 's execution . Louis XVIII 's nephew , the Duke of Berry , was assassinated at the Paris Opera on 14 February 1820 . The royal family was grief @-@ stricken and Louis XVIII broke an ancient tradition to attend his nephew 's funeral , as previous kings of France could not have any association with death . The death of the Duke of Berry meant that the House of Orléans was more likely to succeed to the throne .
Berry was the only member of the family thought to be able to beget children . His wife gave birth to a posthumous son in September , Henry , Duke of Bordeaux , nicknamed Dieudonné ( God @-@ given ) by the Bourbons because he was thought to have secured the future of the dynasty . However the Bourbon succession was still in doubt . The Chamber of Deputies proposed amending Salic law to allow the Duchess of Angoulême to accede to the throne . On 12 June 1820 , the Chambers ratified legislation that increased the number of deputies from 258 to 430 . The extra deputies were to be elected by the wealthiest quarter of the population in each département . These individuals now effectively had two votes . Around the same time as the “ law of the two votes ” , Louis XVIII began to receive visits every Wednesday from a lady named Zoé Talon , and ordered that nobody should disturb him while he was with her . It was rumoured that he inhaled snuff from her breasts , which earned her the nickname of tabatière ( snuffbox ) . In 1823 , France embarked on a military intervention in Spain , where a revolt had occurred against the King Ferdinand VII . France succeeded in crushing the rebellion , an effort headed by the Duke of Angoulême .
= = = Death = = =
Louis XVIII 's health began to fail in the spring of 1824 . He was suffering from obesity , gout and gangrene , both dry and wet , in his legs and spine . Louis died on 16 September 1824 surrounded by the extended royal family and some government officials . He was succeeded by his youngest brother , the Count of Artois , as Charles X.
Louis XVIII was the last French monarch , and the only one after 1774 , to die while still ruling . He was interred at the Basilica of St Denis , the necropolis of French kings .
= = Ancestors = =
= = In fiction = =
Louis XVIII has a cameo rôle in the novella Le Bal de Sceaux by Honoré de Balzac .
Louis XVIII appears briefly in the novel The Count of Monte Cristo , by Alexandre Dumas .
The young Count of Provence was portrayed by Sebastian Armesto in a few brief scenes in the 2006 motion picture Marie Antoinette , a biographical film written and directed by Sofia Coppola , based on the book , Marie Antoinette : The Journey by Lady Antonia Fraser . This movie makes a great error by naming him as the father of Louis XIX , who was in fact the son of Louis XVIII 's brother Charles X.
In the 1970 film Waterloo , Louis XVIII was portrayed by Orson Welles .
He appears briefly as well in the novel " Les Misérables " , by Victor Hugo . In Book the Third , Hugo writes that Louis XVIII enjoys running fast in his carriage as he is unable to walk .
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= Versus ( EP ) =
Versus is the first extended play by American singer Usher . It was released on July 20 , 2010 on LaFace Records and Jive Records in conjunction with the deluxe edition of his sixth studio album Raymond v. Raymond . Several producers contributed to the production of the EP , including Polow da Don , Jim Jonsin , Rico Love , Drumma Boy , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , and Max Martin . Versus is marked as " the last chapter of Raymond v. Raymond " , and follows the theme of Usher exploring around the subjects of being newly single and a father .
Preceding the EP 's release was the lead single " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " , which achieved international success . The song peaked at number four on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , and peaked inside the top @-@ ten in several other countries singles charts . " Hot Tottie " and " Lay You Down " were released as the second and third singles , respectively , with the former becoming a US top @-@ thirty hit . To promote the album , Usher appeared in several award and television shows , including Good Morning America , The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
Versus debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 46 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It became Usher 's sixth top @-@ ten album in the United States , and has since , sold 302 @,@ 000 copies in the country . Despite some criticism towards its pop @-@ oriented material , the EP received generally positive reviews from most music critics . It earned Usher several nominations , including a Billboard Music Award , an International Dance Music Award and a NRJ Music Award .
= = Background = =
In 2009 , in an interview with People Magazine , Usher , whose private life has been highly documented after filing for divorce from wife Tameka Foster , told that his sixth studio album will be , " racy , risky and edgy , and sometimes about personal experiences . " In March , 2010 , he released the album under the title Raymond v. Raymond . Upon its release , Raymond v. Raymond received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards its songwriting and themes . However , the album was a commercial success and peaked at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , with sales of 329 @,@ 000 for its first week ; it became Usher 's third consecutive US number one album .
On July 8 , 2010 , Versus was announced as a follow @-@ up to Raymond v. Raymond , and is Usher 's first extended play . Described during a press release as " the last chapter of Raymond v. Raymond " , he stated that the EP will explore the subjects of being newly single and a father . It would include Raymond v. Raymond single " There Goes My Baby " , as well as 8 new tracks . Several producers from the latter album contributed to the production of the EP , including Polow da Don , Jim Jonsin , Rico Love , Drumma Boy , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , Tha Cornaboyz and Max Martin . Versus ' track listing and album cover was revealed on July 21 , 2010 .
= = Composition = =
The EP incorporates the genres R & B , pop , dance @-@ pop and hip @-@ hop . Its lead single , " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " is a Europop track , with electronic and dance @-@ pop influence . About.com 's Mark Nero summed up its lyrics , to simply be " going clubbing on a Friday night " . " Hot Tottie " is an R & B song that incorporates hip @-@ hop , which is over strobing , electronic beats with Usher 's vocals auto @-@ tuned in parts ; the song contains a verse from rapper Jay @-@ Z , whose appearance was lauded by critics . " There Goes My Baby " is a down @-@ tempo R & B ballad , with elements of neo soul ; the song primarily uses Usher 's falsetto range . Both " Lay You Down " and " Lingerie " contain influences from pop artists , with the former channelling Prince whilst the latter , Michael Jackson . In an interview with music video website Vevo , Usher explained that " Lay You Down " is a " classic R & B baby maker " .
= = Singles = =
" DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " , featuring Pitbull , produced by Max Martin is the first single off the EP . It was released to iTunes on July 13 , 2010 and officially sent to radio on July 20 , 2010 . The song received generally positive reviews from critics , who complemented its production but were ambivalent towards its lack of originality ; the song was largely compared to " OMG " due to its club nature . Since its release , it has gained international success , peaking in the top three in Canada , Japan , Australia , France , and Hungary and in the top ten in several other countries . The song became Usher 's sixteenth Billboard Hot 100 top @-@ ten hit , peaking at number @-@ four on the chart , and number two on the US Pop Songs Chart . As of February 2011 , the song has sold over 3 million digital units , making it the second single to exceed the sales figure for both Usher and featured artist Pitbull .
" Hot Tottie " , featuring Jay @-@ Z , produced by Polow Da Don and written by Usher , Shawn Carter , and Ester Dean , is the second single . It was released for urban radio on August 9 , 2010 . Ciara was originally reported to be on the song , but did not appear on the final track . The song received very positive reviews from critics , who praised rapper Jay @-@ Z 's verse and Usher 's vocals . It peaked at number nine on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Internationally , " Hot Tottie " peaked at number sixty @-@ two on the Canadian Hot 100 . Although it was not released officially as a single in the UK , the song reached number 104 on the UK Singles Chart and number twenty @-@ seven on the UK R & B Chart due to sales after the release of Versus only . " Lay You Down " , produced by Rico Love and Dwayne Nesmith , is the third single and was sent to urban radio on September 28 , 2010 . It maintained a peak of number fifty @-@ six on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , due to only being released to radio . Sara Anderson of AOL wrote that the song opens " with improvisational , high @-@ pitched ' ooohs ' and base @-@ driven synth beats [ ... ] . "
= = Release and promotion = =
The EP was released on August 24 , 2010 in the United States . The set was preceded by the lead single " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " for mainstream audiences , and " Hot Tottie " for urban audiences . Versus ' tracks are included on the deluxe edition of Raymond v. Raymond ; the album was released in the United States conjointly with Versus , and released in the United Kingdom on September 20 , 2010 . The international version of Versus was not released as an EP , but instead as a full album in select countries . It includes the original tracks from the EP , as well as singles from Raymond v. Raymond , including " More " , " OMG " , " Lil Freak " , " Hey Daddy ( Daddy 's Home ) " and " Papers " .
Usher performed the lead single " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " in several shows , the first being Good Morning America ; he performed it alongside " OMG " . He performed both songs again during the 2010 MTV Music Video Awards . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV lauded the performance , writing that " Usher plays to win , and after his stirring performance it 's clear that the crown still rests securely on his head " . A few days later , Usher performed the song — whilst also interviewed — on The Ellen DeGeneres Show . On September 17 , 2010 , he performed the song alongside " There Goes My Baby " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . Usher performed " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " in the season five finale of America 's Got Talent , and in the seventh season of The X Factor . Usher performed " Hot Tottie " on an untelevised portion of his appearance on The Early Show on September 3 , 2010 , and performed it on his OMG Tour , alongside " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " .
= = = Tour = = =
In the summer of 2010 , Usher competed in a dance battle against fellow R & B artist Chris Brown at the Reggae Sumfest . The battle sparked an Internet rumor of the two possibly going on tour . This was further pushed by producer Jermaine Dupri alluding that the two artist may be unaware of this upcoming tour . The singers later took to Twitter to ask who the fans would like to see them perform with . On September 8 , 2010 , the singer announced his touring trek ( and revealed it was solo ) for North America . Due to demand , many additional stops in Europe and Australasia were added . It is Usher 's first arena tour since his 2004 effort , The Truth Tour . The then announced OMG Tour commenced on November 10 , 2010 and concluded on June 1 , 2011 with Usher performing in a total of 92 shows . In its conclusion , the tour placed seventh on Billboard 's annual " Top 25 Tours " , earning nearly $ 75 million .
= = Critical reception = =
Versus received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 65 , based on 6 reviews . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly gave it an " A – " and said that " ' Love ' Em All ' describes an egalitarian sexual appetite , while ' Lingerie ' offers prime faux @-@ Prince boudoir funk . The Max Martin @-@ produced ' DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love ' shows ' OMG ' didn 't satisfy Usher 's dance @-@ pop Jones , but he 's hardly gone soft : ' Hot Tottie , ' with Jay @-@ Z , is nasty in all the right ways . " Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe complimented its " compact running time " and stated " Instead of ho @-@ hum filler , ' Versus ' offers the strongest arrows in Usher ’ s quiver " . About.com 's Mark Edward Nero gave the EP three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars and wrote that Usher has " regained his mojo " , while recommending it to fans of his music : " nine songs - seven of them new - clocking in at 38 minutes is a good deal for this solid package of music . " Steve Jones of USA Today gave Versus three out of four stars and called it " an abbreviated batch of fresh songs that can stand alone or as part of a deluxe original " . Billboard 's Gail Mitchell commended the album 's guest artists and wrote that it " alternately bumps and throbs as a reinvigorated Usher further paves his comeback path "
Jeff Weiss of the Los Angeles Times gave the EP two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars and found " Hot Tottie " to be " intoxicating as its namesake " , but disapproved of some of the generic points and pop efforts . The Washington Post 's Sean Fennessey criticized its pop @-@ oriented tracks , stating " Usher works best in emotional hailstorms , not candy rain " , and viewed that it " finds him in Peter Pan mode , digging for remnants of a younger self that never existed " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic gave it two out of five stars and said that it " mostly resembles a batch of leftovers from his weakest album , even though it functioned as a momentum maintainer " . Kellman dismissed its productions as " innocuous Euro @-@ pop " and " merely passable contemporary R & B " . In a one @-@ star review , Slant Magazine 's Erich Henderson panned Versus as a " wretched collection of failed club @-@ sex jams " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The EP 's lead single " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " earned Usher several award nominations , including a Billboard Music Award , an International Dance Music Award and a NRJ Music Award . " There Goes My Baby " also earned Usher nominations , for a Billboard Music Award and a Soul Train Music Award ; the song won its nomination at the 53rd Grammy Awards in 2011 , for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance . As an act , Usher received numerous accolades , such as being ranked as the third most successful Billboard Hot 100 artist of 2010 , and the top R & B / Hip Hop Artist of that year . He was ranked as the sixth top overall artist of 2010 , from the success of both Raymond v. Raymond and Versus .
= = Commercial performance = =
The EP debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 46 @,@ 000 copies , becoming Usher 's sixth top @-@ ten album . In its second week of release it sold 22 @,@ 450 copies , and dropped to number thirteen on the Billboard 200 . It then sold over 17 @,@ 000 copies in its third week of release , and fell two positions to number fifteen . In its fourth week of release the album dropped one position , and sold 18 @,@ 000 copies surpassing 100 @,@ 000 sales in total . In its fifth week of release , the EP sold 13 @,@ 000 copies , and fell to number twenty @-@ five on the charts . To date , Versus has sold 302 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The EP obtained moderate to high charting success outside of the US ; it debuted and peaked at number twelve in Canada . In Belgium ( Flanders ) the EP peaked at number twenty @-@ seven , and remained on the chart for the longest compared to other countries it charted in , staying for twenty @-@ eight weeks . Versus achieved similar success in France , Netherlands and Germany , peaking in the top @-@ 40 .
= = Track listing = =
Sample credits
" Get in My Car " samples Leon Russell and Marc Benno 's song " Mr. Henri the Clown " .
" Lil Freak " samples Stevie Wonder 's 1973 " Living for the City " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Versus adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= New York State Route 92 =
New York State Route 92 ( NY 92 ) is a state highway located in central New York in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 , named State Street ) in downtown Syracuse . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with US 20 west of the village of Cazenovia . NY 92 is known as East Genesee Street through Syracuse and DeWitt ; from DeWitt to Cazenovia , its name varies by location . It heads generally eastward through Syracuse to DeWitt , where it crosses Interstate 481 ( I @-@ 481 ) while concurrent with NY 5 . At the east end of the overlap , it splits off follows a more southeasterly routing through the village of Manlius to Cazenovia .
NY 92 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it originally began in Fayetteville . At the time , the portion of Genesee Street in eastern Syracuse was part of NY 5 . NY 92 was extended westward into Syracuse in the 1930s after NY 5 was realigned to follow Erie Boulevard instead . NY 92 was concurrent with parts of NY 20N from the 1930s to c . 1962 and with the easternmost section of NY 20SY from the 1950s to c . 1962 . When NY 20SY was removed c . 1962 , NY 92 was rerouted to bypass Fayetteville on NY 20SY 's former routing southwest of the village .
= = Route description = =
= = = Syracuse = = =
NY 92 begins as a city @-@ maintained highway at an intersection with US 11 ( State Street ) in downtown Syracuse . The route heads eastward on East Genesee Street , passing under I @-@ 81 before splitting into a one @-@ way couplet at Almond Street . For the next two blocks , the eastbound and westbound lanes of NY 92 are separated by a small park situated within the block formed by Almond Street , Forman Avenue , and both directions of Genesee Street . The couplet ends just east of Forman Avenue , at which point NY 92 continues on as a highway four lanes wide but with one through traffic lane and one lane reserved for parking in each direction .
At Lexington Avenue , NY 92 begins to turn to the southeast as it heads through more residential areas of the city . At East Avenue , a local street just west of Nottingham Senior High School , the parking lanes become open to through traffic , effectively widening the road to two lanes in each direction . The route passes north of the school and St. Mary 's Cemetery and south of LeMoyne College before exiting the city limits . At this point , maintenance of the route shifts from Syracuse to the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) . Now in DeWitt , NY 92 continues past several blocks lined with homes to an intersection with Erie Boulevard , a six @-@ lane divided highway that carries NY 5 through eastern Syracuse . The boulevard ends here , however , and NY 5 turns to join NY 92 eastward along Genesee Street .
= = = East of Syracuse = = =
Not far to the east of this junction , NY 5 and NY 92 meet I @-@ 481 by way of a cloverleaf interchange . East of the interchange , Genesee Street widens to six lanes ( three in each direction ) as it heads along a commercial strip anchored by a large plaza featuring a Wegmans Food Markets store . NY 5 and NY 92 split at the east end of the strip in the hamlet of Lyndon . While NY 5 continues east along Genesee Street to Fayetteville , NY 92 heads southeast along the two @-@ lane Highbridge Road and bypasses Fayetteville to the southwest .
The route continues into the town of Manlius , where it crosses over Limestone Creek at the hamlet of High Bridge . Past this point , the amount of development along the highway increases as it approaches an intersection with NY 257 just inside of the Manlius village limits . Here , NY 92 becomes four lanes wide once again as it heads along the mostly commercial Fayette Street toward the village center . In the heart of Manlius , NY 92 overlaps with NY 173 for about 750 feet ( 230 m ) past another commercial strip along Seneca Street before resuming its southeasterly progression at Washington Street . It becomes Cazenovia Road upon exiting the village .
Outside of the village of Manlius , the amount of development along the route decreases as the homes lining the route become more spaced out . NY 92 follows Limestone Creek southeastward through the towns of Manlius and Pompey to the Madison County line , where the creek turns south to run through Pompey Hollow , an area of flatlands situated on the Onondaga County side of the line . The highway continues on into Madison County , where it becomes known as Syracuse Road as it heads through the town of Cazenovia . Most of NY 92 in Madison County passes through rural , undeveloped areas ; however , the section just north of its intersection with US 20 runs along Cazenovia Lake and serves several lakeside homes . NY 92 ends upon intersecting US 20 at the southwestern tip of the lake just west of the village of Cazenovia .
= = History = =
NY 92 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to a northwest – southeast roadway connecting Fayetteville to Cazenovia . At Fayetteville , NY 92 ended at NY 5 , which continued west into downtown Syracuse on Genesee Street . NY 5 was realigned c . 1934 to follow Erie Boulevard through eastern Syracuse . NY 5 's former routing along Genesee Street between Columbus Avenue and Erie Boulevard became a westward extension of NY 92 , which overlapped NY 5 from Fayetteville to DeWitt . At Columbus Avenue , NY 92 turned north and followed that street to Erie Boulevard , where it ended at NY 5 . NY 92 was extended west along Genesee Street to its current terminus at US 11 in April 1935 .
The segment of NY 92 between Manlius and Cazenovia gained another designation in 1937 when it became part of NY 20N , a northerly alternate route of US 20 that was concurrent with other state routes for its entire length . In the early 1950s , the portions of NY 92 west of DeWitt and from Manlius to Cazenovia also became part of NY 20SY , another alternate route of US 20 that veered even farther north than NY 20N in order to serve downtown Syracuse . NY 20SY was realigned slightly between 1952 and 1954 to follow NY 5 through eastern Syracuse instead .
While most of NY 20SY overlapped other state routes , there were two sections where NY 20SY was the sole designation assigned to the highway it ran along . One of the two segments was near Fayetteville , where NY 20SY left NY 5 and NY 92 west of the village and bypassed Fayetteville to the southwest on Highbridge Road before rejoining NY 92 just north of Manlius . The NY 20N and NY 20SY designations were removed c . 1962 , at which time NY 92 was realigned to bypass Fayetteville by way of NY 20SY 's former routing southwest of the village .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Mitică =
Mitică ( Romanian pronunciation : [ miˈtikə ] ) is a fictional character who appears in several sketch stories by Romanian writer Ion Luca Caragiale . The character 's name is a common hypocoristic form of Dumitru or Dimitrie ( Romanian for Demetrius ) . He is one of the best @-@ known figures in Caragiale 's 1901 collection Momente şi schiţe , as well as in Romanian humor at large . Mitică is a male resident of Bucharest whose background and status are not always clear , generally seen as an allegory of the average Bucharester or through extension , inhabitants of Romania 's southern regions — Wallachia and Muntenia . According to accounts , he was based on a resident of Sinaia , whom Caragiale had befriended .
Caragiale used Mitică as a stock character to feature in satirical contexts ; the biographical insights he provided are short and often contradict each other . Among Mitică 's traits are his tendency to generate sarcastic comebacks and sententious catchphrases , a Francized speech , as well as inclinations to waste time and easily find his way out of problematic situations . His existence is connected to events in the history of Bucharest which he occasionally references in his jokes . Like Lache and Mache , who are present in Caragiale 's fiction , the character is usually portrayed as a civil servant who has a hard time making ends meet , but who is well liked by his peers .
On account of his caricature @-@ like nature , Mitică survived in common reference beyond Caragiale 's age . The character was portrayed by several actors , and most notably by Ştefan Iordache in the film De ce trag clopotele , Mitică ? . In contemporary Romanian , his name was turned into a common noun , and often pluralized under the form mitici . During and after the 1990s , the terms surfaced in polemics surrounding Romania 's centralism and the alternative projects for Transylvania 's regional autonomy . In this context , it was used in reference to administrators from Bucharest or the Old Kingdom . In parallel , the term was adapted into a stereotype of modern Bucharesters and inhabitants of other regions over the Southern Carpathians , who are often portrayed as belonging to the Balkans , as opposed to the Central European traditions of Transylvania . Under these definitions , Mitică and mitici were notably present in essays authored by the Transylvanian activist Sabin Gherman .
= = Eponymous sketch = =
Ion Luca Caragiale first introduced Mitică to his readers in an eponymous sketch of 1900 , where he evidenced the character 's universal traits and indicates that the first name is enough to define the character . The opening passage notably draws a parallel between Bucharest and Paris ( at a time when the Romanian capital was colloquially known as " little Paris " or " Paris of the East " ) , and mentions Gambrinus , a pub owned and managed by the writer himself :
" Of course we all ought to know [ Mitică ] : we bump into him so very often — in shops , in the trolley , in the tram car , on a bicycle , in the train wagon , at the restaurant , at Gambrinus — in short , everywhere .
Mitică is the Bucharester par excellence . And given that Bucharest is a little Paris , Mitică himself is , obviously , a little Parisian .
He is neither young nor old , neither handsome nor ugly , he is so so ; he is a lad whose features are all balanced ; but that which sets him apart , that which makes him have a marked character is his original and inventive spirit . "
With sarcasm , Caragiale proceeds to indicate that the character 's main trait is his inventive use of Romanian and his tendency to coin terms and make jokes , with which " First and foremost , our little Parisian astounds the provincials " . The remainder of the sketch lists Mitică 's remarks , part of which are platitudes or clichés . Some of them are isolated observations , which the author defines as " sentimental , lyrical , and melancholic " : " The most beautiful girl can only offer what she has to offer " , " Life is a dream , death is an awakening " , and " Every rose has its thorn " .
Most of Mitică 's lines are comebacks in dialogue , and Caragiale notes that his character takes pride in " being unrivaled " when it comes to these . The writer implicates himself in the story , portraying himself as his character 's good friend and a main target for such remarks — for instance , he recounts that , soon after New Years ' Eve 1900 , Mitică pretended not to have recognized him because " it 's been a century since we last saw each other ! " He writes how , when he was ordering a ţuica in the presence of Mitică , the latter jokingly asked the bartender not to comply , " for [ Caragiale ] is likely to drink it " .
The character 's lines offer glimpses into his financial and social status . Thus , he claims that he does not carry change because the metal might attract lightning , refuses to listen to his friends ' confessions because they did not pay the revenue stamp for complaints , and , when told that cabs are available , he sarcastically tells the drivers that they may go home . In one instance , he publicizes his goal to run in elections , but explains that he is going to contest a non @-@ existing seat — at a time when the Romanian Kingdom made use of the census suffrage and had established electoral colleges to stand for the three wealth @-@ based categories , he claims his intention to enlist in the fourth college , for the sparsely @-@ populated area of Bucureştii @-@ Noi . The sketch shows him to be married and to resent his mother @-@ in @-@ law , but to be courting a young female telegraph @-@ operator .
In this context , Mitică is shown to have developed a series of jargon @-@ like expressions . When recounting this to his friends that a clerk has been fired from office , refers to this " a promotion " , elaborating that the new office involves " chasing flies out of [ the park in ] Cişmigiu " . Caragiale provides some of his character 's one @-@ liner jokes , which include references to garlic as " Serbian vanilla " , and to Romanian leu banknotes as " Trajan 's pictures " ( alluding to their design , which , at the time , featured a portrait of the Roman Emperor ) . His absurd requests include asking a shopkeeper to sell him " a few centimeters " of yogurt , and telling friends to drink their beer " before it cools itself " or to " climb on top of a sheet of paper " in order to reach for clothes placed higher on a stand . Several of his puns refer to the switch from horse @-@ drawn trams to trolley poles , for instance showing him blaming unexpected stops on horses not having been properly fed .
= = Other texts = =
Mitică was again present in Caragiale 's Tot Mitică ( " Mitică Still " ) , a sketch which only comprises sections of dialog . It begins with an exchange of lines between an unnamed character and Mitică , which was to become one of the best known puns in this sequence . When asked the general interest question De ce trage clopotele , Mitică ? ( " What are they sounding the [ church ] bells for , Mitică ? " , which , in the Romanian original , may be interpreted as " What are they pulling the bells by ? " ) , the protagonist answers De frânghie , monşer ( " By the string , my dear " ) .
Tot Mitică offers other glimpses into the character 's financial problems , showing him complaining that he has been " pulling the devil 's tail " — using a traditional proverb to indicate that he has had a hard time getting by . To this , he adds that the devil would be suing him for injuries . He claims that he is going to spend his vacation in the mountains , and elaborates that he is talking about the pawnbroking institution known as muntele de pietate ( from the French for " Mountain of Piety " ; see Mont de Piété ) . Mitică enters a restaurant to order only things which he knows are free ( " a toothpick , a match , a glass of water and a newspaper " ) . In other such sequences of events , he is shown eating in a pub as a means to " defend himself from death " , and borrowing money which he promises not to return .
When , in order to converse with a friend in a different compartment , he is traveling second class on a first class train ticket , Mitică asks the conductor to pay him the difference . He is shown anxiously walking about in the Bucharest Tribunal hall , and asking to see a lawyer for his defense , jokingly claims that he wants to be defended " from flies " . When invited for a walk in the Herăstrău Park , which was heavily forested at the time , he pretends to have understood this as an invitation to chop trees , and stresses that he buys his firewood .
Mitică still frequents the beer garden , and one of the dialogs mentions that he spends entire nights there . He is shown to be flirting with women , including the telephone operator , and boasts that several ladies visit him in his home .
The sketch includes several references to well @-@ known characters of the day , including the Conservative Party leader Petre P. Carp , the archaeologist Grigore Tocilescu , the Royal administrator Ioan Kalinderu , the actor Ion Niculescu ( as Iancu Niculescu ) , as well as the dentist Kibrik . The character reveals his tendencies toward political satire , with a one @-@ liner introduced by Caragiale 's definition of " Mitică as a chauvinist " — Mitică is shown announcing that the only song he wants to have played at his funeral is the nationalist tune Deşteaptă @-@ te , române ! ( which translates as " Awaken Thee , Romanian ! " ) .
In addition to the main sketch and Tot Mitică , Caragiale introduced a character of this name in a longer piece , titled 1 Aprilie ( " The 1st of April " ) , which centers on an April Fool gone wrong . Late in the evening , this Mitică decides to hide in Cişmigiu while his lover Cleopatra pretends to court their common friend Mişu Poltronul — with simulated indignation , he takes Mişu by surprise as Cleopatra embraces him . Mitică dies hours after Mişu , who reacts out of instinct to his threatening voice , hits him over the forehead with a cane . Another Mitică — " Mr. Mitică the haberdasher " , whose family name is probably Georgescu — is present in the 1900 sketch La Moşi ( " At the Fair in Obor " ) , where he is shown accompanied by his family and ridiculing his mother @-@ in @-@ law in public . In another such piece , titled Iniţiativa ... ( " The Initiative ... " ) , Caragiale recounts another dialog with " my buddy Mitică " , who is shown to be unnerved that the Romanian state " is indifferent " to the fact that infants , his daughter included , do not have wet nurses assigned to them , and that breastfeeding has to rely on the private sector . Another or the same Mitică makes a brief appearance in Inspecţiune ( " An Inspection " ) , where he is one of the clerks investigating the bizarre suicide of the civil servant Anghelache .
A Mitică is present in the piece called Ţal ! ... — the title comes from a face ţal ( " to make ţal " ) , an antiquated expression which , as Caragiale explains in the beginning of his story , means " to make a payment " ( from the German zahlen ) . The writer illustrates this concept by invoking a meeting between him , Mitică , and Mitică 's wife Graziella . Caragiale recounts how his friend served him and others a copious dinner in his house , and then made them sit through Graziella 's reading of her own lengthy essay on women as portrayed in Romanian folklore . To this goal , Caragiale explains , Mitică discreetly claimed that it was ţal and added , using a quasi @-@ official parlance , that " all bills are to be paid " . The piece ends with Caragiale exiting Mitică 's house in haste and : as the latter shouts " to be seeing each other " , he exclaims " to be left alone , Mitică " .
= = Background themes and sources of inspiration = =
Despite Mitică 's association with Bucharest and his usual most common career as a state employee , several commentators have recounted that he may have been based on Gheorghe Matheescu , an entrepreneur from the town of Sinaia ( located on the Prahova Valley , in northern Muntenia ) . Matheescu took pride in this supposed connection , and , around 1939 , argued in its favor in front of literary historian Şerban Cioculescu . Cioculescu recorded the rumor , and indicated that it was backed by information received from Caragiale 's daughter , Ecaterina Logadi . Her father reportedly enjoyed Matheescu 's company , and , in 1901 , even authored short advertisements for his store .
Mitică and Lache and Mache have often been seen as three manifestations of a main type in Caragiale 's work — the petty clerk who spends his time off in lively company . Literary historian Garabet Ibrăileanu , an adherent to the left @-@ wing trend known as Poporanism , was among the first to stress that Mitică 's name , like those of Lache and Mache , was actually supposed to enhance his everyday nature , while arguing that the character stood for the first generation of commoners with access to education . Ibrăileanu , who criticized Caragiale for his satirical overview of the social process , believed that the clerks in his work are unnecessarily cynical , and stressed that Inspecţiune was the only one of his works were " one sees at least one glitter of kindness in the souls of the mitici " .
Literary historian George Călinescu saw Mitică as a main representative of Balkan subjects in Ion Luca Caragiale 's prose , and listed among the character 's other traits his pessimism in respect to historical developments , as well as his interest in rallying people off the street and imposing his ideas on them . He defined the latter aspect as " southern " , and noted that , like other heroes of Caragiale 's sketches , Mitică is " at the antipode of Romanticism " , and inhabits a place where " Gothic meditation does not flourish " . In his history of the Junimea literary society , Z. Ornea argued that there was a link between Mitică 's personality and Caragiale 's strong rejection of nationalism :
" Caragiale 's mitici are jovial , good @-@ natured characters , easy @-@ going in their thought and behavior . Solemnity does not suit them and fanatical monomanias are unimaginable in this context . An ecstatically nationalist Mitică is a contradiction in terms , since his formula in life is accommodation , adaption to the situations . "
The character and his counterparts have been understood as purveyors and exponents of moft , a concept treasured by Caragiale . The word , meaning " trifle " or " nonsense " , refers to pretentious and often ridiculous expectations of people caricatured in his work , but is uttered by such characters in reference to each other ( as their tendency to dismiss events they are confronted with , no matter how important they may be ) . Moft was notably present in Caragiale 's own satirical magazine , Moftul Român ( which he issued at intervals in the 1890s and after 1900 ) . Two mentions of , respectively , moft and the magazine itself are made in Tot Mitică ( in reference to Petre P. Carp and to a woman courted by Mitică 's friend Costică ) .
Mitică 's voluble nature has itself been considered to have negative implications . An assessment of this was offered by Călinescu , who rejected the popular take on the character as boorish :
" Mitică is a gossiper , a scoundrel , an intriguer , in general on account of his garrulous nature , and a generous and confusing mystifier , agreeing to render services without having the strength to complete them , which in turn permits him to ask services from anyone else [ ... ] . He is easy @-@ going , with a horror for suffering and is most of all a well @-@ mannered man . The impression that Caragiale 's heroes are vulgar is false and mostly arises from the fact that , wishing to seem distinguished , they have not yet cultivated their speech and gestures . "
Caragiale created Mitică at a time when the Romanian culture as developed in the Old Kingdom was the recipient of French influence , and the Romanian language was open to Francization . The character himself partakes in the process , and is shown to have adopted several of the manners and pastimes associated with the French Third Republic .
= = Modern uses and influence = =
= = = Cultural and political symbol = = =
The literary critic Paul Zarifopol , who was Ion Luca Caragiale 's good friend , made several references to Mitică as a prototype of ignorance . He thus used the character to define the most ignorant of journalists and newspaper readers , and , in his lengthy essay titled Din registrul ideilor gingaşe ( " From the Register of Gentle Ideas " ) , argued that Mitică 's traits survived in the manners and morals of state employees and journalists after Caragiale 's death , throughout World War I and after the creation of Greater Romania .
Political interpretations of Mitică 's status were present at an earlier stage : in his influential essay Neoiobăgia ( " Neo @-@ Serfdom " ) , the Marxist thinker Constantin Dobrogeanu @-@ Gherea , himself a friend of Caragiale , used Iniţiativa ... ' s protagonist to illustrate the interventionist policies of the National Liberal cabinets . He contended that the two terms of his comparison shared " a mania for [ state ] intervention " , and argued that the National Liberals had a tendency to overregulate the economy .
Commentators such as Constantin Amăriuţei have proposed that there is an intrinsic connection between Mitică and Gore Pirgu , one of the protagonists in the novel Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche , authored by Ion Luca Caragiale 's son and rival , the Symbolist Mateiu Caragiale . Pirgu , who enjoys a successful career during the interwar despite having a shady past and coarse manners , has been defined by Amăriuţei as " the eternal and real Mitică of the Romanian world " .
Constantin Amăriuţei was noted for defining Mitică 's character ( Miticism ) through onthologic terms borrowed from the German philosopher Martin Heidegger . He thus argued that , for all their mundane motivations , the character and his peers illustrated a search present with all individuals , identifiable with Heidegger 's concepts of Being @-@ in @-@ the @-@ World and Being @-@ toward @-@ death ( see Heideggerian terminology ) .
In 2000 , several essays by literary historian Laurenţiu Ulici were published posthumously , under the title Mitică şi Hyperion ( " Mitică and Hyperion " ) . This name drew a direct comparison between the voluble Mitică and an equally famous character in Romanian literature , the aloof , rational , and god @-@ like protagonist of Mihai Eminescu 's poem Luceafărul ( " The Morning Star " ) . Ulici attempted to synthesize the two conflicting natures in the Romanian identity , and viewed the two as terms in " an oxymoron " standing at the center of Romanian culture .
In his essay on the history of drunkenness in Romanian culture , Mircea Bălan defined Mitică as :
" The Bucharest wise guy , a haughty rascal , a swindler doubled by a thief and a boor giving himself airs , deplorable , awkward and discredited from the get @-@ go , in reality an aborted « dastard » , an aborted « wanton » . "
Literary critic Ioana Pârvulescu agreed that there was a link between Mitică and other characters in Caragiale 's sketches ; she subsequently argued that formed an integral part of the writer 's caricature of Romania in its entirety , and that the measure to which they reflected reality is impossible to detect . In her 2007 volume of essays , titled În Ţara Miticilor . De şapte ori Caragiale ( " In the Land of the Mitici . Seven Times Caragiale " ) , she stressed that the character was both more human and more artificial than his usual interpretations in 20th century commentary .
A particular definition of Mitică and mitici was adopted by many inhabitants of Transylvania , who used the terms in reference to either Bucharest @-@ based politicians or inhabitants of the city at large , and contrasted them with their counterparts to the northwest . The character has thus evolved to include a stereotypical view of contemporary Bucharesters or Wallachians , one which depicts them as sciolist , arrogant , aggressive and cunning . In other contexts , the mitici may be seen as not having an adequate familiarity with the culture of Transylvania , and are associated with the Balkans ( whereas Transylvania is identified with Central Europe ) .
In September 1998 , the Transylvanian journalist and essayist Sabin Gherman issued a pamphlet titled M @-@ am săturat de România ( " I 've Grown Tired of Romania " ) , which was at the center of a scandal over its radical tone and demands for regional autonomy in Transylvania . In its first lines , the message drew a parallel between Mitică and " politicians in power " , identifying centralism and the politics of Romania with , among other things , disorganization and statism . Gherman went on to contrast " the seriousness , the elegance , the discipline " which he attributed to Transylvania with the invasion of " miticisms , ordinary Balkanisms , the civilization of pumpkin seeds " . The latter sentence comprised a reference to the habit of consuming seeds as snacks , in which he saw evidence of rudimentary behavior :
" Here [ that is , outside Transylvania ] , one doesn 't have rights , but complaisances . Here they eat pumpkin seeds , they use « there is many » in their speech , and , in general , people get born , multiply themselves and die . "
= = = Portrayals and tributes = = =
One of the best @-@ known references to the character is the 1981 film De ce trag clopotele , Mitică ? ( translated as " Why Are the Bells Ringing , Mitică ? " ) , directed by Lucian Pintilie . Titled after the opening dialog in Tot Mitică , the film was actually structured around Caragiale 's play D @-@ ale carnavalului , and included portions from several other writings — including 1 Aprilie . Mitică , who makes a brief appearance before dying at the hands of Mişu Poltronul , is portrayed by Ştefan Iordache . De ce trag clopotele , Mitică ? was noted for its subtle undertones , through which it expressed criticism of the Romanian communist regime ( at a time when the country was led by Nicolae Ceauşescu ) .
In 2003 , the Luceafărul Theater in Iaşi hosted a dramatized version of Momente şi schiţe . Titled În lumea lui Mitică ( " In Mitică 's World " ) , it was directed by Constantin Brehnescu and starred Dionisie Vitcu .
The national television channel TVR 2 produces a weekly show titled D 'ale lu ' Mitică ( roughly : " Mitică 's Stuff " ) , whose title is inspired by Caragiale 's hero . Hosted by the actor Mitică Popescu , the show groups reportage pieces from the Romanian countryside , recording unusual events which , the editors believe , serve to illustrate the problems faced by small communities in the post @-@ 1989 transition period .
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= From Russia with Love ( film ) =
From Russia with Love is a 1963 British @-@ American spy thriller film , directed by Terence Young , produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , and written by Richard Maibaum , based on Ian Fleming 's 1957 novel of the same name . It is the second film in the James Bond film series , as well as Sean Connery 's second role as MI6 agent James Bond . In the film , Bond is sent to assist in the defection of Soviet consulate clerk Tatiana Romanova in Turkey , where SPECTRE plans to avenge Bond 's killing of Dr. No .
Following the success of Dr. No , United Artists greenlit a sequel and doubled the budget available for the producers . In addition to filming on location in Turkey , the action scenes were shot at Pinewood Studios , Buckinghamshire and in Scotland . Production ran over budget and schedule , and was rushed to finish by its scheduled October 1963 release date .
From Russia with Love was a critical and commercial success , taking over $ 78 million in worldwide box office receipts over its $ 2 million budget , more than its predecessor Dr. No , becoming a blockbuster in 1960s cinema .
= = Plot = =
Seeking to exact revenge on James Bond ( 007 ) for killing SPECTRE 's agent , Dr. No , the organisation 's expert planner , Kronsteen , devises a plan to manipulate him into stealing a Lektor cryptographic device from the Soviets . SPECTRE 's leader , Number 1 , puts Rosa Klebb , an ex @-@ SMERSH operative and the organisation 's Number 3 , in charge of the mission . Klebb recruits Donald " Red " Grant , ordering him to protect Bond until he acquires the Lektor , before killing him for it and bringing the device back to SPECTRE so they can sell it back to the Soviets . To further assist the scheme , Klebb recruits Tatiana Romanova , a cipher clerk at the Soviet consulate in Istanbul , whom she fools into thinking that she is still working for SMERSH . In London , M informs Bond that Romanova has contacted their " Station ' T ' " in Turkey , offering to defect with a Lektor , which both MI6 and the CIA have been after for years . However , Romanova 's message states that she will only defect if brought back by Bond , whose photo she had supposedly found in a Soviet intelligence file . Prior to his departure , Bond is supplied with a attaché case containing a concealed knife , concealed gold sovereigns , and a special tear gas booby trap connected to the lock mechanism , along with an Armalite AR @-@ 7 rifle .
After travelling to Istanbul , Bond heads into the city to meet with station head Ali Kerim Bey , tailed by Bulgarians working for the Russians . They are in turn tailed by Grant , who kills one of them after Bond is taken back to his hotel , stealing their car and dumping it outside the Soviet consulate to implicate Kerim Bey . After Karim Bey luckily escapes a limpet mine attempt on his life , he assists Bond the following day to spy on the Soviet consulate . Upon learning that a rival agent , Krilencu , has recently returned and suspecting he was behind the attack on his life , Kerim Bey declares it unwise to stay in the city and takes Bond with him to a rural gypsy settlement . However , Krilencu learns of this and promptly attacks with his men . While Kerim Bey is wounded in the attack , Bond narrowly avoids being killed by being secretly saved by Grant . The following night , Bond and Kerim Bey track down Krilencu to his hideout and kill him with Bond 's rifle .
Upon returning to his hotel suite that night , Bond finds Romanova waiting for him in his bed and sleeps with her ; neither are aware of SPECTRE filming them . The next day , Romanova heads off for a pre @-@ arranged rendezvous at Hagia Sophia to drop off the floor plans for the consulate , with Grant ensuring Bond receives the plans by killing the other Bulgarian tail who attempts to intercept the drop . Using the plans , Bond and Kerim Bey successfully steal the Lektor and , together with Romanova , escape with the device onto the Orient Express . On the train , Kerim Bey quickly notices a Soviet security officer named Benz tailing them , prompting him and Bond to subdue him . When Bond leaves Benz and Kerim Bey alone together , Grant kills them , and makes it appear as though they killed each other , preventing Bond from leaving the train with Romanova to rendezvous with one of Kerim 's men . At the next station , Bond passes on word of Kerim Bey 's death , and requests for an agent from Station Y to meet him at Zagreb . However , when the train arrives at the station , Grant intercepts Nash , sent from Station Y , killing him before posing as him . After drugging Romanova at dinner , Grant overcomes Bond , before taunting him about SPECTRE 's involvement in the theft . After disclosing that Romanova was unaware of what was truly going on , believing she was working for Russia , Grant reveals to Bond his plans to leave behind the film SPECTRE took of him and Romanova in the hotel , along with a forged blackmail letter , to make it appear that their deaths were the result of a murder @-@ suicide . Bond quickly convinces him to accept a bribe of gold sovereigns in exchange for a final cigarette , tricking Grant into setting off the booby trap in his attaché case . In the ensuing struggle , Bond narrowly gains the upper hand , stabbing Grant with the case 's concealed knife before strangling him with his own garrotte . At dawn , Romanova , having recovered , leaves the train with Bond , whereupon they hijack Grant 's getaway truck and drive to a dock , taking a moored boat Grant planned to use .
Upon hearing the news of Grant 's death , Number 1 summons Kronsteen and Klebb to remind them that SPECTRE does not tolerate failure , before having Kronsteen executed . Klebb , given one final chance to complete the mission , is instructed to get back the Lektor before Bond returns to Britain . Klebb sends a SPECTRE agent named Morzeny , to intercept Bond with a squadron of SPECTRE 's boats . However , Bond escapes by releasing his boat 's gasoline drums and detonating them with a signal flare which engulfs his pursuer 's boats in flames . Eventually , he and Romanova reach Venice and check into a hotel . While discussing his mission 's success , Klebb , disguised as a maid , attempts to steal the Lektor . Struggling with Bond , she tries to kill him with a gun and then a poisoned toe @-@ spike concealed in her shoe , until Romanova shoots her . In the final scene , Bond throws the bedroom film of himself and Romanova into the water as they motorboat down the canal .
= = Cast = =
Sean Connery as James Bond : Secret Intelligence Service Agent 007 .
Daniela Bianchi as Tatiana Romanova ( voiced by Barbara Jefford ) : Soviet Embassy clerk and Bond 's love interest . Fleming based Romanova on Christine Granville .
Pedro Armendáriz as Ali Kerim Bey : British Intelligence station chief in Istanbul .
Lotte Lenya as Rosa Klebb : A former SMERSH colonel , now chief operations officer for SPECTRE .
Robert Shaw as Donald " Red " Grant : Cunning SPECTRE assassin and one of the principal Bond enemies .
Bernard Lee as M : Chief of British Intelligence .
Walter Gotell as Morzeny : SPECTRE thug who trains personnel on SPECTRE Island .
Vladek Sheybal as Kronsteen : Chess grandmaster , and chief planning officer for SPECTRE .
" ? " ( anonymous credit for Anthony Dawson ( body ) and Eric Pohlmann ( voice ) ) as " Number 1 " ( Ernst Stavro Blofeld ) : Chief of SPECTRE and Bond 's nemesis .
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary .
Desmond Llewelyn as Major Boothroyd : Head of " Q " Section ( British Intelligence gadgetry department ) .
Eunice Gayson as Sylvia Trench : Bond 's semi @-@ regular girlfriend .
Francis de Wolff as Vavra : Chief of a Gypsy tribe used for dirty work by Kerim Bey .
George Pastell as the Orient Express train conductor .
Fred Haggerty as Krilencu : A Bulgarian assassin who works as a killer for the Soviets in the Balkans .
Aliza Gur and Martine Beswick as Vida and Zora , respectively : Two jealous Gypsy girls who are disputing the same man .
Nadja Regin as Kerim Bey 's lonely girlfriend .
= = Production = =
Following the financial success of Dr. No , United Artists greenlit a second James Bond film . The studio doubled the budget offered to Eon Productions with $ 2 million , and also approved a bonus for Sean Connery , who would receive $ 100 @,@ 000 along with his $ 54 @,@ 000 salary . As President John F. Kennedy had named Fleming 's novel From Russia with Love among his ten favourite books of all time in Life magazine , producers Broccoli and Saltzman chose this as the follow @-@ up to Bond 's cinematic debut in Dr. No . From Russia with Love was the last film President Kennedy saw at the White House on 20 November 1963 before going to Dallas . Most of the crew from the first film returned , with major exceptions being production designer Ken Adam , who went to work on Dr. Strangelove and was replaced by Dr. No 's art director Syd Cain ; title designer Maurice Binder was replaced by Robert Brownjohn , and stunt coordinator Bob Simmons was unavailable and was replaced by Peter Perkins though Simmons performed stunts in the film . John Barry replaced Monty Norman as composer of the soundtrack .
The film introduced several conventions which would become essential elements of the series : a pre @-@ title sequence , the Blofeld character ( referred in the film only as " Number 1 " ) , a secret @-@ weapon gadget for Bond , a helicopter sequence ( repeated in every subsequent Bond film except The Man with the Golden Gun ) , a postscript action scene after the main climax , a theme song with lyrics , and the line " James Bond will return / be back " in the credits .
= = = Writing = = =
Ian Fleming 's novel was a Cold War thriller but the producers replaced the Soviet undercover agency SMERSH with the crime syndicate SPECTRE so as to avoid controversial political overtones . The SPECTRE training grounds were inspired by the film Spartacus . The original screenwriter was Len Deighton , who accompanied Harry Saltzman , Syd Cain , and Terence Young to Istanbul but he was replaced because of a lack of progress . Thus , two of Dr. No 's writers , Johanna Harwood and Richard Maibaum , returned for the second film in the series Some sources state Harwood with being credited for " adaptation " mostly for her suggestions which were carried over into Maibaum 's script . Harwood stated in an interview in a Cinema Retro that she had been a screenwriter of several of Harry Saltzman 's projects , and her screenplay for From Russia with Love had followed Fleming 's novel closely , but she left the series due to what she called Terence Young 's constant rewriting of her screenplay with ideas that were not in the original Fleming work . Maibaum kept on making rewrites as filming progressed . Red Grant was added to the Istanbul scenes just prior to the film crew 's trip to Turkey — a change that brought more focus to the SPECTRE plot , as Grant started saving Bond 's life there ( a late change during shooting involved Grant killing the bespectacled spy at Hagia Sophia instead of Bond , who ends up just finding the man dead ) . For the last quarter of the movie , Maibaum added two chase scenes , with a helicopter and speedboats , and changed the location of Bond and Klebb 's battle from Paris to Venice .
= = = Casting = = =
Although uncredited , the actor who played Number 1 was Anthony Dawson , who had played Professor Dent in the previous Bond film , Dr. No . In the end credits , Blofeld is credited with a question mark . Blofeld 's lines were redubbed by Viennese actor Eric Pohlmann in the final cut . Peter Burton was unavailable to return as Major Boothroyd , so Desmond Llewelyn , a Welsh actor who was a fan of the Bond comic strip published in the Daily Express , accepted the part . However , screen credit for Llewelyn was omitted at the opening of the film and is reserved for the exit credits , where he is credited simply as " Boothroyd " . Llewelyn 's character is not referred to by this name in dialogue , but M does introduce him as being from Q Branch . Llewelyn remained as the character , better known as Q , in all but one of the series ' films until his death in 1999 .
Several actresses were considered for the role of Tatiana , including Italians Sylva Koscina and Virna Lisi , Danish actress Annette Vadim , and English @-@ born Tania Mallet . 1960 Miss Universe runner @-@ up Daniela Bianchi was ultimately cast , supposedly Sean Connery 's choice . Bianchi started taking English classes for the role , but the producers ultimately chose to have her lines redubbed by British stage actress Barbara Jefford in the final cut . The scene in which Bond finds Tatiana in his hotel bed was used for Bianchi 's screen test , with Dawson standing in , this time , as Bond . The scene later became the traditional screen test scene for prospective James Bond actors and Bond Girls .
Greek actress Katina Paxinou was originally considered for the role of Rosa Klebb , but was unavailable . Terence Young cast Austrian singer Lotte Lenya after hearing one of her musical recordings . Young wanted Kronsteen 's portrayer to be " an actor with a remarkable face " , so the minor character would be well remembered by audiences . This led to the casting of Vladek Sheybal , whom Young also considered convincing as an intellectual . Several women were tested for the roles of Vida and Zora , the two fighting Gypsy girls , and after Aliza Gur and Martine Beswick were cast , they spent six weeks practising their fight choreography with stunt work arranger Peter Perkins .
Mexican actor Pedro Armendáriz was recommended to Young by director John Ford to play Kerim Bey . After experiencing increasing discomfort on location in Istanbul , Armendáriz was diagnosed with inoperable cancer . Filming in Istanbul was terminated , the production moved to Britain , and Armendáriz 's scenes were brought forward so that he could complete his scenes without delay . Though visibly in pain , he continued working as long as possible . When he could no longer work , he returned home and took his own life . Remaining shots after Armendáriz left London had a stunt double and Terence Young himself as stand @-@ ins .
Englishman Joe Robinson was a strong contender for the role of Red Grant but it was given to Robert Shaw .
= = = Filming = = =
Most of the film was set in Istanbul , Turkey . Locations included the Basilica Cistern , Hagia Sophia and the Sirkeci railway station which also was used for the Belgrade and Zagreb railway stations . The MI6 office in London , SPECTRE Island , the Venice hotel and the interior scenes of the Orient Express were filmed at Pinewood Studios with some footage of the train . In the film , the train journey was set in Eastern Europe . The journey and the truck ride were shot in Argyll , Scotland and Switzerland . The end scenes for the film were shot in Venice . However , to qualify for the British film funding of the time , at least 70 percent of the film had to have been filmed in Great Britain or the Commonwealth . The Gypsy camp was also to be filmed in an actual camp in Topkapi , but was actually shot in a replica of it in Pinewood . The scene with rats ( after the theft of the Lektor ) was shot in Spain , as Britain did not allow filming with wild rats , and filming white rats painted in cocoa did not work . Principal photography began on 1 April 1963 , and wrapped on 23 August .
Director Terence Young 's eye for realism was evident throughout production . For the opening chess match , Kronsteen wins the game with a re @-@ enactment of Boris Spassky 's victory over David Bronstein in 1960 . Production Designer Syd Cain built up the " chess pawn " motif in his $ 150 @,@ 000 set for the brief sequence . A noteworthy gadget featured was the attaché case ( briefcase ) issued by Q Branch . It had a tear gas bomb that detonated if the case was improperly opened , a folding AR @-@ 7 sniper rifle with twenty rounds of ammunition , a throwing knife , and 50 gold sovereigns . A boxer at Cambridge , Young choreographed the fight between Grant and Bond along with stunt co @-@ ordinator Peter Perkins . The scene took three weeks to film and was violent enough to worry some on the production . Yet Robert Shaw and Connery did most of the stunts themselves .
After the unexpected loss of Armendáriz , production proceeded , experiencing complications from uncredited rewrites by Berkely Mather during filming . Editor Peter Hunt set about editing the film while key elements were still to be filmed , helping to restructure the opening scenes . Hunt and Young conceived of moving the Red Grant training sequence to the beginning of the film ( prior to the main title ) , a signature feature that has been an enduring hallmark of every Bond film since . The briefing with Blofeld was rewritten , and back projection was used to re @-@ film Lotte Lenya 's lines .
Behind schedule and over @-@ budget , the production crew struggled to complete production in time for the already @-@ announced premiere date that October . On 6 July 1963 , while scouting locations in Argyll , Scotland for that day 's filming of the climactic boat chase , Terence Young 's helicopter crashed into the water with art director Michael White and a cameraman aboard . The craft sank into 40 – 50 feet ( 12 – 15 m ) of water , but all escaped with minor injuries . Despite the calamity , Young was behind the camera for the full day 's work . A few days later , Bianchi 's driver fell asleep during the commute to a 6 am shoot and crashed the car . The actress 's face was bruised and Bianchi 's scenes had to be delayed for two weeks while the facial contusions healed .
The helicopter and boat chase scenes were not in the original novel but were added to create an action climax . The former was inspired by the crop @-@ dusting scene in Hitchcock 's North by Northwest and the latter by a previous Young / Broccoli / Maibaum collaboration , The Red Beret . These two scenes would initially be shot in Istanbul but were moved to Scotland . The speed @-@ boats could not run fast enough due to the many waves in the sea , and a rented boat filled with cameras ended up sinking in the Bosphorus . A helicopter was also hard to obtain , and the special effects crew were nearly arrested trying to get one at a local air base . The helicopter chase was filmed with a radio controlled miniature helicopter . The sounds of the boat chase were replaced in post @-@ production since the boats were not loud enough , and the explosion , shot in Pinewood , got out of control , burning Walter Gotell 's eyelids and seriously injuring three stuntmen .
Photographer David Hurn was commissioned by the producers of the James Bond films to shoot a series of stills with Sean Connery and the actresses of the film . When the theatrical property Walther PPK pistol did not arrive , Hurn volunteered the use of his own Walther LP @-@ 53 air pistol . Though the photographs of the " James Bond is Back " posters of the US release airbrushed out the long barrel of the pistol , film poster artist Renato Fratini used the long @-@ barrelled pistol for his drawings of Connery on the British posters .
For the opening credits , Maurice Binder had disagreements with the producers and did not want to return . Designer Robert Brownjohn stepped into his place , and projected the credits on female dancers , inspired by constructivist artist László Moholy @-@ Nagy projecting light onto clouds in the 1920s . Brownjohn 's work started the tradition of scantily clad women in the Bond films ' title sequences .
= = = Music = = =
From Russia with Love is the first Bond film in the series with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer . The theme song was composed by Lionel Bart of Oliver ! fame and sung by Matt Monro , although the title credit music is a lively instrumental version of the tune beginning with Barry 's brief James Bond is Back then segueing into Monty Norman 's " James Bond Theme " . Monro 's vocal version is later played during the film ( as source music on a radio ) and properly over the film 's end titles . Barry travelled with the crew to Turkey to try getting influences of the local music , but ended up using almost nothing , just local instruments such as finger cymbals to give an exotic feeling , since he thought the Turkish music had a comedic tone that did not fit in the " dramatic feeling " of the James Bond movies .
In this film , Barry introduced the percussive theme " 007 " — action music that came to be considered the " secondary James Bond theme " . He composed it to have a lighter , enthusiastic and more adventurous theme to relax the audience . The arrangement appears twice on the soundtrack album ; the second version , entitled " 007 Takes the Lektor " , is the one used during the gunfight at the Gypsy camp and also during Bond 's theft of the Lektor decoding machine . The completed film features a holdover from the Monty Norman @-@ supervised Dr. No music ; the post @-@ rocket @-@ launch music from Dr. No is played in From Russia with Love during the helicopter and speedboat attacks .
= = Release and reception = =
From Russia with Love premiered on 10 October 1963 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . Ian Fleming , Sean Connery and Walter Gotell attended the premiere . The following year , it was released in 16 countries worldwide , with the United States premiere on 8 April 1964 , at New York 's Astor Theatre . Upon its first release , From Russia with Love doubled Dr. No 's gross by earning $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( $ 95 million in 2016 dollars ) at the worldwide box office . After reissue it grossed $ 78 million , of which $ 24 million was from North America . It was the most popular movie at the British box office in 1963 .
The film 's cinematographer Ted Moore won the BAFTA award and the British Society of Cinematographers award for Best Cinematography . At the 1965 Laurel Awards , Lotte Lenya stood third for Best Female Supporting Performance , and the film secured second place in the Action @-@ Drama category . The film was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for " From Russia with Love " .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
In comparing the film to its predecessor , Dr. No , Richard Roud , writing in The Guardian , said that From Russia with Love " didn 't seem quite so lively , quite so fresh , or quite so rhythmically fast @-@ moving . " He went on to say that " ... the film is highly immoral in every imaginable way ; it is neither uplifting , instructive nor life @-@ enhancing . Neither is it great film @-@ making . But it sure is fun . " Writing in The Observer , Penelope Gilliatt noted that " The way the credits are done has the same self @-@ mocking flamboyance as everything else in the picture . " Gilliatt went on to say that the film manages " to keep up its own cracking pace , nearly all the way . The set @-@ pieces are a stunning box of tricks " . The critic for The Times wrote of Bond that he is " the secret ideal of the congenital square , conventional in every particular ... except in morality , where he has the courage — and the physical equipment — to do without thinking what most of us feel we might be doing ... " The critic thought that overall , " the nonsense is all very amiable and tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek and will no doubt make a fortune for its devisers " .
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times said : " Don 't miss it ! This is to say , don 't miss it if you can still get the least bit of fun out of lurid adventure fiction and pseudo @-@ realistic fantasy . For this mad melodramatization of a desperate adventure of Bond with sinister characters in Istanbul and on the Orient Express is fictional exaggeration on a grand scale and in a dashing style , thoroughly illogical and improbable , but with tongue blithely wedged in cheek . "
Time magazine called the film " fast , smart , shrewdly directed and capably performed " and commented extensively on the film 's humour , saying " Director Young is a master of the form he ridicules , and in almost every episode he hands the audience shocks as well as yocks . But the yocks are more memorable . They result from slight but sly infractions of the thriller formula . A Russian agent , for instance , does not simply escape through a window ; no , he escapes through a window in a brick wall painted with a colossal poster portrait of Anita Ekberg , and as he crawls out of the window , he seems to be crawling out of Anita 's mouth . Or again , Bond does not simply train a telescope on the Russian consulate and hope he can read somebody 's lips ; no , he makes his way laboriously into a gallery beneath the joint , runs a submarine periscope up through the walls , and there , at close range , inspects two important Soviet secrets : the heroine 's legs . "
= = = Reflective reviews = = =
From Russia with Love received generally positive reviews from critics ; Rotten Tomatoes sampled 49 reviewers and judged 96 % of the reviews to be positive . Many online sites also commonly state From Russia with Love as the best Bond film of all time .
In his 1986 book , Danny Peary described From Russia with Love as " an excellent , surprisingly tough and gritty James Bond film " which is " refreshingly free of the gimmickry that would characterise the later Bond films , and Connery and Bianchi play real people . We worry about them and hope their relationship will work out ... Shaw and Lotte Lenya are splendid villains . Both have exciting , well @-@ choreographed fights with Connery . Actors play it straight , with excellent results . "
Film critic James Berardinelli cited this as his favourite Bond film , writing " Only From Russia with Love avoids slipping into the comic book realm of Goldfinger and its successors while giving us a sampling of the familiar Bond formula ( action , gadgets , women , cars , etc . ) . From Russia with Love is effectively paced and plotted , features a gallery of detestable rogues ( including the ultimate Bond villain , Blofeld ) , and offers countless thrills " .
In June 2001 Neil Smith of BBC Films called it " a film that only gets better with age " . In 2004 , Total Film magazine named it the ninth @-@ greatest British film of all time , making it the only James Bond film to appear on the list . In 2006 , Jay Antani of Filmcritic praised the film 's " impressive staging of action scenes " , while IGN listed it as second @-@ best Bond film ever , behind only Goldfinger . That same year , Entertainment Weekly put the film at ninth among Bond films , criticising the slow pace . When the " James Bond Ultimate Collector 's Set " was released in November 2007 by MGM , Norman Wilner of MSN chose From Russia with Love as the best Bond film . Conversely , in his book about the Bond phenomenon , The Man With the Golden Touch , British author Sinclair McKay states " I know it is heresy to say so , and that some enthusiasts regard From Russia With Love as the Holy Grail of Bond , but let 's be searingly honest – some of it is crashingly dull . " In 2014 Time Out polled several film critics , directors , actors and stunt actors to list their top action films ; From Russia With Love was listed at 69 .
The British Film Institute 's screenonline guide called the film " one of the series ' high points " and said it " had advantages not enjoyed by many later Bond films , notably an intelligent script that retained the substance of Ian Fleming 's novel while toning down the overt Cold War politics ( the Cuban Missile Crisis had only occurred the previous year ) . " In 2008 , Michael G. Wilson , the current co @-@ producer of the series , stated " We always start out trying to make another From Russia with Love and end up with another Thunderball . " Sean Connery , Michael G. Wilson , Barbara Broccoli , Timothy Dalton and Daniel Craig also consider this their favourite Bond film . Albert Broccoli listed it with Goldfinger and The Spy Who Loved Me as one of his top three favourites , explaining that he felt " it was with this film that the Bond style and formula were perfected " .
= = Video game adaptation = =
In 2005 , the From Russia with Love video game was developed by Electronic Arts and released on 1 November 2005 in North America . It follows the storyline of the book and film , albeit adding in new scenes , making it more action @-@ oriented . One of the most significant changes to the story is the replacement of the organisation SPECTRE to OCTOPUS because the name SPECTRE constituted a long @-@ running legal dispute over the film rights to Thunderball between United Artists / MGM and writer Kevin McClory . Most of the cast from the film returned in likeness . Connery not only allowed his 1960s likeness as Bond to be used , but the actor , in his 70s , also recorded the character 's dialogue , marking a return to the role 22 years after he last played Bond in Never Say Never Again . Featuring a third @-@ person multiplayer deathmatch mode , the game depicts several elements of later Bond films such as the Aston Martin DB5 from Goldfinger ( 1964 ) and the rocketbelt from Thunderball ( 1965 ) .
The game was penned by Bruce Feirstein who previously worked on the film scripts for GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , The World Is Not Enough , and the 2004 video game , Everything or Nothing . Its soundtrack was composed by Christopher Lennertz and Vic Flick .
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= Louvre Abu Dhabi =
The Louvre Abu Dhabi is a planned museum , to be located in Abu Dhabi , UAE . On Tuesday 7 March 2007 , the Louvre in Paris announced that a new Louvre museum would be completed by 2012 in Abu Dhabi , with a revised estimate in early 2013 for a completion date of 2015 . These both fell short of the current projection of an opening in late 2016 . This is part of a thirty @-@ year agreement between the city of Abu Dhabi and the French government . The museum is to be located on the Saadiyat Island Cultural District , and will be approximately 24 @,@ 000 square metres ( 260 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in size . The final cost of the construction is expected to be between € 83 million and € 108 million . In addition , US $ 525 million was paid by Abu Dhabi to be associated with the Louvre name , and an additional $ 747 million will be paid in exchange for art loans , special exhibitions and management advice .
Artwork from around the world will be showcased at the museum , with particular focus placed upon bridging the gap between Eastern and Western art . However , the construction of the museum has caused much controversy in the art world , as many objections have been raised as to the motives of the Louvre in this deal .
= = History = =
The establishment of this museum was approved by the French Parliament on 9 October 2007 . The architect for the building will be Jean Nouvel and the engineers are Buro Happold . Jean Nouvel also designed the Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris .
The museum will be part of a US $ 27 billion tourist and cultural development for Saadiyat Island , a complex which is planned to include three other museums , including a Guggenheim Museum and the Zayed National Museum . According to the government sponsored website UAE Interact : " The French Museums Agency will operate in collaboration with the Tourism Development and Investment Company ( TDIC ) , which is behind the transformation of Saadiyat Island . It will be chaired by French financier and member of the country 's Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts , Marc Ladreit de Lacharrière , publisher of the periodical Revue des Deux Mondes . " Bruno Maquart , the former Executive Director of Centre Georges Pompidou , will take the position of Executive Director . "
By choosing the Louvre , the emirate of Abu Dhabi not only sealed a partnership with the world ’ s most visited and well @-@ known museum , but selected one which , from its very inception , had a vocation to reach out to the world , to the essence of mankind , through the contemplation of works of art .
= = Design = =
= = = Location = = =
Saadiyat Island 's Cultural District plans to house the largest single cluster of world @-@ class cultural assets . In addition to the Louvre Abu Dhabi these are intended to include : Zayed National Museum , to be designed by United Kingdom @-@ based architectural company Foster and Partners under the direction of Lord Norman Foster ; the Guggenheim Abu Dhabi contemporary arts museum - the world 's largest Guggenheim and the only museum to be located in the Middle East ; a performing arts centre designed by Zaha Hadid ; a maritime museum with concept design by Tadao Ando and a number of arts pavilions .
= = = Architecture = = =
The museum will be designed as a " seemingly floating dome structure " ; its web @-@ patterned dome allowing the sun to filter through . The overall effect is meant to represent " rays of sunlight passing through date palm fronds in an oasis . " The total area of the museum will be approximately 24 @,@ 000 square metres ( 260 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The permanent collection will occupy 6 @,@ 000 square metres ( 65 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and the temporary exhibitions will take place over 2 @,@ 000 square metres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) ,
= = = Construction = = =
Construction works at Louvre Abu Dhabi officially started on 26 May 2009 . Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan , the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and the President of France , Nicolas Sarkozy inaugurated an exhibition titled , Talking Art : Louvre Abu Dhabi at the Gallery One of the Emirates Palace Hotel which includes 19 works of art bought over the last 18 months for the Louvre Abu Dhabi , as well as loans from the French national museums to mark the beginning of the construction work . Piling works In Louvre were to be completed by August 2010 , with the piling and enabling works package awarded to the German specialized company ( Bauer International FZE ) . The total of 4536 piles consisted of RC Piles and H @-@ Piles and was completed on 3 August 2010 .
On 29 October 2011 , Tourism Development & Investment Company ( TDIC . ) , the project manager owned by the government of Abu Dhabi , announced it would delay establishing the museum . The company gave no new date . According to the UAE newspapers Gulf News and The National , the delay could be explained by a review of the emirate 's economic strategy .
In January 2012 it was confirmed that the Louvre Abu Dhabi 's new opening date would be 2015 .
Construction on the main phase of the museum began in early 2013 by a consortium headed by Arabtec , Constructora San José and Oger Abu Dhabi . This stage includes waterproofing and the two basement levels , along with four concrete pillars that will support the 7 @,@ 000 tonne dome .
Work on the construction of the gallery spaces and initial preparation for the dome began in the fourth quarter of 2013 . On 5 December 2013 , the first element of the museum 's canopy was lifted into place .
On 17 March 2014 TDIC announced the completion of the first permanent gallery structure to mark the first anniversary of the start of construction . At this time , it was claimed that a total of ten million man hours had been worked and 120 @,@ 538 cubic meters of concrete used .
On 22 September , the final super @-@ sized element in the canopy was fitted in place , marking a significant milestone in the museum 's construction phase . In October , The Tourism & Development Investment Company announced that the Louvre Abu Dhabi was more than 50 per cent complete .
= = = Brand and visual identity = = =
The logo and typeface for the Louvre Abu Dhabi was designed by Studio Philippe Apeloig , and is implemented in both Roman and Arabic script . Frutiger typeface was extended to create Frutiger LT to accommodate use across different languages .
Lebanese typographer , Kristyan Sarkis created the Arabic typeface , designed to reflect both the architecture of the building and the heat of the region .
The logo is completed by a broken line of shapes that reflect the shapes of the individual letters in the wordmark . Apeloig says the inspiration for both typeface and logo was the museum ’ s architectural elegance and lightness .
= = Collection = =
Questions have been raised as to the nature of the artworks to be displayed at the museum . However , according to the National : " the type and nature of the exhibits planned for the Louvre Abu Dhabi have been affected to no extent by the fact the new museum would be in a Muslim country , said Mr. Loyrette . "
Subjects and themes have been freely discussed with our partners in Abu Dhabi and no request to avoid such subjects has been made . The exhibition policy will be set up regarding excellence and high @-@ standard quality . As a new museum we hope the Louvre Abu Dhabi will be part of the international community .
It has been noted that the museum will showcase work from multiple French museums , including the Louvre , the Centre Georges Pompidou , the Musée d 'Orsay and Palace of Versailles . However , Donnedieu de Vabres , the French Culture Minister , stated at the announcement that the Paris Louvre " would not sell any of its 35 @,@ 000 @-@ piece collection currently on display " .
It will not be dedicated to occidental art but will show all kinds of artistic creations . It will set up a dialogue between west and east , between north and south . As such , art from the Middle East will be shown within the Louvre Abu Dhabi .
In 2012 , the Louvre Abu Dhabi started collecting photography , making its first acquisitions in the field , including works by Joseph @-@ Philibert Girault de Prangey , Roger Fenton and George Wilson Bridges . The museum also acquired a sculpture of a Bactrian princess dating from the third millennium BC , a pavement and fountain set from the early Ottoman period , as well as the paintings Breton Boys Wrestling ( 1888 ) by Paul Gauguin and The Subjugated Reader ( 1928 ) by René Magritte .
Further details of the museum 's collection on opening were revealed in October 2014 , with a number of important works to be loaned under the agreement with Agence France @-@ Muséums and the Musée du Louvre , including Leonardo Da Vinci 's La Belle Ferronniere and works by Henri Matisse , a self @-@ portrait by Vincent Van Gogh , Jacques @-@ Louis David 's Napoleon Crossing the Alps and Claude Monet 's Gare Saint @-@ Lazare , .
= = Exhibitions = =
The Louvre Abu Dhabi first started sharing its collection with the public through an exhibition entitled " Talking Art : Louvre Abu Dhabi , " which opened in May 2009 . The exhibition presented the first 19 acquisitions for the institution , including a Mamluk holy Koran from the 14th century , a 5th @-@ century Fibula from Domagnano , a Virgin and Child by Bellini , and Mondrian ’ s Composition with blue , red , yellow and black from 1922 .
A second exhibition , Birth of a Museum , opened at the exhibition space Manarat Al Saadiyat in May 2013 , ending in August that year . The first large @-@ scale preview of the collection , it featured 130 works acquired by the government of Abu Dhabi for the permanent collection . They included a never @-@ before seen work by Picasso , a Bronze Age terracotta statue from Cyprus , along with artifacts from Greece , Turkey , Japan and Syria .
In May 2014 , the Birth of a Museum exhibition , featuring works shown in Abu Dhabi and a number of new acquisitions opened at the Louvre in Paris . A number of new works were presented , including Chirisei Kyubiki by the Japanese artist Kazuo Shiraga and painted in 1960 .
= = Other programmes = =
The Louvre Abu Dhabi has also been working with the Paris Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi to set up a master ’ s program for museum professionals to train them and help them respond to local needs .
= = Management = =
= = = Contract = = =
Louvre Abu Dhabi is an entirely separate museum from the Louvre in Paris , although the two are linked by a thirty @-@ year branding and training agreement and the Paris Louvre is one of the 12 shareholders in Agence France @-@ Muséums . The thirty @-@ year agreement , signed by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan , will prompt the construction of a Louvre museum on Saadiyat Island , near central Abu Dhabi , in exchange for US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . The contract prohibits the creation of any similar operation with the name of the Louvre in any of the other emirates of the UAE , Saudi Arabia , Kuwait , Oman , Bahrain , Qatar , Egypt , Jordan , Syria , Lebanon , Iran , or Iraq . French President Jacques Chirac praised the museum deal with Abu Dhabi , saying it reflects " a certain idea of the world " in which each party to the accord , " proud of its roots and of its identity , is conscious of the equal dignity of all cultures . "
= = = Cost = = =
US $ 525 million was paid by Abu Dhabi to be associated with the Louvre name , and an additional $ 747 million in exchange for art loans , special exhibitions and management advice . Arabtec is leading a consortium that is building the museum under a $ 653 million contract awarded early in 2013 .
= = = Cost estimates = = =
US $ 525 million was paid by the city of Abu Dhabi for the use of the Louvre brand name , with US $ 195 million payable within a month . In addition to this , US $ 247 million will be paid for the loan of artworks from the Louvre over a ten @-@ year period , with a total of between two hundred and three hundred artworks expected . The Parisian Louvre will also be providing management advice to its Middle Eastern counterpart , at a cost of US $ 214 @.@ 5 million . An additional US $ 253 @.@ 5 million will be paid for various special exhibitions . A total of four exhibitions will be hosted per year over a period of fifteen years . The city of Abu Dhabi will also make a direct donation of US $ 32 @.@ 5 million to the Louvre to refurbish a wing of the Pavillon de Flore for the display of international art .
= = Controversies = =
The deal has sparked much controversy in both artistic and academic circles . According to Maymanah Farhat , " the controversy that has surfaced in France is led by art historian Didier Rykner , one of the most outspoken critics of the French – Emirati deal . " A petition against the deal , signed by 4 @,@ 650 museum experts , archaeologists and art historians , has insisted that " museums are not for sale . " The Louvre has been accused of behaving " like a corporation with a clearly @-@ defined strategy : profit maximization . " In the words of Didier Rykner :
We have lost a battle , but the combat continues .
= = = Human rights abuse controversies = = =
In April 2011 , over 120 international artists urged a boycott of both the Louvre and Guggenheim museums over concerns regarding the abuse and exploitation of construction workers employed to develop the complex . In December 2013 , The Guardian reported that conditions for the workers at the construction sites amount to modern @-@ day slavery .
= = = Response = = =
According to the New York Times , " Henri Loyrette , the president and director of the Louvre , has responded to growing criticism of the museum ’ s new policy of establishing footholds abroad , arguing that the Louvre cannot ignore the ' internationalization ' of museums . " He had the following to say in the museum 's defence :
It 's a fair fee for the concession of the name . This tutelary role deserves reward . It 's normal .
We 're not selling the French legacy and heritage . We want this culture to radiate to parts of the world that value it . We 're proud that Abu Dhabi wants to bring the Louvre here . We 're not here to transform culture into a consumer product .
Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan , UAE President and Ruler of Abu Dhabi said :
This is a major achievement in Abu Dhabi 's vision to become a world @-@ class destination bridging global cultures . This accord further strengthens international dialogue , which will embrace all cultures . This initiative is a unique milestone in international cooperation and bilateral relations and a tribute to the longstanding and friendly ties our two nations have enjoyed . It also creates an enriching environment to be treasured by and to educate generations to come .
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= Wreck @-@ It Ralph =
Wreck @-@ It Ralph is a 2012 American 3D computer @-@ animated fantasy @-@ comedy film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . It is the 52nd animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series . The film was directed by Rich Moore , who has directed episodes of The Simpsons and Futurama , and the screenplay was written by Phil Johnston and Jennifer Lee from a story by Moore , Johnston and Jim Reardon . John Lasseter served as the executive producer . The film features the voices of John C. Reilly , Sarah Silverman , Jack McBrayer , and Jane Lynch . The film tells the story of the eponymous arcade game villain who rebels against his role and dreams of becoming a hero . He travels between games in the arcade , and ultimately must eliminate a dire threat that could affect the entire arcade , and one that Ralph himself inadvertently started .
Wreck @-@ It Ralph premiered at the El Capitan Theatre on October 29 , 2012 , and went into general release on November 2 . The film has earned $ 471 million in worldwide box office revenue , $ 189 million of which was earned in the United States and Canada ; it was met with critical and commercial success , winning the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature and receiving nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film and the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on March 5 , 2013 .
A sequel titled Wreck @-@ It Ralph 2 is scheduled for release on March 9 , 2018 .
= = Plot = =
When Litwak 's Family Fun Center & Arcade closes at night , the various video @-@ game characters leave their normal in @-@ game roles and are free to travel to other games . Within the game Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr . , the characters celebrate its titular hero but ostracize the game 's villain character , Wreck @-@ It Ralph . At a support group for video @-@ game antagonists , Ralph reveals his desire to stop being the bad guy . Back home , Ralph finds the other characters celebrating their game 's 30th anniversary without inviting him . Felix reluctantly invites Ralph to join them , but the others isolate him . They tell him that if he won a medal , just as Felix does in their game , they would respect him .
At Tapper 's , Ralph learns he can win a medal in the first @-@ person shooter Hero 's Duty . Ralph enters the game and encounters Sergeant Calhoun , its leader . Between game sessions , Ralph climbs the game 's central beacon and collects the medal , accidentally hatching a Cy @-@ Bug , one of the game 's enemies . It clings to Ralph as he stumbles into an escape pod that launches him out of the game . Meanwhile , with Ralph missing , a girl reports to arcade @-@ owner Litwak that Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr. is malfunctioning . Since broken games get unplugged , leaving their characters homeless , Felix searches for Ralph .
Ralph crash @-@ lands in Sugar Rush , a kart @-@ racing game . As he searches for his medal , he meets Vanellope von Schweetz , a glitchy character who takes the medal and uses it to buy entry into a race . King Candy and the other racers refuse to let Vanellope participate , claiming she is not really part of the game . Ralph helps Vanellope build a kart . They are found and chased by King Candy , and he chased them into Vanellope 's home in Diet Cola Mountain , an unfinished racing course , he discovers she has no idea how to drive , so he teaches her , and she learns quickly .
Back in Hero 's Duty , Felix meets Calhoun , who warns that the Cy @-@ Bugs can take over any game they enter . As the pair searches for Ralph and the Cy @-@ Bug in Sugar Rush , they separate when Felix , enamored with Calhoun , inadvertently reminds her of her fiancé , who had been killed by a Cy @-@ Bug in her backstory . Calhoun finds hundreds of Cy @-@ Bug eggs underground , and Felix becomes imprisoned in King Candy 's castle during his search for Ralph .
Desperate , King Candy hacks the game 's code to retrieve Ralph 's medal and offers it to Ralph , explaining that letting Vanellope race would be disastrous for both her and the game . Fearing for Vanellope 's safety , Ralph wrecks the kart and returns to his own game , but finds that everyone has evacuated , expecting the game to be unplugged in the morning . Discovering Vanellope 's image on the Sugar Rush cabinet , Ralph realizes she is an intended part of the game , not a glitch .
Ralph returns to Sugar Rush , finds Felix and Vanellope , and asks Felix to fix the wrecked kart . As the race proceeds , the hatched Cy @-@ Bugs attack and Felix , Calhoun , and Ralph battle them . When Vanellope catches up to King Candy , her glitching reveals that he is actually Turbo , a rogue character from an old game , Turbo Time , who sabotaged a newer game out of jealousy , causing both to be unplugged . Vanellope escapes from Turbo , who is consumed by a Cy @-@ Bug . The group flees the doomed game , but Vanellope finds she cannot pass through the exit . Calhoun says the game cannot be saved without a beacon to attract and kill the Cy @-@ Bugs .
Ralph heads to Diet Cola Mountain , where he plans on collapsing its Mentos stalactites into the cola at the bottom , causing a blinding eruption that would attract the bugs . Before he can finish , Turbo , merged with the Cy @-@ Bug that had consumed him , attacks and carries Ralph away . Ralph breaks free and dives toward the mountain , intending to sacrifice himself to start the eruption on impact . Vanellope in turn uses her glitching abilities to save Ralph . The eruption starts and draws the Cy @-@ Bugs and Turbo to their destruction . Vanellope crosses the finish line , restoring her memory and status as Princess Vanellope , the game 's ruler and lead character , while keeping her advantageous glitching ability . Felix and Ralph return to their game in time for Litwak to see it still works , sparing it from being unplugged . Calhoun and Felix marry , and the characters of Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr. gain a new respect for Ralph .
= = Voice cast = =
John C. Reilly as Wreck @-@ It Ralph , a large hillbilly brute who is the villain of the game Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr .
Sarah Silverman as Vanellope von Schweetz , a racer / glitch in Sugar Rush .
Jack McBrayer as Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr . , a repairman who is the hero of Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr .
Jane Lynch as Sergeant Tamora Jean Calhoun , the lead character of Hero 's Duty .
Alan Tudyk as King Candy , the ruler of Sugar Rush . He is secretly Turbo , the vengeful star racer of TurboTime . King Candy / Turbo 's vocal stylings are based on comedian Ed Wynn , and his physical mannerisms are modeled from Wynn 's Mad Hatter character in Alice in Wonderland .
Mindy Kaling as Taffyta Muttonfudge , a racer in Sugar Rush .
Joe Lo Truglio as Markowski , a soldier from Hero 's Duty that Ralph meets in Tapper .
Ed O 'Neill as Mr. Stan Litwak , owner of Litwak 's Family Fun Center & Arcade .
Dennis Haysbert as General Hologram , a holographic general in Hero 's Duty .
Adam Carolla as Wynnchel , a Long John who is a member of the Sugar Rush police department .
Horatio Sanz as Duncan , a doughnut who is a member of the Sugar Rush police department .
Rich Moore as Sour Bill , King Candy 's sour ball henchman .
The cast also includes the Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr . Nicelanders , Edie McClurg as Mary , Raymond S. Persi as Mayor Gene , Jess Harnell as Don , Rachael Harris as Deanna , and Skylar Astin as Roy ; Katie Lowes as Candlehead , Jamie Elman as Rancis Fluggerbutter , Josie Trinidad as Jubileena Bing @-@ Bing , and Cymbre Walk as Crumbelina DiCaramello , racers in Sugar Rush ; Phil Johnston as Surge Protector , Game Central Station security ; Stefanie Scott as Moppet Girl , a young arcade @-@ game player ; John DiMaggio as Beard Papa , the security guard at the Sugar Rush candy @-@ kart factory ; Raymond Persi as a Zombie , Brian Kesinger as a Cyborg ( based on Kano from Mortal Kombat ) and Martin Jarvis as Saitine , a devil @-@ like villain , who attends the Bad @-@ Anon support group ; Tucker Gilmore as the Sugar Rush Announcer ; Brandon Scott as Kohut , a soldier in Hero 's Duty ; and Tim Mertens as Dr. Brad Scott , a scientist and Sgt. Calhoun 's deceased fiancé in Hero 's Duty ( voiced by Nick Grimshaw in the UK version but not in the UK home release ) .
The film features several cameos from real @-@ world video game characters including : Root Beer Tapper ( Maurice LaMarche ) , the bartender from Tapper ; Sonic the Hedgehog ( Roger Craig Smith ) ; Ryu ( Kyle Hebert ) , Ken Masters ( Reuben Langdon ) , M. Bison ( Gerald C. Rivers ) , and Zangief ( Rich Moore ) from Street Fighter II ; Clyde ( Kevin Deters ) from Pac @-@ Man ; and Yuni Verse ( Jamie Sparer Roberts ) from Dance Dance Revolution .
A character modeled after dubstep musician Skrillex makes an appearance in Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr. as the DJ at the anniversary party of the game .
= = Video game cameos and references = =
In addition to the spoken roles , Wreck @-@ It Ralph contains a number of other video game references , including characters and visual gags . The video game villains at the support meeting , in addition to those mentioned above , include : Bowser from the Mario franchise , Doctor Eggman from Sonic the Hedgehog , and Neff from Altered Beast . Additionally , the game cabinet of the Fix It Felix , Jr. arcade game is stylized to strongly resemble the cabinet of the original Nintendo Donkey Kong arcade game , with Ralph and Felix taking similar poses as Donkey Kong and Mario , respectively . The Hero 's Duty game is a reference to the hugely successful first @-@ person shooter games Halo and Call of Duty . Characters from Q * bert , including Q * bert , Coily , Slick , Sam , and Ugg , are shown as " homeless " characters and later taken in by Ralph and Felix into their game ( Q * bert also speaks to Felix at one point using the signature synthesized gibberish and word @-@ balloon symbols from his game , called Q * bert @-@ ese ) . Scenes in Game Central Station and Tapper 's bar include Chun @-@ Li , Cammy and Blanka from Street Fighter , Pac @-@ Man , Blinky , Pinky , and Inky from Pac @-@ Man , the Paperboy from Paperboy , the two paddles and the ball from Pong , Dig Dug , a Pooka , and a Fygar from Dig Dug , The Qix from Qix , Frogger from Frogger , and Peter Pepper from BurgerTime . Additionally , Lara Croft and Mario are referenced , but not seen .
Additional references are based on sight gags . The residents of Niceland and the bartender from Tapper are animated using a jerky motion that spoofs the limited animation cycles of the sprites of many eight- and sixteen @-@ bit arcade games . King Candy uses the Konami Code on an NES controller to access the programming of Sugar Rush . Throughout Game Central Station is graffiti that includes " Aerith lives " ( referencing the character of Aerith Gainsborough from Final Fantasy VII ) , " All your base are belong to us " ( an Engrish phrase popularized from the game Zero Wing ) , " Sheng Long Was Here " ( referencing an April Fool 's joke around a made @-@ up character Sheng Long from Street Fighter ) , and " Jenkins " ( a nod to the popular Leeroy Jenkins meme from World of Warcraft ) . There is also a reference to the Metal Gear series when Ralph is searching for a medal in Tapper 's Lost and found , finding first a Super Mushroom from the Mario franchise , and then Metal Gear 's " Exclamation point " ( with the corresponding sound effect from the game ) . Mr. Litwak wears a black and white striped referee 's shirt , a nod to the iconic outfit of Twin Galaxies founder Walter Day . One of the songs in the credits is an original work from Buckner and Garcia , previously famous for writing video game @-@ themed songs in the 1980s . The Walt Disney Animation Studios opening logo is animated in an 8 @-@ bit pixelated fashion , whereas the Walt Disney Pictures closing production logo appears in a glitched state , a reference to the kill screen from many early arcade games such as Pac @-@ Man .
= = Production = =
The concept of Wreck @-@ It Ralph was first developed at Disney in the late 1980s , under the working title High Score . Since then , it was redeveloped and reconsidered several times : In the late 1990s , it took on the working title Joe Jump , then in the mid @-@ 2000s as Reboot Ralph .
John Lasseter , the head of Walt Disney Animation Studios and executive producer of the film , describes Wreck @-@ It Ralph as " an 8 @-@ bit video @-@ game bad guy who travels the length of the arcade to prove that he 's a good guy . " In a manner similar to Who Framed Roger Rabbit and the Toy Story films , Wreck @-@ It Ralph featured cameo appearances by a number of licensed video @-@ game characters . For example , one scene from the film shows Ralph attending a support group for the arcade 's various villain characters , including Clyde from Pac @-@ Man , Doctor Eggman from Sonic the Hedgehog , and Bowser from Super Mario Bros. Rich Moore , the film 's director , had determined that for a film about a video @-@ game world to feel authentic , " it had to have real characters from real games in it . " Moore aimed to add licensed characters in a similar manner as cultural references in Looney Tunes shorts , but considered " having the right balance so a portion of the audience didn 't feel they were being neglected or talked down to . " However , Moore avoided creating the movie around existing characters , feeling that " there 's so much mythology and baggage attached to pre @-@ existing titles that I feel someone would be disappointed , " and considered this to be a reason why movies based on video game franchises typically fail . Instead , for Ralph , the development of new characters representative of the 8 @-@ bit video game was " almost like virgin snow , " giving them the freedom to take these characters in new directions .
Before production , the existing characters were added to the story either in places they would make sense to appear , or as cameos from a list of characters suggested by the film 's creative team , without consideration if they would legally be able to use the characters . The company then sought out the copyright holders ' permissions to use the characters , as well as working with these companies to assure their characters were being represented authentically . In the case of Nintendo , the writers had early on envisioned the Bad @-@ anon meeting with Bowser as a major character within the scene ; according to Moore , Nintendo was very positive towards this use , stating in Moore 's own words , " If there is a group that is dedicated to helping the bad guy characters in video games then Bowser must be in that group ! " Nintendo had asked that the producers try to devise a scene that would be similarly appropriate for Mario for his inclusion in the film . Despite knowing they would be able to use the character , the producers could not find an appropriate scene that would let Mario be a significant character without taking away the spotlight from the main story , and opted to not include the character . Moore debunked a rumor that Mario and his brother character Luigi were not included due to Nintendo requesting too high a licensing fee , stating that the rumor grew out of a joke John C. Reilly made at Comic @-@ Con. Dr. Wily from Mega Man was going to appear , but was cut from the final version of the film . Overall , there are about 188 individual character models in the movie as a result of these cameo inclusions .
An earlier draft of the screenplay had Ralph and Vanellope spending time going around the game world to collect the pieces for her kart for Sugar Rush , and at times included Felix traveling with the pair . During these scenes , Ralph would have lied to Felix regarding his budding relationship with Calhoun , leading eventually to Ralph becoming depressed and abandoning his quest to get his medal back . At this point , a fourth game world , Extreme Easy Living 2 , would have been introduced and was considered a " hedonistic place " between the social nature of The Sims and the open @-@ world objective @-@ less aspects of Grand Theft Auto , according to Moore . Ralph would go there to , wallowing in his depression , and would find happiness by gaining " Like It " buttons for doing acceptable actions in the party @-@ like nature of the place . Moore stated that while it was difficult to consider dropping this new game world , they found that its introduction in the second half of the film would be too difficult a concept for the viewer to grasp . They further had trouble working out how a social game would be part of an arcade , and though they considered having the game be running on Litwak 's laptop , they ultimately realized that justifying the concept would be too convoluted . Line art sketches and voice over readings of the scene were included on the home media release of the film .
The film introduced Disney 's new bidirectional reflectance distribution functions , with more realistic reflections on surfaces , and new virtual cinematography Camera Capture system , which makes it possible to go through scenes in real @-@ time . To research the Sugar Rush segment of the film , the visual development group traveled to trade fair ISM Cologne , a See 's Candy factory , and other manufacturing facilities . The group also brought in food photographers , to demonstrate techniques to make food appear appealing . Special effects , including from " smoke or dust , " looks distinct in each of the segments .
= = Release = =
The film was originally scheduled for a release on March 22 , 2013 , but it was later changed to November 2 , 2012 due to it being ahead of schedule . The theatrical release was accompanied by Disney 's animated short film , Paperman .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first trailer for Wreck @-@ It Ralph was released on June 6 , 2012 , debuting with Madagascar 3 : Europe 's Most Wanted and Rock of Ages . This also coincided with the 2012 Electronic Entertainment Expo , for which Disney constructed a mock aged arcade cabinet for the fictional Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr. game on display on the show floor . Disney also released a browser @-@ based Flash @-@ based version of the Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr. game as well as iOS , Android and Windows Phone versions , with online Unity @-@ based versions of Sugar Rush and Hero 's Duty . A second trailer for the film was released on Sep 12 , 2012 , coinciding with Finding Nemo 3D and Frankenweenie .
To promote the home media release of Wreck @-@ It Ralph , director Rich Moore produced a short film titled Garlan Hulse : Where Potential Lives . Set within the movie 's universe , the mockumentary film was designed as a parody of The King of Kong .
= = = Home media = = =
Wreck @-@ It Ralph was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc ( 2D and 3D ) and DVD in North America on March 5 , 2013 from Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment . The film was made available for digital download in selected regions on Feb 12 , 2013 . Wreck @-@ It Ralph debuted at # 1 in Blu @-@ ray and DVD sales in the United States .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Wreck @-@ It Ralph grossed $ 189 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 281 @.@ 8 million in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 471 @.@ 2 million . It was the 14th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2012 , and the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing 2012 animated film .
In North America , the film debuted with $ 13 @.@ 5 million , an above @-@ average opening @-@ day gross for an animated film released in November . During its opening weekend , the film topped the box office with $ 49 million , making it the largest opening for a Walt Disney Animation Studios film at the time .
Outside North America , Wreck @-@ It Ralph earned $ 12 million on its opening weekend from six markets . Among all markets , its three largest openings were recorded in the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 7 @.@ 15 million ) , Brazil ( $ 5 @.@ 32 million with weekday previews ) , and Russia and the CIS ( $ 5 @.@ 27 million ) . In total grosses , the three largest markets were the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 36 @.@ 2 million ) , Japan ( $ 29 @.@ 6 million ) , and Australia ( $ 24 @.@ 0 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review @-@ aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 87 % of critics have given the film a positive review , based on 171 reviews with an average score of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads : " Equally entertaining for both kids and parents old enough to catch the references , Wreck @-@ It Ralph is a clever , colorful adventure built on familiar themes and joyful nostalgia . " At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 72 out of 100 , based on 36 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . The film earned an " A " from audiences polled by CinemaScore .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote , " More than in most animated films , the art design and color palette of Wreck @-@ It Ralph permit unlimited sets , costumes and rules , giving the movie tireless originality and different behavior in every different cyber world . " A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote , " The movie invites a measure of cynicism – which it proceeds to obliterate with a 93 @-@ minute blast of color , noise , ingenuity and fun . " Peter Debruge of Variety stated , " With plenty to appeal to boys and girls , old and young , Walt Disney Animation Studios has a high @-@ scoring hit on its hands in this brilliantly conceived , gorgeously executed toon , earning bonus points for backing nostalgia with genuine emotion . " Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times said , " The movie 's subversive sensibility and old @-@ school / new @-@ school feel are a total kick , " while Justin Lowe of The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " With a mix of retro eye @-@ candy for grown @-@ ups and a thrilling , approachable storyline for the tykes , the film casts a wide and beguiling net . " Conversely , Christopher Orr of The Atlantic found it " overplotted and underdeveloped . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's score was composed by Henry Jackman . The soundtrack also features original songs by Owl City , AKB48 , Skrillex , and Buckner & Garcia . Early in the development process , Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez wrote an original song for the film ; it was later cut out .
All music composed by Henry Jackman ( except 1 – 6 ) .
= = Video games = =
In addition to the Flash version of the Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr. game , Disney released a tie @-@ in side @-@ scrolling platform game called Wreck @-@ It Ralph for the Wii , Nintendo 3DS , and Nintendo DS , to mostly negative reviews . The arcade style side @-@ scrolling game was produced in collaboration between Disney Interactive and Activision and serves as a " story extension " to the film . Taking place following the events of the film , players may play as Wreck @-@ It Ralph or Fix @-@ It Felix , causing or repairing damage , respectively , following another Cy @-@ Bug incident . Game levels are based on the locations in the film like the Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr . , Hero 's Duty , and Sugar Rush games as well as Game Central Station . It was released in conjunction with the film 's release , in November 2012 .
In October 2012 , Disney released fully playable browser @-@ based versions of the Hero 's Duty and Sugar Rush games on the new official film site . A mobile game titled Wreck @-@ it Ralph was released in November 2012 for iOS and Android systems , with a Windows Phone 8 version following almost a year later . Initially , the game consisted of three mini @-@ games , Fix @-@ it Felix Jr . , Hero 's Duty and Sweet Climber , which were later joined by Turbo Time and Hero 's Duty : Flight Command . The game was retired on August 29 , 2014 .
Ralph also appears in Sega 's Sonic & All @-@ Stars Racing Transformed as a playable guest character . Ralph and Vanellope appear as playable characters in Disney Infinity as well ( voiced by Brian T. Delaney and Silverman , respectively ) ; the Disney Store released their individual figures on January 7 , 2014 . A combo " toy box pack " of the two figures with Sugar Rush customization discs was released April 1 , 2014 from the Disney Store .
= = Sequel = =
In an interview on October 25 , 2012 , director Rich Moore said that he and Disney have ideas about a sequel that would bring the characters up to date and explore online gaming and console gaming . Moore stated that many of the crew and voice cast are open to the sequel , believing that they have " barely scratched the surface " of the video game world they envisioned . He also stated that he plans to include Mario and Tron in the sequel . In a 2014 interview , the film 's composer Henry Jackman said that a story for the sequel is being written . In July 2015 , John C. Reilly said he had signed on to reprise his role of Ralph in a projected sequel .
On March 24 , 2016 , Rich Moore stated that a sequel is still being planned . Moore also hopes to specifically include an appearance from Mario , citing a " good relationship with Nintendo " . On June 30 , 2016 , Walt Disney Animation Studios announced that a sequel would be released on March 9 , 2018 , with Reilly , Moore and writer Phil Johnston attached , and that it would focus on " Ralph leaving the arcade and wrecking the Internet " . Official concept art was also released .
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= Hurricane Sandra ( 2015 ) =
Hurricane Sandra in 2015 was the latest @-@ forming major hurricane in the Northeastern Pacific basin on record . Originating from a tropical wave , Sandra was first classified as a tropical depression on November 23 well south of Mexico . Environmental conditions , including high sea surface temperatures and low wind shear , were highly conducive to intensification and the storm quickly organized . A small central dense overcast developed atop the storm and Sandra reached hurricane status early on November 25 after the consolidation of an eye . The hurricane achieved its peak as a Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 58 inHg ) early on November 26 . This made Sandra the strongest November hurricane on record in the Northeastern Pacific . Thereafter , increasing shear degraded the hurricane 's structure and weakening ensued . Rapid weakening took place on November 27 and Sandra 's circulation became devoid of convection as it diminished to a tropical storm that evening . The cyclone degenerated into a remnant low soon thereafter and ultimately dissipated just off the coast of Sinaloa , Mexico , on November 29 .
As the precursor to Sandra traversed Central America , it produced unseasonably heavy rainfall that triggered flooding and landslides . Four people died in various incidents related to the system : three in El Salvador and one in Honduras . Initially expecting a landfalling storm , officials in Northwestern Mexico prepared equipment for power outages , closed schools , and evacuated 180 residents . Sandra 's effects largely consisted of light to moderate rainfall ; some traffic accidents and landslides resulted from this , though the overall impacts were limited .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 6 , 2015 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa over the Atlantic Ocean . Only sporadic convection — shower and thunderstorm activity — accompanied the system as it traveled west for the next ten days . As it reached the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 17 , westerly winds associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone spurred the development of an area of low pressure and extensive convection . Forecasters at the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted potential for the system to develop into a tropical cyclone ; however , persistent wind shear inhibited this system from consolidating before it reached Central America . The system emerged over the Pacific Ocean near Nicaragua on November 21 ; once back over water , convection blossomed near the low 's center . Convection remained largely disorganized over the following two days as the system progressed westward in response to a subtropical ridge to the north .
A Tehuantepec gap wind event in conjunction with horizontal wind shear spurred development of a vortex within the disturbance and a well @-@ defined low formed by 12 : 00 UTC on November 23 . Six hours later the low acquired sufficient convective organization , including elongated banding features ot the north , to be classified Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Two @-@ E. At this time , the depression was situated 435 mi ( 705 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . Aided by high sea surface temperatures of 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) , ample ocean heat content and low wind shear , the small system quickly intensified into a tropical storm — at which time the NHC assigned it the name Sandra — and developed a central dense overcast . A prominent banding feature with cloud tops below − 112 ° F ( − 80 ° C ) and frequent lightning formed north of the circulation on November 24 . By 18 : 00 UTC , a 23 to 29 mi ( 37 to 47 km ) wide eye became apparent , signaling the onset of rapid intensification .
Throughout November 25 , Sandra dramatically strengthened as deep convection blossomed around a tightening and clearing eye . The system achieved hurricane status by 06 : 00 UTC and major hurricane status — Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale — by 00 : 00 UTC on November 26 . Prominent outflow became established atop the cyclone and further aided the intensification . Throughout the strengthening phase , a mid- to upper @-@ level trough near the west coast of North America created a weakness in the subtropical ridge , prompting Sandra to turn north around the western edge of the high . Sandra reached its peak intensity as a high @-@ end Category 4 hurricane around 06 : 00 UTC on November 26 with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 58 inHg ) . By this time , the hurricane 's eye shrunk to less than 6 mi ( 10 km ) in diameter . Within hours , however , increasing wind shear began to impact the circulation and caused convection to become asymmetric . Concurrently , the system started a turn northeast toward mainland Mexico as it rounded the ridge .
Steadily increasing wind shear gradually unraveled Sandra during the latter part of November 26 and into November 27 . The storm 's outflow , though prominent to the north , became restricted on the southern side . Sandra briefly regained organization around 00 : 00 UTC on November 27 , with its eye becoming redefined ; however , persistent shear prevailed and the system weakened below major hurricane status by 06 : 00 UTC . The hurricane rapidly deteriorated throughout November 27 as convection became displaced to the northeast of the circulation . The low @-@ level circulation soon decoupled from the mid- to upper @-@ level circulations and Sandra degraded to a tropical storm by 00 : 00 UTC on November 28 . The convectively devoid low @-@ level circulation abruptly turned northwest in response to a shallow ridge . Failing to redevelop convection atop its center , Sandra degenerated into a remnant low by 06 : 00 UTC . Sustained winds dropped below gale @-@ force by 18 : 00 UTC . Intense thunderstorm activity did blossom to the northeast of the center late on November 28 , prompting the storm to resume a northeasterly course . The cyclone eventually succumbed to strong shear and opened up into a trough roughly 60 mi ( 95 km ) southwest of Culiacán , Mexico , late on November 29 .
= = = Records = = =
Reaching tropical storm status on November 24 , Sandra was the fourth @-@ latest forming tropical storm in the Northeastern Pacific basin since reliable records began . Upon becoming a hurricane at 06 : 00 UTC on November 25 , Sandra was the second @-@ latest such storm on record in the Northeastern Pacific ; only Hurricane Winnie of 1983 — the only December hurricane on record in the basin — formed later . This also marked the record @-@ tying 16th hurricane to form in the Pacific north of the equator and east of the International Dateline ; this record is shared with 1990 , 1992 , and 2014 . When it further became a major hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on November 26 , Sandra was the latest @-@ forming such storm in the Northeastern Pacific basin on record . It surpassed the previous record set by Hurricane Kenneth in 2011 by nearly four days . Sandra was also the ninth major hurricane in the Northeastern Pacific proper and the eleventh east of the dateline , both setting a record for the most in a single season . Sandra 's peak intensity with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 58 inHg ) ranked it as the strongest November hurricane on record in the Northeastern Pacific , surpassing Hurricane Kenneth 's 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and 940 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) . On a global scale , Sandra was the 30th major hurricane and " record @-@ shattering " 25th Category 4 or 5 storm of 2015 ; the previous records were 23 and 18 , respectively , occurring in both 1997 and 2004 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The precursor to Sandra produced unseasonably heavy rains across parts of Central America , leading to flooding . In Nicaragua , flooding affected 55 homes and destroyed 1 , primarily in Managua . A total of 56 families required evacuation . Local officials blamed the flooding on trash @-@ clogged drains . Five people were injured in the Nueva Segovia Department when an ambulance crashed on a foggy , rain @-@ slicked road . A landslide in Cucuyagua , Honduras , destroyed a home killing a 25 @-@ day @-@ old baby and injuring four others . In Nueva Esparta , El Salvador , two people drowned after being swept away by the swollen El Amatal River . Flooding in Ozatlán killed one person and inundated homes in Jiquilisco , prompting the evacuation of 14 families .
Moisture from Sandra streamed northward into the Southern Plains and Lower Mississippi River Valley and contributed to widespread rainfall and flooding . Heavy rains affected portions of Texas , Oklahoma , Arkansas , Mississippi , and Tennessee . The Dallas – Fort Worth metroplex received 3 @.@ 45 in ( 88 mm ) of rain on November 27 , their wettest November day on record ; this total contributed to breaking the city 's wettest @-@ year on record .
= = = Mexico = = =
On November 26 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for Baja California Sur between Todos los Santos and Los Barriles ; this was discontinued less than 24 hours later . The State Council of Civil Protection of Baja California Sur opened four shelters in both Cabo San Lucas and San José del Cabo ; school officials cancelled classes for November 27 . In La Paz , the Federal Electricity Commission deployed 96 trucks to handle potential power outages . On November 27 , a tropical storm warning was raised for mainland Mexico between Altata and San Blas as well as the Islas Marías ; the warning was discontinued the following day as Sandra rapidly dissipated . Alerts were raised across portions of Sinaloa and Nayarit in advance of the hurricane . The port of Mazatlán suspended operations on November 28 and public shelters were opened in the city . Water pumps , generators , and relief crews were mobilized at the port . About 180 people from the small community of Boca Camichin , Nayarit , evacuated inland . The storm also prompted delay of the annual Maratón Pacífico .
On November 27 , Sandra produced wind gusts up to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) on Socorro Island as the storm moved 115 mi ( 185 km ) southeast of the island . Effects from Sandra were minor and limited due to its dissipation offshore ; rainfall was limited to 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) in most areas and largely considered beneficial . In contrast to predictions of 3 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ( 75 to 150 mm ) of rain across Baja California Sur , only 0 @.@ 71 in ( 18 mm ) fell in San José del Cabo while other areas of the Los Cabos Municipality received a trace to no accumulation . Wet roads in Cabo San Lucas resulted in two accidents that left three people injured . In Chihuahua , minor landslides damaged roads .
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= Lesser Antillean macaw =
The Lesser Antillean macaw or Guadeloupe macaw ( Ara guadeloupensis ) is a hypothetical extinct species of macaw that is thought to have been endemic to the Lesser Antillean island region of Guadeloupe . In spite of the absence of conserved specimens , many details about the Lesser Antillean macaw are known from several contemporary accounts , and the bird is the subject of some illustrations . Austin Hobart Clark described the species on the basis of these accounts in 1905 . Due to the lack of physical remains , and the possibility that sightings were of macaws from the South American mainland , doubts have been raised about the existence of this species . A phalanx bone from the island of Marie @-@ Galante confirmed the existence of a similar @-@ sized macaw inhabiting the region prior to the arrival of humans , and was correlated with the Lesser Antillean macaw in 2015 . Later that year , historical sources distinguishing between the red macaws of Guadeloupe and the scarlet macaw ( A. macao ) of the mainland were identified , further supporting its validity .
According to contemporary descriptions , the body of the Lesser Antillean macaw was red and the wings were red , blue and yellow . The tail feathers were between 38 and 51 cm ( 15 and 20 in ) long . Apart from the smaller size and the all @-@ red coloration of the tail feathers , it resembled the scarlet macaw and may therefore have been a close relative of that species . The bird ate fruit – including the poisonous manchineel , was monogamous , nested in trees and laid two eggs once or twice a year . Early writers described it as being abundant in Guadeloupe , but it was becoming rare by 1760 , and only survived in uninhabited areas . Disease and hunting by humans are thought to have eradicated it shortly afterwards . The Lesser Antillean macaw is one of 13 extinct macaw species that have been proposed to have lived in the Caribbean islands . Many of these species are now considered dubious because only three are known from physical remains , and there are no extant endemic macaws on the islands today .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Lesser Antillean macaw is well @-@ documented compared to most other extinct Caribbean macaws , since it was mentioned and described by several contemporary writers . Parrots thought to be the Lesser Antillean macaw were first mentioned by the Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in 1553 , referring to a 1496 account by the Spanish bibliographer Ferdinand Columbus , who mentioned chicken @-@ sized parrots — which the Island Caribs called " Guacamayas " — in Guadeloupe . In 1774 , the French naturalist Comte de Buffon stated that the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus had found macaws in Guadeloupe . The French botanist Jean @-@ Baptiste Du Tertre gave the first detailed descriptions in 1654 and 1676 , and illustrated the bird and other animals found in Guadeloupe . The French clergyman Jean @-@ Baptiste Labat also described the bird in 1742 . Writers such as George Edwards and John Latham also mentioned the presence of red and blue macaws on the islands off America .
The American zoologist Austin Hobart Clark gave the Lesser Antillean macaw its scientific name , Ara guadeloupensis , in 1905 , based on the contemporary accounts , and he also cited a 1765 color plate as possibly depicting this species . He wrote that it was different in several ways from the superficially similar scarlet macaw ( A. macao ) , as well as the green @-@ winged macaw ( A. chloropterus ) and the Cuban macaw ( A. tricolor ) . Clark suggested the species might have existed on the islands of Dominica and Martinique , based on accounts of red macaws there , as well as on Guadeloupe . In his 1907 book Extinct Birds , the British zoologist Walter Rothschild instead claimed each island had its own species , and that the Lesser Antillean macaw was confined to Guadeloupe . In 1967 , the American ornithologist James Greenway wrote that the macaws reported from Guadeloupe could have been imported to the region from elsewhere by the native population , but this is difficult to prove . Greenway also suggested that the scarlet macaw and the Cuban macaw formed a superspecies with the Lesser Antillean macaw and other hypothetical extinct species suggested for Jamaica and Hispaniola . According to the English paleontologist Julian Hume , the similarity between the Lesser Antillean macaw and the scarlet macaw indicates that they were close relatives , and that the Guadeloupe species may have descended from the mainland macaw .
A small parrot ulna found on the Folle Anse archaeological site on Marie @-@ Galante , an island in the Guadeloupe region , was assigned to the Lesser Antillean macaw by the ornithologists Matthew Williams and David Steadman in 2001 . In 2008 , the ornithologists Storrs Olson and Edgar Maíz López cast doubt upon this identification , and proposed that the bone instead belonged to the extant imperial amazon ( Amazona imperialis ) . The size and robustness of the bone was similar to ulnae of the imperial amazon , and though it was worn , the authors identified what appeared to be a notch , which is also present on ulnae of the genus Amazona , but not in the genus Ara . Subfossil remains from the island of Montserrat have also been suggested to belong to the Lesser Antillean macaw . The species was recognized by Birdlife International and the IUCN Red List until 2013 , but was not considered valid thereafter .
In 2015 , a terminal phalanx bone ( ungual claw bone ) attributable to the genus Ara from south @-@ western Marie @-@ Galante was described by ecologists Monica Gala and Arnaud Lenoble . It was discovered in the Blanchard Cave during excavations in 2013 @-@ 2014 , in a fossil @-@ bearing deposit dating to the late Pleistocene epoch . The deposit was radiocarbon dated to about 10 @,@ 690 years ago ; the earliest evidence of human settlement in the area has been dated to 5 @,@ 300 years ago . This confirmed that the Guadeloupe region once had an endemic macaw which could not have been brought there by humans . All other macaw bones from the Lesser Antillean islands have been recovered from archaeological sites , and could therefore have been the remains of birds brought there by Amerindians . The size of the phalanx bone matched what was described for the Lesser Antillean macaw by contemporary writers , and the authors therefore correlated the two . They conceded that this connection could only be tentative , as there were no remains of the Lesser Antillean macaw to compare with .
Later in 2015 , Lenoble reviewed overlooked historical Spanish and French sources , finding references to mainly red macaws consistent with the Lesser Antillean macaw . The writings of the French missionary Raymond Breton ( on Guadeloupe from 1635 to 1654 ) were especially illuminating , as they showed that both he and the native Island Caribs clearly distinguished between the red macaws of Guadeloupe and the scarlet macaws from the mainland , which supports the idea that the Lesser Antillean macaw represents an independent species . As the Lesser Antillean Carib language had different words reserved for men and women , Breton gave the name of the bird as Kínoulou ( ♂ ) and Caarou ( ♀ ) . Lenoble furthermore concluded that the supposed violet macaw ( named Anodorhynchus purpurascens based on accounts of blue parrots from Guadeloupe ) was based on misidentified references to the also @-@ extinct Guadeloupe amazon ( Amazona violacea ) , and therefore never existed .
As many as 13 now @-@ extinct species of macaw have variously been suggested to have lived on the Caribbean islands , but many of these were based on old descriptions or drawings and only represent hypothetical species . In addition to the Lesser Antillean macaw , only two endemic Caribbean macaw species are known from physical remains ; the Cuban macaw is known from 19 museum skins and subfossils , and the Saint Croix macaw ( A. autochthones ) is known only from subfossils . Macaws are known to have been transported between the Caribbean islands and from mainland South America to the Caribbean both in historic times by Europeans and native peoples , and in prehistoric times by Paleoamericans . Parrots were important in the culture of native Caribbeans , and were among the gifts offered to Christopher Columbus when he reached the Bahamas in 1492 . Historical records of macaws on these islands , therefore , may not have represented distinct , endemic species ; it is also possible that these macaws were escaped or feral birds that had been transported to the islands from elsewhere . All the endemic Caribbean macaws were likely driven to extinction by humans in historic and prehistoric times . The identity and distribution of indigenous macaws in the Caribbean is only likely to be further resolved through paleontological discoveries and examination of contemporary reports and artwork .
= = Description = =
The Lesser Antillean macaw was described as having similar coloration to the scarlet macaw , but with shorter tail feathers between 38 and 51 cm ( 15 and 20 in ) long . In contrast , the tail feathers of the scarlet macaw are 61 cm ( 2 ft ) long and have blue tips , and the outer feathers are almost entirely blue . In spite of the tail feathers being shorter , it is not certain whether the Lesser Antillean macaw was smaller than the scarlet macaw overall , as the relative proportions of body parts vary between macaw species . The tail feathers were longer than those of the Cuban macaw , which were 30 cm ( 12 in ) long . The morphology of the fossil phalanx bone from Marie @-@ Galante was most similar to the second or third ungual of the scarlet macaw , though the bone is slightly smaller at 15 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 60 in ) compared to 15 – 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 67 in ) .
Du Tertre described the Lesser Antillean macaw as follows in 1654 :
The Macaw is the largest of all the parrot tribe ; for although the parrots of Guadeloupe are larger than all other parrots , both of the islands and of the main land , the Macaws are a third larger than they ... The head , neck , underparts , and back are flame color . The wings are a mixture of yellow , azure , and scarlet . The tail is wholly red , and a foot and a half long .
Though Clark converted Du Tertre 's tail measurement to 18 in ( 45 @.@ 7 cm ) , Lenoble pointed out that a 17th @-@ century French foot unit was slightly larger than the English equivalent , and the measurement should rather be converted to 19 @.@ 3 in ( 49 cm ) , indicating a smaller size difference between the Lesser Antillean macaw and the scarlet macaw .
In 1742 , Labat described the macaw in much the same way as Du Tertre , while adding several details :
It is the size of a full grown fowl . The feathers of the head , neck , back and underparts are flame color ; the wings are of a mixture of blue , yellow and red ; the tail , which is from fifteen to twenty inches in length is wholly red . The head and the beak are very large , and it walks gravely ; it talks very well , if it is taught when young ; its voice is strong and distinct ; it is amiable and kind , and allows itself to be caressed ...
Both authors wrote that the macaws were the largest parrots of Guadeloupe , and stressed that the parrots of each Caribbean island were distinct , and could be differentiated both based on their morphology and their vocalizations . According to Hume , this means that the birds described could not simply have been escaped South American macaws . Furthermore , the docile and amiable nature described by Du Tertre and Labat does not match the behavior of South American macaws .
Breton 's mid @-@ 1600s accounts of the macaw confirmed it as distinct from mainland scarlet macaws :
Macaws are larger than parrots , with a very beautiful red plumage mixed with purple in the tail and wings ... Macaws found on islands are called Kínoulou , f . Caarou . Coyáli is found on the continent , and is redder and more elegant than the island variety .
Apart from Du Tertre 's crude 1667 drawing and Labat 's 1722 derivative , a few contemporary paintings depict red macaws that may be the Lesser Antillean macaw . A color plate accompanying a 1765 volume of Buffon 's encyclopaedia Histoire Naturelle ( no . 12 in Planches Enluminées , entitled L 'Ara Rouge ) shows a red macaw with entirely red tail feathers and more red on the tertial and scapular feathers of the wing than are present on the scarlet macaw . Copies of the plate differ in the nuances used , but are identical in pattern . The painting suggests that a specimen may have been present in Europe at the time . The Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus cited the plate in his 1766 description of the scarlet macaw , but his description does not match the bird shown . A 1626 painting by the Dutch artist Roelant Savery , which also includes a dodo , shows a red macaw that agrees with the descriptions of the Lesser Antillean macaw . A second macaw in the painting may be the hypothetical extinct Martinique macaw ( A. martinicus ) , but though many parrots were imported into Europe at the time from all over the world , it is impossible to determine the accuracy of such paintings today .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Du Tertre gave a detailed account of the behavior of the Lesser Antillean macaw in 1654 :
This bird lives on berries , and on the fruit of certain trees , but principally on the apples of the manchioneel ( ! ) , which is a powerful and caustic poison to other animals . It is the prettiest sight in the world to see ten or a dozen Macaws in a green tree . Their voice is loud and piercing , and they always cry when flying . If one imitates their cry , they stop short . They have a grave and dignified demeanor , and so far from being alarmed by many shots fired under a tree where they are perched , they gaze at their companions who fall dead to the ground without being disturbed at all , so that one may fire five or six times into the same tree without their appearing to be frightened .
In a 1667 work , Du Tertre gave a similar account , and added that the macaw only ate the poisonous manchineel ( Hippomane mancinella ) fruits in times of necessity . He also described the monogamous reproductive behavior of the bird :
The male and the female are inseparable companions and it is rare that one is seen singly . When they wish to breed ( which they do once or twice a year ) they make a hole with their beaks in the stump of a large tree , and construct a nest with feathers from their own bodies . They lay two eggs , the size of those of a partridge ( Perdix cinerea ) . The others of the parrot kind make their nests in the same way , but lay green eggs ... The Macaws are much larger than the large parrots of Guadeloupe or Grenada , and live longer than a man ; but they are almost all subject to a falling sickness .
The twice @-@ yearly breeding mentioned by Du Tertre may have actually been staggered breeding , which is practiced by some tropical birds .
Though Clark suggested that the Lesser Antillean macaw also occurred on Dominica and Martinique , there is no evidence for this . Instead , it probably existed on other islands close to Guadeloupe . The fossil phalanx bone from Marie @-@ Galante was deposited in a time when that island and the rest of the Guadeloupe archipelago were closer together than they are today due to lower sea @-@ levels . The areas were separated by three channels , the largest of which was 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) wide . This would not have been a hindrance to flying animals , and the macaws of the Guadeloupe islands would probably have been a single population during the Pleistocene .
= = Extinction = =
In 1534 , German historian Johann Huttich wrote that the forests of Guadeloupe were full of red macaws , which were apparently as abundant as grasshoppers , and the native people of the region cooked its flesh together with that of humans and of other birds . In 1654 , Du Tertre stated that the flesh was tough to eat , and that some considered it unpalatable and even poisonous . He wrote that he and the other inhabitants often consumed it , and that he experienced no ill @-@ effects from it . He also stated that the native people wore the feathers decoratively on their heads and as moustaches through the septum of the nose . He described how it was hunted by the native population :
The natives make use of a stratagem to take them alive ; they watch for a chance to find them on the ground , eating the fruit which has fallen from the trees , when they approach quietly under cover of the trees , then all at once run forward , clapping their hands and filling the air with cries capable not only of astounding the birds , but of terrifying the boldest . Then the poor birds , surprised and distracted , as if struck with thunderbolt , lose the use of their wings , and , making a virtue of necessity , throw themselves on their backs and assume the defensive with the weapons nature has given them – their beaks and claws – with which they defend themselves so bravely that not one of the natives dares to put his hand on them . One of the natives brings a big stick which he lays across the belly of the bird , who seizes it with beak and claws ; but while he is occupied in biting it , the native ties him so adroitly to the stick that he can do with him anything he wishes ...
Since Du Tertre wrote that the macaws were prone to sickness , an outbreak of a disease , along with hunting , may have contributed to its demise . In 1760 , the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson quoted a letter by French writer M. de la Borde , which stated that macaws had become very rare in the Antillean islands because they were hunted for food . By then they could only be found in areas not frequented by humans , and were probably extinct soon afterwards . Parrots are often among the first species to be exterminated from a given locality , especially islands .
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= A.A.R.M. =
" A.A.R.M. " is the collective name for the twenty @-@ second and twenty @-@ third episodes of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office , as well as the 198th and 199th episode overall . It was also the series ' penultimate entry , airing a week before the series finale . It originally aired on NBC on May 9 , 2013 . This episode guest stars Nora Kirkpatrick , Aaron Rodgers , Clay Aiken , Mark McGrath , Santigold , Jessica St. Clair , and Rachel Crow .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) convinces Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) that he needs to choose someone to act as an Assistant to the Assistant to the Regional Manager ( A.A.R.M. ) ; the two subsequently hold tryouts for the position . Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) is forced to bring her son , Phillip , to work , and Dwight thinks that he may be his son . Pam Halpert 's ( Jenna Fischer ) final fears about her husband 's love are settled . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) attempts to get on " The Next Great A Cappella Sensation " , but is not able to audition . Finally , all the members of the office gather at Poor Richard 's Pub and watch the airing of the official in @-@ series documentary .
" A.A.R.M. " features a dramatic scene in which Jim presents a DVD of the highlights of his relationship with Pam , topped with him finally presenting her with a card he wrote in the second season episode " Christmas Party " . The idea to have Jim finally give Pam his card had been considered in the writers ' room for some time , but only during " A.A.R.M. " did the writers feel it was the right time . In addition , the episode contained several scenes that were purposely staged to be reminiscent of past episodes of the series , with scenes mimicking unique shots in both the third season installment " Gay Witch Hunt " and the sixth season episode " The Delivery " .
The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 56 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot , making it the highest @-@ rated episode of the season since the earlier entry " The Boat " . " A.A.R.M. " received largely positive reviews from critics . The interaction between Jim , Pam , and Dwight received particular praise ; many were particularly pleased with the call @-@ back to " Christmas Party " . Andy 's subplot , however , was highly panned .
= = Plot = =
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) convinces regional manager Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) that he needs to choose someone to act as an Assistant to the Assistant to the Regional Manager ( A.A.R.M. ) . Jim designs several Dwight @-@ oriented challenges as tryouts for the position , and it is inevitably found that Dwight is the most qualified . Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) is forced to bring her child , Phillip , to work , after her daycare turns her child away . Dwight , upon overhearing that Phillip has been eating the type of paper which he himself regards as the most flavorful , begins to think that Angela 's son is actually his . To test this theory , Dwight offers the child either a check for one million dollars or a beet ; Phillip picks the beet . Dwight tells Angela that he will marry her if the child is his , but she denies that this is not the case . Dwight then confers with Jim , asking whether he should propose to Angel or his girlfriend Esther , who he thinks is the more logical choice . Jim tells Dwight that he needs to put aside logic and follow his instincts . Dwight makes up his mind and proposes to Angela , who says yes . Angela finally reveals to Dwight that Phillip is indeed his son , explaining that she lied about his parentage in order to test Dwight 's feelings for her .
Meanwhile , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) returns to Scranton , after quietly quitting a week ago to work full @-@ time at Athlead , the sports marketing company that Jim founded . When the others spot him , they are upset that he left without saying goodbye and demand to spend some time with him in one way or another before he leaves for good . The office ultimately decides on one final dance together .
When Darryl runs into Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , he tells her about the company 's success and how Jim is missing out by staying in Scranton . Pam begins to worry that she is making Jim do something that he does not want to do . She confronts her husband and admits that she thinks she might not be good enough for him . He asks the in @-@ series documentary crew 's help ; the crew makes a DVD of the highlights that they have collected of Jim and Pam 's relationship . The final scene that they use is from the second season Christmas episode " Christmas Party " in which Jim gives Pam a teapot as a gift , but takes back his accompanying note to her . After Pam watches the DVD , Jim presents her with the actual , unopened note . She reads it to herself , and , realizing that Jim does truly love her , the two happily embrace .
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , who had been fired in the previous episode , auditions for The Next Great A Cappella Sensation . However , before he is able to try out , the judges close the auditions , sending home the remaining applicants , who have been standing in line for hours . Refusing to accept this , he bolts past security and argues with the judges to let him audition . When they refuse , he throws a crying tantrum . Later , he journeys to Poor Richard 's Pub , where he meets his former office workers . All together , the office watches the official airing of the documentary on PBS 's Scranton affiliate station , WVIA @-@ TV .
= = Production = =
" A.A.R.M. " was written by executive producer Brent Forrester , marking his eleventh writing credit for the series , his first since the earlier season episode , " Work Bus " . It was directed by regular Office editor David Rogers , marking his ninth directing credit , and first since the earlier season episode " Junior Salesman " . The episode was originally supposed to air as a half @-@ hour episode , but NBC later announced it would be expanded to fill an hour time slot . Unlike the previous episodes that were expanded , like " Moving On " and " Livin ' the Dream " , " A.A.R.M. " counts as two produced episodes .
This episode guest stars Aaron Rodgers , Clay Aiken , Mark McGrath , Santigold , and Jessica St. Clair . In order to get them , the show reached out to " a small group of celebrities that [ the producers ] thought would be good " . Both Aiken and Santigold accepted . Baumgartner then asked Rodgers , who was a friend , and he accepted . McGrath later became available , and he was chosen as well . Angela 's son , Phillip , was played by twins Vince and Evan Edwards . The child that filmed the scene in which Phillip picked the beet was only supposed to point to the beet . In the end , the child said " beet ! " , which Rogers called " amazing " . The voice of the documentarian that responds to Jim is that of episode director David Rogers . Rogers also voiced the same character in the season opener " New Guys " . Originally , showrunner and series creator Greg Daniels had re @-@ recorded the line in " New Guys " , but ended up liking Roger 's voice better . He asked him to reprise the role in " A.A.R.M. " to preserve continuity .
Jules Kmetzko designed the portraits of Dwight and Mose , as well as Dwight 's propaganda picture . He had previously created Pam 's watercolor of Dunder Mifflin that hung on the walls . All of the dances moves were choreographed by Mary Ann Kellogg , who had choreographed many of the series ' dance @-@ heavy episodes . The obstacle course in the warehouse was crafted by Rogers and Forrester , with input from the show 's art department . Wilson also helped , since he eventually was the one who ran through it ; it was his idea to have the course terminate on a raised palette of boxes . Originally , the course was supposed to be in the park lot , but Rogers moved it , feeling that the warehouse was " more organic " and that the heat would have been detrimental to the finished product . The idea to have Jim finally give Pam his card had been considered in the writers ' room for some time , but only during " A.A.R.M. " did the writers feel it was the right time . The card and envelope was the same one used for " Christmas Party " almost seven years prior . In fact , the card contained a genuine message that Krasinksi wrote for Fischer . Rogers admitted that the Pam and Jim video was inspired by a number of fan videos that exist on the internet . The reason that " Open Your Eyes " by Snow Patrol plays over the video is that Claire Scanlon , the series editor , felt that it was similar in style to " Sing " by Travis , which played in the second season episode " The Client " .
The episode contained several scenes that were reminiscent of past episodes of the series . The shot in which Jim and Dwight survey the office was filmed to be similar to a scene that featured Dwight and Michael in the third season installment " Gay Witch Hunt " . In addition , Dwight pulling Angela over was filmed in a way that recalled the sixth season episode " The Delivery " . Although The scene wherein Jim gives advice to Dwight was shot in a similar manner to Jim 's farewell to Michael in the seventh season episode " Goodbye , Michael " , it was not intentionally supposed to look like it , according to Rogers . In addition , the obstacle course was not a direct reference to the second season episode " Office Olympics " , although Rogers understood that there were similarities .
= = Cultural references = =
Jim references both Michael J. Fox and the 1985 film Back to the Future during his " nonsense " conference room meeting . Dwight realizes that Phillip is his son after the child looks at a small @-@ scale replica of the Battlestar Galactica , fictional ship from the science fiction series of the same name , in the same way that Dwight does . Dwight 's test to see if Phillip is his son has been compared to a similar scene in the 1997 film Kundun , in which Tibetan monks practice a similar ritual . To win over Kevin , Angela and Oscar pretend that baby Phillip presented him with an iTunes gift card . Darryl and the rest of the office dance to the song " Boogie Wonderland " by Earth , Wind , and Fire . The show Andy auditions for The Next Great A Cappella Sensation , is a parody of popular singing shows like American Idol , The Voice , and The Sing @-@ Off . The fictional show is hosted by Mark McGrath , the lead singer from the rock band Sugar Ray . The judges for the show include Aaron Rodgers , Clay Aiken , and Santigold . Rodgers is an American football quarterback for the Green Bay Packers , Aiken is a singer who gained prominence following the second season of American Idol in 2003 , and Santigold is an American singer , songwriter , and producer . Andy sings both the Cornell University alma mater ( " Far Above Cayuga 's Waters " ) , as well as " You 're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile " from the musical Annie . The woman auditioning that he interrupts is Rachel Crow , who achieved fame after competing in season one of The X @-@ Factor .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" A.A.R.M. " originally aired on May 9 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , " A.A.R.M. " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 56 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a significant increase , of almost one million viewers , in the ratings from the previous episode , " Livin ' the Dream " . It was also the most @-@ watched episode of The Office since the earlier ninth season episode " The Boat " , which had aired on November 8 , 2012 and was watched by 4 @.@ 83 million viewers . The episode ranked third in its half @-@ hour timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC drama Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 1 / 9 rating and an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which scored a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 rating . The Office was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a positive review , and wrote that " as a quasi @-@ finale , ' A.A.R.M. ' was surprisingly [ … ] terrific in most areas . " He particularly enjoyed the interaction between Jim and Dwight , calling it " so much fun " ; he argued that the show would have probably fared better following Steve Carell 's departure had the power dynamic and relationship between Jim and Dwight that was explored in " A.A.R.M. " been established earlier in the eighth season . He concluded that " The best parts of ' A.A.R.M. ' felt like a fitting close to the non @-@ documentary @-@ viewing portion of the series . " M. Giant of Television Without Pity was pleased with the episode , and awarded it an " A " grade , the first for the series since " Goodbye , Michael " almost two seasons ago . Jenna Mullins of E ! Online wrote that the episode " was full of emotional moments that seemed like love letters to the fans who have watched the show since the pilot . " Mullins also praised the scenes between Jim and Pam , noting that " we collapsed in tears because the couple we 've been rooting for [ … ] can still find ways to make us cry . "
Nick Campbell of TV.com felt that the episode was " a decent if uneven penultimate episode that gave us one last look at this quirky group of people in their office environment " . He was largely happy with the return of the fun @-@ loving version of Jim , noting that " Pam mentioned that she loves ' Goofy Jim ' and I , [ sic ] have to admit , I love Goofy Jim myself " . Campbell felt that the episode dabbled in fan service , but that it was expected and needed for the show to have a successful ending . Roth Cornet of IGN awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , denoting a " great " episode . She wrote that " The interplay between Jim , Dwight , and Pam has been the core of the series since Michael Scott 's departure , and it was good to see the trio front and center once again as The Office comes to a close . " Furthermore , Cornet was happy with Dwight 's proposal and the dance party that signaled Darryl 's leaving , calling the latter " a slice of bliss " .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " B + " . He said that " what benefits ' AARM ' most [ … ] is a back @-@ to @-@ basics Jim @-@ and @-@ Dwight storyline " that illustrated the growth that the characters have experienced in the last nine years . He wrote that there were many tender moments in the episode , such as Dwight and Jim 's confrontation , Pam and Jim 's reaffirmation of love , and Dwight 's proposal to Angela . He concluded that " It ’ s that blend of new beginnings and closing circles that makes ' AARM ' an effective second @-@ to @-@ last chapter of The Office " . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , and wrote that the episode " didn 't disappoint " . He called " the scene in which Pam was watching the docu @-@ created montage just as Jim was giving Dwight love advice " the " most emotionally rewarding moment on The Office since Michael Scott 's goodbye . "
Many critics were extremely pleased with the call back to the teapot and Jim 's note from " Christmas Party " . Adams felt that the scene , before the reveal of the note , was properly executed , and that the note made it even better . Sepinwall called it " a fabulous payoff for longtime fans " . Cornet called the sequence " effective " . Rick Porter of Zap2it wrote that it was a " nice move " on the part of the writers for " not letting us know what Jim wrote on the card from ' Christmas Party ' [ because ] it has to be pretty epic . "
Conversely , most critics gave Andy 's plot a negative review . Sepinwall called the entire plot " godawfulness " . Campbell referred to it as " a mediocre story that stood in stark contrast to the emotional timbre of the rest of the episode " . Cornet called the scenes " just as disconnected from the core of the show as that character has for some time now . " Porter wrote that " the show never quite got a handle on what to do with the character this season " , and his subplot in " A.A.R.M. " was the culmination of this issue .
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= Battle of San Patricio =
The Battle of San Patricio was fought on February 27 , 1836 between Mexican troops and rebellious immigrants to the Mexican province of Texas , known as Texians . The battle marked the start of the Goliad Campaign , the Mexican offensive to retake the Texas Gulf Coast . It took place in and around San Patricio .
By the end of 1835 , all Mexican troops had been driven from Texas . Frank W. Johnson , the commander of the volunteer army in Texas , and James Grant gathered volunteers for a planned invasion of the Mexican port town of Matamoros . After spending several weeks gathering horses for the Matamoros Expedition , in late February Johnson and about 40 men led the herd to San Patricio . Johnson assigned some of his troops to a ranch 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) outside town to guard the horses , while the rest of his men garrisoned in three different locations in town .
Unbeknownst to the Texians , on February 18 , Mexican General José de Urrea led a large contingent of troops from Matamoros into Texas . Their goal was to neutralize the Texian soldiers gathered along the coast . Urrea 's men easily followed the trail left by Johnson 's herd of horses . Mexican soldiers surprised the sleeping Texians in San Patricio in the early hours of February 27 . After a fifteen @-@ minute battle , all but six Texians had been killed or imprisoned . One Mexican soldier was killed and four injured .
= = Background = =
Under President Antonio López de Santa Anna , the Mexican government began to shift away from a federalist model to a more centralized government . His increasingly dictatorial policies , including the revocation of the Constitution of 1824 in early 1835 , incited federalists throughout the nation to revolt . The Mexican army quickly put down revolts in the Mexican interior , including a brutal suppression of militias in Oaxaca and Zacatecas . Unrest continued in the Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas . The area that bordered the United States , known as Texas , was populated primarily by English @-@ speaking settlers , known as Texians . In October , the Texians took up arms in what became known as the Texas Revolution . The following month , Texians declared themselves part of a state independent from Coahuila and created a provisional state government based on the principles of the Constitution of 1824 . By the end of the year , all Mexican troops had been expelled from Texas .
Leading federalists in Mexico advocated a plan to attack centralist troops in Matamoros . Members of the General Council , the interim Texas governing body , were enamored with the idea of a Matamoros Expedition . They hoped it would inspire other federalist states to revolt and keep the bored Texian troops from deserting the army . Most importantly , it would move the war zone outside Texas . The Council officially approved the plan on December 25 , and on December 30 Frank W. Johnson , the commander of the volunteer army , and his aide James Grant took the bulk of the army and almost all of the supplies to Goliad to prepare for the expedition .
Determined to quash the rebellion , Santa Anna began assembling a large force to restore order ; by the end of 1835 his army numbered 6 @,@ 019 soldiers . In late December , at his behest , the Mexican Congress passed the Tornel Decree , declaring that any foreigners fighting against Mexican troops " will be deemed pirates and dealt with as such , being citizens of no nation presently at war with the Republic and fighting under no recognized flag " . In the early nineteenth century , captured pirates were executed immediately . The resolution thus gave the Mexican Army permission to take no prisoners in the war against the Texians . Santa Anna personally led the bulk of his troops inland to San Antonio de Béxar and ordered General José de Urrea to lead 550 troops along the Atascocita Road toward Goliad . Urrea 's efforts to quell the rebellion along the Texas Gulf Coast have become known as the Goliad Campaign .
= = Prelude = =
The Texas provisional government had named Sam Houston the commander of a new regular army in Texas , but without authority over the volunteers who reported to Johnson . The provisional governor , Henry Smith , opposed the Matamoros Expedition and ordered Houston to find a way to disband it . In a rousing speech to the volunteers , Houston dissuaded the bulk of the men from continuing their mission . Many left the army . Others joined the troops stationed under Houston 's second @-@ in @-@ command , James Fannin , at Presidio La Bahia in Goliad . By the end of January 1836 , only 70 men remained with Johnson and Grant . Most of these volunteers were Americans or Europeans who had arrived in Texas after the Texas Revolution had commenced .
Urrea reached Matamoros on January 31 . A committed federalist himself , he soon convinced other federalists in the area that the Texians ' ultimate goal was secession and their attempt to spark a federalist revolt in Matamoros was just a method of diverting attention from themselves . Urrea 's force crossed into Texas on February 18 .
Meanwhile , Mexican double agents continued to assure Johnson and Grant that they would be able to take Matamoros easily . Despite hearing rumors that the Mexican army was approaching , Grant and Johnson chose to take their men south of the Nueces River , into territory belonging to the state of Tamaulipas , to search for horses to buy , steal , or otherwise gather . About February 21 , Johnson and part of the group began herding about 100 horses back into Texas . The rest of the men remained with Grant , ostensibly to look for more horses . In actuality , he was attempting to rendezvous with his allies near Matamoros to determine whether federalists were still willing to rise up against the Mexican army .
Johnson 's men arrived on February 24 in San Patricio , an Irish settlement about 100 miles ( 160 km ) north of Matamoros . Many of the San Patricio residents were centralists , loyal to the Mexican government . Johnson sent twelve men to guard the horses at the ranch of Julian de la Garza , approximately 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) outside the town , while the rest garrisoned in San Patricio . The weather was frigid , and the men 's clothes were threadbare . Confident that Grant would alert him if Mexican troops were in the area , Johnson chose not to appoint sentries , instead allowing all of the men to take shelter .
The Mexican troops easily followed the trail left by Johnson 's herd . On February 25 , Urrea led 100 dragoons and 100 infantry to corner the Texians . By 10 p.m. , scouts reported that Texian troops were established in San Patricio . The Mexican soldiers continued marching through the cold night ; six of the troops died of exposure .
= = Battle = =
Urrea instructed three officers to go to San Patricio dressed as civilians and warn the centralists that the Mexican army was approaching . In an effort to reduce casualties and property damage , centralists were asked to declare their loyalties by leaving lanterns burning in their windows . Locals also gave the officers precise information on which buildings housed Texian soldiers . Urrea sent 30 men under Captain Rafael Pretalia to de la Garza 's ranch to surprise the Texians camped there . At 3 : 30 a.m. on February 26 , the remaining Mexican soldiers entered San Patricio .
One group of Texians surrendered immediately when they awoke to find themselves surrounded by Mexican troops . When another party of Texians was asked to surrender , they instead opened fire , killing a Mexican officer and wounding two other soldiers . Determined to prevent more casualties , Mexican dragoons prepared to set the house on fire to force the Texians out . At this point , several Texians called that they were surrendering . As they left the house , they were shot or lanced .
By chance , Johnson and three of his men , Lieutenant Daniel Toler and Sergeants Love and Miller , were still awake and discussing tactics . Mexican troops had been told that the house where Johnson was quartered was one of their targets , yet a lamp burned in the window , signalling that this was the home of a loyalist . Out of an abundance of caution , a group of troops knocked on the door . Before the Texians could open the door , they heard the gunfire from the town square . Toler looked out a window and saw uniformed troops on the porch . Without opening the door , he told the soldiers , in Spanish , that there were no troops there , but he would open the door momentarily . The fighting moved into the street , and soldiers who had been guarding the back door of the house rushed around to the front . Johnson , Toler , Love , and Miller dashed out the back door and escaped .
At the de la Garza ranch , the Texians had been taking turns standing sentry . In the cold , all of the sentries had fallen asleep . Pretalia 's soldiers opened fire on the sleeping men , injuring two Texians . In the subsequent fight , four Texians died , eight men ( three Americans and five Tejanos , Mexican @-@ born citizens ) were taken prisoner , and several escaped .
The fighting ended within fifteen minutes .
= = Aftermath = =
Six Texians escaped , including Johnson , Toler , Miller , Love , and John F. Beck . They made their way on foot to Refugio , where they sent a messenger to Fannin at Goliad , 75 miles ( 121 km ) north , to let him know that Urrea 's army was close . The survivors reached Goliad on February 29 . After filling out an official report on the battle , Johnson , Toler , and Love left the army and went to San Felipe . The remaining survivors joined Fannin 's troops and were later killed in the Goliad Massacre .
Eleven Texians were killed outright , five suffered mortal wounds , and 21 others were taken prisoner . Six local men were also arrested for aiding the rebellion . Some historians report that most were executed immediately in the town square . According to reports by Johnson and another Texian , Urrea questioned several of the prisoners , and there were reports that the men were tortured . Within 72 hours all of the prisoners were dead . One Mexican soldier was killed and four were wounded .
Urrea 's official records state that the battle was fought at Fort Lipantitlán , on the other side of the Nueces River . Texian accounts are consistent that the fighting occurred in town and at the de la Garza ranch . While Urrea waited for reinforcements before beginning his march towards Goliad , his advance party searched for Grant and the remaining Texians . After learning of Grant 's whereabouts from local spies , on March 2 Mexican dragoons ambushed the Texians at Agua Dulce Creek .
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= M @-@ 102 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 102 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs along the northern boundary of Detroit following 8 Mile Road . The highway follows the Michigan Baseline , a part of the land survey of the state , and the roadway is also called Base Line Road in places . As a county road or city street , 8 Mile Road extends both east and west of the M @-@ 102 designation , which leaves 8 Mile on the eastern end to follow Vernier Road . The western terminus of M @-@ 102 is at the junction of 8 Mile Road and M @-@ 5 ( Grand River Avenue ) and the opposite end is at Vernier Road and Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The 8 Mile Road name extends west to Pontiac Trail near South Lyon with a discontinuous segment located west of US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) . The eastern end of 8 Mile Road is in Grosse Pointe Woods near I @-@ 94 .
The highway was first designated in the late 1920s , connecting US Highway 10 ( US 10 , Woodward Avenue , now M @-@ 1 ) with US 25 ( Gratiot Avenue , now M @-@ 3 ) . Extensions to the highway designation moved the termini in the 1930s and 1940s east to M @-@ 29 ( Jefferson Avenue ) and US 16 ( Grand River Avenue , now M @-@ 5 ) . A change in the 1960s added a section of north – south roadway to the eastern end of M @-@ 102 ; that change was reversed within about a year . A western extension along Grand River Avenue in 1977 was reversed in 1994 , and M @-@ 102 has remained the same since .
8 Mile Road has carried major cultural significance ; since the mid @-@ 20th century , as the city demographics have changed , it has served as a physical and cultural dividing line between the wealthier , predominantly white northern suburbs of Detroit and the poorer , predominantly black city . The racial patterns have changed , as more middle @-@ class African Americans have also moved north of 8 Mile , but the socioeconomic divide between the city and suburbs remains .
= = Route description = =
Starting at an intersection with Hamburg Road along the Livingston – Washtenaw county line , 8 Mile Road runs eastward to an interchange with US 23 near Whitmore Lake . There is a gap before 8 Mile Road resumes at Pontiac Trail along the Oakland – Washtenaw county line . Near the suburb of Northville , the road curves northward into Oakland County , and Base Line Road follows the county line for about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . The road meets I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 at that freeway 's exit 167 along the border between Livonia and Farmington Hills . As its name implies , 8 Mile Road runs east – west eight miles ( 13 km ) north of the origin of the Mile Road System at Michigan and Woodward avenues .
M @-@ 102 starts at the intersection between M @-@ 5 ( Grand River Avenue ) and 8 Mile Road and runs eastward along 8 Mile Road . The highway widens out into a boulevard setup with each direction divided by a central median . Motorists that want to make a left turn along 8 Mile Road have to perform a Michigan left to do so . Starting at the Inkster Road intersection , M @-@ 102 forms the boundary between Redford to the south and Southfield to the north . East of Five Points Road , the 8 Mile follows the northern city limits of Detroit . On either side of 8 Mile Road , the area is filled with residential neighborhoods of the two cities with commercial businesses immediately adjacent to the highway . About two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of its starting point , M @-@ 102 intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) at a cloverleaf interchange near Frisbee @-@ Pembroke Park and Plum Hollow Country Club . Along the length of the eight @-@ lane highway , there are large power line towers in the median .
Continuing east , M @-@ 102 intersects M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) and M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) south of the Southfield campus of Oakland Community College and the Northland Center Mall . As the highway approaches M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) , there are a pair of service drives that split from the main roadway in each direction to provide access through the interchange with M @-@ 1 . The main lanes of M @-@ 102 pass under M @-@ 1 and its ramp connections before the service drives merge back in on the other side . This interchange is located adjacent to the Michigan State Fairgrounds , former site of the now @-@ defunct Michigan State Fair , and Woodlawn Cemetery . East of the fairgrounds , the highway crosses a line of the Canadian National Railway that also carries Amtrak passenger traffic ; the line is south of a rail terminal in Ferndale . Further east , M @-@ 102 meets I @-@ 75 before intersecting Dequindre Road . Dequindre is the boundary between Oakland and Macomb counties .
Now following the Wayne – Macomb county line , M @-@ 102 separates Warren from Detroit . The highway also runs parallel to , and about a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of Outer Drive , the original beltway highway proposed in 1918 to encircle Detroit . The road passes the Mound Road Engine facility , a former Chrysler plant next to the Mound Road intersection . East of the plant , the highway crosses a branch line of the Conrail Shared Assets Operations on the east side of the plant complex before intersecting M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) . Further east , 8 Mile Road passes north of the Bel Air Center Shopping Center before crossing another Canadian National Railway line next to the intersection with M @-@ 97 ( Groesbeck Highway ) .
On the far east side of Detroit , M @-@ 102 separates the city from the suburb of Eastpointe once near the intersection with M @-@ 3 ( Gratiot Avenue ) . Near Kelly Road and the Eastland Center , the highway turns southeasterly along Vernier Road to enter Harper Woods in Wayne County ; 8 Mile Road continues due eastward along the county line in this suburb as a four @-@ lane undivided urban arterial street . The eastern terminus of M @-@ 102 is at the interchange between Vernier Road and I @-@ 94 about 1 @,@ 700 feet ( 520 m ) south of 8 Mile Road near the boundary with Grosse Pointe Woods .
= = History = =
M @-@ 102 was first designated along 8 Mile Road from US 10 ( Woodward Avenue , now M @-@ 1 ) to US 25 ( Gratiot Avenue , now M @-@ 3 ) in late 1928 or early 1929 . In 1939 , the eastern terminus was moved as M @-@ 102 was extended along 8 Mile and Vernier Roads to end in Grosse Pointe Shores at M @-@ 29 ( Jefferson Avenue ) . The highway was extended in the early 1940s from Woodward westward to US 16 ( Grand River Avenue , now M @-@ 5 ) .
During 1963 , the M @-@ 102 designation was extended northerly along Jefferson Avenue through St. Clair Shores , replacing the M @-@ 29 designation to the Shook Road interchange at the northern end of the then @-@ existing I @-@ 94 freeway . That extension was reversed the next year , and M @-@ 102 was scaled back to end at US 25 ( Gratiot Avenue ) ; the rest of 8 Mile and Vernier roads plus the Jefferson Avenue segment are added to M @-@ 29 instead . M @-@ 102 was re @-@ extended along 8 Mile and Vernier roads to the I @-@ 94 interchange in Harper Woods in 1970 replacing M @-@ 29 ; the remainder of that other highway along Vernier Road and Jefferson Avenue to Shook Road that was once part of M @-@ 102 was transferred to local control .
When I @-@ 96 was completed in 1977 , several highway designations were shifted in the Metro Detroit area . The Business Spur I @-@ 96 designation that had replaced US 16 was removed from Grand River Avenue . That roadway was signed as M @-@ 5 southward between 8 Mile Road and its present eastern terminus at I @-@ 96 while the remainder of Grand River Avenue and the stub freeway formerly part of I @-@ 96 that continued out to I @-@ 275 became part of M @-@ 102 . This extension to M @-@ 102 was reversed in October 1994 when M @-@ 5 was extended northwesterly along Grand River Avenue , the freeway and up the Haggerty Connector north of I @-@ 96 in Novi , replacing part of M @-@ 102 in the process .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Racial and economic divide = = =
The road has long served as a de facto cultural dividing line between the predominantly poor black city and its wealthier , predominantly white northern suburbs . The perception of 8 Mile as the chief dividing line between racial groups and classes persists , in part because the suburban counties of Oakland and Macomb remain , on the whole , significantly whiter and more prosperous than the city of Detroit . However , in recent years increasing numbers of whites have moved into Detroit , especially around the downtown area , and other neighborhoods in the region have become more ethnically diverse as well .
According to the 2000 U.S. Census , the median family income for the city of Detroit , whose population was 81 @.@ 55 % African @-@ American , was $ 33 @,@ 853 , and 26 @.@ 1 % of the population lived below the poverty line . By contrast , the median family income for Oakland County , whose population was 82 @.@ 75 % white , was $ 75 @,@ 540 , and only 5 @.@ 5 % of residents lived below the poverty line . These results were compiled into an Index of Dissimilarity of 85 @.@ 9 by researchers with Brown University and Florida State University , the highest score for a metropolitan area in the United States . After the 2010 Census , the index was computed as 79 @.@ 6 , which was a " substantial decline " in the words of the study 's authors .
= = = In surveying = = =
8 Mile Road is also known as Base Line Road , for it was used to set the baseline for the Public Land Survey System in Michigan . The system helped bring order to county boundaries , which had often been set in other states by geographic markers such as rivers , hills , and trees , and were therefore rather irregular . Today , the baseline forms the northern or southern boundary of many southern Michigan counties .
= = = In media = = =
Tupac Shakur , Tim Roth , and Thandie Newton form the fictitious musical act Eight Mile Road in the 1997 film Gridlock 'd , which is set in Detroit . The movie 8 Mile , starring Detroit @-@ area hip hop artist Eminem , as well as his songs " Lose Yourself " and " 8 Mile " , both take their names and cultural subject matter from the roadway .
In addition to these film references , there are a number of songs that refer to 8 Mile Road , some of which include :
Eminem – " Encore / Curtains Down "
Eminem – " Marshall Mathers "
Eminem – " Yellow Brick Road "
Eminem – " Mockingbird "
Obie Trice – " 8 Mile "
Danny Brown – " 8 Mile "
Eminem – " No Love "
The roadway is also shown on TruTV 's program Hardcore Pawn , a show about a pawn shop located on 8 Mile Road .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Coimbatore =
Coimbatore , also known as Kovai [ koːʋəj ] , is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Located on the banks of the Noyyal River surrounded by the Western Ghats , it is the second largest city in the state after Chennai and the sixteenth largest urban agglomeration in India . It is administered by the Coimbatore Municipal Corporation and is the administrative capital of Coimbatore district . It is one of the fastest growing tier @-@ II cities in India and a major hub for textiles , industries , commerce , education , information technology , healthcare and manufacturing in Tamil Nadu . It is often referred to as the " Manchester of South India " due to its cotton production and textile industries . Coimbatore is also referred to as the " Pump City " and it supplies nearly half of India 's requirements of motors and pumps . The city is one of the largest exporters of jewellery , wet grinders , poultry and auto components with " Coimbatore Wet Grinder " and " Kovai Cora Cotton " recognised as Geographical Indications by the Government of India .
Coimbatore was part of Kongu Nadu during the Sangam period between c . 1st and the 4th centuries CE and was ruled by the Cheras as it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the west coast and Tamil Nadu . Coimbatore was located along the ancient Roman trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu in South India . The medieval Cholas conquered the Kongu Nadu in the 10th century CE . The region was ruled by Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century followed by the Nayaks who introduced the Palayakkarar system under which Kongu nadu region was divided into 24 Palayams . In the later part of the 18th century , the Coimbatore region came under the Kingdom of Mysore and following the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars , the British East India Company annexed Coimbatore to the Madras Presidency in 1799 . The Coimbatore region played a prominent role in the Second Poligar War ( 1801 ) when it was the area of operations of Dheeran Chinnamalai .
In 1804 , Coimbatore was established as the capital of the newly formed Coimbatore district and in 1866 it was accorded municipality status with Robert Stanes as its Chairman . The city experienced a textile boom in the early 19th century due to the decline of the cotton industry in Mumbai . Post independence , Coimbatore has seen rapid growth due to industrialisation . Coimbatore was ranked the best emerging city in India by India Today in the 2014 annual Indian city survey . The city was ranked fourth among Indian cities in investment climate by Confederation of Indian Industry and 17th among the top global outsourcing cities by Tholons . Coimbatore has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's flagship Smart Cities Mission .
= = Etymology = =
There are multiple theories regarding the origin of the name . According to one theory , " Coimbatore " is a derivation of Kovanputhur ( literally ' new town of Kovan ' ) , after chieftain Kovan or Koyan , evolved into Koyambatoor and later anglicised as Coimbatore . Koyamma , the goddess worshiped by Koyan evolved into Koniamma and later Kovaiamma . Another theory states that the name could have been derived from Kovaiamma .
= = History = =
The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c . 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the west coast and Tamil Nadu . The Kosar tribe mentioned in the second century CE Tamil epic Silappathikaram and other poems in Sangam literature is associated with the Coimbatore region . The region was located along an ancient Roman trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu . The medieval Cholas conquered the Kongu Nadu in the 10th century CE . A Chola highway called Rajakesari Peruvazhi ran through the region . Much of Tamil Nadu came under the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire by the 15th century . In the 1550s , Madurai Nayaks , who were the military governors of the Vijaynagara Empire , took control of the region . After the Vijayanagara Empire fell in the 17th century , the Madurai Nayaks established their state as an independent kingdom . They introduced the Palayakkarar system under which Kongu Nadu region was divided into 24 Palayams .
In the latter part of the 18th century , the region came under the Kingdom of Mysore , following a series of wars with the Madurai Nayak dynasty . After the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars , the British East India Company annexed Coimbatore to the Madras Presidency in 1799 . The Coimbatore region played a prominent role in the Second Poligar War ( 1801 ) , when it was the area of operations of Dheeran Chinnamalai . In 1804 , Coimbatore was established as the capital of the newly formed Coimbatore district and in 1866 it was accorded municipality status . Sir Robert Stanes became the first Chairman of the Coimbatore City Council . The region was hard hit during the Great Famine of 1876 – 78 resulting in nearly 200 @,@ 000 famine related fatalities . The first three decades of the 20th century saw nearly 20 @,@ 000 plague @-@ related deaths and acute water shortage .
The decline of the cotton industry in Mumbai fuelled an economical boom in Coimbatore in the 1920s and 1930s . The region played a significant role in the Indian independence movement with Mahatma Gandhi visiting the city thrice . Coimbatore was the base of operations for political figures such as S. P. Narasimhalu Naidu , R. K. Shanmukham Chetty , C.S. Rathinasabapathy and C. Subramaniam during the freedom movement . Post independence , Coimbatore has seen rapid growth due to industrialisation and in 1981 , Coimbatore was constituted as a Municipal corporation . On February 14 , 1998 , the radical Islamist group Al Ummah bombed 11 places across the city killing 58 people and injuring more than 200 .
= = Geography = =
Coimbatore lies at 11 ° 1 ′ 6 ″ N 76 ° 58 ′ 21 ″ E in south India at 411 metres ( 1349 ft ) above sea level on the banks of the Noyyal River , in southwestern Tamil Nadu . It covers an area of 642 @.@ 12 km2 ( 247 @.@ 92 sq mi ) . It is surrounded by the Western Ghats mountain range to the West and the North , with reserve forests of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve on the northern side . The Noyyal River forms the southern boundary of the city , which has an extensive tank system fed by the river and rainwater . The eight major tanks and wetland areas of Coimbatore are namely , Singanallur , Valankulam , Ukkadam Periyakulam , Selvampathy , Narasampathi , Krishnampathi , Selvachinthamani , and Kumaraswami . Multiple streams drain the waste water from the city .
The city is divided into two distinctive geographic regions : the dry eastern side which includes majority of the urban area of the city and the western region which borders the Nilgiris , Anaimalai and Munnar ranges . Palghat Gap , a mountain pass which connects the neighbouring state of Kerala to Tamil Nadu , lies to the west of the city . Because of its location in the biodiversity hotspot of the Western Ghats , it is rich in fauna and flora . The Coimbatore urban wetlands harbours around 116 species of birds , of which 66 are resident , 17 are migratory and 33 are local migrants . The spot @-@ billed pelican , painted stork , openbill stork , ibis , spot @-@ billed duck , teal and black @-@ winged stilt visit the Coimbatore wetlands on their migration . Apart from the species common to the plains , various threatened and endangered species such as Indian elephants , wild boars , leopards , Bengal tigers , gaurs , Nilgiri tahr , sloth bear and black @-@ headed oriole are found in the region .
The northern part of the city has a rich tropical evergreen forest with commercially significant trees such as teak , sandalwood , rosewood and bamboo . The soil is predominantly black , which is suitable for cotton cultivation , but some red loamy soil is also found . According to the Bureau of Indian Standards , Coimbatore falls under the Class III / IV Seismic Zone , having experienced an earthquake of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 on the Richter scale on February 8 , 1900 .
= = Climate = =
Coimbatore has a pleasant climate due to the presence of forests to the north and the cool winds blowing through the Palghat gap in the Western Ghats . Under the Köppen climate classification , the city has a tropical wet and dry climate , with the wet season lasting from October to December due to the northeast monsoon . The mean maximum temperature ranges from 35 @.@ 9 ° C ( 97 ° F ) to 29 @.@ 2 ° C ( 85 ° F ) and the mean minimum temperature ranges from 24 @.@ 5 ° C ( 76 ° F ) to 19 @.@ 8 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . The highest temperature ever recorded is 40 @.@ 4 ° C ( 105 ° F ) on May 5 , 1983 while the lowest is 11 @.@ 7 ° C ( 53 ° F ) on January 8 , 1912 .
Due to the south west monsoon winds passing through the Palghat gap , elevated regions of the city receive rainfall in the months from June to August . After a warm and humid September , the north east monsoon starts from October lasting till early November . The average annual rainfall is around 700 mm ( 27 @.@ 6 in ) with the northeast and the southwest monsoons contributing to 47 % and 28 % respectively to the total rainfall . This periodic rainfall does not satisfy the water requirements of the city throughout the year and water supply schemes like Siruvani and Pilloor help to sustain the needs of the city during the non @-@ monsoon months .
= = Demographics = =
Coimbatore has a population of 1 @,@ 601 @,@ 438 . As per the 2011 census based on pre @-@ expansion city limits , Coimbatore had a population of 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 721 with a sex ratio of 997 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . It is the second largest city in the state after capital Chennai and the sixteenth largest urban agglomeration in India . A total of 102 @,@ 069 were under the age of six , comprising 52 @,@ 275 males and 49 @,@ 794 females.The average literacy of the city was 82 @.@ 43 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . There were a total of 425 @,@ 115 workers , comprising 1 @,@ 539 cultivators , 2 @,@ 908 main agricultural labourers , 11 @,@ 789 in house hold industries , 385 @,@ 802 other workers , 23 @,@ 077 marginal workers , 531 marginal cultivators , 500 marginal agricultural labourers , 1 @,@ 169 marginal workers in household industries and 20 @,@ 877 other marginal workers .
As per the 2001 census , Coimbatore had a population of 930 @,@ 882 within the municipal corporation limits . The population of the urban agglomeration as per 2011 census is 2 @,@ 136 @,@ 916 with males constituting 50 @.@ 08 % of the population and females 49 @.@ 92 % . Coimbatore has an average literacy rate of 89 @.@ 23 % , higher than the national average of 74 @.@ 04 % . Male literacy is 93 @.@ 17 % and female literacy is 85 @.@ 3 % with 8 @.@ 9 % of the population under six years of age . The sex ratio was 964 females per 1000 males . In 2005 , the crime rate in the city was 265 @.@ 9 per 100 @,@ 000 people , accounting for 1 @.@ 2 % of all crimes reported in major cities in India . It ranked 21st among 35 major cities in India in the incidence of crimes . In 2011 , the population density in the city was 10 @,@ 052 per km2 ( 26 @,@ 035 per mi2 ) . Around 8 % of the city 's population lives in slums .
= = Administration and politics = =
Coimbatore is a Municipal corporation administered by the Coimbatore Municipal Corporation and is the administrative headquarters of Coimbatore district . Coimbatore was established as the capital of Coimbatore district in 1804 and in 1866 it was accorded municipality status . In 1981 , Coimbatore was elevated as a municipal corporation . The city is divided into five administrative zones – East , West , North , South and Central , each further subdivided into 20 wards . Each ward is represented by a councillor who is elected by direct election and the Mayor of Coimbatore is elected by Councillors . The executive wing of the corporation is headed by a Corporation Commissioner and maintains basic services like water supply , sewage and roads . The district itself is administered by the District collector and the district court in Coimbatore is the highest court of appeal in the district . The Coimbatore City Police is headed by a Commissioner and there are 18 police stations in the city .
A large part of the Coimbatore urban agglomeration falls outside the Municipal corporation limits . These suburbs are governed by local bodies called Village Panchayats and Town Panchayats . Besides the Coimbatore Municipal Corporation , the Coimbatore UA comprises the town panchayats of Vellalur , Irugur , Pallapalayam , Kannampalayam , Veerapandi , Periyanaickenpalayam , Narasimhanaickenpalayam , Idikarai , Vedapatti , Perur , Madukkarai , Ettimadai , Thondamuthur , Uliyampalayam , Thirumalayampalayam , Othakalmandapam , Alanthurai , Pooluvapatti , Thenkarai , Karumathampatti , Sarcarsamakulam , Mopperipalayam and Gudalur , census towns of Ashokapuram , Kurudampalayam , Malumichampatti , Selvapuram , Chettipalayam , Sulur , Chinniampalayam , Somayampalayam , Muthugoundan Pudur , Arasur , Kaniyur , Neelambur and municipalities of Kuniyamuthur , Kurichi and Goundampalayam . These local bodies are in turn split into wards each electing a councillor through direct election . The head of the local body known as president is elected by the councillors from among their number .
Coimbatore elects ten members to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly and one member to the Indian Parliament . The five legislative assembly constituencies in the city are Coimbatore North , Coimbatore South , Kaundampalayam , Singanallur and Sulur which form a part of the Coimbatore Parliamentary Constituency . Part of the urban agglomeration comes under the Nilgiris and Pollachi constituencies . In the Indian general election held in 2014 , AIADMK candidate A. P. Nagarajan defeated C. P. Radhakrishnan of the BJP in the Coimbatore Lok Sabha constituency . In the last legislative assembly election held in 2011 , the AIADMK led front won in all five assembly constituencies .
= = Economy = =
Coimbatore is amongst the fastest growing tier @-@ II cities in India and a major hub for textiles , industries , commerce , education , information technology , healthcare and manufacturing in Tamil Nadu . Coimbatore houses more than 25 @,@ 000 small , medium and large industries with the city 's primary industries being engineering and textiles . Coimbatore is called the " Manchester of South India " due to its extensive textile industry , fed by the surrounding cotton fields . TIDEL Park was the first special economic zone ( SEZ ) set up in 2006 . In 2010 , Coimbatore ranked 15th in the list of most competitive ( by business environment ) Indian cities . Coimbatore also has a 160 @,@ 000 square feet ( 15 @,@ 000 m2 ) trade fair ground , built in 1999 and is owned by CODISSIA . It is also the country 's largest pillar @-@ free hall , according to the Limca Book of Records .
Coimbatore region experienced a textile boom in the 1920s and 1930s . Though , Robert Stanes had established Coimbatore 's first textile mills as early as the late 19th century , it was during this period that Coimbatore emerged as a prominent industrial centre . Coimbatore is home to more than 17 % of the fibre textile mills in India . Coimbatore has trade associations such as CODISSIA , COINDIA and COJEWEL representing the industries in the city . Coimbatore houses a number of textile mills and is the base of textile research institutes like the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International School of Textiles & Management , Central Institute for Cotton Research ( CICR ) and the South India Textile Research Institute ( SITRA ) . Kovai Cora Cotton saree is a recognised Geographical Indication .
Coimbatore is the second largest producer of software in the state , next only to capital Chennai . TIDEL park and other Information technology parks in the city has aided in the growth of IT and Business process outsourcing industries in the city . It is ranked at 17th among the top global outsourcing cities by Tholons . Coimbatore is the second largest hub in India for Cognizant Technology Solutions employing 5000 people . Software exports stood at ₹ 7 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 110 million ) for the financial year 2009 – 10 up 90 % from the previous year . Coimbatore has a large and diversified manufacturing sector facilitated by the presence of research institutes like Tamil Nadu Agricultural University , SITRA and large number of engineering colleges producing about 50 @,@ 000 engineers annually .
Coimbatore is a major centre for the manufacture of automotive components in India with car manufacturers Maruti Udyog and Tata Motors sourcing up to 30 % , of their automotive components from the city . G.D. Naidu developed India 's first indigenous motor in 1937 . India 's first indigenously developed diesel engine for cars was manufactured in the city in 1972 . The city is also a major centre for small auto component makers catering to the automobile industry , from personal to commercial and farm vehicles . The city contributes to about 75 % of the 1 lakh total monthly output of wet grinders in India . The industry employs 70 @,@ 000 people and had a yearly turnover of ₹ 2 @,@ 800 crore ( US $ 420 million ) in 2015 . The term " Coimbatore Wet Grinder " has been given a Geographical indication .
Coimbatore is also referred to as " the Pump City " as it supplies nearly 50 % of India 's requirements of motors and pumps . The city is one of the largest exporters of jewellery renowned for diamond cutting , cast and machine made jewellery . There are about 3 @,@ 000 jewellery manufacturers employing over 40 @,@ 000 goldsmiths .
Coimbatore has a large number of poultry farms and is a major producer of chicken eggs . The city contributes to nearly 95 % of processed chicken meat exports . Coimbatore has some of the country 's oldest flour mills and these mills which cater to all the southern states , have a combined grinding capacity of more than 50 @,@ 000 MT per month . The hospitality industry has seen a growth in the 21st century with new upscale hotels being set up . Coimbatore is the largest non @-@ metro city for e @-@ commerce in South India .
= = Culture = =
Coimbatore and its people have a reputation for entrepreneurship . Though it is generally considered a traditional city , Coimbatore is diverse and cosmopolitan . The World Classical Tamil Conference 2010 was held in Coimbatore . The heavy industrialisation of the city has also resulted in the growth of trade unions .
= = = Language = = =
Tamil is the official language and Kongu Tamil ( also called Kangee or Kongalam ) , a dialect , is predominantly spoken . Coimbatore also has a significant number of Kannadigas , Telugus , Malayalis and North Indians , mainly Gujaratis . As per the 2001 census , the number of speakers by native language are as follows : Tamil ( 707 @,@ 263 ) followed by Telugu ( 125 @,@ 616 ) , Malayalam ( 46 @,@ 645 ) and Kannada ( 30 @,@ 195 ) . During the 1970s the city witnessed a population explosion as a result of migration fuelled by increased economic growth and job opportunities .
= = = Religion = = =
The city 's population is predominantly Hindu with minor Muslim and Christian population . Jains , Sikhs and Buddhists are also present in small numbers . According to the religious census of 2011 , Coimbatore has 83 @.@ 31 % Hindus , 8 @.@ 63 % Muslims , 7 @.@ 53 % Christians , 0 @.@ 28 % Jains , 0 @.@ 05 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 02 % Buddhists and 0 @.@ 01 % Others . 0 @.@ 17 % of the respondents did not state their religion .
The Mariamman festivals at the city 's numerous Amman temples are major events in summer . Major Hindu temples in the city include the Perur Patteeswarar Temple , Naga Sai Mandir , Koniamman Temple , Thandu Mariamman Temple , Eachanari Vinayagar Temple , Karamadai Ranganathaswamy Temple , Marudamalai Murugan Temple , Loga Nayaga Shaniswara Temple , Ashtamsa Varadha Anjaneyar Temple and Dhyanalinga Yogic Temple . The mosques on Oppanakara Street and Big Bazaar Street date back to 18th century CE . Christian missions date back to the 17th century when permission was granted by the Nayak rulers to set up churches in the region . Sikh Gurudwaras and Jain temples are also present in Coimbatore .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Coimbatore cuisine is predominantly south Indian with rice as its base . Most local restaurants still retain their rural flavor , with many restaurants serving food over a banana leaf . Eating on a banana leaf is an old custom and imparts a unique flavor to the food and is considered healthy . North Indian , Chinese and continental cuisines are also available . Idly , dosa , paniyaram and appam are popular dishes . Coimbatore has an active street food culture and various cuisine options for dining . Arisi Paruppu Sadam , made from a mixture of dal and rice is a recipe that existed from fourth century CE and unique to the area . Kaalaan is a popular dish prepared by simmering deep fried mushrooms ( usually chopped mushroom ) in a spicy broth , until it reaches a porridge like consistency and served sprinkled with chopped onions and coriander leaves .
= = = Arts = = =
Swamikannu Vincent , who had built the first cinema of south India in Coimbatore , introduced the concept of Tent Cinema in which a tent was erected on an open land to screen the films . Central Studios was set up in 1935 while S. M. Sriramulu Naidu established Pakshiraja Studios in 1945 . The city conducts its own music festival every year . Art , dance and music concerts are held annually during the months of September and December ( Tamil calendar month – Margazhi ) . Coimbatore also houses a number of museums and art galleries like G.D. Naidu Museum & Industrial Exhibition , H A Gass Forest Museum , Government Museum , Kadhi Gandhi Gallery and Kasthuri Srinivasan Art Gallery and Textile Museum .
= = Transport = =
= = = Air = = =
The city is served by the Coimbatore International Airport at Peelamedu 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from the city centre . The airport commenced operations in 1940 as a civil aerodrome with Indian Airlines operating Fokker F27 , Douglas DC @-@ 3 and later Hawker Siddeley HS 748 aircraft . The then Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh declared the government 's intention to upgrade the Coimbatore Airport to International status in a meeting with senior ministers on 6 June 2012 and it was granted the status of international airport by the Union Cabinet on 2 October 2012 . The airport is operated by Airports Authority of India and caters to domestic flights to major Indian cities and international flights to Sharjah and Singapore . As of 2014 @-@ 15 , the airport was the 15th largest airport in India in terms of total aircraft movement , 18th largest in terms of passengers handled and 13th largest in terms of cargo handled . It has a single runway , which is 9 @,@ 760 feet ( 2 @,@ 970 m ) in length and is capable of handling large aircraft . Air Carnival , a proposed airline is expected to commence operations in 2016 with the airport as its hub .
Sulur Air Force Station , located at Kangayampalayam is an air base operated by the Indian Air Force and accommodates Antonov An @-@ 32 heavy air lifter aircraft , Mil Mi @-@ 8 transport helicopters and the HAL Dhruv helicopters of the Sarang helicopter display team . The first squadron of ingeniously built HAL Tejas will be inducted at Sulur AFS and Sukhoi Su @-@ 30MKI aircraft will be stationed at the base by 2016 .
= = = Rail = = =
Train service in Coimbatore started in 1861 , upon the construction of the Podanur – Madras line connecting Kerala and the west coast with the rest of India . Coimbatore lies on the Coimbatore - Shoranur Broad gauge railway line and the city falls under the Salem Division of the Southern Railway zone of Indian Railways . The major railway station is the Coimbatore Junction which is the second @-@ largest income generating station in the Southern Railway zone after Chennai Central and is amongst the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railways . Other major railway stations catering to the city include Coimbatore North Junction , Podanur Junction and minor stations at Peelamedu , Singanallur , Irugur Junction , Perianaikanpalayam , Madukkarai , Somanur and Sulur .
= = = = Monorail = = = =
In 2012 , Coimbatore Municipal Corporation proposed three monorail routes . The first circular route will connect Gandhipuram with Ganapathy , Sivananda Colony , Sai Baba colony , RS Puram , Townhall and City Railway Station . The second circular route will connect Podanur with Trichy Road , Sungam , Redfields , Race Course , City Railway Station and Ukkadam . A linear line was proposed from Chinniampalayam to TNAU via airport , CODISSIA , PSG Tech , Lakshmi Mills , Gandhipuram , Coimbatore North Junction and Cowley Brown Road . Vadavalli and Thondamuthur were included in the linear line as part of the phase extension .
= = = Road = = =
There are six major arterial roads in the city : Avinashi road , Trichy road , Sathy road , Mettupalayam road , Palakkad road and Pollachi road . Coimbatore bypass is a series of bypasses connecting the various National Highways and State Highways passing through and originating from Coimbatore . The first section of the bypass , a 28 @-@ kilometre ( 17 mi ) stretch from Neelambur to Madukkarai on National Highway 544 opened for traffic in 2000 . It was the first road privatisation project to be implemented on a build – operate – transfer model in South India . In 2008 , the State Highways department came up with a proposal to create a Ring road to help de @-@ congest the main arterial roads and the 12 km road would extend from Peelamedu to Mettupalayam road . In 2011 , the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu announced the construction of two new flyovers at Ukkadam and Athupalam to help de @-@ congest the Palakkad Road . In 2012 , the Government of Tamil Nadu decided in favour of an eastern road that connected Mettupalayam Road with Avinashi Road and the existing bypass . The city municipal corporation is undertaking the construction of six rail @-@ over @-@ bridges in the city . There are five National Highways passing through the city :
Apart from State and National Highways , the city corporation maintains a 635 @.@ 32 kilometres ( 394 @.@ 77 miles ) long road network . Town buses started operating in 1921 and serve most parts of the city , as well as other towns and villages in the district . The number of inter @-@ city routes operated by Coimbatore division is 119 with a fleet of more than 500 buses . It also operates town buses on 257 intra @-@ city routes . The intra @-@ city buses operate from major bus stations in Gandhipuram , Singanallur and Ukkadam to other parts across the city . Inter @-@ city and intra @-@ city buses that connect Coimbatore operate from different bus stands :
Coimbatore BRTS is a proposed bus rapid transit project under the JNNURM scheme of the Government of India . It is planned along a 27 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 17 @.@ 1 mi ) stretch connecting Avinashi road and Mettupalayam road . The city is also served by auto rickshaws and radio taxi services . Coimbatore has four Regional Transport Offices viz . TN 37 ( South ) , TN 38 ( North ) , TN 66 ( Central ) , TN 99 ( West ) .
= = Education = =
Coimbatore is a major educational hub . The first college of Coimbatore , Government Arts College , was opened in 1875 . The first engineering college in the city , the Arthur Hope College of Technology ( now known as the Government College of Technology , Coimbatore ) , was started by G.D. Naidu in 1945 followed later by private engineering colleges PSG College of Technology and Coimbatore Institute of Technology in the 1950s . The Air Force Administrative College , established in 1949 , is the oldest training institute of the Indian Air Force . Coimbatore Medical College was opened in 1966 and the Government law college started functioning from 1978 . The agricultural school established in 1868 was converted into a full @-@ fledged agricultural university Tamil Nadu Agricultural University in 1971 and the Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History was opened in 1990 .
As of 2010 , the district is home to 7 universities , 78 engineering colleges , 3 medical colleges , 2 dental colleges , 35 polytechnics and 150 arts and science colleges . The city houses three government run universities Tamil Nadu Agricultural University , Bharathiar University , Anna University Coimbatore and four private universities . The city houses Government research institutes including the Central Institute for Cotton Research , Sugarcane Breeding Research Institute , Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding ( IFGTB ) , Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education and Tamil Nadu Institute of Urban Studies . In 2008 , Government of India announced a plan to establish a world class university in the region .
Three types of schools operate in Coimbatore : government run schools , schools funded by the government but run by private trusts ( aided schools ) and schools funded completely by private trusts . Schools may follow Tamil Nadu Anglo Indian School Board , Tamil Nadu State Board , Matriculation or CBSE syllabus . The city falls under the purview of Coimbatore Education District . In 2013 , 45 @,@ 863 students appeared for SSLC examinations and the pass percentage was 94 @.@ 12 % .
= = Utility services = =
= = = Media = = =
Four major English newspapers The Hindu , The Times of India , Deccan Chronicle and The New Indian Express bring out editions from the city . Business Line , a business newspaper also brings out a Coimbatore edition . Tamil newspapers which have Coimbatore editions include Dinamalar , Dina Thanthi , Dinamani , Dinakaran , Tamil Murasu and Maalai Malar ( both evening newspapers ) . Two Malayalam newspapers – Malayala Manorama and Mathrubhumi also have considerable circulation in the city . Lotus News is headquartered in Coimbatore .
A Medium wave radio station is operated by All India Radio , with programs in Tamil , English and Hindi . Five FM radio stations operate from Coimbatore – Rainbow FM , Suryan FM , Radio Mirchi , Radio City and Hello FM . All these private radio stations air exclusively Tamil based programs , including film music . Television relay started in 1985 from Delhi Doordarshan and in 1986 , after inception of the repeater tower at Kodaikanal , telecast from Madras commenced . In 2005 , Doordarshan opened its studio in Coimbatore . Television services are accessible through DTH or digital cable .
= = = Telecommunication = = =
Coimbatore has a well @-@ connected communications infrastructure . Till the 1990s the state owned Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) was the only telecommunication service provider in the city . In the 1990s , private telecom companies too started offering their services . As of 2010 , BSNL , Reliance Communications , Bharti Airtel and Tata Teleservices offer broadband service and fixed line services . MTS offers mobile broadband services . Cellular telephony was first introduced in 1997 and mobile telephone services available . Coimbatore is the headquarters of the Tamil Nadu circle of cellular service providers .
= = = Healthcare = = =
As of 2010 , the size of the health care industry in Coimbatore is estimated at ₹ 1 @,@ 500 crore ( US $ 220 million ) . There are around 750 hospitals in the city with an in @-@ patient capacity of 5 @,@ 000 beds . The first health care centre in the city was started in 1909 . In 1969 , it was upgraded to Coimbatore Medical College Hospital , a government run tertiary care hospital with 1020 beds and provides free health care . The city corporation maintains 16 dispensaries and 2 maternity homes . People from nearby districts and the state of Kerala visit Coimbatore for medical tourism due to the availability of hospitals and healthcare facilities .
= = Sports and recreation = =
Coimbatore is often referred to as the " India 's motorsports hub " and the " Backyard of Indian Motorsports " . S.Karivardhan designed and built entry level race cars and the Kari Motor Speedway , a Formula 3 Category circuit is named after him . Tyre manufacturer MRF assembles Formula Ford cars in Coimbatore in association with former F3 Champion J. Anand and racing company Super Speeds designs Formula cars . Rallying is another major event with rallies conducted in closed roads around Coimbatore . Narain Karthikeyan , India 's first Formula One driver hails from the city and other motorsport drivers from Coimbatore include J. Anand and V. R. Naren Kumar .
Nehru Stadium , built originally for football also hosts athletic meets . The stadium has been renovated with Korean grass for the field and a synthetic track around it for athletics . Apart from the stadium , other sporting venues include the Coimbatore Golf Course , a 18 @-@ hole golf course and Coimbatore Cosmopolitan Club , which is more than 100 years old . Coimbatore Flying Club is located in the Coimbatore airport premises . The city hosts its own annual marathon called Coimbatore Marathon as an event to raise cancer awareness . Retired tennis player Nirupama Vaidyanathan , who became the first Indian woman in the modern era to feature and win a round at a main draw Grand Slam in 1998 Australian Open hails from Coimbatore . Coimbatore District Chess Association ( CDCA ) , established in 1940 is the oldest chess association in the country .
= = = Recreation = = =
There are several amusement parks around the city , namely : Black Thunder water theme park near Mettupalayam , Kovai Kondattam amusement park at Perur and Maharaja Theme Park at Nillambur . Since the 1980s , the city has had a few small shopping complexes and major shopping malls include Brookefields Mall and Fun Republic Mall . The city also has a number of parks including the VOC park , the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University park , Race Course Children 's park and Bharathi park in Saibaba Colony . Coimbatore Zoo houses a number of animals and birds and is located near VOC park . The grounds are used for conducting fairs and events including the annual Independence day and Republic day celebrations . Singanallur Lake is a popular tourist place and bird watcher destination . Popular cinemas include KG Cinemas , The Cinema and Cinépolis .
= = Environmental issues = =
Air pollution , lack of proper waste management infrastructure and degradation of water bodies are the major environmental issues in Coimbatore . There is a sewage treatment plant at Ukkadam with the capacity to process 70 million litres of sewage water per day . Garbage is collected by the corporation and sewage is pumped into the water tanks and the Noyyal river through streams . This along with garbage dumping and encroachments has led to degradation of the water bodies and depletion in the groundwater table . The tanks are renovated by the city 's environmental groups with their own fund @-@ raising and the corporation . The corporation is responsible and involved in clearing encroachment of the tanks . Siruthuli , an environmental organisation founded by the city 's industrial houses , undertakes de @-@ silting of tanks and cleaning of the Noyyal river . Environment Conservation Group based out of the city is also involved in conservation of trees and wetlands , monitoring wildlife crime and conducting awareness sessions for students .
= = International relations = =
Coimbatore has sister city relationship with Toledo , Ohio . The relation has enabled exchange in the fields of arts and education between the cities . A twin city pact with the German city of Esslingen was signed in July 2016 with the relation enabling the cities to collaborate on areas of mutual interest , health , education , culture and social development .
Alliance Française de Madras , a Franco @-@ Indian non @-@ profit association promoting the growth of French in India has a centre at PSG Institute of Management in Coimbatore .
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= Ioan Gyuri Pascu =
Ioan Gyuri Pascu ( Romanian pronunciation : [ iˈo ̯ an ˈɡjuri ˈpasku ] ; also credited as Ioan Ghiurico Pascu , Gyuri Pascu and Ghyuri Pascu ; born August 31 , 1961 ) is a Romanian pop music singer , producer , actor and comedian , also known for his participation in the comedy troupe Divertis and for his activity in Romanian cinema and television . Moving between rock music , rhythm and blues , reggae and jazz , the multi @-@ instrumentalist Pascu founded a number of bands and registered success particularly during the early 1990s , when he was the lead singer of a group known as The Blue Workers . Pascu was the manager of several alternative music acts with his label Tempo Music , and remains an outspoken critic of Romanian commercial radio .
Noted for his impressions and musical acts within Divertis ' political satire shows , Pascu is also a successful actor , appearing in film productions such as Lucian Pintilie 's An Unforgettable Summer and Cristian Mungiu 's Occident , and portraying known characters in Romanian theater in various stage adaptations . He has had collaboration with several main television stations , including TVR 1 , Antena 1 and Pro TV . He has contributions as a printed media journalist , with sports columns , and is also a writer of Christian literature . He received an offer from Walt Disney Pictures , and he provides the voice of King Louie in 2006 for the Romanian version of the film , The Jungle Book .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Pascu is a native of Agnita ( at the time part of Braşov Region , now in Sibiu County ) , where he graduated from primary school . He was born to an ethnic Romanian father and a half @-@ Hungarian mother ; on his mother 's side , he is also the descendant of Poles and Slovaks . His mother was a Roman Catholic and his father , like Gyuri , was a Romanian Orthodox . His name reflects his complex heritage : Ioan was chosen as his Romanian name ; his second name was the Hungarian Gyurika , but it was recorded as Ghiurico in his birth certificate and personal documents ever since — as Pascu later indicated , this was because neither his father nor the notary were familiar with Hungarian phonology . Pascu , who is fluent in the Hungarian language , prefers the hypocoristic Gyuri .
Pascu began to study piano when he was nine years old , and sang soprano in his school choir , entertaining his friends with impressions of well @-@ known pop singers . During fifth grade , he started playing handball with an amateur team , discarding piano lessons and contemplating a career in acting . He also taught himself guitar .
At age fourteen , Pascu 's voice changed . He was still a soprano in the choir , but had to use his head voice . As a high school student , Pascu had to enlist in the Union of Communist Youth ( UTC ) , the Romanian communist regime compulsory youth organization . In 1976 , he enrolled at the Agnita High School , which later became the Agro @-@ Industrial High School . The same year , he gave up handball and began a more formal study of guitar music , using the Maria Boeru textbook as his guide . He debuted as an amateur actor in 1977 , with a school theater performance at the Agnita House of Culture .
Pascu was also interested in the Cenaclul Flacăra concerts , an outlet for American folk @-@ inspired and folk rock , tolerated under communism . He became familiar with Western music acts such as Olivia Newton @-@ John and Queen , and active in the UTC 's cultural brigade , wrote and performed his first folk @-@ rock numbers .
= = = Trandafirii Negri and Fundal = = =
In May 1978 , Pascu attended an International Workers ' Day celebration in Mediaş , where he befriended brothers Septimiu and Horia Moldovan , who were in the same band as pop singer Elena Cârstea . According to Pascu 's official site , they played Western rock hits for him , including Deep Purple 's " Child in Time " and Uriah Heep 's " July Morning " . Between 1978 and 1980 , Pascu sang with the Moldovans ' band Trandafirii Negri , and was invited to perform with them at wedding parties and similar festivities . With the money he earned , he purchased his first acoustic guitar directly from the factory in Reghin , and taught himself to play drums . He composed one of his first published songs , " Melancolie " ( " Melancholy " ) , in 1979 .
In 1980 , Pascu applied for Târgu Mureş ' Szentgyörgyi István Drama School , but failed the entry exam . He worked in a state @-@ owned factory as a lathe operator , and for several months in 1980 , was conscripted into the Romanian Land Forces , where he met other amateur musicians who were undergoing military training . Together they founded the rock band Fundal , with Pascu as lead singer and drummer . They performed in the nationwide Cântarea României festival .
In 1982 , their military term over , Pascu and Fundal returned to Mediaş , where Pascu was discovered by Romanian Radio 's Radio Vacanţa station . He was invited to perform at the station 's youth concerts , where he met and befriended Teo Peter , bass player for Compact , and music promoter Andrei Partoş . During 1982 , Pascu also played Cenaclul Flacăra concerts , and was billed for the UTC 's Scînteia Tineretului shows . He later described his mentoring by rock singers Cristi Minculescu , Liviu Tudan , Adi Ordean and Vladi Cnejevici as his " third real school " . In 1980 , Pascu also discovered and became influenced by reggae music . He was introduced to the reggae style by The Police and its reggae fusion sessions , then became a fan of reggae numbers played by African diaspora students in Romanian universities . Twenty years later , Pascu told reporters : " Between 1980 and 1985 , I was mad about Bob Marley . "
= = = University years and Divertis debut = = =
In 1984 , Pascu moved to Cluj @-@ Napoca , and was admitted into the Cluj University Faculty of Letters , studying Romanian and Spanish . He had applied for the similar faculty at the University of Bucharest twice , but failed the entry exam . Soon after admission , he joined the university 's theatrical company Ars Amatoria şi Fiii , mentored by literary critic Ion Vartic . He performed radio comedy and parody theater during this time , and was involved in Vartic 's Echinox literary club . Pascu continued his interest in sports , particularly soccer , and was a noted fan of the college soccer team FC Universitatea Cluj .
In 1986 , while Ars Amatoria was touring Bucharest with an adaptation of Ion Luca Caragiale 's plays , Pascu met and befriended members of the comedic ensemble and student group Divertis , which performed subtle political satire against Nicolae Ceauşescu 's communist rule . Pascu had been a Divertis fan since 1982 and recalled , " I met with the Divertis boys after a show . They liked me [ and ] asked me to join the group " . His first performance with Divertis took place in 1987 , at Izvoru Mureşului resort in Harghita County . Pascu resumed his musical career , and also in 1987 , was invited by Partoş to sing at a summer festival in Deva .
In 1988 @-@ 1989 , upon graduation , Pascu taught Romanian language and literature at a primary school in Ulmu , Călăraşi County , but gave up to pursue his singing career . Late in 1989 , he was in Semenic , where he met Mircea Baniciu , former member of Romania 's leading rock band Transsylvania Phoenix . He was a guest in Baniciu 's home just as the anti @-@ communist Revolution erupted in Timişoara . He rejoined Divertis in Iaşi , but their scheduled show there was broken up by the communist authorities .
With the end of communism , Pascu diversified his career as an entertainer . After performing a solo music recital in February 1990 , he renewed his contract with Divertis , and toured the country with them . Later that year , Divertis performed for the first time in a series of comedy shows airing on Romanian Television channels . The group worked with filmmaker and Traffic Police officer Virgil Vochină , adding comedy bits to his serialized road safety campaign , Reflecţii rutiere ( " Roadside Reflections " ) . From December 1990 to 1992 , Pascu was employed as a program editor by the same station .
In 1992 , with Mircea Rusu , Pascu released the extended play recording Ar putea fi ( " It Could Be " ) . In partnership with his girlfriend Daniela Marin , he founded Tempo Music , which claimed to be Romania 's first independent music label . Pascu also founded his own band , The Blue Workers .
= = = First musical and comedic hits = = =
Pascu recalled that during the 1990s , Divertis had to perform dozens of consecutive encores while on tour , which interfered with the group 's regular Twin Peaks viewing parties . According to Gardianul newspaper , Pascu 's activity with Divertis turned him into " one of the most popular figures in homegrown comedy " . In his 2006 interview with Dilema Veche , Divertis founder Toni Grecu recalled that Pascu was notable as the only group member not born in the historical region of Moldavia .
In 1993 , Pascu experienced his first significant success in music with the album Mixed Grill and the single " Ţara arde şi babele se piaptănă " ( " The Country Is Burning and Old Women Are Combing Their Hair " , referencing a Romanian proverb ) . A poll conducted by the journal Evenimentul Zilei nominated the track as the best song of 1993 , and the nationwide station Radio Contact awarded Pascu its " Composer of the Year " title . Mixed Grill marked Pascu 's brief experimentation with a fusion of rock and reggae . Hits such as " Gizzi " and " Mi @-@ am luat colac " ( " I Got Me a Lifebuoy " ) led some to consider him one of the pioneers of Romanian reggae , years ahead of acts like El Negro and Pacha Man . The mix of genres became characteristic of Pascu 's work in music : " When I was writing records , I figured that , should someone , say , be playing my record at a party , they would have several kinds to choose from , and they would not grow bored . But it 's not because of that , I think that 's how inspiration visits me , that this is how I write . I won 't stick to any one musical genre . " In addition to the piano , guitar and drums , Pascu also began playing the harmonica .
Soon after marrying Daniela Marin in August 1993 , Pascu was invited by director Lucian Pintilie to star in his film An Unforgettable Summer , alongside Kristin Scott Thomas , Claudiu Bleonţ and Marcel Iureş . Pascu , who referred to filming on location as his mock @-@ honeymoon , received good reviews for his performance .
Over the following years , Pascu and The Blue Workers released two EPs , the rhythm and blues record Maşina cu jazzolină ( " The Jazzolin Engine " ) and Caseta pentru minte , inimă şi gură ( " The Cassette for the Mind , Heart and Mouth " ) . Pascu also appeared on a number of comedy recordings released by Divertis , earning Pascu the reputation of a protest song writer . He was inspired by Romanian politics and the social debates of the 1990s to write hits like " Morcovul românesc " ( " The Romanian Carrot " ) and " Instalatorul " ( " The Plumber " ) . Pascu acknowledged his political streak , recognized what he considered the necessary link between social phenomena and a songwriter 's cultural perspective , and argued that songs should always tell a story . One of the parody songs included on Maşina cu jazzolină , titled " Africa , Africa " , drew special interest in cultural circles with its satirical undertones . The lyrics suggested that modern Romania was no better than the average African nation . According to historian Sorin Mitu , " Africa , Africa " showed " the Romanians ' tendency to relate to extra @-@ European realities " , a trend he observed during Ceauşescu 's final decade , and then throughout the early post @-@ revolutionary period .
In 1995 , after a series of festivals where he sang together with The Blue Workers , Pascu had a solo recital at Braşov 's Golden Stag Festival , and was awarded the Best Album trophy by the music magazine Actualitatea Muzicală , for Maşina cu jazzolină . He was also the opening act for Western rock groups touring Romania : the British bands Jethro Tull , Beats International and Asia , and Germany 's Scorpions . As a television actor , Pascu was also taking part in the development of Romania 's advertising industry . He is chiefly remembered in pop culture as the spokesman for Connex , one of the first mobile phone operators in Romania , with the catchphrase Alo , Maria ? ( " Hello , Maria ? " ) .
In February 1997 , Pascu released the album Gânduri nevinovate ( " Innocent Thoughts " ) . According to his website , it can be considered as Pascu 's " first less commercial record . " Pascu 's daughter , Ana Iarina , was born later in the same month .
After 1997 , Pascu prioritized his activity as a music promoter and producer . Between 1998 and 2000 , he and his wife helped launch successful pop and alternative rock acts such as Vama Veche , Domnişoara Pogany and Dinu Olăraşu . After releasing the song collection Poveştile lui Gyuri ( " Gyuri 's Stories " ) in 1999 , he gave up music , stating that he had become disenchanted with newer pop trends , but returned in 2000 with a limited @-@ release record titled Lasă ( muzică de casă ) , " Leave It ( Home Music ) " . As stated on his website , the record registered success with " his closest fans " and with members of the Romanian @-@ American community .
= = = From Occident to Felix şi Otilea = = =
Also in 2000 , Pascu began working with filmmaker Cristian Mungiu . He wrote the soundtrack to Mungiu 's short film Zapping and appeared with Mircea Diaconu in Mungiu 's medium @-@ length film Corul pompierilor . They collaborated in Occident , which featured music composed by Pascu and his supporting role as " Gică " , opposite Alexandru Papadopol ( " Luci " ) . This contribution earned Pascu critical accolades . Film critic Alex . Leo Şerban referred to Pascu 's " memorable " performance as Papadopol 's " cynical , good for all neighbor " , and cultural journalist Eugenia Vodă suggested that the " authentic by definition " Pascu added " diaphanous touches " to Mungiu 's black comedy .
Two years after Occident 's premiere , Pascu released the album Stângul de a visa ( " The Left to Dream " ) , which was less of a commercial success and as Pascu noted , was inconsistent with the editorial policies of commercial radio . According to his website , it was not promoted by the mainstream radio stations , and sold most of its copies during live performances . In a 2009 interview , Pascu argued , " Every time I had songs to pitch , [ the stations ] would say : ' they 're good , but they don 't fit in with our policies . ' [ ... ] If commercial radio stations were to count , I haven 't had put out a record since 1993 . " He also thanked the file sharing community for circulating copies of his music , even though he lost some royalties . Pascu voiced his opposition to the singing competitions phenomenon , stating that as a one @-@ time member of the Mamaia Festival jury , he had a " bittersweet " experience of Romanian pop politics .
Pascu toured the country to mark the celebration of his 20th year in music , mostly performing in provincial clubs . He continued to give occasional concerts ( including as an opening act for Italian singer Albano Carrisi in Arad ) , and starting in 2003 , hosted the musical talk show Taverna on the national television channel , TVR 1 . With Divertis , Pascu became a co @-@ host of a regular comedy program on Antena 1 , which filmed on location in the United States . He had a recurring sketch on the show titled Felix şi Otilea ( " Felix and Otilea " ) , opposite female pop singers Monica Anghel and Jojo , and comedians Cătălin Mireuţă and Daniel Buzdugan . He was a voice actor on Animat Planet , a cartoon show produced by Divertis for Antena 1 . For these contributions , Pascu was designated " the best comedian of 2003 " in a TVR 1 poll .
He released the solo albums O stea ( " A Star " ) and Jocul de @-@ a joaca ( " Pretending to Play " ) , both in 2004 . In July 2005 , he was invited to sing Brazil 's National Anthem at an exhibition soccer match between the 1994 World Cup @-@ winning Brazilian squad and the Romanian team . The same year , he released a greatest hits record , titled 12 ani , 12 balade ( " 12 Years , 12 Ballads " ) . Pascu reunited with The Blue Workers for a 2005 nationwide tour and a 2006 performance at the Children 's Palace in Bucharest . They appeared at ProEtnica festival in Sighişoara , which celebrated ethnic minorities and the practice of toleration .
Pascu parted with Divertis in 2007 . At the time , he indicated that he could no longer handle their tight schedule . The break was not total , though , since Pascu continued to appear on Animat Planet . In a 2007 interview , reflecting on that show 's impact , he stated , " I 'm not much of a fan of political humor . I simply like the impromptu kind of humor [ ... ] . If [ the joke ] happens to be political , it is because that is what we have to do in this series . " In 2012 , he asserted that his break with political humor was definitive , and against the consensus in Divertis — in 2007 , Pascu noted there was already a disagreement between him and Toni Grecu . Shortly after his departure , a conflict between Grecu and the other Divertis actors broke Divertis into competing halves .
Pascu released the album La jumătatea vieţii ( " Halfway through Life " ) at Cluj @-@ Napoca recital , in November 2007 . He resumed his stage career during this time as well . In spring 2007 , he starred as Rică Venturiano in an adaption of Caragiale 's O noapte furtunoasă , commemorating the 130th anniversary of the play 's first public performance . Pascu appeared in Marius Barna 's documentary film Utopia impusă ( " Forced Utopia " ) , which investigated ordinary life in Communist Romania , with singer Dan Bittman , literary critic Ion Bogdan Lefter , actor @-@ politician Mircea Diaconu , and historian Marius Oprea .
= = = Writing debut and Pro TV projects = = =
At the age of forty , Pascu began publishing Christian literature , specializing in essays about mysticism . When asked about his beliefs , he declared himself inspired by the Orthodox priest Arsenie Boca and Bulgarian @-@ born New Age mystic Omraam Mikhaël Aïvanhov . In 2007 , he said , " We must understand that our destiny , our earthly road , is that of rebuilding the connection with Divinity , with God . " Although an Orthodox , Pascu went on pilgrimage to the Roman Catholic Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes .
Pascu was also asked to appear in a Hungarian @-@ produced film , in the role of a Romanian Police officer , and starred in a stage production of Eugène Ionesco 's Le Viscomte . He had cameos in television commercials and wrote sports columns in periodicals , including the leisure magazine Time Out Bucharest . In the 2008 @-@ 2009 season , he played Chief Inspector Fane Popovici in Vine poliţia ! , a comedy series produced by Pro TV and based on Spain 's Los Hombres de Paco . Television critic Cezar Paul @-@ Bădescu called it a " catastrophic " failure .
In April 2009 , Pascu provided the comedic intermezzos at UNITER Awards Gala , but his performance received mixed reviews . Three months later , he was the opening act for American folk artist Suzanne Vega at her Bucharest show . Pascu noted that he had honored the invitation only after consulting with his daughter , a Vega fan , and that he adapted his electric guitar songs to the " unplugged " setting , playing the mandolin .
In autumn , he reunited with most of his Divertis colleagues after they moved from Antena 1 to Pro TV . He appeared in a Metropolis Theater production of The Lower Depths by Maxim Gorky , with veteran Ştefan Radof in the lead role . The play opened to good reviews , and Pascu 's presence , along with that of other comedic actors ( Alexandru Bindea , Tudorel Filimon ) , was considered an unusual directorial touch to Gorky 's tragedy . Pascu and his Blue Workers performed at the Sibiu Jazz Festival . Late in 2009 , Pascu and his wife agreed to a divorce .
In April 2010 , Pascu sparked criticism in the media when he agreed to perform at a Timişoara rally of Gregorian Bivolaru 's Yoga movement ( MISA ) . Bivolaru 's legal troubles and allegations regarding MISA 's sexual policies were the center of public debates ; when contacted by reporters , Pascu stressed that it was a regular gig and stated , " Those people have never harmed me and I have no reason to be avoiding their company . " Pascu 's activities for that year included other live concerts , including one held during the Bookfest event of June . In November , he was a guest at the Mircea Baniciu tribute concert , entertaining the public with musical impressions of folk singers Nicu Alifantis and Victor Socaciu , and performing Pasărea Colibri classics . Pascu also purchased his own drinking establishment and live music venue , a Bucharest tavern he named Gyuri 's Pub , which hosted performances by the Moldovan folk singer Radu Captari . A collaborator of Pascu on solo music projects during spring 2010 , Captari sang and played the guitar while riding a horse .
= = = 2010 stroke and Divertis split = = =
In late 2010 , it was reported that Pascu had suffered a stroke and was recovering at the University Hospital of Bucharest . Romania 's media speculated that the stroke was caused by the stress of his divorce , although Pascu had stated that the separation was amiable . His career was jeopardized by the stroke , so Pascu decided to quit drinking alcohol . Pascu resumed artistic life , studying for the part of Cadâr in Victor Ion Popa 's comedy Take , Ianke and Cadâr . The production went on a tour of Romanian theaters in the early months of 2011 .
Pascu returned to Land of Jokes , the comedic series produced by one half of Divertis for Pro TV , where he played the lead character Nemuriciul ( a spoof on Highlander : The Series ) . His return highlighted the conflict between Toni Grecu , who was producing a political comedy show for the same station , and the less politicized Land of Jokes . In June 2011 , Pascu and the other Land of Jokes comedians announced that their split with Divertis was final , and that their contract with Pro TV had reached an end . In an interview with Adevărul daily , the freelance comedians announced that they were considering other offers ; Pascu criticized Pro TV 's focus on producing talent shows . Pascu later acknowledged that he strongly disliked Pro TV features such as Romania 's Got Talent , even though his daughter Iarina appeared on it as part of a gospel music ensemble .
The new comedy troupe took the name Distractis , since " the Land of Jokes brand was left with Pro TV " , and in August 2011 , signed with TVR 1 . Media analyst Iulian Comanescu stated about the move , " The [ Distractis ] program managed a fifth place in ratings . It is the beginning of the end for one of the most upright and best loved brands in Romanian television . "
In October 2011 , Pascu returned to Cluj @-@ Napoca as a celebrity host for the inauguration of Cluj Arena , home ground of the soccer club Universitatea . He traveled to Seattle and performed at a fund @-@ raiser for a new Romanian Orthodox cultural center in America . In early 2012 , he centered his musical activity on Suceava County , working with local singer @-@ songwriter Lian Cubleşan . Their collaboration resulted in the ballad album Tropa , Tropa ... € uropa ! , released on January 20 at Câmpulung Moldovenesc , where Pascu and The Blue Workers performed a concert . Pascu appeared with his Occident colleague Mircea Diaconu on the short film Loto , playing the role of a car salesman .
= = Discography = =
Ar putea fi ( EP , 1992 )
Mixed Grill ( studio album , 1993 )
Maşina cu jazzolină ( studio album , 1994 )
Casetă pentru minte , inimă şi gură ( studio album , 1996 )
Gânduri nevinovate ( studio album , 1997 )
Lasă ( muzică de casă ) ( studio album , 2000 )
Stângul de a visa ( studio album , 2002 )
Prinde o stea ( studio album , 2003 )
Jocul de @-@ a joaca ( studio album , 2004 )
12 ani , 12 balade ( greatest hits album , 2005 )
La jumătatea vieţii ( studio album , 2007 )
Tropa , Tropa ... € uropa ! ( with Lian Cubleşan ; studio album , 2012 )
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= Open House ( Breaking Bad ) =
" Open House " is the third episode of the fourth season of the American television drama series Breaking Bad , and the 36th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on July 31 , 2011 . In the episode , Walter and Skyler advance their plans to buy a car wash as a front organization , while Jesse holds increasingly darker parties to distract from his guilt for having killed Gale . Meanwhile , Marie starts stealing to cope with the difficult recovery of her husband Hank , who is asked to offer his advice regarding Gale 's murder investigation .
The episode was written by Sam Catlin and directed by filmmaker David Slade , marking his first time directing for television . It featured guest appearances by Nigel Gibbs and stand @-@ up comedian Bill Burr , the latter of whom specifically sought to appear on the show . The footage shown from the first @-@ person perspective of Gus ' camera is actual footage from the real camera . Marie 's return to the kleptomania she demonstrated in the first season was conceived early during brainstorming sessions for the third season .
Breaking Bad music supervisor Thomas Golubić sought to select music for Jesse 's party sequences appropriate for the dark tone of the scenes , including the song " If I Had a Heart " by Swedish musician Fever Ray . " Open House " was viewed by an estimated 1 @.@ 714 million viewers and received a 0 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins as Walt furiously notices a motion @-@ detecting surveillance camera that has been installed in the lab . Later that day , Skyler convinces Walt in a meeting with Saul to buy the car wash by mentioning how the owner insulted his manhood . She devises a plan to trick the owner into selling by having a con artist ( supplied by Saul ) pretend to be a water @-@ tester who is shutting down the business out of concerns over contaminants . The owner promptly sells to her , agreeing to an even lower price than her original offer . Jesse is still feeling numb from recent events , attempting to clear his head with nostalgic go @-@ kart trips . He continues to open his house up for all @-@ night drug @-@ fueled orgies , deliberately throwing piles of money in the midst of the chaos . Angry and frustrated by Hank 's continuous cold shoulder , Marie resumes her kleptomania ; she starts stealing objects from real @-@ estate open houses , where she also makes up elaborate stories about who she is , but is eventually caught by a real @-@ estate agent . A livid Hank pulls strings with a senior police officer to get her out of being charged . The same officer drops by the Schrader residence to seek Hank 's help by giving him Gale 's lab notes to look at . Hank initially shoves away the notebook , but begins to read it later that night .
= = Production = =
" Open House " was written by Sam Catlin and directed by David Slade , marking his first time directing for television . Slade was a fan of Breaking Bad and sought to direct an episode of the show . Filmed in February 2011 , the episode was edited by Skip MacDonald , one of a handful of editors who have regularly worked on the series . Nigel Gibbs reprised his role as detective Tim Roberts , whom he portrayed in the second season episode " Grilled " . Stand @-@ up comedian Bill Burr made a guest appearance as the man who poses as an environmental inspector for Skyler . Burr was cast after he expressed interest in appearing on the show to Breaking Bad extras casting directors Sharon Bialy and Sherry Thomas . Series creator Vince Gilligan said , " We just waste so much time here in the writer 's room by getting on YouTube and watching some of his routines . " Stand @-@ up comedian Lavell Crawford reprised his recurring role as Huell , Saul 's bodyguard , and Jennifer Hasty also made a guest appearance as Stephanie Doswell , the realtor who exposes Marie 's thefts .
Although credited Giancarlo Esposito does not appear .
The concept of Gus installing a surveillance camera into the meth lab stemmed from the idea of Walter and Gus employing what Gilligan called " brinkmanship and gamesmanship " against each other after their falling out at the end of the third season . Gilligan commented : " What 's one way Gus can amp up the story there ? How can he mess with Walt 's head a little bit ? " The footage shown from the first @-@ person perspective of the camera is actual footage from the real camera , including the numbers shown at the top and bottom of the screen . This is why that shot is shown in pillarbox and in lower quality than the rest of the episode , which was shot in 35 mm film . The episode features a subplot with Marie engaging in acts of kleptomania , which had been a major part of her character during the first season . Catlin said it was conceived early on that Marie would act this way while brainstorming the ideas for Marie coping with Hank 's difficult recovery . Gilligan described Marie 's acts of stealing as a respite for her : " She 's looking for another life , but she 's not actively ready to leave her husband or anything like that . ... We liked the quirkiness of it . " Betsy Brandt said " Open House " was her favorite episode of the season to shoot .
The idea of Jesse riding go @-@ karts by himself to relax was inspired by Aaron Paul and other crew members who often went kart racing between filming of Breaking Bad episodes in Albuquerque , New Mexico . During one of the party scenes at Jesse 's house , Jesse keeps throwing crumpled dollar bills at the mouth of a sleeping man wearing a dress shirt and tie with no pants until he finally gets one inside his mouth . Catlin thought of the idea , and it was property master Trina Siopy actually throwing the bills off @-@ screen ; she got one into the actor 's mouth on her second try . The scenes in Jesse 's house were shot on a set in a sound stage built by production designer Mark Freeborn and construction coordinator William Gilpin . Although scenes in Jesse 's house are occasionally filmed in an actual house , these particular scenes could not be shot there because the party was so messy .
The party scenes sought to illustrate Jesse 's internal guilt and self @-@ hatred for having murdered Gale Boetticher in the third season finale , " Full Measure " . Bryan Cranston praised these scenes , saying , " I thought it was a great way to show a person going through a private hell . That everybody suffers , deals with their own personal loss in many different ways . " Although the previous episode , " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " , also featured similar party scenes , the party was much darker and more decrepit in " Open House " , and Breaking Bad music supervisor Thomas Golubic tried to select music appropriate for that darker tone . Originally he tried using variations of punk rock , hip hop and dubstep , but felt it was inappropriate and wanted something that " deeper into Jesse 's headspace " . He chose the song " If I Had a Heart " by Swedish musician Fever Ray which was used during a sequence of scenes before and during Jesse 's party . Golubic said he liked the " muted loud sort of feel " of the song , which he felt matched Jesse 's frame of mind and the " full , heavy darkness " of the party . It was chosen by a vote among the writers among four possible songs .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Open House " aired on Sunday , July 31 , 2011 on AMC . The episode was viewed by an estimated 1 @.@ 714 million viewers and received a 0 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 0 @.@ 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was the 22nd highest rated program on the day it aired .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received positive reviews . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said he was particularly interested in the Marie and Jesse characters this episode , and called it a credit to the show 's evolution that the supporting cast subplots can be so interesting without Walt . He also praised David Slade 's direction , particularly during the jumpshots in Jesse 's scenes . Seth Amitin of IGN called it a " great episode " and an improvement over the previous two , " Box Cutter " and " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " . He praised the way Skyler 's character proved herself to both Walter and Saul , and praised Betsy Brandt 's performance , claiming her subplot provided much @-@ needed comic relief and reminded him of the works of David Sedaris . Entertainment Weekly writer Melissa Maerz praised the development of Skyler 's character and said the episode touched upon a common theme in Breaking Bad about masculinity . With Skyler asserting herself in Walter 's work , and Hank taking out his insecurities about being disabled on Marie , Maerz said the script raises the question , " What does it mean to be a strong man ? " Los Angeles Times writer Todd VanDerWerff called it " one of the best episodes this show has ever done " , despite diverting the attention from Walter to the support cast members . VanDerWerff said the episode well demonstrated how Walter 's actions affected others around him and said Marie 's character was more interesting than in the past .
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic complimented the performances by Betsy Brandt and Aaron Paul , and said of the latter , " Seriously , does any actor on TV convey more by saying less than Aaron Paul ? " He also compared Skyler 's increasingly calculated approach to Walter 's drug dealing to Gus ' personality . New York magazine writer Logan Hill praised Brandt 's performance and said it was interesting to see an episode so focused on Skyler and Marie on a show usually dominated by the male characters . However , he said Skyler 's transformation from concerned wife to competent criminal partner felt too sudden . Not all reviews were positive . Slate writers June Thomas and Jessica Grose both enjoyed Marie in " Open House " , but both felt the scenes at Jesse 's house were too over @-@ the @-@ top and that Skyler 's concerns about Walter 's safety seemed out of character .
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= German destroyer Z10 Hans Lody =
Z10 Hans Lody was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . At the beginning of World War II on 1 September 1939 , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the North Sea to lay defensive minefields . In late 1939 the ship laid multiple offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed nine merchant ships and she crippled a British a destroyer during one of these missions .
Hans Lody was under repair for most of the Norwegian Campaign and was transferred to France in late 1940 where she participated in several engagements with British ships , crippling another destroyer . The ship returned to Germany in late 1940 for a refit and was transferred to Norway in June 1941 as part of the preparations for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . Hans Lody spent some time at the beginning of the campaign conducting anti @-@ shipping patrols in Soviet waters , but these were generally fruitless . She escorted a number of German convoys in the Arctic later in the year before returning to Germany in September for machinery repairs .
The ship returned to Norway in mid @-@ 1942 , but was badly damaged when she ran aground in July and did not return until April 1943 . Hans Lody participated in the German attack ( Operation Zitronella ) on the Norwegian island of Spitzbergen , well north of the Arctic Circle and then spent the next six months on convoy duties in southern Norway . The ship began a lengthy refit in April 1944 and was not operational for the next year . She spent April 1945 escorting convoys in Danish waters before making one voyage to rescue refugees in East Prussia in May . Hans Lody was assigned to the Royal Navy after the war and used as a training ship and then a barracks ship before being broken up for scrap in 1949 .
= = Design and description = =
Z10 Hans Lody had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 long tons ( 2 @,@ 206 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 110 long tons ( 3 @,@ 160 t ) at deep load . The two Wagner geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller shaft , were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) using steam provided by six high @-@ pressure Wagner boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) and she reached a maximum speed of 37 @.@ 8 knots from 65 @,@ 000 shp ( 48 @,@ 000 kW ) during her sea trials . Hans Lody carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots . The crew numbered 10 officers and 315 enlisted men , plus an additional four officers and 19 enlisted men if serving as a flotilla flagship .
The ship carried five 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 in ) SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the aft superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 @-@ centimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) C / 30 guns in single mounts . Hans Lody carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . A system of passive hydrophones designated as ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) was fitted to detect submarines and the S @-@ Gerät active sonar system was scheduled to be installed during February 1940 .
During the war the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented several times . In 1941 , improved 2 cm C / 38 guns replaced the original C / 30 guns and three additional guns were added . The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced at some point by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount , probably in 1942 . During her 1944 – 45 refit , Hans Lody received the " Barbara " anti @-@ aircraft refit in which all of her existing 3 @.@ 7 cm and most of her 2 cm guns were replaced . She retained her Flakvierling mount and the remainder of her anti @-@ aircraft armament now consisted of seven twin 3 @.@ 7 cm SK M / 42 mounts and three twin 2 cm mounts .
= = Construction and career = =
Z10 Hans Lody , named after naval reservist Carl Hans Lody who was executed by the British as a spy during World War I , was ordered on 4 August 1934 and laid down at Germaniawerft , Kiel on 1 April 1935 as yard number G536 . She was launched on 14 May 1936 and completed on 13 September 1938 . The destroyer was assigned to the 8th Destroyer Division ( 8 . Zerstörerdivision ) upon completion and participated in the homecoming celebrations for the Condor Legion on 30 May 1939 under her first commander , Lieutenant Commander ( Korvettenkapitän ) Karl @-@ Jesko von Puttkamer .
When World War II began in September 1939 , Hans Lody was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . While loading mines on 4 September , one exploded aboard Hans Lody , killing two crewmen and wounded six others , and slightly damaging the ship 's stern . The ship later patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods , losing one man overboard and three injured during a storm at the end of October . On the night of 18 / 19 November , Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Erich Bey , in his flagship Z15 Erich Steinbrinck , led Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt and Hans Lody , in laying a minefield off the Humber Estuary that claimed another seven ships of 38 @,@ 710 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) , including the Polish ocean liner M / S Piłsudski of 14 @,@ 294 GRT .
Bey , now using Hans Lody as his flagship , left port on the morning of 6 December with Z12 Erich Giese and Z11 Bernd von Arnim to lay a minefield off Cromer . The latter ship had severe boiler problems and was ordered to return to port in the late afternoon while the other two continued their mission . They spotted several darkened ships as they approached their destination , including the destroyers HMS Juno and HMS Jersey , but were not spotted in return . As the two German destroyers withdrew after having laid their mines , they spotted the two British destroyers again at a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) and closed to attack . When the range dropped to 4 @,@ 600 meters ( 5 @,@ 000 yd ) , Lody fired three torpedoes at Juno , the leading British ship , while Giese fired four at Jersey . None of Lody 's torpedoes struck their target , but one of Giese 's hit Jersey abreast her aft torpedo mount . The torpedo detonated in an oil fuel tank and started a major fire . Neither British ship spotted the German destroyers and they continued on while Juno turned about to help her sister . Two British ships totalling 5 @,@ 286 GRT were sunk by this minefield . Hans Lody began a refit at Wesermünde on 9 December that was not finished until 22 May 1940 .
In June Hans Lody was tasked to escort the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , as well as the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper , in Operation Juno , a planned attack on Harstad , Norway , to relieve pressure on the German garrison at Narvik . The ships sortied on 8 June and sank the troop transport Orama , the oil tanker Oil Pioneer and the minesweeping trawler Juniper en route , Hans Lody delivering the coup de grâce on the first two of these . The German commander , Admiral Wilhelm Marschall , then ordered the Admiral Hipper and all four destroyers to Trondheim because of the heavy weather , where they arrived in the morning of 9 June . The two battleships continued the sortie and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , although Scharnhorst was badly damaged by a torpedo from the destroyer Acasta in the engagement . The battleship was escorted home by Hans Lody and her sisters Steinbrinck and Z7 Hermann Schoemann for repairs . The destroyer was lightly damaged during an air raid on 13 June , but was back in service a week later . She returned to Norway in time to screen the crippled Gneisenau as she returned to Kiel on 25 July , suffering a minor collision with the battleship en route .
Hans Lody transferred to France on 9 September in preparation for Operation Sealion , the planned invasion of Great Britain . Now based at Brest , the ship helped to lay a minefield in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28 / 29 September . Five ships totalling only 2 @,@ 026 GRT were sunk by this minefield . During a Royal Air Force air raid on Brest on 10 October , Hans Lody was slightly damaged by bomb splinters and strafing , losing two crewmen killed and seven wounded during the attack . Bey led Hans Lody and four other destroyers during a sortie for the Southwest Approaches on 17 October and were intercepted by a British force of two light cruisers and five destroyers . The British opened fire at extreme range and were forced to disengage in the face of long @-@ range torpedo volleys and attacks by Luftwaffe bombers without having hit any of the German ships . On the night of 24 – 25 November , Hans Lody and the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen and Z20 Karl Galster sortied from Brest , bound for the Land 's End area . En route they encountered some fishing ships south @-@ west of Wolf Rock and engaged them with gunfire with little effect . The German ships then spotted a small convoy and sank one of the three merchantmen and damaged another . The flash from the guns alerted the five destroyers of the British 5th Destroyer Flotilla , but they could not intercept the German destroyers before dawn . Three nights later the German ship sortied again for the same area . They encountered two tugboats and a barge , but only sank one of the former and the barge , totaling 424 GRT . This time the 5th Destroyer Flotilla was able to intercept around 06 : 30 on 29 November . The Germans opened fire first , each destroyer firing four torpedoes , of which only two from Hans Lody hit their target , HMS Javelin . The torpedoes hit at each end of the ship and blew off her bow and stern , but the British were able to tow her home . Hans Lody was hit by two 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) shells during the engagement , but suffered no casualties . The ship returned home on 5 December for a refit in Wesermünde that lasted until April 1941 .
= = = 1941 – 42 = = =
She was one of the escorts for the battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen from Cape Arkona to Trondheim on 19 – 22 May as they sortied into the North Atlantic . The following month , Hans Lody escorted the heavy cruiser Lützow from Kiel to Norway as the latter ship attempted to break through the British blockade . Several Bristol Beaufort aircraft spotted Lützow and her escorts en route and one managed to surprise the ships and torpedo the cruiser early on the morning of 13 June , forcing her to return to Germany for repairs . She was then sent to Kirkenes , Norway in July 1941 . Now a part of the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( 6 . Zerstörer @-@ Flottille ) , she participated in a sortie on 12 – 13 July that sank two small Soviet ships at the cost of expending 80 % of their ammunition . Her participation in another sortie on 22 July had to be cancelled due to condenser problems . When the British aircraft carriers Victorious and Furious attacked Petsamo and Kirkenes on 29 July , the destroyers were far to the east and could not catch the British ships before they left the area . The German destroyers sortied into the Kola Inlet on 9 August where they sank one small Soviet patrol vessel . The flotilla was now assigned to escort convoys between Tromsö and Kirkenes ; during one of these missions , the submarine Trident sank two troop @-@ carrying freighters , Bahia Laura and Donau II despite the destroyers . Hans Lody depth @-@ charged Trident without significant effect and rescued 38 survivors from the two ships . The ship departed for Germany for repairs to her boilers on 27 September .
After repairs were completed , she screened the heavy cruiser Lützow during her voyage to Trondheim 15 – 20 May 1942 and laid a minefield in the Skaggerak en route . Hans Lody was damaged when a valve was left open and flooded the starboard engine room in early June and required two weeks to be repaired . She was one of four destroyers assigned to escort the battleship Tirpitz during Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) , an attack on the Russia @-@ bound Convoy PQ 17 . The ships sailed from Trondheim on 2 July for the first stage of the operation , although three of the destroyers , including Hans Lody , assigned to Tirpitz 's escort ran aground in the dark and heavy fog and were forced to return to port for repairs . After temporary repairs , she was towed back to Kiel for permanent repairs on 25 July . Three days later the ships were attacked without effect by three Beaufort torpedo bombers . Korvettenkapitän Karl @-@ Adolf Zenker assumed command in August . The dockyard estimated the time to repair Hans Lody at six months or more and the Kriegsmarine gave serious consideration to decommissioning her as uneconomical to repair , but was persuaded to repair her anyway .
= = = 1943 – 49 = = =
During sea trials on 15 February 1943 , a fire broke out in an engine room ; repairs were not completed until 22 April and the ship then returned to Norway . In September the ship participated in Operation Zitronella , ferrying troops of the 349th Grenadier Regiment ( Grenadier @-@ Regiment ) of the 230th Infantry Division to destroy Norwegian facilities on the island of Spitzbergen , together with Tirpitz and the battleship Scharnhorst , escorted by eight other destroyers . While successful , the operation was primarily intended to boost the morale of the ships stationed in the Arctic when fuel shortages limited their activities and the Allies reestablished the bases five weeks later . Hans Lody and her sisters then spent the next six months in southern Norway laying minefields at the entrance to the Skaggerak and escorting convoys to and from Norway . She was ordered to Kiel at the end of April 1944 for a lengthy refit that lasted until February 1945 . After working up , the ship was assigned convoy escort duties in the Skaggerak on 5 April . A month later , Hans Lody departed Copenhagen to load refugees at the Hela Peninsula in East Prussia ; she had about 1 @,@ 500 aboard when she returned on 7 May . The ship sailed to Kiel the next day and was decommissioned on 9 May .
The Royal Navy assumed control of her the following day and sailed her to Wilhelmshaven where she waited while the Allies decided on the disposition of the captured ships . She was allocated to Britain at the end of 1945 and arrived at Portsmouth on 7 January 1946 where she was allocated the pennant number of R38 , later H40 . The ship was initially used to familiarize the British on her high @-@ pressure boilers until October when she was used as accommodation ship in Southampton . Hans Lody was arrived at Sunderland under tow on 17 July 1949 to be broken up .
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= Antankarana =
The Antankarana ( or Antakarana ) is an ethnic group of Madagascar that inhabits the northern tip of Madagascar around Antsiranana . Their name means " the people of the tsingy , " the limestone rock formations that distinguish their traditional territory . The tsingy of the Antankarana may be visited at the Ankarana Reserve . There are over 50 @,@ 000 Antakarana in Madagascar as of 2013 .
The Antankarana split off from the Sakalava in the early 17th century following a succession dispute . The group settled at the northern end of the island where they established sovereignty over and integrated the existing communities . During periods of conflict with Sakalava in the 17th century and the Kingdom of Imerina in the 19th century , the community periodically sought refuge in the natural stone shelters and caves of the modern Ankarana Reserve , eventually taking their name from the locale and holding it as sacred . In the early 19th century an Antankarana king signed a treaty with French envoys in Reunion that mobilized French troops to expel the Merina from Antankarana territory in exchange for French control over several small islands off Madagascar 's west coast . They also aided the French in staging attacks on the Merina monarchy that resulted in the 1896 French colonization of Madagascar . The Antankarana are one of the few communities that continues to honor a single king and reaffirm his sacred ancestral role through traditional ceremonies that date back centuries .
Culturally the Antankarana have many similarities with the neighboring Sakalava . They practice tromba ( ancestral spirit possession ) and believe in nature spirits . They adhere to a wide range of fady ( ancestral taboos ) , particularly including several that serve to protect wildlife and wilderness areas . The traditional economy of the Antankarana revolved around fishing and livestock , although more recently they have adopted farming ; many are salary earners working in civil administration , teaching , trade and other areas .
= = History = =
The Antankarana were originally a branch of the Sakalava royal line called the Zafin 'i'fotsy ( children of silver ) . This group split off from the Sakalava in the 16th century following a dispute with the Zafin 'i'mena ( children of gold ) that ended with the latter 's exclusive right to the kingship . Having been refused the right to the throne , the Zafin 'i'fotsy left the Sakalava homeland on the southwestern coast to settle just north of the boundaries of Sakalava control . The first Antankarana king , Kozobe ( 1614 – 39 ) , claimed a large part of the island 's north as his territory , which he split into five provinces each ruled by one of his sons . This territory was rapidly reduced from the south by Zafin 'i'mena prince Andriamandisoarivo , who led violent campaigns into bordering Antankarana territory to expand the frontiers of what was to become the Sakalava Kingdom of Iboina at the end of the 17th century . Many Zafin 'i'fotsy nobles were killed or quickly surrendered to the advancing Sakalava armies , but oral history celebrates several who resisted , including Andriamanpangy , a descendent of Kozobe . His son Andriantsirotso ( 1692 – 1710 ) founded the Antankarana kingdom , leading the Zafin 'i'fotsy further north into the area now protected as Ankarana Reserve and declaring his sovereignty over the north . He was accepted as king both by his own people and by the communities already living in the north , who united together under the name Antankarana ( people of the Ankarana rocks ) . The Sakalava warred with the nascent Antankarana kingdom in its continued effort to claim sovereignty over the territory , but the Antankarana hid themselves in natural shelters formed by the rocks and caves of Ankarana . Eventually they were forced to take refuge at Maroantsetra , a town ruled by a relative named Raholo ; Andriantsirotso was able to repel the Sakalava three years later with the support of Raholo 's soldiers . Throughout this period Andriantsirotso established the foundations for the kingdom by organizing military cooperation among clans , establishing an administration , developing economic regulations and introducing customs that reinforced a hierarchical social order . According to oral history , at the point when Andriantsirotso was preparing to return to his own capital , a mysterious eight @-@ year @-@ old girl named Tsimatahodrafy arrived in Maroantsetra . She revealed herself to be a sorceress and instructed Andriantsirotso on the rituals to perform en route to ensure his safe return and the establishment of a strong kingdom , including the continuing practice of tying a mat to two tsitakonala trees planted outside the king 's house to indicate a royal residence and symbolize the indivisibility of the kingdom .
From its founding , the Antankarana Kingdom was ruled by an unbroken series of nobles of Andriantsirotso 's line . He was succeeded by Lamboeny ( 1710 – 1790 ) , then Tehimbola ( 1790 – 1802 ) , Boanahajy ( 1802 – 1809 ) and Tsialana I ( 1809 – 1822 ) . The Kingdom of Imerina rapidly expanded over the first several decades of the 19th century , launching regular military campaigns to bring coastal communities under Merina control . As the Merina neared the Antankarana homeland they established posts along major trade routes where taxes were charged to Antankarana and other merchants , establishing economic control over the territory ; this was soon followed by the installation of Merina administrators to govern the territory . Tsialana I was forced to become a vassal of the Merina sovereign . From 1835 to 1837 , his son and successor , King Tsimiaro I ( 1822 – 1882 ) , made repeated attempts to expel the Merina from his territory , but was unsuccessful . The Merina backlash forced Tsimiaro to lead his people to refuge among the rocks of Ankarana in 1838 or 1837 , where they lived for over a year . During this time the king was betrayed by one of his own people and the group was surrounded by Merina soldiers . According to oral history , the king prayed for God 's help and swore that if they survived , the Antankarana would convert to Islam . Although many of his party were gunned down , the king and most of his subjects escaped to the island of Nosy Mitsio , where they converted ; many others were drowned in the attempt to cross . The site of the crossing is most commonly believed to be the village of Ambavan 'ankarana , which retains a sacred character and has become a site of pilgrimage and ritual commemoration of the exodus .
In 1838 @-@ 9 an agreement was signed between the Sakalava king and Seyyid Said , King of Zanzibar , to give Said control over the Sakalava and Antankarana kingdoms ; this agreement never came to the attention of Tsimiaro and resulted in no changes in governance on the ground . While in exile on Nosy Mitsio , Tsimiaro traveled to Ile Bourbon to conclude a treaty with the French on 5 April 1841 that guaranteed French protection for the Antankarana in exchange for rights to the islands of Nosy Mitsio , Nosy Faly , Nosy Be and Nosy Komba . The French intercession eventually repelled the Merina , allowing the king to reestablish the capital at Ambatoharaña , but more than 40 years passed before the entire Antankarana had permanently returned to the mainland . Upon his death , Tsimiaro was buried at his request in the Ankarana cave where he had taken refuge from the Merina . Other nobles are mainly entombed in the Islamic cemetery near Ambatoharaña . When the French agreed to recognize Malagasy sovereignty in 1862 , they retained their claimed right to the Antankarana and Sakalava protectorates they had established . Tsimiaro was succeeded by his son , Tsialana II , ( 1883 – 1924 ) who was born on Nosy Mitsio in 1843 . He collaborated with the French actively during their first expedition against the Merina ( 1883 – 85 ) , and again during the successful expedition of 1895 that ended in French colonization of the island and the dismantling of the Merina monarchy . His son Abdourahaman would go on to fight on the side of the French during World War I. Tsialana II was succeeded by Lamboeny II ( 1925 – 1938 ) , Tsialana III ( 1948 – 1959 ) and Tsimiharo II ( 1959 – 1982 ) .
After Madagascar regained independence from France in 1960 its various administrations interfered little with the reign of Tsimiharo II or his successor Tsimiharo III ( 1983 – 2004 ) . This changed after the election of Albert Zafy ( 1991 – 96 ) , an Antankarana noble from the village of Ambilobe . Zafy sought to reduce the powers of King Tsimiharo III , who responded by " declaring war " against the new president . This standoff came to an end with the election of Zafy 's successor , Didier Ratsiraka , who returned to a policy of non @-@ interference in local governance traditions . Tsimiharo III was deposed in 2004 following allegations of corruption , and Lamboeny III was selected to succeed him .
= = Identity = =
There are 50 @,@ 000 Antakarana in Madagascar as of 2013 . They live in the northernmost part of the island , and claim Malagasy and Arab ancestry . They are an offshoot of the Sakalava people . Their territory begins at the northern tip of the island at Antsiranana and extends down the west coast , including the island of Nosy Mitsio . It is bounded to the east by the Bemarivo River and extends south to the village of Tetezambato .
= = Society = =
Although subject to all national laws and government , the Antakarana are also united in their recognition of the authority of a king ( Ampanjaka ) who is the living descendent of a line of Antankarana royalty going back nearly four centuries . The authority of this king is reaffirmed every five years at the village of Ambatoharaña in a ritual mast @-@ raising ceremony called the tsangantsainy . Although some accounts date the ritual back to the origins of Antankarana kingship , the specific features of the ceremony as practiced today are rooted in historical events of the 19th century . The ceremony includes a pilgrimage to Nosy Mitsio to commemorate the flight of Antankarana refugees to the island in the 1830s to escape the advancing armies of the Kingdom of Imerina and to visit the tombs of ancestors who died there ; until recently , it has sometimes also included raising both French and Antankarana banners to honor the 1841 treaty signed with the French . The king is selected by a council of elder members of the royal family in the ruling line . He is responsible for reciting joro ( ancestral invocations ) at ceremonies where the ancestors ' blessings are requested . Another important social role is that of the Ndriambavibe . The Antankarana community selects a single noble woman to hold this position , which has similar authority and importance to that of the king . She is not his wife ; rather , she has a separate leadership role to fulfill . The Antankarana are recognized among Malagasy as one of the few remaining ethnic groups in Madagascar that continues to reassert the ancestral authority of their king through continued practice of traditional kingship rituals .
= = = Family = = =
Antankarana homes are typically raised on stilts above ground level . Young men seeking to start a family typically leave their father 's house and build their own from wood and thatch gathered locally . After marrying a young woman will leave her family 's home to move into her husband 's house , where she manages the household and assists in planting and harvesting rice . The husband is responsible for earning money for basic necessities and farming the family 's land . A young couple typically receives furniture and other essentials as wedding gifts from friends , family and community members . Divorce and remarriage are common in Antankarana society .
= = = Class affiliation = = =
Like elsewhere in Madagascar , Antankarana society was traditionally divided into three classes : nobles , commoners and slaves . Slavery was abolished under the French colonial administration but families often retain their historic affiliations . In traditional communities , descendants of nobles live on the northern side of the village and non @-@ nobles live in the southern part . The areas may be divided by a central clearing where the town hall is often situated ; if the village also has a zomba ( house reserved for royalty ) , it would traditionally be located here . Intermarriage across classes is common among the Antankarana , and most can claim a family relation to a member of the noble class . Historically , commoners were further sub @-@ divided into caste @-@ like groups called karazana ( " types of people " ) based on their form of livelihood .
= = = Religious affiliation = = =
The majority of Antankarana identify to varying degrees as Muslim . Once a year at the village of Ambatoharaña , Muslims from across the northern and western parts of Madagascar congregate to visit the tombs of Muslim kings buried here . The form of Islam practiced by the Antankarana is highly syncretic and blends traditional ancestor worship and local customs and beliefs with major holidays and cultural elements borrowed from Arab Muslim culture . The number of Antankarana who practice a standard , orthodox form of Islam is negligible .
= = Culture = =
Antankarana culture shares many common points with that of their Sakalava neighbors . Their rituals are similar and honor many of the same ancestors , and members of both groups adhere to many of the same fady , making it difficult at times to distinguish the two groups from one another . Relations between the two are amicable . In a custom unique to the Antankarana , called the tsangatsaine , two trees growing before the house of a noble family are tied together to symbolize the unity of the community. and the merger of past with present and the dead with the living . The Antankarana , like many other coastal groups , practice tromba ( spirit possession ) as a means to commune with ancestors . The royal ancestral spirits that possess tromba mediums are almost always of Sakalava ancestry . It is widely believed that the spirits of the dead often inhabit crocodiles , and it is often fady among the Antankarana to kill these animals . The Antankarana also believe in tsiny , a kind of nature spirit .
Rice is the foundation of every meal , and is often eaten with fish broth , greens , beans or squash . Manioc and green bananas are staples most commonly eaten when other more preferable foods are too expensive or out of season . The Antankarana were historically herders and although they are now generally agriculturalists , cattle are kept for milk . They are also viewed as a form of wealth ; the number of cattle one gives away indicates generosity , and the number sacrificed to the ancestors is a measure of loyalty . The sacrifice of zebu is a typical element of many major rituals and celebrations ranging from Muslim holidays to life events like marriage , death and birth .
The traditional martial art of Madagascar , moraingy , and large dance parties ( baly ) are very popular among the Antankarana youth , who often are drawn more to western culture than ancestral practices and beliefs .
Clothing was historically made from woven raffia . The fibers would be combed into strands that were knotted together to form cords , which were then woven into panels . These panels were stitched together to create prayer rugs and clothing . Women and men historically wore long raffia smocks .
= = = Fady = = =
Numerous fady protect wilderness areas , particularly including the Ankarana massif . Excessive cutting of mangrove trees for wood or the setting of bush fires are both prohibited , as is the use of nets with holes less than 15 millimeters to prevent catching immature fish . Certain species are protected through fady that forbid hunting them , including sharks , rays and crocodiles . Many fady also exist to regulate relations between the sexes . For instance , it is taboo for a girl to wash her own brother 's clothing . Conservative communities adhere to a fady against medical injections , surgery or modern medicines due to their association with their historic enemies the Merina , who were the first to use them widely ; instead , tromba ceremonies and traditional herbal remedies are commonly used for healing . These taboos are most strongly applied in the center of Antankarana territory around the village of Ambatoharaña and less so in the villages at the periphery of the region .
= = = Funeral rites = = =
Funerals among the Antankarana are often celebratory events . Among villagers living near the sea , it is not uncommon for the remains of a loved one to be placed in a coffin which the family carries running into the sea .
= = = Dance and music = = =
At royal ceremonies a traditional dance called the rabiky is often performed .
= = Language = =
The Antankarana speak a dialect of the Malagasy language , which is a branch of the Malayo @-@ Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo .
= = Economy = =
The Antankarana were historically fishermen and pastoralist zebu herders , although in recent years most have become agriculturalists . Sea fishing is carried out in two @-@ man canoes made from a single hollowed out log . Antankarana fishermen used these canoes to hunt whales , turtles and fish . They also used nets to hunt in rivers , where they could catch eels , fish , crayfish and other food sources . Salt production was historically a major economic activity . Historically the Antankarana engaged in trading with European seafarers , exchanging tortoiseshell for guns . Today , while the majority of Antankarana continue to work in these traditional sectors – especially the highly lucrative shrimp fishing business or the growing of sugarcane – many are wage laborers . More highly educated community members , particularly among the noble class , work in salaried positions as government officials , teachers and a variety of other trades and professions . The SIRAMA national sugar company factories are located in Antankarana territory and employ many migrants , but relatively few Antankarana as their standard of living on average is high enough to be able to pursue better opportunities .
The most significant urban area in the Antankarana homeland is Antsiranana ( formerly Diego @-@ Suarez ) . Ambilobe , where the current king resides. is the nearest major urban area to the traditional seat of royal Antankarana power at Ambatoharaña .
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= Italian cruiser Marsala =
Marsala was a protected cruiser built by the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1910s . She was the second and final member of the Nino Bixio class , which were built as scouts for the main Italian fleet . She was equipped with a main battery of six 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns and had a top speed in excess of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , but her engines proved to be troublesome in service . Marsala spent World War I based at Brindisi ; she was involved in the Battle of the Otranto Straits in May 1917 , where she briefly engaged Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers . Marsala 's career was cut short in November 1927 when she was stricken from the naval register and sold for scrap , the result of her unreliable engines and drastic cuts to the naval budget .
= = Design = =
Marsala was 140 @.@ 3 meters ( 460 ft ) long at the waterline , with a beam of 13 m ( 43 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 ft ) . She displaced up to 4 @,@ 141 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 076 long tons ; 4 @,@ 565 short tons ) at full load . Her crew consisted 13 officers and 283 enlisted men . The ship 's propulsion system consisted of three steam turbines , each driving a screw propeller . Steam was provided by fourteen mixed coal and oil firing Blechynden boilers . The engines were rated at 23 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 27 @.@ 66 knots ( 51 @.@ 23 km / h ; 31 @.@ 83 mph ) . She had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) at a cruising speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) .
Marsala was armed with a main battery of six 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 50 guns mounted singly . She was also equipped with six 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 50 guns and two 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was only lightly armored , with a 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick deck , and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick plating on her main conning tower .
= = Service history = =
Marsala 's keel was laid down at the Castellammare shipyard on 15 February 1911 , the same day as Nino Bixio . Work on Marsala proceeded slower than on her sister , and she was launched on 24 March 1912 , where she was named for the city where Giuseppe Garibaldi launched the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860 . After completing fitting @-@ out work , the ship was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 4 August 1914 . Italy declared neutrality at the start of World War I in August 1914 , but by May 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic , which could also be easily seeded with minefields . The threat from these underwater weapons was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations .
Marsala , Nino Bixio , and the cruiser Quarto were based at Brindisi during the war , where they could patrol the path from the narrow Adriatic to the Mediterranean . By May 1917 , the reconnaissance forces at Brindisi had come under the command of Rear Admiral Alfredo Acton . On the night of 14 – 15 May , the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers Helgoland , Novara , and Saida and several destroyers raided the Otranto Barrage — a patrol line of drifters intended to block Austro @-@ Hungarian and German U @-@ boats . Marsala was the only Italian cruiser with steam up in her boilers when word of the Austro @-@ Hungarian attack reached Brindisi . The British cruisers HMS Dartmouth and Bristol departed first , along with five Italian destroyers . Marsala , the flotilla leader Racchia , and three destroyers followed thereafter . Marsala briefly engaged the fleeing Austro @-@ Hungarians in the Battle of the Otranto Straits , before Acton broke off the pursuit and ordered a return to port .
Following the end of the war in November 1918 , the Regia Marina demobilized ; severely reduced naval budgets — the result of a weakened Italian economy in the early 1920s — led to further draw @-@ downs . Marsala 's engines were plagued with problems throughout her career , which made the ship an obvious target in the effort to trim the Regia Marina 's budget . She was stricken from the naval register on 27 November 1927 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
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= Apollo 's Chariot =
Apollo 's Chariot is steel roller coaster at the Busch Gardens Williamsburg theme park in James City County , Virginia , United States . The ride was the first Hyper Coaster designed by Swiss firm Bolliger & Mabillard . It officially opened to the public on March 30 , 1999 .
The 4 @,@ 882 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 488 m ) ride is characterised by eight air @-@ time hills , with heights ranging between 49 and 131 feet ( 15 and 40 m ) . Riders ascend 170 feet ( 52 m ) on the chain lift hill before dropping 210 feet ( 64 m ) at an angle of 65 ° . Apollo 's Chariot is generally well received with it consistently rating highly in industry rankings .
= = History = =
Apollo 's Chariot was announced on September 5 , 1998 , as the tallest and fastest roller coaster at Busch Gardens Williamsburg . On January 23 , 1999 , the ride was nearing completion with approximately 20 pieces of track left to be installed . Apollo 's Chariot opened as the first Hyper Coaster from Swiss manufacturer , Bolliger & Mabillard .
Busch Gardens held Apollo 's Chariot 's opening ceremony on March 30 , 1999 . Italian fashion model Fabio Lanzoni was brought in to promote the new roller coaster . During the ride 's inaugural run , a 10 @-@ pound goose struck him in the face leaving his nose covered with blood . He was treated at a nearby hospital for minor cuts .
= = Characteristics = =
The 4 @,@ 882 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 488 m ) Apollo 's Chariot is a Bolliger & Mabillard Hyper Coaster . The park 's existing terrain is utilised to allow a 170 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 52 m ) lift hill to be translated into a first drop stretching 210 feet ( 64 m ) . With a top speed of 73 miles per hour ( 117 km / h ) , the ride features eight air @-@ time hills . Riders of Apollo 's Chariot experience up to 4 @.@ 1 times the force of gravity on the 2 @-@ minute , 15 @-@ second ride . Apollo 's Chariot operates with three trains with nine cars per train . Riders are arranged four across in a single row for a total of 36 riders per train . This configuration of trains allows for a theoretical capacity of 1 @,@ 750 riders per hour . Riders are restrained by a lapbar and the seats are elevated so riders ’ feet don 't touch the ground .
= = Ride experience = =
After departing from the station , the train begins to climb the 170 @-@ foot ( 52 m ) chain lift hill . When the train reaches the top , it drops down a few feet in a pre @-@ drop . The pre @-@ drop serves to reduce the stress and pull of the chain . After the pre @-@ drop , the train goes down a 210 feet ( 64 m ) drop toward a water @-@ filled ravine at a 65 degree angle and reaching a top speed of 73 miles per hour ( 117 km / h ) . At the end of the ravine , the train enters a second airtime hill with a 131 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) drop . A short narrow above ground tunnel is at the bottom of the second drop . After the tunnel , the train descends a 144 @-@ foot ( 44 m ) drop , which banks to the left as it descends . The train then goes through an upward helix . Coming out of the helix , the train drops 102 feet ( 31 m ) then turns right and rises up into the mid @-@ course brake run . The train drops 48 feet ( 15 m ) out of the brake run followed by another drop at 87 feet ( 27 m ) toward the ravine . The train then banks right , makes a 38 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) dip , turns left and goes through a small 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) dip . The train then makes one last 49 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) airtime drop before climbing up and into the final brake run . There is approximately 26 seconds of airtime during the 2 minute and 15 second ride .
= = Reception = =
In the ride 's debut year , Busch Gardens Williamsburg had lower attendance levels than they were expecting . This was attributed to prolonged periods of inclement weather . As a result of this , the park planned to re @-@ launch Apollo 's Chariot in 2000 in an attempt to drive attendance .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Apollo 's Chariot has consistently ranked highly . In its debut year , it ranked position 20 . In the 13 years since , the coaster has consistently ranked higher , peaking at # 4 in 2005 , 2007 , 2008 and 2012 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Apollo 's Chariot entered at position 6 in 1999 , before dropping to a low of 32 in 2012 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
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= The Boat Race 1939 =
The 91st Boat Race took place on 1 April 1939 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by the former Oxford rower William Rathbone , Cambridge won by four lengths in a time of 19 minutes 3 seconds . The victory took the overall record in the event to 48 – 42 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1938 race by two lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 47 victories to Oxford 's 42 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by H. E. Boardman , J. N. Duckworth ( three @-@ time Blue between 1934 and 1936 ) and Derek Mays @-@ Smith . Oxford 's coaches were John Cherry ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1936 , 1937 and 1938 races ) , Guy Oliver Nickalls ( who had rowed three times between 1921 and 1923 ) and J. H. Philips . The race was umpired by the former Oxford rower and coach William Rathbone who had represented the Dark Blues in the 1926 and 1927 races and coached them in the 1936 and 1937 races .
During the build @-@ up to the race at Putney , Oxford 's stroke R. M. A. Bourne suffered a serious hand injury ; he was temporarily replaced by J. R. Bingham , but Bourne failed to regain his form after returning and so was dropped in favour of his stand @-@ in . Oxford were described by the rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian as having " a powerful , orthodox crew without a weak man in the boat " while he suggested that " Cambridge are not orthodox , and they have not quite the same uniformity of style " . The rowing correspondent for the The Times agreed , stating that " since 1936 Cambridge rowing has certainly deteriorated , and they have produced this year as heterogeneous a crew as has ever been seen in the race . " The Dark Blues were considered by most to be favourites to win the race . Both crews raced in boats built by George Sims Boatbuilding Company of Hammersmith .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 12 @.@ 5 lb ( 81 @.@ 7 kg ) , 2 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . The Cambridge crew saw three former Blues return , including Alan Burrough who was making his third consecutive appearance . Oxford 's crew included four rowers with Boat Race experience , including their number four , R. R. Stewart who was also taking part in his third consecutive race . Three of the individuals participating in the race were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford 's H. P. V. Massey was Canadian , while Cambridge 's crew included American number five H. Parker and Australian number six J. Turnbull .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Umpire Rathbone started the race at 11 : 01 a.m. after Oxford had kept Cambridge waiting at the stakeboat for five minutes . Oxford made the quicker start and were a quarter of a length ahead within fifteen seconds . However , Cambridge 's longer strokes saw them soon pick up pace and within a minute they were a third of a length ahead of the Dark Blues . Out @-@ rating their opponents by four strokes per minute , Cambridge were half a length ahead by Craven Steps and two lengths up by the Mile Post . Despite their lead , the Light Blues were " rather ragged and badly together " while Oxford " were rowing perfectly steadily . " The Dark Blue cox Massey steered across to the Surrey station in an attempt to gain more advantage from the tide , but Cambridge began to pull away again at Harrods Furniture Depository and led by two and a half lengths as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge .
The Light Blues reduced their stroke rate but continued to extend their lead , passing Chiswick Steps with a 12 @-@ second advantage which they were held to until they passed below Barnes Bridge . C. B. Sanford , the Cambridge stroke , called for a push and increased the rate by four strokes a minute to pull even further ahead , even though Oxford had made a push of their own . Cambridge won by four lengths in a time of 19 minutes 3 seconds . It was their first victory since the 1936 race , and the fastest winning time and largest winning margin since the 1934 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 47 – 42 in Cambridge 's favour . The rowing correspondent of The Manchester Guardian was critical of Oxford 's failure to respond to Cambridge 's early pressure : " it was incumbent on them to fight like tigers , they settled down to a dignified and , as it were , middle @-@ aged stride " . The Observer 's rowing correspondent agreed : " It could hardly be described as a ' race ' for Oxford made no effort to ' race ' and the further they went the more they fell behind . "
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= Jennifer 's Body =
Jennifer 's Body is a 2009 supernatural horror black comedy film written by Diablo Cody and directed by Karyn Kusama . The film stars Megan Fox , Amanda Seyfried , Johnny Simmons , and Adam Brody . Fox portrays a demonically possessed high school cheerleader who kills her male classmates , with her best friend striving to stop her . The film premiered at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival and was released in the United States and Canada on September 18 , 2009 . The title is a reference to the song of the same name by alternative rock band Hole on their album Live Through This . As a tie @-@ in to the film , Boom ! Studios produced a Jennifer 's Body graphic novel , released in August 2009 .
Working with Cody again following their collaborative efforts on the film Juno , Jason Reitman stated he and his producers " want to make unusual films " . Cody said she wanted the film to speak to female empowerment and explore the complex relationships between best friends .
The film had a lackluster performance at the North American box office , making $ 2 @.@ 8 million its opening day and $ 6 @.@ 8 million its opening weekend , and received mixed reviews from critics ; whereas negative reviews criticized the narrative and , specifically , the horror / comic premise for " fail [ ing ] to be either funny or scary enough to satisfy " , positive reviews praised the film for its dialogue , performances , and emotional resonance .
= = Plot = =
Anita " Needy " Lesnicki , once an insecure and bookish teenager living near Devil 's Kettle , Minnesota , is now a violent mental inmate who narrates the story as a flashback while in solitary confinement . She has been friends with a selfish and popular cheerleader , Jennifer Check , since childhood , despite having little in common . One night , Jennifer takes Needy to a local dive bar to attend a concert by indie rock band Low Shoulder . A suspicious fire engulfs the bar , killing several people , and Jennifer , who is in shock , agrees to leave with the band despite Needy 's protests . Later that evening , Jennifer , covered in blood , appears in Needy 's kitchen and proceeds to eat food from the refrigerator . Unable to digest the matter , she vomits a trail of black , spiny fluid and then leaves in a hurry as Needy calls after her .
The next morning at school , Jennifer appears fine and shrugs off Needy 's concerns . While the whole town is devastated by the deaths caused by the fire , Jennifer seduces the school 's football captain in the woods and then kills him ; his disemboweled corpse is later found . Meanwhile , the members of Low Shoulder gain popularity due to their rumored heroism during the fire and offer to make a charity appearance at the school 's spring formal .
A month later , Jennifer is beginning to look pale , and accepts a date with school goth / emo Colin , whom she brutally kills that night . While Needy and her boyfriend , Chip , have sex , Needy senses something dreadful has happened . She leaves in a panic and almost runs over Jennifer , drenched in blood . At home , she finds Jennifer in her bedroom . Jennifer kisses her , initiating a brief makeout session , and soon explains what happened after the fire : Low Shoulder took her into the woods and offered her as a virgin sacrifice to Satan in exchange for fame and fortune . Although the sacrifice and greedy exchange were a success , Jennifer was not a virgin , and when lead singer Nikolai murdered her , the ritual backfired and a demonic spirit took over her body . Unbeknownst to Needy , Jennifer also encountered Indian exchange student Ahmet after the fire and , upon hearing that no one knew he had survived , took him into the woods and ate him , rendering him her first victim . Jennifer states that she can withstand virtually any injury without pain and is rather difficult to kill .
At school the following day , the town is stunned by Colin 's death . Needy goes to the school library 's occult section and surmises that Jennifer is a succubus ; she is weakest when she is hungry , and must feed on flesh in order to sustain her life and appearance . Needy tells Chip about her discoveries and warns him not to attend the school dance . He does not believe her and she subsequently breaks up with him in order to protect him . Chip still goes to the dance , hoping to meet with Needy , but is instead intercepted by Jennifer , who seduces him and takes him to an abandoned pool house . Needy arrives there and finds Jennifer feeding on Chip . Needy tries to drown Jennifer but Jennifer , hovering in the air , attacks her . She is then stabbed by a fatally injured Chip with a pool skimmer . Jennifer escapes while Needy watches her boyfriend die .
Needy decides she must kill Jennifer for the common good . She goes to Jennifer 's home and sees her , already recovered , picking out her next victims in her yearbook . Crashing through the window , Needy engages in a fight with Jennifer wielding a box cutter . Culminating with a stab to the heart , Needy finally destroys the demon and kills her . Jennifer 's mother enters and finds Needy with the box cutter on top of her daughter 's body . Soon after , Needy is brought to an asylum . Since she was bitten non @-@ fatally by Jennifer , she has obtained some of Jennifer 's supernatural powers , such as the ability to hover in the air . Set upon revenge for what was done to herself , Jennifer , and Chip , she escapes the mental facility and hitchhikes a ride to the hotel where Low Shoulder are staying ; there , she slaughters the members , whose killings are later discovered by local authorities .
= = Cast = =
Megan Fox as Jennifer Check :
Fox was in negotiations to star as Jennifer Check since the film was announced in 2007 , and was officially cast in October 2007 . Fox said the reason she agreed to the role was her love for the script . " I think what I loved about the movie is it 's so unapologetic and how completely inappropriate it is at all times , " she said . " That was my favorite part about the script and about the character . It 's fun to be able to say the shit that she got to say and get away with it and how people find it charming . " Asked how acting in a film like this is different from acting in Transformers , Fox said " there 's [ no ] distractions , like there 's no robots to distract you from whatever performance I do give . So , if it 's terrible , you 're gonna fucking know that it 's really terrible " . She said despite this aspect of the business being intimidating , she enjoyed portraying the character . " I wasn 't really sure what I was doing , " said Fox . " I was just trying to have fun with it and I felt like I was able to make fun of my own image as to how some people might perceive Megan Fox to be . I was just sort of flying freely and I hope some of it works . " To prepare for her role as a living @-@ dead teenager , Fox dropped to a near frail 97 pounds and stayed out of the sun to keep her skin pale . In balancing out the film 's horror with humor , she said she relied heavily on Diablo Cody 's script and Karyn Kusama 's direction to pull it off , stating , " I have a very specific sense of humor , things that I think are funny aren 't going to fly with middle America . It 's going to eliminate some of the audience , so you need someone there to tell you you can 't do that . "
Amanda Seyfried as Anita " Needy " Lesnicki :
In February 2008 , Seyfried was cast as Anita " Needy " Lesnicki , the " plain Jane " best friend to Fox 's character with whom she shares a somewhat lesbian infatuation . Seyfried said it was a relief to play the nerdy character opposite Fox . " Being a lead ( like Megan ) , you have that weird pressure of feeling like you have to look attractive , " she stated . " In this movie , I didn 't worry about any of that [ shit ] . I don 't want to play the one that everybody is supposed to want to have sex with . "
Johnny Simmons as Chip Dove
J. K. Simmons as Mr. Wroblewski
Amy Sedaris as Toni Lesnicki
Adam Brody as Nikolai :
Chud.com reported that the filmmakers were looking at actual rock band members Pete Wentz of Fall Out Boy and Joel Madden of Good Charlotte to portray male lead Nikolai Wolf . Chad Michael Murray was also considered for the role . In March 2008 , Johnny Simmons was reportedly cast as Nikolai . However , Brody was officially cast in the role of Nikolai , while Simmons was then given the role of Chip Dove . Brody said he did not do his own vocals , adding , " My singing voice is still going through puberty . They gave me a singing lesson or two , and it 's not the worst thing in the world , but it 's not anything anyone would choose to hear . "
Kyle Gallner as Colin Gray
Cynthia Stevenson as Mrs. Dove
Chris Pratt as Officer Roman Duda
Carrie Genzel as Mrs. Check
Juan Riedinger as Dirk
Juno Ruddell as Officer Warzak
Valerie Tian as Chasity
Aman Johal as Ahmet from India
Josh Emerson as Jonas Kozelle
Lance Henriksen as the driver near the end of film
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Jennifer 's Body is the follow @-@ up to writer and producer Diablo Cody 's and Jason Reitman 's collaboration efforts on Juno . In October 2007 , Fox Atomic pre @-@ emptively purchased the rights to Cody 's script with Megan Fox to star . Peter Rice , who at the time oversaw Fox Searchlight and Fox Atomic , brought in the project as Fox Searchlight had previously distributed Cody 's film Juno . Mason Novick and Reitman 's producing partner Dan Dubiecki signed as producers in November 2007 with plans to produce the film under Hard C , which is housed at Fox Searchlight . Reitman commented , " We want to make unusual films , and anything that turns a genre on its ear interests Dan and I. " Karyn Kusama was announced as director in January 2008 . Kusama said she signed on to the project because of the script . " I was blessed to read this script at a moment where the producers were meeting with directors and it just knocked me out . It was just so original , so imaginative " , she stated . " That 's what it is about this script and the world is that it feels like a fairy tale gone psycho and I think that 's what most fairy tales actually started as . " Additionally , Cody , Reitman and Kusama knew the film would be R rated because of the language .
In February 2008 , a cease and desist was given to a writer at CC2K.us after they posted an advance script review for the film . The Latino Review also posted an advance review . At the time CC2K.us received their cease and desist order , questions were raised why Latino Review 's largely positive script review was allowed to stay posted while CC2K was being forced by Fox Searchlight to remove their mainly negative coverage . Although Latino Review was later asked to remove their review , numerous other websites and blogs published their own critiques of the script .
Cody stated that when writing the script , she was " simultaneously trying to pay tribute to some of the conventions that we 've already seen in horror , yet , at the same time , kind of turn them on their ear " . One of her influences from the 1980s horror genre was the film The Lost Boys . She wanted to " honor that , and at the same time , [ she ] had never really seen this particular subgenre done with girls and [ she ] tried to do a little of both " . Despite this , she said she had noticed that " the last survivor standing in the typical horror film is a woman " and that because of this she feels " horror has always had kind of a feminist angle to it in a weird way and , at the same time , it 's kind of delightfully exploitative " . Jennifer 's Body could play on both of these aspects .
Cody said she wanted the film to speak to female empowerment and explore the complex relationships between best friends . " ( Director ) Karyn Kusama and I are both outspoken feminists " , she said . " We wanted to subvert the classic horror model of women being terrorized . I want to write roles that service women . I want to tell stories from a female perspective . I want to create good parts for actresses where they 're not just accessories to men . " Addressing " the male @-@ dominated " horror genre , Cody said " a key reason for writing the film was to bring to the screen a new way of expressing the intensity of female bonds " and that the adolescent female friendships she experienced were unparalleled in their intensity . She wanted to show the " almost horrific " aspect of such devotion and its relation to parasitism .
The producers decided to have the film open with the statement " Hell is a teenage girl " to reflect the " horrors " of puberty and that " the hellish emotions felt during high school often reappear as teenage girls mature into young women " . Cody stated :
There 's the scene where Jennifer 's sitting alone smearing makeup on her face . I always thought that was such a sad image . She 's so vulnerable . I don 't know any woman who hasn 't had a moment sitting in front of the mirror and thinking , ' Help me , I want to be somebody else . ' What makes it extra affecting is that [ Megan Fox ] is stunning .
Cody crafted the story to follow a night that ends in a tragic fire , after which Jennifer is kidnapped and set up as a sacrifice which goes awry . Jennifer , now possessed by a demon and subsequently altered into a succubus , sets out on a bloody rampage in which she devours boys , and it is up to Needy to stop her . In sort of a reversal aspect of how puberty changes a girl 's life , Jennifer must consume the blood of others once a month or she becomes weak and plain @-@ looking . " It 's a meek shall inherit the Earth sort of thing . I think it 's always really satisfying and cathartic to see a character that was previously bullied become super human " , said Cody . Cody said the script is not a reflection of any part of her own life , but that she is more like character Needy . " I would say I was more of a Needy than a Jennifer . I was never an Alpha female , and I 've never gotten off with bullying other people " , she said . " If I had to choose , I was definitely the one being shoved , not the one shoving . "
The nickname " Needy " was given to Seyfried 's character to underline the essentially condescending dynamic in Jennifer and Needy 's high school relationship , as Needy often admires Jennifer and feels she needs her . Cody said " Jennifer is a product of a culture that pressures girls to be skinny , beautiful and just like movie stars " and that she " hopes the film inspires girls to take life into their own hands and do with it , what they want " . " If I had gone to this movie as a teenage girl , I would 've come out of it feeling totally inspired " , she stated . " I would 've wanted to write , I would 've wanted to create and I would 've felt like I watched something that was speaking to me . "
Assigned to direct the film , Kusama said , " I think also a lot of horror is about femaleness – whether it 's Carrie or Rosemary 's Baby . " She said she feels " like there 's a lot of fear of the female or kind of celebration of it in some weird way and something about this movie managed to take the fear and the sense that it 's the female that ultimately survives and sort of marry that in a really interesting way " .
Addressing her decision to have Jennifer and Needy be romantically intimate at one point during the film , which takes place in the form of a long and passionate kissing scene , Cody said she did not write the scene to score publicity . Speaking of the scene 's media hype , she said that " if the two protagonists of the film were a guy and a girl and in a particularly tense moment , they shared a kiss , no one would say it was gratuitous " but " the fact that they 're women means it 's some kind of stunt " . The scene was " intended to be something profound and meaningful " to her and Kusama . She further stated :
Obviously we knew people were going to totally sensationalize it . They 're beautiful girls , the scene is hot — I 'm not afraid to say that . There is a sexual energy between the girls which is kind of authentic , because I know when I was a teen @-@ aged girl , the friendships that I had with other girls were almost romantic , they were so intense . I wanted to sleep at my friend 's house every night , I wanted to wear her clothes , we would talk on the phone until our ears ached . I wanted to capture that heightened feeling you get as an adolescent that you don 't really feel as a grownup . ( laughs ) You like [ your ] friends when you 're a grownup , but you don 't need to sleep in the same bed with them and talk to them on the phone until 5 a.m. every night .
Though the film is part comedy , Cody initially intended for it to be a " very dark , very brooding " traditional slasher film . Close to " a third of the way into the process " she felt that she was incapable of doing so because " the humor just kept sneaking in " . She stated , " I have a macabre sense of humor . A lot of the things in the movie that are horrifying are funny to me . " Feeling that " comedy films and horror films are kind of similar " due to being films where you can significantly gauge intense reactions from the audience , Cody stated , " They 're laughing , they 're screaming , it 's not a passive experience . So , I actually think comedy and horror are kind of similar in that way . "
= = = Design and effects = = =
Handling the film 's special effects were KNB EFX GROUP and the Moving Picture Company ( MPC ) . For Jennifer 's demonic form , the creators used different techniques . " I actually wasn 't in [ the makeup chair ] that much because they created an entire head . They did a live cast of me from the shoulders up . They created me and then put the teeth in " , stated Fox . " To save my face , they had a photo double that would come in and do most of the crazy monster makeup - they would do that on her . So it would go from me , then in post @-@ production it would somehow go to her and the fake head . They would mix them all together . "
For the " vomit scene " where Jennifer has just arrived at Needy 's house after being murdered and inhabited by a demon , Fox said the liquid she was given to spit out " was actually ... chocolate syrup initially " . " We did a few takes where I would just do this scream and sort of puke Hershey 's chocolate syrup . Scratch the Hershey 's because I don 't want to endorse that or anything " , she stated . " And then , special effects did a rig that clamps onto my ear and you revisit it in the pool scene ... " Fox said it " clips on . It goes around the back of my ear and then I bite down on it on the side of my face , like this , and it projectiles . It 's a tube ... "
Directing the scene , Kusama said it had a classic feel . Fox agreed , " Yeah , and it projects whatever that material was . I 'm not sure . It was pretty intense . I think it was worse for [ Seyfried ] because she 's the one that got puked on . I was the one doing the puking . "
For more practical special effects on the set as opposed to CG , Kusama said it " was a choice that we all sort of made organically " . She said they appreciate " those kind of effects in older movies and [ questions ] sometimes how much more effective it is to use a ton of CG " and that they " always started with a practical effect and then moved forward from there to lay a groundwork of something that 's actually physically , materially there " . They found this to be more enjoyable .
Erik Nordby of KNB ( known for his work on The Haunting in Connecticut , which also features co @-@ star Kyle Gallner ) stated , " We immediately went into pitch mode in January and spent a solid two weeks trying to not only bid the script but also collect as much reference material and stuff for the first client get together . " He said the director and producers wanted an " old @-@ school , hands @-@ off , lo @-@ fi approach to the visual effects " so that the horror elements would not overpower the storyline . Based on the script , MPC similarly came to the same conclusion and " provided a clear direction " for Nordby and his team . " At that point when we met with them , they had already met with KNB , who had already done up a stylized still of what , at the time , they were calling ' Evil Jennifer , ' " he said . " There was a lot of info yet to come , but based on the script , Jennifer goes from very beautiful Megan Fox to a very ghoulish , succubus creature whose jaw distends half @-@ way down her face . " Nordby said the look was eventually toned down at the wishes of MPC . From there , KNB " produced some tests , grabbing a bunch of stills from [ Fox ] and [ did their ] work to indicate how that balance could exist between special effects and visual effects and still maintain a level of subtlety " and that " [ MPC ] responded really well " .
The teams wanted to " maintain some sort of the Megan Fox allure " but said that it was " incredibly difficult because as soon as [ they ] warped her face in any direction , the shine kind of came off it " . To combat this , they ended up focusing on anything below her nose , where they had the freedom to make things " as horrific as [ they ] needed to " and then above her nose , " [ they ] could manipulate it somewhat with warps and color correction in her eye sockets . So even at her worst , she had some of that sexiness throughout " .
Nordby said most of the attention was devoted to Jennifer 's face and that " very quickly in combination " with special effects and makeup , MPC thought up a five @-@ station system for what Jennifer goes through . Nordby stated :
Stage one is beautiful Jennifer and then two and three were strictly makeup where her eyes become more recessed and she would start to look plain like the rest of us . And stage four was some custom dentures that KNB made for her , and then visual effects in stage four was mainly facial warping and recessing her eyes some more and having a pinning effect to her irises and a variety of other musculature deforms , just bringing her cheek bones down more . And stage five was the full on , as crazy as it gets , which you don 't really see until near the end .
During testing , Nordby and the special effects teams realized that getting Fox in and out of the appliance used to create Jennifer 's murderous jaw would be too time @-@ consuming . To remedy this , they hired a photo double . " [ E ] very day ( for about 10 days ) she would sit in a chair with this full appliance on her and we would shoot this jaw , and then all [ Fox ] would have to do is the dentures " , stated Nordby . He said that " when it came time to shoot any of these jaw moments , [ Fox ] would act out in rehearsal how she was going to attack her victim and [ they would ] fine tune that blocking so it was relatively locked " . The camera accompanied them in the same way , as " it would roll and she would put her dentures in , and they would really distort her face " in a way that would produce a satisfying and nice side effect . Additionally , the team would have Fox wear contact lenses and go through exactly the same motions as normal Jennifer . " But then I would shoot all the key poses that existed in whatever moves the digital double was doing , so that we had as much of that appliance in that lighting condition that we could get " , said Nordby . " KNB also created a hairless but high detailed head of the stage five Jennifer that had an articulating jaw . "
Nordby spent a significant amount of time shooting " the articulating jaw " scene because they had " ultimate control over how the light was hitting the head " . He said , " This so @-@ called jaw shot became a pivotal point , because for four months of the post , the filmmakers thought the film was getting too scary so MPC pulled back on the jaw and then they thought it wasn 't scary enough . " Because of this , " they pushed back and this jaw went back and forth quite a bit to help navigate where they wanted the tone on any given day " . These different poses helped the two teams perfect the jaw scenes . " From a marketing point of view , from all the test screenings they did " , said Norby , " there was a lot of work figuring out how to make this a scary film as well as a funny film . " Since the team was on a small budget , they " relied more on skilled artists to think through shots rather than a brute force approach " .
MPC additionally worked on the disappearing waterfall that serves as Jennifer 's grave when she is killed at the beginning of the film . They transformed the mysterious waterfall into a whirlpool . " We came up with an approach that we thought would work because we had a lot of confidence in our water sims " , stated Nordby . " The waterfall appears both as a day and night shot , so we had to integrate with the water . And the night shots play a pivotal role in the film , and we do a huge crane over . " They could not lock it to a pan or to a tilt and filming the shots was difficult due to the actual base of the waterfall being out of reach . Nordby said , " I eventually lowered down a shot — a ton of reference of the area because I knew we 'd have to do some digi @-@ matte work to recreate the basin that the whirlpool ends up in . " They soon realized that there was an insufficient amount of churning and foam to read as real as the location . The CG Supervisor , Pete Dionne , presented a different idea . " He grabbed chunks of that river and tialing it so that it had a nice stretch of birds ' eye point of view of the water that existed on the location in the lighting situation we were trying to match " , stated Nordby . " And then he projected that onto a whirlpool of animated sprites and had similar enough texture to the actual water that existed there , but pulled control into lighting it and could add depth mainly to the center of it . " Dealing with " very shallow " water , the team had to take extra care when filming the scenes .
During the film 's fire scene , Cody appears as a character in the barroom . " To me , I am afraid of fire and fire technics and all that stuff which is why I don 't know why I asked to be in the bar scene because I 've never exploded before " , she said . She had asked to be set on fire . " That was me trying to conquer a fear . By the way , they would not allow me to do a full burn for insurance purposes , even though I argued that Burt Reynolds had done it once " , stated Cody . " But apparently he got really hurt , so they would not let me . To me , there 's nothing more horrifying than being stuck in a claustrophobic space as it is burning down so , to me , it was more like tapping into a personal fear . That 's not tough . "
= = = Filming = = =
In late 2007 , Fox Atomic had plans to film Jennifer 's Body before a possible writer 's strike . When the Writers Guild of America strike began , shooting was then moved to March 7 , 2008 , in Burnaby , British Columbia , specifically at Robert Burnaby Park near Cariboo Hill Secondary School . Some of the scenes , particularly those situated in a school setting , were filmed in local Vancouver @-@ area schools such as Vancouver Technical Secondary School , Langley Secondary School and University Hill Secondary School .
Fox said that while filming her highly anticipated kissing scene with Seyfried that Seyfried was " extremely uncomfortable " but that she herself was not . " I feel much safer with girls , so I felt more comfortable kissing [ Seyfried ] than kissing any of the other people that I had to kiss " , she said . Seyfried 's uneasiness in the scene caused " giggling fits " between takes . Seyfried said that neither of them wanted to do the kiss because they felt it was just for promotional purposes . She agreed with Fox that she was uneasy about acting out the scene . " It was my first time doing a real kissing scene with a woman " , she stated . " It is just weird . It is a woman . With a woman 's smell — soft and floraly — and maybe the pheromones are different . Something about it felt uncomfortable for me . "
= = = Music = = =
Music was incorporated as an essential part of the film ; there are " very specific bands " placed in band posters in some parts , such as in the selection of the band poster on the walls of the bar . Kusama said " [ t ] he music was a huge component of the movie " and this is first evident with " the songs that we see and hear performed , but then , just the vibe of the movie actually " . She said , " As the movie progresses , it becomes a pretty clearly music @-@ oriented movie . It 's sort of a youth movie . Some of those bands were totally made up and some of them are not . "
= = Release = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received mixed reviews from critics . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports 42 % of critics gave the film positive write @-@ ups based on 172 reviews , with a rating average of 5 @.@ 1 / 10 . The site 's consensus of opinion is that " Jennifer 's Body features occasionally clever dialogue but the horror / comic premise fails to be either funny or scary enough to satisfy " . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film holds a mixed / average score of 47 based on 29 reviews . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a C- grade on a scale of A to F.
Film critic Roger Ebert enjoyed the film , dubbing it a " Twilight for boys " and saying " as a movie about a flesh @-@ eating cheerleader , it 's better than it has to be " . Ebert said that within Cody there is " the soul of an artist , and her screenplay brings to this material a certain edge , a kind of gleeful relish , that 's uncompromising . This isn 't your assembly @-@ line teen horror thriller " . Additionally , he complimented Fox as " [ coming ] through " in her portrayal and " play [ ing ] the role straight " . He gave the film three out of four stars . Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail gave the film three out of four stars . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone stated it is " Hot ! Hot ! Hot ! " and that " Director Karyn Kusama is torn between duty to female empowerment and slasher convention " . He credited Fox 's portrayal as showing " a comic flair " that Transformers " never investigated " . Tom Charity of CNN said " [ the ] last time a horror flick tried for a distinctly female point of view the result was Twilight , which was more of a wan gothic romance than a chiller " and " Fox makes a convincing vixen , callously picking up victims whenever her luster begins to fade . It 's not hard to imagine she can have anyone who takes her fancy " . Charity credited the dialogue as " bitingly smart , funny teen @-@ speak ... along with sharp pop culture references " .
Mary Pols of Time magazine called the film entertaining and reasoned " [ t ] here is a lot of intelligent camp here , and some sharply observed characterizations " and Cody and Kusama 's " depiction of the ways in which women like Needy are willing to compromise themselves to indulge an ultimately less secure friend is spot @-@ on " . Dana Stevens of Slate praised the film for being " luscious and powerful , sexy and scary , maddening at times , but impossible to stop watching " and a " wicked black comedy with unexpected emotional resonance , one of the most purely pleasurable movies of the year so far " . Elle 's Karen Durbin said the film not only puts " a fresh spin on female @-@ centric pop genres but also own [ s ] them outright " and is " rich with first @-@ rate performances " .
The Miami Herald 's Rene Rodriguez likened the film 's " [ effective exploitation ] of the genre as a metaphor for adolescent angst , female sexuality and the strange , sometimes corrosive bonds between girls who claim to be best friends " to Brian De Palma 's 1976 film Carrie . She applauded the film for being fearless when delving into the subject of teen sex and for reversing the tradition / idea that only " bad girls have sex when they 're 16 [ and the ] good ones — those who , like Needy , do their homework and are responsible — never slide past first base " . Nick Pinkerton of Sci Fi Weekly called Fox and Seyfried 's lesbian kissing scene " the best close @-@ up girl @-@ girl liplock " since Cruel Intentions , and A. O. Scott of The New York Times concluded " the movie deserves — and is likely to win — a devoted cult following , despite its flaws " and " [ these flaws ] are mitigated by a sensibility that mixes playful pop @-@ culture ingenuity with a healthy shot of feminist anger " .
Giving a partially negative review of the film was Joshua Rothkopf of Time Out New York , who said the " movie has a centerfold sheen to it — and some lesbianic soft @-@ core flirtation to match — as its plot dives deeply into Twilight @-@ esque heavy @-@ melo meltdown in the last act " and that " Cody throws one too many losses at Needy ; the screenwriter loses her satiric way about halfway through . But for a while , this has real fangs " . Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post said , " There 's a certain kooky , kinky fun to be had with Jennifer 's Body " but that " [ a ] dmittedly , this is the stuff of lurid adolescent distraction , not great cinema " and " is strictly a niche item but provides a goofy , campy bookend to Drag Me to Hell on the B @-@ movie shelf . Watch it , forget it , move on " . San Francisco Chronicle 's Peter Hartlaub stated , " Enjoy the film for its witty dialogue and fun performances , but know that there isn 't a single good scare . An episode of Murder , She Wrote has more thrills . " Hartlaub felt the film is not bad , is " almost always pleasing " and that Fox " proves that she has some [ acting ] range " but " the chances that it will be somebody else 's pop culture reference 27 years from now are slim to none " . Joe Neumaier of New York Daily News said , " Fox merely needs to look either vacant or evil , which the Transformers boy @-@ toy does spookily well " but " [ w ] ords and story are still the lifeblood of a movie , and Jennifer 's Body is filled like a Twinkie with half @-@ fleshed @-@ out ideas " . Disagreeing with Fox 's performance , Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips called Fox " a pretty bad actress " who " doesn 't seem to get Cody 's sense of humor . At all " . He reasoned the " movie 's partially redeemed by Seyfried , who makes her character more than a repository for audience sympathy " and " her make @-@ out scene with Fox is handled with more suspense and care than anything else in the movie " .
Michael Sragow of Baltimore Sun described the only " perfect aspect " of Jennifer 's Body as being its title . " No one is going to like this movie for its brain " , he said . Claudia Puig of USA Today stated of the film , " Jennifer 's Body is not as hot as you hope it would be " . Where others praised the film 's dialogue , MSNBC 's Alonso Duralde called the writing lazy and " [ w ] orse still , all of Cody 's trademark pop @-@ culture – infused dialogue stands out as artificial and precious " . Jennifer 's Body , he said , wants " so badly " to be a Heathers @-@ esque dark comedy , " but its shortcomings makes you appreciate why that earlier film was so great " . Ty Burr of The Boston Globe also said the film wants to be like Heathers , and reminded him " a lot " of Heathers but the only scene in the film that " actually feels dangerous " is when the possessed Jennifer initiates a long and passionate kiss with Needy , which the film " very , very nervously backs away from " and that " Jennifer 's Body falls into the dispiriting category of dumb movies made by smart people , in this case a glibly clever writer and a talented director who think a few wisecracks are enough to subvert the teen horror genre " .
= = = Box office = = =
Though the film was expected to pull in a significant number of the late teenage / young adult audience , particularly males aged 17 and older , while Cody hoped for a large female turnout , it earned a " disappointing " $ 2 @.@ 8 million on its opening Friday and $ 6 @.@ 8 million its opening weekend at the North American box office ; the film placed # 5 , while 3D animated film Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs placed # 1 with $ 30 @.@ 1 million . Produced for $ 16 million , Jennifer 's Body did manage to attract the sizable female audience Cody wanted ; 51 % were female , with 70 % of patrons under age 25 . The film had been expected to benefit somewhat from its heavily marketed lesbian kissing scene between Fox and Seyfried , which , in addition to Fox being in the film , was thought to entice and successfully attract male viewers . Critic Jim Vejvoda at IGN stated that such a scene is not as shocking as it was in past decades and cannot be expected to significantly pull in an audience . The film grossed $ 16 @,@ 204 @,@ 793 domestically and $ 15 @,@ 351 @,@ 268 in international sales , for a worldwide total of $ 31 @,@ 556 @,@ 061 .
Box @-@ office analysts and critics debated the film 's underperformance . Analyst Jeff Bock , of Exhibitor Relations , reasoned the film underperformed at the box office due to two reasons ; the first , he said , is the genre . Bock stated that Americans get horror and comedy , but with the idea " of those two things together in one place , people suddenly get very dumb " . " The horror @-@ comedy genre is the toughest sell in Hollywood " , he said . He noted films Tremors , Slither , Shaun of the Dead , Eight Legged Freaks and The Evil Dead series , and said that while many of those are considered critical and business successes , " none of them have brought in the megabucks that a simple horror or comedy can . " In addition , he labeled the Scream franchise as more " straight @-@ up horror " than comedy and stated Zombieland 's box office performance would determine the horror @-@ comedy genre 's current viability .
Despite other R @-@ rated horror films having centered around teenagers , some such as Scream having been successful , Bock said the second reason Jennifer 's Body under @-@ performed at the box office is the R @-@ rating , which he described as a " killer " for the film . He said the film is set in high school and " sounds like the perfect package for teens " but that " the R rating banned many teens from the theaters " and the studio was left with " an R @-@ rated film marketed to whom , exactly ? " Nicole Sperling of Entertainment Weekly felt that it was a slow and disappointing weekend for the box office in general ; 3D animated film Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs was steep competition , and with low box office performances by the Matt Damon film The Informant ! and Jennifer Aniston film Love Happens , she concluded that this may support " the current hypothesis floating around Hollywood , that movie stars no longer matter " and that it takes more than a name to open a film . S.T. VanAirsdale of Movieline echoed Sperling 's sentiment about the weekend , as " some of the stinkiest high @-@ profile openings in recent memory " . He concluded five reasons for Jennifer 's Body 's underperformance at the box office . The first , he said , is the distributor . " 20th Century Fox 's genre wing , Fox Atomic , had Jennifer 's Body in the can by the time the mother ship shut it down last spring " , he said . " Instead of offloading the film to Fox Searchlight , which nimbly maneuvered Diablo Cody 's previous brainchild Juno to awards @-@ season lucre in 2007 , a decision was somehow reached to fill a gap in Big Fox 's early fall slate with a gory " and " post @-@ feminist horror romp starring Megan Fox and Amanda Seyfried " . VanAirsdale classified this as a " [ b ] ig mistake " and that " [ y ] ou 'd have to go back to The Devil Wears Prada to find an example of a Fox release that worked without a genuine male lead ; you ’ d probably have to go back to Aliens to find a genre example of such that they pulled off successfully . " He named the second reason as the marketing , stating that the film was not well @-@ marketed ( whether by billboards , transit posters , lobby standees , or other promotional venues ) , even in New York .
VanAirsdale cited the release date and screening as the third and fourth reasons ; he said there was confusion about what day the film was going to debut in theaters , and that Toronto is " a nation removed from the audience where the film 's actual momentum had been accruing for at least a month " and that " this rarely works for early fall releases ; not because news doesn ’ t travel , obviously , but because it peels away a layer of accessibility that accompanies New York and L.A. bows . " The final reason , he attributed to the critics , believing that the fusion of horror and teen comedy confused some of them . He mentioned Ty Burr 's review in particular , and stated that the film could perhaps have used more horror and been funnier , but that the film is " ultimately a movie about two teenage girls ' misadventures in victimization " and that " [ t ] he jokes are virtually incidental to the friction imposed on women who happen to be two sides of the same coin . Who 's the monster , and who made the monster ? Sorry if you wanted Heathers with demons , fellas . Equipment 's cheap these days ; perhaps make your own ? "
Hollywood.com box @-@ office analyst and President Paul Dergarabedian said " the poor numbers don 't mean Fox can 't open a movie . " " It may be a matter of just choosing the right projects for her " , he told the Associated Press . " She 's trying to find a world beyond Transformers , and she will . She 's young and has a lot of promise . "
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 29 , 2009 in the United States and Canada . In Australia , the DVD and Blu @-@ ray was released on May 18 , 2010 . The film opened at # 11 at the DVD sales chart , making $ 1 @.@ 6 million in the first week off 104 @,@ 000 DVD units . There is a rated and an unrated version , with the unrated version running about five minutes longer than the theatrical version . The UK Blu @-@ ray lacks most of the extras found on the locked US release .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's soundtrack was released by Fueled by Ramen on August 25 , 2009 , and featured previously released music by various indie rock and alternative rock bands such as White Lies , Florence + The Machine , Silversun Pickups and Black Kids . It also features pop punk band All Time Low and electropop singer Little Boots . In addition , the album features new songs from pop rock artists such as Cobra Starship and Panic ! at the Disco and Paramore 's lead singer Hayley Williams . The first single from the soundtrack is " New Perspective " by Panic ! at the Disco .
The album received a 3 out of 5 review from Allmusic , who described the album as having " a slightly different spin , mixing indie with the more expected punk , emo , and metal " . Mike Diver at the BBC wrote an unfavorable review of the album , stating that " This assortment of acts says nothing of its parent film , beyond the occasional reference to school days and nods to something nasty coming this way " .
The ending sequence of the film itself features a song , " Violet " , from the album Live Through This by Hole . This same album also features a song entitled " Jennifer 's Body . " In total , the film features 22 songs , most of which are included on the soundtrack .
= = Graphic novel = =
As a tie @-@ in to the film , Boom ! Studios produced a Jennifer 's Body graphic novel . The novel expands on the film 's universe and Jennifer 's murders of the boys . It was written by Black Metal 's Rick Spears , with the first nine pages illustrated by Jim Mahfood ( Clerks ) . Two covers , in Fox 's likeness , were designed ; one for the direct market by Eric Jones ( available only in comic specialty stores ) , and the other by Frank Cho for the mass market focusing more on " hellish Jennifer stories " with art by Mahfood , Hack / Slash 's Tim Seely , DMZ 's Nikki Cook , and Popgun 's Ming Doyle . The novel was released in August 2009 .
The novel features less of Jennifer than the film , but does capture her " going in for the kill " several times . It focuses heavily on following her soon @-@ to @-@ be victims and provides information on their personalities not elaborated on in the film so that readers can better conclude whether the boys deserved to be murdered . The novel consists of four chapters , with a prologue and an epilogue , with art provided for each by different artists . Each one follows a different boy and what is happening in his life just before Jennifer kills him .
On creating the story , Spears stated , " The best part for me as a writer was to show some events from the movie from a different point of view , sort of like Rashomon for you Kurosawa fans . And with comics we can get into the character 's heads in a way that works well in comics and novels more so than in film . " He stated , " ... I was using the medium to change what we really know about these characters and twist around what we see in the movies . All the academics aside , it 's also very funny and gore splattered . "
Spears stated that while writing the stories , the film was still being made and he had not seen any of it at the time . He mainly learned about the characters through the script . " I got to read the screenplay . It was kinda crazy writing characters that were being changed on set and in the editing process . I had to bob and weave to keep up but that was all part of the fun " , he said .
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= Halo : Reach =
Halo : Reach is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Bungie and published by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360 home video game console . The sixth installment in the Halo series , Reach was released worldwide in September 2010 . The game takes place in the year 2552 , where humanity is locked in a war with the alien Covenant . Players control Noble Six , a member of an elite supersoldier squad , when the human world known as Reach falls under Covenant attack .
After releasing Halo 3 in 2007 , Bungie split into teams to develop two different games — what would become Halo 3 : ODST and Reach . The developers decided to create a prequel to the original Halo game trilogy , freeing themselves from the obligation of addressing old story threads . As the game would take place on a human world doomed to be destroyed , they focused on making the environment a character unto itself . Longtime Halo composers Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori returned to compose Reach 's music , aiming for a more somber sound to match the story .
Reach was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 in Los Angeles , California , and the first in @-@ engine trailer was shown at the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards . Players who purchased ODST were eligible to participate in a Reach multiplayer beta in May 2010 ; the beta allowed Bungie to gain player feedback for fixing bugs and making gameplay tweaks before shipping the final version . Microsoft gave Reach its biggest game marketing budget yet and created award @-@ winning live @-@ action commercials , action figures , and interactive media to promote the game .
The game grossed US $ 200 million on its launch day , setting a new record for the franchise . Reach sold well in most territories , moving more than three million units its first month in North America . Critical reception was positive ; reviewers from publications such as GamePro , IGN , and Official Xbox Magazine called it the best Halo title yet . Critics generally praised the game 's graphics and sound , but the plot and characters were less positively received . Reach was Bungie 's final Halo game ; subsequent games have been overseen by Microsoft subsidiary 343 Industries .
= = Gameplay = =
Halo : Reach is a first @-@ person shooter in which players predominantly experience gameplay from a first @-@ person perspective ; the game perspective switches to third @-@ person when using certain weapons and vehicles . Gameplay is more similar to Halo : Combat Evolved than later games in the series . The player 's head @-@ up display displays and tracks a player 's current weapons , abilities , and health ; it also contains a compass and a " motion tracker " that registers moving allies , enemies , and vehicles in a certain radius of the player . The HUD changes when the player pilots aircraft and spacecraft .
In the game 's campaign , which can be played alone or cooperatively , players assume the role of Noble Six , a supersoldier engaged in combat with an alien collective known as the Covenant . The Covenant come in eight distinct varieties with different ranks and classes for each type ; for example , Elites are the leaders of a group , while Grunts are less intelligent and only dangerous in large groups . The player is equipped with a recharging energy shield that absorbs damage from weapons , fire and impacts . When the energy shield is depleted , the player loses health . When the player 's health reaches zero , the character dies and the game reloads from a saved checkpoint . Health is replenished using health packs scattered throughout Reach 's levels . The campaign 's encounters with enemies are typically large , open spaces with weapons caches , cover from enemy fire and strategic vantage points . New to the Halo series are dogfight sequences set in space .
Reach features updated versions of old weapons , plus new weapons fulfilling various combat roles . In Halo 3 , players can carry single @-@ use equipment power @-@ ups that offer temporary offensive or defensive advantages . This system of single @-@ use equipment is replaced in Reach by reusable and persistent armor abilities that remain with a character until they are replaced . The abilities are a jetpack ; active camouflage ; sprint ; hologram , which creates a facsimile of the player running towards a target point ; drop shield , which creates a bubble that heals those inside and protects them from a limited amount of damage ; and armor lock , which immobilizes the player but grants invincibility for a brief period of time . When playing as Covenant Elites , players also have access to an evade armor ability .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Reach supports player @-@ versus @-@ player multiplayer through splitscreen on a single Xbox 360 , local networks ( System Link ) , and the Xbox Live service . The game includes standard multiplayer modes such as " slayer " and capture the flag , as well as gametypes new to the franchise . In " headhunter " , players drop skulls upon death , which other players can pick up and deposit at special zones for points . When players die , all their accumulated skulls are dropped . " Stockpile " has teams race to collect neutral flags , holding them at capture points every minute for points . " Generator defense " pits three human supersoldiers , or Spartans , against three Covenant soldiers called Elites . The Elites ' objective is to destroy three generators , while the Spartans defend the installation . After every round the players switch roles . " Invasion " is a six versus six mode with three squads of two on each team . The gametype matches Spartans against Elites ; Elites vie for control of territories to disable a shield guarding a navigation core . Once the shield is disabled , they must transfer the core to a dropship ; the Spartans must prevent this . As the game progresses , new vehicles and areas of the map become open .
Alongside other multiplayer options is " firefight " , where players take on increasingly difficult waves of foes in a game of survival . Players can customize the firefight options , including the number and types of enemies . Firefight versus allows a player @-@ controlled Elite team to try to stop a Spartan team from scoring points . Game modes like generator defense are also playable in firefight .
Also included with Reach is " Forge " , a level editor . Players can edit the default multiplayer maps and a large empty map known as " Forge World " , adding or modifying spawn points , weapons and items . Objects may be phased into other objects , and can also be snapped to specific orientations . Other included features are the " theater " , where players can watch saved films of their games and take screenshots and video clips for posterity , and the file share , where players can upload their screenshots , films , custom maps , and gametypes for public viewing .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Reach takes place in a futuristic science fiction setting ; the year is 2552 , shortly before the events of the video game Halo : Combat Evolved , and during the events of the novel Halo : The Fall of Reach . Humans , under the auspices of the United Nations Space Command ( UNSC ) , have been waging a long war against a collective of alien races known as the Covenant . By the events of Reach , almost all of humanity 's interstellar colonies have fallen . Reach itself is an Earthlike colony that serves as the UNSC 's main military hub . The colony is home to over 700 million civilians in addition to the military presence .
The game follows the actions of " Noble Team " , a UNSC special operations unit composed of elite supersoldiers known as Spartans . Players assume the role of a new addition to the team identified by the call sign Noble Six . Noble Team 's leader is Carter @-@ A259 , a no @-@ nonsense soldier . His second @-@ in @-@ command , Kat @-@ B320 , has a bionic arm ; together , Carter and Kat are the only remaining original members of Noble Team . The other current members include heavy weapons specialist Jorge @-@ 052 , assault specialist Emile @-@ A239 , and marksman Jun @-@ A266 .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with the planet Reach in ruins , then flashes back to before the devastating invasion by the Covenant . Noble Team , dispatched to investigate why a communications relay has gone offline , discovers Covenant forces on Reach . Soon after , the team defends " Sword Base " , an Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) installation , from a Covenant vessel . The team meets Catherine Halsey , a scientist and the mastermind behind the Spartan program and their MJOLNIR powered armor . Halsey informs Noble Team that the Covenant forces at the relay were searching for important information .
Jun and Six are dispatched on a covert mission to assess the Covenant 's strength and discover an invasion force gathering on the planet . The following morning , Noble Team assists UNSC forces in assaulting a Covenant ground base . When a massive Covenant super @-@ carrier joins the fight , Jorge and Six take part in a plan to destroy the super @-@ carrier using a makeshift bomb . The Spartans use starfighters to infiltrate a smaller Covenant corvette , prepare the bomb and set the corvette on a docking course with the carrier , but the bomb 's timer is damaged . Left with no choice , Jorge stays behind and sacrifices himself to destroy the super @-@ carrier . Moments later , huge numbers of Covenant ships arrive at Reach and begin a full @-@ scale invasion .
Six returns to the surface and travels to the city of New Alexandria . The Spartan aids the local military in fighting the Covenant and evacuating the city , reuniting with Noble Team along the way . They retreat to an underground bunker when the Covenant begin to bombard the city with plasma , but Kat is killed by a Covenant sniper before they reach it . Recalled to Sword Base , Noble Team is guided underground to an ancient artifact that Halsey believes is key to winning the war against the Covenant . Six , Carter and Emile are entrusted with transporting the artificial intelligence Cortana , and the information she carries concerning the artifact , to the UNSC ship Pillar of Autumn . Jun leaves the team to escort Halsey to another base .
En route to the Autumn 's dry dock , Carter is critically wounded . He rams his ship into a Covenant mobile assault platform , allowing Six and Emile to safely reach the shipyard . Emile uses a mass driver emplacement to defend the Autumn while Six fights through Covenant ground forces to get Cortana to the Autumn 's captain , Jacob Keyes . When Emile is slain by Elites , Six remains behind to control the gun , ensuring the Autumn 's escape . The Autumn flees from Reach and discovers a Halo ringworld , leading directly to the events of Halo : Combat Evolved .
The post @-@ credits scene puts the player in control of Six 's last stand against overwhelming Covenant forces . After sustaining heavy damage , Six drops his or her shattered helmet and is overwhelmed and killed . Decades later , Six 's helmet remains on the grassy plains of a now @-@ restored Reach . A narration by Halsey eulogizes Noble Team , who ultimately enabled humanity 's victory over the Covenant .
= = Development = =
Halo : Reach was announced on June 1 , 2009 , accompanied by a trailer at the Microsoft Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) press conference . A press release announced that an invitation to the open multiplayer beta of the game would appear in 2010 . Reach is Bungie 's last game development for the Halo series . Responsibility for developing future Halo games fell to Microsoft subsidiary 343 Industries .
A trailer released March 3 , 2010 , showcased the game 's multiplayer . Bungie revealed parts of the game 's campaign and Firefight at E3 2010 . The game reached the " zero bug release " milestone on June 23 , signifying a shift from content creation to troubleshooting ; buggy artificial intelligence or other elements would be removed rather than fixed at this point because of time constraints . Bungie released the complete list of achievements for the game on July 30 , including their titles , symbols , and requirements , and completed Reach between the end of July and beginning of August 2010 .
= = = Design = = =
After Halo 3 , development studio Bungie created an internal team to work on Peter Jackson 's planned Halo game , Halo Chronicles . Chronicles was eventually canceled and the team began working on a standalone expansion project — Halo 3 : ODST — while another team , led by creative director Marcus Lehto and design lead Christian Allen , worked on Reach . The team considered many different concepts and approaches to the game ; among the rejected ideas was a sequel to Halo 3 . The team eventually settled on a prequel to the first Halo game in brainstorming sessions . It would take place on the planet Reach , during a pivotal time in the war . " Reach , as a fictional planet , was just a great candidate [ to ] play around with . It 's such a rich world , with such a great fiction surrounding it , " said Lehto . " We were like : ' Okay , that 's it . We 've just got a lot of things we can do there so we can build an immense story with it . ' " No longer burdened with continuing the story threads of the Halo trilogy , Bungie used Reach to introduce new characters and settings . As Reach ends with the destruction of the titular planet , Bungie wanted to be sure players still felt a sense of accomplishment and success . " It is a challenge overall to ensure the player feels they 're doing the right thing all the way to the end , " said Lehto .
Lehto recalled that making a character @-@ driven story was a great challenge — players would come to know more about them as they progressed through the campaign , but the Spartan characters also had to behave intelligently . " The Halo games consistently featured protagonists that were silent during gameplay sequences . Community manager Brian Jarrard pushed for allowing players to choose a female Noble Six and have the cinematics and dialogue change accordingly . The post @-@ credit game sequence was the subject of intense discussion ; some at Bungie wanted to remove it . Executive producer Joe Tung noted , " the ' survive ' component ... felt great to us . We definitely talked about different versions of how that was happening and different versions of ending [ the game ] cinematically , but I think the way that it ultimately ended up is just a really well @-@ paced , significant and emotionally impactful ending . "
The developers originally intended to port existing Halo 3 assets to Reach and update them . For Halo 3 , Bungie had been forced to shrink parts of the game to fit the game engine 's constraints , but wanted to make Reach look better than its predecessors . " The more we started looking into this , the more we found that realistically we could rebuild each asset from scratch with a huge increase in quality without significantly investing more time , " said Bungie 3D artist Scott Shepherd . Texture resolution and polygon counts for models increased ; the Reach assault rifle is constructed of more polygons than an entire Marine character from Halo 3 . The prequel concept also gave the art team an opportunity to redesign key enemies , weapons , and elements of the series . Artists found inspiration in the original concept art for Halo : Combat Evolved ; the shape for the redesigned Covenant Grunts came from a sketch that concept artist Shi Kai Wang created ten years earlier .
The developers redesigned the game engine , the software that handles rendering and much of gameplay . Bungie hired an expert in motion capture to develop more realistic character animations . Building a motion capture studio in @-@ house saved Bungie time as motion capture data could be applied to the game models the same day it was shot . The developers sought to increase replay value by focusing on improving artificial intelligence . Rather than scripting enemy encounters , they focused on a more open world or sandbox approach to battles .
= = = Audio = = =
Composing team Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori scored Reach . O 'Donnell wrote " somber , more visceral " music since the plot is character @-@ driven and focuses on a planet that is already known — in the Halo fictional universe — to have fallen . The first music he wrote for Reach was played for the game 's world premiere , and he used it as a starting piece to develop further themes . O 'Donnell began work on Reach while ODST , for which he also wrote the music , was still in production , but did not begin composing until August 2009 . Past Halo collaborators Salvatori , C. Paul Johnson , and Stan LePard assisted O 'Donnell . With Reach , he did not give them strictly divided responsibilities . " I decided this time to come up with some themes , tempos , keys , and other basic starting points for musical ideas , " explained O 'Donnell . " I shared these with all the other composers and just asked them to take off if they felt inspired by any of that material . " The works @-@ in @-@ progress they came up with were either retouched by O 'Donnell or sent back to be finished by their composer .
In previous Halo games , sections of music overlap and change depending on player action . Reach 's system of interactive audio was much more complex , featuring the ability to combine up to seven layers of instrumentation compared to Combat Evolved 's two . Developers also expanded the sound effect system . Every interacting object in Reach produces two sounds for respective objects ; for example , a Warthog vehicle that hits an armored Covenant soldier produces a crunching metal noise based on the two colliding elements . The interaction between objects and terrain was demonstrated in an in @-@ game environment that O 'Donnell called " the stripey room " after the bands of alternating colors on the objects and environment .
= = = Multiplayer beta = = =
Reach 's multiplayer beta was open to owners of Halo 3 : ODST . More than three million copies of ODST were sold by November 2009 . Bungie estimated between two and three million players for the upcoming Reach beta , compared to the 800 @,@ 000 that participated in Halo 3 's trial . Development schedules forced Bungie to release a six @-@ week @-@ old beta , fraught with bugs and issues already addressed in newer builds . Though concerned that these issues might tarnish the game 's image , Jarrard noted that they had little choice but to ship it as it was and communicate with players concerning the fixes .
More than 2 @.@ 7 million players participated in the beta , which lasted from May 3 to 20 . The game was rolled out from an internal group of Bungie and Microsoft employees , with the total number of players in the thousands . When the beta went public , more than a million played the first day , causing back @-@ end servers to struggle to handle the traffic . While the engineering team had overestimated server load , bugs in server clusters caused game uploads to become backed up , slowing matchmaking until the underlying issues could be fixed . Jarrard noted that the 16 million total hours of play time and large @-@ scale rollout of the beta was vital to seeing how Reach would perform .
Bungie used the beta to fix mistakes , glitches , and balance issues within gameplay elements . " We needed our fans to provide feedback , " said Lehto , adding that having a large audience to " hammer " on the game allowed them to gather useful feedback to mold the finished product . The game automatically collected statistics such as upload and matchmaking speeds , as well as game preferences ; sorting out what Jarrard called " the more subjective anecdotal feedback " from emails , notes , and forums proved more difficult . The Reach beta generated over 360 @,@ 000 forum posts on Bungie 's community forums . Bungie created official threads for groups of issues to manage the high volume of feedback ; " We tried to give people a little bit more of a direct avenue to give that feedback and to make our lives easier . It was definitely a lot to assess and digest , " said Jarrard . Certain feedback from the players did not correlate with the statistical data obtained from the matches during the beta . Chris Carney , lead designer for the multiplayer mode , recalled vocal dissatisfaction with the pistol early in the beta ; by the end of the beta , the weapon was responsible for most of the kills coming from newly included weapons in the game . Bungie deployed special test matches to eliminate lurking variables , balance gameplay , and make other informed changes .
= = Release = =
Reach was released in three editions on September 14 , 2010 . The standard edition consisted of the game and its manual . The limited edition featured an artifact bag with story information , different packaging , and an exclusive set of in @-@ game Elite armor . The " legendary edition " contained all the materials from the limited edition , a different packaging , two hours of developer commentary on the game 's cutscenes , an in @-@ game Spartan armor effect , and a 10 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) statue created by McFarlane Toys . North American players who purchased a first run copy of the game ( in @-@ store near launch day or pre @-@ ordered ) received an in @-@ game Spartan " recon " helmet customization ; players in other regions could earn it only by pre @-@ ordering . Reach also came bundled with a limited edition Xbox 360 Slim that sports Halo @-@ themed sounds and finish and two controllers .
Bungie released a demo on May 24 , 2010 , featuring a single player level from the game 's story mode , a multiplayer competitive map , and a cooperative firefight mission . Microsoft later listed Reach as an Xbox Live Marketplace download on August 12 , 2010 , at a price of 99999 Microsoft Points ( ~ US $ 1250 ) . A spokesperson confirmed the download was for media review purposes , and that there were no plans to distribute the game to the public through Games on Demand . Four days later , hackers managed to access , download , and distribute the game online ; Microsoft stated they were actively investigating the matter . Halo 2 , Halo 3 , and ODST were similarly leaked ahead of their planned release .
= = = Marketing = = =
According to Jarrard , the team decided to have much more " grandiose " marketing for Reach than that of ODST . Microsoft gave Reach its largest game marketing budget at the time , surpassing the scale and $ 6 @.@ 5 million cost of Halo 3 's award @-@ winning marketing . Marketers focused their efforts on connecting with consumers via universal themes , rather than outdoing Halo 3 's push . Interpublic Group of Companies ' AgencyTwoFifteen handled strategy and video development for the marketing push , while AKQA developed interactive components . The agencies were involved with Halo 3 's marketing . The advertisers ' brief was simple : " Remember Reach . Focus on the heroes , not the victims . Expand our audience beyond Halo fanboys . "
The advertising campaign commenced in April 2010 with the live @-@ action short " Birth of a Spartan " . A series of online videos highlighting a day in the life of average Reach citizens before the Covenant invade , began on August 23 , followed by TV spots on August 29 . The series concluded in late August with another short , " Deliver Hope " . As part of the promotions , Microsoft created an interactive light sculpture ; users logged onto a website where they could direct a KUKA industrial robot to plot pinpricks of light ; over 54 @,@ 000 points created a monument to Noble Team that faded unless more points were plotted . Reach 's marketing won several industry distinctions , among them thirteen medals from the MI6 Game Marketing Conference Awards .
Several lines of tie @-@ in merchandise were launched . McFarlane , who had produced toys for Halo 3 , created a line of five @-@ inch action figures , while Square Enix 's Play Arts toy label created additional figures .
Reach was released Tuesday , September 14 in 25 countries . Tens of thousands of stores signed up for midnight launch events ; sponsored events took place in London , Oslo , Stockholm , and New York .
= = = Sales = = =
Reach made $ 200 million in first @-@ day sales , a record for the franchise . Its strong sales suggested to analysts that core titles in the holiday season could reverse sluggish video game sales in 2010 . In its first sixteen days the game sold $ 350 million worth of merchandise . Reach premiered at the top of Xbox 360 and multi @-@ platform charts in most territories . Figures from the NPD Group estimated that Reach sold 3 @.@ 3 million units in North America , making it the third game for its console generation ( Xbox 360 , PS3 , Wii ) to sell more than three million units during the first month of its release ( alongside Halo 3 and Modern Warfare 2 ) . Halo : Reach became the third bestselling game of 2010 in North America , behind Call of Duty : Black Ops and Madden NFL 11 . It sold 4 @.@ 7 million units by September 2011 .
In the United Kingdom , Reach 's opening week was the fifth @-@ best launch in the territory , beating Halo 3 's debut by 20 @,@ 000 units and ODST 's by 200 @,@ 000 units . In its second week on the UK charts Reach was the second bestselling title , displaced by the racing game F1 2010 . Reach continued to hold the top place in North America . In Japan , the game debuted at first place with 44 @,@ 413 units , but fared poorly in the long @-@ term ( as have other Halo games ) . This showing was above ODST 's sales of 29 @,@ 734 in the comparable timeframe , but below Halo 3 's 61 @,@ 143 . Reach dropped out of the top 20 best selling titles entirely its second week .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Reach supports additional downloadable content ( DLC ) . Bungie released the game 's first DLC , dubbed the " Noble Map Pack " , on November 30 , 2010 ; this map pack contains three maps , unique in that they are not based on Reach campaign levels . Microsoft partnered with Certain Affinity , which had worked on Halo 2 maps , to produce the second , " Defiant Map Pack " , made available for download on March 15 , 2011 .
A " title update " was released by 343 Industries for Reach that modified game mechanics such as bullet spread and melee damage . The update also contained playlists for Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary . Purchasers of anniversary edition received a voucher to download the game 's seven multiplayer maps directly into Reach , the map pack was also made available to purchase via the Xbox Live Marketplace .
= = Reception = =
Halo : Reach received critical acclaim upon its release . On review @-@ aggregating web sites GameRankings and Metacritic , it holds averages of 91 @.@ 79 % and 91 / 100 , respectively . Critics such as 1UP.com 's Thierry Nguyen , the staff of Edge , GamePro 's Matt Cabral , and others considered Reach the best Halo title yet . Reviewers noted there were few major changes to the Halo formula ; IGN 's Erik Brudvig wrote that Reach was not " another rehash " , though franchise veterans would feel immediately at home with the game .
Nguyen , Tom Hoggins of The Daily Telegraph , and others wrote that Reach took the best elements from previous games and combined them in Bungie 's final entry . Hoggins noted that this approach made Reach " a blistering , breathless crescendo to a decade 's worth of work " , but also that it was unlikely to convert non @-@ Halo fans . The Daily Mirror 's Kevin Lynch praised Bungie for introducing new gameplay mechanics like jetpacks without ruining the title 's learning curve or game balance .
Brudvig praised the campaign for avoiding the " repetitive landscapes and circuitous , difficult to follow plots " of past Halo titles . GameSpot 's Chris Watters and others felt the artificial intelligence of friendly non @-@ player characters was less advanced than that of enemies , especially while driving . Steve Boxer wrote for The Guardian that Reach 's story made previous entries feel " amateurish " ; Nguyen felt that whereas previous Halo titles had become mired in inconsistencies and Star Trek @-@ like technobabble , Reach told a broader and more accessible story . Despite this , he contended , the game suffered from archetypal characters with which players spent little time : " I almost forgot that Noble Four ( Emile ) even existed for a big chunk of the campaign , as I rarely saw him . " Wired 's Gus Mastrapa unfavorably compared Noble Team to the marines of Aliens , writing that most of the characters were unmemorable and one @-@ dimensional . Nguyen also faulted the game for occasional lapses in exposition , but summed these up as " minor quibbles " compared to the improvements . In contrast , GamesRadar 's Charlie Baratt opined that Reach 's campaign was better than ODST 's , but lacked the " franchise @-@ changing potential " it promised . Lynch judged that while Bungie still had not learned to create a perfect story , " [ Reach ] does expertly set up bombastic scene after scene " .
Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica enjoyed the multiplayer component of Reach for its scope — " no matter how you play , you will find something to like . " Reviewers lauded the many customization options available to players : Watters and Kuchera praised the concept of psych profiles to hone more agreeable teammate selections , but questioned its effectiveness ; G4 considered Reach 's Forge World more expansive and impressive than Halo 3 's Forge offerings ; and Lynch wrote that the sheer quantity of multiplayer options would give the game a long life cycle for players .
Critics considered the audio @-@ visual components a marked advance over Halo 3 and ODST 's . The New Zealand Herald 's Troy Rawhiti @-@ Forbes wrote that with the improved graphics and animation , " [ Reach ] looks just like a big @-@ budget Hollywood project . " Official Xbox Magazine acknowledged better graphics in other games , but praised Reach for " eye @-@ catching beauty and breathless scope " , noting that the inclusion of wildlife and civilians heightened the impression of a planet under siege . Martin Robinson of IGN UK appreciated O 'Donnell 's moody score and the redone sound effects , writing that the new weapons " feel like they 're about to tear your hands off " .
= = = Awards = = =
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= Keep It Together ( Madonna song ) =
" Keep It Together " is a song by American singer Madonna from her fourth studio album Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . It was released on January 30 , 1990 by Sire Records as the sixth and final single from the album in the United States , Canada and Japan . Written and produced by Madonna and Stephen Bray , the main inspiration behind " Keep It Together " was Madonna 's relationship with her family — whom she dearly missed after her divorce from actor Sean Penn . The song was dedicated to American funk and soul band Sly and the Family Stone . The lyrics deal with the realization of how important Madonna 's family has been to her life . A pop and funk song consisting of an upbeat rhythm and groove , " Keep It Together " features percussion , banjo and a conga .
In the United Kingdom and some other countries , " Dear Jessie " ( 1989 ) served as the final single from the album and " Keep It Together " was not released as a separate single at all . Receiving mixed reviews from critics , " Keep It Together " was compared to the work of Sister Sledge , especially their song " We Are Family " . The song was a commercial success , reaching a peak of number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian charts , while topping the dance chart in the United States . In Australia it reached the top of the charts as a double A @-@ side single with " Vogue " . " Keep It Together " has been performed as the closing song of the 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour . The performances were inspired by the 1971 science fiction film , A Clockwork Orange , and during the introduction , Madonna sang a verse from " Family Affair " by Sly and the Family Stone .
= = Background = =
When Madonna started work on her fourth studio album , Like a Prayer , she was already in an emotional state of mind , following her divorce with then @-@ husband Sean Penn , her thirtieth birthday , and unfavorable reviews for her acting endeavors . She had certain personal matters on her mind that she thought could be the musical direction of the album . But she understood that as she was growing up , so was her core audience . Feeling the need to try something different , Madonna wanted the sound of her new album to indicate what could be popular in music . However , being raised as a Catholic , Madonna felt guilty about the failure of her marriage . She said , " Because in Catholicism you are a born sinner and you are a sinner all your life . ... I could not escape my past , nor could I relax " . Saddened by what was happening with her , Madonna missed her family , her father and her siblings . She confessed to Becky Johnston for Interview magazine :
I didn 't feel close to anybody in my family when I was growing up . [ ... ] I didn 't feel close to my older brothers , they were just typical older brothers who tortured me all the time . And I didn 't feel close to my sisters . There was a lot of competition in our family , [ ... ] so , I worked really hard in school . I was a straight @-@ A student , and they all hated me for it because I did it more for the position I was going to have in my father 's eyes that for whatever I was going to learn by studying . Then when I got a little older — when I was in high school and started dancing really seriously — I 'd say I got closer to my brothers . My oldest brother opened my eyes to lots of things [ ... ] .
The song was released as the sixth and final single from the album on January 30 , 1990 , by Sire Records . In Australia , it was released as the B @-@ side of " Vogue " , while it was not released in the United Kingdom at all , where " Dear Jessie " served as the album 's final single .
= = Composition = =
" Keep It Together " is a pop and funk song with an upbeat rhythm and groove . It was produced by Madonna and Bray , and features Paulinho da Costa on percussion , brass playing by David Boruff and Steven Madaio , Bill Bottrell as the audio engineer and guitars by Chester Kamen . Despite not on the album 's credits , Prince also played guitar on the song according to Madonna .
According to Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , the song is influenced by the Sly and the Family Stone track " Family Affair " ( 1971 ) . It starts as the sound of slap bass plays along with sequenced synth bass , as Madonna sings the opening lines , " Keep , keep it together , keep people together forever and ever " . As the first verse starts , a guitar comes into play with Madonna 's voice being backed by percussion and banjo . After the second chorus comes near the end , Madonna utters the line " Brothers and sisters , They hold the key , To your heart and your soul , Don 't forget that your family is gold " , the percussion sound is thinned out and a mixture of the sound from a live drummer and conga comes into the picture . The song ends with the main groove sound gradually fading out .
According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , although " Keep It Together " sonically pays tribute to Sly and the Family Stone , the lyrics talk about the realization of how important Madonna 's family has been as a form of stability in her life , especially in the line " Brothers and sisters , They 've always been there for me , We have a connection , Home is where the heart should be " . The lyrics follow the course of Madonna 's rise from figuratively being a " hungry sibling " ( " I 'm gonna leave this place , So I can forget every single hungry face " ) to being a superstar ( " I hit the big time but I still get the blues , Everyone 's a stranger , City life can get to you " ) .
= = Critical reception = =
" Keep It Together " received mixed reviews from critics . Mark C. Taylor , author of Nots : Religion and Postmodernism , felt that " Keep It Together " was a " striking instance of her repeated invocation of family values " . He believed that Madonna 's fascination for family was reflected in the song . Carol Benz , one of the authors of The Madonna Connection , believed that the song was successful in asserting the necessity of family ties . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography described the track as " an uptempo romp about the trials and tribulations , and the joys of having a family . " Martha Bayles , author of Hole In Our Soul , felt that " Keep It Together " failed to become an anthem for emotional commitment , because of the funk nature of the song . Madonna , Unauthorized 's writer Christopher Anderson proclaimed the track as a worthy number @-@ one single , and complimented the song 's theme of allegiance to one 's family , despite the turmoil and dissensions that occur . Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , described it as an " upbeat meditation on sibling power " and believed that the purpose behind the song was to present a homey image of brothers and sisters happy and together , and Madonna 's need to restore bonds and relationships that had become fraught or distant in her life then . Hadley Freeman from The Guardian described " Keep It Together " as " amazing , purely for being Madonna 's take on Sister Sledge 's ' We Are Family ' , a concept no one foresaw , and the fact that she later disowned various members of her family gives it , shall we say , an interesting tinge of irony . "
USA Today 's Edna Gunderson wrote that " Keep It Together " evoked an " R & B groove " that was successful in adding more variation to Like a Prayer . Conversely , Ian Blair of the Chicago Tribune thought that the different funk tempo of the song distracted from the emotional quotient of the album . Blair added that the song " hits a groove that is one of the funkiest things Madonna has ever done . " Scott Benarde from The Palm Beach Post listed the song as one of the album 's " downpour " moments . Writing for The Jerusalem Post , Andy Goldberg from the newspaper listed the song as one of the highlights of the album , and complimented the family oriented lyrics . Bruce Britt from Boca Raton News believed that " Keep It Together " was one of the songs from the album , that exemplified the personal approach to songwriting by Madonna .
Spin 's Joe Levy named the song the only " great " dance record on Like a Prayer , and also observed that " Keep It Together " was a " girly @-@ disco " song that drew influences from Sister Sledge 's " We Are Family " and Madonna 's own " Into the Groove " . Stephen Holden from The New York Times believed that the song brought the pop @-@ funk style and hippie happiness of Sly and the Family Stone . Journalist J. D. Considine , while reviewing Like a Prayer for Rolling Stone , felt that " Keep It Together " portrayed " an impressive invocation of the importance of family " . Considine was concerned that since the confessional nature of the songs on Like a Prayer evoked strong emotions from the listener , " Keep It Together " would probably seem almost trivial by comparison to them . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic believed that the song constituted of deep funk music . Louis Virtel of The Backlot gave the song a positive review , calling it a " rollicking family reunion " that is the " sunny side of “ Oh Father ’ s ” grim familial reckoning . " Kenneth Partridge from Billboard described the song as a mid @-@ tempo synth @-@ funk tune with a " tense " groove , on which Madonna offers an olive branch to her estranged father and siblings .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Keep It Together " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 56 , on the issue dated February 3 , 1990 . The next week , " Keep It Together " jumped to number 41 , becoming one of the greatest gaining songs . It eventually peaked at number eight on the Hot 100 , on the issue dated March 31 , 1990 . During the next few weeks , the song fell quickly from its peak as Madonna 's next single , " Vogue " , began to get massive radio airplay . Its final appearance on the Hot 100 was at number 83 on the issue dated April 28 , 1990 . " Keep It Together " topped the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart , and peaked at number 66 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Three months since its release , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Canada , the song debuted at number 85 on the RPM Singles Chart on February 10 , 1990 , and after eight weeks , it peaked at number eight . " Keep It Together " was present on the chart for 15 weeks and placed at number 86 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1990 .
In Australia , " Keep It Together " charted on the ARIA Singles Chart along with " Vogue " . It debuted on the chart at number 19 and reached the top the next week , remaining there for five consecutive weeks . The song was present for a total of 35 weeks on the chart and reached number three on the Australian Year @-@ end chart for 1990 . It was certified double @-@ platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 140 @,@ 000 copies of the single . After its release in Japan , " Keep It Together " appeared for two weeks on the Oricon Singles Chart , and reached number five . The single was not released in the United Kingdom , where " Dear Jessie " was the final single from Like a Prayer instead .
= = Live performance = =
Madonna has performed the song only on her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour , where it was the closing song of the set list . The staging of the performances was inspired by the 1971 science fiction film , A Clockwork Orange . The shows featured an introductory verse from " Family Affair " by Sly and the Family Stone . Madonna wore an all @-@ black ensemble involving a cage vest , the longline bra , skintight shorts , knee @-@ pads and a bowler hat . Her getup was a nod to actress Liza Minnelli in the film Cabaret . The performance started with her dancers appearing on the stage , with chairs on their back . Madonna appeared in their middle and started doing push @-@ ups on the stage . She started singing " Family Affair " , then mid @-@ way through the song , changed to " Keep It Together " . During the intermediate music , Madonna and her dancers performed an intricate choreography with the chairs . At the end , all the musicians , dancers and collaborators came to say good @-@ bye to Madonna . The singer was left alone on stage to finish with a powerful repeat of her line " Keep people together forever and ever " .
In an interview with Stephen Holden from The New York Times , Madonna explained the significance of the performance : " Finally , right when you think I 'll end [ the concert ] on a happy note , I come out with my family to do a Bob Fosse @-@ meets- ' Clockwork Orange ' rendition of ' Keep It Together ' . It 's the show 's ultimate statement about the family , because we 're absolutely brutalizing with each other , while there 's also no mistaking that we love each other deeply . " Author Lynne Layton complimented the performance , saying that " as in her double attitude to materialism , femininity , and everything else , what marks the performance is not that Madonna is in control , but that she is open about the pros and cons of family life and obviously echoes the experience of many . " Her thoughts were shared by John LeLand from Newsday , who complimented the aerobics performed onstage by Madonna and her dancers . Conversely , author Allen Metz commented that although the performance was tightly choreographed , the overall feel was marred due to the song 's own " shortcomings " . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune felt that the addition of lines from " Family Affair " underlined the " home @-@ is @-@ where @-@ the @-@ heart @-@ is " theme of " Keep It Together " . Louis Virtel from The Backlot praised the performance of the song , stating that it served as the " perfect concluding performance . " Two different performances were recorded and released on video : the Blond Ambition – Japan Tour 90 , filmed in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , filmed in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 . It was also shown on the HBO special titled Madonna Live ! – Blond Ambition World Tour , and was added in her 1991 documentary , Truth or Dare .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – songwriter , producer , vocals
Stephen Bray – songwriter , producer
Paulinho da Costa – percussion
David Boruff – brass , strings
Steven Madaio – brass
Bill Bottrell – audio engineer , mixing
Chester Kamen – guitars
Credits and personnel adapted from Like a Prayer album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Give Me Your Eyes =
" Give Me Your Eyes " is a song by contemporary Christian musician Brandon Heath from his second album , What If We . It was released in July 2008 as the album 's lead single and quickly gained success . It sold nearly 6 @,@ 000 downloads in the first week , and became 2008 's highest @-@ debuting Christian track at the time . It soon placed at No. 1 on Christian radio charts , and held the position for multiple consecutive weeks . At the end of 2008 , it was the second most @-@ played song of the year on Christian contemporary hit radio .
The song is about wanting to see the world as God would , and having a desire to view people with more compassion . " Give Me Your Eyes " was written by Heath and songwriter Jason Ingram , and was generally well received by critics . The song received two GMA Dove Awards in April 2009 , including the Song of the Year title . It was also Grammy Award @-@ nominated in the Best Gospel Song category for 2009 .
= = Background = =
The song 's meaning originated with a discussion between Brandon Heath and friend and songwriter Jason Ingram . " We had a conversation over Chinese food that we wished we could have God ’ s perspective on things " , Heath said . " If we did have His perspective , we 'd wish we could have it for long periods of time , rather than just for a few seconds . That was the beginning . " He soon began to pen a song about the idea , co @-@ writing " Give Me Your Eyes " with Ingram . Prior to recording What If We , Heath had written 40 possible tracks for the album , and although the song was not his top favorite , he noted that " Give Me Your Eyes " was " one of the first that really stuck out . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The song 's genre is represented by pop , and includes acoustic and mild hip hop influences . It is a mid @-@ tempo song based upon a strummed acoustic guitar , background piano , and occasional strings . The song 's continuous clap @-@ sounding beat was described as a " hip @-@ hop shuffle " , drawing comparisons to Christian musician Mat Kearney .
Lyrically , the song is about a desire to view people as God would , and was " inspired by people @-@ watching at an airport " . Heath has said , " [ it 's ] a song about my own convictions for wanting to see the world with compassionate eyes . "
= = Release = =
" Give Me Your Eyes " was digitally released as the lead single from What If We on July 23 , 2008 . Upon its release , the single was commercially successful and soon began to place on Christian radio charts . It made nearly 6 @,@ 000 downloads in the first week , which was the highest @-@ debuting Christian track of 2008 at the time . By the second week , another 6 @,@ 700 copies were sold . It placed at No. 1 on Billboard 's Hot Christian Songs chart beginning in September , and spent an end total of 14 consecutive weeks at the top by December . It also held the No. 1 position on the Radio & Records ( R & R ) Christian CHR chart for 13 consecutive weeks from the last week of August through the start of December . For the week of November 1 , 2008 , " Give Me Your Eyes " debuted on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at No. 22 , which is equivalent to placing at No. 122 on the Hot 100 .
By mid @-@ September , it had sold 70 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The song placed at No. 1 on the iTunes top Christian songs chart and held the position from July through February for seven consecutive months , receiving 100 @,@ 000 downloads on iTunes by late October . It ended 2008 as the second most @-@ played song on R & R 's Christian CHR format ; the song also placed at No. 9 for the year 's top @-@ played Christian AC songs .
= = Compilation = =
This song was also by the appearances by the compilation album WOW Hits 2009 and Now That 's What I Call Faith .
= = Reception = =
The song was generally received well by critics . The New York Times highlighted Heath 's Grammy Award @-@ nominated What If We album as one of the best Grammy nominees in Christian music that year , saying ; " Mr. Heath 's sense of wonder is firmly intact — ' Give Me Your Eyes , ' which is nominated for best gospel song , is a breezy statement of humble devotion . " The song was featured on USA Today 's top ten " pick of the week " playlist in the beginning of March 2009 ; the magazine 's editor and music critic Brian Mansfield said , " Grammy and Dove Award nominations are attracting a second look for Heath 's song about seeing life 's big picture . " Jesus Freak Hideout 's Matthew Watson said of Heath 's future music efforts : " it could be really outstanding if he sticks to more upbeat songs like ' Give Me Your Eyes ' . "
The song was Grammy Award @-@ nominated in the Best Gospel Song category for the 51st Grammy Awards of 2009 . It received two awards at the 40th GMA Dove Awards in April 2009 : Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year . On January 30 , 2010 , the song won an Emmy for the Nashville Rescue Mission : Hunger to Hope public service announcement campaign from the Midsouth Chapter of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences .
= = Music video = =
A music video for " Give Me Your Eyes " was filmed over the night of July 23 – 24 , 2008 at the Birmingham @-@ Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham , Alabama after most flights had landed for the night . It was directed by the Erwin Brothers and premiered on the Gospel Music Channel on August 23 , 2008 . The video is mainly set in an airport as Brandon Heath walks among people , with interspersed shots of Heath sitting on steps and singing . The scenes of Heath sitting on stairs and in a chair were filmed in the older 1962 Birmingham Air Terminal which is adjacent to the current terminal and no longer used for passenger traffic . In the bridge of the song , a portion of the video is played backwards as he sings the lines " I want a second glance / So give me a second chance / To see the way You see the people all alone " . In the last chorus , a few of the previous scenes are replayed as Heath now helps with people 's individual situations . In one of the early shots , a woman steps in front of an approaching car ; it is replayed as Heath intervenes and stops her from being hit by the car . The video 's airport scene included about 100 extras .
= = Charts = =
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= Hammerton 's Ferry =
Hammerton 's Ferry is a pedestrian and cycle ferry service across the River Thames in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames , London , England . The ferry links the northern bank near Marble Hill House in Twickenham with the southern bank near Ham House in Ham . It is one of only four remaining ferry routes in London not to be replaced by a bridge or tunnel .
= = Historical background = =
Although ferries ( and later bridges ) had crossed the river to the east at Richmond since 1459 and to the west at Eel Pie Island since at least 1652 the lands to the south of the river at this point had historically been privately held by the Tollemache family ( owners of Ham House ) and off limits to the public . Consequently , despite the distance from the nearest crossings there was little demand for cross @-@ river services at this location . Additionally , the Tollemache family had licensing rights for the Twickenham Ferry at Eel Pie Island ( sometimes known as Dysart 's ferry after the family ) , and consequently had little interest in promoting a competing service . The Twickenham Ferry is a setting for some action in Little Dorritt by Charles Dickens .
= = Walter Hammerton = =
In 1901 Marble Hill House on the north bank of the Thames and the surrounding park were purchased for public use and in 1902 the footpath on the southern bank near Ham House became a public right of way by Act of Parliament resulting in increased passenger traffic in the area . In 1908 local resident Walter Hammerton began hiring out boats to leisure users from a boathouse opposite Marble Hill House , and in 1909 began to operate a regular ferry service across the river at this point using a 12 @-@ passenger clinker @-@ built skiff , charging 1d per journey .
= = = Legal challenge = = =
In 1913 William Champion , and Lord Dysart , operators of the nearby Twickenham Ferry , took legal action against Hammerton to remove his right to operate the ferry . Although Hammerton won the initial case , the judgement was reversed on appeal . Following considerable public interest in the case , a public subscription raised the funds for Hammerton to take the case to the House of Lords , who ruled in his favour on 23 July 1915 .
The legal case resulted in considerable publicity for Hammerton , culminating in the release of the song " The Ferry to Fairyland " celebrating the case . ( " Fairyland " , in this case , referring to Marble Hill House , recently purchased by the London County Council for public enjoyment . )
In 1947 Hammerton retired after 38 years of operating the ferry , leaving the ferry and boathouse to Sandy Scott .
= = Current operation = =
The ferry is currently owned by Francis Spencer and operated by Stan Rust . The current ferry , Peace of Mind , was designed and built by Thanetcraft Limited in South Wales in 1997 . Hammerton 's original skiff is now on display at the Museum in Docklands .
The ferry currently operates between a floating boathouse on the north bank of the Thames and a rudimentary jetty on the south bank . The boathouse is also in use as a private mooring for leisure craft . The ferry operates on all weekends , and weekdays between February and October . As well as the ferry service , rowboats , canoes and motorboats can also be hired from the boathouse .
In July 2007 the ferry briefly made headlines when owner Francis Spencer saved from drowning a woman found floating in the Thames . After the rescue , the woman left the scene and was never identified .
A local tradition holds that a tunnel connects Ham House and Marble Hill House , paralleling the route of the ferry . However , there is no evidence that this is the case .
The ferry marks the starting point of the Great River Race and is on the course of the Twickenham Regatta . As the ferry has right @-@ of @-@ way over rowed craft , the races have to be carefully timed to ensure that the ferry does not interfere with their running .
= = Image gallery = =
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= Nominal impedance =
Nominal impedance in electrical engineering and audio engineering refers to the approximate designed impedance of an electrical circuit or device . The term is applied in a number of different fields , most often being encountered in respect of :
The nominal value of the characteristic impedance of a cable or other form of transmission line .
The nominal value of the input , output or image impedance of a port of a network , especially a network intended for use with a transmission line , such as filters , equalisers and amplifiers .
The nominal value of the input impedance of a radio frequency antenna
The actual impedance may vary quite considerably from the nominal figure with changes in frequency . In the case of cables and other transmission lines , there is also variation along the length of the cable , if it is not properly terminated .
It is usual practice to speak of nominal impedance as if it were a constant resistance , that is , it is invariant with frequency and has a zero reactive component , despite this often being far from the case . Depending on the field of application , nominal impedance is implicitly referring to a specific point on the frequency response of the circuit under consideration . This may be at low @-@ frequency , mid @-@ band or some other point and specific applications are discussed in the sections below .
In most applications , there are a number of values of nominal impedance that are recognised as being standard . The nominal impedance of a component or circuit is often assigned one of these standard values , regardless of whether the measured impedance exactly corresponds to it . The item is assigned the nearest standard value .
= = 600 Ω = =
Nominal impedance first started to be specified in the early days of telecommunications . At first amplifiers were not available and when they did become available they were expensive . It was consequently necessary to achieve maximum power transfer from the cable at the receiving end in order to maximise the lengths of cables that could be installed . It also became apparent that reflections on the transmission line would severely limit the bandwidth that could be used or the distance that it was practicable to transmit . Matching equipment impedance to the characteristic impedance of the cable reduces reflections ( and they are eliminated altogether if the match is perfect ) and power transfer is maximised . To this end , all cables and equipment started to be specified to a standard nominal impedance . The earliest , and still the most widespread , standard is 600 Ω , originally used for telephony . It has to be said that the choice of this figure had more to do with the way telephones were interfaced into the local exchange than any characteristic of the local telephone cable . Telephones ( old style analogue telephones ) connect to the exchange through twisted pair cabling . Each leg of the pair is connected to a relay coil which detect the signalling on the line ( dialling , handset off @-@ hook etc . ) . The other end of one coil is connected to a supply voltage and the second coil is connected to ground . A telephone exchange relay coil is around 300 Ω so the two of them together are terminating the line in 600 Ω .
The wiring to the subscriber in telephone networks is generally done in twisted pair cable . Its impedance at audio frequencies , and especially at the more restricted telephone band frequencies , is far from constant . It is possible to manufacture this kind of cable to have a 600 Ω characteristic impedance but it will only be this value at one specific frequency . This might be quoted as a nominal 600 Ω impedance at 800 Hz or 1 kHz . Below this frequency the characteristic impedance rapidly rises and becomes more and more dominated by the ohmic resistance of the cable as the frequency falls . At the bottom of the audio band the impedance can be several tens of kilohms . On the other hand , at high frequency in the MHz region , the characteristic impedance flattens out to something almost constant . The reason for this response is explained at primary line constants .
Local area networks ( LANs ) commonly use a similar kind of twisted pair cable , but screened and manufactured to tighter tolerances than is necessary for telephony . Even though it has a very similar impedance to telephone cable , the nominal impedance is rated at 100 Ω . This is because the LAN data is in a higher frequency band where the characteristic impedance is substantially flat and mostly resistive .
Standardisation of line nominal impedance led to two @-@ port networks such as filters being designed to a matching nominal impedance . The nominal impedance of low @-@ pass symmetrical T- or Pi @-@ filter sections ( or more generally , image filter sections ) is defined as the limit of the filter image impedance as the frequency approaches zero and is given by ,
<formula>
where L and C are as defined in constant k filter . As can be seen from the expression , this impedance is purely resistive . This filter transformed to a band @-@ pass filter will have an impedance equal to the nominal impedance at resonance rather than low frequency . This nominal impedance of filters will generally be the same as the nominal impedance of the circuit or cable that the filter is working into .
While 600 Ω is an almost universal standard in telephony for local presentation at customer 's premises from the exchange , for long distance transmission on trunk lines between exchanges other standard nominal impedances are used and are usually lower , such as 150 Ω .
= = 50 Ω and 75 Ω = =
In the field of radio frequency ( RF ) and microwave engineering , by far and away the most common transmission line standard is 50 Ω coaxial cable ( coax ) , which is an unbalanced line . 50 Ω first arose as a nominal impedance during world war two work on radar and is a compromise between two requirements . This standard was the work of the wartime US joint Army @-@ Navy RF Cable Coordinating Committee . The first requirement is for minimum loss . The loss of coaxial cable is given by ,
<formula> nepers / metre
where R is the loop resistance per metre and Z0 is the characteristic impedance . Making the diameter of the inner conductor larger will decrease R and decreasing R decreases the loss . On the other hand , Z0 depends on the ratio of the diameters of outer and inner conductors ( Dr ) and will decrease with increasing inner conductor diameter thus increasing the loss . There is a specific value of Dr for which the loss is a minimum and this turns out to be 3 @.@ 6 . For an air dielectric coax this corresponds to a characteristic impedance of 77 Ω . The coax produced during the war was rigid air @-@ insulated pipe , and this remained the case for some time afterwards . The second requirement is for maximum power handling and was an important requirement for radar . This is not the same condition as minimum loss because power handling is usually limited by the breakdown voltage of the dielectric . However , there is a similar compromise in terms of the ratio of conductor diameters . Making the inner conductor too large results in a thin insulator which breaks down at a lower voltage . On the other hand , making the inner conductor too small results in higher electric field strength near the inner conductor ( because the field lines are closer together on the smaller circumference ) and again reduces the breakdown voltage . The ideal ratio , Dr , for maximum power handling turns out to be 1 @.@ 65 and corresponds to a characteristic impedance of 30 Ω in air . The 50 Ω impedance is the geometric mean of these two figures ;
<formula>
and then rounding to a convenient whole number .
Wartime production of coax , and for a period afterwards , tended to use standard plumbing pipe sizes for the outer conductor and standard AWG sizes for the inner conductor . This resulted in coax that was nearly , but not quite , 50 Ω . Matching is a much more critical requirement at RF than it is at voice frequencies , so when cable started to become available that was truly 50 Ω a need arose for matching circuits to interface between the new cables and legacy equipment , such as the rather strange 51 @.@ 5 Ω to 50 Ω matching network .
While 30 Ω cable is highly desirable for its power handling capabilities , it has never been in commercial production because the large size of inner conductor makes it difficult to manufacture . This is not the case with 77 Ω cable . Cable with 75 Ω nominal impedance has been in use from an early period in telecommunications for its low loss characteristic . According to Stephen Lampen of Belden Wire & Cable 75 Ω was chosen as the nominal impedance rather than 77 Ω because it corresponded to a standard AWG wire size for the inner conductor . For coax video cables and interfaces 75 Ω is now the near universal standard nominal impedance .
= = Radio antennae = =
The widespread idea that 50 Ω and 75 Ω cable nominal impedances arose in connection with the input impedance of various antennae is a myth . It is true , however , that several common antennae are easily matched to cables with these nominal impedances . A quarter wavelength monopole in free space has an impedance of 36 @.@ 5 Ω , and a half wavelength dipole in free space has an impedance of 72 Ω . A half @-@ wavelength folded dipole , commonly seen on television antennae , on the other hand , has a 288 Ω impedance – four times that of a straight @-@ line dipole . The ½ λ dipole and the ½ λ folded dipole are commonly taken as having nominal impedances of 75 Ω and 300 Ω , respectively .
An installed antenna ’ s feed @-@ point impedance varies above and below the quoted value , depending on its installation height above the ground and the electrical properties of the surrounding earth .
= = Cable quality = =
One measure of cable manufacturing and installation quality is how closely the characteristic impedance adheres to the nominal impedance along its length . Impedance changes can be caused by variations in geometry along the cable length . In turn , these can be caused by a faulty manufacturing process or by faulty installation ( such as not observing limits on bend radii ) . Unfortunately , there is no easy , non @-@ destructive method of directly measuring impedance along a cable 's length . It can , however , be indicated indirectly by measuring reflections , that is , return loss . Return loss by itself does not reveal much , since the cable design will have some intrinsic return loss anyway due to not having a purely resistive characteristic impedance . The technique used is to carefully adjust the cable termination to obtain as close a match as possible and then to measure the variation of return loss with frequency . The minimum return loss so measured is called the structural return loss ( SRL ) . SRL is a measure of a cables ' adherence to its nominal impedance but it is not a direct correspondence , errors further from the generator have less effect on SRL than those close to it . The measurement must also be carried out at all in @-@ band frequencies to be significant . The reason for this is that equally spaced errors introduced by the manufacturing process will cancel and be invisible , or at least much reduced , at certain frequencies due to quarter wave impedance transformer action .
= = Audio systems = =
For the most part , audio systems both professional and domestic , have their components interconnected with low impedance outputs connected to high impedance inputs . These impedances are poorly defined and nominal impedances are not usually assigned for this kind of connection . The exact impedances make little difference to performance as long as the latter is many times larger than the former . This is a common interconnection scheme , not just for audio , but for electronic units in general which form part of a larger equipment or are only connected over a short distance . Where audio needs to be transmitted over large distances , which is often the case in broadcast engineering , considerations of matching and reflections dictate that a telecommunications standard is used , which would normally mean using 600 Ω nominal impedance ( although other standards are sometimes encountered , such as sending at 75 Ω and receiving at 600 Ω which has bandwidth advantages ) . The nominal impedance of the transmission line and of the amplifiers and equalisers in the transmission chain will all be the same value .
Nominal impedance is used , however , to characterise the transducers of an audio system , such as its microphones and loudspeakers . It is important that these are connected to a circuit capable of dealing with impedances in the appropriate range and assigning a nominal impedance is a convenient way of quickly determining likely incompatibilities . Loudspeakers and microphones are dealt with in separate sections below .
= = = Loudspeakers = = =
Loudspeaker impedances are kept relatively low compared with other audio components so that the required audio power can be transmitted without using inconveniently ( and dangerously ) high voltages . The most common nominal impedance for loudspeakers is 8 Ω . Also used are 4 Ω and 16 Ω . The once common 16 Ω is now mostly reserved for high frequency compression drivers since the high frequency end of the audio spectrum does not usually require so much power to reproduce .
The impedance of a loudspeaker is not constant across all frequencies . In a typical loudspeaker the impedance will rise with increasing frequency from its DC value , as shown in the diagram , until it reaches a point of its mechanical resonance . Following resonance , the impedance falls to a minimum and then begins to rise again . Speakers are usually designed to operate at frequencies above their resonance , and for this reason it is the usual practice to define nominal impedance at this minimum and then round to the nearest standard value . The ratio of the peak resonant frequency to the nominal impedance can be as much as 4 : 1 . It is , however , still perfectly possible for the low frequency impedance to actually be lower than the nominal impedance . A given audio amplifier may not be capable of driving this low frequency impedance even though it is capable of driving the nominal impedance , a problem that can be solved either with the use of crossover filters or underrating the amplifier supplied .
In the days of valves ( vacuum tubes ) , most loudspeakers had a nominal impedance of 16 Ω . Valve outputs require an output transformer to match the very high output impedance and voltage of the output valves to this lower impedance . These transformers were commonly tapped to allow matching of the output to a multiple loudspeaker setup . For example , two 16 Ω loudspeakers in parallel will give an impedance of 8 Ω . Since the advent of solid @-@ state amplifiers whose outputs require no transformer , the once @-@ common multiple @-@ impedance outputs have become rare , and lower impedance loudspeakers more common . The most common nominal impedance for a single loudspeaker is now 8 Ω . Most solid @-@ state amplifiers are designed to work with loudspeaker combinations of anything from 4 Ω to 8 Ω .
= = = Microphones = = =
There are a large number of different types of microphone and there are correspondingly large differences in impedance between them . They range from the very low impedance of ribbon microphones ( can be less than one ohm ) to the very large impedance of piezoelectric microphones which are measured in megohms . The Electronic Industries Alliance ( EIA ) has defined a number of standard microphone nominal impedances to aid categorisation of microphones .
The International Electrotechnical Commission defines a similar set of nominal impedances , but also has a coarser classification of low ( less than 600 Ω ) , medium ( 600 Ω to 10 kΩ ) and high ( more than 10 kΩ ) impedances .
= = Oscilloscopes = =
Oscilloscope inputs are usually high impedance so that they only minimally affect the circuit being measured when connected . However , the input impedance is made a specific nominal value , rather than arbitrarily high , because of the common use of X10 probes . A common value for oscilloscope nominal impedance is 1 MΩ resistance and 20 pF capacitance . With a known input impedance to the oscilloscope , the probe designer can ensure that the probe input impedance is exactly ten times this figure ( actually oscilloscope plus probe cable impedance ) . Since the impedance included the input capacitance and the probe is an impedance divider circuit , the result is that the waveform being measured is not distorted by the RC circuit formed by the probe resistance and the capacitance of the input ( or the cable capacitance which is generally higher ) .
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= Geastrum pectinatum =
Geastrum pectinatum is an inedible species of mushroom belonging to the earthstar family of fungi . Although young specimens are spherical , fruit body development involves the outer layer of tissue splitting open like a star into 7 to 10 pointed rays that eventually bend back to point downward , revealing a small – 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) broad – spore sac . The spore sac is supported by a small radially wrinkled stalk . There is a distinct conical opening ( peristome ) at the top of the spore sac that is up to 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) long . It is commonly known as the beaked earthstar or the beret earthstar , in reference to the shape of the spore sac and its prominent , protruding peristome . The mass of spores and surrounding cells within the sac , the gleba , is dark @-@ brown , and becomes powdery in mature specimens . Spores are spherical , measuring 4 to 6 micrometers in diameter , with warts on their surfaces . Although uncommon , Geastrum pectinatum has a cosmopolitan distribution , and has been collected in various locations in Europe , North and South America , Asia and Africa , where it grows on the ground in open woods . Like several other earthstars , crystals of calcium oxalate are found on G. pectinatum , and are thought to be involved in fruit body maturation .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and naming = =
Christian Hendrik Persoon published the first description of Geastrum pectinatum in 1801 . In 1860 , Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis described the species Geastrum biplicatum ( originally named Geaster biplicatus ) , based on specimens sent to them by Charles Wright that he obtained from the Bonin Islands during the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition . Japanese mycologist Sanshi Imai considered this identical with G. pectinatum in a 1936 publication . In 1959 , mycologist J.T. Palmer reported comparing the original specimen collected by Persoon with fresh samples of what were then thought to be the distinct species G. plicatum and G. tenuipes ( named by English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1838 and 1848 , respectively ) and concluded the three specimens were synonymous ; the original Persoon specimen was then designated as the neotype .
In Ponce de Leon 's classification of Geastrum , he placed the species in the subgenus Geastrum , section Geastrum , as the type of the subsection Sulcostomata , group Pectinatum . Other species in this group — characterized by a determinate peristome surrounded by a groove — are G. xerophilum , and G. furfuraceum . In Stanek 's ( 1958 ) infrageneric concept , G. pectinatum is placed in section Perimyceliata ( encompassing species whereby the mycelial layer covers the entire endoperidium ) , in subsection Glabrostomata , which includes species with plicate peristomes .
The specific epithet is derived from the Latin pectinatum , " like a comb " . Its common names include the " beaked earthstar " or the " beret earthstar " . Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " comblike shell @-@ puff " in his 1821 " A Natural Arrangement of British Plants " .
= = Description = =
Immature specimens – 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) diameter – are roughly spherical and begin their development submerged in the ground , but gradually push above ground during maturation . In this state the outer surface is covered with mycelia , which forms a soft , fluffy coat that holds soil and debris to the outer surface . The young fruit bodies often have a rounded knob or protuberance . Like other members of genus Geastrum , G. pectinatum has a fruit body wall that is multilayered . At maturity , the outer layer ( the exoperidium ) splits open from the top in a stellate ( star @-@ shaped ) manner into 7 – 9 rays that support the spore sac contained within the inner wall ( the endoperidium ) . The expanded specimens are up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) broad and 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) tall . The rays of the exoperidium bend back ( reflex ) , simultaneously elevating the spore sac above the ground in what is known as the fornicate condition ; this position exposes the spore sac to more air currents , aiding spore dispersal . The surface of the rays often crack to reveal lighter @-@ colored areas , especially along the edges . Together with a well @-@ developed layer of mycelium , the rays are typically bound to fragments of earth or forest duff .
The tough and membranous endoperidium comprising the spore sac , purple @-@ brown in color and 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) tall by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) wide , is supported by a small stalk — a pedicel — that is 3 – 4 mm long by 7 – 10 mm wide and which has a grooved ( sulcate ) apophysis , or swelling . This ring @-@ shaped swelling is made of remnants from a tissue called the pseudoparenchymatous layer . When fresh , the pseudoparenchymatous layer is whitish in color , thick and fleshy ; it dries to become brown to dark brown while shrinking and often splitting and peeling . The endoperidium may be pruinose — covered with fine , white , powder — although the presence of this characteristic has been noted as being somewhat variable . The spore sac is opened by a single apical pore atop a conical " beak " , or peristome . The peristome is pectinate — made of tissue that resembles the teeth of a comb ; the specific epithet is named after this characteristic . The peristome is 2 to 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 to 0 @.@ 20 in ) long , and comprises 20 – 32 distinct ridges . The mass of spores and surrounding cells within the sac , the gleba , is dark @-@ brown , and becomes powdery in mature specimens . Internally , the endoperidium contains a structure called the columella that is narrowly conical in shape , whitish or pale brown , and extends more than halfway into the gleba . G. pectinatum has no distinguishable odor or taste ; like other earthstar mushrooms , it is inedible , and of " no alimentary interest " .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores of G. pectinatum are brown and opaque . They have a roughly spherical shape and are ornamented with transparent ( hyaline ) , truncate warts ; the diameter is 4 – 4 @.@ 5 µm , or 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 if the lengths of the warts is included . Spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 2- or 4 @-@ spored , while cystidia ( specialized sterile cells that occur at the hymenial surface in some mushrooms ) are absent . The capillitia — a mass of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores — are light brown and 3 – 7 µm in diameter . They are tapered , thick @-@ walled with a narrow interior , and either smooth or slightly encrusted .
= = = Similar species = = =
Geastrum pectinatum has been mistaken for the morphologically similar but smaller species G. schmidelii . The latter species lacks vertical striations on the basal portions of the endoperidium , and does not have a pseudoparenchymatous collar around the stem . Another similar species , G. berkeleyi , has a shorter stem and is missing the ridges at the base of the spore sac . Further , the color of its spore sac is usually brown , in contrast to the gray @-@ blue of G. pectinatum . G. xerophilum also has a dusting of white powder on the surface of the spore sac , but unlike G. pectinatum , consistently lacks a ring at the base of the pedicel ; furthermore , in contrast to G. pectinatum , the spores of G. xerophilum are yellow and contain oil drops that are readily observable with a microscope . G. striatum has smaller fruit bodies than G. pectinatum , and a distinct collar @-@ like apophysis .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species has been reported to grow solitary or in groups on sandy soil or rich composted soil in both mixed and coniferous forests , often beneath cedars . In Hawaii , it is usually found growing in duff under coastal Casuarina and groves of Cupressus . The species has been noted to occur in late summer and autumn ( in Britain and Europe ) , but the fruit bodies may dry and persist for some time .
Geastrum pectinatum has a cosmopolitan distribution . It has been reported from Australia , and New Zealand , Africa ( the Congo , South Africa ) Central America ( Costa Rica ) , Asia ( Northeastern China and Japan ) , and South America ( Brazil ) . In Europe , it has been reported from Belgium , Ireland , Germany , the Netherlands , Norway , and Sweden . In the Middle East , it has been recorded in Israel , and Turkey . In North America , it is known from the United States ( including Hawaii ) , Canada , and Mexico . It is in the Red Data Book ( documenting rare and endangered species ) of Latvia , and is considered a threatened species in Poland . North American sources gives its frequency of appearance as " rare " , but Stellan Sunhede , in his 1989 monograph on the Geastraceae , considers it one of the most common earthstar mushrooms of northern Europe .
= = Calcium oxalate crystals = =
Calcium oxalate is a common crystalline compound found in many fungi , including the earthstars . The presence of calcium oxalate crystals — apparent as a whitish powder on the surface of the spore sac — has been verified for G. pectinatum using scanning electron microscopy . The calcium oxalate crystals occur in the tetragonal form , known as weddellite . A study on the related species Geastrum saccatum has shown that these crystals are responsible for the characteristic opening ( dehiscence ) of the outer peridial layers . The formation of calcium oxalate crystals stretches the layers of the outer walls , pushing apart the inner and outer layers of the peridium .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Sunhede S. ( 1989 ) . Geastraceae ( Basidiomycotina ) : Morphology , Ecology , and Systematics with Special Emphasis on the North European Species . Synopsis Fungorum , 1 . Oslo , Norway : Fungiflora . ISBN 82 @-@ 90724 @-@ 05 @-@ 5 .
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= Here with Me ( MercyMe song ) =
" Here with Me " is a song by Christian rock band , MercyMe . Written and composed by the band , as well as Peter Kipely , Dan Muckala and Brad Russell , " Here with Me " is a ballad with a musical vibe influenced by worship , pop and rock music ; the overall sound has been compared to that of alternative rock band , Coldplay . " Here with Me " lyrically discusses the omnipotence of God .
Released as the lead single from MercyMe 's 2004 album , Undone , " Here with Me " attained positive critical reception and peaked at No. 1 on multiple Christian radio chart formats ; it also peaked inside the top 40 on several mainstream radio formats . It ranked at No. 16 on the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Background and production = =
" Here with Me " was written and composed by MercyMe , Dan Muckala , Brad Russell , and Peter Kipley . It was recorded at several locations : Blueberry Hill , Sound Stage , Abbey Road Studios , The Indigo Room , Maximedia , Luminous Sound , and The Schwoodio . Recording was handled by F. Reid Shippen , Mike O 'Connor , and Steve Bishir ; the strings on the song were arranged by Rob Mathes and recorded by Simon Rhodes at Abbey Road Studios . " Here with Me " was mixed by Shippen and produced by Kipley , while the mastering for the song was handled by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound .
= = Composition = =
" Here with Me " is a ballad with a length of four minutes and nine seconds . It is set in common time in the key of B major , with a moderate tempo of eighty @-@ four beats per minute and a vocal range spanning from B3 @-@ F ♯ 5 . Musically , " Here with Me " has been compared to the musical vibe of Coldplay and Robbie Williams . The song is piano @-@ driven , with influences from pop , rock , and worship . It features a musical crescendo that has been described as similar to " I Can Only Imagine " . The lyrical content of the song has been described as having a devotional bent , and conveys a theme of God 's omnipotence and holiness . " Here with Me " also attempts to comprehend the mystery of God 's love .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Here with Me " received generally positive reviews from critics . Johnny Joftus of Allmusic commented that " the lush " Here With Me " might be a Robbie Williams pop gem were it not for its devotional bent " . David McCreary of CCM Magazine opined on his review of Undone that " One surefire hit is “ Here With Me , ” the album ’ s first single ... A captivating piano @-@ driven ballad , the song vividly conveys the wonder of God ’ s omnipresence and holiness and features a rousing crescendo rivaling that of “ Imagine " . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today International commented that the song was " worshipful " , also opining that it " struggle [ s ] with comprehending the mystery and enormity of God 's love " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Here with Me " debuted at No. 40 on the Hot Christian Songs chart for the week of April 3 , 2004 . The song advanced to No. 10 in its sixth chart week , and to No. 5 in its eight chart week , holding that spot for three consecutive weeks . In its sixteenth chart week , " Here with Me " advanced to its peak of No. 1 , holding that spot for eleven consecutive weeks . It dropped to No. 2 in its twenty @-@ seventh chart week , holding that spot for two weeks before returning to No. 1 for two more weeks . " Here with Me " dropped to No. 3 in its thirty @-@ first chart week , and spent a further eight weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , " Here with Me " spent thirty @-@ nine weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart , thirteen of them at No. 1 . On the Adult Contemporary chart , " Here with Me " debuted at No. 24 for the chart week of May 15 , 2004 . " Here with Me " advanced to No. 19 in its sixth chart week , holding that spot for three consecutive weeks . In its nineteenth chart week , it advanced to its peak of No. 12 , and spent a further seven weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , " Here with Me " spent twenty @-@ six weeks on the Adult Contemporary chart .
On the Adult Top 40 chart , " Here with Me " debuted at No. 38 for the chart week of August 28 , 2004 . It spent an additional week on the chart before dropping out , after having spent two weeks on the chart . " Here with Me " also peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart ( spending ten weeks at No. 1 ) , the Radio & Records Christian AC chart ( spending seven weeks at No. 1 ) , and the Radio & Records Inspo chart ( spending five weeks at No. 1 ) , as well as peaking at No. 2 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart . " Here with Me " ranked at No. 4 on the 2004 year @-@ end Hot Christian Singles and Tracks Titles and Hot Christian Adult Contemporary Titles charts , as well as at No. 19 on the year @-@ end Adult Contemporary Singles and Tracks chart . Additionally , it ranked at No. 16 on both the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Charts = =
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= Direct grant grammar school =
A direct grant grammar school was a type of selective secondary school in England and Wales that existed between 1945 and 1976 . One quarter of the places in these schools were directly funded by central government , while the remainder attracted fees , some paid by the Local Education Authority and some by private pupils . On average , the schools received just over half of their income from the state .
The status was introduced by the Education Act 1944 as a modification of an existing direct grant scheme to privately endowed schools . There were 179 direct grant grammar schools , which , together with over 1 @,@ 200 grammar schools maintained by local authorities , formed the most academic tier of the Tripartite System . They varied greatly in size and composition , but , on average , achieved higher academic results than either maintained grammar schools or independent schools .
State secondary education was reorganised on comprehensive lines in the late 1960s and early 1970s . The direct grant was phased out from 1975 and the schools were required to choose between becoming maintained comprehensive schools or fully independent schools . Forty @-@ five schools , almost all Roman Catholic , joined the state system , while a few closed . The rest ( including all the secular schools ) became independent and mostly remain as highly selective independent schools .
= = Origins = =
In the 19th century , few boys and very few girls in England and Wales received secondary education , which was available only at private schools . During this time , secondary provision expanded and adjusted to growing demand . At the start of that century , some boarding schools like Eton College and Winchester College thrived educating the sons of the aristocracy , but most endowed grammar schools were in decline , their classical curricula seen as irrelevant to the industrial age . These schools were reformed under the Endowed Schools Act 1869 , which also led to many endowments being diverted to the creation of girls ' schools . In the meantime a range of other schools had appeared . After the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 and mid @-@ century Irish immigration , Catholic teaching orders from Ireland and mainland Europe began to establish their own grammar schools . New proprietary schools were established , initially as joint @-@ stock companies , converting to charities if they were successful . One of the largest such companies was the Girls ' Public Day School Company ( later Trust ) , set up to provide an affordable academic education for girls , which had established 32 schools by 1894 .
In the latter part of the century , many of the less wealthy schools received annual grants from the Department of Science and Art and from their county councils . The grant system was restructured when the Board of Education was created in 1901 to fund early secondary schools , and the Education Act 1902 gave counties and county boroughs responsibility for schools , designating them as local education authorities ( LEAs ) . Secondary schools controlled by voluntary bodies could receive a grant from either the Board of Education or their local authority , or both . In return they were required to meet the Board 's regulations , and were subject to the same system of inspections as state @-@ funded schools . Under the Education ( Administrative Provisions ) Act 1907 , secondary schools in receipt of grant were required to admit a specified proportion of their intake , usually 25 % , free of charge from state elementary schools . Suitable pupils were selected using a scholarship examination .
Circular 1381 , a directive issued by the Board of Education in 1926 , required that schools choose a single source of grant : they could receive a " direct grant " from central government , or be " grant @-@ aided " by their local authority . By 1932 there were 240 secondary schools receiving a direct grant , compared with 1138 aided by local authorities . Although this division was intended purely as an administrative convenience , local authorities gradually gained more influence over the schools they aided , in part because of the schools ' weak financial position during the Great Depression .
The Depression and the falling birth rate in the pre @-@ war years had also weakened independent schools and schools receiving the direct grant . At the same time , the state @-@ funded sector had grown to the point where universal secondary education seemed achievable , and changes in society had made the idea more popular . Proposals were made for a reorganisation of the maintained sector , including a new accommodation with the voluntary schools . In response , the Headmasters ' Conference persuaded the President of the Board of Education , R.A. Butler , to establish a commission under Lord Fleming in July 1942 " to consider means whereby the association between the Public Schools ... and the general education system of the country could be developed and extended " .
= = Direct grant scheme = =
The Education Act 1944 aimed to introduce a universal system of secondary education for England and Wales . Under the Tripartite System , there were to be three types of schools , with pupils sitting an eleven plus exam to determine which type of school they would be sent to . The most academic tier would be the grammar school , and the Act revised the terms of the direct grant to operate alongside LEA @-@ maintained grammar schools , many of which were former LEA @-@ aided schools . The latter schools , unable to cope with the costs of the reorganisation required by the 1944 Act , had been offered the status of voluntary controlled or voluntary aided schools , under which the state would pay all their running costs and all or most of their capital costs . They were thus fully integrated into the state system .
The new direct grant scheme was a modification of proposals in the Fleming Report of 1944 . A direct grant grammar school would provide 25 % of its places free of charge to children who had spent at least 2 years in maintained primary schools , and would reserve at least a further 25 % of places to be paid for by the LEA if required . The remaining ( " residuary " ) places would attract fees , but no child would be admitted unless they had achieved the required standard in the eleven plus . The schools would be inspected by Her Majesty 's Inspectors of Schools , would have one third of their governing bodies appointed by the LEA , and would require the approval of the Secretary of State to raise fees or carry out building work .
The scheme was attractive to most of the direct grant schools . Of the 231 secondary schools receiving direct grant in 1945 , 196 applied to join the new scheme , with the rest becoming independent schools . In addition 31 grant @-@ aided schools applied to join the scheme . Of these , 164 schools ( including four formerly grant @-@ aided schools ) were accepted as direct grant grammar schools . The list was re @-@ opened between 1957 and 1961 , when 44 applications were received , of which 15 were accepted . There were therefore 179 direct grant grammar schools , alongside over 1200 maintained grammar schools .
Beside the Direct Grant Scheme , the Act also made provision for LEAs to fund places at independent schools in areas where there was a shortage of appropriate places in maintained schools . For example , there might be a lack of selective places , or of selective places in Roman Catholic schools . In the late 1960s , 56 independent schools had over 25 % of their places funded by LEAs in this way , with seven of them over 75 % LEA @-@ funded .
= = Characteristics of the schools = =
In 1966 , when direct grant schools were at their height , they educated 3 @.@ 1 % of secondary pupils across England and Wales , while independent schools accounted for 7 @.@ 1 % . For A @-@ level students , these proportions rose to 6 @.@ 2 % and 14 @.@ 7 % respectively . Before Culford School became coeducational in 1972 , all but 2 of the schools were single sex , with a slight majority of girls ' schools . There were 56 Roman Catholic schools , 14 Church of England and 6 Methodist . Many of the schools were in the north of England , with 46 in the historic county of Lancashire ( including Manchester ) and 18 in the West Riding of Yorkshire , while there were only 7 in inner London and 4 in Wales . In 1961 , an average of 59 % of pupils at direct grant grammar schools were state @-@ funded , but the proportion also varied greatly between schools .
Direct grant schools had similar teacher / pupil ratios to the maintained grammar schools , as their fees were regulated to match costs at the latter schools . The proportion of teachers with first and second class degrees was slightly lower than in their maintained counterparts . The principal difference from the maintained schools was greater freedom from LEA influence .
Although there was much variation , these schools as a group were middle @-@ class institutions , with many tending to move closer to the independent schools in social composition . On average , three @-@ quarters of pupils came from white @-@ collar homes , including 60 % with fathers in management or the professions , while only 7 % were children of semi @-@ skilled or unskilled workers . On average , the intake of the schools was also more academically selective than either maintained grammar schools or independent schools . Their results were correspondingly high , with 60 % of their pupils staying on to age 18 and 38 % going on to university , significantly greater proportions than either of the other groups of schools .
= = Types of schools = =
There was a great deal of variation between direct grant grammar schools . According to the Donnison Report ( discussed in the next section ) , the schools were of four types , though the boundaries between them were not always clear @-@ cut .
Donnison called the first group " regional schools " : large , highly academically selective day schools with large sixth forms , located near large cities , and mostly boys ' schools belonging to the Headmaster 's Conference . The archetype of the direct grant grammar school , was the largest , Manchester Grammar School , whose High Master from 1945 to 1962 , Eric James ( elevated to the peerage in 1959 ) , was an outspoken advocate of the " meritocracy " . In 1968 the school sent 77 % of its boys on to university , a rate surpassed only by the independent Winchester College . Close behind were such schools as Bradford Grammar School , Leeds Grammar School , Haberdashers ' Aske 's School and Latymer Upper School . A large girls ' school of similar academic attainment was North London Collegiate School , which had been founded in 1850 by Frances Buss . These schools achieved university admission rates that rivalled the older public schools , which in turn moved to raise their academic standards for admission , and to increase their focus of academic achievement . With their high profile , such schools formed the popular image of a direct grant grammar school , but they accounted for only about a quarter of them .
The second group consisted of 30 schools ( 23 for boys and 7 for girls ) with a significant proportion ( over 25 % ) of boarders . Boarders made up the majority of pupils at 15 schools ( all but one for boys ) , including five of the six Methodist schools . Boarding schools tended to be smaller and less academically selective than other direct grant schools , and to take a larger proportion of fee @-@ paying pupils . They also tended to be more socially selective , with nearly three quarters of their pupils having fathers in management or the professions .
The third group , Roman Catholic schools , made up nearly a third of the direct grant schools ( 19 for boys and 37 for girls ) . They were predominantly day schools , though 10 of them took a small proportion of boarders . Their fees were about 15 % lower than other direct grant grammars , and they tended to take a much higher proportion of LEA @-@ funded pupils . In 1968 , 40 of these schools took over 80 % of their pupils from their LEAs ; the average proportion was 86 % . They also tended to be more socially mixed , with 37 % of their pupils from managerial and professional homes and 16 % children of semi @-@ skilled or unskilled workers . These schools were thus similar to the LEA @-@ maintained Roman Catholic grammar schools , whom they outnumbered . Lacking endowments and having lower fee income , they were less financially secure than other direct grant grammars .
The fourth group were non @-@ denominational local grammar schools , often with an intake more able on average than in maintained grammar schools , but covering a broader range . These included the 23 schools of the Girls ' Public Day School Trust ( now the Girls ' Day School Trust ) .
= = Comprehensive reorganisation = =
During the post @-@ War period , many parts of the world moved from selective education to comprehensive schools catering for children of all abilities . Dissatisfaction with the Tripartite System grew during the 1950s , with concern over the harsh division of the school population at the age of 11 , and the loss to the economy of the " submerged three @-@ quarters " in secondary modern schools . Experiments with comprehensive schools spread from Anglesey to the Midlands and Yorkshire .
In 1964 , a Labour government was elected promising " to reorganise the State secondary schools on comprehensive lines " . In the following year , the Department of Education and Science distributed Circular 10 / 65 , requesting that Local Education Authorities prepare plans for such a reorganisation of their schools . The Circular also requested consultation between LEAs and direct grant schools on their participation in a comprehensive system . For this reason , direct grant schools were excluded from consideration by the Public Schools Commission set up in 1965 , even though 152 of them would otherwise have fallen within its remit .
There was little progress in the local negotiations proposed in the Circular . Two Catholic girls ' schools , St Anne 's Convent School , Southampton and St Anthony 's School , Sunderland , converted to a fully comprehensive intake , expanding to over 1000 pupils each . A few others proposed minor adjustments , but the vast majority were unchanged . In view of this lack of progress , the Public Schools Commission was asked on October 1967 to add direct grant schools to its investigation . The Commission , now chaired by David Donnison , issued its second report in 1970 , concluding that " Grammar schools of the traditional kind cannot be combined with a comprehensive system of education : we must choose what we want . Fee @-@ paying is not compatible with comprehensive education . " They recommended that the schools choose between becoming voluntary aided comprehensives and full independence , but the Conservatives came to power before any action had been taken .
Meanwhile , a trickle of schools had begun to leave the scheme , starting with Trinity School of John Whitgift , which became independent in 1968 , but still had half its places funded by the LEA . It was followed in 1970 by Oakham School , which became co @-@ educational in the following year , and Queen Victoria High School , which merged with The Cleveland School to form Teesside High School . A respite was provided in the early 1970s , when Margaret Thatcher , the Conservative Education Secretary , raised the level of grant , which had been lowered by the Labour government .
= = Abolition and legacy = =
Labour returned to power in 1974 and enacted the Direct Grant Grammar Schools ( Cessation of Grant ) Regulations 1975 , which required schools to choose whether to become LEA @-@ maintained comprehensive schools or independent schools without grant .
Of the 174 remaining direct grant grammar schools , 51 ( two Church of England and the rest Catholic ) applied to join the state sector , of which 46 were accepted . These schools had become dependent on state funding , and the move to comprehensive education was also supported by the Roman Catholic hierarchy , often over the objections of those connected with the schools . One school , St. Joseph 's College , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , was approved to join the state system , but became independent instead following a campaign by parents . Elsewhere the plans proceeded over local objections , with schools closing or becoming comprehensive schools or sixth form colleges , often by merging with other schools . Dr Williams ' School , a small school for girls in Dolgellau , northwest Wales , also closed at this time .
The remaining schools , including all of the large secular ones , became independent when their grant was phased out as the remaining state @-@ funded pupils left . This coincided with the mid @-@ 1970s recession , a difficult time for independent schools but doubly so for the former direct grant schools , which had just lost 25 – 50 % of their intake . Many local boys ' schools became coeducational to replace the lost places . An echo of the direct grant , the Assisted Places scheme was introduced by the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher in 1981 , lasting until 1997 . Approximately two @-@ thirds of these places were held at former direct grant grammar schools . The independent sector soon recovered , and prospered without competition from state grammar schools .
From 1993 a small number of Roman Catholic former direct grant schools entered the state sector as grant @-@ maintained schools . A few secular schools have subsequently become academies . Those that remain independent are typically highly selective , and have strong academic reputations . In 2001 , they included 61 of the 100 highest performing independent day schools . No longer a bridge between state and private sectors , these schools have become part of a flourishing independent sector now sharply distinguished from the state system , a situation decried by the Sutton Trust as " educational apartheid " .
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= Industrial music =
Industrial music is a genre of experimental / electronic music that draws on transgressive and provocative themes . The term was coined in the mid @-@ 1970s with the founding of Industrial Records by Genesis P @-@ Orridge of Throbbing Gristle and Monte Cazazza ; on Throbbing Gristle 's debut album The Second Annual Report , they coined the slogan " industrial music for industrial people " . In general , the style is harsh and challenging . AllMusic defines industrial as the " most abrasive and aggressive fusion of rock and electronic music " ; " initially a blend of avant @-@ garde electronics experiments ( tape music , musique concrète , white noise , synthesizers , sequencers , etc . ) and punk provocation " .
The first industrial artists experimented with noise and aesthetically controversial topics , musically and visually , such as fascism , serial killers and the occult . Their production was not limited to music , but included mail art , performance art , installation pieces and other art forms . Prominent industrial musicians include Throbbing Gristle , Monte Cazazza , SPK , Boyd Rice , Cabaret Voltaire , and Z 'EV . The precursors that influenced the development of the genre included acts such as electronic group Kraftwerk , experimental rock acts such as The Velvet Underground and Frank Zappa , psychedelic rock artists such as Jimi Hendrix , and composers such as John Cage . Musicians also cite writers such as William S. Burroughs , and philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche as influences .
While the term was self @-@ applied by a small coterie of groups and individuals associated with Industrial Records in the 1970s , it was broadened to include artists influenced by the original movement or using an " industrial " aesthetic . These artists expanded the genre by pushing it into noisier and more electronic directions . Over time , its influence spread into and blended with styles including ambient and rock , all of which now fall under the post @-@ industrial music label . Electro @-@ industrial music is a primary subgenre that developed in the 1980s . The two other most notable hybrid genres are industrial rock and industrial metal , which include bands such as Nine Inch Nails and Ministry , both of which released platinum @-@ selling albums in the 1990s . These three distinct genres are often referred to as simply industrial .
= = History = =
= = = Precursors = = =
Industrial music drew from a broad range of predecessors . Alexei Monroe argues that Kraftwerk were particularly significant in the development of industrial music , as the " first successful artists to incorporate representations of industrial sounds into nonacademic electronic music . " Industrial music was created originally by using mechanical and electric machinery , and later advanced synthesizers , samplers and electronic percussion as the technology developed . Monroe also argues for Suicide as an influential contemporary of the industrial musicians . Groups cited as inspirational by the founders of industrial music include The Velvet Underground , Joy Division , and Martin Denny . Genesis P @-@ Orridge of Throbbing Gristle had a cassette library including recordings by the Master Musicians of Jajouka , Kraftwerk , Charles Manson , and William S. Burroughs . P @-@ Orridge also credited 1960s rock such as The Doors , Pearls Before Swine , The Fugs , Captain Beefheart , and Frank Zappa in a 1979 interview .
Chris Carter also enjoyed and found inspiration in Pink Floyd and Tangerine Dream . Boyd Rice was influenced by the music of 60 's girl groups and tiki culture . Z 'EV cited Christopher Tree ( Spontaneous Sound ) , John Coltrane , Miles Davis , Tim Buckley , Jimi Hendrix , and Captain Beefheart , among others together with Tibetan , Balinese , Javanese , Indian , and African music as influential in his artistic life . Cabaret Voltaire cited Roxy Music as their initial forerunners , as well as Kraftwerk 's Trans @-@ Europe Express . Cabaret Voltaire also recorded pieces reminiscent of musique concrète and composers such as Morton Subotnick . Nurse with Wound cited a long list of obscure free improvisation and Krautrock as recommended listening . 23 Skidoo borrowed from Fela Kuti and Miles Davis 's On the Corner . Many industrial groups , including Einstürzende Neubauten , took inspiration from world music .
Many of the initial industrial musicians preferred to cite artists or thinkers , rather than musicians , as their inspiration . Simon Reynolds declares that " Being a Throbbing Gristle fan was like enrolling in a university course of cultural extremism . " John Cage was an initial inspiration for Throbbing Gristle . SPK appreciated Jean Dubuffet , Marcel Duchamp , Jean Baudrillard , Michel Foucault , Walter Benjamin , Marshall McLuhan , Friedrich Nietzsche , and Gilles Deleuze . Cabaret Voltaire took conceptual cues from Burroughs , J. G. Ballard , and Tristan Tzara . Whitehouse and Nurse with Wound dedicated some of their work to the Marquis de Sade ; the latter also took impetus from the Comte de Lautréamont .
Another influence on the industrial aesthetic was Lou Reed 's Metal Machine Music . Pitchfork Music cites this album as " inspiring , in part , much of the contemporary avant @-@ garde music scene — noise , in particular . " The album consists entirely of guitar feedback , anticipating industrial 's use of non @-@ musical sounds .
= = = Industrial records = = =
Industrial Music for Industrial People was originally coined by Monte Cazazza as the strapline for the record label Industrial Records , founded by British art @-@ provocateurs Throbbing Gristle . The first wave of this music appeared with Throbbing Gristle , from London ; Cabaret Voltaire , from Sheffield ; and Boyd Rice ( recording under the name NON ) , from the United States . Throbbing Gristle first performed in 1976 , and began as the musical offshoot of the Kingston upon Hull @-@ based COUM Transmissions . COUM was initially a psychedelic rock group , but began to describe their work as performance art in order to obtain grants from the Arts Council of Great Britain . COUM was composed of P @-@ Orridge and Cosey Fanni Tutti . Beginning in 1972 , COUM staged several performances inspired by Fluxus and Viennese Actionism . These included various acts of sexual and physical abjection . Peter Christopherson , an employee of commercial artists Hipgnosis , joined the group in 1974 , with Carter joining the following year .
The group renamed itself Throbbing Gristle in September 1975 , their name coming from a northern English slang word for an erection . The group 's first public performance , in October 1976 , was alongside an exhibit titled Prostitution , which included pornographic photos of Tutti as well as used tampons . Conservative politician Nicholas Fairbairn declared that " public money is being wasted here to destroy the morality of our society " and blasted the group as " wreckers of civilization . " The group ended in 1981 , with P @-@ Orridge declaring " the mission is terminated . "
= = = Expansion of the scene = = =
The bands Clock DVA , Nocturnal Emissions , Whitehouse , Nurse with Wound , and SPK soon followed . Whitehouse intended to play " the most brutal and extreme music of all time " , a style they eventually called power electronics . An early collaborator with Whitehouse , Steve Stapleton , formed Nurse with Wound , who experimented with noise sculpture and sound collage . Clock DVA described their goal as borrowing equally from surrealist automatism and " nervous energy sort of funk stuff , body music that flinches you and makes you move . " 23 Skidoo , like Clock DVA , merged industrial music with African @-@ American dance music , but also performed a response to world music . Performing at the first WOMAD Festival in 1982 , the group likened themselves to Indonesian gamelan . Swedish act Leather Nun , were signed to Industrial Records in 1978 , being the first non @-@ TG / Cazazza act to have an IR @-@ release . Their singles eventually received significant airplay in the United States on college radio .
Across the Atlantic , similar experiments were taking place . In San Francisco , performance artist Monte Cazazza began recording noise music . Boyd Rice released several albums of noise , with guitar drones and tape loops creating a cacophony of repetitive sounds . In Boston Sleep Chamber and other artists from Inner @-@ X @-@ Musick began experimenting with a mixture of powerful noise and early forms of EBM . In Italy , work by Maurizio Bianchi at the beginning of the 1980s also shared this aesthetic . In Germany , Einstürzende Neubauten mixed metal percussion , guitars , and unconventional instruments ( such as jackhammers and bones ) in stage performances that often damaged the venues in which they played . Blixa Bargeld , inspired by Antonin Artaud and an enthusiasm for amphetamines , also originated an art movement called Die Genialen Dilettanten . Bargeld is particularly well known for his hissing scream .
In January 1984 , Einstürzende Neubauten performed a Concerto for Voice and Machinery at the Institute of Contemporary Arts ( the same site as COUM 's Prostitution exhibition ) , drilling through the floor and eventually sparking a riot . This event received front page news coverage in England . Other groups who practiced a form of industrial " metal music " ( that is , produced by the sounds of metal crashing against metal ) include Test Dept , Laibach , and Die Krupps , as well as Z 'EV and SPK . Test Dept were largely inspired by Russian Futurism and toured to support the UK miners ' strike ( 1984 – 1985 ) . Skinny Puppy embraced a variety of industrial forefathers and created a lurching , impalatable whole from many pieces . Swans , from New York City , also practiced a metal music aesthetic , though reliant on standard rock instrumentation . Laibach , a Slovenian group who began while Yugoslavia remained a single state , were very controversial for their iconographic borrowings from Stalinist , Nazi , Titoist , Dada , and Russian Futurist imagery , conflating Yugoslav patriotism with its German authoritarian adversary . Slavoj Žižek has defended Laibach , arguing that they and their associated Neue Slowenische Kunst art group practice an overidentification with the hidden perverse enjoyment undergirding authority that produces a subversive and liberatory effect . In simpler language , Laibach practiced a type of agitprop that was widely utilized by industrial and punk artists on both sides of the atlantic .
Following the breakup of Throbbing Gristle , P @-@ Orridge and Christopherson founded Psychic TV and signed to a major label . Their first album was much more accessible and melodic than the usual industrial style , and included hired work by trained musicians . Later work returned to the sound collage and noise elements of earlier industrial . They also borrowed from funk and disco . P @-@ Orridge also founded Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth , a quasi @-@ religious organization that produced video art . Psychic TV 's commercial aspirations were managed by Stevo of Some Bizzare records , who released many of the later industrial musicians , including Eistürzende Neubauten , Test Dept , and Cabaret Voltaire .
Cabaret Voltaire had become friends with New Order , and began to practice a similar form of danceable electropop . Christopherson left Psychic TV in 1983 and formed Coil with John Balance . Coil made use of gongs and bullroarers in an attempt to conjur " Martian , " " homosexual energy " . David Tibet , a friend of Coil 's , formed Current 93 ; both groups were inspired by amphetamines and LSD . J. G. Thirlwell , a co @-@ producer with Coil , developed a version of black comedy in industrial music , borrowing from lounge as well as noise and film music . In the early 1980s , the Chicago @-@ based record label Wax Trax ! and Canada 's Nettwerk helped to expand the industrial music genre into the more accessible electro @-@ industrial and industrial rock genres .
= = Characteristics = =
The birth of industrial music was a response to " an age [ in which ] the access and control of information were becoming the primary tools of power . " At its birth , the genre of industrial music was different from any other music , and its use of technology and disturbing lyrics and themes to tear apart preconceptions about the necessary rules of musical form supports the suggestion that industrial music is modernist music . The artists themselves made these goals explicit , even drawing connections to social changes they wished to argue for through their music .
The Industrial Records website explains that the musicians wanted to re @-@ invent rock music , and that their uncensored records were about their relationship with the world . They go on to say that they wanted their music to be an awakening for listeners so that they would begin to think for themselves and question the world around them . Industrial Records intended the term industrial to evoke the idea of music created for a new generation , with previous music being more agricultural : P @-@ Orridge stated that " there 's an irony in the word ' industrial ' because there 's the music industry . And then there 's the joke we often used to make in interviews about churning out our records like motorcars — that sense of industrial . And ... up till then the music had been kind of based on the blues and slavery , and we thought it was time to update it to at least Victorian times — you know , the Industrial Revolution " .
Early industrial music often featured tape editing , stark percussion and loops distorted to the point where they had degraded to harsh noise , such as the work of early industrial group Cabaret Voltaire , which Journalist Simon Reynolds described as characterized by " hissing high hats and squelchy snares of rhythm @-@ generator . " Carter of Throbbing Gristle invented a device named the " Gristle @-@ izer " , played by Christopherson , which comprised a one @-@ octave keyboard and a number of cassette machines triggering various pre @-@ recorded sounds .
Traditional instruments were often played in nontraditional or highly modified ways . Reynolds described the Cabaret Voltaire members ' individual contributions as " [ Chris ] Watson 's smears of synth slime ; [ Stephen ] Mallinder 's dankly pulsing bass ; and [ Richard H. ] Kirk 's spikes of shattered @-@ glass guitar . " Watson custom @-@ built a fuzzbox for Kirk 's guitar , producing a unique timbre . Carter built speakers , effects units , and synthesizer modules , as well as modifying more conventional rock instrumentation , for Throbbing Gristle . Tutti played guitar with a slide in order to produce glissandi , or pounded the strings as if it were a percussion instrument . Throbbing Gristle also played at very high volume and produced ultra @-@ high and sub @-@ bass frequencies in an attempt to produce physical effects , naming this approach as " metabolic music . "
Vocals were sporadic , and were as likely to be bubblegum pop as they were to be abrasive polemics . Cabaret Voltaire 's Stephen Mallinder 's vocals were electronically treated .
The purpose of industrial music initially was to serve as a commentary on modern society by eschewing what artists saw as trite connections to the past . Throbbing Gristle opposed the elements of traditional rock music remaining in the punk rock scene , declaring industrial to be " anti @-@ music . " Early industrial performances often involved taboo @-@ breaking , provocative elements , such as mutilation , sado @-@ masochistic elements and totalitarian imagery or symbolism , as well as forms of audience abuse , such as Throbbing Gristle 's aiming high powered lights at the audience .
Industrial groups typically focus on transgressive subject matter . In his introduction for the Industrial Culture Handbook ( 1983 ) , Jon Savage considered some hallmarks of industrial music to be organizational autonomy , shock tactics , and the use of synthesizers and " anti @-@ music . " Furthermore , an interest in the investigation of " cults , wars , psychological techniques of persuasion , unusual murders ( especially by children and psychopaths ) , forensic pathology , venereology , concentration camp behavior , the history of uniforms and insignia " and Aleister Crowley 's magick was present in Throbbing Gristle 's work , as well as in other industrial pioneers . Burroughs 's recordings and writings were particularly influential on the scene , particularly his interest in the cut @-@ up technique and noise as a method of disrupting societal control . Many of the first industrial musicians were interested in , though not necessarily sympathetic with , fascism . Throbbing Gristle 's logo was based on the lightning symbol of the British Union of Fascists , while the Industrial Records logo was a photo of Auschwitz .
= = Post @-@ industrial = =
In the late 1980s , a number of additional styles developed from the already eclectic base of industrial music . These offshoots include fusions with noise music , ambient music , folk music , post @-@ punk and electronic dance music , as well as other mutations and developments . The scene has spread worldwide , and is particularly well represented in North America , Europe , and Japan . Post @-@ industrial subgenres include dark ambient , power electronics , Japanoise , neofolk , electro @-@ industrial , electronic body music , industrial hip hop , industrial rock , industrial metal , industrial pop , martial industrial , power noise , and witch house .
The best @-@ selling offshoots of industrial music have been industrial rock and metal ; Ministry and Nine Inch Nails both recorded platinum @-@ selling albums . Their success led to an increase in commercial success for some other industrial musicians ; for example , the Nine Inch Nails remix album Further Down the Spiral , which included contributions from Foetus and Coil , was certified gold in 1996 . The mid @-@ 1990s was a high point for industrial rock , when , in addition to bands that had been around since the 1980s , newer bands such as Gravity Kills , whose self @-@ titled debut sold almost half a million records , had some chart and radio success , and especially for industrial metal , with Marilyn Manson releasing multiple platinum selling albums .
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= Interstate 96 =
Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) is an Interstate Highway that runs for approximately 192 miles ( 309 km ) entirely within the US state of Michigan . The western terminus is at an interchange with US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) and Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) on the western boundary of Norton Shores southeast of Muskegon , and the eastern terminus is at I @-@ 75 near the Ambassador Bridge in Detroit . From Grand Rapids through Lansing to Detroit , the freeway parallels Grand River Avenue , never straying more than a few miles from the decommissioned US 16 . The Wayne County section of I @-@ 96 is named the Jeffries Freeway from its eastern terminus to the junction with I @-@ 275 and M @-@ 14 . Though maps still refer to the freeway as the Jeffries , the portion within the city of Detroit was renamed by the state legislature as the Rosa Parks Memorial Highway in December 2005 in honor of the late civil rights pioneer . There are four auxiliary Interstates as well as two current and four former business routes associated with I @-@ 96 .
Grand River Avenue originated as an Native American trail before Michigan statehood . It later was used as a wagon road across the state . The roadway was included in the State Trunkline Highway System in 1919 as M @-@ 16 and later the United States Numbered Highway System as US 16 . Construction of a freeway along the length of the corridor was proposed in the 1940s , and included as part of the Interstate Highway System in the mid @-@ 1950s . This construction was started in 1956 and initially completed across the state to Detroit in 1962 . The proposed route for the Jeffries Freeway in Detroit was moved in the 1960s ; it was built in the 1970s . I @-@ 96 was completed on November 21 , 1977 , in the Detroit area , closing the last gap along the route . Since then , additional interchanges and lanes have been added in places to accommodate traffic needs .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 96 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) as a segment of the larger State Trunkline Highway System . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 201 @,@ 200 vehicles used the highway daily between 6 and 7 Mile roads in Livonia . Near Norton Shores , 20 @,@ 638 vehicles did so each day between Airline and Fruitport roads . These are the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . As an Interstate Highway , all of I @-@ 96 is included in the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In addition , the highway in Detroit has been named by the Michigan Legislature the Rosa Parks Memorial Highway to honor the civil rights pioneer Rosa Parks . The segment from Livonia west to I @-@ 275 is the Jeffries Freeway , named for a former mayor of Detroit , Edward Jeffries .
= = = Muskegon to Grand Rapids = = =
I @-@ 96 begins at a three @-@ quarter cloverleaf interchange with US 31 northeast of the Muskegon County Airport in Norton Shores , near Muskegon . At the starting terminus , the highway has a grassy median and two lanes in each direction as it travels southeasterly through rural Muskegon County . The freeway is paralleled by Airline Highway in an area of with a mix of fields and residences as far as Fruitport . I @-@ 96 bypasses that village to the north and east before crossing into Ottawa County at Fruitport Road . After a distance of about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) in the county , the trunkline reaches Nunica . The highway crosses the Crockery Creek and turns eastward toward Coopersville . The freeway runs parallel to the Grand River , about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) to the north . Near Ironwood Drive , I @-@ 96 turns southeasterly again and goes through Marne .
Beyond Marne , I @-@ 96 passes the western end of M @-@ 11 and crosses into Kent County , curving around a rest area for the eastbound lanes . The freeway runs eastward through a light industrial area of the suburb of Walker as it enters the Grand Rapids metropolitan area . At the interchange with Alpine Avenue , M @-@ 37 merges onto the freeway and the two run concurrently past the studios for WZZM @-@ TV with its iconic weatherball , a 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) sphere 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the ground that uses colored lights to display a weather forecast . Adjacent to the studios are the ramps from eastbound I @-@ 96 to southbound US 131 and from northbound US 131 to westbound I @-@ 96 . These ramps mark the northern end of I @-@ 296 , an unsigned auxiliary Interstate Highway designation applied to them and the US 131 freeway south to downtown Grand Rapids . I @-@ 96 turns northeasterly past a commercial area to a three @-@ quarter cloverleaf interchange that provides all of the other connections with US 131 next to a crossing of the Grand River .
East of the river , I @-@ 96 and M @-@ 37 pass through the northern suburb of Comstock Park , intersecting Connector M @-@ 44 ( CONN M @-@ 44 , Plainfield Avenue ) near Lamberton Lake . Past that interchange , the freeway angles southeasterly and then southward , bypassing Grand Rapids to the northeast . East of downtown , I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 meets I @-@ 196 ( Gerald R. Ford Freeway ) at a partial interchange ; traffic headed eastbound on I @-@ 196 must enter I @-@ 96 eastbound and only westbound I @-@ 96 traffic may enter I @-@ 196 . Immediately east of the interchange is another for M @-@ 44 ( East Beltline Avenue ) where M @-@ 37 separates from the freeway to turn southward . Through this series of interchanges , I @-@ 96 curves to the east and then turns back southward after passing through them . There are two more interchanges for M @-@ 21 ( Fulton Street ) and Cascade Road before I @-@ 96 meets the eastern end of M @-@ 11 at 28th Street . The next interchange for 36th Street provides access to the Gerald R. Ford International Airport . The freeway continues to the east of the airport and then intersects the eastern end of M @-@ 6 ( Paul B. Henry Freeway , South Beltline Freeway ) at an interchange over the confluence of the Thornapple and Grand rivers .
= = = Grand Rapids to Brighton = = =
The freeway exits the edges of the Grand Rapids urban area past the interchange with M @-@ 6 , turning due east and paralleling the northern edge of Cascade Road . I @-@ 96 curves to the south of Pratt Lake near the county line , crossing into Ionia County . Grand River Avenue is the frontage road as the freeway heads east through farm fields . South of Ionia , I @-@ 96 intersects M @-@ 66 . Near Portland , the trunkline turns to the southeast to cross the Grand River again . On the east side of town , the freeway crosses Grand River Avenue , its former business spur into town . I @-@ 96 continues southeasterly , crossing into Clinton County , and passes the community of Eagle . Entering the western reaches of the Lansing metropolitan area , I @-@ 96 merges with I @-@ 69 and turns southward at an interchange in the southwestern corner of the county ; this interchange also provides access to Business Loop I @-@ 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 , Grand River Avenue ) .
These two Interstates run southward together for about 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) on the west side of the metropolitan area , picking up a third lane in each direction . The exit numbers and mileposts along the concurrency reflect those of I @-@ 96 , which is considered the dominant designation of the pair . South of that interchange , the freeway crosses into Eaton County and over the Grand River . The trunkline passes near residential subdivisions , and next to the interchange for BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 43 ( Saginaw Highway ) , there is a large retail development . Further south , I @-@ 496 ( Olds Freeway ) branches off to run into downtown Lansing before the split between I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 69 . I @-@ 69 turns southward while I @-@ 96 turns southeasterly , dropping back to four lanes in total . After the Lansing Road interchange , the freeway crosses the Grand River one last time and runs due east to bypass Lansing .
I @-@ 96 crosses into Ingham County and continues along the southern edges of the Lansing metro area . It passes through areas with residential subdivisions and commercial developments , coming to a pair of interchanges including one for the eastern end of BL I @-@ 96 ( Cedar Street ) . Near the crossing of the Red Cedar River , I @-@ 96 goes through the interchange for I @-@ 496 / US 127 . East of that interchange , the freeway begins to exit the metro area as the landscape transitions back to farm fields . I @-@ 96 continues eastward , bypassing Williamston and Webberville to the south . Near the latter , the freeway turns more southeasterly and crosses into Livingston County .
In Livingston County , I @-@ 96 passes to the south of Fowlerville and Howell . Near the Livingston County Spencer J. Hardy Airport on the western edge of Howell , I @-@ 96 meets M @-@ 59 , which carries the Howell business loop easterly to Grand River Avenue . The freeway expands to six lanes and runs parallel to Grand River Avenue on the southern side of town . The business loop reconnects near Lake Chemung on the east side of town , and I @-@ 96 turns further to the southeast . On the northeast side of Brighton , I @-@ 96 crosses over Grand River Avenue and the landscape transitions to include residential subdivisions . I @-@ 96 crosses US 23 and enters the far northwestern edge of Metro Detroit .
= = = Metro Detroit = = =
I @-@ 96 passes through an area with several lakes as it crosses into Oakland County . This area includes the Island Lake State Recreation Area to the south and the Kensington Metropark to the north of the freeway in an area where it crosses the Huron River . The Interstate runs through Wixom into Novi , where it passes to the south of the Twelve Oaks Mall . Southeast of the mall , I @-@ 96 enters a complex interchange on the border between Novi and Farmington Hills that connects it to M @-@ 5 ( Haggerty Connector ) , I @-@ 275 and I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) . The trunkline drops a lane in each direction as it enters the interchange and turns southward . The freeway then merges into I @-@ 275 and increases to four lanes in each direction running south in Farmington Hills .
According to the Federal Highway Administration , I @-@ 275 ends at the junction with I @-@ 96 and M @-@ 14 along the boundary between Livonia and Plymouth Township and not at the interchange in Novi and Farmington Hills . MDOT considers I @-@ 275 to extend northward concurrently with I @-@ 96 to the Novi and Farmington Hills , and maps from other providers follow MDOT 's lead and label the freeway north of M @-@ 14 as I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 .
I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 runs southward for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before crossing into Wayne County at the interchange with 8 Mile Road near the Meadowbrook Country Club . The freeway curves to the east around Schoolcraft College ; then , south of 5 Mile Road , I @-@ 96 meets the interchange with M @-@ 14 and I @-@ 275 where it turns to the east along the Jeffries Freeway . To the north and south sides of I @-@ 96 are a pair of service drives named Schoolcraft Road which follow the 4 Mile location on the Mile Road System for Detroit . To the north of the Jeffries are residential neighborhoods and to the south are commercial or industrial areas . At Inkster Road , the freeway crosses into Redford Township where it intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) near Eliza Howell Park . East of the park , I @-@ 96 enters Detroit .
Past the Outer Drive interchange , I @-@ 96 splits into a local @-@ express lanes configuration . There are two carriageways in each direction , and the central ones have three lanes that bypass almost all of the exits while the outer ones have two lanes that have access to each exit . The Jeffries turns southeasterly and separates from Schoolcraft Road shifting one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to the south . The interchange with M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) features slip ramps so that traffic can pass between the local and express lanes . Further east , I @-@ 96 turns northeasterly to cross Grand River Avenue at the southern end of M @-@ 5 . I @-@ 96 curves over to the interchange with M @-@ 8 ( Davison Avenue ) and the local @-@ express configuration ends as the freeway turns back to the south to cross over Grand River Avenue .
From the crossing south of Davison , I @-@ 96 runs parallel to Grand River Avenue southeasterly with eight lanes total . The two run together as far as the interchange with I @-@ 94 ( Edsel Ford Freeway ) near Bishop Park . I @-@ 96 turns more south @-@ southeasterly there through residential neighborhoods on Detroit 's southeastern side . I @-@ 96 terminates at an interchange that connects it to I @-@ 75 ( Fisher Freeway ) and to the Ambassador Bridge .
= = History = =
Interstate 96 was mostly constructed in sections that opened from 1957 to 1962 , but it was not completed in the Detroit area until 1977 . Even before the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act was signed in 1956 , the route was being planned as a replacement of the old US 16 , which was decommissioned in 1962 .
= = = Beginnings = = =
The Muskegon – Grand Rapids – Lansing – Detroit corridor was initially named the Grand River Road , an Indian trail that was designated as a military highway in 1825 . The roadway was included as a branch of " Division 2 " of the State Trunkline Highway System when that was created in May 1913 . When the system was signposted in 1919 , the highway was assigned the M @-@ 16 designation . Grand River Avenue was the first paved highway across the state when paving was completed in 1926 . The entire highway was designated as part of US 16 later that year .
East of Grand Rapids , the highway was a major artery of national importance , and was added to the proposed " Interregional Highway System " as part of a northern route between Chicago and Detroit by the 1940s . A branch from Grand Rapids to Muskegon was added later that decade , and in 1957 the Chicago – Detroit route was labeled as part of Interstate 94 , with Interstate 94N on the spur to Muskegon . Michigan , believing that this would " cause considerable confusion to the public " , requested a change in April 1958 , which would move I @-@ 94 to the shorter Kalamazoo route ( which was planned as I @-@ 92 ) , make the Muskegon – Detroit route I @-@ 96 , and assign I @-@ 67 to the connection from I @-@ 94 to I @-@ 96 at Grand Rapids , but this was initially rejected by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) . By mid @-@ 1959 , Michigan 's plan had been approved , with one change : I @-@ 96 would take the south leg from I @-@ 94 at Benton Harbor to Grand Rapids , and the north leg to Muskegon would be I @-@ 196 .
Construction of the Brighton – Farmington Expressway piece of the US 16 upgrade began in 1956 , and , when a four @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) piece opened on August 1 , 1957 , it was the first section of funded Interstate to open in Michigan . The entire 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) freeway from east of Brighton to a bypass of Farmington was completed in December of that year . By early 1959 , when signs for I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 were posted , 59 miles ( 95 km ) of the " Detroit – Muskegon Freeway " had been completed and marked as US 16 . With the opening of 51 miles ( 82 km ) from west of Lansing to east of Howell , the entire route , except in the Detroit area , opened for travel on December 12 , 1962 . US 16 was decommissioned in the state at that time ; the portions into Muskegon and Detroit , beyond the ends of the freeway , became separate related highways named Business Spur Interstate 196 ( BS I @-@ 196 ) for Muskegon and for Detroit .
In 1963 , the Michigan State Highway Department petitioned AASHO to again make the change it had requested back in 1958 , moving I @-@ 96 over I @-@ 196 to end at Muskegon and renumbering I @-@ 96 west of Grand Rapids to I @-@ 67 . The state cited problems with destination signing and numerous complaints from the public about confusion caused by the numbering . At their October 21 , 1963 meeting , AASHO approved the relocation of I @-@ 96 , but rejected I @-@ 67 , stating that the number should be kept for a more major route in case the system is expanded , and instead assigned I @-@ 196 to the not @-@ yet @-@ complete Benton Harbor – Grand Rapids highway . With the scheduled completion of the Lodge Freeway on October 29 , 1964 , a full freeway route was available from I @-@ 96 into downtown Detroit via I @-@ 696 and the Lodge , but it would be some time before I @-@ 96 was finished into the city .
= = = Construction of the Jeffries Freeway = = =
The Detroit Expressway and Transit System plan , prepared in 1945 for the city of Detroit , included a Grand River Expressway , which was to parallel Grand River Avenue into downtown and relieve congestion on that artery . A rail line would be built in the median of the freeway west of West Chicago Street , where streetcars would exit onto the existing surface tracks on Grand River Avenue into downtown . The plan called for a future conversion to rapid transit with a grade @-@ separated route to downtown . The Department of Street Railways determined in 1947 that the operation would cost $ 6 million per year ( equivalent to $ 193 million / yr in 2015 ) , and the planned transit line was dropped from the plans . By 1961 , the proposed highway was renamed the Jeffries Freeway , after Edward Jeffries , who served as Detroit mayor from 1940 to 1948 .
The first piece of the Jeffries Freeway connected the Fisher Freeway ( I @-@ 75 ) with the Ford Freeway ( I @-@ 94 ) in 1970 . It was extended northwest to Livernois Avenue ( exit 188A ) in July 1971 , and then to Grand River Avenue at Schaefer Highway ( exit 185 ) in 1973 . In 1976 , the freeway was extended west to the Southfield Freeway ( exit 183 ) , and the entire I @-@ 275 concurrent section was opened . The final piece was completed on November 21 , 1977 , connecting the Detroit section to I @-@ 275 . The I @-@ 96 designation was assigned along the I @-@ 275 freeway south to the Jeffries Freeway , and eastward along the new freeway to the M @-@ 39 interchange ; the remaining stub of I @-@ 96 around Farmington was redesignated as an extension of M @-@ 102 ( now M @-@ 5 ) .
Originally , the route of Interstate 96 from the east end of the existing freeway in Farmington through Detroit , named the Jeffries Freeway ( commonly referred to as simply " the Jeffries " ) , was to closely parallel Grand River Avenue ( formerly US 16 ) . However , by 1963 , several freeway revolts were taking place in urban locations throughout the country , including Detroit . Several of Detroit 's planned freeways were modified , scaled back , or outright cancelled . To minimize the impact to existing communities and businesses , it was decided that the Jeffries Freeway would no longer utilize the Grand River Avenue corridor . Instead , the new I @-@ 96 freeway corridor would partially use right @-@ of @-@ way from the C & O Railroad through the city of Livonia ( ultimately being built over Schoolcraft Road ) , and utilize the planned I @-@ 275 freeway bypassing Detroit to the west to connect back to the existing freeway .
= = = Subsequent history = = =
Since the completion of I @-@ 96 in 1977 , several changes to the freeway have taken place . Beginning in 1984 , an extension of the US 27 freeway ( later to become I @-@ 69 ) bypassing Lansing opened ; US 27 was then cosigned with I @-@ 96 along the western side of Lansing . Three years later , the I @-@ 69 designation was applied to this new bypass , resulting in a triple concurrency ( I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 / US 27 ) that existed until 2002 , when US 27 was decommissioned in Michigan .
From 2003 to 2005 , the Beck Road interchange ( exit 160 ) in Novi was reconstructed as a single point urban interchange ( SPUI ) , the first in the metropolitan Detroit area and the first on I @-@ 96 . An interchange between 36th Street and I @-@ 96 was built starting in 2005 and was completed in 2006 . The project aimed to improve access to the Gerald R. Ford International Airport southeast of Grand Rapids . The reconstruction of the Wixom Road interchange near Novi as a SPUI was completed in late fall of 2008 . Another interchange at Latson Road in Howell was approved for construction on July 19 , 2012 . This interchange was designed to bring improved access to the eastern Howell area , which prior to construction of the Latson Road exit was only accessible from westbound I @-@ 96 . The project was completed on December 2 , 2013 . Also in 2013 , the two interchanges near Nunica serving M @-@ 104 and B @-@ 31 were reconstructed , with two ramps removed from the former and two added to the latter ; a new partial interchange was also built in preparation of M @-@ 231 , a future bypass of Grand Haven that is slated for completion in 2016 .
On April 5 , 2014 , MDOT closed I @-@ 96 between Newburgh Road and US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . The project is to cost $ 148 million , and it will rebuild the seven miles ( 11 km ) , replace two bridges , and repair 32 other bridges . The department will also install new drainage and replace the signs along I @-@ 96 . The project was expected to be completed in October 2014 . Instead , it was finished ahead of schedule , and that segment of I @-@ 96 was opened on September 21 , 2014 .
Also in 2015 , work began on bypassing the 1960s interchange with US 23 near Brighton . A new set of through lanes will be built on I @-@ 96 between the current eastbound and westbound lanes with three new bridges over northbound and southbound US 23 , and over Old US 23 . The existing lanes of I @-@ 96 will be changed to be collector @-@ distributor lanes for ramp traffic .
= = = Gateway Project = = =
Beginning on February 25 , 2008 , MDOT and the Detroit International Bridge Company initiated the Ambassador Gateway Project at the eastern end of I @-@ 96 . The adjacent section of I @-@ 75 closed completely to traffic in both directions to start the complete reconstruction of the road to better connect I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 96 to the Ambassador Bridge , and the plans included the reconstruction of a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of I @-@ 96 . That segment of I @-@ 96 closed on July 14 , 2008 , and it was scheduled to reopen a month early the following September . The overall project to realign ramps and connect the bridge to the freeways was mired in lawsuits between MDOT and the private company that owns the bridge . The company 's owner was jailed for contempt of court during court proceedings in early 2012 . MDOT was later ordered to assume responsibility for construction , and the department completed the project on September 21 , 2012 .
= = = Incidents = = =
On January 12 , 2005 , a large multiple @-@ vehicle collision consisting of over 200 motor vehicles occurred on both directions of I @-@ 96 near Williamston in Ingham County . Two people , Douglas James Baker ( age 15 ) and Jason Eldridge ( age 27 ) were killed in the incident . It was one of the largest collisions in US history and was blamed on heavy fog .
In October 2012 , reports of a sniper shooting cars along I @-@ 96 in four counties led to a federal investigation and a multi @-@ jurisdictional task force of 100 law enforcement officials . As of October 30 , 2012 , 25 shootings had been linked to one suspect . The Federal Bureau of Investigation , the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives , and Crime Stoppers offered a $ 102 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the arrest of the perpetrator . The suspect , Raulie Casteel of Wixom , was arrested on November 5 , 2012 , and ordered to stand trial in 2013 in Oakland County for 60 charges in one case , with a second trial on terrorism and murder charges to be brought by the Michigan Attorney General . On October 30 , 2013 , the suspect pleaded no contest , but mentally ill , in the Oakland County case , and he was sentenced to serve anywhere from six years and eight months to 10 years in prison on multiple assault charges ( as well as two concurrent years on weapons charges ) for that case on February 4 , 2014 . The trial for the Livingston County case began on January 14 , 2014 , and after being convicted on the terrorism charge , Casteel was sentenced to 16 to 40 years in state prison .
= = Exit list = =
= = Related trunklines = =
= = = Auxiliary Interstates = = =
I @-@ 96 has four related , auxiliary Interstate highways that connect the main freeway to downtowns and other cities . I @-@ 196 is a relatively long freeway spur , beginning at I @-@ 96 east of downtown Grand Rapids and heading west through downtown to Holland , and then south to I @-@ 94 near Benton Harbor . The unsigned I @-@ 296 connects I @-@ 96 north of downtown Grand Rapids with I @-@ 196 in downtown , and is signed as US 131 . I @-@ 496 is a loop through downtown Lansing , which I @-@ 96 bypasses to the south , and I @-@ 696 is a northern bypass of Detroit , connecting I @-@ 96 in Novi with I @-@ 75 in Royal Oak and I @-@ 94 in St. Clair Shores .
= = = Business routes = = =
There have been six business routes of Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) in the US state of Michigan . There are two business loops designated Business Loop Interstate 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 ) : one through Lansing and one through Howell . Both follow the old route of US 16 , with appropriate connections to I @-@ 96 . There are three former business spurs that were designated Business Spur Interstate 96 ( BS I @-@ 96 ) . One connected to the carferry docks in Muskegon , running concurrently with part of Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) along former US 16 , but it has been eliminated . The second spur ran into downtown Portland until it was decommissioned in 2007 . Two routes in the Detroit area — a loop through Farmington and a spur into Detroit — both using Grand River Avenue , and meeting at the temporary end of I @-@ 96 near Purdue Avenue , were eliminated when I @-@ 96 was moved to the completed Jeffries Freeway in 1977 . These Detroit @-@ area business routes are still state @-@ maintained as unsigned highways .
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= Imelda ( film ) =
Imelda is a 2003 documentary film directed by Ramona S. Diaz about the life of Imelda Marcos , former First Lady of the Philippines . Beginning with her childhood , the film documents her marriage to future President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos , her rule under the dictatorship , her exile in Hawaii and her eventual return to the Philippines .
Reviews were largely favorable and it won the Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary award at Sundance Film Festival in 2004 . Imelda outsold Spider @-@ Man 2 in the Philippines , but only took US $ 200 @,@ 992 at the US box office with an additional US $ 300 @,@ 000 worldwide . Reviews from critics are favorable with a 94 % fresh rating from Rotten Tomatoes and a 69 / 100 from Metacritic .
= = Synopsis = =
Diaz followed Imelda Marcos , the former First Lady of the Philippines , for a month and interviewed her daughter Imee and her son Ferdinand , Jr . The film incorporates third party interviews and archive material ; it recounts Imelda 's life , including her marriage to her husband , Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos . Discussing the Marcos presidency , Imelda says that there were no human rights abuses in her country ; she says that her husband abolished Congress and declared martial law in 1972 to protect democracy . She says that she took 3 @,@ 000 pairs of shoes with her when she went into exile , and justifies her extravagant clothing by saying that it " inspired the poor to dress better " . She also says that she had enormous museums and theaters constructed to enrich the lives of Filipinos .
Imelda says in one vignette that she had met United States Army General Douglas MacArthur during his landing in Tacloban at the end of World War II , and that McArthur insisted that she should perform for the composer Irving Berlin , She sang " God Bless the Philippines " and when Berlin asked her why she sang the lyrics incorrectly she said , " what 's the difference between America and the Philippines ? " The assassination attempt on Imelda and the assassination of Benigno Aquino , Jr. are featured in the film . Footage from parties held by the Marcos couple , including one during which actor George Hamilton sang " I can 't give you anything but love , Imelda " , are also used in the film .
= = Release and reception = =
Imelda had its world premiere at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam and its North American premiere in the documentary competition of the 2004 Sundance Film Festival , where it won the Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary . The film was also screened at the Maryland Film Festival in Baltimore .
Critical reviews were mostly favorable . The film has a 94 % fresh rating from Rotten Tomatoes and a 69 / 100 from Metacritic . The website Film Threat commended the film 's treatment of the subject 's flaws because it " allows her to describe them herself " ; TV Guide called Imelda " an entertaining storyteller " . The New York Times said the film is " a devastating portrait " and equates the theme of Imelda with that of delusion and power . The San Francisco Chronicle said it was " spellbinding " .
Both the Chronicle and Variety consider the film balanced and even @-@ handed . Variety said that Imelda — who has been accustomed to public attention since her teenage years , was convinced that her charm and charisma would create a more favorable impression in the film than might otherwise be expected . It said that " her defenses of her husband and his regime are obviously filled with rationalizations and obfuscations " . Other reviewers were more scathing , or note her distorted reality and the many contradictions with which she lives .
The film took US $ 200 @,@ 992 at the box office in the United States . In the Philippines , Imelda obtained a temporary injunction that prevented it being shown for a brief time . When the injunction was canceled and the film was released , it earned more than Spider @-@ Man 2 and was considered a smash hit . Outside the US , the film received box office revenue of US $ 300 @,@ 000 .
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= Seaplane Squadron RAAF =
Seaplane Squadron was a flying unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) between the wars . It operated Supermarine Southampton flying boats from January 1928 , as well as other types . Along with Fighter Squadron , Seaplane Squadron was a component of No. 1 Flying Training School , based at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . Seaplane Squadron was responsible for coastal reconnaissance , training aircrew to operate seaplanes , and supporting the Royal Australian Navy . It also conducted survey flights over remote parts of Australia and mapped the Darwin – Sydney section of the Empire Air Mail Scheme route . Seaplane Squadron was disbanded in June 1939 .
= = History = =
Although the first entry in Seaplane Squadron records is dated 16 February 1934 , the official history of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) between the wars refers to the unit as having been in operation when Australia acquired two Supermarine Southampton flying boats , which entered service in January 1928 . The Southamptons formed a coastal reconnaissance flight within Seaplane Squadron , which also operated other aircraft for seaplane training . Seaplane Squadron was one of two formations raised at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , under the auspices of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , the other being Fighter Squadron , which operated Bristol Bulldogs . No. 1 FTS had been the first unit to be formed as part of the new Australian Air Force on 31 March 1921 ( the prefix " Royal " was added in August that year ) .
The Southamptons ( nicknamed " Swamptons " ) were the biggest aircraft in the RAAF 's inventory at the time and a new seaplane hangar was specially constructed for them at Point Cook . On 22 June , one of the flying boats was overturned by strong wind on the Torrens River en route to meet the four Southamptons of the Royal Air Force 's Far East Flight near Adelaide . In their naval cooperation role , the Southamptons were required to locate and shadow " enemy " cruisers on exercises . They also trialled radio communications between aircraft and naval ships .
The Southamptons were used for parachute training with the " pull @-@ off " technique , which involved standing on a small platform near the outer wing struts , opening the parachute and being dragged from the aircraft by the wind . In the early 1930s , the flying boats took part in several forestry surveys in Tasmania . From June 1935 to February 1936 , a Southampton was employed to map the Darwin – Sydney section of the Empire Air Mail Scheme route ; its survey work ultimately took it to New Guinea and around the Australian continent . Seaplane Squadron undertook search @-@ and @-@ rescue work with both the Southamptons and Supermarine Seagulls ; the former were involved in the abortive search for the airliner Miss Hobart , a DH.86 that vanished in Bass Strait on 19 October 1934 . One of the Southamptons was taken out of service in 1937 ; the other continued flying until 1939 .
In October 1929 , Seaplane Squadron received a locally designed amphibian , the Wackett Widgeon II ; it crashed into the sea off Point Cook on 6 January 1930 , killing all three occupants . Another Wackett design , the Warrigal II landplane , was fitted with floats and assigned to Seaplane Squadron in September 1932 for trials and possible use as a trainer and patrol aircraft ; it was considered successful in the latter role but maintenance issues led to its disposal in July 1933 . The squadron also operated Moths . In May 1934 , one of these was flown to Darwin , Northern Territory , where it was fitted with floats and undertook reconnaissance and survey work in cooperation with HMAS Morseby , before being converted back to a landplane and returning to Point Cook in July . In December 1935 , a Gipsy Moth fitted with skis embarked for Antarctica aboard the RRS Discovery II to locate missing explorer Lincoln Ellsworth . Seaplane Squadron began operating Avro Ansons for navigation courses and cross @-@ country exercises in 1937 ; one exercise in November 1938 involved a round @-@ Australia flight . A new headquarters building for the squadron was constructed at Point Cook in the late 1930s , as part of general improvements to RAAF facilities owing to the threat of war in Europe .
Throughout their existence , Seaplane and Fighter Squadrons remained under the control of No. 1 FTS and were " really little more than flights " , in the words of the official history . The final entry in Seaplane Squadron records was made on 30 June 1939 . The unit became the nucleus for No. 10 ( Reconnaissance ) Squadron , formed at Point Cook the following day .
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= George H. W. Bush =
George Herbert Walker Bush ( born June 12 , 1924 ) is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . A member of the U.S. Republican Party , he was previously a congressman , ambassador , and Director of Central Intelligence . He is the oldest living former President and Vice President . He is also the last living former President who is a veteran of World War II . Bush is often referred to as " George H. W. Bush " , " Bush 41 " , " Bush the Elder " , or " George Bush Sr. " to distinguish him from his eldest son , George W. Bush , who was the 43rd President of the United States . Prior to his son 's presidency , he was known simply as George Bush or President Bush .
Bush was born in Milton , Massachusetts , to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush . Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 , Bush postponed college , enlisted in the U.S. Navy on his 18th birthday , and became the youngest aviator in the U.S. Navy at the time . He served until the end of the war , then attended Yale University . Graduating in 1948 , he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business , becoming a millionaire by the age of 40 .
He became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company , serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence , among other positions . He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980 , but was chosen by party nominee Ronald Reagan to be his running mate , and the two were elected . During his tenure , Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation and fighting the " War on Drugs " .
In 1988 , Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President , defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis . Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency : military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf ; the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 , and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later . Domestically , Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and , after a struggle with Congress , signed an increase in taxes that Congress had passed . In the wake of a weak recovery from an economic recession , along with continuing budget deficits and the controversy over his appointment of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court , he lost the 1992 presidential election to Democrat Bill Clinton .
Bush left office in 1993 . His presidential library was dedicated in 1997 , and he has been active — often alongside Bill Clinton — in various humanitarian activities . Besides being the 43rd president ( 2001 – 09 ) , his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas ( 1995 – 2000 ) and is one of only two presidents — the other being John Quincy Adams — to be the son of a former president . His second son , Jeb Bush , served as the 43rd Governor of Florida ( 1999 – 2007 ) and made an unsuccessful run for president in 2016 .
= = Early life and education = =
George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton , Massachusetts , on June 12 , 1924 to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy ( Walker ) Bush . The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich , Connecticut , shortly after his birth .
Bush began his formal education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich . Beginning in 1936 , he attended Phillips Academy in Andover , Massachusetts , where he held a number of leadership positions including president of the senior class , secretary of the student council , president of the community fund @-@ raising group , a member of the editorial board of the school newspaper , and captain of both the varsity baseball and soccer teams .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 , Bush decided to join the US . Navy , so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942 , he became a naval aviator at the age of 18 . After completing the 10 @-@ month course , he was commissioned as an ensign in the United States Naval Reserve at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi on June 9 , 1943 , just three days before his 19th birthday , which made him the youngest naval aviator to that date .
He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron ( VT @-@ 51 ) as the photographic officer in September 1943 . The following year , his squadron was based on the USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51 , where his lanky physique earned him the nickname " Skin " . During this time , the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II : the Battle of the Philippine Sea .
After Bush 's promotion to Lieutenant ( junior grade ) on August 1 , 1944 , the San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands . Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT @-@ 51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima . His crew for the mission , which occurred on September 2 , 1944 , included Radioman Second Class John Delaney and Lieutenant Junior Grade William White . During their attack , the Avengers encountered intense anti @-@ aircraft fire ; Bush 's aircraft was hit by flak and his engine caught on fire . Despite his plane being on fire , Bush completed his attack and released bombs over his target , scoring several damaging hits . With his engine ablaze , Bush flew several miles from the island , where he and one other crew member on the TBM Avenger bailed out of the aircraft ; the other man 's parachute did not open . Bush waited for four hours in an inflated raft , while several fighters circled protectively overhead until he was rescued by the lifeguard submarine USS Finback . For the next month he remained on the Finback , and participated in the rescue of other pilots . Several of those shot down during the attack were executed and eaten by their captors .
Bush subsequently returned to San Jacinto in November 1944 and participated in operations in the Philippines until his squadron was replaced and sent home to the United States . Through 1944 , he flew 58 combat missions for which he received the Distinguished Flying Cross , three Air Medals , and the Presidential Unit Citation awarded to San Jacinto .
Because of his valuable combat experience , Bush was reassigned to Norfolk Navy Base and put in a training wing for new torpedo pilots . He was later assigned as a naval aviator in a new torpedo squadron , VT @-@ 153 , based at Naval Air Station Grosse Ile , Michigan . Upon the Japanese surrender in 1945 , Bush was honorably discharged in September of that year .
= = = Marriage and college years = = =
George Bush married Barbara Pierce on January 6 , 1945 , only weeks after his return from the Pacific . The couple 's first residence was a small rented apartment in Trenton , Michigan , near Bush 's Navy assignment at NAS Grosse Ile . Their marriage produced six children : George Walker Bush ( born 1946 ) , Pauline Robinson " Robin " Bush ( 1949 – 1953 , died of leukemia ) , John Ellis " Jeb " Bush ( born 1953 ) , Neil Mallon Pierce Bush ( born 1955 ) , Marvin Pierce Bush ( born 1956 ) , and Dorothy Bush Koch ( born 1959 ) .
Bush had been accepted to Yale University prior to his enlistment in the military , and took up the offer after his discharge and marriage . While at Yale , he was enrolled in an accelerated program that allowed him to graduate in two and a half years , rather than four . He was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and was elected its president . He also captained the Yale baseball team , and as a left @-@ handed first baseman , played in the first two College World Series . As the team captain , Bush met Babe Ruth before a game during his senior year . He was also , like his father , a member of the Yale cheerleading squad . Late in his junior year he was , like his father Prescott Bush ( 1917 ) , initiated into the Skull and Bones secret society . He graduated as a member of the Phi Beta Kappa from Yale in 1948 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics .
= = Business career = =
After graduating from Yale , Bush moved his young family to West Texas . His father 's business connections proved useful as he ventured into the oil business , starting as a sales clerk with Dresser Industries , a subsidiary of Brown Brothers Harriman ( where Prescott Bush had served on the board of directors for 22 years ) . While working for Dresser , Bush lived in various places with his family : Odessa , Texas ; Ventura , Bakersfield and Compton , California ; and Midland , Texas . ( According to eldest son George W. Bush , then age two , the family lived in one of the few duplexes in Odessa with an indoor bathroom , which they " shared with a couple of hookers " . ) Bush started the Bush @-@ Overbey Oil Development company in 1951 and in 1953 co @-@ founded the Zapata Petroleum Corporation , an oil company that drilled in the Permian Basin in Texas . In 1954 he was named president of the Zapata Offshore Company , a subsidiary which specialized in offshore drilling .
In 1959 , shortly after the subsidiary became independent , Bush moved the company and his family from Midland to Houston . He continued serving as president of the company until 1964 , and later chairman until 1966 , but his ambitions turned political . By that time , Bush had become a millionaire . According to Time.com , Bush had a net worth of $ 20 million in 2015 .
= = Political career , 1964 – 80 = =
= = = Congressional years , 1967 – 71 = = =
Bush served as Chairman of the Republican Party for Harris County , Texas in 1964 , but wanted to be more involved in policy making , so he set his sights high : he aimed for a U.S. Senate seat from Texas . After winning the Republican primary , Bush faced his opponent , incumbent Democrat Ralph W. Yarborough , who attacked Bush as a right @-@ wing extremist . Bush was a strong supporter of Republican Senator Barry Goldwater , who headed the Republican ticket as the presidential candidate . Like Goldwater , Bush strongly opposed civil rights legislation in the name of states rights . Yarborough , a leading Texas liberal , supported the civil rights legislation and was reelected by 56 % - 44 % . The Republican candidate for governor , Jack Crichton of Dallas , who often campaigned alongside Bush before the election , lost by a much wider margin to Governor John B. Connally Jr . Bush and the Harris County Republicans played a role in the development of the new Republican Party of the late 20th century . First , Bush worked to absorb the John Birch Society members , who were trying to take over the Republican Party . Second , during and after the Civil Rights Movement , Democrats in the South who were committed to segregation left their party , and although the " country club Republicans " had differing ideological beliefs , they found common ground in hoping to expel the Democrats from power .
Bush was elected in 1966 to a House of Representatives seat from the 7th District of Texas , defeating with 57 percent of the ballots cast the Democrat Frank Briscoe , the district attorney of Harris County known for his law and order credentials and a cousin of later Governor Dolph Briscoe . Bush was the first Republican to represent Houston in the U.S. House . Bush 's representative district included Tanglewood , the Houston neighborhood that was his residence ; his family had moved into Tanglewood in the 1960s . His voting record in the House was generally conservative : Bush voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1968 , although it was generally unpopular in his district . He supported the Nixon administration 's Vietnam policies , but broke with Republicans on the issue of birth control , which he supported . Despite being a first @-@ term congressman , Bush was appointed to the powerful House Ways and Means Committee , where he voted to abolish the military draft . He was elected to a second term in 1968 .
In 1970 Nixon convinced Bush to relinquish his House seat to run for the Senate against Ralph Yarborough , a fierce Nixon critic . In the Republican primary , Bush easily defeated conservative Robert J. Morris , by a margin of 87 @.@ 6 % to 12 @.@ 4 % . Nixon came to Texas to campaign in Longview for Bush and gubernatorial candidate Paul Eggers , a Dallas lawyer who was a close friend of U.S. Senator John G. Tower . Former Congressman Lloyd Bentsen , a more moderate Democrat and native of Mission in south Texas , defeated Yarborough in the Democratic primary . Yarborough endorsed Bentsen , who defeated Bush , 53 @.@ 4 to 46 @.@ 6 % . As Bush 's political career waned , he moved out of Houston and sold his first Tanglewood house , but for periods of time continued to reside in Tanglewood .
= = = Ambassador to the United Nations ( 1971 – 73 ) = = =
Following his 1970 loss , Bush was well known as a prominent Republican businessman from the " Sun Belt " , a group of states in the Southern part of the country . Nixon noticed and appreciated the sacrifice Bush had made of his Congressional position , so he appointed him Ambassador to the United Nations . He was confirmed unanimously by the Senate , and served for two years , beginning in 1971 .
= = = Chairman of the Republican National Committee ( 1973 – 74 ) = = =
Amidst the Watergate scandal , Nixon asked Bush to become chairman of the Republican National Committee in 1973 . Bush accepted , and held this position when the popularity of both Nixon and the Republican Party plummeted . He defended Nixon steadfastly , but later as Nixon 's complicity became clear , Bush focused more on defending the Republican Party , while still maintaining loyalty to Nixon . As chairman , Bush formally requested that Nixon eventually resign for the good of the Republican party . Nixon did this on August 9 , 1974 ; Bush noted in his diary that " There was an aura of sadness , like somebody died .... The [ resignation ] speech was vintage Nixon — a kick or two at the press — enormous strains . One couldn 't help but look at the family and the whole thing and think of his accomplishments and then think of the shame .... [ President Gerald Ford 's swearing @-@ in offered ] indeed a new spirit , a new lift . "
= = = Envoy to China , 1974 – 75 = = =
Gerald Ford , Nixon 's successor , appointed Bush to be Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People 's Republic of China . Since the United States at the time maintained official relations with the Republic of China on Taiwan and not the People 's Republic of China , the Liaison Office did not have the official status of an embassy and Bush did not formally hold the position of " ambassador " , though he unofficially acted as one . The 14 months that he spent in China were largely seen as beneficial for U.S.-China relations .
After Ford 's accession to the presidency , Bush was under serious consideration for being nominated as Vice President . Ford eventually narrowed his list to Nelson Rockefeller and Bush . White House Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld reportedly preferred Rockefeller over Bush . Rockefeller was finally named and confirmed .
Bush was again passed over for the vice presidency by Ford when the president chose Bush 's future presidential rival , Senator Bob Dole , to replace Rockefeller on the 1976 presidential ticket .
= = = Director of Central Intelligence ( 1976 – 77 ) = = =
In 1976 Ford brought Bush back to Washington to become Director of Central Intelligence ( DCI ) , replacing William Colby . He served in this role for 357 days , from January 30 , 1976 , to January 20 , 1977 . The CIA had been rocked by a series of revelations , including those based on investigations by the Church Committee regarding illegal and unauthorized activities by the CIA , and Bush was credited with helping to restore the agency 's morale . In his capacity as DCI , Bush gave national security briefings to Jimmy Carter both as a Presidential candidate and as President @-@ elect , and discussed the possibility of remaining in that position in a Carter administration , but did not do so . He was succeeded by Deputy Director of Central Intelligence E. Henry Knoche , who served as acting Director of Central Intelligence until Stansfield Turner was confirmed .
= = = Other positions , 1977 – 80 = = =
After a Democratic administration took power in 1977 , Bush became chairman on the Executive Committee of the First International Bank in Houston . He later spent a year as a part @-@ time professor of Administrative Science at Rice University 's Jones School of Business beginning in 1978 , the year it opened ; Bush said of his time there , " I loved my brief time in the world of academia . " Between 1977 and 1979 , he was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations foreign policy organization .
= = 1980 presidential campaign = =
Bush had decided in the late 1970s that he was going to run for president in 1980 ; in 1979 , he attended 850 political events and traveled more than 250 @,@ 000 miles ( 400 @,@ 000 km ) to campaign for the nation 's highest office . In the contest for the Republican Party nomination , Bush stressed his wide range of government experience , while competing against rivals Senator Howard Baker of Tennessee , Senator Bob Dole of Kansas , Congressman John Anderson of Illinois ( who would later run as an independent ) , Congressman Phil Crane , also of Illinois , former Governor John Connally of Texas , former Minnesota Governor Harold Stassen , and the front @-@ runner Ronald Reagan , former actor , and Governor of California .
In the primary election , Bush focused almost entirely on the Iowa caucuses , while Reagan ran a more traditional campaign . Bush represented the centrist wing in the GOP , whereas Reagan represented conservatives . Bush famously labeled Reagan 's supply side @-@ influenced plans for massive tax cuts " voodoo economics " . His strategy proved useful , to some degree , as he won in Iowa with 31 @.@ 5 % to Reagan 's 29 @.@ 4 % . After the win , Bush stated that his campaign was full of momentum , or " Big Mo " . As a result of the loss , Reagan replaced his campaign manager , reorganized his staff , and concentrated on the New Hampshire primary . The two men agreed to a debate in the state , organized by the Nashua Telegraph , but paid for by the Reagan campaign . Reagan invited the other four candidates as well , but Bush refused to debate them , and eventually they left . The debate proved to be a pivotal moment in the campaign ; when the moderator , John Breen , ordered Reagan 's microphone turned off , his angry response , " I am paying for this microphone , " struck a chord with the public . Bush ended up losing New Hampshire 's primary with 23 % to Reagan 's 50 % . Bush lost most of the remaining primaries as well , and formally dropped out of the race in May of that year .
With his political future seeming dismal , Bush sold his house in Houston and bought his grandfather 's estate in Kennebunkport , Maine , known as " Walker 's Point " . At the Republican Convention , Reagan selected Bush as his Vice Presidential nominee , placing him on the winning Republican presidential ticket of 1980 .
= = Vice Presidency ( 1981 – 89 ) = =
= = = First term , 1981 – 85 = = =
As Vice President , Bush generally took on a low profile while recognizing the constitutional limits of the office ; he avoided decision @-@ making or criticizing Reagan in any way . As had become customary , he and his wife moved into the Vice President 's residence at Number One Observatory Circle , about two miles from the White House . After selling the house in the Tanglewood , the Bushes declared a room in The Houstonian Hotel in Houston as their official voting address . The Bushes attended a large number of public and ceremonial events in their positions , including many state funerals , which became a common joke for comedians . Mrs. Bush found the funerals largely beneficial , saying , " George met with many current or future heads of state at the funerals he attended , enabling him to forge personal relationships that were important to President Reagan . " As the President of the Senate , Bush stayed in contact with members of Congress , and kept the president informed on occurrences on Capitol Hill .
On March 30 , 1981 , early into the administration , Reagan was shot and seriously wounded in Washington , D.C. Bush , second in command by the presidential line of succession , was in Fort Worth , Texas , and flew back to Washington immediately . Reagan 's cabinet convened in the White House Situation Room , where they discussed various issues , including the availability of the Nuclear Football . When Bush 's plane landed , his aides advised him to proceed directly to the White House by helicopter , as an image of the government still functioning despite the attack . Bush rejected the idea , responding , " Only the President lands on the South Lawn . " This made a positive impression on Reagan , who recovered and returned to work within two weeks . From then on , the two men would have regular Thursday lunches in the Oval Office .
In December 1983 Bush flew to El Salvador and warned that country 's military leaders to end their death squads and hold fully free elections or face the loss of U.S. aid . Bush 's aides feared for his safety and thought about calling the meeting off when they discovered apparent blood stains on the floor of the presidential palace of Álvaro Magaña . Bush was never told of the aides ' concerns and a tense meeting was held in which some of Magaña 's personnel brandished semiautomatic weapons and refused requests to take them outside .
Bush was assigned by Reagan to chair two special task forces , on deregulation and international drug smuggling . The deregulation task force reviewed hundreds of rules , making specific recommendations on which ones to amend or revise , in order to curb the size of the federal government . The drug smuggling task force coordinated federal efforts to reduce the quantity of drugs entering the United States . Both were popular issues with conservatives , and Bush , largely a moderate , began courting them through his work .
= = = Second term , 1985 – 89 = = =
Reagan and Bush ran for reelection in 1984 . The Democratic opponent , Walter Mondale , made history by choosing a woman as his running mate , New York Representative Geraldine Ferraro . She and Bush squared off in a single televised Vice Presidential debate . Serving as a contrast to the Ivy @-@ League educated Bush , Ferraro represented a " blue @-@ collar " district in Queens , New York ; this , coupled with her popularity among female journalists , left Bush at a disadvantage . The Reagan @-@ Bush ticket won in a landslide against the Mondale @-@ Ferraro ticket . Early into his second term as Vice President , Bush and his aides were planning a run for the presidency in 1988 . By the end of 1985 , a committee had been established and over two million dollars raised for Bush .
Bush became the first Vice President to serve as Acting President when , on July 13 , 1985 , Reagan underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon , making Bush acting president for approximately eight hours .
The Reagan administration was shaken by a scandal in 1986 , when it was revealed that administration officials had secretly arranged weapon sales to Iran , and had used the proceeds to fund the anticommunist Contras in Nicaragua , a direct violation of the law . When the Iran @-@ Contra Affair , as it became known , broke to the media , Bush , like Reagan , stated that he had been " out of the loop " and unaware of the diversion of funds , although this was later questioned . His diaries from that time stated " I 'm one of the few people that know fully the details . " Ailes and others were concerned that Bush was seen as a " wimp " , an image put to rest by his evident fury in an interview with Dan Rather .
As Vice President , Bush officially opened the 1987 Pan American Games in Indianapolis .
In 1988 the USS Vincennes accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight 655 killing 290 passengers . Bush said that he would " never apologize for the United States of America . Ever . I don 't care what the facts are . "
= = = = 1988 presidential campaign = = = =
In the January 26 , 1987 , issue of Time magazine , in an article entitled " Where Is the Real George Bush ? " journalist Robert Ajemian reported that a friend of Bush 's had urged him to spend several days at Camp David thinking through his plans for his prospective presidency , to which Bush is said to have responded in exasperation , " Oh , the vision thing . " This oft @-@ cited quote became a shorthand for the charge that Bush failed to contemplate or articulate important policy positions in a compelling and coherent manner . The phrase has since become a metonym for any politician 's failure to incorporate a greater vision in a campaign , and has often been applied in the media to other politicians or public figures .
Bush had been planning a presidential run since as early as 1985 , and entered the Republican primary for President of the United States in October 1987 . His challengers for the Republican presidential nomination included U.S. Senator Bob Dole of Kansas , U.S. Representative Jack Kemp of New York , former Governor Pete DuPont of Delaware , and conservative Christian televangelist Pat Robertson .
Though considered the early frontrunner for the nomination , Bush came in third in the Iowa caucus , behind winner Dole and runner @-@ up Robertson . Much as Reagan did in 1980 , Bush reorganized his staff and concentrated on the New Hampshire primary . With Dole ahead in New Hampshire , Bush ran television commercials portraying the senator as a tax raiser ; he rebounded to win the state 's primary . Following the primary , Bush and Dole had a joint media appearance , when the interviewer asked Dole if he had anything to say to Bush , Dole said , in response to the ads , " yeah , stop lying about my record " in an angry tone . This is thought to have hurt Dole 's campaign to Bush 's benefit . Bush continued seeing victory , winning many Southern primaries as well . Once the multiple @-@ state primaries such as Super Tuesday began , Bush 's organizational strength and fundraising lead were impossible for the other candidates to match , and the nomination was his .
Leading up to the 1988 Republican National Convention , there was much speculation as to Bush 's choice of running mate . Bush chose little @-@ known U.S. Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana , favored by conservatives . Despite Reagan 's popularity , Bush trailed Democratic nominee Michael Dukakis , then Governor of Massachusetts , in most polls .
Bush , occasionally criticized for his lack of eloquence when compared to Reagan , delivered a well @-@ received speech at the 1988 Republican National Convention . Known as the " thousand points of light " speech , it described Bush 's vision of America : he endorsed the Pledge of Allegiance , prayer in schools , capital punishment , gun rights , and opposed abortion . The speech at the convention included Bush 's famous pledge : " Read my lips : no new taxes . "
The general election campaign between the two men was described in 2008 as one of the dirtiest in modern times . Bush blamed Dukakis for polluting the Boston Harbor as the Massachusetts governor . Bush also pointed out that Dukakis was opposed to a law that would require all students to say the Pledge of Allegiance , a topic well covered in Bush 's nomination acceptance speech .
Dukakis 's unconditional opposition to capital punishment led to a pointed question being asked during the presidential debates . Moderator Bernard Shaw asked Dukakis if Dukakis would hypothetically support the death penalty if his wife , Kitty , were raped and murdered . Dukakis 's response of no , as well as a provocative ad about convicted felon Willie Horton , contributed toward Bush 's characterization of Dukakis as " soft on crime " .
Bush defeated Dukakis and his running mate , Lloyd Bentsen , in the Electoral College , by 426 to 111 ( Bentsen received one vote from a faithless elector ) . In the nationwide popular vote , Bush took 53 @.@ 4 % of the ballots cast while Dukakis received 45 @.@ 6 % . Bush became the first serving Vice President to be elected President since Martin Van Buren in 1836 as well as the first person to succeed someone from his own party to the Presidency via election to the office in his own right since Herbert Hoover in 1929 .
= = Presidency ( 1989 – 93 ) = =
Bush was inaugurated on January 20 , 1989 , succeeding Ronald Reagan . He entered office at a period of change in the world ; the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Soviet Union came early in his presidency . He ordered military operations in Panama and the Persian Gulf , and , at one point , was recorded as having a record @-@ high approval rating of 89 % .
In his Inaugural Address , Bush said :
I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with promise . We live in a peaceful , prosperous time , but we can make it better . For a new breeze is blowing , and a world refreshed by freedom seems reborn ; for in man 's heart , if not in fact , the day of the dictator is over . The totalitarian era is passing , its old ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient , lifeless tree . A new breeze is blowing , and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready to push on . There is new ground to be broken , and new action to be taken .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Economy = = = =
Early in his term , Bush faced the problem of what to do with leftover deficits spawned by the Reagan years . At $ 220 billion in 1990 , the deficit had grown to three times its size since 1980 . Bush was dedicated to curbing the deficit , believing that America could not continue to be a leader in the world without doing so . He began an effort to persuade the Democratic controlled Congress to act on the budget ; with Republicans believing that the best way was to cut government spending , and Democrats convinced that the only way would be to raise taxes , Bush faced problems when it came to consensus building .
In the wake of a struggle with Congress , Bush was forced by the Democratic majority to raise tax revenues ; as a result , many Republicans felt betrayed because Bush had promised " no new taxes " in his 1988 campaign . Perceiving a means of revenge , Republican congressmen defeated Bush 's proposal which would enact spending cuts and tax increases that would reduce the deficit by $ 500 billion over five years . Scrambling , Bush accepted the Democrats ' demands for higher taxes and more spending , which alienated him from Republicans and gave way to a sharp decrease in popularity . Bush would later say that he wished he had never signed the bill . Near the end of the 101st Congress , the president and congressional members reached a compromise on a budget package that increased the marginal tax rate and phased out exemptions for high @-@ income taxpayers . Although he originally demanded a reduction in the capital gains tax , Bush relented on this issue as well . This agreement with the Democratic leadership in Congress proved to be a turning point in the Bush presidency ; his popularity among Republicans never fully recovered .
Coming at around the same time as the budget deal , America entered into a mild recession , lasting for six months . Many government programs , such as welfare , increased . As the unemployment rate edged upward in 1991 , Bush signed a bill providing additional benefits for unemployed workers . The year 1991 was marked by many corporate reorganizations , which laid off a substantial number of workers . Many now unemployed were Republicans and independents , who had believed that their jobs were secure .
By his second year in office , Bush was told by his economic advisors to stop dealing with the economy , as they believed that he had done everything necessary to ensure his reelection . By 1992 , interest and inflation rates were the lowest in years , but by midyear the unemployment rate reached 7 @.@ 8 % , the highest since 1984 . In September 1992 , the Census Bureau reported that 14 @.@ 2 % of all Americans lived in poverty . At a press conference in 1990 , Bush told reporters that he found foreign policy more enjoyable .
= = = = Major initiatives = = = =
During a speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing , Bush announced a vision to complete Space Station Freedom , resume exploration of the Moon and begin exploration of Mars . Although a space station was eventually constructed – work on the International Space Station began in 1998 – other work has been confounded by NASA budgetary issues . In 1998 , Bush received the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement 's National Space Trophy for his pioneering leadership of the U.S. space program .
Bush signed a number of major laws in his presidency , including the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ; this was one of the most pro @-@ civil rights bills in decades . He is also the only President to successfully veto a civil rights act , having vetoed the job @-@ discrimination protection Civil Rights Act of 1990 . Bush feared racial quotas would be imposed , but later approved watered @-@ down Civil Rights Act of 1991 . He worked to increase federal spending for education , childcare , and advanced technology research . He also signed the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act which provides monetary compensation of people who had contracted cancer and a number of other specified diseases as a direct result of their exposure to atmospheric nuclear testing undertaken by the United States during the Cold War , or their exposure to high levels of radon while doing uranium mining . In dealing with the environment , Bush reauthorized the Clean Air Act , requiring cleaner burning fuels . He quarreled with Congress over an eventually signed bill to aid police in capturing criminals , and signed into law a measure to improve the nation 's highway system . Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990 , which led to a 40 percent increase in legal immigration to the United States .
Bush became a life member of the National Rifle Association early in 1988 and had campaigned as a " pro @-@ gun " candidate with the NRA 's endorsement . In March 1989 , he placed a temporary ban on the import of certain semiautomatic rifles . This action cost him endorsement from the NRA in 1992 . Bush publicly resigned his life membership in the organization after receiving a form letter from NRA depicting agents of the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , and Firearms as " jack @-@ booted thugs . " He called the NRA letter a " vicious slander on good people . "
= = = Points of Light = = =
President Bush devoted attention to voluntary service as a means of solving some of America 's most serious social problems . He often used the " thousand points of light " theme to describe the power of citizens to solve community problems . In his 1989 inaugural address , President Bush said , " I have spoken of a thousand points of light , of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation , doing good . "
Four years later , in his report to the nation on The Points of Light Movement , President Bush said , " Points of Light are the soul of America . They are ordinary people who reach beyond themselves to touch the lives of those in need , bringing hope and opportunity , care and friendship . By giving so generously of themselves , these remarkable individuals show us not only what is best in our heritage but what all of us are called to become . "
In 1990 , the Points of Light Foundation was created as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of volunteerism . In 2007 , the Points of Light Foundation merged with the Hands On Network with the goal of strengthening volunteerism , streamlining costs and services and deepening impact . Points of Light , the organization created through this merger , has approximately 250 affiliates in 22 countries and partnerships with thousands of nonprofits and companies dedicated to volunteer service around the world . In 2012 , Points of Light mobilized 4 million volunteers in 30 million hours of service worth $ 635 million .
On October 16 , 2009 , President Barack Obama held a Presidential Forum on Service hosted by former President George H. W. Bush and Points of Light at the George Bush Presidential Library Center on the campus of Texas A & M University . The event celebrated the contributions of more than 4 @,@ 500 Daily Point of Light award winners and honored President Bush 's legacy of service and civic engagement .
In 2011 , Points of Light paid tribute to President George H. W. Bush and volunteer service at Washington , D.C. ' s Kennedy Center . President Bush was joined by Presidents Jimmy Carter , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush to highlight the role volunteer service plays in people 's lives .
= = = Daily Point of Light Award = = =
President Bush created the Daily Point of Light Award in 1989 to recognize ordinary Americans from all walks of life taking direct and consequential voluntary action in their communities to solve serious social problems . The President focused great attention on these individuals and organizations , both to honor them for their tremendous work and to call the nation to join them and multiply their efforts . By the end of his administration , President Bush had recognized 1 @,@ 020 Daily Points of Light representing all 50 states and addressing issues ranging from care for infants and teenagers with AIDS to adult illiteracy and from gang violence to job training for the homeless . The Daily Point of Light continues to be awarded by Points of Light and President Bush continues to sign all of the awards .
On July 15 , 2013 , President Barack Obama welcomed President Bush to the White House to celebrate the 5,000th Daily Point of Light Award . They bestowed the award on Floyd Hammer and Kathy Hamilton of Union , Iowa , for their work founding Outreach , a nonprofit that delivers free meals to hungry children in 15 countries .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court = = = =
Bush appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States :
David Souter – 1990
Clarence Thomas – 1991
= = = = Other courts = = = =
In addition to his two Supreme Court appointments , Bush appointed 42 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 148 judges to the United States district courts . Among these appointments was Vaughn R. Walker , who would later be revealed to be the earliest known gay federal judge . Bush also experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies , as 11 nominees for 10 federal appellate judgeships were not processed by the Democratically @-@ controlled Senate Judiciary Committee .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = Panama = = = =
In the 1980s , Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega , a once U.S.-supportive leader who was later accused of spying for Fidel Castro and using Panama to traffic drugs into the United States , was one of the most recognizable names in America and was constantly in the press . The struggle to remove him from power began in the Reagan administration , when economic sanctions were imposed on the country ; this included prohibiting American companies and government from making payments to Panama and freezing $ 56 million in Panamanian funds in American banks . Reagan sent more than 2 @,@ 000 American troops to Panama as well . Unlike Reagan , Bush was able to remove Noriega from power , but his administration 's unsuccessful post @-@ invasion planning hindered the needs of Panama during the establishment of the young democratic government .
In May 1989 , Panama held democratic elections , in which Guillermo Endara was elected president ; the results were then annulled by Noriega 's government . In response , Bush sent 2 @,@ 000 more troops to the country , where they began conducting regular military exercises in Panamanian territory ( in violation of prior treaties ) . Bush then removed an embassy and ambassador from the country , and dispatched additional troops to Panama to prepare the way for an upcoming invasion . Noriega suppressed an October military coup attempt and massive protests in Panama against him , but after a U.S. serviceman was shot by Panamanian forces in December 1989 , Bush ordered 24 @,@ 000 troops into the country with an objective of removing Noriega from power ; " Operation Just Cause " was a large @-@ scale American military operation , and the first in more than 40 years that was not related to the Cold War .
The mission was controversial , but American forces achieved control of the country and Endara assumed the Presidency . Noriega surrendered to the United States and was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992 . President Bush and First Lady Barbara Bush visited Panama in June 1992 , to give support to the first post @-@ invasion Panamanian government .
= = = = Soviet Union = = = =
In 1989 , just after the fall of the Berlin Wall , Bush met with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in a conference on the Mediterranean island of Malta . The administration had been under intense pressure to meet with the Soviets , but not all initially found the Malta Summit to be a step in the right direction ; General Brent Scowcroft , among others , was apprehensive about the meeting , saying that it might be " premature " due to concerns where , according to Condoleezza Rice , " expectations [ would be ] set that something was going to happen , where the Soviets might grandstand and force [ the U.S. ] into agreements that would ultimately not be good for the United States . " But European leaders , including François Mitterrand and Margaret Thatcher , encouraged Bush to meet with Gorbachev , something that he did December 2 and 3 , 1989 . Though no agreements were signed , the meeting was viewed largely as being an important one ; when asked about nuclear war , Gorbachev responded , " I assured the President of the United States that the Soviet Union would never start a hot war against the United States of America . And we would like our relations to develop in such a way that they would open greater possibilities for cooperation .... This is just the beginning . We are just at the very beginning of our road , long road to a long @-@ lasting , peaceful period . " The meeting was received as a very important step to the end of the Cold War .
Another summit was held in July 1991 , where the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty ( START I ) was signed by Bush and Gorbachev in Moscow . The treaty took nine years in the making and was the first major arms agreement since the signing of the Intermediate Ranged Nuclear Forces Treaty by Reagan and Gorbachev in 1987 . The contentions in START would reduce the strategic nuclear weapons of the United States and the USSR by about 35 % over seven years , and the Soviet Union 's land @-@ based intercontinental ballistic missiles would be cut by 50 % . Bush described START as " a significant step forward in dispelling half a century of mistrust " . After the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 , President Bush and Gorbachev declared a U.S.-Russian strategic partnership , marking the end of the Cold War .
= = = = Gulf War = = = =
On August 2 , 1990 , Iraq , led by Saddam Hussein , invaded its oil @-@ rich neighbor to the south , Kuwait ; Bush condemned the invasion and began rallying opposition to Iraq in the US and among European , Asian , and Middle Eastern allies . Secretary of Defense Richard Bruce " Dick " Cheney traveled to Saudi Arabia to meet with King Fahd ; Fahd requested US military aid in the matter , fearing a possible invasion of his country as well . The request was met initially with Air Force fighter jets . Iraq made attempts to negotiate a deal that would allow the country to take control of half of Kuwait . Bush rejected this proposal and insisted on a complete withdrawal of Iraqi forces . The planning of a ground operation by US @-@ led coalition forces began forming in September 1990 , headed by General Norman Schwarzkopf . Bush spoke before a joint session of the U.S. Congress regarding the authorization of air and land attacks , laying out four immediate objectives : " Iraq must withdraw from Kuwait completely , immediately , and without condition . Kuwait 's legitimate government must be restored . The security and stability of the Persian Gulf must be assured . And American citizens abroad must be protected . " He then outlined a fifth , long @-@ term objective : " Out of these troubled times , our fifth objective – a new world order – can emerge : a new era – freer from the threat of terror , stronger in the pursuit of justice , and more secure in the quest for peace . An era in which the nations of the world , East and West , North and South , can prosper and live in harmony .... A world where the rule of law supplants the rule of the jungle . A world in which nations recognize the shared responsibility for freedom and justice . A world where the strong respect the rights of the weak . " With the United Nations Security Council opposed to Iraq 's violence , Congress authorized the use of Military force with a set goal of returning control of Kuwait to the Kuwaiti government , and protecting America 's interests abroad .
Early on the morning of January 17 , 1991 , allied forces launched the first attack , which included more than 4 @,@ 000 bombing runs by coalition aircraft . This pace would continue for the next four weeks , until a ground invasion was launched on February 24 , 1991 . Allied forces penetrated Iraqi lines and pushed toward Kuwait City while on the west side of the country , forces were intercepting the retreating Iraqi army . Bush made the decision to stop the offensive after a mere 100 hours . Critics labeled this decision premature , as hundreds of Iraqi forces were able to escape ; Bush responded by saying that he wanted to minimize U.S. casualties . Opponents further charged that Bush should have continued the attack , pushing Hussein 's army back to Baghdad , then removing him from power . Bush explained that he did not give the order to overthrow the Iraqi government because it would have " incurred incalculable human and political costs .... We would have been forced to occupy Baghdad and , in effect , rule Iraq . "
Bush 's approval ratings skyrocketed after the successful offensive . Additionally , President Bush and Secretary of State Baker felt the coalition victory had increased U.S. prestige abroad and believed there was a window of opportunity to use the political capital generated by the coalition victory to revitalize the Arab @-@ Israeli peace process . The administration immediately returned to Arab @-@ Israeli peacemaking following the end of the Gulf War ; this resulted in the Madrid Conference , later in 1991 .
= = = = Somali Civil War = = = =
Faced with a humanitarian disaster in Somalia , exacerbated by a complete breakdown in civil order , the United Nations had created the UNOSOM I mission in April 1992 to aid the situation through humanitarian efforts , though the mission failed . The Bush administration proposed American aid to the region by assisting in creating a secure environment for humanitarian efforts and UN Resolution 794 was unanimously adopted by the Security Council on December 3 , 1992 . A lame duck president , Bush launched Operation Restore Hope the following day under which the United States would assume command in accordance with Resolution 794 . Fighting would escalate and continue into the Clinton administration .
= = = NAFTA = = =
Bush 's administration , along with the Progressive Conservative Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney , spearheaded the negotiations of the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) , which would eliminate the majority of tariffs on products traded among the United States , Canada , and Mexico , to encourage trade amongst the countries . The treaty also restricts patents , copyrights , and trademarks , and outlines the removal of investment restrictions among the three countries .
The agreement came under heavy scrutiny amongst mainly Democrats , who charged that NAFTA resulted in a loss of American jobs . NAFTA also contained no provisions for labor rights ; according to the Bush administration , the trade agreement would generate economic resources necessary to enable Mexico 's government to overcome problems of funding and enforcement of its labor laws . Bush needed a renewal of negotiating authority to move forward with the NAFTA trade talks . Such authority would enable the president to negotiate a trade accord that would be submitted to Congress for a vote , thereby avoiding a situation in which the president would be required to renegotiate with trading partners those parts of an agreement that Congress wished to change . While initial signing was possible during his term , negotiations made slow , but steady , progress . President Clinton would go on to make the passage of NAFTA a priority for his administration , despite its conservative and Republican roots — with the addition of two side agreements — to achieve its passage in 1993 .
The treaty has since been defended as well as criticized further . The American economy has grown 54 % since the adoption of NAFTA in 1993 , with 25 million new jobs created ; this was seen by some as evidence of NAFTA being beneficial to the United States . With talk in early 2008 regarding a possible American withdrawal from the treaty , Carlos M. Gutierrez , current United States Secretary of Commerce , writes , " Quitting NAFTA would send economic shock waves throughout the world , and the damage would start here at home . " But John J. Sweeney , President of the AFL @-@ CIO , wrote in The Boston Globe that " the U.S. trade deficit with Canada and Mexico ballooned to 12 times its pre @-@ NAFTA size , reaching $ 111 billion in 2004 . "
On January 8 , 1992 , Bush fainted after vomiting at a banquet hosted by the then Prime Minister of Japan , Kiichi Miyazawa . Bush was suffering from gastroenteritis .
= = = Pardons = = =
As other presidents have done , Bush issued a series of pardons during his last days in office . On December 24 , 1992 , he granted executive clemency to six former government employees implicated in the Iran @-@ Contra scandal of the late 1980s , most prominently former Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger . Bush described Weinberger , who was scheduled to stand trial on January 5 , 1993 , for criminal charges related to Iran @-@ Contra , as a " true American patriot " .
In addition to Weinberger , Bush pardoned Duane R. Clarridge , Clair E. George , Robert C. McFarlane , Elliott Abrams , and Alan G. Fiers Jr . , all of whom had been indicted and / or convicted of criminal charges by an Independent Counsel headed by Lawrence Walsh .
= = = Honorary degrees = = =
Texas A & M University
Sacred Heart University
Dartmouth College , awarded a Doctor of Laws
Harvard University awarded a Doctor of Laws degree on May 29 , 2014 .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
In 1990 Time magazine named him the Man of the Year . In 1991 the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Bush its Lone Sailor award for his naval service and his subsequent government service . In 1993 , he was made an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath by Queen Elizabeth II .
= = = 1992 presidential campaign = = =
Bush announced his reelection bid in early 1992 ; with a coalition victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings , reelection initially looked likely . As a result , many leading Democrats declined to seek their party 's presidential nomination . But an economic recession , and doubts of whether Bush ended the Gulf War properly , reduced his popularity .
Conservative political columnist Pat Buchanan challenged Bush for the Republican nomination , and shocked political pundits by finishing second , with 37 % of the vote , in the New Hampshire primary . Bush responded by adopting more conservative positions on issues , in an attempt to undermine Buchanan 's base . Once he had secured the nomination , Bush faced his challenger , Democrat and Governor of Arkansas William Jefferson " Bill " Clinton . Clinton attacked Bush as not doing enough to assist the working middle @-@ class and being " out of touch " with the common man , a notion reinforced by reporter Andrew Rosenthal 's false report that Bush was " astonished " to see a demonstration of a supermarket scanner .
In early 1992 , the race took an unexpected twist when Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot launched a third party bid , claiming that neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and make government more efficient . His message appealed to voters across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties ' perceived fiscal irresponsibility . Perot later bowed out of the race for a short time , then reentered .
Clinton had originally been in the lead , until Perot reentered , tightening the race significantly . Nearing election day , polls suggested that the race was a dead @-@ heat , but Clinton pulled out on top , defeating Bush in a 43 % to 38 % popular vote margin . Perot won 19 % of the popular vote , one of the highest totals for a third party candidate in U.S. history , drawing equally from both major candidates , according to exit polls . Bush received 168 electoral votes to Clinton 's 370 .
Several factors were key in Bush 's defeat . The ailing economy which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush 's loss , as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was either " not so good " or " poor " . On the eve of the 1992 election , after unemployment reports of 7 @.@ 8 % appeared ( the highest since 1984 ) , Economic recession had contributed to a sharp decline in his approval rating – to just 37 % .
Conservative Republicans point to Bush 's 1990 agreement to raise taxes in contradiction of his famous " Read my lips : no new taxes " pledge . In doing so , Bush alienated many members of his conservative base , losing their support for his re @-@ election . According to one survey , of the voters who cited Bush 's broken " No New Taxes " pledge as " very important " , two thirds voted for Bill Clinton . Bush had raised taxes in an attempt to address an increasing budget deficit , which has largely been attributed to the Reagan tax cuts and military spending of the 1980s . The tax revenue increase had not hurt his approval ratings to the extent that it prevented it from reaching 89 % during the Gulf War , four months after the tax vote . By February 1991 his approval rating rose to its highest level — 89 % .
= = = Public image = = =
George Bush was widely seen as a " pragmatic caretaker " president who lacked a unified and compelling long @-@ term theme in his efforts . Indeed , Bush 's sound bite where he refers to the issue of overarching purpose as " the vision thing " has become a metonym applied to other political figures accused of similar difficulties . " He does not say why he wants to be there " , wrote columnist George Will , " so the public does not know why it should care if he gets his way " .
His Ivy League and prep school education led to warnings by advisors that his image was too " preppy " in 1980 , which resulted in deliberate efforts in his 1988 campaign to shed the image , including meeting voters at factories and shopping malls , abandoning set speeches .
His ability to gain broad international support for the Gulf War and the war 's result were seen as both a diplomatic and military triumph , rousing bipartisan approval , though his decision to withdraw without removing Saddam Hussein left mixed feelings , and attention returned to the domestic front and a souring economy . A New York Times article mistakenly depicted Bush as being surprised to see a supermarket barcode reader ; the report of his reaction exacerbated the notion that he was " out of touch " . Amid the early 1990s recession , his image shifted from " conquering hero " to " politician befuddled by economic matters " .
Although Bush became the first elected Republican president since Hoover in 1932 to lose a reelection bid ( facing a 34 % approval rating leading up to the 1992 election ) , the mood did not last . Despite his defeat , Bush climbed back from election day approval levels to leave office in 1993 with a 56 % job approval rating . By December 2008 , 60 % of Americans gave Bush 's presidency a positive rating .
= = Post @-@ presidency ( 1993 – present ) = =
Upon leaving office , Bush retired with his wife , Barbara , and temporarily moved into a friend 's house near the Tanglewood community of Houston as they prepared to build a permanent retirement house nearby . Ultimately they built their retirement house in the community of West Oaks , near Tanglewood . They had a presidential office within the Park Laureate Building on Memorial Drive . Mimi Swartz of National Geographic wrote that " The Bushes are too studiously sedate to live in River Oaks " . They spend the summer at Walker 's Point in Kennebunkport , Maine . On January 10 , 1999 , the Bushes became the longest @-@ married Presidential couple in history , outlasting John and Abigail Adams , who were married for 54 years and 3 days . At 70 years as of January 2015 , they still hold the record , by a year and a half , over Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter . Bush holds his own fishing tournament in Islamorada , an island in the Florida Keys .
In 1993 , Bush was awarded an honorary knighthood ( GCB ) by Queen Elizabeth II . He was the third American president to receive the honor , the others being Dwight D. Eisenhower and Ronald Reagan .
In 1993 , Bush visited Kuwait to commemorate the coalition 's victory over Iraq in the Gulf War , where he was targeted in an assassination plot . Kuwaiti authorities arrested 17 people allegedly involved in using a car bomb to kill Bush . Through interviews with the suspects and examinations of the bomb 's circuitry and wiring , the FBI established that the plot had been directed by the Iraqi Intelligence Service . A Kuwaiti court later convicted all but one of the defendants . Two months later , in retaliation , Clinton ordered the firing of 23 cruise missiles at Iraqi Intelligence Service headquarters in Baghdad . The day before the strike , U.S. Ambassador to the UN Madeleine Albright went before the Security Council to present evidence of the Iraqi plot . After the missiles were fired , Vice President Al Gore said the attack " was intended to be a proportionate response at the place where this plot " to assassinate Bush " was hatched and implemented " .
From 1993 to 1999 he served as the chairman to the board of trustees for Eisenhower Fellowships , and from 2007 to 2009 was chairman of the National Constitution Center .
In 1997 , the same year as the opening of his Presidential Library , the Houston international airport was renamed George Bush Intercontinental Airport .
President Bush is Honorary Chairman of Points of Light , an international nonprofit dedicated to engaging more people and resources in solving serious social problems through voluntary service .
His eldest son , George W. Bush , was inaugurated as the 43rd President of the United States on January 20 , 2001 , and re @-@ elected in 2004 . Through previous administrations , the elder Bush had ubiquitously been known as " George Bush " or " President Bush " , but following his son 's election the need to distinguish between them has made retronymic forms such as " George H. W. Bush " and " George Bush senior " — and colloquialisms such as " Bush 41 " and " Bush the Elder " much more common .
= = = Presidential library = = =
The George Bush Presidential Library is the presidential library named for Bush . This tenth presidential library was built between 1995 and 1997 and contains the presidential and vice @-@ presidential papers of Bush and the vice @-@ presidential papers of Dan Quayle . It was dedicated on November 6 , 1997 , and opened to the public shortly thereafter ; the architectural firm of Hellmuth , Obata and Kassabaum designed the complex .
The George Bush Presidential Library and Museum is located on a 90 @-@ acre ( 360 @,@ 000 m2 ) site on the west campus of Texas A & M University in College Station , Texas , on a plaza adjoining the Presidential Conference Center and the Texas A & M Academic Center . The Library operates under NARA 's administration and the Presidential Libraries Act of 1955 's provisions .
The George Bush School of Government and Public Service is a graduate public policy school at Texas A & M University in College Station , Texas . The graduate school is part of the presidential library complex , and offers four programs : two master 's degree programs ( Public Service Administration and International Affairs ) and two certificate programs ( Advanced International Affairs and Homeland Security ) . The master 's program in International Affairs ( MPIA ) program offers concentration on either National Security Affairs or International Economics and Development .
= = = Later activities = = =
Bush continues to make many public appearances . He and Mrs. Bush attended the state funeral of Ronald Reagan in June 2004 , and of Gerald Ford in January 2007 . One month later , he was awarded the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award in Beverly Hills , California , by former First Lady Nancy Reagan . Despite his political differences with Bill Clinton , it has been acknowledged that the two former presidents have become friends . He and Clinton appeared together in television ads in 2005 , encouraging aid for victims of Hurricane Katrina and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami .
In October 2006 , Bush was honored by the National Italian American Foundation ( NIAF ) with the NIAF One America Award for fundraising , with Bill Clinton , for the victims of the 2004 tsunami and Hurricane Katrina .
Upon the death of Gerald Ford , Bush became the oldest living ( former ) president , 111 days older than Jimmy Carter .
On February 18 , 2008 , Bush formally endorsed Senator John McCain for the presidency of the United States . The endorsement offered a boost to McCain 's campaign , as the Arizona Senator had been facing criticism among many conservatives .
On January 10 , 2009 , both George H. W. and George W. Bush were present at the commissioning of the USS George H.W. Bush ( CVN @-@ 77 ) , the tenth and last Nimitz @-@ class supercarrier of the United States Navy . Bush paid a visit to the carrier again on May 26 , 2009 .
On February 15 , 2011 , he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom — the highest civilian honor in the United States — by President Barack Obama .
Bush suffers from Vascular Parkinsonism , a form of Parkinson 's disease which has forced him to use a motorized scooter or wheelchair since at least 2012 .
In July 2013 , Bush had his head shaved in a show of support for the two @-@ year @-@ old son of a member of his security detail , who had leukemia .
In April 2014 , Frederick D. McClure , chief executive of the Bush library foundation , organized a three @-@ day gathering in College Park , Texas , to mark the 25th anniversary of the Bush administration . Also in early 2014 , the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation presented the Profile in Courage Award to Bush and Mount Vernon awarded him its first Cyrus A. Ansary Prize . The Kennedy foundation award was presented by Jack Schlossberg , the late president 's grandson , to Lauren Bush Lauren , who accepted on her grandfather 's behalf . The Ansary prize was presented in Houston with Ansary , Barbara Lucas , Ryan C. Crocker , dean of the Bush school since January 2010 , Barbara Bush , and Curt Viebranz in attendance with the former president . Fifty thousand dollars of the prize was directed by Bush to the Bush school at Texas A & M and $ 25 @,@ 000 will fund an animation about the Siege of Yorktown for Mt . Vernon . Viebranz and Lucas represented Mount Vernon at the presentation .
On June 12 , 2014 , Bush fulfilled a long @-@ standing promise by skydiving on his 90th birthday . He made the parachute jump from a helicopter near his home at 11 : 15 a.m. in Kennebunkport , Maine . The jump marked the eighth time the former president had skydived , including jumps on his 80th and 85th birthday as well . He had tweeted about the incident prior to the jump , saying " It 's a wonderful day in Maine — in fact , nice enough for a parachute jump . "
In July 2015 , Bush suffered a severe neck injury . Wearing a neck brace in October in his first public engagement since the accident , he threw the ceremonial first pitch for the Houston Astros at Minute Maid Park , at the age of 91 .
= = Electoral history = =
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= Iridion 3D =
Iridion 3D is a quasi @-@ 3D rail shooter video game developed by Shin 'en . A launch title for the Game Boy Advance portable game console , it was released in North America on May 29 , 2001 and in Europe on September 21 the same year . Influenced by the Commodore 64 game Uridium , the game features a single starship fighting the alien Iridion , who have attacked Earth . Iridion spans seven levels from Earth to the aliens ' home planet , each with a fixed linear path that ends with a boss .
Iridion began development as a shooter for the Game Boy Color ; when Shin 'en decided to drop development and shift their focus to the Game Boy Advance , Iridion was the first game by the developer to appear on the system . Though billed as a 3D game , Shin 'en used realtime encoding and resizing to manipulate the size of 2D sprites instead of creating a true 3D environment . More room on the game cartridge was available for graphics due to the game 's use of the GAX Sound Engine , which allowed real @-@ time decoding of song data in a small file size .
On release Iridion garnered generally poor reviews . The graphics and sound were generally praised ; even a year after its release , critics at TechTV considered it the best @-@ looking game on the platform . In contrast , critics derided the game 's repetitive and frustrating gameplay . Despite lukewarm reception to the title upon release , Iridion 3D influenced future Shin 'en shooters such as Iridion II and Nanostray .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a simple forward @-@ scrolling rail shooter , similar to the Star Fox series . Only the Game Boy Advance 's directional pad , A , and Start buttons are used during gameplay . The ship remains locked at a set speed and cannot brake or speed up .
The player encounters more than fifteen types of enemy , not including level bosses . Some are easy to destroy ; others , including the fire creatures found on the Iridion home world , are indestructible and must be avoided . Other enemies prevent the player from dodging enemy fire by laying mines to block paths . Passive objects , such as garbage or asteroids , can damage or destroy the player 's craft . Enemies vary in armor and weaponry — some cannot return fire but travel in waves to ram the player .
Each level has the player follow a linear path through waves of enemies and culminates with a boss . In boss stages the player 's craft does not move forward , but hovers in front of the boss . Each boss has a single vulnerability which flashes when hit . These areas are often heavily shielded and must be hit repeatedly to remove armor . Other bosses ' vulnerabilities are hidden and appear for only short periods . Most bosses have weapons that fire upon the player or reflect the player 's shots . At the end of each level , players receive bonuses for defeated enemies , lives remaining , and the energy level of the player 's craft . An extra life is granted if the score reaches certain thresholds .
Iridion 3D features five types of weapons , with three levels of power each . Players boost weapon power by collecting powerups of the color that matches the current weapon . Collecting a different color gives the player the first level of that weapon type . If the player 's ship is destroyed the power level of the weapon is reduced by one . Each weapon has advantages and disadvantages . The player starts with the red weapon , which is relatively weak but fires rapidly in a large spread . Green weapons are inaccurate but fill the screen with shots . Purple weapons spin in a counterclockwise motion slowly and are fairly strong . Yellow torpedo @-@ like weapons are very powerful but powerups are rare and the weapon fires slowly . Blue weapons , a more powerful version of Yellow weapons , are found only on the last level . Flashing powerups restore the craft 's shields .
= = Plot = =
In the opening cinematic of Iridion 3D Earth is attacked without warning by the Iridion , who take over much of the surface and lay mines in orbit and bombs in the Pacific Ocean . The player is the pilot of an experimental SHN fighter , the last hope for defending Earth from the Iridion . The player pilots his ship alone against hordes of Iridion fighters and natural obstacles . The early stages begin on Earth , with the player fighting through an Iridion garbage tunnel . The player proceeds to the Pacific Ocean and destroys much of the Iridion invasion fleet on Earth before heading into the stratosphere to destroy the orbital blockade around Earth and subsequently annihilating the Iridion boss at the Moon .
With the invasion fleet in ruins , the player heads into the far reaches of space . After destroying an Iridion mining colony within an asteroid belt , the player proceeds into the Iridion home system . Eventually the player fights the Iridion on their home world , destroying the Iridion " mainframe " and ending the alien threat forever .
= = Development = =
Iridion started development as a shooter for the Game Boy Color ; on January 10 , 2001 , Shin 'en announced they would stop making games for the Color , instead working on games exclusively for the Game Boy Advance . Iridion 's executive producer was Dan Kitchen , a former programmer for Atari . Iridion 3D was Shin 'en 's first product to utilize the GAX Sound Engine , which allowed real @-@ time decoding of song data in an extremely small file size ; this allowed more space on the cartridge to be used for graphics .
Although advertised as a 3D game , Iridion 3D uses solely 2D graphics for texture scrolling and sprites which depict explosions and enemies . The developers create the illusion of 3D by looping background textures — a graphically intensive technique for the Game Boy Advance . Graphical objects shrink or enlarge to depict position relative to the player . Level environments feature changes such as progression from day to night . Kitchen , Majesco 's vice president of handhelds , wrote that " by pushing the graphics hardware of the Game Boy Advance to its technical limits , Iridion 3D provides a truly realistic 3D gaming experience . " He hoped that " players will be amazed that such smooth environments and intense gameplay can now be achieved on a portable system . "
By March 2001 , the GBA version of Iridion was shown in workable form . IGN saw early screens and declared that Iridion was " aiming to set the standard [ of what GBA shooters should be ] ... Set the standard with a hail of bullets . " They felt Shin 'en was pushing the Game Boy Advance to its limits , producing the most stunning game seen at the time for the handheld system . GameSpot 's Ben Stahl previewed Iridion 3D on March 21 , 2001 , shortly before the release of the game in the United States . He noted the excellent graphics and high frame rate , ending with " At this point , Iridion 3D looks like it could be a great game for fans of the genre . "
= = Reception = =
Despite praise for its graphics and sound , Iridion 3D was received mixed reviews from critics ; the game received 53 % and 57 % ratings on review aggregate web sites Metacritic and Game Rankings , respectively .
The graphics were almost universally praised . Andrew Bub of GameSpy asserted that Nintendo should have used Iridion to advertise the Game Boy Advance , as it took full advantage of the system 's power . A year after its release , TechTV 's Miguel Concepcion argued it was still the best @-@ looking game for the system . Miguel Lopez of GameSpot lauded the graphics , writing that " while it 's ultimately all smoke and mirrors , Iridion 's world is richly detailed , has remarkable depth , and is unbelievably fluid . It 's often hard to tell if the game 's backgrounds are composed of streaming full motion video or just some really fancy math @-@ powered 2D bitmaps . "
In contrast to praise for Iridion 's graphics , its actual gameplay was generally panned . IGN 's Craig Harris wrote that " Shin 'en 's shooter for the Game Boy Advance will impress with all its effects , but that 's about it . " He noted that the player is limited to shooting and dodging , making gameplay repetitive . Harris and Concepcion complained that on a small screen distances are hard to judge ; the player 's ship is hit by bullets that appear to be in the distance . Bub and Game Informer 's Jay Fitzloff criticized the craft placement , as the player 's view was often obscured by their own ship . Lopez also gave Iridion low marks , warning that " after the initial ' wow ' wears off , you 'll be stuck with an empty experience . " Edge observed that Iridion is " a sweet number that will entertain , if only for a week or so " . Allgame 's Skyler Miller said Iridion 3D was nothing more than a technology demo and awarded it two out of five stars . A more positive review came from GamePro , whose reviewer summed up his experience by writing that " if you 're looking for some classic shooter action on your new GBA , Iridion 3D will fit the bill nicely without blowing you away . "
Positive comments were usually directed at sound ; WiredLounge.com said that " The soundtrack is an instant classic , maybe even one of the best shooter scores ever . " Concepcion noted that the game 's mood @-@ fitting " high energy techno " was an oddity coming from a German game company . Despite poor reviews , Shin 'en 's Manfred Linzner felt that Iridion 3D was the best game for the Game Boy Advance without licensed characters .
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= La Blanca , Peten =
La Blanca is a Maya archaeological site in the municipality of Melchor de Mencos in the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . The site is located in the lower reaches of the Mopan River valley and features a large acropolis complex . Activity at the site has been dated as far back as the Early Classic ( AD 250 – 600 ) , with principal occupation of the site occurring in the Late Classic period ( AD 600 – 900 ) , although some level of occupation continued into the Early Postclassic ( AD 900 – 1200 ) .
La Blanca occupied a frontier zone between the northeastern and southeastern Petén regions and the site is dominated by the acropolis , an especially well built palace complex . The city appears to have been an administrative centre with comparatively little emphasis upon religious or ceremonial activity . It is likely that La Blanca was a subsidiary of a major Maya city such as Yaxha or Naranjo , given the complete absence of hieroglyphic texts and sculpted monuments , and archaeologists presume that La Blanca served as a frontier post or trading centre .
During the Late Classic there was greater public access to the acropolis ; as the threat of warfare grew during the Terminal Classic ( AD 800 @-@ 900 ) , access became much more restricted . The end of formal occupation of the city in the Terminal Classic appears to have been violent , with evidence of a battle recovered during excavations of the acropolis . Refugees appear to have occupied the city centre immediately after the collapse of formal settlement at La Blanca , but they abandoned the city for good in the 11th century , after which it was never reoccupied .
The acropolis buildings contain inscribed graffiti dating to the last phase of occupation in the Early Postclassic , including human and animal figures , deities , temples and courtly scenes . Colonial graffiti is also evident from the visit to the ruins by captain Pedro Montañés in the middle of the 18th century .
= = Location = =
La Blanca is accessed by a dirt road leading 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) to the highway linking Flores with Melchor de Mencos ; the dirt road joins the highway at La Pólvora . In the other direction this road leads approximately 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to a village , also called La Blanca ; this modern village extends along the shores of a small lake . The archaeological site is located to the south of a range of hills reaching a maximum height of 490 metres ( 1 @,@ 610 ft ) .
The site occupies a small pocket of forest amongst an extensive region of cleared agricultural land . The agricultural land closest to the ruins is largely dedicated to livestock grazing , particularly cattle and horses . La Blanca is located close to the Mopan River and its tributary , the Salsipuedes River . Some of the land between the ruins and the rivers is subject to frequent flooding , a factor that must have had some impact upon the inhabitants of the city .
The forest covering the archaeological site reaches an average height of 22 metres ( 72 ft ) . It contains around 60 tree species , among which the most notable are breadnut trees ( Brosimum alicastrum ) and corozo palms ( Orbignya cohune ) .
= = History = =
The earliest occupation at La Blanca was concentrated in the South Group and dates to the Early Classic Period . However , major occupation of the site appears to have begun in the Late Classic Period . Public spaces were covered with white stucco and the first architecture was erected at the site . The basal platform of the acropolis appears to have been built before the Great North Plaza was laid out .
In the Late Classic there appears to have been greater public access to the acropolis , with stairways communicating between the various terraces leading up to the south range . During the Terminal Classic , these stairways were filled in , as were many of the access doorways to the acropolis itself , with some buildings being sealed completely . This closing of public access to the palace reflects the greater political instability engulfing the entire Petén region at this time . The acropolis complex was abandoned by the city 's elite in the Terminal Classic , a time when most of the city centre was also deserted by its residents . Many flint projectile points were recovered from the south terraces of the acropolis , this combined with the remains of two individuals very near the surface indicates that a violent confrontation took place around the time that the city was abandoned .
Soon afterwards , at the dawn of the Postclassic , immediately after the Classic Maya collapse , the acropolis was reoccupied by refugees from the periphery of the city . These final occupants appear to have abandoned the city some time in the 11th century AD , after which it was never reoccupied .
= = = Modern history = = =
In the 18th century Pedro Montañés passed through the site and left graffiti with his name and the year 1752 . Archives have revealed that he was a Spanish captain who visited the site on 14 August of that year . La Blanca was first documented in the early years of the 20th century . In 1905 explorer Teoberto Maler identified visible architecture at the site and marked it as El Castillito on a map of the region . Raymond E. Merwin visited La Blanca in 1913 on behalf of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University . He photographed the site and renamed it as Chac @-@ Ha . At this time the site appears to have been covered in dense vegetation , making exploration of the ruins difficult and resulting in only a brief description of the acropolis .
Ian Graham published a plan of the site in 1980 , based on explorations in preceding years . Further explorations have taken place on behalf of the Atlas Arqueológico de Guatemala and the Yaxha @-@ Nakum @-@ Naranjo Project . The Yaxha @-@ Nakum @-@ Naranjo Project started work at the site in 1994 with preliminary work consisted of mapping and photographing the ruins . In 1995 the ruins were cleared of undergrowth and in 1996 the Unidad de Arquelogía Regional de Guatemala ( Guatemalan Regional Archaeology Unit ) surveyed the ruins , recorded damage by looters and sank test pits , all under the direction of Vilma Fialko . From 1997 to 1998 looting damage was repaired and architecture deemed at risk of collapse was underpinned . In 1999 further underpinning work was undertaken as a result of earthquake damage and detailed plans were made of the architecture in 2000 . The Atlas Arqueológico de Guatemala included La Blanca in its survey of three sites in the lower Mopan valley in 2001 . More recently , investigations have been funded by the Spanish Ministry of Culture together with the University of Valencia and the Polytechnic University of Valencia . Excavations continued in 2004 both in the city centre and in the South Group , where looting damage was recorded and repaired .
= = Site description = =
The site covers an area of about 26 hectares ( 64 acres ) and a great many structures have been identified by archaeologists . The principal architecture has been dated to the Late Classic period . The layout of the city is somewhat unusual in that the north @-@ south axis is oriented 12 ° west of north whereas most Maya cities have the major axis a similar amount east of north . The political and administrative functions were concentrated in the eastern portion of the city , which is taken to include the South Group , as evidenced by the superior architectural quality in these areas .
The Great North Plaza is a large square @-@ plan plaza measuring 70 by 70 metres ( 230 by 230 ft ) . The Plaza was levelled by packing it with a clay @-@ based mud , work that took place in the Late Classic Period based on the evidence of ceramic and flint artefacts recovered during investigations . This clay mud conataining attapulgite was likely to have been brought to the city from the nearby swamps . Excavations in the plaza and close to the acropolis revealed the presence of a retaining wall probably related to the construction of the great platform supporting the acropolis itself .
A 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) wide causeway runs south from the Plaza , running to the west of the acropolis and parallel to it . This causeway runs south for approximately 300 metres ( 980 ft ) to the South Group . The area west of the causeway contains a large number of smaller mounds and platforms and is believed to be an extensive residential area . This residential area includes three large plazas , the northern of which is divided from the Great North Plaza by a row of structures . A stairway may have led southwards from this down to the Central West Plaza , which is on the opposite side of the causeway from the Acropolis . The south side of the Central West Plaza is bordered by a 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) long structure that divides it from the South West Plaza . An area of smaller mounds extends further west and are believed to represent lesser residential districts of the city .
The area to the east of the city drops away rapidly and lacks extensive settlement remains , perhaps due to periodic flooding by the Mopan and Salsipuedes rivers discouraging the occupation of the eastern zone .
= = = Acropolis = = =
The most important architectural complex is the acropolis , a palace with an enclosed courtyard located within the Great North Plaza . The acropolis is also known as the Quadrangle due to its layout . A series of terraces lead down from the acropolis to a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 16 @,@ 000 sq ft ) reservoir to the south , which appears to have been a private water source for the palace . The reservoir itself is now dried out . The acropolis was accessed via a wide stairway from the Great North Plaza . The form of the plaza and the acropolis are unusual , although similar complexes have been identified at Tayasal , Ixlú and Kinal .
Excavations in the acropolis revealed the presence of at least two superimposed platforms built with finely dressed stone blocks and covered with good quality stucco flooring . At a later date the platforms and courtyard were covered with unworked stones bound with mortar and covered with another stucco floor . The two platforms were built in the Late Classic and appear to have been covered over in the Terminal Classic .
The interior courtyard measures approximately 36 metres ( 118 ft ) on each side and was completely enclosed by the palace , creating a very private space within . The buildings on the north , west and south sides faced outwards away from the private courtyard , opening onto it only via a central doorway in each structure . The eastern structure was built at a later date , has two lateral doorways and was the only side to face directly onto the courtyard ; it highly may have been the residence of the city 's ruler . Entrance to the courtyard is from the exterior the acropolis via these central doorways on the north , south and west sides . Of these three entrances , the northern entrance appears to have been the main entrance to the acropolis complex . The south entrance was a more private entrance that opened from the acropolis onto the terraces leading down to the water source in that direction . The western entrance lead to the terrace 5 metres ( 16 ft ) above the causeway , providing a balcony with an excellent view across the city .
The cut stone walls of the acropolis are of very high quality , constructed of large , finely cut blocks at times forming walls almost 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) thick , filled with rubble and mortar . The exterior faces of the walls are carefully dressed and the interior of good quality vaulted ceilings . Although such high quality work can be found in parts of major cities such as Tikal , its presence in a smaller site such as La Blanca is considered surprising by archaeologists . The walls facing the interior courtyard have been especially well preserved . During survey work at the arcopolis , archaeologists discovered a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) long flint knife deliberately embedded in the interior of the north wall , it weighed 225 grams ( 7 @.@ 9 oz ) . The knife was embedded in the mortar of the infill with the blade pointing outwards , with three embedded decorations near the tip . Archaeologists believe the blade was deposited during rituals associated with the construction of the building .
The outer eastern wall of the acropolis is especially well preserved , including a cornice 3 @.@ 8 metres ( 12 ft ) above the floor level of the building , which is 4 to 5 metres ( 13 to 16 ft ) above the plaza floor . The wall continued above the cornice for another 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) and this section probably supported a stucco frieze . The entire eastern face of the building measured 32 metres ( 105 ft ) long and stood 12 to 13 metres ( 39 to 43 ft ) above the level of the Great North Plaza . This wall was completely blank , without any doorways or other openings .
The range structures on the other sides of the courtyards , all opening outwards away from it , consisted of a series of rooms of varying size . The height of the rooms from the palace floor to the top of the vaulting was generally about 6 metres ( 20 ft ) throughout the palace . The interior walls were originally painted red and black as demonstrated by surviving traces of pigment . The exterior facades of the range structures were originally decorated with sculpted stone friezes representing supernatural beings , fragments of which have been found amongst the collapsed rubble .
The vaulted ceilings of the palace were skillflly constructed , with sides of equal length unlike in other sites in the Petén region where the sides of vaulted ceilings were often of different lengths . The vaulting is of exceptional height , reaching up to 4 metres ( 13 ft ) .
= = = = South range = = = =
The south range measures 42 metres ( 138 ft ) long and divides the courtyard from the series of terraces to the south . The rooms of the south range include wide benches running their entire width , they measure 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) high and still preserve their original stucco covering . The bench in Room 1 has a small step leading up to it . The walls of the rooms are relatively poorly preserved , although some parts still retain their stucco covering and traces of pigment , as well as inscribed graffiti . The lintels over the doors were crafted from sapodilla wood . Some of the south @-@ facing rooms have twin , symmetrically placed doorways , a style of architecture that is very unusual for a range structure in the Petén region . Examples are known from minor structures at Tikal but the closest corresponding architecture comes from the Puuc region of the northern Yucatán Peninsula , at cities such as Cacabxnuc , Chelemi , Xcorralche and Xkalachetzimin , although they differ in other particulars , such as the vaulting .
Excavations immediately south of the south range uncovered part of a substructure consisting of a well @-@ preserved stucco @-@ covered talud wall and a stairway , these are thought to be the remains of a terrace platform . A portion of a second terrace talud wall was also uncovered .
= = = West Group = = =
Investigations of the West Group have revealed an occupation beginning in the Late Classic and reaching its maximum extent in the Terminal Classic . The construction methods used in the West Group were inferior to those of the acropolis , consisting of finely cut limestone blocks bound with an earth @-@ based mortar rather than the lime @-@ based mortar used in the palace complex . The platforms of the West Group appear to have supported perishable superstructures and some of these buildings may have been dedicated to craft production .
The three main plazas of the West Group appear to have lacked stucco flooring and were instead covered with stone chippings .
= = = South Group = = =
The South Group is the furthest group from the centre to possess monumental architecture . The South Group is the oldest architectural group at La Blanca , with occupation dating as far back as the Early Classic . It has a slightly different orientation to the rest of the site , apparently due to its earlier construction . It consists of number of medium @-@ sized mounds that have been badly damaged by looters . The larger of the mounds are pyramids and there were also a number of other buildings . One of the mounds measures approximately 9 metres ( 30 ft ) high and was almost cut in half by a looters ' trench . Rescue operations uncovered ceramic remains dating to the Late Classic , including a piece bearing a fragment of hieroglyphic text .
Excavations in 2008 revealed that one of these mounds was a temple pyramid with a well @-@ preserved central stairway .
= = Graffiti = =
The acropolis is also distinguished by a great quantity of graffiti inscribed onto the stucco interior walls of its rooms , some of which display a considerable level of artistic skill . The graffiti is believed to date to the last phase of occupation of the acropolis , during the Early Postclassic , and includes local fauna and human figures , some of which are playing musical instruments . Animals depicted in the graffiti include a deer , a turtle and a frog . Two human figures are depicted playing flutes , while other subjects include pyramid temples , courtly scenes , vulvas and supernatural beings .
Analysis of pigment traces from the south range of the acropolis were carried out by the Polytechnic University of Valencia , they revealed a preference for mineral and vegetable pigments of local origin , perhaps collected from the nearby El Camalote hill .
= = Artefacts = =
Many of the artefacts excavated from the acropolis date from the transition from the Terminal Classic Period to the Early Postclassic , when the surrounding population appears to have occupied the abandoned palace . Excavations of the south range of the acropolis uncovered a great many potsherds ( roughly 11 @,@ 000 ) dating to the Terminal Classic , and about 150 pieces dating to the Early Postclassic . In the same building 150 stone artefacts were excavated together with hundreds of fragments of waste chippings . Fifteen incomplete ceramic figurines were also found , including zoomorphic figures and elite human figures with elaborate headdresses . One of these figurines was a whistle in the shape of an owl , identical to another found in an excavated rubbish heap in the acropolis courtyard . Both of these owl @-@ shaped whistles are very similar to a larger whistle found at Yaxha . A number of artefacts were recovered from the threshold of Room 3 of the south range , including a complete terminal classic ceramic vessel , a flint knife , some broken figurine fragments and some lithic fragments . In the area of the threshold of Room 4 in the south range a complete Early Postclassic tripod plate was recovered . Within Room 4 itself were found a further 70 broken pieces of Terminal Classic ceramics and 232 pieces dated to the Early Postclassic , and a greenstone axe among other finds . Many of the Postclassic fragments were from a tripod pitcher with zoomorph supports that archaeologists were largely able to reconstruct . Additionally , 798 Terminal Classic ceramic fragments were found during the exploration of the terraces immediately south of the acropolis , together with stone chippings and pieces of animal bones .
Pits sunk within the courtyard of the acropolis revealed 5425 ceramic fragments , 22 fragments of zoomorphic figurines , together with stone and shell artefacts , animal bones and waste flint chips , all dated to the Terminal Classic .
Analysis of artefacts from La Blanca has revealed an unusual and almost total absence of obsidian , while flint of various colours ( including red , pink , orange , brown , cream and grey ) is particularly common .
= = Burials = =
A human burial was found in Room 3 of the south range of the Acropolis . The remains were found lying on their right side facing towards the west , with arms bent . Preliminary investigation suggests that the remains are those of a young adult male with a height of approximately 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) . The left hand side of the skull is deformed , perhaps as a result of either oxycephaly or plagiocephaly .
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= Oil shale =
Oil shale , also known as kerogen shale , is an organic @-@ rich fine @-@ grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen ( a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds ) from which liquid hydrocarbons called shale oil ( not to be confused with tight oil — crude oil occurring naturally in shales ) can be produced . Shale oil is a substitute for conventional crude oil ; however , extracting shale oil from oil shale is more costly than the production of conventional crude oil both financially and in terms of its environmental impact . Deposits of oil shale occur around the world , including major deposits in the United States . Estimates of global deposits range from 4 @.@ 8 to 5 trillion barrels ( 760 × 10 ^ 9 to 790 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) of oil in place .
Heating oil shale to a sufficiently high temperature causes the chemical process of pyrolysis to yield a vapor . Upon cooling the vapor , the liquid shale oil — an unconventional oil — is separated from combustible oil @-@ shale gas ( the term shale gas can also refer to gas occurring naturally in shales ) . Oil shale can also be burned directly in furnaces as a low @-@ grade fuel for power generation and district heating or used as a raw material in chemical and construction @-@ materials processing .
Oil shale gains attention as a potential abundant source of oil whenever the price of crude oil rises . At the same time , oil @-@ shale mining and processing raise a number of environmental concerns , such as land use , waste disposal , water use , waste @-@ water management , greenhouse @-@ gas emissions and air pollution . Estonia and China have well @-@ established oil shale industries , and Brazil , Germany , and Russia also utilize oil shale .
General composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic matrix , bitumens , and kerogen . Oil shales differ from oil @-@ bearing shales , shale deposits that contain petroleum ( tight oil ) that is sometimes produced from drilled wells . Examples of oil @-@ bearing shales are the Bakken Formation , Pierre Shale , Niobrara Formation , and Eagle Ford Formation .
= = Geology = =
Oil shale , an organic @-@ rich sedimentary rock , belongs to the group of sapropel fuels . It does not have a definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula , and its seams do not always have discrete boundaries . Oil shales vary considerably in their mineral content , chemical composition , age , type of kerogen , and depositional history and not all oil shales would necessarily be classified as shales in the strict sense . According to the petrologist Adrian C. Hutton of the University of Wollongong , oil shales are not " geological nor geochemically distinctive rock but rather ' economic ' term . " Their common feature is low solubility in low @-@ boiling organic solvents and generation of liquid organic products on thermal decomposition .
Oil shale differs from bitumen @-@ impregnated rocks ( oil sands and petroleum reservoir rocks ) , humic coals and carbonaceous shale . While oil sands do originate from the biodegradation of oil , heat and pressure have not ( yet ) transformed the kerogen in oil shale into petroleum , that means that its maturation does not exceed early mesocatagenetic .
General composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic matrix , bitumens , and kerogen . While the bitumen portion of oil shales is soluble in carbon disulfide , kerogen portion is insoluble in carbon disulfide and can contain iron , vanadium , nickel , molybdenum , and uranium . Oil shale contains a lower percentage of organic matter than coal . In commercial grades of oil shale the ratio of organic matter to mineral matter lies approximately between 0 @.@ 75 : 5 and 1 @.@ 5 : 5 . At the same time , the organic matter in oil shale has an atomic ratio of hydrogen to carbon ( H / C ) approximately 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 8 times lower than for crude oil and about 1 @.@ 5 to 3 times higher than for coals . The organic components of oil shale derive from a variety of organisms , such as the remains of algae , spores , pollen , plant cuticles and corky fragments of herbaceous and woody plants , and cellular debris from other aquatic and land plants . Some deposits contain significant fossils ; Germany 's Messel Pit has the status of a Unesco World Heritage Site . The mineral matter in oil shale includes various fine @-@ grained silicates and carbonates . Inorganic matrix can contain quartz , feldspars , clays ( mainly illite and chlorite ) , carbonates ( calcite and dolomites ) , pyrite and some other minerals .
Geologists can classify oil shales on the basis of their composition as carbonate @-@ rich shales , siliceous shales , or cannel shales .
Another classification , known as the van Krevelen diagram , assigns kerogen types , depending on the hydrogen , carbon , and oxygen content of oil shales ' original organic matter . The most commonly used classification of oil shales , developed between 1987 and 1991 by Adrian C. Hutton , adapts petrographic terms from coal terminology . This classification designates oil shales as terrestrial , lacustrine ( lake @-@ bottom @-@ deposited ) , or marine ( ocean bottom @-@ deposited ) , based on the environment of the initial biomass deposit . Known oil shales are predominantly aquatic ( marine , lacustrine ) origin . Hutton 's classification scheme has proven useful in estimating the yield and composition of the extracted oil .
= = Resource = =
As source rocks for most conventional oil reservoirs , oil shale deposits are found in all world oil provinces , although most of them are too deep to be exploited economically . As with all oil and gas resources , analysts distinguish between oil shale resources and oil shale reserves . " Resources " refers to all oil shale deposits , while " reserves " , represents those deposits from which producers can extract oil shale economically using existing technology . Since extraction technologies develop continuously , planners can only estimate the amount of recoverable kerogen . Although resources of oil shale occur in many countries , only 33 countries possess known deposits of possible economic value . Well @-@ explored deposits , potentially classifiable as reserves , include the Green River deposits in the western United States , the Tertiary deposits in Queensland , Australia , deposits in Sweden and Estonia , the El @-@ Lajjun deposit in Jordan , and deposits in France , Germany , Brazil , China , southern Mongolia and Russia . These deposits have given rise to expectations of yielding at least 40 liters of shale oil per tonne of oil shale , using the Fischer Assay .
A 2008 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale at 689 gigatons — equivalent to yield of 4 @.@ 8 trillion barrels ( 760 billion cubic metres ) of shale oil , with the largest reserves in the United States , which is thought to have 3 @.@ 7 trillion barrels ( 590 billion cubic metres ) , though only a part of it is recoverable . According to the 2010 World Energy Outlook by the International Energy Agency , the world oil shale resources may be equivalent of more than 5 trillion barrels ( 790 billion cubic metres ) of oil in place of which more than 1 trillion barrels ( 160 billion cubic metres ) may be technically recoverable . For comparison , the world 's proven conventional oil reserves were estimated at 1 @.@ 317 trillion barrels ( 209 @.@ 4 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) , as of 1 January 2007 . The largest deposits in the world occur in the United States in the Green River Formation , which covers portions of Colorado , Utah , and Wyoming ; about 70 % of this resource lies on land owned or managed by the United States federal government . Deposits in the United States constitute 62 % of world resources ; together , the United States , Russia and Brazil account for 86 % of the world 's resources in terms of shale @-@ oil content . These figures remain tentative , with exploration or analysis of several deposits still outstanding . Professor Alan R. Carroll of University of Wisconsin – Madison regards the Upper Permian lacustrine oil @-@ shale deposits of northwest China , absent from previous global oil shale assessments , as comparable in size to the Green River Formation .
= = History = =
Humans have used oil shale as a fuel since prehistoric times , since it generally burns without any processing . Britons of the Iron Age also used to polish it and form it into ornaments . The first patent for extracting oil from oil shale was British Crown Patent 330 granted in 1694 to three persons named Martin Eele , Thomas Hancock and William Portlock who had " found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch , tarr , and oyle out of a sort of stone . "
Modern industrial mining of oil shale began in 1837 in Autun , France , followed by exploitation in Scotland , Germany , and several other countries .
Operations during the 19th century focused on the production of kerosene , lamp oil , and paraffin ; these products helped supply the growing demand for lighting that arose during the Industrial Revolution . Fuel oil , lubricating oil and grease , and ammonium sulfate were also produced . The European oil @-@ shale industry expanded immediately before World War I due to limited access to conventional petroleum resources and to the mass production of automobiles and trucks , which accompanied an increase in gasoline consumption .
Although the Estonian and Chinese oil @-@ shale industries continued to grow after World War II , most other countries abandoned their projects due to high processing costs and the availability of cheaper petroleum . Following the 1973 oil crisis , world production of oil shale reached a peak of 46 million tonnes in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tonnes in 2000 , due to competition from cheap conventional petroleum in the 1980s .
On 2 May 1982 , known in some circles as " Black Sunday " , Exxon canceled its US $ 5 billion Colony Shale Oil Project near Parachute , Colorado because of low oil @-@ prices and increased expenses , laying off more than 2 @,@ 000 workers and leaving a trail of home @-@ foreclosures and small @-@ business bankruptcies . In 1986 , President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 which among other things abolished the United States ' Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program .
The global oil @-@ shale industry began to revive at the beginning of the 21st century . In 2003 , an oil @-@ shale development program restarted in the United States . Authorities introduced a commercial leasing program permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in 2005 , in accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 .
= = Industry = =
As of 2008 , industry uses oil shale in Brazil , China , Estonia and to some extent in Germany , and Russia . Several additional countries started assessing their reserves or had built experimental production plants , while others had phased out their oil shale industry . Oil shale serves for oil production in Estonia , Brazil , and China ; for power generation in Estonia , China , and Germany ; for cement production in Estonia , Germany , and China ; and for use in chemical industries in China , Estonia , and Russia .
As of 2009 , 80 % of oil shale used globally is extracted in Estonia , mainly due to the Oil @-@ shale @-@ fired power plants . Oil @-@ shale @-@ fired power plants occur in Estonia , which has an installed capacity of 2 @,@ 967 megawatts ( MW ) , China ( 12 MW ) , and Germany ( 9 @.@ 9 MW ) . Israel , Romania and Russia have in the past run power plants fired by oil shale , but have shut them down or switched to other fuel sources such as natural gas . Jordan and Egypt plan to construct power plants fired by oil shale , while Canada and Turkey plan to burn oil shale along with coal for power generation . Oil shale serves as the main fuel for power generation only in Estonia , where the oil @-@ shale @-@ fired Narva Power Plants accounted for 95 % of country 's electrical generation in 2005 .
According to the World Energy Council , in 2008 the total production of shale oil from oil shale was 930 @,@ 000 tonnes , equal to 17 @,@ 700 barrels per day ( 2 @,@ 810 m3 / d ) , of which China produced 375 @,@ 000 tonnes , Estonia 355 @,@ 000 tonnes , and Brazil 200 @,@ 000 tonnes . In comparison , production of the conventional oil and natural gas liquids in 2008 amounted 3 @.@ 95 billion tonnes or 82 @.@ 1 million barrels per day ( 13 @.@ 1 × 10 ^ 6 m3 / d ) .
= = Extraction and processing = =
Most exploitation of oil shale involves mining followed by shipping elsewhere , after which one can burn the shale directly to generate electricity , or undertake further processing . The most common methods of surface mining involve open pit mining and strip mining . These procedures remove most of the overlying material to expose the deposits of oil shale , and become practical when the deposits occur near the surface . Underground mining of oil shale , which removes less of the overlying material , employs the room @-@ and @-@ pillar method .
The extraction of the useful components of oil shale usually takes place above ground ( ex @-@ situ processing ) , although several newer technologies perform this underground ( on @-@ site or in @-@ situ processing ) . In either case , the chemical process of pyrolysis converts the kerogen in the oil shale to shale oil ( synthetic crude oil ) and oil shale gas . Most conversion technologies involve heating shale in the absence of oxygen to a temperature at which kerogen decomposes ( pyrolyses ) into gas , condensable oil , and a solid residue . This usually takes place between 450 ° C ( 842 ° F ) and 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) . The process of decomposition begins at relatively low temperatures ( 300 ° C or 572 ° F ) , but proceeds more rapidly and more completely at higher temperatures .
In @-@ situ processing involves heating the oil shale underground . Such technologies can potentially extract more oil from a given area of land than ex @-@ situ processes , since they can access the material at greater depths than surface mines can . Several companies have patented methods for in @-@ situ retorting . However , most of these methods remain in the experimental phase . One can distinguish true in @-@ situ processes ( TIS ) and modified in @-@ situ processes ( MIS ) . True in @-@ situ processes do not involve mining the oil shale . Modified in @-@ situ processes involve removing part of the oil shale and bringing it to the surface for modified in @-@ situ retorting in order to create permeability for gas flow in a rubble chimney . Explosives rubblize the oil @-@ shale deposit .
Hundreds of patents for oil shale retorting technologies exist ; however , only a few dozen have undergone testing . By 2006 , only four technologies remained in commercial use : Kiviter , Galoter , Fushun , and Petrosix .
= = Applications and products = =
Industry can use oil shale as a fuel for thermal power @-@ plants , burning it ( like coal ) to drive steam turbines ; some of these plants employ the resulting heat for district heating of homes and businesses . In addition to its use as a fuel , oil shale may also serve in the production of specialty carbon fibers , adsorbent carbons , carbon black , phenols , resins , glues , tanning agents , mastic , road bitumen , cement , bricks , construction and decorative blocks , soil @-@ additives , fertilizers , rock @-@ wool insulation , glass , and pharmaceutical products . However , oil shale use for production of these items remains small or only in its experimental stages . Some oil shales yield sulfur , ammonia , alumina , soda ash , uranium , and nahcolite as shale @-@ oil extraction byproducts . Between 1946 and 1952 , a marine type of Dictyonema shale served for uranium production in Sillamäe , Estonia , and between 1950 and 1989 Sweden used alum shale for the same purposes . Oil shale gas has served as a substitute for natural gas , but as of 2009 , producing oil shale gas as a natural @-@ gas substitute remained economically infeasible .
The shale oil derived from oil shale does not directly substitute for crude oil in all applications . It may contain higher concentrations of olefins , oxygen , and nitrogen than conventional crude oil . Some shale oils may have higher sulfur or arsenic content . By comparison with West Texas Intermediate , the benchmark standard for crude oil in the futures @-@ contract market , the Green River shale oil sulfur content ranges from near 0 % to 4 @.@ 9 % ( in average 0 @.@ 76 % ) , where West Texas Intermediate 's sulfur content has a maximum of 0 @.@ 42 % . The sulfur content in shale oil from Jordan 's oil shales may rise even up to 9 @.@ 5 % . The arsenic content , for example , becomes an issue for Green River formation oil shale . The higher concentrations of these materials means that the oil must undergo considerable upgrading ( hydrotreating ) before serving as oil @-@ refinery feedstock . Above @-@ ground retorting processes tended to yield a lower API gravity shale oil than the in situ processes . Shale oil serves best for producing middle @-@ distillates such as kerosene , jet fuel , and diesel fuel . Worldwide demand for these middle distillates , particularly for diesel fuels , increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s . However , appropriate refining processes equivalent to hydrocracking can transform shale oil into a lighter @-@ range hydrocarbon ( gasoline ) .
= = Economics = =
The amount of economically recoverable oil shale is unknown . The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the cost of shale @-@ oil production in a given region comes in below the price of crude oil or its other substitutes . According to a survey conducted by the RAND Corporation , the cost of producing a barrel of oil at a surface retorting complex in the United States ( comprising a mine , retorting plant , upgrading plant , supporting utilities , and spent shale reclamation ) , would range between US $ 70 – 95 ( $ 440 – 600 / m3 , adjusted to 2005 values ) . This estimate considers varying levels of kerogen quality and extraction efficiency . In order to run a profitable operation , the price of crude oil would need to remain above these levels . The analysis also discusses the expectation that processing costs would drop after the establishment of the complex . The hypothetical unit would see a cost reduction of 35 – 70 % after producing its first 500 million barrels ( 79 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) . Assuming an increase in output of 25 thousand barrels per day ( 4 @.@ 0 × 10 ^ 3 m3 / d ) during each year after the start of commercial production , RAND predicts the costs would decline to $ 35 – 48 per barrel ( $ 220 – 300 / m3 ) within 12 years . After achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels ( 160 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) , its costs would decline further to $ 30 – 40 per barrel ( $ 190 – 250 / m3 ) . Some commentators compare the proposed American oil @-@ shale industry to the Athabasca oil @-@ sands industry ( the latter enterprise generated over 1 million barrels ( 160 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil per day in late 2007 ) , stating that " the first @-@ generation facility is the hardest , both technically and economically " .
In 2005 , Royal Dutch Shell announced that its in @-@ situ process could become competitive for oil prices over $ 30 per barrel ( $ 190 / m3 ) . A 2004 report by the United States Department of Energy stated that both the Shell technology and technology used in the Stuart Oil Shale Project could be competitive at prices above $ 25 per barrel , and that the Viru Keemia Grupp expected full @-@ scale production to be economical at prices above $ 18 per barrel ( $ 130 / m3 ) .
To increase efficiency when retorting oil shale , researchers have proposed and tested several co @-@ pyrolysis processes .
A 1972 publication in the journal Pétrole Informations ( ISSN 0755 @-@ 561X ) compared shale @-@ based oil production unfavorably with coal liquefaction . The article portrayed coal liquefaction as less expensive , generating more oil , and creating fewer environmental impacts than extraction from oil shale . It cited a conversion ratio of 650 liters ( 170 U.S. gal ; 140 imp gal ) of oil per one ton of coal , as against 150 liters ( 40 U.S. gal ; 33 imp gal ) of shale oil per one ton of oil shale .
A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy produced by the shale to the energy used in its mining and processing , a ratio known as " Energy Returned on Energy Invested " ( EROEI ) . A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil @-@ shale deposits as varying between 0 @.@ 7 – 13 @.@ 3 although known oil @-@ shale extraction development projects assert an EROEI between 3 and 10 . According to the World Energy Outlook 2010 , the EROEI of ex @-@ situ processing is typically 4 to 5 while of in @-@ situ processing it may be even as low as 2 . However , according to the IEA most of used energy can be provided by burning the spent shale or oil @-@ shale gas .
The water needed in the oil shale retorting process offers an additional economic consideration : this may pose a problem in areas with water scarcity .
= = Environmental considerations = =
Mining oil shale involves a number of environmental impacts , more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining . These include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials , the introduction of metals including mercury into surface @-@ water and groundwater , increased erosion , sulfur @-@ gas emissions , and air pollution caused by the production of particulates during processing , transport , and support activities . In 2002 , about 97 % of air pollution , 86 % of total waste and 23 % of water pollution in Estonia came from the power industry , which uses oil shale as the main resource for its power production .
Oil @-@ shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area . Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material . In addition , the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas . Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale , as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels . Section 526 of the Energy Independence And Security Act prohibits United States government agencies from buying oil produced by processes that produce more greenhouse gas emissions than would traditional petroleum . Experimental in situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future , but at the same time they may cause other problems , including groundwater pollution . Among the water contaminants commonly associated with oil shale processing are oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons . Commonly detected examples include quinoline derivatives , pyridine , and various alkyl homologues of pyridine ( picoline , lutidine ) .
Some have expressed concerns over the oil shale industry 's use of water . In 2002 , the oil shale @-@ fired power industry used 91 % of the water consumed in Estonia . Depending on technology , above @-@ ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale @-@ oil . A 2008 programmatic environmental impact statement issued by the US Bureau of Land Management stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons ( 7 @.@ 6 to 37 @.@ 9 l ; 1 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 3 imp gal ) of waste water per 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ) of processed oil shale . In situ processing , according to one estimate , uses about one @-@ tenth as much water .
Water concerns become particularly sensitive issues in arid regions , such as the western US and Israel 's Negev Desert , where plans exist to expand oil @-@ shale extraction despite a water shortage .
Environmental activists , including members of Greenpeace , have organized strong protests against the oil shale industry . In one result , Queensland Energy Resources put the proposed Stuart Oil Shale Project in Australia on hold in 2004 .
= = Extraterrestrial oil shale = =
Some comets contain " massive amounts of an organic material almost identical to high grade oil shale , " the equivalent of cubic kilometers of such mixed with other material ; for instance , corresponding hydrocarbons were detected in a probe fly @-@ by through the tail of Comet Halley during 1986 .
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= Selle Français =
The Selle Français ( SF ) is a breed of sport horse from France . It is renowned primarily for its success in show jumping , but many have also been successful in dressage and eventing . An athletic horse with good gaits , it is usually bay or chestnut in color . The Selle Français was created in 1958 when several French riding horse breeds were merged into one stud book . The new breed was meant to serve as a unified sport horse during a period when horses were being replaced by mechanization and were transforming into an animal used mainly for sport and leisure .
Bred throughout France , the Selle Français has been exported worldwide , with additional stud books formed in Great Britain and the United States . Horses registered with the stud books must undergo inspections which judge their conformation , gaits and performance . Horses of other breeds who pass the inspections , including those of Thoroughbred , Arabian , Anglo @-@ Arabian and French Trotter bloodlines , may be used for breeding , with the progeny able to be registered as Selle Français . Selle Français have proven successful at the international level of competition in many equestrian disciplines . They are most commonly seen in show jumping , eventing and dressage , although they are also seen in combined driving , equestrian vaulting and competitive trail riding competitions . Selle Français and their riders have won numerous medals in the Summer Olympics and World Equestrian Games , including making up the entire gold @-@ medal French teams in show jumping at the 2002 World Equestrian Games and eventing at the 2004 Summer Olympics .
= = Breed characteristics = =
Because of the diversity of the breeds that contributed to the Selle Français , there are not set breed standards . It can range from 15 @.@ 1 to 17 @.@ 3 hands ( 61 to 71 inches , 155 to 180 cm ) , although , because they are used as sport horses , most Selle Français usually stand a relatively tall 16 @.@ 1 to 16 @.@ 3 hands ( 65 to 67 inches , 165 to 170 cm ) . It is an athletic horse with balanced , harmonious and powerful gaits . Some morphological traits remain the same throughout the breed . The forehead is broad , and the facial profile is straight or convex . The neck is strong and rather long , well connected to the withers , and the back straight . The croup is elongated , muscular and slightly oblique , and the powerful hindquarters are an asset in show jumping . The chest is deep , and the shoulders long and sloping . The legs are strong and muscular with wide joints and hard hooves .
The Selle Français is generally bay or chestnut in color , the latter being a legacy of its origins in the Anglo @-@ Norman breed . Gray is much less common , with its origins in the Thoroughbred and Anglo @-@ Arabian horses that contributed to the breed . White markings , such as white on the lower legs , are fairly common within the breed , and are again inherited from its Norman ancestors . The temperament of the Selle Français is highly variable from one horse to another . This is due to the selection criteria for breeding stock , which since the beginning of the breed have been based on physical ability . In recent years , however , the ANSF and breeders have been working to create selection criteria that focus on temperament . The vast majority of Selle Français have good temperaments , quiet but energetic , patient and friendly . The breed is reputed to be intelligent and quick to learn .
= = History = =
The origins of the Selle Français begin with native French horses . In 19th century Normandy , native mares were crossbred with Thoroughbred or Norfolk Trotter stallions . The most common crosses were between native mares used by the military , or those bred for pulling carriages , and Thoroughbred stallions . In 1914 these types were recognized as demi @-@ sang or " half @-@ blood " horses . Half @-@ blood horses were found in many French regions , and different types were usually named after the regions in which they were bred . The three main types of French saddle horses were the Anglo @-@ Norman ( bred around Caen ) , the demi @-@ sang du Centre ( bred around Cluny ) and the Vendeen ( bred around La Roche @-@ sur @-@ Yon ) .
In 1958 , " Selle Français " or French Saddle Horse was created by merging the all of the regional half @-@ blood horses in France under one name . The merged types included the Anglo @-@ Norman , the Charolais ( from the Charolles region ) , and the Vendeen . The merger was done to create a sport horse that would meet the needs of a mechanized society where horses were used for leisure and sport . The first Selle Français were not homogeneous in type , but offered a wide genetic diversity , due to the wide variety of local horses crossed with Thoroughbreds , Anglo @-@ Arabians and French Trotters . Norman origins , however , were the most widely represented , as the Anglo @-@ Norman had been used for breeding throughout France .
Since its creation as a breed , the Selle Français has been selected solely as a sport horse . Because of this , the breed has homogenized and refined , and since its creation has been a successful competitor in international equestrian sport . In July 2003 , the Association nationale du selle français ( ANSF or National Association of French Saddle Horses ) was approved as the breed association . The ANSF plays an advocacy role with stakeholders and partners in the equine world and ensures a proper orientation of selection and genetic improvement within the breed . Breeding of Selle Français is centered in Normandy , mainly due to its origins in Norman @-@ related bloodlines . As of 2009 , there were 7 @,@ 722 farms that reported breeding activity of Selle Français , although the vast majority ( around 77 percent ) were very small operations with only one mare . In 2008 , there were 7 @,@ 638 Selle Français foals born , which made up 57 percent of the total saddle horses bred in France . In 2009 , over 13 @,@ 500 Selle Français mares were bred , of which 11 @,@ 830 were mated to approved stallions to produce Selle Français offspring . In the same year , there were 505 active Selle Français stallions .
The Selle Français is bred throughout France and abroad , and artificial insemination plays an important role in the dissemination of the breed . The Selle Français has also contributed to several other breeds in Europe , including the Holsteiner , Zangersheide and Oldenburg warmblood breeds . The ANSF has branches in several countries . The United Kingdom organization , called Equicours , led to the opening of a British stud book for the Selle Français , and the ANSF @-@ US manages the stud book for the breed in the United States . Brazil , Argentina and Morocco have agreements with the French stud book to register horses bred in those countries .
= = Registration and stud book selection = =
The Selle Français stud book has long allowed crossbreeding with four other breeds : the Thoroughbred , Arabian , Anglo @-@ Arabian and French Trotter . Today , restrictions exist to harmonize the stud book with directives for other European warmblood breeds . For a Selle Français to be registered , it must be from two registered Selle Français parents or from a cross between a Selle Français and a facteur de selle français ( non @-@ Selle Français horse that has passed stud book selection procedures ) . Stallions must pass through a selection process before their progeny is allowed to be registered as Selle Français . The process involves an approval committee that judges stallions on criteria based on the age , breed and nationality of the horses . The qualification criteria involve the conformation , gaits , performance and are scored against national indices .
Mares can be of several origins and be listed as facteur de selle français . Thoroughbred , AQPS , pure or crossbred Anglo @-@ Arabians and French Trotting horses may also qualify under this designation , as do mares that are the product of two facteur de selle français horses . Mares belonging to other saddle horse breeds recognized by the European Union ( EU ) are also listed in this category . Pure and crossbred Arabians , saddle breeds not recognized by the EU and some other mares may be listed on an individual basis by performing at a high level in show jumping , three @-@ day eventing or dressage competition . If mares come from countries or territories that do not have access to high @-@ level competitions , they may be granted special listing status .
In 2003 , the stud book was divided into two parts : a section for pure Selle Français from two registered parents and a section for horses with one facteur de selle français parent . In 2009 , this distinction was abandoned and the two sections were recombined into a single stud book .
= = Uses = =
The Selle Français is a French sport horse , now recognized internationally as a top breed for show jumping and three @-@ day eventing . Selection criteria for breeding stock focuses on their jumping abilities . Show jumping is a technical sport , calling for lively and responsive yet powerful horses . Horses with more Thoroughbred blood in them have also been very competitive in three @-@ day eventing , where speed and stamina are needed to be successful in all three portions ( dressage , three @-@ day eventing and show jumping ) of the event . Thanks to these qualities , the Selle Français is seen on international show jumping and three @-@ day eventing teams , both in France and elsewhere . In dressage , the Selle Français has gradually improved , but has faced stiff competition from northern European breeds , which often have more active gaits . In addition , many French breeders guide their horses to the more popular and profitable sport of show jumping , which sometimes deprives the dressage system of good horses . The World Breeding Federation for Sport Horses ( WBFSH ) ranks warmblood stud books based on their success in eventing , show jumping and dressage . In 2013 , the ANSF was ranked as the 3rd best show jumping stud book in the world , topped only by the Dutch Warmblood and Belgian Warmblood breeds , and a Selle Français horse was ranked first in the world . The stud book was ranked at 6th in the world in eventing , with the top horse placed at 25th . The ANSF was ranked 19th in dressage , beaten by many of the more popular dressage breeds , including Dutch Warmbloods , Hanoverians and Westphalians .
The Institut français du cheval et de l 'équitation ( French Institute of Horse Riding ) , the École nationale d 'équitation ( National Riding School ) and the Cadre Noir all use mainly Selle Français . Young horses are selected according to their skills and are trained by students within the schools . Horses representing the Cadre Noir are selected at the age of three and are trained according to their abilities , with some reaching the highest levels of haute ecole dressage . Selle Français are also used for combined driving , equestrian vaulting and competitive trail riding , and have competed at the international level in all three sports .
Selle Français are also used for the production of race horses in France . By crossbreeding them with Thoroughbred and Anglo @-@ Arabians , horses are produced which are competitive in steeplechase ( racing over obstacles ) . These horses are generally registered as AQPS ( meaning " other than Thoroughbred " ) in France . The AQPS studbook in France was created in 2005 ; before this , some successful French racehorses , especially those raced in steeplechase races , were registered as Selle Français . These include Neptune Collonges , winner of the 2012 Grand National race , and Quevega .
= = International success = =
Many Selle Français compete each year in international competitions in many equestrian disciplines . Some have been particularly successful :
Almé Z ( 1966 – 1991 ) , while not a successful international competitor himself , was a sire of huge importance to the international show jumping world . Among his numerous successful progeny was I Love You ( a World Cup winner ) and Galoubet A ( 1972 – 2005 ) , part of the gold @-@ medal winning French show @-@ jumping team at the World Championships in 1982 . Galoubet A , in turn , is known for both his competition career and the success of his offspring . He is the sire of Baloubet du Rouet ( b . 1989 ) , who with rider Rodrigo Pessoa won the gold medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics and was a three @-@ time winner of the World Cup .
Flambeau C ( b . 1971 ) became a pillar of the French show jumping team in the 1980s . He participated in the 1984 Summer Olympics , where he took 7th individually , and the 1988 Summer Olympics , winning the bronze medal with the French team . The 1980s also saw the rise of Jappeloup ( 1975 – 1991 ) , a small black horse with a conformation and gaits that were considered disadvantageous for show jumping . Despite this , he had an impressive jumping style , and won two French championships in 1982 and 1986 , a European championship in 1987 , several team medals at the European and World Championships , and a gold medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics with rider Pierre Durand , Jr .
In the 1990s , several Selle Français rose to prominence in international competition . Quidam de Revel ( b . 1982 ) , was on the French bronze medal winning show jumping team at the 1992 Summer Olympics , ridden by Hervé Godignon , and Quito de Baussy ( b . 1982 ) was a European champion , world champion and another member of the French team in 1992 , ridden by Éric Navet . Rochet Rouge ( 1983 – 2008 ) was a show jumping European champion in 1999 and an individual bronze medalist at the 1996 Summer Olympics . The 2000s saw Selle Français among the world leaders in both show jumping and three @-@ day eventing . Four stallions made up the champion show jumping team at the 2002 World Equestrian Games , while four more Selle Francais made up the winning three @-@ day event team at the 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2003 , a Selle Francais became the European champion in vaulting , and another was named the world champion in competitive trail riding . The Selle Français continued to lead international show jumping competitions in the 2010s , with Swiss rider Steve Guerdat riding a member of the breed to individual gold at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
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= Sense and Antisense ( Millennium ) =
" ' Sense and Antisense " is the third episode of the second season of the crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on October 3 , 1997 . The episode was written by Chip Johannessen and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " Sense and Antisense " featured guest appearances from Clarence Williams III and Ricky Harris .
Millennium centers on offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , who investigates unusual crimes as part of the private investigative organisation the Millennium Group . In this episode , Black aids in the search for a man who is supposedly carrying a highly contagious virus and discovers the secret behind the Human Genome Project .
Johannessen has described " Sense and Antisense " as having suffered from extensive script re @-@ writes ; his original version dealt more strongly with racial issues but was rewritten at the behest of the network 's broadcast standards office . The episode earned a mixed reception from television critics , and was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 57 million households upon its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Patient Zero ( Clarence Williams III ) tries to hail a taxi on a busy street , but is continually ignored . He is eventually picked up by Gerome Knox ( Ricky Harris ) , but suffers a seizure in the back of the taxi , raving about a threat against his life . Knox takes him to hospital , where he is diagnosed as a drug addict . Zero is sedated , but becomes agitated when two men enter the hospital lobby ; Knox helps him escape , believing his life is in danger . The two men , Wright and Patterson , quarantine the area , as Zero is carrying a highly contagious disease .
Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is contacted for help in finding Zero , and travels to a briefing on the situation . It is explained that Zero is carrying a disease ordinarily confined to the Congo . Meanwhile , Zero and Knox are attempting to have a local newspaper run Zero 's story , believing he has been infected in a racially motivated conspiracy akin to the Tuskegee syphilis experiment . Police locate and apprehend Zero , who manages to smear blood on Black 's shirt .
Black has the blood tested , and finds it free of any pathogen ; meanwhile , the government center running the earlier briefing has vanished . Black realizes he was tricked into finding Zero for an ulterior motive , eventually learning that the organisation responsible is carrying out medical experiments on the homeless , and may be tied to the Millennium Group . Elsewhere a homeless man , acting similarly to Zero , attacks two policemen , and is killed in response . Black and fellow Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) investigate , but are clearly not welcome . Black manages to obtain a blood sample from the dead man , and finds a stretcher tag which he believes is connected to the United States Department of Energy .
Further examination of the blood of both Zero and the dead man reveal that their condition has been induced through gene therapy . Watts and Black theorize that the DOE is developing a biological weapon which would incite violence and rioting in a targeted population ; they learn that the research is being conducted by scientists involved in the Human Genome Project . Later , the body of Knox is found at a nearby morgue . Later , Black and Watts , assisted by local police , raid an office building connected to the project , which they believe is using homeless shelters to test their pathogen . They hope to recover Zero in the raid , but find him cogent and working for the project — his real name is Dr. William Kramer , and he denies any knowledge of the incident . Black believes Kramer was accidentally infected during his work , and finds a photograph in the man 's office , showing him in military uniform , taking part in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide .
= = Production = =
" Sense and Antisense " was written by Chip Johannessen , who went on to write a total of twelve episodes across all three seasons , including the series ' final episode , " Goodbye to All That " . The episode was directed by Thomas J. Wright ; Wright had directed six episodes previously and would helm a further nineteen over the series ' run . Wright would also go on to direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files .
Johannessen was ultimately unhappy with how the episode turned out , believing that it suffered as a result of frequent re @-@ writes to the script . Johannessen 's original draft focused more heavily on racial issues , which Fox 's broadcast standards office objected to . The episode makes use of Bobby Darin 's song " Gyp the Cat " in a diegetic manner . Darin 's music has been noted by Millennium 's resident composer Mark Snow as a hallmark of the works of executive producers Glen Morgan and James Wong , and would also appear in the episodes " Beware of the Dog " , " Monster " , and " Goodbye Charlie " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Sense and Antisense " was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on October 3 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 59 million households , and left the episode the seventy @-@ second most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode generally received mixed reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a C + , finding that it to be ambitious but ultimately feeling that it attempted too much at once . VanDerWerff found the episode " entertaining " , but added that it " feels like something that ’ s been rewritten at least one time too many , to incorporate more and more ideas until the center cannot hold " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 out of 5 , praising Williams ' guest appearance . Gibron also felt positively about the episode 's complexity , feeling that it displayed " a certain intelligence " in assuming such a pace . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Sense and Antisense " two stars out of five , describing it as " too thin and too obvious " . Shearman praised Williams ' guest appearance , but felt that the episode seemed too close thematically to The X @-@ Files to work well on its own .
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= Peggle =
Peggle is a casual puzzle video game developed by Sukhbir Sidhu and Brian Rothstein of PopCap Games . Initially released for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X systems in 2007 , it has since had versions released for Xbox Live Arcade , PlayStation Network , the Nintendo DS ( with the help of Q Entertainment ) , Windows Mobile , iOS , Zeebo and Android ; the game has also been ported as a Java application , and an extended minigame incorporated into the massively multiplayer online game World of Warcraft . A sequel was released in September 2008 , titled Peggle Nights .
Inspired by pachinko and bagatelle , each level of Peggle challenges the player to shoot a limited supply of balls at a field of colored pegs to clear out specifically marked pegs while attempting to achieve a high score through skilled shot planning . Special powers associated with a number of cartoon " Peggle Masters " can be activated to aid the player in this task . Peggle initially sold slowly but was boosted by the inclusion of a specially designed demonstration in Valve 's The Orange Box , and has since enjoyed over 50 million downloads from the Internet . Both its release on Xbox Live Arcade and iOS have enjoyed similar success . PopCap , now a subsidiary of Electronic Arts , have announced Peggle 2 at the E3 2013 convention .
= = Gameplay = =
Within the game 's main " Adventure " mode , Peggle is divided into fifty @-@ five levels . Each level features an arrangement of approximately one hundred blue " pegs " , positioned to correspond with the level 's background picture , inside of three walls on the top and sides ( leaving the bottom opened ) , along with other fixed and moving features . The goal of each level is to clear the board of the twenty @-@ five random pegs that are turned orange at the start of the level , by using a ball launcher located at the top center of the screen to strike one or more of the pegs . Pegs light up when hit , and once the ball either falls through the bottom of the screen or is caught by the ball catcher that moves back and forth along the bottom in a fixed manner , the pegs will be removed . Struck pegs are also removed if the ball is stuck on them . The player begins each level with ten balls ( twelve on the non @-@ Touch iPod version ) to clear the orange pegs , but may earn more by landing the ball in the ball catcher , or by earning high scores on single shots . Failure to clear the board with the allotted number of balls will require the player to restart the level , while completing this objective will allow the player to progress forward to the next board .
Every five levels in the Adventure mode correspond to playing with one of ten " Peggle Masters " , cartoon characters that help the player . Each of the Peggle Masters has a unique special ability that is activated when the player strikes one of the two randomly selected green pegs on the board . Some abilities activate immediately ; one ability causes a second ball to be generated from the green peg when struck . Other abilities will have effects that activate on the next shot or for several more shots ; one ability shows the ball 's path including rebounds , while another will extend the length of the ball catcher . In the final five levels of the Adventure mode , called " Master " levels , the player can select which of the Peggle Masters they want to use .
In addition to clearing the board , the player is challenged to get high scores with each shot . Points come from two main sources : striking pegs , and style points . Each struck peg earns points , with further bonuses gained by hitting numerous pegs on a single shot , and by clearing orange pegs , which builds up a scoring multiplier up to 10x when all but a few orange pegs remain . Additionally , for each shot , one random blue peg will be marked purple and revert to blue after the shot if it is not struck ; striking this peg will further boost the player 's score . Style points are awarded for making difficult shots such as striking two orange pegs consecutively that are a distance apart , or by getting lucky bounces off the ball catcher . When the player clears the board of orange pegs , as announced by the song " Ode To Joy " and the message " Extreme Fever " , the bottom of the level is replaced with five bins of different point values that the ball will fall into . The player is awarded this score in addition to any unused balls remaining to get their final score for the level . If all the pegs on a level are cleared , a bonus is awarded and all the bins turn to the maximum value and the message " Ultra Extreme Fever " is displayed .
In addition to the Adventure mode , the game features a series of challenges that require the player to complete boards under stricter requirements , such as having to clear more orange pegs or remove every peg from the board . A " Duel " mode allows the player to compete against another person or a computer AI on the same board in attempting to reach the highest score . The Xbox Live and PlayStation Network versions add a " Peg Party " mode , in which up to four players compete on their own boards using a limited number of balls , each attempting to get the highest score . In each of these modes , the game generally offers the ability for players to select which Peggle Master they wish to use .
= = Development = =
Peggle was originally envisioned by PopCap 's studio director , Sukhbir Sidhu , who was inspired by pachinko machines . However , he recognized that pachinko was mostly luck @-@ based , and would not translate well into a video game . After seeing a 2D game engine created by PopCap programmer Brian Rothstein , Sidhu was able to realize his game , and worked with Rothstein for the first five months of its development before bringing in additional programmers . Initial designs focused on bringing together elements of pachinko with Breakout . The team initially incorporated a " rapid @-@ fire " mechanic used in pachinko , along with numerous moving targets , but they found this made the levels either too fast @-@ paced or too demanding of the player . They found over time that a static field of pegs provided a more enjoyable experience for the player ; the path of the ball would be more predictable , leading to the gameplay mechanic of requiring only a random subset of orange pegs to be cleared . Once the team had established the core mechanics of the game , they brought on character artist Walter Wilson , background artist Marcia Broderick and an additional coder , Eric Tams , to help complete Peggle within its two @-@ year development period . Even with their game established , Sidhu and Rothstein faced internal challenges at PopCap to increase the level of interactivity with the game , but the two defended their vision of the game .
The design team struggled with a theme for the game , and for a while the game was based around the mythelogical god Thor . During this time the game was called Thunderball and was much darker in theme than the final product . Eventually the game changed themes to be more lighthearted and the team realized that the name no longer fit the game . From there the designers came up with calling the game " Pego " and then " Pogo " . The team later discovered that , since Pogo was already the name of EA 's Flash portal they wouldn 't be able to use it .
Though the game was technically completed within a year , PopCap opted to spend more time to polish it , improving the visuals and background images . The team spent time refining the various sound effects used in the game , in order to provide an appropriate atmosphere . In some cases , they found the desired sound quickly ; the sound of the ball hitting a peg was borrowed from another game in development at PopCap , but was considered perfect for Peggle . Other cases required iteration ; the sound of the ball shooter was originally closer to that of a cannon , while a " plunk " sound effect was used when the ball catcher caught a ball . These were changed to more airy sounds ( an air cannon and a brief angelic chorus ) in order to make the elements sound as if part of the game 's music . The team found it helped to create a defining moment at the end of each level when the player is moments from clearing the final peg . This initially was programmed as a simple message stating " Extreme Fever " and the music of Ode to Joy as a placeholder . Sidhu wanted to recreate the " wild sounds and visuals " that were present on winning pachinko games . However , the team found that the players reacted well to the simpler placeholder elements , and the team focused on improving the presentation of these , including adding a zoom on the current ball as it neared the last orange peg to be cleared .
= = Versions and sequels = =
Peggle Extreme was packaged with the Windows version of The Orange Box , featuring levels inspired by Half @-@ Life 2 , Team Fortress 2 , and Portal . It includes ten levels with one Peggle Master , and five Challenges . Peggle Extreme was eventually made free to download for anyone with a Steam account . The game was developed in conjunction with Valve Corporation after PopCap 's Tams learned that Peggle was played often at Valve 's offices and that the company had helped to promote the game on Steam . PopCap proposed a version that would pay tribute to Valve 's games , which Valve readily warmed up to , helping PopCap with its development , including providing graphical assets and artwork .
Peggle has been ported to Xbox Live Arcade , the PlayStation Network , the iPod , and iOS . The Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network versions includes the " Peg Party " mode in which up to four players can compete simultaneously . Both the Xbox Live Arcade , PlayStation Network and iOS versions include the " Duel " mode , with the iOS version having the players share the iPhone between turns . Peggle has also been ported as a minigame inside World of Warcraft , featuring levels based on the game , though including a limited set of Peggle Masters to use . Warcraft players can also use Peggle to decide how to distribute loot from successful raids or dungeons . Subsequently , in July 2009 , a free standalone , ten @-@ level edition of Peggle themed around Warcraft in a similar manner as Peggle Extreme was released .
PopCap released a sequel to the original game , Peggle Nights , in September 2008 for Windows . The sequel expands upon Peggle by adding one new Peggle Master in addition to new levels and challenges . The Xbox Live and PlayStation Network versions of Peggle received Nights as a downloadable expansion to the game on November 19 , 2009 . Peggle Nights was made available as an in @-@ app purchase for iOS devices . Peggle : Dual Shot is a Nintendo DS port of the game , developed by Q Entertainment ; the game includes content from both Peggle and Peggle Nights . This version of the game awards the player a star each time a purple bonus peg is hit , activating a new bonus minigame upon collecting five stars . The minigame requires that the player continually bounce a ball with pinball @-@ like bumpers to collect diamonds and extra balls .
= = Reception = =
Peggle was well received by critics . Alec Meer of Eurogamer found the game to be a " constant series of rewards " in gameplay , graphics , and audio that would continue to satisfy the player . Gus Mastrapa of The A.V. Club considered the game " comfort food for the omnivorous gamer " , with its ability to draw even hardcore gamers into its fantasy visuals . IGN 's Erik Brudvig cited Peggle as being " simple enough for anybody to pick up and instantly start having fun " . The Xbox Live version was seen as truthful to the PC version , and while the Peggle Party mode was considered an interesting addition , Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer felt it was a " curiously remote approach " that did not fully integrate a multiplayer experience into the game , a point also stated by Mastrapa who lamented the lack of online leaderboards .
The game did not initially perform well in sales when released for Windows , but according to Sidhu , sales of the game took off following the release of Peggle Extreme as part of The Orange Box ; Sidhu stated that the special version of the game helped to bring in video game players that would " never be caught dead playing a game with unicorns and rainbows " . Peggle ( both trial and full versions ) has been downloaded more than 50 million times from the Internet as of early 2009 , though PopCap has not released how many of these downloads were for full sales of the game .
Upon its release on Xbox Live Arcade , Peggle was the top @-@ selling game on the service for two weeks , and remained in the top ten applications for several weeks afterward . Within a month , over 100 @,@ 000 players were listed on the Xbox leaderboards for Peggle , though this number also includes players who purchased the game through the PopCap Arcade Volume 2 retail package , which contained the game as well . IGN editor Cam Shea ranked it eighth on his top ten list of Xbox Live Arcade games . He stated that while its theme could easily turn players off , they should not let it , as it is " It 's infectious , and most importantly , fun " according to him . In a list compiled by the IGN staff in September 2010 , Peggle was listed as the 10th best Xbox Live Arcade of all time .
The release of Peggle on iOS was extremely popular , placing in the top ten applications purchased through the App Store for the first two weeks it was available . During a weekend in June 2009 , the title was put on sale for $ 1 ( normally $ 5 ) ; the sale caused the game to become the most purchased application in the App Store . A PopCap representative stated that they made as many sales during this four @-@ day period as they had in the three weeks prior , after the game 's launch on the Store .
Peggle is considered to be an addictive game . The game is stated to have a simple premise that follows the KISS principle , but requires some amount of repeating playing to master , similar in fashion to early arcade games , leading to its addictive qualities . Peggle is also claimed to entice the user to play " just a few more minutes " . The accessibility of the game across multiple platforms is also considered to contribute to its addictiveness . MSNBC named Peggle one of the " Top 5 most addictive computer games of all time . " Despite its addictive nature , the game , like many of PopCap 's casual games , is also considered a stress reliever . A study underwritten by PopCap at East Carolina University found that across 132 subjects , Peggle was found to increase their mood by 573 % across all subjects , with a 45 % reduction in depression . Peggle along with other PopCap games were also found to help children with ADHD improve their attention span and memory recall , in a survey done by Information Solutions Group on behalf of PopCap .
Peggle was nominated for the 2007 Game Developers Choice Awards for " Best Downloadable Game " , " Best Handheld Game " ( for the iPod port ) , and " Innovation " awards . The game was also nominated as the " Best Downloadable Game " for the 2007 Interactive Achievement Awards by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences . Peggle appeared as # 40 on the 2007 PC Gamer Magazine ( UK ) list of their 100 favorite computer games of all time .
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= Hurricane Otis ( 2005 ) =
Hurricane Otis was a moderate hurricane that threatened the Baja California Peninsula but dissipated before landfall . Otis developed on September 28 , 2005 , off the western coast of Mexico , from a tropical wave that emerged from the western coast of Africa and traversed the Atlantic Ocean during the preceding several weeks . After attaining tropical storm status on September 29 , the storm moved in a generally northwestward direction for most of its duration . It ultimately peaked at Category 2 intensity on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale before beginning to weaken . The storm degenerated into a tropical depression on October 3 and dissipated fully on October 5 , near the coast of Baja California Sur . Preparations for the storm were completed on the Peninsula ; tropical cyclone watches and warnings were declared and numerous shelters opened . However , the storm 's effects were minimal , and limited to gusty winds with heavy rainfall . No major damage was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Otis are believed to have been in a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on September 9 . The wave moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean , spawning Tropical Depression Seventeen on September 17 . The southern portion of the wave continued westward , crossing into the eastern Pacific Ocean on September 22 . As the wave entered a monsoon @-@ like environment , convection increased on September 23 . An associated area of disorganized clouds and thunderstorms persisted off the coast of Mexico for several days , although due to wind shear and its proximity to land , short @-@ term tropical cyclone development — if any — was expected to occur slowly . On September 27 , it began to show signs of organization ; the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) remarked upon the potential for a tropical cyclone to develop within the next day . It is estimated that the system became a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 28 , while located about 140 miles ( 230 km ) to the south of Manzanillo , Mexico .
The depression moved slowly toward the southwest and became better organized , despite a decrease in the coverage of deep convection . By late September 28 the depression was approaching tropical storm status ; it turned to the northwest and attained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on September 29 , at which time it was assigned the name Otis . That evening , wind shear relented and conditions became more favorable for the storm 's intensification . Convection wrapped almost fully around the center , and early on September 3 , Otis was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Shortly thereafter , a ragged eye feature developed ; it quickly became better defined as it entered the scope of weather radar in Cabo San Lucas .
Otis began gradually entering cooler ocean waters , although the National Hurricane Center noted in one of its discussions on the system that the environment was still warm enough to support a stronger storm . The hurricane continued drifting northwestward , and early on October 1 it reached peak intensity at Category 2 status . At the time , maximum sustained winds were at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and barometric pressure was recorded at 970 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 64 inHg ) . Hours later , however , it began to weaken , a trend that continued due to southwesterly wind shear and dry air . The cloud pattern associated with the hurricane deteriorated on October 2 , and the center of circulation was separated from the convective activity . Otis weakened to a tropical storm and drifted erratically toward the north @-@ northwest as a result of weak steering currents . Over increasingly cold waters , the cyclone further weakened to a depression on October 3 and consisted of a small swirl of low @-@ level clouds . It became a remnant low pressure area the next day . The system abruptly turned southeastward and drifted parallel to the coast of the Baja California Peninsula until dissipating on October 5 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On September 30 , the first tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued with the declaration of tropical storm warnings and hurricane watches along portions of the east and west coasts of the Baja California Peninsula . For several days the advisories were adjusted and amended , and on October 1 , a hurricane warning was posted for the west coast of Baja California , from Agua Blanca to San Andresito . By October 2 , all watches and warnings were discontinued on the east coast of the peninsula , and the remaining advisories were lifted the next day . High winds and heavy rainfall were anticipated .
In advance of the storm , the governor of Baja California Sur , Narciso Agundez , ordered emergency personnel to Comondú , Lorteo , and Mulege . Approximately 700 families fled to shelters in Cabo San Lucas ; elsewhere , an additional 200 families evacuated in San Jose del Cabo . Some residents in Miraflores and Santiago also left their homes . Agundez asked soldiers to assist the islands of Magdalena and Margarita in preparing for the storm . Five communities in Mexico , including Cabo San Lucas , declared a state of emergency . Authorities throughout the region opened numerous shelters , and in some locations , police officers went door @-@ to @-@ door asking residents to leave . The port in Cabo San Lucas was closed due to the storm 's threat , although the airport remained open .
Although the center of Otis remained offshore , tropical storm @-@ force winds were reported at higher elevations over portions of southern Baja California . At Cabo San Lucas , an automated weather station recorded a wind gust to 63 miles per hour ( 101 km / h ) on September 30 , with sustained winds of 49 miles per hour ( 79 km / h ) . There , periods of heavy rainfall mixed with fair skies as the storm passed . No damages or fatalities were reported , although some media reports indicated that the storm caused flooding in parts of the southern Baja California peninsula . Offshore , two ships reported tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds in association with the storm : the Volendam on October 3 , and the Star Harmonia on October 1 .
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= F. Emasculata =
" F. Emasculata " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on April 28 , 1995 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter and staff writer Howard Gordon , and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " F. Emasculata " received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 9 and was watched by 8 @.@ 5 million households . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Scully tries to discover the cause of a mysterious illness after several men in a prison die . Meanwhile , Mulder attempts to find two escapees who could potentially spread the disease .
" F. Emasculata " was based on the actual practice of pharmaceutical companies sending scientists all over the world looking for plants and animals that could have medicinal use . The X @-@ Files director Frank Spotnitz felt that the episode 's exploding pustules were ridiculous because of their over @-@ the @-@ top nature . The Costa Rican forest at the opening was shot at the Seymour Demonstration Forest in Northern Vancouver .
= = Plot = =
In the rain forest of Costa Rica , entomologist Robert Torrance stumbles upon a decomposing boar carcass covered with dark purple pustules . As he extracts an insect from one of the pustules , it erupts , spraying him with fluid . By nightfall , Torrance himself has developed the boils and tries to radio for help . When a group of soldiers arrive the next morning , Torrance is dead .
At a prison in Dinwiddie County , Virginia , an inmate — also named Robert Torrance — receives a package containing a boil @-@ covered piece of meat . He becomes infected and dies thirty @-@ six hours later . Two other inmates , Paul and Steve , escape in a laundry cart after being sent to clean Torrance 's cell . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are sent to help the U.S. Marshals find them . The agents note that the FBI does not normally investigate prison escapes , and become suspicious as the prison is quarantined by the CDC and the National Guard . Mulder joins the Marshals to hunt the fugitives , while Scully stays behind to investigate the situation in the prison .
Scully learns that the lockdown population is infected with an exceedingly deadly contagion , finding a pile of body bags stored for incineration in the prison 's boiler room . Scully cuts open Torrance 's body bag and examines his corpse , but Dr. Osbourne , a member of the CDC team , tries to stop her . A pustule on Torrance 's body erupts in Osbourne 's face , causing him to flee the room . Meanwhile , the fugitives steal an RV and stop at a gas station , where Paul calls his girlfriend , Elizabeth , looking for shelter . The station 's clerk finds an infected Steve in the restroom ; he is knocked unconscious by Paul . Scully calls Mulder after the Marshals raid the gas station , telling him that the contagion could spread into the population if the fugitives are not captured . Mulder sees a CDC biohazard team arrive at the scene , forcibly taking away the clerk in a helicopter .
The fugitives arrive at Elizabeth 's house , where she tends to Steve , in the late stages of his infection . One of Steve 's pustules erupts in her face , killing him and infecting Elizabeth . At that moment , Mulder and the Marshals raid the house and arrest her , but find Paul missing . Meanwhile , Scully traces Torrance 's package to Pinck Pharmaceuticals , a major drug developer . She also finds an insect in the body of another prisoner . Dr. Osbourne , who has become infected , reveals that his team works for Pinck and are researching a dilating enzyme produced by the insect . However , the insect has a parasitic life cycle that kills its hosts . Osbourne claims that the insect and its contagion were deliberately introduced into the prison by Pinck as an experiment . He tells Scully that since she was next to him when he became infected , she may have contracted the contagion as well .
Mulder confronts Skinner and The Smoking Man , believing that he and Scully were deceived into taking the case without knowing about the contagion . Mulder is adamant that the public should know the truth about Pinck 's actions . The Smoking Man counters that public knowledge of the truth would create mass panic and do more harm than good . Mulder tries to take his case to Scully , but she agrees that exposing Pinck may result in a deadly hysteria . Paul becomes the only remaining proof of the company 's crimes , but he takes a hostage and is killed by the Marshals before Mulder can convince him to divulge the contents of Torrance 's package . The episode ends with Skinner warning Mulder to be more wary of the situations he will find himself in .
= = Production = =
F. emasculata and Pinck Pharmaceuticals are fictitious , but pharmaceutical companies do send scientists all over the world looking for plants and animals that could have medicinal use . The appearance of The Smoking Man in a stand @-@ alone episode is unusual , as Chris Carter did not like mixing the mythology and stand @-@ alone episodes . Initially , the producers were wary of releasing the episode so close to the release of the similarly @-@ themed movie Outbreak . In the end , however , they realized that the two entities were separate and stood on their own .
The exploding pustules were carefully rigged to burst on command . Makeup supervisor Toby Lindala constructed a handheld device that connected via tube to the faux sores . When the device was pressed , the pustule would burst . Filming the scenes was particularly arduous ; he later noted " I was jammed underneath one of the bus seats with these extras basically stepping on my head . " The X @-@ Files director Frank Spotnitz remarked , " When we saw the pustule bursting on film , we just laughed because it was just so over @-@ the @-@ top grotesque . " The Costa Rican forest at the opening was shot at the Seymour Demonstration Forest in Northern Vancouver , which also served as Puerto Rico in season opener " Little Green Men " . The city of Delta served for both the gas station and the bus station — actually a redecorated Dodge / Chrysler car dealership .
= = Reception = =
" F. Emasculata " was originally broadcast in the United States on the Fox network on April 28 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on February 6 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 9 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 5 million households .
The episode received generally mixed reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly graded the episode a C , writing , " A good idea is tainted by plot holes as gaping and disturbing as the pustular boils you 'll be treated to in this hour " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club was positive , grading it an A. He particularly praised the way the darkness was handled which made it a " tense , gripping mini @-@ movie " , and also praised the guest stars . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two wrote positively of the first part of the entry , noting that it " jogs along quite merrily as a simple contagion story " . They were , however , more critical of the second half , noting that the story " takes a left turn and becomes a thoughtful analysis on disinformation , on cover @-@ up , and the public right to truth . " Shearman and Pearson called both parts " two really interesting rough drafts " , but concluded that the two halves were ill @-@ suited for one another .
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= Ryszard Siwiec =
Ryszard Siwiec ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˈrɨʂart ˈɕivjɛt ͡ s ] ; 7 March 1909 — 12 September 1968 ) was a Polish accountant and former Home Army resistance member who was the first person to commit suicide by self @-@ immolation in protest against the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia . Although his act was captured by a motion picture camera , Polish press omitted any mention of the incident , which was successfully suppressed by the authorities . Siwiec prepared his plan alone , and few people realized what he tried to achieve with his sacrifice . His story remained mostly forgotten until the fall of communism , when it was first recounted in a documentary film by Polish director Maciej Drygas . Since then , Siwiec has been posthumously awarded a number of Czech , Slovak , and Polish honors and decorations .
Siwiec 's death foreshadowed the much better known self @-@ immolation of Jan Palach in Prague four months later . Siwiec was the first person from Central and Eastern Europe to self @-@ immolate in protest of the invasion , and the only one in Polish history .
= = Biography = =
Siwiec was born in Dębica on 7 March 1909 , under the Austrian Partition of Poland , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary . He graduated from the Lviv University with a degree in philosophy . Siwiec worked as an accountant since the 1930s in Przemyśl , where he moved shortly after graduation . During World War II he escaped forced labour for the Germans by taking employment as a gardener and joined the Armia Krajowa ( Home Army ) , the Polish resistance movement . Ryszard Siwiec married in 1945 and had five children .
= = Self @-@ immolation = =
According to friends and family , he had extensive historical knowledge and was deeply disillusioned with the reality of communist Poland . He supported the protesting students during the March 1968 Polish political crisis in Poland , printing bibuła leaflets and asking his daughter to distribute them . According to health professionals , he was of sound mind , and fully rational , at the time of his suicide . Siwiec planned his self @-@ immolation months in advance , writing out a last will in April , and leaving written and tape @-@ recorded statements explaining his revulsion at both the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and the People 's Republic of Poland 's participation in it .
Siwiec obtained passes to a national harvest festival taking place on 8 September 1968 at the 10th @-@ Anniversary Stadium in Warsaw . His goal was to have his act be witnessed by nearly 100 @,@ 000 spectators , including numerous journalists and the national leadership of the Polish United Workers ' Party . He set himself ablaze during one of the festival dances using a flammable solvent . This method of protest was likely inspired by recent series of similar protests by Buddhist monks in Vietnam , most notably that of Thích Quảng Đức . He had a banner with the words " For our freedom and yours " and " Honour , Fatherland " as well as some leaflets , which he is said to have thrown around right before the incident , though neither attracted much attention , and both items are primarily mentioned only in the documents of the investigating secret police . He refused immediate help and shouted " I protest " . He retained consciousness after the flames had been extinguished , giving brief statements , as well as later when he was transferred to a hospital ( Szpital Praski ) , where he was able to communicate with the medical personnel , and where he received a brief visit from his wife . In the hospital , he was put under police surveillance , dying four days later on 12 September .
= = Significance and remembrance = =
The incident was immediately suppressed by the authorities . A story invented on the spot was that it was an accident caused by drinking vodka and smoking , or spontaneously combusting , aiming to divert interest to gossip and portray Siwiec as an irresponsible drunk . He was also declared mentally ill .
Despite many attendees at the festival , there were relatively few witnesses , and the incident did not cause any delay in the main proceedings . Journalists and others knew that they would not be able to publish any photographs or movies , so those aware of the incident did not bother recording it other than by accident , nor did any try to investigate it afterward . Most of the few photographs of the incidents have been destroyed or forgotten and lost . Siwiec was censored out of official photographs of the Central Photographic Agency ( Centralna Agencja Fotograficzna ) , which had a monopoly on issuing photos for the press in the era of communist Poland . His act was captured in a 7 @-@ second film by a motion picture camera of the Polish Film Chronicle , but the official newsreels of the festival omitted any mention of the incident . This footage however survived , mislabeled either by accident or purpose , until it was rediscovered over twenty years later .
Polish secret police ( Służba Bezpieczeństwa ) made a routine investigation that ended quickly due to the " death of the culprit " , followed by routine low @-@ key surveillance of his friends and family , during which it intercepted Siwiec 's last letter to his wife ( delivered decades later ) . Overall , the authorities had little trouble suppressing the events , as none of the relatively few witnesses have shown any particular desire to make the event more widely known . There was some gossip about the incident , with most people considering it a suicide rather than an accident , but the reason for it was unclear , and no one connected Siwiec 's dramatic actions to contemporary political events . As publicist Stefan Kisielewski wrote in his diary two days after Siwiec 's death , " There are rumours about a self @-@ immolation [ during the festival ] but none knows the reason for it . "
= = = Funeral = = =
Siwiec ' funeral in Przemyśl was well attended , but did not turn into a political manifestation ; it was guarded by police , and secret agents spread rumors aimed at damaging Siwiec 's reputation . His family reported that while some acquaintances were supportive and aware of Siwiec 's true purpose , many turned away from them , either intimidated by the authorities or believing the stories that Siwiec had been drunk or mentally ill .
Siwiec 's timing has been described as unfortunate , as he chose to commit his act during a dance ( mazurka ) , at which time his cry was muffled due to the sounds of an orchestra playing . Some , like Tomas Kavaliauskas or Krzysztof Kąkolewski , have speculated that if he had chosen to act moments earlier , during a speech by Polish communist leader Władysław Gomułka , first secretary of the Polish United Workers Party , the commotion he caused would have likely interrupted it and his message might have been witnessed more widely . Publicist Antoni Zambrowski noted that many other self @-@ immolators like Czech Jan Palach had cooperated with anti @-@ communist opposition movements and left messages and other documents which helped publicize their activities ; Siwiec worked alone and so the Polish anti @-@ communist opposition with which he identified with was not aware of his action and the meaning behind it until much later .
Radio Free Europe learned about the incident a few days or months ( sources vary ) after the incident but did not consider the message reliable nor newsworthy , as the broadcaster was also unaware of its political context . This changed only after the famous self @-@ immolation of Palach in Prague four months later , on 19 January 1969 , and after RFE received more information , which clarified the political statement that Siwiec wanted to make . The RFE broadcast about Siwiec aired in February , March or April ( sources vary ) that year . If Palach became aware of Siwiec 's actions , it would thus have been due to word of mouth , rather than from RFE .
= = = Recognition = = =
Through the efforts of his family and friends , information about Siwiec became known to the anti @-@ communist Solidarność opposition in Poland by the 1980s . A brochure about him was published in 1981 . After the fall of communism , Siwiec became the subject of the 1991 documentary film Hear My Cry ( Usłyszcie mój krzyk ) , by Polish director Maciej Drygas . The film won several awards including the European Film Awards " Felix " prize for " Best Documentary " that year . Drygas , who is credited with reconstructing and popularizing Siwiec 's story , remarked that compared to other similar incidents of that time , such as the self @-@ immolations of Palach or Romas Kalanta , Siwiec death 's is unique in how little attention it attracted . Jan Nowak @-@ Jeziorański , the director of the Polish section of Radio Free Europe , expressed a similar sentiment : " This was an unheard of human tragedy ... The tragedy lay in that his sacrifice went completely unnoticed . " In the same vein , Kavaliauskas interprets Drygas ' movie as a critique of contemporary Polish society , saying that witnesses did not want to have this incident spoil their enjoyment of the festival on an otherwise " perfect day " .
Following Drygas ' movie , Ryszard Siwiec was posthumously awarded a number of Czech , Slovak and Polish state decorations . Memorial plaques dedicated to his memory exist in Warsaw , Dębica and Przemyśl . A bridge in Przemyśl , where he lived , was named after him in 1991 , as well as a street in Prague in front of the Czech Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes , with a nearby memorial dedicated to him , unveiled in 2010 . A street in Warsaw was named for him in 2011 . Nonetheless , as noted by Kavaliauskas in 2010 , he still is less known than other self @-@ immolators of his time .
= = Honours = =
Siwiec was awarded the following honours posthumously :
Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk , first class , awarded in 2001 by Václav Havel , President of the Czech Republic .
Order of Polonia Restituta , Commander 's Cross , awarded in 2003 by Aleksander Kwaśniewski , President of Poland .
Order of the White Double Cross , 3rd Class , awarded in 2006 by Ivan Gašparovič , President of Slovakia .
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= Bradwall =
Bradwall is a small village and civil parish in the unitary authority of Cheshire East , about 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of Sandbach in the ceremonial county of Cheshire , England , and about 20 mi ( 32 km ) south of Manchester . According to the 2011 census , the population of the entire parish was 182 . The area is predominantly agricultural , with no manufacturing or retail outlets .
The village is not mentioned in the 11th @-@ century Domesday survey , but from the 13th century gained notability as the manorial estate of Richard de Bradwall and his successors , including the families of Venables , Berington and Oldfield . From the early 19th century , it became the seat of the Latham family of Bradwall who resided at Bradwall Hall until its demolition in the early 20th century .
Bradwall hosts social events at the Village Hall , horse trial competitions ( eventing ) at Manor farm , and coarse fishing at Field Farm Fisheries . The Wesleyan Chapel Methodist Church has been the only place of worship since 1882 and closed in September 2013 . The manufacturer of Foden Trucks and their award @-@ winning Fodens Motor Works Band , were based in Bradwall until a boundary change in 1936 placed them in the adjacent parish of Sandbach .
= = History = =
= = = Place name = = =
Bradwall is not mentioned in the Domesday Book , completed in 1086 for William I of England , at which time the area was thought to be uncultivated moorland between Brereton and Warmingham , that formed part of the southern boundary of the Barony of Kinderton , the historic name of Middlewich .
The township derives its name from the Old English word brāde , meaning broad , and wælla meaning spring . Variant spellings include ( dates in brackets ) : Brade- , -wal , -wale , -walle , Bradwall ( 1226 ) , Brad ( e ) well ( e ) ( 1281 ) , Brod ( e ) wall ( 1324 ) , Beatwall ( 1326 ) , Broadwall ( 1415 ) , Bardwell ( 1438 ) , and , Bradwell ( 1724 ) . The name was also associated with the local hamlet of Hollinsgreen , where it was referred to as Bradwall et Hollins ( c . 1662 ) , and Bradwall cum Hollins ( 1819 ) . Today , the township also lends its name to the hamlet of Bradwall Green .
= = = Archaeological finds = = =
There is evidence of Bronze Age and Roman activity in the area . A Late Bronze Age axe head dating to around 1000 @-@ 801 BC was found near Fields Farm Fisheries in Bradwall . Around a thousand Roman coins dating from not earlier than 270 AD were discovered in 1820 , on the eastern side of Bradwall , a short distance from the Brindley Moor 's Farm and about four miles direct from the Roman station at Kinderton , at a point where a small brook is crossed by the footpath from Brereton to Sandbach . Discovered by a mole @-@ catcher , the coins included examples of denarii of Gallienus , Claudius II , Tetricus , Victorinus , and Diocletian . The remains of part of a Roman road , are also thought to have been discovered near the western side of Bradwall , by Boothlane , towards the west of Sandbach , and near King Street . Since the 1936 parish boundary changes , the road 's location is now in Elworth on Roman Way in Sandbach Parish .
= = = Manor of Bradwall = = =
Main article Manor of Bradwall
The first records that mention Bradwall are from about the 13th century , when the Venables family of Kinderton divided the Manorial estate ( i.e. the land ) of Bradwall into two parts or " moieties " . Several families have been associated with either the Manor , or the more recent country seat at Bradwall Hall , including :
= = = Seat of Bradwall = = =
The country seat of Bradwall ( i.e. its buildings and its estate ) is thought to have been originally on the west side of the parish , within a rectangular moat with a large pool , with the name Hallfields , near Hollins Wood . Hall Field next to Hollins Wood is also found on 19th @-@ century tithe maps . At some later time , the seat moved eastwards to Bradwall Hall .
= = = = Bradwall Hall = = = =
Located nearer the middle of the parish , Bradwall Hall was the seat of the Latham Family . Recorded as early as 1803 , the Hall is described as " a large white house with no architectural features of interest , is said by Dr. George Ormerod to have been ' a large building of brick , finished with gables , at the end of an avenue of firs and evergreens , ' which had been enlarged and modernised from time to time " . Following the 19th @-@ century decline of the English country house , Bradwall Hall was demolished on 16 October 1960 , blown up by the 214 Field Squadron of the Royal Engineers , although one of its cottages and the coach @-@ house remain , and they are now Grade II listed buildings , dated by English Heritage to the 17th century .
= = = = Bradwall Reformatory School for Boys = = = =
Bradwall Reformatory School was built by George William Latham ( 1827 – 1886 ) on his own property at Bradwall Hall , in 1855 , and aimed to reform delinquent boys through the use of an industrial labour apprenticeship . A report to the House of Commons in 1861 reported that :
" There were 58 boys in the school when I inspected it . [ ... ] I was glad to find that more of the ordinary farming processes were being resorted to ; the plough and other common agricultural machines employed , so that the training of the lads as farm servants would be gradually made more complete than the use of spade labour allows of . The books are well kept . The punishments had been much fewer , chiefly fines or loss of privilege . [ ... ] : The cost per head for the year was 18l . 9s . 11d . "
Notable detainees included two eight @-@ year @-@ old boys , Peter Barratt and James Bradley , who on 11 April 1861 abducted and killed two @-@ year @-@ old George Burgess . They were charged with manslaughter , and sentenced by the judge Sir Charles Crompton to be sent to the Reformatory at Bradwall , which " was to rank as the most enlightened and successful institution of its kind in the country " . Another detainee was one Joshua Tolley who was sent to Bradwall in 1871 at the age of eight . He was in and out of reform school until the age of 16 , but as a persistent offender , served sentences in Knutsford and Dartmoor prisons .
George William Latham 's cousin , Charles Latham ( 1816 – 1907 ) was surgeon to the Bradwall Reformatory from its foundation until his retirement in 1903 . The school was renamed Bradwall Training School in 1908 , and closed in 1920 . The buildings are now Grade II listed , converted into cottages .
= = = Economic history = = =
Historically , Bradwall has been farming and pasture land with the majority of people working in agriculture . The 1881 Census notes that nearly 20 % of the residents were in agriculture followed by nearly 12 % in domestic service ; 43 % had an unknown , or non @-@ specific occupation ( see table below ) . The 1902 Kelly 's Directory of Cheshire , noted that in Bradwall , " the crops are oats , roots , wheat and rye . The land is chiefly pasture " , and that commercially , there are a total of 15 farmers , one blacksmith and the superintendent of the Reformatory School .
= = Geography = =
Bradwall is a village and parish council in south east Cheshire in the northwest of England . As the crow flies , the Irish Sea is about 37 mi ( 60 km ) north west , Manchester city centre is about 22 mi ( 35 km ) north , the county capital Chester is 22 mi ( 35 km ) west , the Peak District is 13 mi ( 21 km ) east , Stoke on Trent is 13 mi ( 21 km ) southeast , and London is 150 mi ( 240 km ) southeast ( 172 mi ( 277 km ) by car ) .
Locally , Bradwall is a mile north of Sandbach parish council , 7 @.@ 5 mi ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) northeast of Crewe , 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southeast of Middlewich , 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of Holmes Chapel , and 8 mi ( 13 km ) west of Congleton . The Parish covers 1 @,@ 938 acres ( 784 ha ) Somewhat irregular in shape , it extends about 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east @-@ west , and 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north @-@ south . The land is slightly undulating , at an elevation of about 130 ft ( 40 m ) in the northwest , rising to about 195 ft ( 59 m ) in the southeast . Wooded areas included Barlow Wood , Bradwall Wood , Denman Wood and Hollins Wood .
A handful of brooks flow throughout the parish , the most notable being the so @-@ called Small Brook which flows into Sanderson 's Brook in the adjacent Sproston Parish . The River Croco is about a 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of Bradwall , and the River Wheelock about 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) away from the southwest boundary of Bradwall . Both rivers join the River Dane in Middlewich , which itself flows about 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north , ( see 1577 map ) . The Environment Agency indicates that the Small Brook may be subject to occasional , but not extensive flooding .
Bradwall parish also includes the hamlets of Bradwall Green in the east , and Hollinsgreen in the west , which used to be called Hollins , and Bradwall @-@ cum @-@ Hollins , that was noted for a 16th @-@ century water @-@ powered corn mill . There also used to be a hamlet called Hope in the parish . ( Not to be confused with Bradwell in the Derbyshire parish of Hope . )
= = = Climate = = =
Following the rest of United Kingdom and its parent county , Cheshire , Bradwall has an oceanic climate influenced by the Atlantic Ocean , and also by its altitude due to its proximity to the Pennines .
See also : Average temperature chart , Precipitation chart , and Wind speed chart
= = Geology = =
Bradwall sits mainly on fine @-@ grained mudstone , over a bedrock of Wilkesley Halite member with Halite @-@ stone . The halite is responsible for rock salt deposits in the surrounding area ( see " Salt in Cheshire " ) , and there is evidence of there having been " wich fields " along the western side of Wards Lane that may indicate small scale brine extraction . The thickness of the bedrock is estimated at around 400 m , and was formed around 221 to 227 million years ago in the Late Triassic Carnian period , in a hot dry environment . It is surrounded by Devensian glacial till from the last glacial period from between approximately 110 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . A small pocket of undifferentiated river terrace deposits of sand and gravel , dating from the Quaternary about 2 @.@ 5 million years old , is located southeast of the intersection of Pillar Box Lane with Bradwall Road . ( See illustration at The British Geological Survey ) . The topsoil reveals many trace elements , and an acidity that has been decreasing since 1978 . Several boreholes in the area reveal glacial sand and clays with a couple of layers of ground water .
= = = Seismology = = =
One of the six major regional seismic profiles lines , the 189 mi ( 304 km ) Lancaster to Birmingham profiles passes directly through Bradwall , as part of the Sandbach @-@ Knutsford Sub @-@ Basin of the Cheshire Basin . About five other minor seismic profiles also pass through Bradwall , all managed by the UK Onshore Geophysical Library , that are uses by resources exploration companies ( such as oil , gas and coal ) . Bradwall does not lie in an earthquake zone , although on 11 November 1997 , a rare magnitude 1 @.@ 5 earthquake was recorded about 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) due north in Byley .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census , the population of Bradwall Civil Parish totals 182 people ( 93 men and 89 women ) in 67 households . All households described their ethnicity as white , and of the population of 182 , 141 ( 77 % ) people stated their religion as Christian , 28 ( 15 % ) as no religion , the remaining 13 ( 7 % ) not stating a preference . The life expectancy at birth in 2007 – 2009 is 79 years for men , and 82 for women .
= = = Population = = =
The population of Bradwall peaked in the 1920s at over 1300 . The sharp decline in population in the 1930s is due to the 1936 change in the parish boundaries , when the populated area of Elworth was moved from Bradwall Parish and into Sandbach Parish . Since the 1950s , there has been a slight decline in population , and it is now well under 200 :
1801 , 1831 . 1811 . 1841 – 1851 . 1861 – 1871 . 1881 – 1961 2001 2011
= = Economy = =
There are only around a dozen businesses operating in Bradwall today , half of which are farms split evenly between dairy and agricultural farming . Other businesses include property development , accountancy and gardening . Some of the farms also operate secondary businesses , notably riding schools , stables and an annual eventing event .
Compared to the 1881 Census ( see Economic History ) , the working population recorded in the 2001 Census seems to show that the economy of Bradwall , along with the population , in decline .
The 2001 census notes that of the total population of 166 , that 127 ( 77 % ) are of working age between 16 and 74 . Of these , 90 ( 54 % ) are employed , divided between 36 people in " Extractive and Manufacturing Industries " and 54 people in " Service Industries " . The Census also reveals the following occupational breakdown :
= = Culture and Community = =
= = = Bradwall Village Hall = = =
Bradwall Village Hall was opened on 26 October 1972 by Lady Diana Helen Barlow , ( wife of Sir John ) , on land of the former Bradwall Hall . The hall is used for social and public events , such as Cheshire Rural Touring Arts , the South Cheshire Cheshire Beekeepers ' Association , Sandbach Folk Dance Club , and the Probus Club of Sandbach . The Village Hall is also used as the local Polling Station .
= = = Sport = = =
Although it has a Sandbach postcode , coarse fishing is available in the southeast of Bradwall Civil Parish at Field Farm Fisheries with five pools stocked with barbel , bream , carp , chub , crucian , rudd , roach and tench . The equestrian governing body , British Eventing , holds horse trials in eventing at Manor Farm each year . Plum Tree Farm Riding Centre is the local riding school . Chellebeech Livery Yard is at Springbank Farm .
= = = Parks and nature reserves = = =
Bradwall Parish has no parks and nature reserves of its own . The nearest public park is Sandbach Park , about 1 @.@ 75 mi ( 3 km ) away , with bowling greens , play areas , skate park , tennis court and multi @-@ use games area . Congleton Park is about 8 mi ( 13 km ) miles away and include a town wood and riverside walks . The Quinta Arboretum , created by Sir Bernard Lovell , is 9 mi ( 14 km ) away in Swettenham , and features multiple species of trees , shrubs and avenues .
Grade II registered parks and gardens include Queen 's Park in Crewe about 9 mi ( 14 km ) away , featuring a boating lake , stream garden , trees and floral borders . Rode Hall in Odd Rode parish about 8 mi ( 13 km ) away , is a landscape park designed by Humphry Repton in 1790 and created by John Webb in the early @-@ 19th century , and featuring a formal and kitchen garden .
Other countryside sites close to Bradwall include the Wheelock Rail Trail for walkers and cyclists , about 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) away in Sandbach , and Brereton Heath Local Nature Reserve about 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away , which includes a 15 @-@ acre lake and " a wealth of bird life , including great and lesser spotted woodpeckers , nuthatch , treecreepers , kingfisher , heron , great crested grebe and goldfinch " . About 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away is the Bagmere reserve , a Site of Special Scientific Interest , due to its internationally important series of meres and mosses , and " the last remaining site in Cheshire for the small pearl @-@ bordered fritillary butterfly " The nearest bird reserve is 26 mi ( 42 km ) way at Coombes Valley .
= = Landmarks = =
Bradwall is home to three buildings that were Grade II listed from 5 December 1986 , though none are open to the public :
The 17th @-@ century cottage and coach @-@ house of the former Bradwall Hall includes a two @-@ story building with three windows , made with brown brickwork and tile roof . Inside are chamfered oak beams , chimney corner ( inglenook ) and oak supporting beams ( bressumer ) . The coach house is also oak framed with brown brick and roof tiles .
Built around 1700 , Plumbtree Farmhouse off Ward 's Lane in Bradwall Green is a two @-@ storey building with three windows , built with brown brick .
The Reformatory School and Cottages ( 1855 datestone ) on Walnut Lane , is a two @-@ storey building with three windows , now converted in cottages , that surrounds a rectangular courtyard . The school originally cost £ 255 to build .
= = Transport = =
= = = Roads = = =
The main road through Bradwall is Bradwall Road , which runs from Middlewich in the northwest , to Sandbach in the South . A 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) stretch of the M6 motorway passes through the east of the parish , which is a couple of miles from the M6 Exit 17 . Before the motorway was built in the 1960s , and still available to local traffic , Bradwall is served by the A54 Middlewich to Holmes Chapel road to the north , the A50 Holmes Chapel to Arclid in the east , the A534 Arclid to Sandbach to the south , and the A533 Sandbach to Middlewich in the west .
= = = Walking = = =
There are several public footpaths forming rights of way in Bradwall . For example , a 1 @.@ 25 mi ( 2 km ) footpath runs from Congleton Road in Sandbach , northwards through the fields and across the Small Brook to Bradwall Manor , and another 1 @.@ 25 mi ( 2 km ) footpath runs from the end of Vicarage Lane in Elworth , northeastwards across the Small Brook , Wood Lane to Bradwall Lane near the junction of Pillar Box Lane .
= = = Nearby transport = = =
Manchester International Airport is about 25 mi ( 40 km ) from Bradwall . The nearest airfield is about 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away at Arclid Airfield , currently used by Cheshire Microlights . A few miles north of Bradwall , RAF Cranage was built during the Second World War , and was operational between 1940 and 1958 .
There are no bus services into Bradwall . There nearest services are a couple of miles away in Sandbach , where the No.32 goes to Crewe , 37 ( E ) to Middlewich , 38 to Macclesfield and Crewe , 49 to Holmes Chapel , 78 to Nantwich , 319 to Holmes Chapel , D1 to Crewe , H1 to Whitehill , X81 to Middlewich , X22 to Liverpool , and X38 to Congleton .
The Trent and Mersey Canal passes about 100 m ( 330 ft ) from the western border of Bradwall . National Cycle Way Route 71 Parkgate to Teggs Nose , Macclesfield , passes about 100 m ( 330 ft ) from the northeast boundary of Bradwall .
Built in 1841 , the Crewe to Manchester railway Line passes through Bradwall from southwest to northeast . The parish has no stations of its own , the nearest being Sandbach station in Elworth , about 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away by road , which runs between Crewe and Manchester . Closing to passengers in 1960 , a single freight line between Sandbach via Middlewich railway station and Northwich also just enters Bradwall in the northwest , near the electricity substation in Moston . The closest railway junction is Crewe railway station , serving Chester , Derby , London , Manchester and beyond .
= = Government = =
Bradwall civil parish was originally part of Sandbach Ancient Parish , and was created a separate parish from it in 1867 . It also was part of Nantwich Hundred , Congleton Poor Law Union , Rural Sanitary District , and ( after 1866 ) it formed part of Congleton Rural District until 1974 , when it became part of the Borough of Congleton .
In terms of parliamentary representation , the Bradwall area ( including the time when it was not a separate civil parish ) was in the Cheshire Southern Division from 1832 to 1867 ; in the Cheshire Mid Division , from 1867 to 1885 ; in the Eddisbury Division , from 1885 to 1918 ; in the Northwich Division , from 1918 to 1948 ; from 1948 it was in Knutsford County Constituency , but it is currently in Congleton Parliament Constituency , represented by Mrs Fiona Bruce MP . The local polling station is Bradwall Village Hall .
One of 112 Local Councils in Cheshire East , Bradwall Parish Council is currently chaired by Greg Gnyp .
= = Education = =
There are no schools in Bradwall parish , so it falls into the Offley and Sandbach School Admission Catchment areas , which determines the nearest appropriate school . The primary school for the area is Offley Primary School ( about 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away ) . A 2011 OFSTED report noted that this is a larger @-@ than @-@ average @-@ sized school , whose overall effectiveness was graded as " good " , an improvement by one grade over the previous inspection in 2008 . The secondary schools are Sandbach High School and Sixth Form College for girls , and Sandbach School for the boys . Both are independent schools that have converted to academy status . 2008 OFSTED reports gave each school a top Grade 1 " Outstanding " rating . The local Voluntary Aided ( Catholic ) school is St Mary 's Catholic Primary School in Middlewich , which a 2011 Ofsted reports noted as " Satisfactory " , and the local Voluntary Aided ( C of E ) school is Brereton Church of England Primary School , which a 2011 Ofsted report stated as " Good " . The nearest college is South Cheshire College , and the nearest university is Manchester Metropolitan University 's Institute of Education , both in Crewe .
= = Religious sites = =
Built in 1882 , Bradwall 's only place of worship is the Wesleyan Chapel Methodist Church on Ward 's Lane . The church is one of four in the Sandbach Mission Area ( the others are in Sandbach , Sandbach Heath and Wheelock ) , and services are held fortnightly on Sunday . The minister is the Rev 'd Kim Stilwell . Historic Minutes , financial and administrative records between 1882 and 1928 are held at the Cheshire Record Office . In 1982 , the Chapel celebrated its centenary .
St Mary 's Church in Sandbach has a chancel that belonged to Bradwall Hall , and includes the arms of Oldfield . Once called the Bradwall Chancel or Bradwall Chapel , it is not called the Chapter House , " Church records state that Philip Oldfield of Bradwall had a confirmation of his right to this Chapel from the Bishop of Chester on 8 October 1589 .
= = Notable people = =
Edwin Foden , ( 1841 – 1911 ) , was a vehicle manufacturer who founded Foden Trucks and Fodens Motor Works Band . He died at his home , Elworth House , then in Bradwall parish . Other members of the family business included his sons , William Foden ( 1868 – 1964 ) and Edwin Richard Foden ( 1870 – 1950 ) , who were born at Bradwall Green , and Foden senior 's business partner , George Hancock ( c . 1823 ) , who was a neighbour on Foundry Street , Bradwall in 1871 .
The Rev. John Richard Armitstead ( 1829 – 1919 ) was born at Springfields , Bradwall , and succeeded his father as vicar of St Mary 's Church , Sandbach in October 1865 .
= = Services = =
Public utilities to Bradwall Parish County are served by Scottish Power Manweb regional electricity company , the North West gas network ( a gas pipeline passes through Bradwall along the route of the M6 motorway , ) and water is provided by Severn Trent Water .
There is no cable TV available in the area , but like the rest of country , Sky TV is available by satellite . FreeView digital TV is transmitted from the Winter Hill transmitter 33 @.@ 5 mi ( 53 @.@ 9 km ) away , and is part of the Granada television region .
The local telephone exchange is Sandbach ( code WMSBH ) , with several companies providing a variety of Internet broadband services , including Broadband ADSL since 2000 , and Broadband ADSL Max since 2006 ( estimated speed 3.5Mb ) . Mobile phone services with 2G and 3G are available from the major networks . A 15m UTMS mobile phone mast operated by 3 is on Brindley Lane , and a 23 @.@ 5 m ( 77 ft ) GSM mast operated by Network Rail on Wood Lane .
Bradwall is policed by Middlewich and Holmes Chapel Neighbourhood Policing Team , part of Cheshire Constabulary police force . Crime rates are low , with just two crimes reported throughout 2011 .
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= Tropical Storm Vongfong ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Vongfong , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Milenyo , affected both the Philippines and China after a deadly flood season . The 14th named storm of the 2002 Pacific typhoon season , Vongfong developed as a tropical depression on August 10 . Initially it was disorganized due to hostile conditions , and it failed to intensify significantly before crossing the Philippine island of Luzon . There , flooding forced 3 @,@ 500 people to evacuate their homes . In the Philippines , the storm killed 35 people and caused $ 3 @.@ 3 million in damage .
After affecting the Philippines , the tropical depression dissipated in the South China Sea , although it reformed on August 15 . It moved northwestward , strengthening into Tropical Storm Vongfong . It brushed eastern Hainan before making landfall on August 19 in southern China near Wuchuan , Guangdong . Soon after it dissipated , the storm dropped heavy rainfall across the region , causing one traffic accident in Hong Kong and killing twelve people due to landslides . The storm destroyed 6 @,@ 000 houses , mostly in Guangdong , and damage in the country totaled at least $ 86 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 8 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , formed to the west @-@ northwest of Palau , with a weak circulation connected to the monsoon trough . The system had good outflow , although it was initially within an area of increasing moderate wind shear , which limited organization . Convection increased , and although the circulation was exposed , the shear later decreased enough for the system to organize into a tropical depression on August 10 ; the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) labeled it as Tropical Depression 18W , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) labeled it as an unnumbered depression , and the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) gave it the name Tropical Depression Milenyo .
Upon developing , the depression was located in an area of weak steering currents , still connected to the monsoon rough , and it moved slowly to the west @-@ northwest . The thunderstorms continued to be sheared to the west of the circulation , which limited strengthening . On August 12 , the JTWC briefly upgraded the system to a tropical storm after a temporary increase in thunderstorms , although the system soon weakened . A ridge to the north caused a general westward track toward the Philippines . With a fully exposed circulation , the depression made landfall at 0800 UTC on August 13 near Infanta on the Philippine island of Luzon . It soon dissipated due to continued shear and land interaction . The remnants continued westward into the South China Sea , and PAGASA and JMA both discontinued advisories early on August 14 . However , on August 15 , a tropical depression re @-@ developed halfway between Vietnam and the Philippines , with a circulation exposed from the convection due to moderate wind shear . That day , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 20W .
After redevelopment , wind shear continued to be a problem , with convection located southwest of the center . Early on August 17 , a pulse in the monsoon increased thunderstorms and allowed the system to become better organized . The convection became more concentrated and the circulation less exposed . As a result , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Vongfong early on August 18 , still in the central South China Sea . Around that time , the storm began moving more quickly to the northwest due to a developing ridge to its northeast . Although the JMA estimated peak 10 – minute sustained winds of only 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , the JTWC assessed Vongfong as continuing to intensify to peak 1 – minute winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , early on August 19 . By that time , the storm was near Hainan , and at 1240 UTC that day , Vongfong made landfall in southern China near Wuchuan , Guangdong . It quickly weakened over land , dissipating early on August 20 to the west of Guilin .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Heavy rains from the storm affected the Philippines , causing flooding that forced 3 @,@ 500 people to evacuate their houses . This occurred after a month of heavy rainfall from several tropical cyclones in July . Officials closed schools and advised small boats to remain at port . A vessel capsized offshore Antique Province , and its crew of 15 was rescued . At least six people died due to electrocution , after downed power lines touched floodwaters . The storm spawned a tornado and caused landslides in Negros Oriental . The storm killed 35 people in the country and injured 22 others . Damage was estimated at $ 3 @.@ 3 million ( ₱ 172 million 2002 PHP ) . Milenyo was the final storm to be named by PAGASA during 2002 .
On August 17 , the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) issued standby signal number 1 due to the storm 's reformation in the South China Sea . Vongfong made landfall west of the territory , although its outer rainbands spread across the region . Slick roads contributed to a traffic accident in Sai Kung in which one person was killed . Rainfall in Hong Kong reached 133 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) in the town of Kwai Chung . The rainbands also produced gusty winds ; sustained winds peaked at 75 km / h ( 47 mph ) , with gusts to 110 km / h ( 68 mph ) at the mountain peak of Tai Mo Shan . While moving ashore , Vongfong produced a storm surge of 0 @.@ 48 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) in Shek Pik . The storm downed a few trees across the territory , and a fallen branch injured one man . Another person was injured by a damaged awning .
In Hainan , the threat from Vongfong prompted officials to close the primary airport and to restrict sea traffic with Guangdong . As a result , 113 flights were delayed , stranding more than 3 @,@ 000 people . On the island , rainfall reached as high as 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) in Haikou over a three @-@ day period . In the city , the storm downed 2 @,@ 145 trees , and damage was estimated at $ 456 @,@ 000 ( ¥ 3 @.@ 8 million CNY . In the midst of a deadly flooding season across China , including Tropical Storm Kammuri that affected the region only 12 days earlier , Vongfong brought additionally heavy rainfall to southwestern China ; totals in Guangdong peaked at 222 @.@ 6 mm ( 8 @.@ 76 in ) in Zhanjiang , and in Guangxi , rainfall reached 124 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) in a nine @-@ hour period in Bobai County . The storm washed a boat ashore about 60 km ( 37 mi ) southwest of Hong Kong , although the passengers were rescued . Rains spread as far north as Hunan , where previous flooding prompted a state of emergency . In neighboring Jiangxi , floods caused the Yangtze River to crest above warning levels in Jiujiang . River levels also rose in Liuzhou in Guangxi . Wind gusts as strong as 144 km / h ( 90 mph ) were reported in Zhanjiang , and a station in Guangxi reported gusts to 115 km / h ( 71 mph ) . The storm caused flooding and landslides that damaged thousands of houses . Some areas lost electricity during the storm , and the storm disrupted traffic in the region . Vongfong flooded 46 @,@ 000 ha ( 110 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , and storm flooding also damaged hundreds of reservoirs . Vongfong destroyed 5 @,@ 600 houses in Guangdong , many of them in Zhanjiang , and provincial damage there was estimated at $ 46 million ( ¥ 382 million CNY ) . In Guangxi , the storm killed twelve people , eight due to landslides . At least 400 houses were destroyed in Guangxi , and damage in the province was estimated at over $ 36 @.@ 2 million ( ¥ 300 million CNY ) .
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= Jet Force Gemini =
Jet Force Gemini is a third @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by Rare for the Nintendo 64 video game console . It was first released in North America on October 11 , 1999 and in Europe on November 2 , 1999 . The story of the game follows three members of the Jet Force Gemini team as they try to stop the advances of the dark insect tyrant Mizar and his army . The game features a single @-@ player campaign where the player must explore a galaxy and save a large number of Tribals , a group of survivors who have been enslaved and imprisoned by Mizar . The game also includes a multiplayer deathmatch for two to four players and a no split @-@ screen co @-@ operative mode . The gameplay shares elements with platform , action @-@ adventure , and run and gun games .
Jet Force Gemini was developed by Rare 's Blast Corps team , who originally considered the possibility to use the Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak . The game received generally positive reviews from critics , with an aggregate review score of 80 out of 100 at the review aggregate website Metacritic . Praise was given to its graphics , sound and original gameplay , while criticism was levelled at the game 's difficult controls and insistence on having to save every Tribal to fully complete the game .
= = Plot = =
Jet Force Gemini revolves around the Jet Force Gemini team attempting to defeat the evil leader Mizar and his horde of Drones . Jet Force Gemini is composed of three main characters : Juno , a taciturn human male whose parents were killed by space pirates that invaded his home station ; Vela , Juno 's feisty twin sister ; and Lupus , Jet Force Gemini 's wardog mascot . The game begins with the three characters in orbit around the planet Goldwood after barely escaping the destruction of the entire Jet Force fleet at the hands of Mizar . Their ship has been damaged , leaving them defenseless and unable to warp out of the system . It is not long before the team witnesses Mizar 's attack on Goldwood . Soon afterwards , their cruiser is attacked by a large craft of Mizar 's . Boarded by drones and out of time , the three decide to abandon the ship and go off on their own separate paths to stop the invasion .
As the game progresses , the heroes eventually find themselves reunited at Mizar 's Palace and face to face with Mizar himself . However , Mizar , enraged and vowing revenge on the human race , escapes to a nearby asteroid where he sets course to impact with Earth . King Jeff , the beloved leader of the Tribals , quickly arranges a plan to help the heroes : by providing an ancient starship that can quickly catch up to Mizar 's asteroid . Nevertheless , the team needs to locate several vital parts scattered throughout the galaxy , as well as rescue all the Tribals enslaved by Mizar . Also , King Jeff upgrades the heroes with new armor and jet packs that allow them to fly . From this point on , the team stays united and , together , works to search every world for anything they can find .
Once all the Tribals are rescued and the parts found , the team , along with King Jeff , reassembles the old Tribal craft and quickly depart to save Earth . After a rough landing , Juno fights through Mizar 's guards and eventually confronts the tyrant . To the surprise of all though , Mizar is revealed to be a robot controlled by King Jeff 's jealous brother , Barry . Realising that destroying Barry 's robot ruined their best chance of destroying the asteroid , the team is out of options . In an honorable notion , Floyd , the quiet little robot that defected from Mizar and followed the team , offers to sacrifice himself to destroy the asteroid . Hesitantly , the team agrees and attaches a timed warhead to Floyd before sending him into the core . With no time to spare , the team returns to the Tribal craft and departs only seconds before Floyd reaches the core . In a brilliant flash of light , the asteroid is destroyed mere miles away from entering the atmosphere of Earth . Afterwards on Earth , Jet Force Gemini is given the highest honors for their many accomplishments .
= = Gameplay = =
Jet Force Gemini is a third @-@ person shooter with elements of platform , action @-@ adventure , and run and gun games . Players control the playable character from a third @-@ person perspective in a free three dimensional environment . The game features extensive levels to explore , items to collect , power @-@ ups that enhance characters health and weaponry , towering bosses to defeat , and devastation on a massive scale . Unlike other Rare shooters such as GoldenEye 007 or Perfect Dark , the weapons in Jet Force Gemini feature no magazines and cannot be reloaded after a certain number of shots . Players fight on foot and have the ability to jump . Much of the game is spent in battle , but some parts feature jump mechanics , as the player can hang from most ledges , swim and fly using jet packs when needed . In combat , the player is free to set on a manual aiming system with the targeting camera fixed behind the character ’ s head . When using this technique , a reticle appears on screen and the playable character becomes translucent so that players can aim and shoot with finesse . By contrast , when walking around , the game plays much like a typical 3D platformer .
Exploration is one of the most important aspect of the gameplay . The campaign features a galaxy that is composed of 15 nonlinear worlds , with areas connected by different types of doors . Most of the doors open automatically , but some need a special action to be unlocked . For example , some doors require the player to kill all the enemies in the area to be unlocked , while others may require a specific key . The players can take control of any and all three characters as they progress though the game , using their individual and unshared strengths where required ; Juno can walk through magma safely , Vela can swim underwater indefinitely , and Lupus can hover for a short period of time . These abilities allow the characters to uncover new areas which the other characters cannot reach . Therefore , choosing the right character for the right stage is critical in order to complete the game . Initially , the game does not allow the player to tackle the different worlds with a desired character , and forces the player to use the three characters individually until they reach a meeting point . Once they get to the meeting point , all of the worlds can be tackled with any character in any order . The overall objective of the game is to explore all the areas in order to save all the Tribals and collect several spaceship pieces that allow the player to get to the final stage .
The game also features a multiplayer mode , where two to four players can battle it out in both traditional deathmatch and survival matches . Like GoldenEye 007 , options such as weapon schemes , time limit , number of kills or number of lives can be altered to match player preference . Additionally , some multiplayer aspects , such as levels and characters , can be unlocked by finding the corresponding secret in the game 's campaign . Players can also unlock some racing mini @-@ games , where players race from an overhead perspective , as well as a firing range mode , which is similar to a rail shooter like Virtua Cop . In this mode , players are limited to moving a crosshair around the screen while the game automatically follows a specific route . Jet Force Gemini also features a no split @-@ screen co @-@ operative mode , where the second player takes control of Floyd , a floating robot that automatically follows the main playable character , and can assist him by shooting .
= = Development = =
Development of Jet Force Gemini began in 1997 by Rare 's Blast Corps team , with lead programmer Paul Mountain , who had previously worked on Diddy Kong Racing . The developers took inspiration from many popular games and movies of the time . The free @-@ roaming nature of Nintendo 's Super Mario 64 influenced the scale and the openness of some of the backgrounds and settings , and the collecting and upgrading of weapons were inspired by Super Metroid . Additionally , Mountain revealed that " the behaviour of the bad guys was a mixture of arcade space shooter formations and Quake @-@ style ' attack and cover ' mechanics " . According to him , " I suppose ... we were inspired by all the good stuff we 'd played and enjoyed playing " . The game also borrowed from other non @-@ related video games sources . Lead artist Lee Musgrave admitted : " There are elements of Star Wars in there , Aliens , Dune , Battle of the Planets , even Stargate – it was a real mix of everything and anything ' space ' related . "
At one time , the game 's protagonists Juno and Vela were designed as younger and more cartoon @-@ like with large heads , but were later changed to their more mature versions at Nintendo 's request . The game 's controls were one of the main concerns during development . The idea was to retain a character @-@ based game , where players could see the character they were playing , while keeping the tightness and accuracy of first @-@ person shooters . Rare initially attempted to automate the change of view and targeting mode based on the context of the action , but this idea was eventually replaced with a manual system . According to Mountain , " The solution we ended with is a beautiful thing ... It feels very old @-@ school to me ; difficult , unforgiving , but ultimately precise " . As several members of the team enjoyed racing games and had also worked on Diddy Kong Racing , the team decided to include the futuristic Ant racing featured in the campaign and the top @-@ down arcade racing games in the multiplayer .
Developers initially considered the possibility to use the 4MB Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak , but the idea was eventually dropped . According to Mountain , " we wanted to deliver the same experience to all players and were confident that we could do this using the standard 4MB of RAM on the console . " This led to some confusion as the box cover for the original release stated that it did support such a feature . Nintendo provided a quick @-@ fix to the mislabeled covers by providing stickers declaring its rumble pak compatibility and fixed later printings of the boxes . The game was originally planned for release on August 31 , 1999 , but was pushed back to September 27 in order to give the programmers time to polish up the game . It was then pushed back even further to October 11 due to manufacturing delays . Jet Force Gemini was localized as Star Twins ( スターツインズ ) in Japan due to Nintendo 's opinion that the Japanese pronunciation of the original name , " Jetto Fōsu Jeminai " was too difficult to pronounce . 4Kids Entertainment obtained the rights to merchandising both Jet Force Gemini and Perfect Dark toys , movies , and other recreational products , but the company did not produce any merchandise for the franchise .
= = Reception = =
Jet Force Gemini received generally positive reviews from video game critics . At the review aggregate website Metacritic , the game holds an average review score of 80 out of 100 . GameSpot reviewer Nelson Taruc awarded the game a rating of 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , commenting : " Nintendo 64 fans should pick up this title without delay and hope that Rareware 's team of top @-@ notch talent will continue to churn out even more games like this one for years to come " . Matt Casamassina of IGN praised Rare for exploring new mechanics and concluded his review by saying that " this is still one of Nintendo 64 's most original games and it has much more good going for it than it does bad " .
The audio and sound effects were lauded . IGN pointed out that the music is " some of the very best ever put into a Nintendo 64 game " and described the sound effects as " dead @-@ on and crystal clear " . Steve Graff , writing for Gaming Target , observed that the audio is suspenseful and atmospheric , while Johnny Liu of Game Revolution opined that the game " goes for a more operatic feel than the generic video game techno " . The graphics were praised for their diversity , colour and lighting effects , but some publications remarked that the frame rate can drop significantly when the action increases . The enemy AI , challenge and variety of weapons were also highlighted positively . According to IGN , " It 's old @-@ school gameplay brought into 3D and it 's all extremely satisfying " .
While critics generally praised the game 's level design and length , several reacted negatively to the insistence on having to save every Tribal to fully complete the game . According to GameCritics , " Going through each level three times becomes majorly tedious [ ... ] and finding them also lead a lot of pointless legwork " . Ravi Hiranand of Gaming Age also criticized the fact of restarting an entire level when a single Tribal is accidentally killed . IGN declared this task to be " far too tedious to truly be enjoyed " . Despite the criticism , Game Revolution admitted that this " is countered by the pure fun of running around tearing through giant bugs with lasers " .
The multiplayer mode received a mixed reaction . IGN called it " slow and clunky " , while Gaming Age observed that the third @-@ person view " takes up far too much of the " already tiny split screen [ and ] the complex control system does not help make it a game to pick @-@ up @-@ and @-@ play " . Nevertheless , the minigames and co @-@ operative mode received more praise . Publications also claimed that the controls were complex and confusing . IGN remarked that the targeting system is not very intuitive . In contrast , Gaming Age stated that " once you get the hang of it after about an hour 's play , it does get quite easy to use " . Similarly , GameSpot felt that they remain responsive at all times , but admitted that the alternation between the two distinct control styles " might prove distasteful to some " .
= = Legacy = =
A Game Boy Color version of Jet Force Gemini was in development in 2000 , but was ultimately cancelled . The owner of the prototype cartridge has attested that the game appears to be nearly complete , though it was never officially announced by either Rare or Nintendo . In an October 2012 interview , former Rare designer and producer Martin Wakeley commented : " Jet Force Gemini on the Gameboy was the only occasion I can remember Rare outsourcing anything . It was being done by Bits Studios and was nearly done last time I saw it , I ’ m not sure what happened to it . "
In 2000 , Jet Force Gemini was ranked by IGN at number 20 in their list of The Top 25 N64 Games of All Time . In 2009 , Official Nintendo Magazine ranked it the 93rd best game available on Nintendo platforms . The staff called it Rare 's " big hope " due to the highly anticipated but delayed Nintendo 64 game Perfect Dark . Subsequent games developed by Rare have featured cameo appearances of Jet Force Gemini , including Kameo : Elements of Power , Viva Piñata : Trouble in Paradise , and Banjo @-@ Tooie . Players may also dress their character up as Juno , Vela , and Lupus in Minecraft : Xbox 360 Edition through the use of a downloadable content pack . The game is included as part of the Rare Replay video game compilation for Xbox One , with support for dual @-@ analog controls being added post @-@ release .
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= When the Bough Breaks ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" When the Bough Breaks " is the 17th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . The episode first aired in broadcast syndication on February 15 , 1988 . It is the first episode written for the series by Hannah Louise Shearer and the only episode of the series with Kim Manners as director .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise @-@ D. In the episode , the residents of a not @-@ so @-@ mythical planet kidnap children from the Enterprise to re @-@ populate their dying world . While Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) attempts to negotiate for their release , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) organises a passive resistance among the children .
The episode features Jerry Hardin in his first Star Trek role , and Brenda Strong . Mackenzie Westmore , the daughter of make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore , along with Jeremy and Amy Wheaton , the younger brother and sister of Wil Wheaton , appear as uncredited children . 10 @.@ 2 million viewers watched the episode , which was higher than the number of viewers watching the following episode . " When the Bough Breaks " received a mixed reception from critics who praised the performances of Stewart and Wheaton , but criticised the environmental message .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise enters the Epsilon Mynos system , searching for the legendary world of Aldea . The planet de @-@ cloaks , and reveals itself to the ship . The Aldeans beam down Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) , Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) , and Chief Medical Officer Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) to the planet . The Aldeans explain that they have been unable to bear children for many years and revealed themselves to the Enterprise in hopes they could trade their advanced technology for some of the Enterprise 's children so that they can re @-@ populate their world . Riker refuses and the crew is returned to the Enterprise . Simultaneously , seven children , including young Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) , are taken down to the planet protected by a planetary energy shield that the crew of the Enterprise are unable to penetrate . While the Aldean elders attempt to integrate the children into their society , Wesley is shown the " Custodian " , an ancient computer system that the Aldeans rely on but do not understand .
As Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) attempts to negotiate with the Aldeans , they briefly allow Dr. Crusher to reunite with her son on the planet . Wesley hints about the Custodian to her , while she secretly passes him a tricorder to scan the Aldeans . After Picard fails to get the Aldeans to agree to the children 's return , they fire an energy weapon that sends the Enterprise three days away from Aldea at maximum warp . The Aldeans warn that they can send the Enterprise an impossibly far distance if they refuse to cooperate . During the return trip , Dr. Crusher reviews the scanner results and finds the Aldeans are suffering from radiation poisoning , which has harmed their reproductive capabilities but can be reversed if the source is discovered . On arrival back at the planet , Picard orders the crew to try to find a way through the planet 's shield while he restarts negotiations .
Wesley , aware the Enterprise is in orbit , arranges for the children to passively resist . When the Aldeans request Picard 's help to resolve the issue with the children , the crew finds a way to beam through the shield , allowing Commander Riker and Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) to sneak onto the planet . Data manages to disable the Custodian , disrupting the Aldean 's transporter and planetary shield . Dr. Crusher explains to the Aldeans that their shield has weakened the ozone layer of their planet , exposing the inhabitants to ultraviolet radiation that has left them unable to bear children . The radiation would likely have the same effects on the children from the Enterprise . Without the planetary shield , the ozone layer will naturally return , allowing the Aldeans to reproduce again . The Aldeans recognize the error of their ways and return the children to the Enterprise . They accept Starfleet 's help to correct their ancient systems and recognize that they will have to forgo their invisibility to continue their society .
= = Production = =
Writer Hannah Louise Shearer pitched the episode to associate producer D. C. Fontana , highlighting the families living on board the Enterprise . While the pilot episode " Encounter at Farpoint " first mentioned the children on the ship , " When the Bough Breaks " was the first time they had been used as a plot element . Shearer also discussed a story idea with series creator Gene Roddenberry about " a society that had lost its humanity in favor of technology " . Originally , there was a subplot involving the separation of the saucer section with the saucer taken hostage . Shearer described Wheaton 's performance in the episode as " just wonderful " . " When the Bough Breaks " was the first of five episodes credited to Shearer ; she later described it as her favourite episode . It was the only episode of the series directed by Kim Manners . Manners later produced the television series The X @-@ Files and Supernatural .
Visual effects supervisor Robert Legato created a two @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) model of the Aldean computer . It was cheaper to build a model of the computer for around US $ 3 @,@ 000 than to create a series of matte paintings . Ron Jones took a simple approach to the score , using a lilting theme with a piano or flute instead of singing . The theme is representative of the Enterprise 's children and first appeared in the opening cue , " Escape From Calculus " . The technology of Aldea is embodied by electronic music across several pieces , including " Scanning for Children " and " Power Source " .
Among the guest stars in " When the Bough Breaks " were Jerry Hardin who later appeared again in The Next Generation as Mark Twain in the two @-@ part episode " Time 's Arrow " , and appeared in The X @-@ Files as Deep Throat . Brenda Strong went on to appear as Mary Alice Young in 179 episodes of Desperate Housewives , and was nominated for two Emmy Awards . Several uncredited children appeared , including Mackenzie Westmore , the daughter of make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore and the younger siblings of Wil Wheaton , Jeremy and Amy .
= = Reception and home media release = =
The episode first aired on February 15 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 2 million on the first broadcast , a ratings decrease following " Too Short a Season " , which received ratings of 10 @.@ 9 the previous week . The episode received higher ratings than the following episode , " Home Soil " the week after , which gained ratings of 9 million .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido of Tor.com said it was " A mostly harmless episode that lifts quite a bit from The Cliché Handbook " . He thought the performances were fairly solid and that the overall message about the ozone layer was " unsubtle but not too sledgehammery " . DeCandido praised Patrick Stewart 's performance of Captain Picard , noting that his " anger and outrage and justified self @-@ righteousness at the kidnapping of children modulates nicely into diplomacy when negotiating with the Aldeans and amusingly into total discomfort when he has to actually deal directly with the children " . He gave the episode a score of six out of ten . James Hunt , writing for Den of Geek , said that it was " a decent enough story , but not in a way that makes you want to watch it " . He also felt that it was " a complete throwaway episode and contains almost nothing unique to the franchise " .
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club said that he was scared by the way he liked the episode despite it focusing on Wesley . He noticed the similarity between the " legendary " planets of Aldea in the episode and Magrathea in The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , a reference Handlen considered possibly deliberate . He thought that the child @-@ heavy episode wasn 't " as bad as it could 've been " , and gave the episode a " B " grade . Michelle Erica Green in her review for TrekNation , described " When the Bough Breaks " as " tedious , plodding and didactic " with a " preposterous " ending . She thought that the plot element of ozone damage was not optimal and that the quality of the episode was typical of the first season .
" When the Bough Breaks " was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on August 26 , 1992 . The episode was released in March 2002 on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set . It was included as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
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= The Lion King =
The Lion King is a 1994 American animated epic musical film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures . It is the 32nd animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series . The story takes place in a kingdom of lions in Africa , and was influenced by William Shakespeare 's Hamlet . The film was produced during a period known as the Disney Renaissance . The Lion King was directed by Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff , produced by Don Hahn , and has a screenplay credited to Irene Mecchi , Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton . Its original songs were written by composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice , and original scores were written by Hans Zimmer . The film features an ensemble voice cast that includes Matthew Broderick , James Earl Jones , Jeremy Irons , Jonathan Taylor Thomas , Moira Kelly , Nathan Lane , Ernie Sabella , Rowan Atkinson , Robert Guillaume , Madge Sinclair , Whoopi Goldberg , Cheech Marin , and Jim Cummings .
The Lion King tells the story of Simba , a young lion who is to succeed his father , Mufasa , as king ; however , after Simba 's uncle Scar murders Mufasa , Simba is manipulated into thinking he was responsible and flees into exile in shame and despair . Upon maturation living with two wastrels , Simba is given some valuable perspective from his childhood friend , Nala , and his shaman , Rafiki , before returning to challenge Scar to end his tyranny .
Development of The Lion King began in 1988 during a meeting between Jeffrey Katzenberg , Roy E. Disney and Peter Schneider while promoting Oliver & Company in Europe . Thomas Disch wrote a film treatment , and Woolverton developed the first scripts while George Scribner was signed on as director , being later joined by Allers . Production began in 1991 concurrently with Pocahontas , which wound up attracting most of Disney 's top animators . Some time after the staff traveled to Hell 's Gate National Park in Kenya to research on the film 's setting and animals , Scribner left production disagreeing with the decision to turn the film into a musical , and was replaced by Minkoff . When Hahn joined the project , he was dissatisfied with the script and the story was promptly rewritten . Nearly 20 minutes of animation sequences were produced at Disney @-@ MGM Studios in Florida . Computer animation was also used in several scenes , most notably in the wildebeest stampede sequence .
The Lion King was released on June 15 , 1994 , to a positive reaction from critics , who praised the film for its music , story and animation ; it finished its theatrical run as the highest @-@ grossing release of 1994 and the second highest @-@ grossing film of all time . The Lion King garnered two Academy Awards for its achievement in music and the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . The film has led to many derived works , such as a Broadway adaptation ; two direct @-@ to @-@ video follow @-@ ups — the sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) and the prequel / parallel The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) — two television series , Timon and Pumbaa and The Lion Guard , and a 3D re @-@ release in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
In the Pride Lands of Africa , a lion rules over the animals as king . The birth of King Mufasa and Queen Sarabi 's son Simba creates envy and resentment in Mufasa 's younger brother , Scar , who knows his nephew now replaces him as heir to the throne . After Simba has grown into a young cub , Mufasa gives him a tour of the Pride Lands , teaching him the responsibilities of being a king and the Circle of Life . Later that day , Scar tricks Simba and his best friend Nala into exploring a forbidden elephant graveyard , despite the protests of Mufasa 's hornbill majordomo Zazu . At the graveyard , three spotted hyenas named Shenzi , Banzai and Ed attack the cubs before Mufasa , alerted by Zazu , rescues them and forgives Simba for his actions . That night , the hyenas , who are allied with Scar , plot with him to kill Mufasa and Simba .
The next day Scar lures Simba to a gorge and tells him to wait there while he gets Mufasa . On Scar 's orders , the hyenas stampede a large herd of wildebeest into the gorge . Mufasa rescues Simba , but as Mufasa tries to climb up the gorge 's walls , Scar throws him back into the stampede , where he is trampled to death . After Simba finds Mufasa 's body , Scar convinces him he was responsible for his father 's death and advises Simba to flee the kingdom . As Simba leaves , Scar orders Shenzi , Banzai and Ed to kill the cub , but Simba escapes . That night , Scar announces to the pride that both Mufasa and Simba were killed in the stampede and steps forward as the new king , allowing a pack of hyenas to live in the Pride Lands .
After running far away , Simba collapses from exhaustion in a desert . Timon and Pumbaa , a meerkat and a warthog , find him and nurse him back to health . Simba subsequently grows up with them in the jungle , living a carefree life with his friends under the motto " hakuna matata " ( " no worries " in Swahili ) . When he is a young adult , Simba rescues Timon and Pumbaa from a hungry lioness , who turns out to be Nala . She and Simba reunite and fall in love . Nala urges Simba to return home , telling him the Pride Lands have become a wasteland with not enough food and water . Feeling guilty over his father 's death , Simba refuses and storms off , leaving Nala disappointed and angry . As Simba exits the jungle , he encounters Mufasa 's mandrill friend and advisor , Rafiki . Rafiki tells Simba that Mufasa is " alive " and takes him to a pond . There Simba is visited by the ghost of Mufasa in the sky , who tells him he must take his rightful place as the king of the Pride Lands . Simba realizes he can no longer run from his past and goes home . Nala , Timon , and Pumbaa join him , and agree to help him fight .
At the Pride Lands , Simba sees Scar hit Sarabi and confronts him , but Scar taunts Simba over his " part " in Mufasa 's death . However , when Scar pushes Simba to the edge of Pride Rock , he reveals that he killed Mufasa . Enraged , Simba roars back up and forces Scar to reveal the truth to the pride . Timon , Pumbaa , Rafiki , Zazu , and the lionesses fend off the hyenas while Scar , attempting to escape , is cornered by Simba at the top of Pride Rock . Scar begs Simba for mercy , insisting that he is family and placing the blame on the hyenas . Simba no longer believes Scar , but spares his life on the grounds of forever leaving the Pride Lands . Scar appears to comply , but then attacks his nephew . After a fierce fight , Simba throws his uncle off Pride Rock . Scar survives the fall , but is attacked and eaten alive by the hyenas , who overheard his attempt to betray them .
With Scar and the hyenas gone , Simba ascends to the top of Pride Rock and takes over the kingdom as the rain falls again . Sometime later , with Pride Rock restored to its former glory , Simba looks down happily at his kingdom with Nala , Timon , and Pumbaa by his side ; Rafiki presents Simba and Nala 's newborn cub to the inhabitants of the Pride Lands , and the Circle of Life continues .
= = Voice cast = =
Matthew Broderick as Simba , son of Mufasa and Sarabi , who grows up to become King of the Pride Lands . Joseph Williams provided adult Simba 's singing voice . Mark Henn and Ruben A. Aquino respectively served as the supervising animators for young and adult Simba.Jonathan Taylor Thomas voiced young Simba , while Jason Weaver provided the cub 's singing voice .
James Earl Jones as Mufasa , Simba 's father , King of the Pride Lands as the film begins . Tony Fucile served as the supervising animator for Mufasa .
Jeremy Irons as Scar , Mufasa 's younger brother and Simba 's uncle , who usurps the throne . Andreas Deja served as the supervising animator for Scar .
Moira Kelly as Nala , Simba 's best friend and later his wife . Sally Dworsky provided her singing voice . Aaron Blaise and Anthony de Rosa respectively served as the supervising animators for young and adult Nala.Niketa Calame provided the voice of young Nala while Laura Williams provided her singing voice .
Nathan Lane as Timon , a wise @-@ cracking and self @-@ absorbed yet somewhat loyal meerkat who becomes one of Simba 's best friends and adoptive parents . Michael Surrey served as his supervising animator .
Ernie Sabella as Pumbaa , a naïve warthog who suffers from flatulence and is Timon 's best friend and also becomes one of Simba 's best friends and adoptive parents . Tony Bancroft served as his supervising animator .
Robert Guillaume as Rafiki , a wise old mandrill ( although , while counseling Simba , he jokes that " you are a baboon , and I am not " ) who serves as shaman of the Pride Lands and presents newborn cubs of the King and Queen to the animals of the Pride Lands . James Baxter served as the supervising animator for Rafiki .
Rowan Atkinson as Zazu , a hornbill who serves as the king 's majordomo ( or " Mufasa 's little stooge " , as Shenzi calls him ) . Ellen Woodbury served as the supervising animator for Zazu .
Madge Sinclair as Sarabi , Mufasa 's mate , Simba 's mother , and the leader of the lioness hunting party . Russ Edmonds served as the supervising animator for Sarabi .
The three hyenas who serve Scar were animated by Alex Kupershmidt and David Burgess.Whoopi Goldberg as Shenzi , the sassy and short @-@ tempered female leader of the trio .
Cheech Marin as Banzai , an aggressive and hot @-@ headed hyena prone to complaining and acting on impulse .
Jim Cummings as Ed , a dim @-@ witted hyena who does not talk , only communicating through laughter . Cummings also voiced a gopher that talks with Zazu and replaced Irons as Scar in certain lines of " Be Prepared " after Irons blew his voice .
Zoe Leader as Sarafina , Nala 's mother , who is shown briefly talking to Simba 's mother , Sarabi .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for The Lion King was conceived in late 1988 during a conversation between Jeffrey Katzenberg , Roy E. Disney and Peter Schneider on a plane to Europe to promote Oliver & Company . During the conversation , the topic of a story set in Africa came up , and Katzenberg immediately jumped at the idea . The idea was then developed by Walt Disney Feature Animation 's vice president for creative affairs Charlie Fink . Katzenberg decided to add elements involving coming of age and death , and ideas from personal life experiences , such as some of his trials in his bumpy road in politics , saying about the film , " It is a little bit about myself . " In November of that year Thomas Disch ( author of The Brave Little Toaster ) wrote a treatment entitled King of the Kalahari , and afterwards Linda Woolverton spent a year writing drafts of the script , which was titled King of the Beasts and then King of the Jungle . The original version of the film was very different from the final film . The plot was centered in a battle being between lions and baboons with Scar being the leader of the baboons , Rafiki being a cheetah , and Timon and Pumbaa being Simba 's childhood friends . Simba would also not leave the kingdom , but become a " lazy , slovenly , horrible character " due to manipulations from Scar , so Simba could be overthrown after coming of age . By 1990 , producer Thomas Schumacher , who had just completed The Rescuers Down Under , decided to attach himself to the project " because lions are cool " . Schumacher likened the script for King of the Jungle to " an animated National Geographic special " .
Oliver & Company director George Scribner was the initial director of the film , being later joined by Roger Allers , who was the lead story man on Beauty and the Beast in October 1991 . Allers brought with him Brenda Chapman , who would become the head of story . Afterwards , several of the lead crew members , including Allers , Scribner , Hahn , Chapman , and production designer Chris Sanders , took a trip to Hell 's Gate National Park in Kenya , in order to study and gain an appreciation of the environment for the film . After six months of story development work Scribner decided to leave the project , as he clashed with Allers and the producers on their decision to turn the film into a musical , as Scribner 's intention was of making a documentary @-@ like film more focused on natural aspects . Rob Minkoff replaced Scribner , and producer Don Hahn joined the production as Schumacher became only an executive producer due to Disney promoting him to Vice President of Development for Feature Animation . Hahn found the script unfocused and lacking a clear theme , and after establishing the main theme as " leaving childhood and facing up to the realities of the world " , asked for a final retool . Allers , Minkoff , Chapman and Hahn then rewrote the story across two weeks of meetings with directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale , who had just finished Beauty and the Beast . The script also had its title changed from King of the Jungle to The Lion King , as the setting was not the jungle but the savannah .
The Lion King was the first Disney animated feature to be an original story , rather than being based on an already @-@ existing work . The filmmakers have said that the story of The Lion King was inspired by the lives of Joseph and Moses from the Bible and William Shakespeare 's Hamlet . During the summer of 1992 , the team was joined by screenwriter Irene Mecchi , with a second screenwriter , Jonathan Roberts , joining a few months later . Mecchi and Roberts took charge of the revision process , fixing unresolved emotional issues in the script and adding comic business for Pumbaa , Timon and the hyenas . Lyricist Tim Rice worked closely with the writing team , flying to California at least once a month , as his songs needed to work in the narrative continuity . Rice 's lyrics – which were reworked up to the production 's end – were even pinned to the storyboards during development . Rewrites were frequent , with animator Andreas Deja saying that completed scenes would be delivered only for the response to be that parts needed to be reanimated due to dialog changes .
= = = Casting = = =
The voice actors were chosen for how they fit and could add to the characters – for instance , James Earl Jones was cast because the directors found his voice " powerful " and similar to a lion 's roar . Jones commented that during the years of production , Mufasa " became more and more of a dopey dad instead of [ a ] grand king " .
Nathan Lane originally auditioned for Zazu , and Ernie Sabella , for one of the hyenas . Upon meeting each other at the recording studio , the actors , who at the time both co @-@ starred in Guys and Dolls , were asked to record together as hyenas . The directors laughed at their performance and decided to cast them as Timon and Pumbaa . For the hyenas , the original intention was to reunite Cheech & Chong , but while Cheech Marin accepted to play Banzai , Tommy Chong was unavailable . Thus his role was changed into a female hyena , Shenzi , who was voiced by Whoopi Goldberg .
Matthew Broderick was cast as adult Simba early during production , and during the three years of voice acting only recorded with another actor once , and only discovered Moira Kelly voiced Nala at the premiere . Jeremy Irons had at first refused the role due to not being comfortable going from the dramatic performance as Claus von Bülow in Reversal of Fortune to a comedic role . But once he came in , Irons ' performance even inspired the writers to incorporate more of his acting as von Bülow — even adding one of that character 's lines , " You have no idea " - and animator Andreas Deja to watch both Reversal of Fortune and Damage to pick up Irons ' facial traits and tics .
= = = Animation = = =
The development of The Lion King started concurrently with Pocahontas , which most of the animators of Walt Disney Feature Animation decided to work on instead , believing it would be the more prestigious and successful of the two . The story artists also did not have much faith in the project , with Chapman declaring she was reluctant to accept the job " because the story wasn 't very good " , and writer Burny Mattinson saying to co @-@ worker Joe Ranft about the film that " I don 't know who is going to want to watch that one . " Most of the leading animators were either doing their first major work supervising a character , or had much interest in animating an animal . Thirteen of these supervising animators , both in California and Florida , were responsible for establishing the personalities and setting the tone for the film 's main characters . The animation leads for the main characters included Mark Henn on young Simba , Ruben A. Aquino on adult Simba , Andreas Deja on Scar , Aaron Blaise on young Nala , Anthony DeRosa on adult Nala , and Tony Fucile on Mufasa . Nearly 20 minutes of the film , including the " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " sequence , were animated at the Disney @-@ MGM Studios facility . Ultimately , more than 600 artists , animators and technicians contributed to The Lion King over the course of its production . Weeks before the film was to be released , production was affected by the 1994 Northridge earthquake , which shut off the studio and required the animators to finish their work from home .
The character animators studied real @-@ life animals for reference , as was done for the 1942 Disney film Bambi . Jim Fowler , renowned wildlife expert , visited the studios on several occasions with an assortment of lions and other savannah inhabitants to discuss behavior and help the animators give their drawings an authentic feel . The animators also studied various animal movements in natural settings at the Miami MetroZoo under guidance from wildlife expert Ron Magill . The Pride Lands are modeled on the Kenyan national park visited by the crew . Varied focal lengths and lenses were employed to differ from the habitual portrayal of Africa in documentaries – which employ telephoto lenses to shoot the wildlife from a distance . The epic feel drew inspiration from concept studies by artist Hans Bacher – which , following Scribner 's request for realism , tried to depict effects such as lens flare – and the works of painters Charles Marion Russell , Frederic Remington and Maxfield Parrish . Since the characters were not anthropomorphized , all the animators had to learn to draw four @-@ legged animals , and the story and character development was done through usage of longer shots following the characters .
The use of computers helped the filmmakers present their vision in new ways . For the " wildebeest stampede " sequence , several distinct wildebeest characters were created in a 3D computer program , multiplied into hundreds , cel shaded to look like drawn animation , and given randomized paths down a mountainside to simulate the real , unpredictable movement of a herd . Five specially trained animators and technicians spent more than two years creating the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute stampede sequence . Other usages of computer animation were done through CAPS , which helped simulate camera movements such as tracking shots , and was employed on the coloring , lighting and particle effects .
= = Music = =
Lyricist Tim Rice , who was working with composer Alan Menken on songs for Aladdin , was invited to write the songs , and accepted on the condition of finding a composing partner . As Menken was unavailable , the producers accepted Rice 's suggestion of Elton John , after Rice 's invitation of ABBA fell through due to Benny Andersson being busy with the musical Kristina från Duvemåla . John expressed an interest in writing " ultra @-@ pop songs that kids would like ; then adults can go and see those movies and get just as much pleasure out of them " , mentioning a possible influence of The Jungle Book , where he felt the " music was so funny and appealed to kids and adults " .
John and Rice wrote five original songs for this film ( " Circle of Life " , " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " , " Be Prepared " , " Hakuna Matata " and " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " ) with the singer 's performance of " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " playing over the end credits . The IMAX and DVD releases added another song , " The Morning Report " , which was based on a song discarded during development that eventually got featured in the live musical version of The Lion King . The film 's score was composed by Hans Zimmer , who was hired based on his work in two films in African settings , The Power of One and A World Apart , and supplemented the score with traditional African music and choir elements arranged by Lebo M. Zimmer 's partners Mark Mancina and Jay Rifkin helped with arrangements and song production .
The film 's original motion picture soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on July 13 , 1994 . It was the fourth @-@ best @-@ selling album of the year on the Billboard 200 and the top @-@ selling soundtrack . It is the only soundtrack for an animated film to be certified Diamond ( 10 × platinum ) by the Recording Industry Association of America . Zimmer 's complete instrumental score for the film was never originally given a full release by Disney , until the soundtrack 's commemorative 20th anniversary re @-@ release in 2014 . The Lion King also inspired the 1995 release Rhythm of the Pride Lands , with eight songs by Zimmer , Mancina , and Lebo M.
The use of the song " The Lion Sleeps Tonight " in a scene with Timon and Pumbaa has led to disputes between Disney and the family of South African Solomon Linda , who composed the song ( originally titled " Mbube " ) in 1939 . In July 2004 , the family filed suit , seeking $ 1 @.@ 6 million in royalties from Disney . In February 2006 , Linda 's heirs reached a legal settlement with Abilene Music , who held the worldwide rights and had licensed the song to Disney for an undisclosed amount of money .
= = Release = =
For The Lion King 's first film trailer , Disney opted to feature a single scene , the entire opening sequence with the song " Circle of Life " . Buena Vista Pictures Distribution president Dick Cook said the decision was made for such an approach because " we were all so taken by the beauty and majesty of this piece that we felt like it was probably one of the best four minutes of film that we 've seen " , and Don Hahn added that " Circle of Life " worked as a trailer as it " came off so strong , and so good , and ended with such a bang " . The trailer was released in November 1993 , accompanying The Three Musketeers in theaters , as only a third of The Lion King had been completed . Audience reaction was enthusiastic , causing Hahn to have some initial concerns as he became afraid of not living up to the expectations raised by the preview . Prior to the film 's release , Disney did 11 test screenings .
Upon release , The Lion King was accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign which included tie @-@ ins with Burger King , Mattel , Kodak , Nestlé and Payless ShoeSource , and various merchandise , accounting 186 licensed products . In 1994 , Disney earned approximately $ 1 billion with products based on the film , with $ 214 million for Lion King toys during Christmas 1994 alone .
= = = Home media = = =
The Lion King was first released on VHS and laserdisc in the United States on March 3 , 1995 , under Disney 's " Masterpiece Collection " video series . The VHS tape contained a special preview for Walt Disney Pictures ' then @-@ upcoming animated film Pocahontas , in which the title character ( voiced by Judy Kuhn ) sings the musical number " Colors of the Wind " . In addition , Deluxe Editions of both formats were released . The VHS Deluxe Edition included the film , an exclusive lithograph of Rafiki and Simba ( in some editions ) , a commemorative " Circle of Life " epigraph , six concept art lithographs , another tape with the half @-@ hour TV show The Making of The Lion King , and a certificate of authenticity . The CAV laserdisc Deluxe Edition also contained the film , six concept art lithographs and The Making of The Lion King , and added storyboards , character design artwork , concept art , rough animation , and a directors ' commentary that the VHS edition did not have , on a total of four double sided discs . The VHS tape quickly became the best @-@ selling videotape of all time : 4 @.@ 5 million tapes were sold on the first day and ultimately sales totaled more than 30 million before these home video versions went into moratorium in 1997 .
On October 7 , 2003 , the film was re @-@ released on VHS and released on DVD for the first time , titled The Lion King : Platinum Edition , as part of Disney 's Platinum Edition line of animated classic DVDs . The DVD release featured two versions of the film on the first disc , a remastered version created for the 2002 IMAX release and an edited version of the IMAX release purporting to be the original 1994 theatrical version . A second disc , with bonus features , was also included in the DVD release . The film 's soundtrack was provided both in its original Dolby 5 @.@ 1 track and in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix , making this one of the first Disney DVDs so equipped . By means of seamless branching , the film could be viewed either with or without a newly created scene – a short conversation in the film replaced with a complete song ( " The Morning Report " ) . A Special Collector 's Gift Set was also released , containing the DVD set , five exclusive lithographed character portraits ( new sketches created and signed by the original character animators ) , and an introductory book entitled The Journey . The Platinum Edition of The Lion King featured changes made to the film during its IMAX re @-@ release , including re @-@ drawn crocodiles in the " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " sequence as well as other alterations . More than two million copies of the Platinum Edition DVD and VHS units were sold on the first day of release . A DVD boxed set of the three The Lion King films ( in two @-@ disc Special Edition formats ) was released on December 6 , 2004 . In January 2005 , the film , along with the sequels , went back into moratorium .
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the Diamond Edition of The Lion King on October 4 , 2011 . This marks the time that the film has been released in high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray and on Blu @-@ ray 3D . The initial release was produced in three different packages : a two @-@ disc version with Blu @-@ ray and DVD ; a four @-@ disc version with Blu @-@ ray , DVD , Blu @-@ ray 3D , and digital copy ; and an eight @-@ disc box set that also includes the sequels The Lion King 2 : Simba 's Pride and The Lion King 1 ½ . A standalone single @-@ disc DVD release also followed on November 15 , 2011 . The Diamond Edition topped the Blu @-@ ray charts with over 1 @.@ 5 million copies sold . The film sold 3 @.@ 83 million Blu @-@ ray units in total , leading to a $ 101 @.@ 14 million income .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Lion King earned $ 422 @,@ 783 @,@ 777 in North America and an $ 545 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 968 @,@ 483 @,@ 777 . It is currently the 29th highest @-@ grossing film , the sixth highest @-@ grossing animated film of all time worldwide and the third highest @-@ grossing film of Walt Disney Animation Studios ( behind Frozen and Zootopia ) . The film was also the highest @-@ grossing motion picture of 1994 worldwide . After its initial run , having earned $ 763 @.@ 4 million , it ranked as the second @-@ highest grossing film of all time worldwide , behind Jurassic Park . It held the record for the highest @-@ grossing animated feature film ( in North America , outside North America , and worldwide ) until it was surpassed by the computer animated Finding Nemo ( 2003 ) , Shrek 2 ( 2004 ) , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs ( 2009 ) , and Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) prior to the 2011 re @-@ release . With the earnings of the 3D run , The Lion King surpassed all the aforementioned films but Toy Story 3 to rank as the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing animated film worldwide — later downgraded to sixth after Frozen ( 2013 ) , Minions ( 2015 ) , and Zootopia ( 2016 ) — and it remains the highest @-@ grossing hand @-@ drawn animated film . It is also the biggest animated movie of the last 50 years in terms of estimated attendance .
= = = = Original theatrical run = = = =
The Lion King had a limited release in North America on June 15 , 1994 , playing in only two theaters , El Capitan Theater in Los Angeles and Radio City Music Hall in New York City . It still earned $ 1 @,@ 586 @,@ 753 across the weekend of June 17 – 19 , standing at the tenth place of the box office ranking . The average of $ 793 @,@ 377 per theater stands as the largest ever achieved during a weekend . The wide release followed on June 24 , 1994 , in 2 @,@ 550 screens . The digital surround sound of the film led many of those theaters to implement Dolby Laboratories ' newest sound systems . The Lion King grossed $ 40 @.@ 9 million – which at the time was the fourth biggest opening weekend earning ever and the highest sum for a Disney film – to top the weekend box office . It also earned a rare " A + " rating from CinemaScore . By the end of its theatrical run , in spring 1995 , it had earned $ 312 @,@ 855 @,@ 561 , being the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing 1994 film in North America behind Forrest Gump . Outside North America , it earned $ 455 @.@ 8 million during its initial run , for a worldwide total of $ 768 @.@ 6 million . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 74 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run .
= = = = Re @-@ releases = = = =
= = = = = IMAX and large @-@ format = = = = =
The film was re @-@ issued on December 25 , 2002 for IMAX and large @-@ format theaters . Don Hahn explained that eight years after The Lion King got its original release , " there was a whole new generation of kids who haven 't really seen it , particularly on the big screen . " Given the film had already been digitally archived during production , the restoration process was easier , while also providing many scenes with enhancements that covered up original deficiencies . An enhanced sound mix was also provided , to as Hahn explained , " make the audience feel like they 're in the middle of the movie . " On its first weekend , The Lion King made $ 2 @.@ 7 million from 66 locations , a $ 27 @,@ 664 per theater average . This run ended with $ 15 @,@ 686 @,@ 215 on May 30 , 2003 .
= = = = = 3D conversion = = = = =
In 2011 , The Lion King was converted to 3D for a two @-@ week limited theatrical re @-@ issue and subsequent 3D Blu @-@ ray release . The film opened at the number one spot on Friday , September 16 , 2011 with $ 8 @.@ 9 million and finished the weekend with $ 30 @.@ 2 million , ranking number one at the box office . This made The Lion King the first re @-@ issue release to earn the number @-@ one slot at the American weekend box office since the re @-@ issue of Return of the Jedi in March 1997 . The film also achieved the fourth @-@ highest September opening weekend of all time . It held off very well on its second weekend , again earning first place at the box office with a 27 percent decline to $ 21 @.@ 9 million . Most box @-@ office observers had expected the film to fall about 50 percent in its second weekend and were also expecting Moneyball to be at first place .
After its initial box @-@ office success , many theaters decided to continue to show the film for more than two weeks , even though its 3D Blu @-@ ray release was scheduled for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks after its theatrical release . In North America , the 3D re @-@ release ended its run in theaters on January 12 , 2012 with a gross $ 94 @,@ 242 @,@ 001 . Outside North America , it earned $ 83 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 . The successful 3D re @-@ release of The Lion King made Disney and Pixar plan 3D theatrical re @-@ releases of Beauty and the Beast , Finding Nemo , Monsters , Inc . , and The Little Mermaid during 2012 and 2013 . However , none of the re @-@ releases of the first three films achieved the enormous success of The Lion King 3D and theatrical re @-@ release of the The Little Mermaid was ultimately cancelled . In 2012 , Ray Subers of Box Office Mojo wrote that the reason why the 3D version of The Lion King succeeded was because , " the notion of a 3D re @-@ release was still fresh and exciting , and The Lion King ( 3D ) felt timely given the movie 's imminent Blu @-@ ray release . Audiences have been hit with three 3D re @-@ releases in the year since , meaning the novelty value has definitely worn off . "
= = = Critical response = = =
The Lion King was released to critical acclaim . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a rating of 91 % , based on 113 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 . It also ranked 56th on their " Top 100 Animation Movies " . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Emotionally stirring , richly drawn , and beautifully animated , The Lion King stands tall within Disney 's pantheon of classic family films . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 83 out of 100 , based on 14 critics , indicating " universal acclaim " . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare " A + " grade .
Roger Ebert gave it 3 1 / 2 out of 4 @-@ stars and called the film " a superbly drawn animated feature " and , in his print review wrote , " The saga of Simba , which in its deeply buried origins owes something to Greek tragedy and certainly to Hamlet , is a learning experience as well as an entertainment . " On the television program Siskel & Ebert , the film was praised but received a mixed reaction when compared to previous Disney films . Ebert and his partner Gene Siskel both gave the film a " Thumbs Up " but Siskel said that it was not as good as earlier films such as Beauty and the Beast and was " a good film , not a great one " . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post called it " an impressive , almost daunting achievement " and felt that the film was " spectacular in a manner that has nearly become commonplace with Disney 's feature @-@ length animations " , but was less enthusiastic toward the end of his review saying , " Shakespearean in tone , epic in scope , it seems more appropriate for grown @-@ ups than for kids . If truth be told , even for adults it is downright strange . "
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised the film , writing that it " has the resonance to stand not just as a terrific cartoon but as an emotionally pungent movie " . Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers praised the film and felt that it was " a hugely entertaining blend of music , fun and eye @-@ popping thrills , though it doesn 't lack for heart " . James Berardinelli from ReelViews praised the film saying , " With each new animated release , Disney seems to be expanding its already @-@ broad horizons a little more . The Lion King is the most mature ( in more than one sense ) of these films , and there clearly has been a conscious effort to please adults as much as children . Happily , for those of us who generally stay far away from ' cartoons ' , they have succeeded . "
Some reviewers still had problems with the film 's narrative . The staff of TV Guide wrote that while The Lion King was technically proficient and entertaining , it " offers a less memorable song score than did the previous hits , and a hasty , unsatisfying dramatic resolution . " The New Yorker 's Terrence Rafferty considered that despite the good animation , the story felt like " manipulat [ ing ] our responses at will " , as " Between traumas , the movie serves up soothingly banal musical numbers and silly , rambunctious comedy " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Lion King received four Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations . The film would go on to win two Golden Globes ; for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Original Score , as well as two Academy Awards , for Best Original Score ( Hans Zimmer ) and Best Original Song with " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " by Elton John and Tim Rice . The songs " Circle of Life " and " Hakuna Matata " were also nominated . " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " also won the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance . The Lion King also won Annie Awards for Best Animated Feature , Best Achievement in Voice Acting ( for Jeremy Irons ) and Best Individual Achievement for Story Contribution in the Field of Animation .
At the Saturn Awards , the film was nominated in two categories , Best Fantasy Film and Best Performance by a Younger Actor although it did not win in either category . The film also received two nominations at the British Academy Film Awards , for Best Sound as well as the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music although it lost in both categories to Speed and Backbeat respectively . The film received two BMI Film & TV Awards for Film Music and Most Performed Song with " Can You Feel the Love Tonight . " At the 1995 MTV Movie Awards the film received nominations for Best Villain and Best Song , though it lost in both categories . The Lion King won the Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Movie at the 1995 Kids ' Choice Awards .
In 2008 , The Lion King was ranked as the 319th greatest film ever made by Empire magazine , and in June 2011 , TIME named it one of " The 25 All @-@ TIME Best Animated Films " . In June 2008 , the American Film Institute listed The Lion King as the fourth best film in the animation genre in its AFI 's 10 Top 10 list , having previously put " Hakuna Matata " as 99th on its AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs ranking .
= = = Controversies = = =
Certain elements of the film were considered to bear a resemblance to a 1960s Japanese anime television show , Jungle Emperor ( known as Kimba the White Lion in the United States ) , with characters having similar analogues , and various individual scenes being similar in composition to the show . Matthew Broderick believed initially that he was in fact working on an American version of Kimba , since he was familiar with the Japanese original . However The Lion King director , Roger Allers , claimed he was unfamiliar with the show :
The whole time I worked on The Lion King the name of that show never came up . At least I never heard it . I had never seen the show and really only became aware of it as Lion King was being completed , and someone showed me images of it . I worked with George Scribner and Linda Woolverton to develop the story in the early days but then left to help out on Aladdin . If one of them were familiar with Kimba they didn ’ t say . Of course , it ’ s possible ... Many story ideas developed and changed along the way , always just to make our story stronger . I could certainly understand Kimba ’ s creators feeling angry if they felt we had stolen ideas from them . If I had been inspired by Kimba I would certainly acknowledge my inspiration . All I can offer is my respect to those artists and say that their creation has its loyal admirers and its assured place in animation history .
Co @-@ director Rob Minkoff also claimed he was unfamiliar with it " I know for a fact that [ " Kimba " ] has never been discussed as long as I 've been on the project ... In my experience , if Disney becomes aware of anything like that , they say you will not do it . People are claiming copyright infringement all the time . " He also stated that whenever a story is based in Africa , it is " not unusual to have characters like a baboon , a bird or hyenas . " Yoshihiro Shimizu , of Tezuka Productions , which created Kimba the White Lion , has refuted rumours that the studio was paid hush money by Disney but explains that they rejected urges from within the industry to sue because , " we 're a small , weak company . It wouldn 't be worth it anyway ... Disney 's lawyers are among the top twenty in the world ! "
Protests were raised against one scene where it appears as if the word " SEX " might have been embedded into the dust flying in the sky when Simba flops down , which conservative activist Donald Wildmon asserted was a subliminal message intended to promote sexual promiscuity . One of the animators , Tom Sito , has stated that the letters spell " SFX " ( a common abbreviation for " special effects " ) , not with an " E " instead of the " F " , and were intended as an innocent " signature " created by the effects animation team .
Hyena biologists protested against the animal 's portrayal : one hyena researcher sued Disney studios for defamation of character , and another — who had organized the animators ' visit to the University of California 's Field Station for Behavioural Research , where they would observe and sketch captive hyenas — included boycotting The Lion King among the ways it would help preserve hyenas in the wild . The hyenas have also been interpreted to represent an anti @-@ immigrant allegory , where the hyenas would be black and Latino ethnic communities . The film has also been criticised for advancing a fascist narrative in its portrayal of the lion kingdom and the circle of life where " only the strong and the beautiful triumph , and the powerless survive only by serving the strong . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = = =
The first Lion King @-@ related animated projects involved the characters of Timon and Pumbaa . First the duo starred in the animated short " Stand by Me " , featuring Timon singing the eponymous song , which was released in 1995 accompanying the theatrical release of Tom and Huck . Then the duo received their own animated show , The Lion King 's Timon and Pumbaa , which ran for three seasons and 85 episodes between 1995 and 1999 . Ernie Sabella continued to voice Pumbaa , while Timon was voiced by Quinton Flynn and Kevin Schon in addition to Nathan Lane .
Disney released two direct @-@ to @-@ video films related to The Lion King . The first was sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride , issued in 1998 on VHS . The film centers around Simba and Nala 's daughter , Kiara , who falls in love with Kovu , a male lion who was raised in a pride of Scar 's followers , the Outsiders . 2004 saw the release of another Lion King film on DVD , The Lion King 1 ½ . It is a prequel in showing how Timon and Pumbaa met each other , and also a parallel in that it also depicts what the characters were retconned to have done during the events of the original movie .
In June 2014 , it was announced that a new TV series based on the film would be released called The Lion Guard , featuring Kion , the second @-@ born cub of Simba and Nala . It was first broadcast on Disney Channel as a television film titled The Lion Guard : Return of the Roar in November 2015 before airing as a series on Disney Junior in January 2016 .
= = = Video games = = =
Along with the film release , three different video games based on The Lion King were released by Virgin Interactive in December 1994 . The main title was developed by Westwood Studios , and published for PC and Amiga computers and the consoles SNES and Sega Mega Drive / Genesis . Dark Technologies created the Game Boy version , while Syrox Developments handled the Master System and Game Gear version . The film and sequel Simba 's Pride later inspired another game , Torus Games ' The Lion King : Simba 's Mighty Adventure ( 2000 ) for the Game Boy Color and PlayStation . Timon and Pumbaa also appeared in Timon & Pumbaa 's Jungle Games , a 1995 PC game collection of puzzle games by 7th Level , later ported to the SNES by Tiertex .
The Square Enix series Kingdom Hearts features Simba as a recurring summon , as well as a playable in the Lion King world , known as Pride Lands , in Kingdom Hearts II . There the plotline is loosely related to the later part of the original film , with all of the main characters except Zazu and Sarabi . The Lion King also provides one of the worlds featured in the 2011 action @-@ adventure game Disney Universe , and Simba was featured in the Nintendo DS title Disney Friends ( 2008 ) .
= = = Stage adaptations = = =
Walt Disney Theatrical produced a musical stage adaptation of the same name , which premiered in Minneapolis , Minnesota in July 1997 , and later opened on Broadway in October 1997 at the New Amsterdam Theatre . The Lion King musical was directed by Julie Taymor and featured songs from both the movie and Rhythm of the Pride Lands , along with three new compositions by Elton John and Tim Rice . Mark Mancina did the musical arrangements and new orchestral tracks . The musical became one of the most successful in Broadway history , winning six Tony Awards including Best Musical , and despite moving to the Minskoff Theatre in 2006 , is still running to this day in New York , becoming the third longest @-@ running show and highest grossing Broadway production in history . The show 's financial success led to adaptations all over the world .
The Lion King inspired two attractions retelling the story of the film at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts . The first , " The Legend of the Lion King " , featured a recreation of the film through life size puppets of its characters , and ran from 1994 to 2002 at Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World . Another that is still running is the live @-@ action 30 @-@ minute musical revue of the movie , " Festival of the Lion King " , which incorporates the musical numbers into gymnastic routines with live actors , along with animatronic puppets of Simba and Pumba and a costumed actor as Timon . The attraction opened in April 1998 at Disney World 's Animal Kingdom , and in September 2005 in Hong Kong Disneyland 's Adventureland . A similar version under the name " The Legend of the Lion King " was featured in Disneyland Paris from 2004 to 2009 .
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= Jingle All the Way =
Jingle All the Way is a 1996 American Christmas family comedy film directed by Brian Levant and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sinbad , with Phil Hartman , Rita Wilson , Jake Lloyd , James Belushi and Robert Conrad . The plot focuses on two rival fathers , workaholic Howard Langston ( Schwarzenegger ) and stressed out postal worker Myron Larabee ( Sinbad ) , both desperately trying to get a Turbo @-@ Man action figure for their respective sons on a last minute shopping spree on Christmas Eve .
Inspired by real @-@ life Christmas toy sell @-@ outs for products such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers , the film was written by Randy Kornfield . Producer Chris Columbus rewrote the script , adding in elements of satire about the commercialization of Christmas , and the project was picked up by 20th Century Fox . Delays on Fox 's reboot of Planet of the Apes allowed Schwarzenegger to come on board the film , while Columbus opted to cast Sinbad ahead of Joe Pesci as Myron . Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul at a variety of locations , including the Mall of America . After five weeks filming , production moved to California where scenes such as the end parade were shot . The film 's swift production meant merchandising was limited to a replica of the Turbo @-@ Man action figure used in the film .
Although some critics felt the film was good family entertainment , it was met with a broadly negative response . Much criticism was attached to the film 's script , its focus on the commercialism of Christmas , Levant 's direction and Schwarzenegger 's performance . Nevertheless , it proved a success at the box office , generating $ 129 million worldwide . In 2001 , Fox was ordered to pay $ 19 million to Murray Hill Publishing for stealing the idea for the film ; the verdict was overturned three years later .
= = Plot = =
Howard Langston ( Arnold Schwarzenegger ) is a workaholic mattress salesman , who can 't find time for his wife , Liz ( Rita Wilson ) , and his 9 @-@ year @-@ old son , Jamie ( Jake Lloyd ) — especially when compared to next door " superdad " divorcee , Ted Maltin ( Phil Hartman ) , who continually puts Howard in a bad light . After missing Jamie 's karate class graduation , Howard resolves to redeem himself by fulfilling Jamie 's ultimate Christmas wish : getting an action figure of Turbo @-@ Man , a popular children 's TV superhero toy that every kid wants . Along the way , Howard meets Myron Larabee ( Sinbad ) , a postal worker dad with a rival ambition , and the two soon become bitter competitors in their race for the action figure . During his search , Howard repeatedly runs into Officer Alexander Hummell ( Robert Conrad ) , a police officer who had earlier pulled him over for a traffic violation . After several failed attempts to find the toy in a store , Howard attempts to buy a Turbo @-@ Man from a Mall of America Santa ( James Belushi ) who is actually the leader of a band of counterfeit toy makers . When he accuses the Santa of undermining the values of Christmas , Howard ends up in a brawl with the gang . He narrowly escapes when the police raid their warehouse and gets out by posing as an undercover detective using a toy badge .
Later , Howard and Myron cross paths again , and while they are drinking coffee at Mickey 's Diner , Myron tells Howard about the time when his father was unable to get him a Johnny Seven OMA toy on Christmas . They hear on the KQRS radio station that the D.J. ( Martin Mull ) is running a Turbo @-@ Man competition . When they get to the studio they find out they can only win a gift certificate . They are nearly arrested but Myron bluffs the police into backing off by threatening them with a package ( which he claims is a mail bomb , unaware that it really is one ) . Officer Hummell tries to open it and it blows up in his face . After his car is stripped by thieves , Howard is ultimately forced to return home empty @-@ handed . Upon seeing Ted in his house placing the star on his tree , Howard gets angry and attempts to steal the Turbo @-@ Man doll from Ted 's house that he had bought for his son Johnny ( E.J. De La Pena ) , but changes his mind at the last moment . He is attacked by Ted 's pet reindeer and the commotion leads him to be caught by Ted and a distraught Liz . Liz and Jamie leave for the local Wintertainment Parade with Ted ; Howard follows , aiming to make amends . At the parade , Ted makes a pass at Liz , but after seeing what he really is , she turns him down by hitting him with a thermos of eggnog .
Howard runs into a bandaged Officer Hummell and accidentally drenches him with hot coffee . In the ensuing chase , Howard runs into a preparations room for the parade and is mistaken for a replacement for the actor who will play Turbo @-@ Man on a parade float . As the " real " Turbo @-@ Man , he presents the coveted limited @-@ edition Turbo @-@ Man doll to his awed son . Before he recognizes his father , Jamie is chased by Myron , who has dressed as Turbo @-@ Man 's arch enemy Dementor ( having caught and tied up the real actor — Richard Moll ) . As the crowd assume this is all part of the show , Howard attempts to rescue his son by utilizing the Turbo @-@ Man suit 's equipment .
Howard catches Jamie as he falls from a roof and reveals himself to his son . Officer Hummell gives the doll to Jamie , then is shocked to discover that Howard was Turbo @-@ Man , then Howard apologies to Officer Hummell about everything . Myron is arrested while ranting about having to explain his failure to get the Turbo @-@ Man toy for his son . Touched by Myron 's words , Jamie gives the doll to him and tells Howard that he does not need it since his father is " the real Turbo @-@ Man " . Howard is then crowd surfed away as Liz , Jamie and Myron look on happily .
In a post @-@ credits scene , Howard puts the star on the top of his tree and shares a great Christmas spirit with Jamie and Liz until he realizes he also forgot to get a present for Liz . Howard stares in shock at the camera before the fadeout .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film draws inspiration from the high demand for Christmas toys such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in the late 1980s and early 1990s , which often led to intense searching and occasional violence amongst shoppers . Randy Kornfield wrote the film 's original screenplay after witnessing his in @-@ laws go to a Santa Monica toy store at dawn in order to get his son a Power Ranger . While admitting to missing the clamor for the Cabbage Patch Kids and Power Rangers , producer Chris Columbus experienced a similar situation in 1995 when he attempted to obtain a Buzz Lightyear action figure from the film Toy Story , released that year . As a result , he rewrote Kornfield 's script , which was accepted by 20th Century Fox . Columbus was always " attracted to the dark side of the happiest holiday of the year " , so wrote elements of the film as a satire of the commercialization of Christmas . Brian Levant was hired to direct the film . Columbus said Levant " underst [ ood ] the humor in the material " and " was very animated and excited , and he had a vision of what he wanted to do " . Levant said " The story that was important to me was between the father and son ... it 's a story about love , and a father 's journey to deliver it in the form of a Turbo Man doll . The fact that I got to design a toy line and do the commercials and make pajamas and comic books was fun for me as a filmmaker . But at its root , the movie 's about something really sweet . It 's about love and building a better family . I think that 's consistent with everything I 've done . "
Arnold Schwarzenegger was quickly cast . He became available in February 1996 after Fox 's remake of Planet of the Apes was held up again ; Columbus also exited that project to work on Jingle All the Way . The film marks Schwarzenegger 's fourth appearance as the lead in a comedy film , following Twins ( 1988 ) , Kindergarten Cop ( 1990 ) and Junior ( 1994 ) . Schwarzenegger was paid a reported $ 20 million for the role . He enjoyed the film , having experienced last @-@ minute Christmas shopping himself , and was attracted to playing an " ordinary " character in a family film . Columbus initially wanted Joe Pesci to play Myron . Comedian Sinbad was chosen instead , partly due to his similar height and size to Schwarzenegger . Sinbad was suggested for the part by Schwarzenegger 's agent , but the producers felt he was unsuited to the role of a villain as it could harm his clean , family @-@ oriented comedy act and reputation , although Sinbad felt the character would generate the audience 's sympathy rather than hate . Furthermore , he missed the audition due to his appearance with First Lady Hillary Clinton and musician Sheryl Crow on the USO tour of Bosnia and Herzegovina , but Columbus waited for him to return to allow him to audition and , although Sinbad felt he had " messed " it up , he was given the part . He improvised the majority of his lines in the film ; Schwarzenegger also improvised many of his responses in his conversations with Sinbad 's character .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place in Minnesota for five weeks from April 15 , 1996 ; at the time , it was the largest film production to ever take place in the state . Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota at locations such as Bloomington 's Mall of America , Mickey 's Diner , downtown Minneapolis , Linden Hills , residential areas of Edina and primarily downtown Saint Paul . Unused shops in the Seventh Place Mall area were redecorated to resemble Christmas decorated stores , while the Energy Park Studios were used for much of the filming and the Christmas lights stayed up at Rice Park for use in the film . The Mall of America and the state 's " semi @-@ wintry weather " proved attractive for the studio . Although Schwarzenegger stated that the locals were " well @-@ behaved " and " cooperative " , Levant often found filming " impossible " due to the scale and noise of the crowds who came to watch production , especially in the Mall of America , but overall found the locals to be " respectful " and " lovely people . " Levant spent several months in the area before filming in order to prepare . The film uses artistic license by treating Minneapolis and Saint Paul as one city , as this was logistically easier ; the police are labeled " Twin Cities Police " in the film . Additionally , the city 's Holidazzle Parade is renamed the Wintertainment Parade and takes place on 2nd Avenue during the day , rather than Nicollet Mall at night . Levant wanted to film the parade at night but was overruled for practical reasons .
The parade was filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood in California on the New York Street set , due to safety concerns . The set was designed to resemble 2nd Avenue ; the parade was shot from above by helicopters and stitched into matte shots of the real @-@ life street . It took three weeks to film , with 1 @,@ 500 extras being used in the scene , along with three custom designed floats . Other parts of the film to be shot in Los Angeles , California included store interiors , and the warehouse fight scene between Howard and the criminal Santas , for which a Pasadena furniture warehouse was used . Turbo @-@ Man was created and designed for the film . This meant the commercials and scenes from the Turbo @-@ Man TV series were all shot by Levant , while all of the Turbo @-@ Man merchandise , packaging and props shown in the film were custom made one @-@ offs and designed to look " authentic , as if they all sprang from the same well . " Along with Columbus and Levant , production designer Leslie McDonald and character designer Tim Flattery crafted Turbo @-@ Man , Booster and Dementor and helped make the full @-@ size Turbo @-@ Man suit for the film 's climax . Principal production finished in August ; Columbus " fine @-@ tun [ ed ] the picture until the last possible minute , " using multiple test audiences " to see where the big laughs actually lie . "
= = Soundtrack = =
TVT Records released the film 's soundtrack album on Audio CD on November 26 , 1996 . It features only two of composer David Newman 's pieces from Jingle All the Way , but features many of the songs by other artists included in the film , as well as other Christmas songs and new tracks by the Brian Setzer Orchestra . Intrada Music Group released a Special Collection limited edition of Newman 's full 23 @-@ track score on November 3 , 2008 .
= = = Track listing = = =
= = Release = =
As Schwarzenegger only signed on for the film in February and the film was shot so quickly , only six and a half months were available for merchandising , instead of the ideal year . As such , merchandising was limited to a 13 @.@ 5 inch replica $ 25 Talking Turbo @-@ Man action figure and the West Coast exclusive Turbo @-@ Man Time Racer vehicle , while no tie @-@ in promotions could be secured . Despite this , several critics wrote that the film was only being made in order to sell the toy . Columbus dismissed this notion , stating that with only roughly 200 @,@ 000 Turbo @-@ Man toys being made , the merchandising was far less than the year 's other releases , such as Space Jam and 101 Dalmatians .
The world premiere was held on November 16 , 1996 at the Mall of America in Bloomington where parts of the film were shot . A day of events was held to celebrate the film 's release and Schwarzenegger donated memorabilia from the film to the Mall 's Planet Hollywood . Opening in 2 @,@ 401 theaters on November 22 , Jingle All the Way made $ 12 @.@ 1 million in its first weekend , opening at # 4 behind Star Trek : First Contact , Space Jam and Ransom ; it went on to gross $ 129 million worldwide , recouping its $ 75 million budget . The film was released on VHS in October 1997 , and in November 1998 it was released on DVD . It was rereleased on DVD in December 2004 , followed by an extended director 's cut in October 2007 , known as the " Family Fun Edition " . It contained several minutes of extra footage , as well as other DVD extras such as a behind the scenes featurette . In December of the following year , the Family Fun Edition was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc .
= = Reception = =
The film received generally negative reviews from critics , garnering a 17 % " Rotten " rating at Rotten Tomatoes , with 35 negative reviews out of 42 counted . Emanuel Levy felt the film " highly formulaic " and criticized Levant 's direction as little more advanced than a television sitcom . Although he felt Hartman , Wilson and Conrad were not given much opportunity to shine due to the script , he opined that " Schwarzenegger has developed a light comic delivery , punctuated occasionally by an ironic one @-@ liner , " while " Sinbad has good moments " . Neil Jeffries of Empire disagreed , feeling Schwarzenegger to be " wooden " and Sinbad to be " trying desperately to be funnier than his hat " but praised Lloyd as the " saving grace " of the film .
The New York Times critic Janet Maslin felt the film lacked any real plot , failed in its attempt at satire , should have included Myron 's only mentioned son and " mostly wasted " Hartman , while Levant 's direction was " listless " . Similarly , the BBC 's Neil Smith criticized the film 's script , its focus on the commercialization of Christmas , as well as Schwarzenegger 's performance which shows " the comic timing of a dead moose , " but singled out Hartman for praise . Chicago Tribune critic Michael Wilmington panned the film , wondering why the characters ( primarily Howard ) acted so illogically : " Howard Langston is supposed to be a successful mattress manufacturer , but the movie paints him as a hot @-@ tempered buffoon without a sensible idea in his head . " Jack Garner of USA Today condemned the film , finding it more " cynical " than satirical , stating " this painfully bad movie has been inspired strictly by the potential jingle of cash registers . " He wrote of Levant 's directorial failure as he " offers no ... sense of comic timing , " while " pauses in the midst of much of the dialogue are downright painful . " Trevor Johnston suggested that the film " seems to mark a point of decline in the Schwarzenegger career arc " and the anti @-@ consumerism message largely failed , with " Jim Belushi 's corrupt mall Santa with his stolen @-@ goods warehouse ... provid [ ing ] the film 's sole flash of dark humour . "
IGN 's Mike Drucker praised its subject matter as " one of the few holiday movies to directly deal with the commercialization of Christmas " although felt the last twenty minutes of the film let it down , as the first hour or so had " some family entertainment " value if taken with a " grain of salt " . He concluded the film was " a member of the so @-@ corny @-@ its @-@ good genre , " while " Arnold delivers plenty of one @-@ liners ripe for sound board crank callers . " Jamie Malanowski of The New York Times praised the film 's satirical premise but felt it was " full of unrealized potential " because " the filmmakers [ wrongly ] equate mayhem with humor . " Roger Ebert gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , writing that he " liked a lot of the movie " , which he thought had " energy " and humor which would have mass audience appeal . He was , though , disappointed by " its relentlessly materialistic view of Christmas , and by the choice to go with action and ( mild ) violence over dialogue and plot . " Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures concluded that while the film is not very good , as a form of family entertainment it is " surprisingly fun . "
Brian Levant was nominated for the Razzie Award for Worst Director , but lost to Andrew Bergman for Striptease ; Sinbad , however , won the Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Supporting Actor in a Family film .
= = Lawsuit = =
In 1998 , Murray Hill Publishing sued 20th Century Fox for $ 150 @,@ 000 , claiming that the idea for the film was stolen from a screenplay they had purchased from high school teacher Brian Webster entitled Could This Be Christmas ? . They said the script had 36 similarities with Jingle All the Way , including the plot , dialogue and character names . Murray Hill President Bob Laurel bought the script from Webster in 1993 , and sent it to Fox and other studios in 1994 but received no response and claimed the idea was copied by Kornfield , who was Fox 's script reader . In 2001 , Fox were found guilty of stealing the idea and ordered to pay $ 19 million ( $ 15 million in damages and $ 4 million in legal costs ) to Murray Hill , with Webster to receive a portion . Laurel died a few months after the verdict , before receiving any of the money . On appeal , the damages figure was lowered to $ 1 @.@ 5 million , before the verdict itself was quashed in 2004 , with a judge deciding the idea was not stolen as Fox had bought Kornfield 's screenplay before he or anybody else at Fox had read Could This Be Christmas ? .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel , Jingle All the Way 2 , was released straight @-@ to @-@ DVD in December 2014 . Directed by Alex Zamm and produced by WWE Studios and 20th Century Fox , the film has a similar plot to the original , but is otherwise not connected and none of the original cast or characters returned . The lead roles were instead played by Larry the Cable Guy and Santino Marella .
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= Euclidean algorithm =
In mathematics , the Euclidean algorithm , or Euclid 's algorithm , is an efficient method for computing the greatest common divisor ( GCD ) of two numbers , the largest number that divides both of them without leaving a remainder . It is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid , who first described it in Euclid 's Elements ( c . 300 BC ) . It is an example of an algorithm , a step @-@ by @-@ step procedure for performing a calculation according to well @-@ defined rules , and is one of the oldest algorithms in common use . It can be used to reduce fractions to their simplest form , and is a part of many other number @-@ theoretic and cryptographic calculations .
The Euclidean algorithm is based on the principle that the greatest common divisor of two numbers does not change if the larger number is replaced by its difference with the smaller number . For example , 21 is the GCD of 252 and 105 ( 252 |
= 21 × 12 and 105 =
21 × 5 ) , and the same number 21 is also the GCD of 105 and 147 |
= 252 − 105 . Since this replacement reduces the larger of the two numbers , repeating this process gives successively smaller pairs of numbers until the two numbers become equal . When that occurs , they are the GCD of the original two numbers . By reversing the steps , the GCD can be expressed as a sum of the two original numbers each multiplied by a positive or negative integer , e.g. , 21 =
5 × 105 + ( − 2 ) × 252 . The fact that the GCD can always be expressed in this way is known as Bézout 's identity .
The version of the Euclidean algorithm described above ( and by Euclid ) can take many subtraction steps to find the GCD when one of the given numbers is much bigger than the other . A more efficient version of the algorithm shortcuts these steps , instead replacing the larger of the two numbers by its remainder when divided by the smaller of the two ( with this version , the algorithm stops when reaching a zero remainder ) . With this improvement , the algorithm never requires more steps than five times the number of digits ( base 10 ) of the smaller integer . This was proven by Gabriel Lamé in 1844 , and marks the beginning of computational complexity theory . Additional methods for improving the algorithm 's efficiency were developed in the 20th century .
The Euclidean algorithm has many theoretical and practical applications . It is used for reducing fractions to their simplest form and for performing division in modular arithmetic . Computations using this algorithm form part of the cryptographic protocols that are used to secure internet communications , and in methods for breaking these cryptosystems by factoring large composite numbers . The Euclidean algorithm may be used to solve Diophantine equations , such as finding numbers that satisfy multiple congruences according to the Chinese remainder theorem , to construct continued fractions , and to find accurate rational approximations to real numbers . Finally , it can be used as a basic tool for proving theorems in number theory such as Lagrange 's four @-@ square theorem and the uniqueness of prime factorizations . The original algorithm was described only for natural numbers and geometric lengths ( real numbers ) , but the algorithm was generalized in the 19th century to other types of numbers , such as Gaussian integers and polynomials of one variable . This led to modern abstract algebraic notions such as Euclidean domains .
= = Background : greatest common divisor = =
The Euclidean algorithm calculates the greatest common divisor ( GCD ) of two natural numbers a and b . The greatest common divisor g is the largest natural number that divides both a and b without leaving a remainder . Synonyms for the GCD include the greatest common factor ( GCF ) , the highest common factor ( HCF ) , and the greatest common measure ( GCM ) . The greatest common divisor is often written as gcd ( a , b ) or , more simply , as ( a , b ) , although the latter notation is also used for other mathematical concepts , such as two @-@ dimensional vectors .
If gcd ( a , b ) |
= 1 , then a and b are said to be coprime ( or relatively prime ) . This property does not imply that a or b are themselves prime numbers . For example , neither 6 nor 35 is a prime number , since they both have two prime factors : 6 =
2 × 3 and 35
= 5 × 7 . Nevertheless , 6 and 35 are coprime . No natural number other than 1 divides both 6 and 35 , since they have no prime factors in common .
Let g =
gcd ( a , b ) . Since a and b are both multiples of g , they can be written a |
= mg and b =
ng , and there is no larger number G > g for which this is true . The natural numbers m and n must be coprime , since any common factor could be factored out of m and n to make g greater . Thus , any other number c that divides both a and b must also divide g . The greatest common divisor g of a and b is the unique ( positive ) common divisor of a and b that is divisible by any other common divisor c .
The GCD can be visualized as follows . Consider a rectangular area a by b , and any common divisor c that divides both a and b exactly . The sides of the rectangle can be divided into segments of length c , which divides the rectangle into a grid of squares of side length c . The greatest common divisor g is the largest value of c for which this is possible . For illustration , a 24 @-@ by @-@ 60 rectangular area can be divided into a grid of : 1 @-@ by @-@ 1 squares , 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 squares , 3 @-@ by @-@ 3 squares , 4 @-@ by @-@ 4 squares , 6 @-@ by @-@ 6 squares or 12 @-@ by @-@ 12 squares . Therefore , 12 is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 60 . A 24 @-@ by @-@ 60 rectangular area can be divided into a grid of 12 @-@ by @-@ 12 squares , with two squares along one edge ( 24 / 12 |
= 2 ) and five squares along the other ( 60 / 12 =
5 ) .
The GCD of two numbers a and b is the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers , where a same prime factor can be used multiple times , but only as long as the product of these factors divides both a and b . For example , since 1386 can be factored into 2 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 11 , and 3213 can be factored into 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 17 , the greatest common divisor of 1386 and 3213 equals 63
= 3 × 3 × 7 , the product of their shared prime factors . If two numbers have no prime factors in common , their greatest common divisor is 1 ( obtained here as an instance of the empty product ) , in other words they are coprime . A key advantage of the Euclidean algorithm is that it can find the GCD efficiently without having to compute the prime factors . Factorization of large integers is believed to be a computationally very difficult problem , and the security of many modern cryptography systems is based upon its infeasibility .
Another definition of the GCD is helpful in advanced mathematics , particularly ring theory . The greatest common divisor g of two nonzero numbers a and b is also their smallest positive integral linear combination , that is , the smallest positive number of the form ua + vb where u and v are integers . The set of all integral linear combinations of a and b is actually the same as the set of all multiples of g ( mg , where m is an integer ) . In modern mathematical language , the ideal generated by a and b is the ideal generated by g alone ( an ideal generated by a single element is called a principal ideal , and all ideals of the integers are principal ideals ) . Some properties of the GCD are in fact easier to see with this description , for instance the fact that any common divisor of a and b also divides the GCD ( it divides both terms of ua + vb ) . The equivalence of this GCD definition with the other definitions is described below .
The GCD of three or more numbers equals the product of the prime factors common to all the numbers , but it can also be calculated by repeatedly taking the GCDs of pairs of numbers . For example ,
gcd ( a , b , c ) =
gcd ( a , gcd ( b , c ) ) |
= gcd ( gcd ( a , b ) , c ) =
gcd ( gcd ( a , c ) , b ) .
Thus , Euclid 's algorithm , which computes the GCD of two integers , suffices to calculate the GCD of arbitrarily many integers .
= = Description = =
= = = Procedure = = =
The Euclidean algorithm proceeds in a series of steps such that the output of each step is used as an input for the next one . Let k be an integer that counts the steps of the algorithm , starting with zero . Thus , the initial step corresponds to k |
= 0 , the next step corresponds to k =
1 , and so on .
Each step begins with two nonnegative remainders rk − 1 and rk − 2 . Since the algorithm ensures that the remainders decrease steadily with every step , rk − 1 is less than its predecessor rk − 2 . The goal of the kth step is to find a quotient qk and remainder rk that satisfy the equation
<formula>
and that have rk < rk − 1 . In other words , multiples of the smaller number rk − 1 are subtracted from the larger number rk − 2 until the remainder rk is smaller than rk − 1 .
In the initial step ( k |
= 0 ) , the remainders r − 2 and r − 1 equal a and b , the numbers for which the GCD is sought . In the next step ( k =
1 ) , the remainders equal b and the remainder r0 of the initial step , and so on . Thus , the algorithm can be written as a sequence of equations
<formula>
If a is smaller than b , the first step of the algorithm swaps the numbers . For example , if a < b , the initial quotient q0 equals zero , and the remainder r0 is a . Thus , rk is smaller than its predecessor rk − 1 for all k ≥ 0 .
Since the remainders decrease with every step but can never be negative , a remainder rN must eventually equal zero , at which point the algorithm stops . The final nonzero remainder rN − 1 is the greatest common divisor of a and b . The number N cannot be infinite because there are only a finite number of nonnegative integers between the initial remainder r0 and zero .
= = = Proof of validity = = =
The validity of the Euclidean algorithm can be proven by a two @-@ step argument . In the first step , the final nonzero remainder rN − 1 is shown to divide both a and b . Since it is a common divisor , it must be less than or equal to the greatest common divisor g . In the second step , it is shown that any common divisor of a and b , including g , must divide rN − 1 ; therefore , g must be less than or equal to rN − 1 . These two conclusions are inconsistent unless rN − 1
= g .
To demonstrate that rN − 1 divides both a and b ( the first step ) , rN − 1 divides its predecessor rN − 2
rN − 2 =
qN rN − 1
since the final remainder rN is zero. rN − 1 also divides its next predecessor rN − 3
rN − 3
= qN − 1 rN − 2 + rN − 1
because it divides both terms on the right @-@ hand side of the equation . Iterating the same argument , rN − 1 divides all the preceding remainders , including a and b . None of the preceding remainders rN − 2 , rN − 3 , etc. divide a and b , since they leave a remainder . Since rN − 1 is a common divisor of a and b , rN − 1 ≤ g .
In the second step , any natural number c that divides both a and b ( in other words , any common divisor of a and b ) divides the remainders rk . By definition , a and b can be written as multiples of c : a =
mc and b |
= nc , where m and n are natural numbers . Therefore , c divides the initial remainder r0 , since r0 =
a − q0b |
= mc − q0nc =
( m − q0n ) c . An analogous argument shows that c also divides the subsequent remainders r1 , r2 , etc . Therefore , the greatest common divisor g must divide rN − 1 , which implies that g ≤ rN − 1 . Since the first part of the argument showed the reverse ( rN − 1 ≤ g ) , it follows that g
= rN − 1 . Thus , g is the greatest common divisor of all the succeeding pairs :
g =
gcd ( a , b ) |
= gcd ( b , r0 ) =
gcd ( r0 , r1 ) |
= … =
gcd ( rN − 2 , rN − 1 ) = rN − 1 .
= = = Worked example = = =
For illustration , the Euclidean algorithm can be used to find the greatest common divisor of a |
= 1071 and b =
462 . To begin , multiples of 462 are subtracted from 1071 until the remainder is less than 462 . Two such multiples can be subtracted ( q0
= 2 ) , leaving a remainder of 147 :
1071 =
2 × 462 + 147 .
Then multiples of 147 are subtracted from 462 until the remainder is less than 147 . Three multiples can be subtracted ( q1
= 3 ) , leaving a remainder of 21 :
462 =
3 × 147 + 21 .
Then multiples of 21 are subtracted from 147 until the remainder is less than 21 . Seven multiples can be subtracted ( q2
= 7 ) , leaving no remainder :
147 =
7 × 21 + 0 .
Since the last remainder is zero , the algorithm ends with 21 as the greatest common divisor of 1071 and 462 . This agrees with the gcd ( 1071 , 462 ) found by prime factorization above . In tabular form , the steps are
= = = Visualization = = =
The Euclidean algorithm can be visualized in terms of the tiling analogy given above for the greatest common divisor . Assume that we wish to cover an a @-@ by @-@ b rectangle with square tiles exactly , where a is the larger of the two numbers . We first attempt to tile the rectangle using b @-@ by @-@ b square tiles ; however , this leaves an r0 @-@ by @-@ b residual rectangle untiled , where r0 < b . We then attempt to tile the residual rectangle with r0 @-@ by @-@ r0 square tiles . This leaves a second residual rectangle r1 @-@ by @-@ r0 , which we attempt to tile using r1 @-@ by @-@ r1 square tiles , and so on . The sequence ends when there is no residual rectangle , i.e. , when the square tiles cover the previous residual rectangle exactly . The length of the sides of the smallest square tile is the GCD of the dimensions of the original rectangle . For example , the smallest square tile in the adjacent figure is 21 @-@ by @-@ 21 ( shown in red ) , and 21 is the GCD of 1071 and 462 , the dimensions of the original rectangle ( shown in green ) .
= = = Euclidean division = = =
At every step k , the Euclidean algorithm computes a quotient qk and remainder rk from two numbers rk − 1 and rk − 2
rk − 2
= qk rk − 1 + rk
where the magnitude of rk is strictly less than that of rk − 1 . The theorem which underlies the definition of the Euclidean division ensures that such a quotient and remainder always exist and are unique .
In Euclid 's original version of the algorithm , the quotient and remainder are found by repeated subtraction ; that is , rk − 1 is subtracted from rk − 2 repeatedly until the remainder rk is smaller than rk − 1 . After that rk and rk − 1 are exchanged and the process is iterated . Euclidean division reduces all the steps between two exchanges into a single step , which is thus more efficient . Moreover , the quotients are not needed , thus one may replace Euclidean division by the modulo operation , which gives only the remainder . Thus the iteration of the Euclidean algorithm becomes simply
rk =
rk − 2 mod rk − 1 .
= = = Implementations = = =
Implementations of the algorithm may be expressed in pseudocode . For example , the division @-@ based version may be programmed as
function gcd ( a , b )
while b ≠ 0
t : = b ;
b : = a mod b ;
a : = t ;
return a ;
At the beginning of the kth iteration , the variable b holds the latest remainder rk − 1 , whereas the variable a holds its predecessor , rk − 2 . The step b :
= a mod b is equivalent to the above recursion formula rk ≡ rk − 2 mod rk − 1 . The temporary variable t holds the value of rk − 1 while the next remainder rk is being calculated . At the end of the loop iteration , the variable b holds the remainder rk , whereas the variable a holds its predecessor , rk − 1 .
In the subtraction @-@ based version which was Euclid 's original version , the remainder calculation ( b =
a mod b ) is replaced by repeated subtraction . Contrary to the division @-@ based version , which works with arbitrary integers as input , the subtraction @-@ based version supposes that the input consists of positive integers and stops when a = b :
function gcd ( a , b )
while a ≠ b
if a > b
a : = a − b ;
else
b :
= b − a ;
return a ;
The variables a and b alternate holding the previous remainders rk − 1 and rk − 2 . Assume that a is larger than b at the beginning of an iteration ; then a equals rk − 2 , since rk − 2 > rk − 1 . During the loop iteration , a is reduced by multiples of the previous remainder b until a is smaller than b . Then a is the next remainder rk . Then b is reduced by multiples of a until it is again smaller than a , giving the next remainder rk + 1 , and so on .
The recursive version is based on the equality of the GCDs of successive remainders and the stopping condition gcd ( rN − 1 , 0 ) =
rN − 1 .
function gcd ( a , b )
if b
= 0
return a ;
else
return gcd ( b , a mod b ) ;
For illustration , the gcd ( 1071 , 462 ) is calculated from the equivalent gcd ( 462 , 1071 mod 462 ) =
gcd ( 462 , 147 ) . The latter GCD is calculated from the gcd ( 147 , 462 mod 147 ) |
= gcd ( 147 , 21 ) , which in turn is calculated from the gcd ( 21 , 147 mod 21 ) =
gcd ( 21 , 0 ) = 21 .
= = = Method of least absolute remainders = = =
In another version of Euclid 's algorithm , the quotient at each step is increased by one if the resulting negative remainder is smaller in magnitude than the typical positive remainder . Previously , the equation
rk − 2
= qk rk − 1 + rk
assumed that | rk − 1 | > rk > 0 . However , an alternative negative remainder ek can be computed :
rk − 2 =
( qk + 1 ) rk − 1 + ek
if rk − 1 > 0 or
rk − 2 = ( qk − 1 ) rk − 1 + ek
if rk − 1 < 0 .
If rk is replaced by ek. when | ek | < | rk | , then one gets a variant of Euclidean algorithm such that
| rk | ≤ | rk − 1 | / 2
at each step .
Leopold Kronecker has shown that this version requires the least number of steps of any version of Euclid 's algorithm . More generally , it has been proven that , for every input numbers a and b , the number of steps is minimal if and only if qk is chosen in order that <formula> where <formula> is the golden ratio .
= = Historical development = =
The Euclidean algorithm is one of the oldest algorithms in common use . It appears in Euclid 's Elements ( c . 300 BC ) , specifically in Book 7 ( Propositions 1 – 2 ) and Book 10 ( Propositions 2 – 3 ) . In Book 7 , the algorithm is formulated for integers , whereas in Book 10 , it is formulated for lengths of line segments . ( In modern usage , one would say it was formulated there for real numbers . But lengths , areas , and volumes , represented as real numbers in modern usage , are not measured in the same units and there is no natural unit of length , area , or volume ; the concept of real numbers was unknown at that time . ) The latter algorithm is geometrical . The GCD of two lengths a and b corresponds to the greatest length g that measures a and b evenly ; in other words , the lengths a and b are both integer multiples of the length g .
The algorithm was probably not discovered by Euclid , who compiled results from earlier mathematicians in his Elements . The mathematician and historian B. L. van der Waerden suggests that Book VII derives from a textbook on number theory written by mathematicians in the school of Pythagoras . The algorithm was probably known by Eudoxus of Cnidus ( about 375 BC ) . The algorithm may even pre @-@ date Eudoxus , judging from the use of the technical term ἀνθυφαίρεσις ( anthyphairesis , reciprocal subtraction ) in works by Euclid and Aristotle .
Centuries later , Euclid 's algorithm was discovered independently both in India and in China , primarily to solve Diophantine equations that arise in astronomy and making accurate calendars . In the late 5th century , the Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata described the algorithm as the " pulverizer " , perhaps because of its effectiveness in solving Diophantine equations . Although a special case of the Chinese remainder theorem had already been described by Chinese mathematician and astronomer Sun Tzu , the general solution was published by Qin Jiushao in his 1247 book Shushu Jiuzhang ( 數書九章 Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections ) . The Euclidean algorithm was first described in Europe in the second edition of Bachet 's Problèmes plaisants et délectables ( Pleasant and enjoyable problems , 1624 ) . In Europe , it was likewise used to solve Diophantine equations and in developing continued fractions . The extended Euclidean algorithm was published by the English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson , who attributed it to Roger Cotes as a method for computing continued fractions efficiently .
In the 19th century , the Euclidean algorithm led to the development of new number systems , such as Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers . In 1815 , Carl Gauss used the Euclidean algorithm to demonstrate unique factorization of Gaussian integers , although his work was first published in 1832 . Gauss mentioned the algorithm in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae ( published 1801 ) , but only as a method for continued fractions . Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet seems to have been the first to describe the Euclidean algorithm as the basis for much of number theory . Lejeune Dirichlet noted that many results of number theory , such as unique factorization , would hold true for any other system of numbers to which the Euclidean algorithm could be applied . Lejeune Dirichlet 's lectures on number theory were edited and extended by Richard Dedekind , who used Euclid 's algorithm to study algebraic integers , a new general type of number . For example , Dedekind was the first to prove Fermat 's two @-@ square theorem using the unique factorization of Gaussian integers . Dedekind also defined the concept of a Euclidean domain , a number system in which a generalized version of the Euclidean algorithm can be defined ( as described below ) . In the closing decades of the 19th century , the Euclidean algorithm gradually became eclipsed by Dedekind 's more general theory of ideals .
Other applications of Euclid 's algorithm were developed in the 19th century . In 1829 , Charles Sturm showed that the algorithm was useful in the Sturm chain method for counting the real roots of polynomials in any given interval .
The Euclidean algorithm was the first integer relation algorithm , which is a method for finding integer relations between commensurate real numbers . Several novel integer relation algorithms have been developed , such as the algorithm of Helaman Ferguson and R.W. Forcade ( 1979 ) and the LLL algorithm .
In 1969 , Cole and Davie developed a two @-@ player game based on the Euclidean algorithm , called The Game of Euclid , which has an optimal strategy . The players begin with two piles of a and b stones . The players take turns removing m multiples of the smaller pile from the larger . Thus , if the two piles consist of x and y stones , where x is larger than y , the next player can reduce the larger pile from x stones to x − my stones , as long as the latter is a nonnegative integer . The winner is the first player to reduce one pile to zero stones .
= = Mathematical applications = =
= = = Bézout 's identity = = =
Bézout 's identity states that the greatest common divisor g of two integers a and b can be represented as a linear sum of the original two numbers a and b . In other words , it is always possible to find integers s and t such that g
= sa + tb .
The integers s and t can be calculated from the quotients q0 , q1 , etc. by reversing the order of equations in Euclid 's algorithm . Beginning with the next @-@ to @-@ last equation , g can be expressed in terms of the quotient qN − 1 and the two preceding remainders , rN − 2 and rN − 3 :
g =
rN − 1
= rN − 3 − qN − 1 rN − 2 .
Those two remainders can be likewise expressed in terms of their quotients and preceding remainders ,
rN − 2 =
rN − 4 − qN − 2 rN − 3 and
rN − 3
= rN − 5 − qN − 3 rN − 4 .
Substituting these formulae for rN − 2 and rN − 3 into the first equation yields g as a linear sum of the remainders rN − 4 and rN − 5 . The process of substituting remainders by formulae involving their predecessors can be continued until the original numbers a and b are reached :
r2 =
r0 − q2 r1
r1
= b − q1 r0
r0 =
a − q0 b .
After all the remainders r0 , r1 , etc. have been substituted , the final equation expresses g as a linear sum of a and b : g = sa + tb . Bézout 's identity , and therefore the previous algorithm , can both be generalized to the context of Euclidean domains .
= = = Principal ideals and related problems = = =
Bézout 's identity provides yet another definition of the greatest common divisor g of two numbers a and b . Consider the set of all numbers ua + vb , where u and v are any two integers . Since a and b are both divisible by g , every number in the set is divisible by g . In other words , every number of the set is an integer multiple of g . This is true for every common divisor of a and b . However , unlike other common divisors , the greatest common divisor is a member of the set ; by Bézout 's identity , choosing u |
= s and v =
t gives g . A smaller common divisor cannot be a member of the set , since every member of the set must be divisible by g . Conversely , any multiple m of g can be obtained by choosing u |
= ms and v =
mt , where s and t are the integers of Bézout 's identity . This may be seen by multiplying Bézout 's identity by m ,
mg
= msa + mtb .
Therefore , the set of all numbers ua + vb is equivalent to the set of multiples m of g . In other words , the set of all possible sums of integer multiples of two numbers ( a and b ) is equivalent to the set of multiples of gcd ( a , b ) . The GCD is said to be the generator of the ideal of a and b . This GCD definition led to the modern abstract algebraic concepts of a principal ideal ( an ideal generated by a single element ) and a principal ideal domain ( a domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal ) .
Certain problems can be solved using this result . For example , consider two measuring cups of volume a and b . By adding / subtracting u multiples of the first cup and v multiples of the second cup , any volume ua + vb can be measured out . These volumes are all multiples of g =
gcd ( a , b ) .
= = = Extended Euclidean algorithm = = =
The integers s and t of Bézout 's identity can be computed efficiently using the extended Euclidean algorithm . This extension adds two recursive equations to Euclid 's algorithm
sk
= sk − 2 − qksk − 1
tk =
tk − 2 − qktk − 1
with the starting values
s − 2 |
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