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= North @-@ Eastern Area Command ( RAAF ) =
North @-@ Eastern Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . For most of its existence it covered central and northern Queensland , and Papua New Guinea . It was formed in January 1942 from the eastern part of the former Northern Area Command , which had covered the whole of northern Australia and Papua . Headquartered at Townsville , Queensland , North @-@ Eastern Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . Aircraft under its control took part in the battles of Rabaul , Port Moresby and Milne Bay in 1942 , and the landings at Hollandia and Aitape in 1944 . The command continued to operate following the end of the war , before its responsibilities were subsumed in 1954 by the RAAF 's new functional command @-@ and @-@ control system ; the headquarters was disbanded two years later .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
North @-@ Eastern Area Command was formed at Townsville , Queensland , on 15 January 1942 , taking over the eastern portion of what was previously Northern Area Command . Northern Area had been established on 8 May 1941 as one of the RAAF 's geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones , and covered northern New South Wales , Queensland , the Northern Territory , and Papua . The roles of the area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each area was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of air bases and units within his boundary .
The outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 was the catalyst for Northern Area being split into North @-@ Western Area ( NWA ) and North @-@ Eastern Area ( NEA ) , to counter distinct threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea , respectively . Air Commodore Frank Lukis , formerly in charge of Northern Area , was NEA 's inaugural AOC , taking responsibility for RAAF operations against the Japanese in New Guinea , New Britain and surrounding islands . His headquarters staff numbered 284 . On 20 January 1942 , a force of over 100 Japanese aircraft attacked Rabaul , destroying or badly damaging six CAC Wirraways and killing or wounding eleven crewmen of No. 24 Squadron under Wing Commander John Lerew . The following day , NEA headquarters sent a signal to Lerew ordering him to keep his airfield open , to which Lerew , with only two Wirraways left , replied using the legendary ancient gladiatorial phrase to honour an Emperor : " Morituri vos salutamus " ( " We who are about to die salute you " ) . Ignoring a further message from headquarters to abandon his squadron and escape in a Lockheed Hudson bomber , on 22 January Lerew began evacuating staff to Port Moresby , New Guinea .
No. 33 Squadron , operating ex @-@ Qantas Short Empire flying boats and several smaller transports , was raised in NEA on 19 February 1942 . Earlier that month , Lukis warned higher command of the poor state of preparedness and low morale of Australian Army troops at Port Moresby , due to lack of air cover and apparent lack of interest from government echelons . On 25 February , Nos. 3 and 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters were established to coordinate fighter operations ; they were based at Townsville and Port Moresby respectively . Seventeen P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks of No. 75 Squadron , recently formed at Townsville , were deployed to Port Moresby in mid @-@ March . Commanded by Squadron Leader John Jackson , the squadron suffered heavy losses in the ensuing battle . At one point NEA headquarters gave Jackson permission to withdraw but he refused , and the squadron was eventually credited with destroying thirty @-@ five Japanese aircraft in the air and on the ground , securing Port Moresby until relieved by the 35th and 36th Squadrons of the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , operating P @-@ 39 Airacobras .
Several USAAF bomber formations operated under NEA 's control in early 1942 , including A @-@ 24 Banshees of the 8th Squadron from Port Moresby , and B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the 435th Squadron ( initially known as the " Kangaroo Squadron " ) from Townsville . As of 20 April , operational authority over all RAAF combat infrastructure , including area commands , was invested in the newly established Allied Air Forces ( AAF ) Headquarters under South West Pacific Area Command ( SWPA ) . One result of this was the integration of USAAF and RAAF staff at area headquarters . According to the official history of the RAAF , though " more a diplomatic gesture than a practical method of war organisation " , it gave personnel from the two services the opportunity to quickly become acclimatised to each other and " in North @-@ Eastern Area , as an example , the atmosphere was happy and the staff extremely cooperative " . Following the Battle of the Coral Sea in May , USAAF units no longer operated under RAAF control in the NEA but were commanded directly by senior American officers of the AAF .
NEA 's operational headquarters , a reinforced concrete bunker known as Building 81 , was completed in May 1942 . Located on Green Street , Townsville , at the base of Castle Hill , it was topped with a suburban house to mislead enemy aircraft . The same month , Eastern Area Command was formed , taking control of units in New South Wales and southern Queensland from Southern Area and NEA . This left NEA in command of Nos. 24 , 33 and 76 Squadrons , as well as No. 3 Fighter Sector Headquarters , at Townsville ; No. 100 Squadron at Cairns ; No. 32 Squadron at Horn Island ; and Nos. 11 , 20 and 75 Squadrons , as well as No. 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters , at Port Moresby . NEA 's boundaries were finetuned on 19 August : a portion of Queensland within the Barkly Tableland and the Haslingden and Heywood districts was assigned to the control of North @-@ Western Area . Lukis handed over command of NEA to Group Captain ( later Air Commodore ) Harry Cobby on 25 August . By the end of the month , the headquarters staff numbered 684 . No. 75 Squadron , replenished after its defence of Port Moresby , and No. 76 Squadron , deployed north from Townsville and also flying Kittyhawks , played what senior Australian Army commanders described as the " decisive " role in the Battle of Milne Bay in New Guinea during August and September 1942 . During the battle , Cobby exercised overall command of the RAAF units from NEA headquarters , while their efforts were coordinated on the ground by Group Captain Bill Garing , NEA 's senior air staff officer .
On 1 September 1942 , No. 9 ( Operational ) Group was formed at Port Moresby as a mobile strike force to move forward with Allied advances in the Pacific , in contrast to the static , defensive nature of the area commands . It took over all units in New Guinea previously operating under NEA Command . NEA initially retained administrative control of No. 9 Group but , on 1 January 1943 , the group was made independent of the area command and its administration became the responsibility of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . September 1942 also saw the formation of RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , to oversee the majority of Australian flying units in the SWPA . Bostock exercised control of air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority over all Australian units . He personally coordinated operations when they involved more than one area command , for instance when the fighter squadrons of both NWA and NEA were required to repulse a major attack . No. 42 ( Radar ) Wing was formed at Townsville in February 1943 , and the following month took control of all radar stations in NEA . As of April 1943 , the area command directly controlled four squadrons tasked primarily with anti @-@ submarine warfare : No. 7 Squadron , flying Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance @-@ bombers out of Ross River ; No. 9 Squadron , a fleet co @-@ operation unit flying Supermarine Seagulls from Bowen ; and Nos. 11 and 20 Squadrons , flying reconnaissance and bombing missions with PBY Catalinas from Cairns .
In early 1943 , Japan was still believed to be capable of invading , or at least bombing , the Torres Strait islands , and NEA had only No. 7 Squadron , now operating from Horn Island , to counter the threat . It was reinforced in April by No. 84 Squadron , flying CAC Boomerang fighters . The same month , No. 72 Wing was formed at Townsville , before deploying to Merauke , New Guinea . Controlling No. 84 Squadron , No. 86 Squadron ( flying Kittyhawks ) , and No. 12 Squadron ( Vultee Vengeance dive bombers ) , the wing was responsible for Torres Strait 's air defence , as well as offensive operations against infrastructure and shipping in Dutch New Guinea . In October , No. 84 Squadron converted to Kittyhawks and transferred to the newly formed No. 75 Wing , which was given responsibility for units at Horn Island , Thursday Island , and Higgins Field on Cape York Peninsula . In February 1944 , No. 75 Wing headquarters moved from Horn Island to Higgins Field , where it was soon joined by other units under its control , Nos. 7 and 23 Squadrons ; the latter operated Vengeances until being declared non @-@ operational in June , prior to re @-@ equipping with B @-@ 24 Liberators for duty in North @-@ Western Area . By May , NEA 's order of battle on the Australian mainland consisted of Nos. 7 , 9 , 13 ( operating Lockheed Venturas from Cooktown ) , 20 and 23 Squadrons .
Cobby served as AOC NEA until November 1943 , handing over to Air Commodore John Summers , who held command for the remainder of the war . By the end of November , NEA headquarters staff numbered 499 , including ninety @-@ seven officers . NEA 's Catalinas joined aircraft of No. 9 Group in support of the US invasion of New Britain in December 1943 and January 1944 . The Catalinas also conducted mine @-@ laying operations around the Timor Sea in the lead @-@ up to the landings at Hollandia and Aitape in April 1944 . In August , No. 76 Wing headquarters , formed at Townsville in January and subsequently based at Cairns , was transferred to Darwin , Northern Territory . There it came under the control of NWA headquarters and oversaw operations by three Catalina squadrons , including No. 20 . The same month , No. 75 Wing was disbanded and its units became the direct responsibility of NEA headquarters . No. 42 Wing disbanded in October 1944 , following a decision to assign control of RAAF radar stations to mobile fighter control units or similar formations . By the end of February 1945 , NEA headquarters staff numbered 743 , including 127 officers . No. 72 Wing headquarters transferred to Townsville in May that year , and disbanded the following month .
= = = Post @-@ war activity and disbandment = = =
Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945 , SWPA was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters again assumed full control of all its operational formations , including the area commands . By the end of the month , NEA headquarters staff numbered 526 , including ninety @-@ eight officers . The Air Force shrank dramatically as personnel were demobilised and units disbanded ; most of the RAAF 's bases and aircraft employed in operations after the war were situated within Eastern Area 's sphere of control in New South Wales and southern Queensland . In September 1946 , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , proposed reducing the five extant mainland area commands ( North @-@ Western , North @-@ Eastern , Eastern , Southern , and Western Areas ) to three : Northern Area , covering Queensland and the Northern Territory ; Eastern Area , covering New South Wales ; and Southern Area , covering Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania . The Australian Government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries essentially remained in place . By 1949 , NEA headquarters was located in Sturt Street , Townsville . No. 10 Squadron was based at Townsville from March that year , operating Avro Lincolns over the Pacific and Australia 's northern approaches in the maritime reconnaissance and search @-@ and @-@ rescue roles . Air Commodore Ian McLachlan was appointed AOC NEA in September 1951 and served two years in the post before handing over to acting Air Commodore Patrick Heffernan .
Commencing in October 1953 , the RAAF was reorganised from a geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system into one based on function . In February 1954 , the newly constituted functional organisations — Home , Training , and Maintenance Commands — assumed control of all operations , training and maintenance from North @-@ Eastern Area Command . NEA headquarters remained in existence , but only as one of Home Command 's " remote control points " . It was finally disbanded on 3 December 1956 , and was succeeded by Headquarters RAAF Townsville .
As of 2009 , the former NEA headquarters in Building 81 , Green Street , housed Townsville 's State Emergency Service group .
= = Order of battle = =
As at 30 April 1942 , NEA 's order of battle comprised :
RAAF Station Townsville
No. 24 ( General Purpose ) Squadron
No. 33 ( Transport ) Squadron
No. 76 ( Fighter ) Squadron
RAAF Station Amberley
No. 23 ( General Purpose ) Squadron
RAAF Station Port Moresby
No. 11 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron
No. 20 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron
No. 32 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron
No. 75 ( Fighter ) Squadron
No. 3 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Townsville
No. 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Port Moresby
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= Cape lobster =
The Cape lobster , Homarinus capensis , is a species of small lobster that lives off the coast of South Africa , from Dassen Island to Haga Haga . Only a few dozen specimens are known , mostly regurgitated by reef @-@ dwelling fish . It lives in rocky reefs , and is thought to lay large eggs that have a short larval phase , or that hatch directly as a juvenile . The species grows to a total length of 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and resembles a small European or American lobster ; it was previously included in the same genus , Homarus , although it is not very closely related to those species , and is now considered to form a separate , monotypic genus – Homarinus . Its closest relatives are the genera Thymops and Thymopides .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
The Cape lobster is endemic to South Africa . It occurs from Dassen Island , Western Cape in the west to Haga Haga , Eastern Cape in the east , a range of 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) . Most of the known specimens were regurgitated by fish caught on reefs at depths of 20 – 40 metres ( 66 – 131 ft ) . This suggests that the Cape lobster inhabits rocky substrates , and may explain its apparent rarity , since such areas are not amenable to dredging or trawling , and the species may be too small to be retained by lobster traps .
= = Description = =
Homarinus capensis is considerably smaller than the large northern lobsters of the Atlantic Ocean , Homarus gammarus ( the European lobster ) and Homarus americanus ( the American lobster ) , at 8 – 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) total length , or 4 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) carapace length . Accounts of the colouration of H. capensis are very variable , from tawny , red or yellow to " a rather dark olive " , similar to Homarus gammarus .
Homarinus and Homarus are considered to be the most plesiomorphic genera in the family Nephropidae . Nonetheless , the Cape lobster differs from Homarus in a number of characters . The rostrum of the Cape lobster is flattened , while that of Homarus is rounded in section , and curves upwards at the tip . The three pairs of claws are covered with hairs in Homarinus , while those of Homarus are hairless . The telson tapers along its length in Homarus , but has sides which are nearly parallel in Homarinus . Although no egg @-@ bearing females have been collected , the gonopores ( openings of the oviducts ) of female Cape lobsters are much larger than those of Homarus gammarus and Homarus americanus . This is thought to indicate that Homarinus bears fewer , larger eggs than Homarus , and that either the larvae develop quickly into juveniles after hatching , or that the eggs hatch directly into juveniles .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Cape lobsters are elusive and rare , with only fourteen specimens having been collected between 1792 ( the date of its first description ) and 1992 . These include five males in the collections of the South African Museum ( Cape Town ) , two in the Natural History Museum ( London ) , one in each of the East London Museum , the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie ( Leiden ) and the Albany Museum ( Grahamstown ) , and one male and one female in the Muséum national d 'histoire naturelle ( Paris ) . In 1992 , a Cape lobster was discovered at Dassen Island , and the publicity the find generated resulted in more than 20 additional specimens being reported .
The Cape lobster was first described by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1792 as Cancer ( Astacus ) capensis . It was independently described in 1793 by Johan Christian Fabricius as Astacus flavus , possibly based on the same type specimen . When Friedrich Weber erected the genus Homarus in 1795 , he included Fabricius ' species in it , but this placement was not followed by later authors . The species reached its current classification in 1995 , when the monotypic genus Homarinus was erected by Irv Kornfield , Austin B. Williams and Robert S. Steneck .
While analyses of morphology suggest a close relationship between Homarinus and Homarus , molecular analyses using mitochondrial DNA reveal that they are not sister taxa . Both genera lack ornamentation such as spines and carinae , but are thought to have reached that state independently , through convergent evolution . The closest living relative of Homarus is Nephrops norvegicus , while the closest relatives of Homarinus are Thymops and Thymopides .
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= A4232 road =
The A4232 , which is also known either as the Peripheral Distributor Road ( PDR ) ( Welsh : Ffordd Ddosbarthu Ymylol ) or the Cardiff Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Caerdydd ) , is a distributor road in Cardiff , the capital of Wales .
The first section of the PDR to be completed was the Southern Way Link Road in 1978 and the last section was the Butetown Link Road in 1995 . Construction of the first phase of the final link road , the Eastern Bay Link Road , started on 17 March 2016 and is due to be completed by April 2017 . When fully completed , the road will form part of the Cardiff ring road system . The PDR runs west , south and east of Cardiff , with the M4 between junction 30 and junction 33 completing the northern section . The PDR is dual carriageway for its entire length except for the East Moors Viaduct , which is a single carriageway .
The PDR has been constructed in separate link roads of between 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) and 5 @.@ 47 km ( 3 @.@ 40 mi ) around Cardiff and to date 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) including spurs have been opened to traffic , with plans for a further 5 @.@ 53 km ( 3 @.@ 44 mi ) . It has 4 large viaducts ( Ely Viaduct , Grangetown Viaduct , Taff Viaduct and the East Moors Viaduct ) , 1 tunnel ( Queen 's Gate Tunnel ) and 2 spur roads ( Cogan Spur and Central Link Road ) . The road also has many smaller bridges over or under most of the interchanges on the road . The entire length of the road has clearway restrictions on it .
= = History = =
The road was conceived in the early 1970s and planning began in the late 1970s , by South Glamorgan County Council . The road at that stage was planned to be completed by 1995 and would relieve Ely , Grangetown , Butetown and East Moors of through traffic and as a fast link to the national motorway network via the M4 and A48 ( M ) . The first section of the PDR to be completed was the Southern Way Link Road between Newport Road ( A4161 road ) and the Eastern Avenue ( A48 road ) in 1978 and the last section of the PDR , the Butetown Link Road , was opened to the public in 1995 .
The former chairman of the South Glamorgan County Council environment committee , Councillor Paddy Kitson , called the road a " necklace of opportunity " due to its shape and also the opportunities for regeneration . By 1 April 1996 the responsibility for the road was transferred from South Glamorgan County Council to the unitary authority of Cardiff Council . Much of the funding for the road had been grant aided from the European Community and the UK Government on the basis that it would improve the economic viability of the area and bring in new jobs and industry . However , since the completion of the Butetown Link Road , funding for further developments have been at a stand still , and to date 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) including spurs are open to traffic with plans for a further 5 @.@ 53 km ( 3 @.@ 44 mi ) . The " missing link " , the Eastern Bay Link Road , is still to be built .
= = Route description = =
The PDR has 3 separate sections ; the Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( M4 J33 ) to Queen 's Gate roundabout , the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout to the Llanedeyrn Interchange ( A48 ) and the Pontprennau Interchange ( A48 ) to the Pentwyn Interchange ( M4 J30 ) .
The section from the Capel Llanilltern Interchange on the M4 ( junction 33 ) to the Queen 's Gate roundabout is sometimes referred to as the Western Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Gorllewin ) , is 15 @.@ 77 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 80 mi ) in length and includes the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road , Ely Link Road , Grangetown Link Road and Butetown Link Road . For the majority of this section it is the boundary between the City of Cardiff to the east and the Vale of Glamorgan to the west .
This section partly opened in 1978 , from the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout to the Llanedeyrn Interchange on the A48 is oldest section of the PDR . It includes only the Southern Way Link Road , known locally as Southern Way , and is 2 @.@ 25 km ( 1 @.@ 40 mi ) in length .
The Pentwyn Link Road section from the Pontprennau Interchange on the A48 to the Pentwyn Interchange on the M4 ( junction 30 ) is one of the newer sections of the PDR , having been opened in 1984 , it is 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) in length . The road between the Llanedeyrn Interchange to the Pontprennau Interchange is the A48 ( Eastern Avenue ) , it too is a dual carriageway and is a concurrent road with the PDR , there are no plans to renumber this section of the A48 .
= = Link roads = =
A map of all the link roads and spur roads can be seen by clicking Map of all coordinates opposite
Each section of the road was completed in separate link roads .
= = = Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road = = =
The GB £ 14 @.@ 5 million Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Capel Llanilltern – Croes Cwrlwys ) , also known as the A4232 Trunk Road ( as it is the only section of the PDR which is a trunk road ) , between the Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( 51 @.@ 506481 ° N 3 @.@ 310425 ° W / 51 @.@ 506481 ; -3.310425 ( Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( M4 J33 ) ) ) and the Culverhouse Cross Interchange ( 51 @.@ 466350 ° N 3 @.@ 271110 ° W / 51 @.@ 466350 ; -3.271110 ( Culverhouse Cross Interchange ) ) was opened in 1985 . It was designed to provide a by @-@ pass for traffic from the M4 to the Vale of Glamorgan . It is 5 @.@ 47 km ( 3 @.@ 40 mi ) in length and includes the Ely Viaduct close to Michaelston @-@ super @-@ Ely . The trunk road is maintained by the South Wales Trunk Road Agency ( SWTRA ) on behalf of the Welsh Assembly Government ( WAG ) . The remainder of the PDR is a primary route , which is maintained by Cardiff Council . In 2006 variable message signs were installed on the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road by Techspan Systems to display messages giving motorists warning of road and weather conditions , accidents , congestion and major events held in the area .
= = = = Ely Viaduct = = = =
The Ely Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Trelái ) crosses over the River Ely and also the main South Wales railway line .
The viaduct is a 538 ft ( 164 m ) twin @-@ box girder and has central span of 230 ft ( 70 m ) and 150 ft ( 46 m ) side spans , constructed by the balanced cantilever method . It was constructed in segments each weighing between 54 tons for plain segments to 93 tons for the main segments .
= = = Ely Link Road = = =
The Ely Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Trelái ) between the Culverhouse Cross Interchange ( 51 @.@ 465840 ° N 3 @.@ 269895 ° W / 51 @.@ 465840 ; -3.269895 ( Culverhouse Cross Interchange ) ) and the Leckwith Interchange ( 51 @.@ 470641 ° N 3 @.@ 211762 ° W / 51 @.@ 470641 ; -3.211762 ( Leckwith Interchange ) ) , sometimes referred to as the Leckwith Road Interchange . It is 4 @.@ 83 km ( 3 @.@ 00 mi ) in length and was opened in 1982 and built by Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd ( DMD ) . It was designed to relieve Ely of through traffic and partly cuts into Leckwith Hill .
= = = Grangetown Link Road = = =
The 2 @.@ 89 km ( 1 @.@ 80 mi ) Grangetown Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Trelluest ) between the Leckwith Interchange ( 51 @.@ 470159 ° N 3 @.@ 211239 ° W / 51 @.@ 470159 ; -3.211239 ( Leckwith Interchange ) ) and the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453510 ° N 3 @.@ 185760 ° W / 51 @.@ 453510 ; -3.185760 ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) was opened on 3 May , 1988 . It includes the Grangetown Viaduct .
= = = = Grangetown Viaduct = = = =
The Grangetown Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Trelluest ) is approximately 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in length and is said to be the longest glued segmental bridge in the United Kingdom . It has 13 spans of 71 meters ( 233 ft ) with 2 end spans of 38 m ( 125 ft ) and 46 m ( 151 ft ) .
The viaduct was designed by South Glamorgan County Council . Robert Benaim and Associates , now called Benaim UK Ltd designed the initial launching system for the glued segmental structure .
= = = Butetown Link Road = = =
The 2 @.@ 57 km ( 1 @.@ 60 mi ) Butetown Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Butetown ) between the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453585 ° N 3 @.@ 184044 ° W / 51 @.@ 453585 ; -3.184044 ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) and the Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 467873 ° N 3 @.@ 157455 ° W / 51 @.@ 467873 ; -3.157455 ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) was opened on 27 March , 1995 by Neil Kinnock at the time the European Commissioner for Transport . Construction of the link road commenced on 15 October 1993 and it was the last link road to be built . It includes the Taff Viaduct , also known as the Butetown Link Road Bridge , and the Queen 's Gate Tunnel , which is also known simply as the Butetown Tunnel .
In 1987 South Glamorgan County Council had intended to build a viaduct cross the River Taff and then go onto an elevated section through Butetown " on stilts " . But the newly formed Cardiff Bay Development Corporation along with local residents objected to the scheme that they said would cut through Butetown and split the community , creating an unnecessary physical barrier between the two areas to the north and south of the link road . By 1988 South Glamorgan County Council had agreed to change the design of the link road , despite having already spent 6 years of design work on the link road meant that a tunnel had to be built instead . The cost of the Butetown Link Road was estimated to cost £ 35 million , but this had risen to £ 45M in 1988 , before the design change .
The contract to build the Butetown Link Road was eventually won by a local company Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd in a joint venture with an Italian contractor , Cogefar @-@ Impresit UK Ltd . The bid of £ 60 million undercut all other bids by £ 10 million , Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd have subsequently gone into administrative receivership .
= = = = Queen 's Gate Tunnel = = = =
The Queen 's Gate Tunnel ( Welsh : Twnnel Porth y Frenhines ) , also known as the Butetown Tunnel , is underneath southern Butetown and follows a line underneath the Wales Millennium Centre . The 715 m ( 2 @,@ 346 ft ) twin tunnel was constructed using the cut and cover method of construction , which involves digging a trench for the tunnel and then roofing it over . The tunnel was constructed using reinforced concrete and a central wall separates the two sets of traffic .
South Glamorgan County Council originally awarded the contract for the management , installation , testing and commissioning of all electrical and mechanical services for the tunnel , and the water pumping stations to EI · WHS Ltd . They still maintain the tunnel on behalf of Cardiff Council .
= = = = Taff Viaduct = = = =
Construction of the 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) Taff Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Tâf ) includes a dual @-@ carriageway roadway plus a foot and cycle path . South Glamorgan County Council was the local authority in charge of the project at the time and construction of the viaduct began in March , 1991 . The Taff Viaduct crosses the River Taff at Cardiff Bay .
The viaduct was constructed using precast concrete segments , which is widely used in the construction industry for medium to long span viaducts . Segments were made in a casting yard near the site and then transported for final assembly of the viaduct .
= = = Eastern Bay Link Road = = =
Construction began on 17 March 2016 on the 5 @.@ 25 km ( 3 @.@ 26 mi ) Eastern Bay Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Ddwyreiniol y Bae ) which will run from the Queen 's Gate Roundabout to the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout on the Southern Way Link Road , although at present only the first phase between Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 468090 ° N 3 @.@ 156193 ° W / 51 @.@ 468090 ; -3.156193 ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) and Ocean Way Interchange . ( 51 @.@ 472328 ° N 3 @.@ 144107 ° W / 51 @.@ 472328 ; -3.144107 ( Ocean Way Interchange ) ) The link road will be a two lane dual carriageway with a 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) speed limit .
For many years this link road has been mothballed due to the costs involved . The link road had previously been known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 1 and 3 , but it also included the East Moors Viaduct , which was originally known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 2 . Later it became known as the Cardiff Bay Link Road , then renamed the Eastern Bay Link Road .
The Eastern Bay Link Road , along with other schemes have been subject to many planning proposals since the last link road ( the Butetown Link Road ) was finished in 1995 , namely a local transport plan ( Local Transport Plan 2000 – 2016 ) in August 2000 , a green paper ( A Change of Gear ) in December 2002 and a white paper ( Keeping Cardiff Moving ) in May 2003 . The cost of the link road was estimated to cost GB £ 162 million in 2001 and this increased to GB £ 180 million by August 2002 . It could be paid for by congestion charging , although a public @-@ private partnership is also possible .
The original route of the link road had been challenged by both Friends of the Earth Cymru , and also the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB ) , who had both lodged formal objections against the link road . However , the current proposal from Cardiff Council of 31 October 2006 is to complete the first phase of the road , approximately 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in length , from the Butetown Link Road to Ocean Way roundabout . The new route would be a different route from the earlier proposal and would avoid any encroachment into the nature conservation area , which Friends of the Earth and the RSPB had objected to . Therefore , the new route of the link road should ensure that there are no objections .
It was revealed on 14 June 2013 that Edwina Hart , Minister for Economy , Science and Transport in the WAG supported the completion the Eastern Bay Link Road . She said that the link road would ; improve access to Cardiff Bay , improve access to the Cardiff Central Enterprise Zone and enhance connections within the Cardiff City Region . The overall objectives of the road would be to :
Increase accessibility from east Cardiff to major employment sites in the East Moors area , Cardiff Bay and the Central Cardiff Enterprise Zone
Provide a more direct route between the Butetown Tunnel and Rover Way
Reduce congestion at the junctions on Tyndall Street by removing traffic currently using the Ocean Way- East Tyndall Street – Central Link route
Reduce journey times for private and commercial road users
Help economic regeneration
Enhance road safety and reduce casualties
Improve resilience on the strategic road network around Cardiff
Provide more opportunities for cycling and walking
On 2 May 2014 , Edwina Hart approved the procurement of the design – build contractor , advance service diversion works and communications arrangements for the Eastern Bay Link Road . Construction of this first phase of the Eastern Bay Link Road is due to begin in 2015 and will take 18 months to complete . In April 2015 , it was announced by the Welsh Government that the 1 @.@ 2 km £ 27.3m Eastern Bay Link Road from the incomplete flyover at the Queens Gate roundabout to the Ocean Way roundabout at Tremorfa known as the " roundabout to nowhere " , would be designed by Capita Property and Infrastructure and constructed by Dawnus Construction Holdings and Ferrovial Agroman UK in a joint venture . Construction began on the link road on 17 March 2016 .
= = = Southern Way Link Road = = =
The Southern Way Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt y Ffordd Deheuol ) , generally known simply as Southern Way , was built in two parts ; the first section of Southern Way to be completed was between Newport Road ( A4161 road ) and the Eastern Avenue ( A48 road ) in 1978 . The final section of the link road was built between Newport Road and the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout and was opened in 1984 at a cost of £ 9 million and includes the East Moors Viaduct , which is also known as the Southern Way Flyover . In 1987 it was envisaged that the present single @-@ carriage would be " twinned " as a dual @-@ carriageway , the same as the rest of the PDR . The 2 @.@ 25 km ( 1 @.@ 40 mi ) link road now runs from the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 493127 ° N 3 @.@ 133759 ° W / 51 @.@ 493127 ; -3.133759 ( Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout ) ) to the Llanedeyrn Interchange ( 51 @.@ 507202 ° N 3 @.@ 145853 ° W / 51 @.@ 507202 ; -3.145853 ( Llanedeyrn Interchange ) ) on the A48 .
= = = = East Moors Viaduct = = = =
The 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) East Moors Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Rhostiroedd y Dwyrain ) , which is also known as the Southern Way Flyover , was also designed by Robert Benaim and Associates who won the ICE ( Institution of Civil Engineers ) Project Award and also a Concrete Society Commendation , both in 1985 for work on the viaduct . The viaduct was constructed by concrete box girder deck of segmental construction . The East Moors Viaduct was originally known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 2 , but now forms part of the Southern Way Link Road .
= = = Pentwyn Link Road = = =
The Pentwyn Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Pentwyn ) , which is also known as the North Pentwyn Link Road , runs from the Pontprennau Interchange ( 51 @.@ 528660 ° N 3 @.@ 130240 ° W / 51 @.@ 528660 ; -3.130240 ( Pontrennau Interchange ) ) on the A48 and the Pentwyn Interchange ( 51 @.@ 541525 ° N 3 @.@ 128749 ° W / 51 @.@ 541525 ; -3.128749 ( Pentwyn Interchange ( M4 J30 ) ) ) on the M4 ( junction 30 ) . It is 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) in length and was opened by John Redwood MP , the Secretary of State for Wales on 20 June , 1994 . It provides a link between the Eastern Avenue ( A48 ) and the M4 so that westbound traffic from the east of the city can get onto the M4 without having to go through the city , via the A48 and A470 . In addition it also provides access to the community of Pontprennau to the national road network . This link was financed by private developers as part of a large scale housing development at Pontprennau .
= = Public Art & Commemorative Stones = =
= = Spur roads = =
= = = Cogan Spur ( A4055 ) = = =
The Cogan Spur , which is also known as the Cogan Link ( Welsh : Gyswllt Cogan ) , from the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453519 ° N 3 @.@ 184876 ° W / 51 @.@ 453519 ; -3.184876 ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) to Barons Court Junction ( 51 @.@ 447910 ° N 3 @.@ 189787 ° W / 51 @.@ 447910 ; -3.189787 ( Barons Court Junction ) ) on the A4160 was opened in 1988 . It is only 0 @.@ 8 km ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) , but it is an important link to provide access to the PDR from Penarth and the southern part of the Vale of Glamorgan . It also bypasses Penarth Road ( A4160 ) for traffic going in and out of Cardiff city centre .
The most recent development , which began at the end of 2006 and into 2007 was the widening of the road between the Cogan Viaduct and the Ferry Road Interchange to a 3 @-@ lane dual @-@ carriageway . A new junction was also built for the Cardiff International Sports Village directly from Cogan Spur ; also the Barons Court roundabout was replaced by a signal controlled crossroad . The main contractor for this project was Laing O 'Rourke Civil Engineering .
= = = = Cogan Viaduct = = = =
The Cogan Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Cogan ) is the most important element of the Cogan Spur as it crosses the River Ely with a central span of 95 metres ( 312 ft ) . In total it has 6 spans ; 40 m ( 130 ft ) , 60 m ( 200 ft ) , 60 m , 60m , 95 m and 60 m . It is made from a multi @-@ span glued segmental structure of rectangular box sections . In all over 300 sections were used to construct the viaduct , each weighing from 43 to 117 tonnes . The Cogan Viaduct was again designed by South Glamorgan County Council , who won a Concrete Society Commendation in 1989 for the design .
= = = Central Link Road ( A4234 ) = = =
The £ 8 @.@ 5 million Central Link ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Canolog ) between the Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 468399 ° N 3 @.@ 157366 ° W / 51 @.@ 468399 ; -3.157366 ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) and the junction on Adam Street ( 51 @.@ 479557 ° N 3 @.@ 167631 ° W / 51 @.@ 479557 ; -3.167631 ( Adam Street Junction ) ) on the A4160 was opened on 16 February 1989 . When it was first opened it only linked Cardiff city centre with Cardiff Bay . It was not until the Butetown Link was opened on 27 March 1995 that this road started to be used as a link to the motorway network , Penarth and the Vale of Glamorgan . It will not be until the Eastern Bay Link is built , when traffic from the city centre will use it to travel east , that it will be fully used . The length of the A4234 is just 1 @.@ 45 km ( 0 @.@ 90 mi ) and is entirely a two lane dual carriageway with clearway restrictions .
= = Abandoned spur roads = =
= = = Ely Spur = = =
The Ely Spur was planned to run from a new interchange on the Ely Link Road to the Ely Bridge Roundabout on the A48 . It was only 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) in length , but it would have reduced through traffic in the residential area of Ely , namely on Cowbridge Road West traveling to and from the A48 . But it has now been announced that this proposal has now been officially abandoned .
= = = Cardiff Airport Link Road = = =
The Cardiff Airport Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Maes Awyr Caerdydd ) was a proposed spur road off of the A4232 through to Cardiff Airport , when plans for the road were scrapped by the WAG in June 2009 . The current single carriageway A4050 road , from Cardiff to Cardiff Airport is also the main road from Barry to Cardiff and is the main commuter route .
One of the 4 proposed schemes involved a new major highway route linking the Ely Link Road ( PDR ) , south of the Culverhouse Cross Interchange , through to the A4226 north of Barry . The estimated cost of this scheme would have been £ 96m , including the widening of the A4232 .
= = Services = =
The PDR has two service stations for motorists , one at Cardiff West on the Capel Llanilltern Interchange and the other at Cardiff Gate on the Pentwyn Interchange . The services at Cardiff West includes Esso petrol , a Travelodge , Burger King , Costa Coffee and W H Smith , while the services at Cardiff Gate includes petrol , Burger King , W H Smith and also Coffee Primo .
Traffic Wales is the Welsh Government 's traffic information service , it is a partnership between the Welsh Government , the two Trunk Road Agents ( South Wales TRA / Norh & Mid Wales TRA ) and the WTTC consultancy Amey . In South Wales the service is managed from the South Wales Traffic Management Centre , also home to INRIX Media 's studio , providing live travel information for the media . The Traffic Wales website has five live traffic webcams on the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road ( Trunk Road ) and the images are updated every 5 minutes . Traffic Wales also operates a Traffic Information Hotline , motorists can use this telephone service by dialling an 0845 number , which gives up to date traffic information and travel advice .
= = Traffic congestion = =
Since the western link roads were built , a number of major developments have been built , such as the Cardiff Bay Retail Park , IKEA , Celtic Gateway , Cardiff International Sports Village that includes the Cardiff International Pool , Cardiff International White Water and Cardiff Arena , which have all generated additional traffic at the Ferry Road Interchange . In addition , the Leckwith development , which includes Cardiff City Stadium , Cardiff International Sports Stadium and the Capital Retail Park with a new Asda supermarket , have also significantly increased traffic on the Leckwith Interchange . At the Culverhouse Cross Interchange , older developments such as the Brooklands Retail Park , Wenvoe Retail Park and Valegate Retail Park , including Tesco and Marks & Spencer have also significantly increased congestion along with commuter traffic from the Vale of Glamorgan . From 1989 to 1997 there had been an increase in traffic of 78 % and a further increase of 35 % by 2016 is predicted by the Assembly . The Vale of Glamorgan Council also expressed reservations about the new developments of the Cardiff International Sports Village and the Cardiff City Stadium , which includes the Capital Retail Park . On 18 October , 2006 , the council requested that the WAG assess the existing traffic conditions and future growth in traffic on the network .
= = Popular culture = =
The Queen 's Gate Tunnel was featured in the first ever episode of Torchwood , called " Everything Changes " and was first broadcast by BBC Three on 22 October 2006 . The Grangetown Link was featured in the 2006 Christmas episode of Doctor Who called " The Runaway Bride " . It was first broadcast by BBC One on 25 December 2006 .
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= Development of Fez =
The high @-@ profile and protracted five @-@ year development of Fez led to its status as an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " . The 2012 puzzle platform game built around rotating between four 2D views of a 3D space was developed by indie developer Polytron Corporation and published by Polytron , Trapdoor , and Microsoft Studios . Over the course of the game 's development , Fez designer and Polytron founder Phil Fish received celebrity for his outspoken public persona and prominence in the 2012 documentary Indie Game : The Movie , which followed the game 's final stages of development and Polytron 's related legal issues . The game was released to critical acclaim as an Xbox Live Arcade timed exclusive , and was later ported to other platforms . It had sold one million copies by the end of 2013 .
Fish and Shawn McGrath collaborated on a puzzle game that became Fez . When McGrath left the project due to creative differences , Fish , the game 's artist , pursued a platform game direction with Renaud Bédard , the game 's programmer , who wrote the game 's level editor and game engine from scratch . Levels were built in 3D by extruding surfaces with Photoshop @-@ created textures . Bédard and Fish were joined by three different animators and other collaborators . The game was first announced in June 2007 and won an award at the 2008 Independent Games Festival and entered the public spotlight . Fish created a studio , Polytron Corporation , and was later aided by nearby developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor when Polytron ran out of money . Fez won several more prerelease awards , including the 2012 Seumas McNally Grand Prize .
= = History = =
Fez 's development cycle developed a reputation for its protracted five @-@ year length and public exposure . Nathan Grayson of VG247 likened the game 's rocky development process to " an indie Duke Nukem Forever " . Polygon reviewer Arthur Gies wrote that the game was an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " for four years prior to its release . The game 's designer , Phil Fish , became renowned in a way unusual for game developers due to his prominence in Indie Game : The Movie , which released in 2012 . While the game was released to wide acclaim , Fish himself became known for his outspoken and acerbic public persona .
The game that became Fez began in a collaboration between Montreal @-@ based Phil Fish and Toronto @-@ based Shawn McGrath on McGrath 's idea for a puzzle game : a four @-@ sided 3D space with each side in 2D , similar to Fish 's 3D pixels ( voxels ) as incorporated into Fez . The entirety of Fez 's design , lore , and art descends from this game mechanic . Fish provided the project 's art and credited his influence to Shigeru Miyamoto and Hayao Miyazaki . Fish and McGrath 's partnership crumbled due to creative differences , as Fish wanted to create a platform game . Fish continued to work on the game in his spare time and announced his search for a programmer on DeviantArt , and the first person to reply , Renaud Bédard , became lead programmer . They were both the same age and living in Montreal . Though Bédard had some hobbyist experience in 3D graphics and was studying computer science , Fez was his first professional game development project . His first task was to write the level editor and game engine .
Fez was first announced in July 2007 on The Independent Gaming Source . A trailer released in October 2007 convinced Jason DeGroot to join the development team as a producer . DeGroot , also known as " 6955 " , first met Fish at a 2006 E3 party , and started work on the game 's soundtrack and sound effects . The soundtrack was ultimately composed by Rich " Disasterpeace " Vreeland and the sound effects by Brandon McCartin . The game was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Independent Games Festival ( IGF ) at the Game Developers Conference ( GDC ) : Excellence in Visual Art and the Design Innovation Award . As Fez was a side project , Fish was employed full @-@ time at Artificial Mind and Movement in Montreal , where he worked on a tie @-@ in game for a film . He was not permitted time off to attend the event and thus decided to quit his job in January 2008 — a moment he later marked as " when I became indie " . The game won " Excellence in Visual Art " , and created a surge of public interest in the game concurrent to a similar swell of interest in indie game developers . Fish received a Canadian government loan to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company and began full @-@ time work on Fez . In July 2009 , Polytron announced a release for Xbox Live Arcade in early 2010 . Polytron and Microsoft agreed to release Fez as an Xbox exclusive , a deal Fish later recalled as sensible . Fish designed the game as " a console game , not a PC game " , and felt that the way he intended the game to be experienced — with a controller on a couch — was " part of the medium " . Polytron ruled out a WiiWare release due to problems Fish had with their platform and developer options .
Development continued with a more experimental ethos until the company began to run out of capital . The Canadian government loan that had funded Polytron 's prototyping phase was not renewed for their production phase . They also lost funding from the organization that preceded the Indie Fund as Polytron 's producer left the company . Fish borrowed money from friends and family for three months to keep the company open . In dire straits , he considered canceling the project . In March 2011 , the nearby Québécois developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor offered to help Polytron , having just signed a deal with Electronic Arts to publish their own game , Warp . Trapdoor assisted with Polytron 's finances and operations and offered to treat them as part of their company and let them keep their intellectual property rights in exchange for a portion of Fez 's earnings . Fish felt that partnership rescued the game .
Fish is shown preparing for Fez 's March 2011 PAX East booth in the 2012 documentary film Indie Game : The Movie , which chronicles the stories of several indie developers at various stages of their games ' development cycles . As a subplot , the film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that jeopardizes the game 's future . The partner , believed to be Jason DeGroot , is portrayed negatively and does not participate onscreen . The film 's end credits were later corrected to reflect that Fish 's business partner was not asked for input . Game Informer called Fish the film 's " most memorable developer " , and Rock , Paper , Shotgun wrote that Fish is portrayed as melodramatic , theatrical , and neurotic , in a way that exacerbates his outspoken public perception . Eurogamer said that the part where Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is " the film 's most startling moment " .
Fez won the Audience Choice Award at the September 2011 Fantastic Arcade , Best in Show and Best Story / World Design at the October 2011 Indiecade , and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize at the 2012 GDC Independent Games Festival . It was also a 2011 Penny Arcade Expo " PAX 10 " selection . Fez was displayed in its entirety in a secluded lounge room at the October 2011 GameCity festival in Nottingham , England . Fish considered the demo their most fruitful yet . Fish told a Gamasutra reporter that he had received positive feedback from Independent Games Festival Chairman Brandon Boyer and Braid designer Jonathan Blow . Near the end of development , Fish felt " burnt out " and that his personal health had suffered . The final game included almost none of the original work from the first two years of development . After several delays , Fez was submitted for certification in February 2012 .
= = = Release = = =
Fez was released on April 13 , 2012 and sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in its yearlong exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform . Several months later , Polytron became embroiled in a high @-@ profile dispute with Microsoft over the cost of patching the game . Polytron had released a fix that resolved many of the game 's technical issues but introduced another that corrupted the saved games for about one percent of users . They withdrew the patch , but found Microsoft 's fee for subsequent patch releases unviable , and chose to reinstate the withdrawn patch as their most utilitarian option . Polytron drew ire for the decision , which raised awareness for the business needs of indie developers . In July 2013 , a year later , Microsoft announced that they no longer charged for patches , and Fish tweeted that Polytron 's patch would take " a couple of months " . Speaking in retrospect of the release , Fish " fiercely criticized " Fez co @-@ publisher Microsoft Games Studios for botching the game 's release . Fish cited a lack of promotion and publicity , and poor advertising of the game on Microsoft 's digital market .
In March 2013 , Fish announced a May 1 , 2013 release for the game 's PC port , and opened preorders on GOG.com and Steam . The game 's OS X and Linux ports debuted in the pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want Humble Indie Bundle 9 on September 11 , 2013 . Polytron announced ports for PlayStation 4 , PlayStation 3 , and PlayStation Vita in August 2013 as in development through BlitWorks , which were released on March 25 , 2014 . The PlayStation releases include cross @-@ console support for " cross @-@ buy " ( where one digital purchase allows access across multiple consoles ) and " cross @-@ save " ( game save sharing between consoles ) , as well as support for 3D televisions , the DualShock 4 controller 's decorative lightbar , and graphical upgrades due to the full port into the C + + programming language . Ports for Ouya and iOS were also announced . Fish announced eventual ports for " ' pretty much ' every platform " but the Nintendo 3DS .
Bédard planned to leave Polytron after finishing Fez to experience work with a full development team , but stayed to port the Windows release before joining Toronto 's Capybara Games . He credited the game 's long development cycle to his own inexperience in game development ( compounded by the team 's small size and difficulty in setting reasonable milestones ) , the game 's scope , and Fish 's perfectionism . Fish had hoped that players would discuss Fez 's nuances online after the game 's release . Players collaborated online for a week to solve the final " monolith " puzzle by brute force . Ars Technica described the apparent end to the game 's harder puzzles as " anticlimactic " , but Fish told Eurogamer in March 2013 that hidden in @-@ game secrets remain to be found .
More than three years after its digital launch , Fez received a physical release designed by Fish and limited to a signed edition of 500 in December 2015 . The deluxe package included the soundtrack and a stylized red notebook with gold foil inlay .
= = Design = =
When Bédard joined the project , the game focused on the 2D – 3D mechanic and did not yet have open world ambitions . He coded the game in Microsoft Visual C # Express and XNA Game Studio Express . His first task , the level editor Fezzer , was coded from scratch in XNA and inspired by SketchUp . Bédard also wrote the game engine , Trixel Technology , which turns 2D tiles ( " triles " ) into sides of a 3D cube pixel . The engine tracks player @-@ character Gomez in 3D space even though the game behaves as a 2D platformer . Bédard also built the game to resolve collisions when converting between 3D and 2D space .
Fish created pixel art in Photoshop for each tiled side ( " trile " ) of the 3D trixel that Bédard 's custom software compiled into 3D game assets , which Fish would extrude as surfaces in Fezzer to build levels . Fish found the level design process " overwhelming " , and Bédard has said he was relieved that it was not his job . Fish compared his design process to playing with Lego blocks , and planned the more involved levels in graph paper to first visualize the 2D views before building the levels in the 3D software . The levels and puzzles were not preordained in a design document , and many of the drafts levels scrapped in 2008 resurfaced to be used later in the production process . So as to fit the rotation mechanic , the levels were made tall instead of wide , and the first part of the game was designed to acclimate the player to 2D controls before introducing the 3D element . As they worked , Fish first proposed ideas that Bédard would implement . The two would then discuss and fine @-@ tune the addition — they worked well together .
Fish describes the game 's changes during development as " organic " — they tested different kinds of levels and replicated the types of in @-@ game exploration that the team appreciated most . It came to adopt Metroidvania mechanics , with " secret passages , warp gates , and cheat codes " . Fish cited Myst as another touchstone and compared its open world , nonlinear narrative , and " obtuse metapuzzles " to Fez 's own alphabet , numeric system , and an " almost unfairly hard to get " " second set of collectibles " . Fish originally fought against having an in @-@ game map because he wanted players to draft their own . After attempting to do so himself , he changed his mind . Fish later called the in @-@ game map " probably one of the weakest aspects of the game " . Fish also fought against including the navigational assistant , Dot , but later felt that the addition was successful and a positive contribution to the game 's mythology . The fez itself , Fish described as an " ancient symbol of understanding the third dimension " . Fez had three different animators through its development : Paul Robertson of Scott Pilgrim vs. the World : The Game , who did the game 's animals and some of Gomez 's animations , Adam Saltsman of Canabalt , and Graham Lackey , who did some character animations .
The game 's mechanics were inspired by the Nintendo Entertainment System games Fish played in his youth , particularly Super Mario and The Legend of Zelda . Fish cited Fumito Ueda 's Ico as the game 's third inspiration , and he sought to emulate its feeling of nostalgic and isolated loneliness . Fish also sought to emulate Ueda 's " design by subtraction " philosophy , where the Ico development team would periodically remove parts of the game so as to leave only what was essential to their vision . In this way , ideas like player health and object weight puzzles were gradually struck from Fez . Fish made a personal challenge of designing a game without relying on " established mechanics " . As such , Fez was always a peaceful game and there was never an enemy coded into the game . So as to better emulate Hayao Miyazaki 's signature " open blue sky " , " feel @-@ good " atmosphere , Fish watched all of the director 's films one weekend early in the development cycle .
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= Hugh Walpole =
Sir Hugh Seymour Walpole , CBE ( 13 March 1884 – 1 June 1941 ) was an English novelist . He was the son of an Anglican clergyman , intended for a career in the church but drawn instead to writing . Among those who encouraged him were the authors Henry James and Arnold Bennett . His skill at scene @-@ setting and vivid plots , as well as his high profile as a lecturer , brought him a large readership in the United Kingdom and North America . He was a best @-@ selling author in the 1920s and 1930s but has been largely neglected since his death .
After his first novel , The Wooden Horse , in 1909 , Walpole wrote prolifically , producing at least one book every year . He was a spontaneous story @-@ teller , writing quickly to get all his ideas on paper , seldom revising . His first novel to achieve major success was his third , Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , a tragicomic story of a fatal clash between two schoolmasters . During the First World War he served in the Red Cross on the Russian @-@ Austrian front , and worked in British propaganda in Petrograd and London . In the 1920s and 1930s Walpole was much in demand not only as a novelist but also as a lecturer on literature , making four exceptionally well @-@ paid tours of North America .
As a gay man at a time when homosexual practices were illegal in Britain , Walpole conducted a succession of intense but discreet relationships with other men , and was for much of his life in search of what he saw as " the perfect friend " . He eventually found one , a married policeman , with whom he settled in the English Lake District . Having as a young man eagerly sought the support of established authors , he was in his later years a generous sponsor of many younger writers . He was a patron of the visual arts and bequeathed a substantial legacy of paintings to the Tate Gallery and other British institutions .
Walpole 's output was large and varied . Between 1909 and 1941 he wrote thirty @-@ six novels , five volumes of short stories , two original plays and three volumes of memoirs . His range included disturbing studies of the macabre , children 's stories and historical fiction , most notably his Herries Chronicle series , set in the Lake District . He worked in Hollywood writing scenarios for two Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer films in the 1930s , and played a cameo in the 1935 version of David Copperfield .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Walpole was born in Auckland , New Zealand , the eldest of three children of the Rev Somerset Walpole and his wife , Mildred Helen , née Barham ( 1854 – 1925 ) . Somerset Walpole had been an assistant to the Bishop of Truro , Edward Benson , from 1877 until 1882 , when he was offered the incumbency of St Mary 's Pro @-@ Cathedral , Auckland ; on Benson 's advice he accepted .
Mildred Walpole found it hard to settle in New Zealand , and something of her restlessness and insecurity affected the character of her eldest child . In 1889 , two years after the birth of the couple 's daughter , Dorothea ( " Dorothy " ) , Somerset Walpole accepted a prominent and well @-@ paid academic post at the General Theological Seminary , New York . Robert ( " Robin " ) , the third of the couple 's children , was born in New York in 1892 . Hugh and Dorothy were taught by a governess until the middle of 1893 , when the parents decided that he needed an English education .
Walpole was sent to England , where according to his biographer Rupert Hart @-@ Davis the next ten years were the unhappiest time of Walpole 's life . He first attended a preparatory school in Truro . Though he missed his family and felt lonely he was reasonably happy , but he moved to Sir William Borlase 's Grammar School in Marlow in 1895 , where he was bullied , frightened and miserable . He later said , " The food was inadequate , the morality was ' twisted ' , and Terror – sheer , stark unblinking Terror – stared down every one of its passages ... The excessive desire to be loved that has always played so enormous a part in my life was bred largely , I think , from the neglect I suffered there " .
In 1896 Somerset Walpole discovered his son 's horror of the Marlow school and he moved him to the King 's School , Canterbury . For two years he was a fairly content , though undistinguished , pupil there . In 1897 Walpole senior was appointed principal of Bede College , Durham , and Hugh was moved again , to be a day boy for four years at Durham School . He found that day boys were looked down on by boarders , and that Bede College was the subject of snobbery within the university . His sense of isolation increased . He continually took refuge in the local library , where he read all the novels of Jane Austen , Henry Fielding , Scott and Dickens and many of the works of Trollope , Wilkie Collins and Henry Kingsley . Walpole wrote in 1924 :
I grew up ... discontented , ugly , abnormally sensitive , and excessively conceited . No one liked me – not masters , boys , friends of the family , nor relations who came to stay ; and I do not in the least wonder at it . I was untidy , uncleanly , excessively gauche . I believed that I was profoundly misunderstood , that people took my pale and pimpled countenance for the mirror of my soul , that I had marvellous things of interest in me that would one day be discovered .
Though Walpole was no admirer of the schools he had attended there , the cathedral cities of Truro , Canterbury and Durham made a strong impression on him . He drew on aspects of them for his fictional cathedral city of Polchester in Glebeshire , the setting of many of his later books . Walpole 's memories of his time at Canterbury grew mellower over the years ; it was the only school he mentioned in his Who 's Who entry ,
= = = Cambridge , Liverpool and teaching = = =
From 1903 to 1906 Walpole studied history at Emmanuel College , Cambridge . While there he had his first work published , the critical essay " Two Meredithian Heroes " , which was printed in the college magazine in autumn 1905 . As an undergraduate he met and fell under the spell of A C Benson , formerly a greatly loved master at Eton , and by this time a don at Magdalene College . Walpole 's religious beliefs , hitherto an unquestioned part of his life , were fading , and Benson helped him through that personal crisis . Walpole was also attempting to cope with his homosexual feelings , which for a while focused on Benson , who recorded in his diary in 1906 an unexpected outburst by his young admirer : " [ H ] e broke out rather eagerly into protestations – He cared for me more than anyone in the world . I could not believe it ... It is extraordinarily touching . ... It is quite right that he should believe all this passionately ; it is quite right that I should know that it will not last ... I tried to say this as tenderly as I could ... "
Benson gently declined Walpole 's advances . They remained friends , but Walpole , rebuffed in his " excessive desire to be loved " , turned the full force of his enthusiasms elsewhere , and the relationship with Benson became less important to him . Less than two years later Benson 's diary entry on Walpole 's subsequent social career reveals his thoughts on his protégé 's progress :
He seems to have conquered Gosse completely . He spends his Sundays in long walks with H G Wells . He dines every week with Max Beerbohm and R Ross ... and this has befallen a not very clever young man of 23 . Am I a little jealous ? – no , I don 't think so . But I am a little bewildered ... I do not see any sign of intellectual power or perception or grasp or subtlety in his work or himself . ... I should call him curiously unperceptive . He does not , for instance , see what may vex or hurt or annoy people . I think he is rather tactless – though he is himself very sensitive . The strong points about him are his curiosity , his vitality , his eagerness , and the emotional fervour of his affections . But he seems to me in no way likely to be great as an artist .
With Benson 's help , Walpole had come to terms with the loss of his faith . Somerset Walpole , himself the son of an Anglican priest , hoped that his eldest son would follow him into the ministry . Walpole was too concerned for his father 's feelings to tell him he was no longer a believer , and on graduation from Cambridge in 1906 he took a post as a lay missioner at the Mersey Mission to Seamen in Liverpool . He described that as one of the " greatest failures of my life ... The Mission to Seamen was , and is , a splendid institution ... but it needs men of a certain type to carry it through and I was not of that type . " The head of the mission reprimanded him for lack of commitment to his work , and Walpole resigned after six months .
From April to July 1907 Walpole was in Germany , tutoring the children of the popular author Elizabeth von Arnim . In 1908 he taught French at Epsom College . His brief experience of teaching is reflected in his third novel , Mr Perrin and Mr Traill . As well as the clerical forebears , Walpole had notable authors in his family tree : on his father 's side , Horace Walpole the novelist and letter writer , and on his mother 's Richard Harris Barham , author of The Ingoldsby Legends . It was as an author that Walpole felt impelled to make his career . He moved to London and found work as a book reviewer for The Standard , writing fiction in his spare time . He had by this time recognised unreservedly that he was homosexual . His encounters were necessarily discreet , as such activities were illegal in Britain , and remained so throughout his lifetime . He was constantly searching for " the perfect friend " ; an early candidate was the stage designer Percy Anderson , to whom he was intimately attached for some time from 1910 onwards .
= = = Early literary career = = =
A C Benson was a friend of Henry James , to whom Walpole wrote a fan letter late in 1908 , with Benson 's encouragement . A correspondence ensued and in February 1909 James invited Walpole to lunch at the Reform Club in London . They developed a close friendship , described by James 's biographer Leon Edel as resembling a father and son relationship in some , but not all , respects . James was greatly taken with the young Walpole , though clear @-@ eyed about the deficiencies in the artistry and craftsmanship of his protégé 's early efforts . According to Somerset Maugham , Walpole made a sexual proposition to James , who was too inhibited to respond . Nevertheless , in their correspondence the older man 's devotion was couched in extravagant terms .
Walpole published his first novel , The Wooden Horse , in 1909 . It told of a staid and snobbish English family shaken up by the return of one of its members from a less hidebound life in New Zealand . The book received good reviews but barely repaid the cost of having it typed . His first commercial success was Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , published in 1911 . The novelist and biographer Michael Sadleir writes that though some of the six novels Walpole wrote between 1909 and 1914 are of interest as examples of the author 's developing style , it is Mr Perrin and Mr Traill that deserves to be remembered for its own sake . The book , subtitled " a tragi @-@ comedy " , is a psychological study of a deadly clash between two schoolmasters , one an ageing failure and the other a young , attractive idealist . In the view of Hart @-@ Davis , Walpole only once recaptured " the fresh , clear cut realism " of this book , and Walpole himself , looking back on his work in the 1930s , felt that of all his books to date , it was the truest . The Observer gave the book a favourable review : " The slow growth of the poison within [ Perrin ] is traced with wonderful skill and sympathy ... one feels throughout these pages a sense of intolerable tension , of impending disaster " ; The Manchester Guardian was less enthusiastic , praising the scene @-@ setting but calling the story " an unconscientious melodrama " . The San Francisco Chronicle praised its " technical excellence , imagination and beauty – Walpole at his best . " Arnold Bennett , a well @-@ established novelist seventeen years Walpole 's senior , admired the book , and befriended the young author , regularly chiding , encouraging , sometimes mocking him into improving his prose , characters and narratives .
The Guardian reviewer observed that the setting of Mr Perrin and Mr Traill – a second @-@ rate public school – was clearly drawn from life , as indeed it was . The boys of Epsom College were delighted with the thinly disguised version of their school , but the college authorities were not , and Walpole was persona non grata at Epsom for many years . This was of no practical consequence , as he had no intention of returning to the teaching profession , but it was an early illustration of his capacity , noted by Benson , for unthinkingly giving offence , though being hypersensitive to criticism himself .
In early 1914 James wrote an article for The Times Literary Supplement surveying the younger generation of British novelists and comparing them with their eminent elder contemporaries . In the latter category James put Bennett , Joseph Conrad , John Galsworthy , Maurice Hewlett and H G Wells . The four new authors on whom he focused were Walpole , Gilbert Cannan , Compton Mackenzie and D H Lawrence . It was a very lengthy article , to the extent that it had to be spread across two issues of the Supplement in March and April 1914 . James said that agreeing to write it had been " an insensate step " , but from Walpole 's point of view it was highly satisfactory : one of the greatest living authors had publicly ranked him among the finest young British novelists .
= = = First World War = = =
As war approached , Walpole realised that his poor eyesight would disqualify him from serving in the armed forces . He volunteered to join the police , but was turned down ; he then accepted a journalistic appointment based in Moscow , reporting for The Saturday Review and The Daily Mail . He was allowed to visit the front in Poland , but his dispatches from Moscow ( and later from Petrograd , which he preferred ) were not enough to stop hostile comments at home that he was not doing his bit for the war effort . Henry James was so incensed at one such remark by a prominent London hostess that he stormed out of her house and wrote to Walpole suggesting that he should return to England . Walpole replied in great excitement that he had just been appointed as a Russian officer , in the Sanitar :
The " Sanitar " is the part of the Red Cross that does the rough work at the front , carrying men out of the trenches , helping at the base hospitals in every sort of way , doing every kind of rough job . They are an absolutely official body and I shall be one of the few ( half @-@ dozen ) Englishmen in the world wearing Russian uniform .
While in training for the Sanitar , Walpole devoted his leisure hours to gaining a reasonable fluency in the Russian language , and to his first full @-@ length work of non @-@ fiction , a literary biography of Joseph Conrad . In the summer of 1915 he worked on the Austrian @-@ Russian front , assisting at operations in field hospitals and retrieving the dead and wounded from the battlefield . Occasionally he found time to write brief letters home ; he told Bennett , " A battle is an amazing mixture of hell and a family picnic – not as frightening as the dentist , but absorbing , sometimes thrilling like football , sometimes dull like church , and sometimes simply physically sickening like bad fish . Burying dead afterwards is worst of all . " When disheartened he comforted himself with the thought , " This is not so bad as it was at Marlow " .
During an engagement early in June 1915 Walpole single @-@ handedly rescued a wounded soldier ; his Russian comrades refused to help and Walpole carried one end of a stretcher and dragged the man to safety . For this he was awarded the Cross of Saint George ; General Lechitsky presented him with the medal in August . After his tour of duty Walpole returned to Petrograd . Among the city 's attractions for him was the presence of Konstantin Somov , a painter with whom he had formed a close relationship . He remained there until October 1915 , when he returned to England . He visited his family , stayed with Percy Anderson in London , telephoned Henry James in Rye , and retreated to a cottage he had bought in Cornwall . In January 1916 he was asked by the Foreign Office to return to Petrograd . Russians were being subjected to highly effective German propaganda . The writer Arthur Ransome , Petrograd correspondent of The Daily News , had successfully lobbied for the establishment of a bureau to counter the German efforts , and the British ambassador , Sir George Buchanan , wanted Walpole to take charge .
Before he left for Petrograd , Walpole 's novel The Dark Forest was published . It drew on his experiences in Russia , and was more sombre than much of his earlier fiction . Reviews were highly favourable ; The Daily Telegraph commented on " a high level of imaginative vision ... reveals capacity and powers in the author which we had hardly suspected before . "
Walpole returned to Petrograd in February 1916 . He moved into Somov 's flat , and his Anglo @-@ Russian Propaganda Bureau began work . The following month he suffered a personal blow : he recorded in his diary for 13 March 1916 , " Thirty two to @-@ day ! Should have been a happy day but was completely clouded for me by reading in the papers of Henry James ' death . This was a terrible shock to me . " Walpole remained at the bureau for the rest of 1916 and most of 1917 , witnessing the February Revolution . He wrote an official report on events for the Foreign Office , and also absorbed ideas for his fiction . In addition to the first of his popular " Jeremy " novels , written in his spare time from the bureau , he began work on the second of his Russian @-@ themed books , The Secret City . Sadleir writes that this novel and The Dark Forest " take a high place among his works , on account of their intuitive understanding of an alien mentality and the vigour of their narrative power . " The book won the inaugural James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction .
By late 1917 it was clear to Walpole and to the British authorities that there was little advantage in keeping him in Russia . On 7 November he left , missing the Bolshevik Revolution , which began on that day . He was appointed to a post at the Foreign Office in its Department of Information , headed by John Buchan . Soon after returning he volunteered for the British army , but , as expected , failed the necessary medical examination because of his poor sight . He continued to work in British propaganda when the department was reconstituted under Lord Beaverbrook in April 1918 , and remained there for the rest of the war and beyond , resigning in February 1919 . Little is known about what he wrote for the department , as most of its records were destroyed after the war , but he noted in his diary that he had written the department 's official report to the War Cabinet : " a beastly job – the worst I 've ever attempted " . For his wartime work he was awarded the CBE in 1918 .
= = = Post @-@ war and 1920s = = =
Walpole remained prolific in the post @-@ war years , and began a parallel and highly remunerative career as a lecturer in literature . At the instigation of his American publisher , George Doran , he made his first lecture tour of the US in 1919 , receiving an enthusiastic welcome wherever he went . What Sadleir describes as Walpole 's " genial and attractive appearance , his complete lack of aloofness , his exciting fluency as a speaker [ and ] his obvious and genuine liking for his hosts " combined to win him a large American following . The success of his talks led to increases in his lecturing fees , greatly enhanced sales of his books , and large sums from American publishers anxious to print his latest fiction . He was a prodigiously quick writer who seldom revised , but pressed on , keen to get his ideas down on paper . His main British publishers , Macmillan , found it expedient to appoint a senior member of staff to edit his manuscripts , correcting spelling , punctuation , inconsistencies and errors of historical fact . His fluency enabled him to fulfil between tours a contract from The Pictorial Review for ten short stories at the remarkable sum of $ 1 @,@ 350 apiece .
One of Walpole 's major novels of the early post @-@ war period was The Cathedral , which unlike much of his fiction was not dashed off but worked on across four years , beginning in 1918 . The story of an arrogant 19th @-@ century archdeacon in conflict with other clergy and laity was certain to bring comparisons with Trollope 's Barchester Towers ( The Manchester Guardian 's review was headed " Polchester Towers " ) , but unlike the earlier work , The Cathedral is wholly uncomic . The hubristic Archdeacon Brandon is driven to domestic despair , professional defeat and sudden death . The reviewer Ivor Brown commented that Walpole had earlier charmed many with his cheerful tales of Mayfair , but that in this novel he showed a greater side to his art : " This is a book with little happiness about it , but its stark strength is undeniable . The Cathedral is realism , profound in its philosophy and delicate in its thread . " The Illustrated London News said , " No former novelist has seized quite so powerfully upon the cathedral fabric and made it a living character in the drama , an obsessing individuality at once benign and forbidding . ... The Cathedral is a great book . "
Walpole was a keen music lover and when in 1920 he heard a new tenor at the Proms he was much impressed and sought him out . Lauritz Melchior became one of the most important friendships of his life , and Walpole did much to foster the singer 's budding career . Wagner 's son Siegfried engaged Melchior for the Bayreuth Festival in 1924 and succeeding years . Walpole attended , and met Adolf Hitler , then recently released from prison after an attempted putsch . Hitler was a protégé of Siegfried 's wife Winifred , and was known in Bayreuth as " one of Winnie 's lame ducks . " Walpole later admitted that he had both despised and liked him – " both emotions that time has proved I was wrong to indulge " . This and future visits to Bayreuth were complicated by the fact that Winifred Wagner fell in love with Walpole , and attached herself so firmly to him that rumours began to spread .
In 1924 Walpole moved into a house near Keswick in the Lake District . His large income enabled him to maintain his London flat in Piccadilly , but Brackenburn , on the slopes of Catbells overlooking Derwentwater , was his main home for the rest of his life . He was quickly made welcome by local residents , and the scenery and atmosphere of the Lake District often found their way into his fiction . The critic James Agate commented that one might think from some of Walpole 's stories that their author had created the English Lakes , but that he was probably only consulted about them . At the end of 1924 Walpole met Harold Cheevers , who soon became his friend and companion and remained so for the rest of Walpole 's life . In Hart @-@ Davis 's words , he came nearer than any other human being to Walpole 's long @-@ sought conception of a perfect friend . Cheevers , a policeman , with a wife and two children , left the police force and entered Walpole 's service as his chauffeur . Walpole trusted him completely , and gave him extensive control over his affairs . Whether Walpole was at Brackenburn or Piccadilly , Cheevers was almost always with him , and often accompanied him on overseas trips . Walpole provided a house in Hampstead for Cheevers and his family .
During the mid @-@ twenties Walpole produced two of his best @-@ known novels in the macabre vein that he drew on from time to time , exploring the fascination of fear and cruelty . The Old Ladies ( 1924 ) is a study of a timid elderly spinster exploited and eventually frightened to death by a predatory widow . Portrait of a Man with Red Hair ( 1925 ) depicts the malign influence of a manipulative , insane father on his family and others . Walpole described it to his fellow author Frank Swinnerton as " a simple shocker which it has amused me like anything to write , and won 't bore you to read . " In contrast he continued a series of stories for children , begun in 1919 with Jeremy , taking the young hero 's story forward with Jeremy and Hamlet ( the latter being the boy 's dog ) in 1923 , and Jeremy at Crale in 1927 . Sadleir , writing in the 1950s , suggests that " the most real Walpole of all – because the most unselfconscious , kindly , and understanding friend – is the Walpole of the Jeremy trilogy . " Of his other novels of the 1920s Wintersmoon ( 1928 ) , his first attempt at a full @-@ length love story , portrays a clash between traditionalism and modernism : his own sympathies , though not spelled out , were clearly with the traditionalists .
= = = 1930 – 41 = = =
By the 1930s , though his public success remained considerable , many literary critics saw Walpole as outdated . His reputation in literary circles took a blow from a malicious caricature in Somerset Maugham 's 1930 novel Cakes and Ale : the character Alroy Kear , a superficial novelist of more pushy ambition than literary talent , was widely taken to be based on Walpole . In the same year Walpole wrote possibly his best @-@ known work , Rogue Herries , a historical novel set in the Lake District . It was well @-@ received : The Daily Mail considered it " not only a profound study of human character , but a subtle and intimate biography of a place . " He followed it with three sequels ; all four novels were published in a single volume as The Herries Chronicle .
In 1934 Walpole accepted an invitation from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer studios to go to Hollywood to write the scenario for a film adaptation of David Copperfield . He enjoyed many aspects of life in Hollywood , but as one who rarely revised any of his own work he found it tedious to produce sixth and seventh drafts at the behest of the studio . He enjoyed his brief change of role from writer to bit @-@ part player : in the film he played the Vicar of Blunderstone delivering a boring sermon that sends David to sleep . Agate was doubtful of the wisdom of this : " Does not Hugh see that to bring a well @-@ known character from real life into an imaginary sequence of events is to destroy the reality of that imaginary sequence ? " Nevertheless , Walpole 's performance was a success . He improvised the sermon ; the producer , David O Selznick , mischievously called for retake after retake to try to make him dry up , but Walpole fluently delivered a different extempore address each time .
The critical and commercial success of the film of David Copperfield led to an invitation to return to Hollywood in 1936 . When he got there he found that the studio executives had no idea which films they wanted him to work on , and he had eight weeks of highly paid leisure , during which he wrote a short story and worked on a novel . He was eventually asked to write the scenario for Little Lord Fauntleroy , which he enjoyed doing . He spent most of his fees on paintings , forgetting to keep enough money to pay US tax on his earnings . He replenished his American funds with a lecture tour – his last – in late 1936 .
In 1937 Walpole was offered a knighthood . He accepted , though confiding to his diary that he could not think of a good novelist since Walter Scott who had done so . " Kipling , Hardy , Galsworthy all refused . But I 'm not of their class , and range with Doyle , Anthony Hope and such . ... Besides I shall like being a knight . "
Walpole 's taste for adventure did not diminish in his last years . In 1939 he was commissioned to report for William Randolph Hearst 's newspapers on the funeral in Rome of Pope Pius XI , the conclave to elect his successor , and the subsequent coronation . A fellow correspondent was Tom Driberg , whose memoirs tell of a lunch à deux at which Walpole arrived flushed with excitement from a sexual encounter that morning with an attendant in the Borghese Palace . In the weeks between the funeral and Pius XII 's election Walpole , with his customary fluency , wrote much of his book Roman Fountain , a mixture of fact and fiction about the city . This was his last overseas visit .
After the outbreak of the Second World War Walpole remained in England , dividing his time between London and Keswick , and continuing to write with his usual rapidity . He completed a fifth novel in the Herries series and began work on a sixth . His health was undermined by diabetes . He overexerted himself at the opening of Keswick 's fund @-@ raising " War Weapons Week " in May 1941 , making a speech after taking part in a lengthy march , and died of a heart attack at Brackenburn , aged 57 . He is buried in St John 's churchyard in Keswick .
= = = Legacy = = =
Walpole was a keen and discerning collector of art . Sir Kenneth Clark called him " one of the three or four real patrons of art in this country , and of that small body he was perhaps the most generous and the most discriminating . " He left fourteen works to the Tate Gallery and Fitzwilliam Museum , including paintings by Cézanne , Manet , Augustus John , Tissot and Renoir .
Other artists represented in Walpole 's collection were Epstein , Picasso , Gauguin , Sickert and Utrillo . After his death the finest works in his collection , other than those bequeathed , were exhibited in London during April and May 1945 ; the exhibition also included works by Constable , Turner and Rodin .
Sadleir notes how Walpole 's considerable income enabled him to indulge not only his love of art and of old books and manuscripts , but also philanthropy , particularly towards younger writers . Although Walpole enjoyed the limelight , he was secretive about his many acts of generosity to younger writers , with both encouragement and financial help . After his death some idea of the scale of his generosity was discovered . Osbert Sitwell commented , " I don 't think there was any younger writer of any worth who has not at one time or another received kindness of an active kind , and at a crucial moment , from Hugh " . Hart @-@ Davis lists thirty @-@ eight authors from whom letters of gratitude were found among Walpole 's correspondence ; Sadleir writes of Walpole 's " generous kindness to literary aspirants and to writers fallen on evil days ... by immediate financial assistance , by prefaces freely supplied or by collaboration volunteered , by introductions and recommendations to likely publishers , Walpole relieved the distresses of authorship to a degree which will never be fully known . " Agate , though himself the recipient of Walpole 's generosity on occasion , thought it sometimes went too far : " Mr Walpole 's large @-@ heartedness gets him into all kinds of trouble . He is an inveterate patter . He pats on the back young men whom sterner critics would knock down , because even in fantastic incompetence he perceives the good intention . No art or artist is safe from Mr Walpole 's benevolence " .
In his adopted home of Keswick a section of the town museum was dedicated to Walpole 's memory in 1949 , with manuscripts , correspondence , paintings and sculpture from Brackenburn , donated by his sister and brother .
= = Works = =
Walpole 's books cover a wide range . His fiction includes short stories , bildungsromane ( Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , 1911 , and the Jeremy trilogy ) that delve into the psychology of boyhood ; gothic horror novels ( Portrait of a Man with Red Hair , 1925 , and The Killer and The Slain , 1942 ) ; a period family saga ( the Herries chronicle ) and even detective fiction ( Behind the Screen ) . He wrote literary biographies ( Conrad , 1916 ; James Branch Cabell , 1920 ; and Trollope , 1928 ) ; plays ; and screenplays including David Copperfield , 1935 .
= = = Influences = = =
Walpole 's debt to Henry James is discernible in The Duchess of Wrexe ( 1914 ) and The Green Mirror ( 1917 ) , but in the view of J B Priestley the two most potent influences on Walpole were the highly contrasting ones of Trollope and Dostoyevsky . Other critics noted the Trollopian influence ; in 1923 Arthur St John Adcock commented :
The Trenchards [ in The Green Mirror ] are a kind of family Trollope might have created had he been living now ; The Cathedral is a kind of story he might have told , with its realistic melodrama and its clerical atmosphere , but Walpole tells it with a subtler art in the writing and the construction , with a conciseness and charm of style that are outside the range of the earlier novelist .
Walpole , though he was devoted to the works of Trollope , and published a study of him , thought that there was no real comparison between the two of them : " I am far too twisted and fantastic a novelist ever to succeed in catching Trollope 's marvellous normality . " Priestley was less impressed by the supposed Trollopian side of Walpole 's work , finding some of it formulaic . He was more taken with a darker , Dostoyevskian , side that he found in the writing : " suddenly it will transform the pleasant easy scene he is giving us into transparency behind which are bright stars and red hellfire ... No matter how jolly and zestful he may appear to be , the fact remains that he possesses an unusually sharp sense of evil . "
Possibly the most pervasive influence on Walpole was Walter Scott , whose romanticism is reflected in much of the later writer 's fiction . Such was Walpole 's love of Scott that he liked to think of himself as the latter 's reincarnation . He amassed the largest collection in Britain of Scott manuscripts and early editions , and constantly reread the novels . With the Herries stories Walpole restored the popularity of the historical novel , a form for which Scott was famous but which had been out of fashion for decades . The Herries series begins in the 18th century and follows a Lakeland family through the generations up to modern times .
= = = Reputation = = =
Walpole sought critical as well as financial success , and longed to write works that equalled those of Trollope , Thomas Hardy and Henry James . In his early days , he received frequent and generally approving scrutiny from major literary figures . He was a good friend of Virginia Woolf , and rated her as an influence ; she praised his gift for seizing on telling detail : " it is no disparagement to a writer to say that his gift is for the small things rather than for the large ... If you are faithful with the details the large effects will grow inevitably out of those very details " . Joseph Conrad said of him , " We see Mr. Walpole grappling with the truth of things spiritual and material with his characteristic earnestness , and we can discern the characteristics of this acute and sympathetic explorer of human nature . "
In 1928 Priestley observed ,
When I first remember seeing Hugh Walpole 's name he had no public at all , but the ferocious young reviewers – the " highbrows " as we have since learned to call them – delighted in him . Now he has an enormous public , both in England and America , and the young " highbrows " – who are saddened by the thought of a large public – are not particularly fond of him .
Priestley contended that Walpole had fulfilled his early potential , unlike Compton Mackenzie , Gilbert Cannan and other promising young novelists of his generation . This view was not universal among critics : Walpole sometimes divided opinion . Writing of Walpole 's Russian novels the contemporary critic and novelist Douglas Goldring commented , " Russia has been the grave of many reputations ; and our Napoleon of the drawing @-@ room novel has fared no better than other would @-@ be conquerors of that disconcerting land . " Goldring 's complaint was that Walpole 's Russian ( and English ) characters were clichéd stereotypes . The reviewer in Punch , by contrast , wrote , " I consulted a Russian , who is very much alive , and received the opinion that , if Mr. Walpole has not succeeded in drawing the real average Russian , he has given us a type whose faults and virtues sound the keynote of the situation as it is to @-@ day . " The Observer rated The Dark Forest as " one of the finest novels of our generation " .
In 1924 Ernest Hemingway wrote into a short story a comparison of G K Chesterton and Walpole , concluding that the former was the better man , the latter a better writer and both were classics . Walpole could be sensitive about his literary reputation and often took adverse criticism badly . When Hilaire Belloc praised P G Wodehouse as the best English writer of their day , Walpole took it amiss , to the amusement of Wodehouse who regarded Belloc 's plaudit as " a gag , to get a rise out of serious @-@ minded authors whom he disliked " . Wodehouse was not a great admirer of Walpole ; his own scrupulous craftsmanship , with drafts polished over and over again , was the opposite of Walpole 's hastily written and seldom @-@ revised prose . He also viewed Walpole 's sensitivity to criticism as absurd . Walpole was not always as oversensitive as Wodehouse supposed . The critic James Agate was a friend despite his regular rude remarks about Walpole 's prose , and when Walpole discovered that Agate had written a spoof of the Herries " Lakeland " style , he made him promise to print it in the next published volume of his diaries .
During his career contemporaries saw both negative and positive sides to Walpole 's outgoing nature and desire to be in the public eye . Wodehouse commented , " I always think Hugh Walpole 's reputation was two thirds publicity . He was always endorsing books and speaking at lunches and so on . " On the other hand , Walpole stood out as one of the few literary figures willing to go into court and give evidence for the defence at the obscenity trial after the novel The Well of Loneliness was published .
By the time of his death The Times 's estimation of Walpole was no higher than , " he had a versatile imagination ; he could tell a workmanlike story in good workmanlike English ; and he was a man of immense industry , conscientious and painstaking " . The belittling tone of the obituary brought forth strong rebuttals from T S Eliot , Kenneth Clark and Priestley , among others . Within a few years of his death , Walpole was seen as old @-@ fashioned , and his works were largely neglected . In the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Elizabeth Steele summed up : " His psychology was not deep enough for the polemicist , his diction not free enough for those returning from war , and his zest disastrous to a public wary of personal commitment " . In 2011 , Peter Hitchens , an admirer of Walpole , though not an uncritical one , wrote :
Henry James and John Buchan praised him . Joseph Conrad , T S Eliot and Virginia Woolf were kind about him . What 's more , his books sold enormously well on both sides of the Atlantic , he was knighted , and he became very rich ... Yet now he has vanished completely , his books not even to be found on the back shelves of most second hand shops , dismissed as " unreadable " .
Walpole 's works have not been completely neglected in recent years . The Herries stories have seldom been out of print , and in 2014 WorldCat listed a dozen recent reissues of Walpole 's works , including The Wooden Horse , The Dark Forest , The Secret City , Jeremy , and The Cathedral . In 2011 the BBC broadcast a reappraisal of Walpole , The Walpole Chronicle , presented by Eric Robson . In 2013 a new stage version of Rogue Herries was presented by the Theatre by the Lake company in Walpole 's adopted home of Keswick . The BBC speculated that this could mark a revival in interest in his works .
= = = Biographies = = =
Two full @-@ length studies of Walpole were published after his death . The first , in 1952 , was written by Rupert Hart @-@ Davis , who had known Walpole personally . It was regarded at the time as " among the half dozen best biographies of the century " and has been reissued several times since its first publication . Writing when homosexuality was still outlawed in England , Hart @-@ Davis avoided direct mention of his subject 's sexuality , so respecting Walpole 's habitual discretion and the wishes of his brother and sister . He left readers to read between the lines if they wished , in , for example , references to Turkish baths " providing informal opportunities of meeting interesting strangers " . Hart @-@ Davis dedicated the book to " Dorothy , Robin and Harold " , Walpole 's sister , brother , and long @-@ term companion .
In 1972 Elizabeth Steele 's study of Walpole was published . Much shorter than Hart @-@ Davis 's biography , at 178 pages to his 503 , it dealt mainly with the novels , and aimed " to show the sources of Hugh Walpole 's success as a writer during the thirty @-@ five years and fifty books of his busy career " . Steele concentrated on half a dozen of Walpole 's best books , each illustrating aspects of his writing , under the headings " Acolyte " , " Artist " , " Witness " , " Evangelist " , " Critic " and " Romanticist " . Steele also wrote a study of Walpole 's North American lecture tours ( 2006 ) and the article on Walpole in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ( 2004 ) , which treats his private life briefly but candidly .
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= Domnall mac Murchada =
Domnall mac Murchada ( died 1075 ) , also known as Domnall mac Murchada meic Diarmata , was a leading late eleventh @-@ century claimant to the Kingdom of Leinster , and a King of Dublin . As a son of Murchad mac Diarmata , King of Dublin and the Isles , Domnall was a grandson of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó , King of Leinster , and thus a member of the Uí Chennselaig . Domnall was also the first of the Meic Murchada , a branch of the Uí Chennselaig named after his father .
In 1071 , the year before his grandfather 's death , Domnall and an Uí Chennselaig kinsman , Donnchad mac Domnaill Remair , battled for control of Leinster . Although Domnall is accorded the title King of Leinster in one mediaeval king @-@ list , Donnchad was evidently a more powerful claimant , and Domnall appears to have held the Leinster kingship in name only .
Domnall 's rise to power in the Kingdom of Dublin took place in 1075 , after the expulsion of the reigning Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill , King of Dublin by the latter 's overlord , Toirdelbach Ua Briain , King of Munster . The circumstances surrounding Domnall 's accession are uncertain . He may have collaborated with Gofraid to wrench the kingdom from the grip of the Uí Briain , or he may have been installed in the kingship by Toirdelbach himself , and ruled under the latter 's overlordship . Whatever the case , Domnall died within the year , and Toirdelbach placed his own son , Muirchertach , upon the throne .
= = Background = =
Domnall was a son of Murchad mac Diarmata , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1070 ) , who was himself a son of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó , King of Leinster ( died 1072 ) . Domnall was , therefore , a member of the Uí Chennselaig ; as well as the first of the Meic Murchada , a branch of the Uí Chennselaig named after his father . Domnall had two brothers : Donnchad ( died 1115 ) , a later King of Leinster , and Énna .
In 1052 , Domnall 's aforesaid grandfather conquered the Kingdom of Dublin from Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1064 / 1065 ) , and soon after appointed Murchad as King of Dublin . About a decade later , Murchad appears to have driven Echmarcach from Mann , after which he gained the kingship of the Isles . Diarmait 's deep @-@ rooted authority in Norse @-@ Gaelic Dublin lasted for two decades , and was a remarkable achievement that no other Irish king had ever accomplished . Unfortunately for the Uí Chennselaig , two of Diarmait 's sons — Murchad and Glún Iairn — unexpectedly predeceased their father in 1070 , and Diarmait himself fell in battle two years later .
= = Kingship of Leinster = =
Even before Diarmait 's demise , the Uí Chennselaig began to fight amongst themselves in a struggle that was almost certainly an after @-@ effect of Diarmait 's sons ' untimely deaths . Specifically , the Annals of the Four Masters , and the Annals of Inisfallen reveal that Domnall battled against the forces of his own first cousin once removed , Donnchad mac Domnaill Remair ( died 1089 ) , before Diarmait 's ally , Toirdelbach Ua Briain , King of Munster ( died 1086 ) , was able to intervene and restore order in the Kingdom of Leinster .
Up until about the time of his death , Diarmait had been the most powerful king in southern Ireland . In consequence of the void left by his demise , Diarmait 's erstwhile ally Toirdelbach seized the initiative , and moved to enforce his own claim to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland . He immediately imposed his overlordship on Leinster — a task almost certainly expedited by the aforesaid infighting amongst the Uí Chennselaig — and took control of Dublin . Whilst the imposition of authority upon rival provincial kingdoms was a fundamental part in gaining the high @-@ kingship , Toirdelbach 's decision to march @-@ on Dublin reveals that the acquisition of this coastal kingdom had also become an essential part of the process .
Toirdelbach 's subsequent capture of Donnchad in Dublin suggests that the latter was not only the leading Uí Chennselaig dynast , but was also in the process of using the town as the capital of Leinster . Although the list of Leinster kings in the Book of Leinster declares that Domnall had succeeded his grandfather as King of Leinster , it is apparent that Donnchad was indeed the more powerful claimant . In fact , the king @-@ list of Uí Chennselaig in the same source makes no notice of Domnall , and states that it was Donnchad who succeeded Diarmait as King of Uí Chennselaig . Domnall , therefore , may not have reigned in Leinster , and could well have been King of Leinster in name only .
If the Annals of Inisfallen is to be believed , Toirdelbach acquired possession of Dublin when the Dubliners themselves offered him its kingship . Although this record may be mere Uí Briain propaganda , it could instead reveal that the Dubliners preferred a distant overlord from Munster rather than one from neighbouring Leinster . Within the year , the kingship was held by Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill ( died 1075 ) . The latter appears to have been a kinsman of Echmarcach , and may well have been handed the kinship by Toirdelbach , perhaps on account of the considerable distance between the kingdoms .
= = Kingship of Dublin = =
In 1075 , Toirdelbach drove Gofraid from the kingship and Ireland itself . There is uncertainty concerning the circumstances of Gofraid 's expulsion , and of Domnall 's accession . On one hand , it is possible that Gofraid was involved in lending assistance to Anglo @-@ Danish resistance against the Norman regime in the recently conquered Kingdom of England . If correct , Gofraid would appear to have been at odds with Toirdelbach , a monarch who appears to have cultivated close links with the Norman regime . Domnall , therefore , may have had Toirdelbach 's consent to rule in Dublin as Gofraid 's replacement . In fact , Toirdelbach 's placement of Domnall in Dublin , and his allowance of the latter 's aforesaid cousin in Leinster , may have been a way in which the Uí Briain exploited the fractured Uí Chennselaig . Certainly , Domnall 's cooperation would have been a valuable asset to Toirdelbach , considering the prominence of his father amongst the Dubliners , and the likelihood that Domnall himself may have lived most of his life there . On the other hand , it is possible that Gofraid was driven from the kingship because he had aligned himself with the Leinstermen against the Uí Briain . If such a sequence of events is correct it could mean that , even though Gofraid was unable continue on with the revolt , it was his Uí Chennselaig confederates who succeeded in securing Dublin from the Uí Briain .
Whatever the circumstances of Domnall 's accession , the Uí Chennselaig regime in Dublin was short @-@ lived . The Annals of Inisfallen , the Annals of the Four Masters , and the Annals of Ulster , all reveal that , within the year , Domnall died after a brief illness , with the latter two sources specifying that he succumbed after three nights of sickness . The Annals of Inisfallen and the Annals of Ulster accord him the title King of Dublin , and make no mention of any connection with the Leinster kingship . Upon Domnall 's demise , Toirdelbach had his own son , Muirchertach ( died 1119 ) , appointed King of Dublin . In so doing , Toirdelbach reinforced his authority in Dublin , and followed a precedent started by Domnall 's grandfather , in which a claimant to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland installed his own heir to the kingship of Dublin .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Irresistible ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Irresistible " is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 13 , 1995 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by David Nutter , and featured the first of two guest appearances by Nick Chinlund as the death fetishist killer Donnie Pfaster . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 8 million people upon its first broadcast , and received positive reviews , with much praise to Chinlund 's performance as the antagonist .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a death fetishist who begins kidnapping and killing women to satisfy his obsession . Scully , still recovering from her earlier abduction , is soon overcome with posttraumatic stress disorder .
" Irresistible " is one of the few in the series that has no paranormal elements to it . Initially , the script called for Donnie Pfaster to be a necrophiliac , but the idea was soon rejected by the Fox Broadcasting Company for being " unacceptable for broadcast standards " . Pfaster was eventually brought back in the season seven episode " Orison " .
= = Plot = =
In Minneapolis , a funeral is held for a young girl ( Megan Hilty ) . The ceremony is observed by Donnie Pfaster , the eerie assistant director for the funeral home . Later that night , as the girl 's body is being stored for burial the following day , Pfaster 's boss finds him cutting off the corpse 's hair . Pfaster is promptly fired .
Some time later , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are summoned to Minneapolis by Moe Bocks , an FBI field agent who is investigating the exhumation and desecration of a body in a local cemetery . Mulder discounts Bocks ' theory that this act is a variation of extraterrestrial cattle mutilation , and suggests they search for a human culprit . Scully is disturbed at the sight of the disheveled corpse . Two more bodies are found exhumed , with their hair cut and fingernails removed . Mulder develops a psychological profile of the criminal , believing him to be an escalating " death fetishist " who may resort to murder to satisfy his desires . Scully keeps her discomfort with the case to herself , and writes up a field report on necrophilia .
Pfaster , who was behind the exhumations , proves Mulder 's prediction correct when he brings a prostitute to his apartment . When the prostitute discovers a collection of funerary wreaths in Pfaster 's bedroom , he kills her and removes her fingers . Later , Pfaster — having been hired as a frozen food delivery man through charming the female interviewer — delivers to a low @-@ security house of a woman with teenage daughters . He requests the bathroom to wash his hands , and whilst there steals some discarded hair from a brush he found in the trashcan . Pfaster attends a night class at a community college , where a female classmate defends herself after he makes threatening advances . He is arrested and is placed in a jail cell across from a suspect being interrogated for Pfaster 's crimes by Mulder , Scully , and Bocks . Pfaster shows interest in Scully , and learns her name from the interrogated suspect . Pfaster is later released as his charges were dropped .
Scully is deeply troubled by Pfaster 's crimes , and has unsettling dreams and hallucinations about the case . In Washington , she has a counseling session with a social worker , during which she shares her anxiety about the investigation . After the session , Scully learns that someone from Minnesota had called for her . When she contacts Mulder , she learns that neither he nor Bocks made the call . Tracing a fingerprint to Pfaster from his arrest , Bocks and Mulder raid his apartment , finding one of the prostitute 's fingers in his refrigerator . Meanwhile , after Scully arrives in Minneapolis , Pfaster forces her car off the road . He kidnaps Scully and takes her to his late mother 's abandoned house . He ties and gags Scully , and keeps her in a dark closet .
Mulder and Bocks discover that Pfaster 's mother had owned a car which matches paint found on Scully 's abandoned car , tracking down her former residence . Meanwhile , Scully escapes from Pfaster as he prepares a cold bath for her , resulting in a pursuit through the house . Scully and Pfaster have a struggle that sends them falling down a staircase onto the foyer , where a task force led by Mulder and Bocks breaks in moments later and apprehends Pfaster . Scully initially insists that she is okay , but then breaks down and cries in Mulder 's arms . In a voice @-@ over narration , Mulder traces Pfaster 's pathology to his childhood , when he was raised in a family of four older sisters . Mulder also reflects on Pfaster 's nature and the nature of evil in general .
= = Production = =
The episode 's initial script where Pfaster was a necrophiliac was rejected by the Fox Broadcasting Company for being " unacceptable for broadcast standards " . As series creator Chris Carter described it , " When I handed the script in , it was really for a necrophiliac episode , and that just didn 't fly . You cannot do the combination of sex and death on network television . " Carter was forced to tone down the script by changing Pfaster from a necrophiliac to a death fetishist and diminishing Pfaster 's sexual obsession . He considered that the sexual content was " implied and understood by audiences " , and that Pfaster still resulted in a creepy character , particularly his " creepy arrogance " in using shampoo on the hair of his victims . The episode 's original title was " Fascination " .
The episode is one of the few in the series that has no paranormal elements to it . Carter said of the episode 's conception , " My first chance to work with David Nutter in a long time , and I wanted to give him something he could sink his teeth into . It 's a little bit different for us . It doesn 't really have a paranormal aspect , except for Scully 's perceptions of her deepest fears . I felt that I had to figure out what she is most afraid of , and she is most afraid of those things that most of us are afraid of . The idea of dying at the hands of someone — creature or not — and she is helpless to do anything about it . I thought it was a very good way to explore Scully 's character . " The scene where Dana Scully imagines Pfaster appearing as a devil was influenced by real @-@ life accounts , as described by Carter : " There are reports of people who had been under the spell of Jeffrey Dahmer , who actually claimed that he shape @-@ shifted during those hours when they were held hostage ; that his image actually changed . " Nutter said " In many ways , Chris wanted to sell the idea that , as established in Mulder 's closing dialogue in the show , not all terror comes from the paranormal . It could come from the person next door . "
Carter said of the casting of Nick Chinlund as Pfaster , " I thought it was a wonderfully creepy villain . The casting of that show was very difficult . We saw many actors , but there was a quality I was looking for and I couldn 't put a name on that quality . I finally figured out what it was when Nick came in and he had a kind of androgynous quality that worked . I thought he looked like Joe College , but he could scare the hell out of you . " Producer Glen Morgan said Chinlund 's performance was outstanding . Nutter stated " Nick Chinlund was wonderful to work with . The guy was like putty in my hands . He was great . If you 're looking for someone to underline the weirdness and strangeness of the character , he did that . "
Nutter said of the episode " I really worked hard to make it a special show , because I thought it was special . It was Gillian 's post @-@ traumatic stress episode , because she had not really had the opportunity to vent her feelings about the whole Duane Barry situation . This was an opportunity to sit back and let all that happen . " Carter particularly liked the scene where a clearly disturbed Scully hugs Mulder , claiming it was a " tender moment " between two characters that had not shown that much affection for each other .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Irresistible " premiered on the Fox network on January 13 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 2 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 8 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Irresistible " received largely positive reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly rated " Irresistible " a B + , saying it was based on " an unsettling concept to begin with " that was reinforced by " Chinlund 's skin @-@ crawling one @-@ man show " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club rated the episode A , praising the acting , particularly of Chinlund as Pfaster , and describing it as " legitimately scary , a sign of a show that was pushing itself in new and interesting directions " . The only criticism was for the scenes where Scully hallucinates Pfaster shapeshifting as " pretty silly , almost feeling like an attempt to make sure something vaguely paranormal is in the episode so the fans don 't get bored with what is ultimately a very good episode " . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode a B + grade . Writing for Den of Geek , Nina Sordi ranked " Irresistible " the sixth best X @-@ Files episode , saying that " excluding CSM and his cronies , Pfaster has got to be the most disturbing villain that our favorite agents have encountered " . Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson named it the " finest " stand @-@ alone episode of the second season , describing it as " a genuinely creepy 45 @-@ minute horror movie " . Connie Ogle of Popmatters listed Pfaster among the best monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week characters of the series , and IGN 's Christine Seghers ranked Chinlund the seventh best guest star in the history of the show , considering that " what makes him all the more frightening is how downright passive and polite he is up until the moment he 's going to kill ; the perfect camouflage for a modern @-@ day monster . " TV Guide listed Pfaster among the scariest X @-@ Files monsters describing him as " evil incarnate " .
Chris Carter said " Irresistible " was effective for " being really scary " , and that not only it was one of his favorites but inspired him to create the television series Millennium later .
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= Thunderbirds ( TV series ) =
Thunderbirds is a British science @-@ fiction television series created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , filmed by their production company AP Films ( APF ) and distributed by ITC Entertainment . It was produced between 1964 and 1966 using a form of electronic marionette puppetry ( dubbed " Supermarionation " ) combined with scale model special effects sequences . Two series were filmed , comprising a total of 32 episodes . Production ceased after Lew Grade , the Andersons ' financial backer , failed in his efforts to sell the programme to American network television .
Set in the mid @-@ 2060s , Thunderbirds is a follow @-@ up to the earlier Supermarionation productions Four Feather Falls , Supercar , Fireball XL5 and Stingray . It follows the exploits of International Rescue ( IR ) , a life @-@ saving organisation equipped with technologically @-@ advanced land , sea , air and space rescue craft ; these are headed by a fleet of five vehicles named the Thunderbirds and launched from IR 's secret base in the Pacific Ocean . The main characters are ex @-@ astronaut Jeff Tracy , the founder of IR , and his five adult sons , who pilot the Thunderbird machines .
Thunderbirds began its first run in the United Kingdom on the ITV network in 1965 and has since been broadcast in at least 66 other countries . Periodically repeated , it was adapted for radio in the early 1990s and has influenced many TV programmes and other media . As well as inspiring various merchandising campaigns , the series has been followed by two feature @-@ length film sequels , a live @-@ action film adaptation and a mimed stage show tribute . The second of two TV remakes , the computer @-@ animated Thunderbirds Are Go , premiered in 2015 .
Widely considered to be the Andersons ' most popular and commercially successful series , Thunderbirds has received particular praise for its effects ( directed by Derek Meddings ) and musical score ( composed by Barry Gray ) . It is also well remembered for its title sequence , which opens with an often @-@ quoted countdown by actor Peter Dyneley ( who voiced the character of Jeff ) : " 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 : Thunderbirds Are Go ! " A real @-@ life rescue service , the International Rescue Corps , is named after the organisation featured in the series .
= = Storyline = =
Set between 2065 and 2067 , Thunderbirds follows the exploits of the Tracy family , headed by American ex @-@ astronaut turned multi @-@ millionaire philanthropist Jeff Tracy . He is a widower with five adult sons : Scott , John , Virgil , Gordon and Alan . The Tracys form International Rescue ( IR ) , a secret organisation dedicated to saving human life . They are aided in this mission by technologically advanced land , sea , air and space vehicles , which are called into service when conventional rescue techniques prove ineffective . The most important of these are five machines named the " Thunderbirds " , each assigned to one of the five Tracy brothers :
Thunderbird 1 : a hypersonic rocket plane used for fast response and accident zone reconnaissance . Piloted by primary rescue co @-@ ordinator Scott Tracy .
Thunderbird 2 : a supersonic carrier aircraft that transports rescue vehicles and equipment to accident zones in detachable capsules known as " Pods " . Piloted by Virgil .
Thunderbird 3 : a single @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit spacecraft . Piloted alternately by Alan and John , with Scott as co @-@ pilot .
Thunderbird 4 : a utility submersible . Piloted by Gordon and normally launched from Thunderbird 2 .
Thunderbird 5 : a space station that relays distress calls from around the world . Manned alternately by " Space Monitors " John and Alan .
With the engineer Brains and Jeff 's elderly mother , as well as the Malaysian manservant Kyrano and his daughter Tin @-@ Tin , the family reside in a luxurious villa on Tracy Island , their hidden base in the South Pacific Ocean . In this location , IR is safe from criminals and spies who envy the organisation 's technology and seek to acquire the secrets of its machines .
Despite its humanitarian principles , some of IR 's operations are necessitated not by misadventure but deliberate sabotage motivated by greed for power and wealth . For missions that require criminal investigation , the organisation incorporates a network of undercover agents headed by English aristocrat Lady Penelope Creighton @-@ Ward and her butler Aloysius Parker . Based at Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion in Kent , Penelope and Parker 's primary mode of transport is FAB 1 , a specially @-@ modified Rolls @-@ Royce . The most persistent of IR 's adversaries is the criminal known only as the " Hood " . Operating from a temple in the Malaysian jungle , and possessing abilities of hypnosis and dark magic , he exerts a powerful telepathic control over Kyrano , his estranged half @-@ brother , and manipulates the Tracys into missions that unfold according to his nefarious designs . This allows him to spy on the Thunderbird machines and , by selling their secrets , make himself rich .
= = Production = =
Thunderbirds was the fourth Supermarionation puppet TV series to be produced by APF , which was founded by the husband @-@ and @-@ wife duo of Gerry and Sylvia Anderson with their business partners Reg Hill and John Read . Pitched in late 1963 , the series was commissioned by Lew Grade of ITC , APF 's parent company , on the back of the positive audience response to Stingray .
Gerry Anderson drew inspiration for the series ' underlying concept from the West German mining disaster known as the Wunder von Lengede ( " Miracle of Lengede " ) . In October 1963 , the collapse of a nearby dam flooded an iron mine in the municipality of Lengede , killing 29 miners and trapping 21 others underground . Lacking the means to drill an escape shaft , the authorities were forced to requisition a heavy @-@ duty bore from Bremen ; the considerable time necessary to ship this device by rail had significantly reduced the chances of a successful rescue . Recognising the advantages of swifter crisis response , Anderson conceived the idea of an " international rescue " organisation that could use supersonic aircraft to transport specialised rescue equipment quickly over long distances .
Seeking to distinguish his 26 @-@ episode proposal from APF 's earlier productions , Anderson attempted to pitch stories at a level that would appeal to both adults and children . Whereas previous series had been shown during the late afternoon , Anderson wanted Thunderbirds to be broadcast in a family @-@ friendly primetime slot . Sylvia remembers that " our market had grown and a ' kidult ' show ... was the next step . " The Andersons retired to their holiday villa in Portugal to expand the premise , script the pilot episode and compose a scriptwriters ' guide . According to Sylvia , the writing process depended on a " division of labour " , whereby Gerry created the action sequences while she managed characterisation . The decision to make a father and his sons the main characters was influenced by the premise of Bonanza , as well as Sylvia 's belief that the use of more than one heroic character would broaden the series ' appeal . The Tracy brothers were named after Mercury Seven astronauts : Scott Carpenter , John Glenn , Virgil " Gus " Grissom , Gordon Cooper and Alan Shepard .
The series ' title was derived from a letter written by Gerry 's brother , Lionel , while he had been serving overseas as an RAF flight sergeant during World War II . While stationed in Arizona , Lionel had made reference to Thunderbird Field , a nearby United States Army Air Forces base . Drawn to the " punchiness " of " Thunderbirds " , Anderson dropped his working title of " International Rescue " and renamed both the series and IR 's rescue vehicles , which had previously been designated Rescues 1 to 5 . His inspiration for the launch sequences of Thunderbirds 1 , 2 and 3 originated from contemporary United States Air Force launch procedure : Anderson had learnt how the Strategic Air Command would keep its pilots on permanent standby , seated in the cockpits of their aircraft and ready for take @-@ off at a moment 's notice .
In the DVD documentary The Thunderbirds Companion , Anderson explained how a rise in filming costs had made overseas distribution revenue even more important and essentially caused Thunderbirds to be made " as an American show " . During the character development and voice casting process , the Andersons ' main priority was to ensure that the series had transatlantic appeal , thus increasing the chances of winning an American network deal and the higher audience figures that this market had to offer . Scripts were typed in American English and printed on US @-@ style quarto @-@ size paper .
= = = Filming = = =
Thunderbirds was filmed at APF 's studios on the Slough Trading Estate between 1964 and 1966 . In preparation , the number of full @-@ time crew was expanded to 100 . Shooting began in September 1964 after five months of pre @-@ production . Due to the new series ' technical complexity , this was a period longer than for any of APF 's earlier productions . To speed up the filming , episodes were shot in pairs , at a rate of one per month , on separate soundstages and by separate crews ( designated " A " and " B " ) . By 1964 , APF was the UK 's largest commercial user of colour film , consuming more than three million feet ( 570 miles or 910 kilometres ) of stock per year .
Alan Pattillo , a veteran scriptwriter and director for APF , was appointed the company 's first official script editor in late 1964 . This move was aimed to reduce the burden on Gerry Anderson who , while reserving his producer 's right to overall creative control , had grown weary of revising scripts himself . Direction of episodes was assigned in pairs : Pattillo and David Elliott alternated with the less experienced Desmond Saunders and newcomer David Lane for each month 's filming . Due to the difficulties of setting up takes , progress was slow : even on a productive day , it was rare for the crew to complete more than two minutes of puppet footage In a contemporary interview , Hill noted that Thunderbirds contained several times as many shots as a typical live @-@ action series . He explained that rapid editing was necessary on account of the characters ' lack of facial expression , which made it difficult to sustain the viewer 's interest for more than a few seconds per shot .
After viewing the completed 25 @-@ minute pilot , " Trapped in the Sky " , Lew Grade was so impressed by APF 's work that he instructed Anderson to double the episode length and increased the series ' budget per episode from £ 25 @,@ 000 to £ 38 @,@ 000 . As a result , Thunderbirds became not only the company 's longest and highest @-@ budgeted production , but also among the most expensive TV series to have been made up to that point . The crew , who had been filming at a rate of two 25 @-@ minute episodes per fortnight , faced significant challenges during the transition to the new format : eight episodes had already been completed , scripts for up to ten more had been written , and substantial rewrites would be necessary to satisfy the longer running time . Anderson lamented : " Our time @-@ scale was far too drawn out . ITC 's New York office insisted that they should have one show a fortnight ... Everything had to move at twice the speed . " APF spent over seven months extending the existing episodes .
Tony Barwick , who had impressed Pattillo and the Andersons with an unsubmitted script that he had written for Danger Man , was recruited to assist in the writing of subplots and filler material . He found that the longer format created opportunities to strengthen the characterisation . Science @-@ fiction writer John Peel suggests that " small character touches " make the puppet cast of Thunderbirds " much more rounded " than those of earlier APF series . He compares the writing favourably to that of live @-@ action drama . The new footage proved useful during the development of the first series finale , " Security Hazard " : since the previous two episodes had overspent their budgets , Pattillo devised a flashback @-@ dominated clip show containing only 17 minutes of new material to reduce costs .
Filming of Series One was completed in December 1965 . A second series was also commissioned late that year and entered production in March 1966 . Barwick became a full @-@ time member of the writing staff and took over the role of script editor from the outgoing Pattillo . The main puppet cast and vehicles were rebuilt ; in addition , the art department expanded some of the standing sets , including the Tracy Villa lounge and the Thunderbird 5 control room . To accommodate the simultaneous filming of the TV series and Thunderbirds Are Go , APF purchased two more buildings on the Slough Trading Estate and converted them into new stages . As crew and studio space were divided between the two productions , filming of the TV series progressed at half the previous speed , as APF 's B crew produced one episode per month . Filming on Thunderbirds Are Go was completed by June , allowing A crew to resume work on the series to shoot what would prove to be its penultimate episode , " Ricochet " .
Production of Thunderbirds ended in August 1966 with the completion of the sixth episode of Series Two . In February that year , it had been reported that Grade had been unable to sell the series in the United States due to disagreements over timeslots . In July , he cancelled Thunderbirds after failing in his second attempt to secure an American buyer . The three major US networks of the time – NBC , CBS and ABC – had all bid for the series , with Grade repeatedly increasing the price . When NBC withdrew its offer , the other two immediately followed .
By the time of its cancellation , Thunderbirds had become widely popular in the UK and was being distributed extensively overseas . Grade , however , believed that without the financial boost of an American network sale , a full second series would fail to recover its production costs . He therefore asked Anderson to devise a new concept that he hoped would stand a greater chance of winning over the profitable US market . This became Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons .
= = = Casting and characters = = =
Voice @-@ recording sessions were supervised by Pattillo and the Andersons , with Sylvia Anderson in charge of casting . Dialogue was recorded once per month at a rate of two scripts per session . Supporting parts were not pre @-@ assigned , but negotiated by the cast among themselves . Two recordings would be made at each session : one to be converted into electronic pulses for the puppet filming , the other to be added to the soundtrack during post @-@ production . The tapes were edited at Gate Recording Theatre in Birmingham .
In the interest of transatlantic appeal , it was decided that the main characters would be mostly American and therefore actors capable of producing an appropriate accent were used . British , Canadian and Australian actors formed most of the voice cast ; the only American involved was stage actor David Holliday , who was noticed in London 's West End and given the part of Virgil Tracy . Following the completion of the first series , Holliday returned to the US . The character was voiced by English @-@ Canadian actor Jeremy Wilkin for Series Two .
British actor David Graham was among the first to be cast . He had previously voiced characters in Four Feather Falls , Supercar , Fireball XL5 and Stingray . Beyond the APF productions , he had supplied one of the original Dalek voices on Doctor Who . Cast alongside Graham was Australian actor Ray Barrett . Like Graham , he had worked for the Andersons before , having voiced Titan and Commander Shore in Stingray . A veteran of radio drama , Barrett was skilled at performing a range of voices and accents in quick succession . Villains of the week would typically be voiced by either Barrett or Graham . Aware of the sensitive political climate of the Cold War and not wishing to " perpetuate the idea that Russia was the enemy with a whole generation of children watching " , Gerry Anderson decided the Hood ( voiced by Barrett ) should be Oriental and placed his temple hideout in Malaysia to defy the viewer 's expectations .
Although Lady Penelope and Parker ( the latter voiced by Graham ) were among the first characters developed , neither was conceived as a major role . Parker 's Cockney manner was based on a waiter at a pub in Cookham that was sometimes visited by the crew . On Gerry Anderson 's recommendation , Graham dined there regularly to study the accent . Anderson 's first choice for the role of Penelope had been Fenella Fielding , but Sylvia insisted she take the part herself . Her Penelope voice was intended to emulate Fielding and Joan Greenwood . On Penelope and Parker 's secondary role as comic relief , Gerry explained , " We British can laugh at ourselves , so therefore we had Penelope and Parker as this comedy team . And in America they love the British aristocracy too . ' "
As well as Jeff Tracy , English @-@ Canadian actor Peter Dyneley voiced the recurring character of Commander Norman , chief of air traffic control at London International Airport . His supporting character voices were typically those of upper @-@ class Englishmen . Shane Rimmer , the voice of Scott , was cast on the strength of his performance on the BBC soap opera Compact . Meanwhile , fellow Canadian Matt Zimmerman was selected at a late stage in the process . The expatriate West End actor was given the role of Alan on the recommendation of his friend , Holliday : " They were having great difficulty casting the part of Alan as they wanted a certain sound for him , being the youngest brother . David , who [ was ] a bit older than I am , told them that he had this friend , me , who would be great . "
Christine Finn , known for her role in the TV serial Quatermass and the Pit , provided the voices of Tin @-@ Tin Kyrano and Grandma Tracy . With Sylvia Anderson , she was also responsible for voicing most of the female and child supporting characters . Other minor parts were voiced by Charles Tingwell , Paul Maxwell and John Tate ( the father of Nick Tate ) , who were not credited for their contributions .
= = = Design and effects = = =
The puppet stages used for the filming of Thunderbirds were only one @-@ fifth the size of those used for a standard live @-@ action production , typically measuring 12 by 14 by 3 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 by 45 @.@ 9 by 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in length , width and height . Bob Bell , assisted by Keith Wilson and Grenville Nott , headed the art department for Series One . During the simultaneous filming of Series Two and Thunderbirds Are Go in 1966 , Bell attended mainly to the film , entrusting set design for the TV series to Wilson .
Since it was necessary for the art department 's interior sets to conform to the effects department 's exterior plans , each team closely monitored the other 's work . According to Sylvia Anderson , Bell 's challenge was to produce complex interiors on a limited budget while resisting the effects department 's push for " more extravagant " design . This task was complicated by the unnatural proportions of the puppets : Bell struggled to decide whether the sets should be built to a scale proportionate to their bodies or their oversized heads and hands . He used the example of FAB 1 to illustrate the problem : " As soon as we positioned [ the puppets ] standing alongside [ the model ] , they looked ridiculous , as the car towered over them . " He ultimately adopted a " mix @-@ and @-@ match " approach , in which smaller items , such as tableware , were scaled to their hands and furniture to their bodies .
While designing the Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion sets , Bell and his staff strove for authenticity , ordering miniature Tudor paintings , 1 ⁄ 3 @-@ scale Georgian- and Regency @-@ style furniture and carpeting in the shape of a polar bear skin . This realism was enhanced by adding scrap items acquired from household waste and electronics shops . For example , a vacuum cleaner pipe serves as Virgil Tracy 's launch chute .
= = = = Puppets = = = =
The head puppet sculptor was Christine Glanville , who also served as the lead puppeteer . Glanville 's four @-@ person team built the 13 members of the main cast in six months at a cost of between £ 250 and £ 300 per puppet ( approximately £ 4 @,@ 569 and £ 5 @,@ 483 today ) . Since pairs of episodes were being filmed simultaneously on separate stages , the characters needed to be sculpted in duplicate . Facial expressions were diversified by means of replaceable heads : as well as a head with a neutral expression , each main character was given a " smiler " , a " frowner " and a " blinker " . The finished puppets were approximately 22 inches ( 56 cm ) tall , or 1 ⁄ 3 adult human height .
The puppets were made up of more than 30 individual components , the most important of which was the solenoid that synchronised lip movements with the characters ' pre @-@ recorded dialogue . This device was positioned inside the head unit ; consequently , torsos and limbs appeared relatively small . The puppets ' likenesses and mechanics are remembered favourably by puppeteer Wanda Brown , who preferred the Thunderbirds marionettes over the accurately @-@ proportioned ones that first appeared in Captain Scarlet : " The puppets were easier to operate and more enjoyable because they had more character to them ... Even some of the more normal @-@ looking faces , such as Scott and Jeff , for me had more character than the puppets in the series that came afterwards . " Rimmer speaks positively of the puppets ' still being " very much caricatures " , since it made them " more lovable and appealing ... There was a naive quality about them and nothing too complex . "
The appearances of the main characters were inspired by those of actors and other entertainers , who were typically selected from the show business directory Spotlight . According to Glanville , as part of a trend away from the strong caricature of previous series , APF was seeking " more natural faces " for the puppets . The face of Jeff Tracy was based on that of Lorne Greene , Scott on Sean Connery , Alan on Robert Reed , John on Adam Faith and Charlton Heston , Brains on Anthony Perkins and Parker on Ben Warriss . Sylvia Anderson brought the character of Penelope to life in likeness as well as voice : after her test moulds were rejected , sculptor Mary Turner decided to use Anderson herself as a template . Terry Curtis was also an original sculpture of Supermarionation puppets .
Main character heads were initially sculpted in either Plasticine or clay . Once the general aspect had been finalised , this served as the template for a silicone rubber mould . This was coated with Bondaglass ( fibreglass mixed with resin ) and enhanced with Bondapaste , a putty @-@ like substance , to accentuate contours . The Bondaglass shell was then fitted with a solenoid , leather mouth parts and plastic eyes , as well as incisor teeth – a first for a Supermarionation production . Puppets known as " revamps " , which had plastic heads , portrayed the supporting characters . These marionettes started their working lives with only a mouth and eyes ; their faces were remoulded from one episode to the next . Particularly striking revamp moulds were retained and , as their numbers increased , photographed to compile an internal casting directory .
Wigs were made of mohair or , in the case of the Penelope puppet , human hair . Puppet bodies were built in three sizes : " large male " ( specifically for the Tracys and the Hood ) , " small male " and " small female " . Sylvia Anderson , the head costume designer , devised the main characters ' attire . To give the puppets increased mobility , the costume department generally avoided stiff synthetic materials , instead working with cotton , silk and wool . Between 1964 and 1966 , the department 's stock numbered more than 700 costumes .
Each puppet 's head was fitted with about 10 thin tungsten steel wires . During the filming , dialogue was played into the studio using modified tape recorders that converted the feed into electronic pulses . Two of the wires relayed these pulses to the internal solenoid , completing the Supermarionation process . The wires , which were sprayed black to reduce their visibility , were made even less noticeable through the application of powder paint that matched the background colours of the set . Glanville explained the time @-@ consuming nature of this process : " [ The puppeteers ] used to spend over half an hour on each shot getting rid of these wires , looking through the camera , puffing a bit more [ paint ] here , anti @-@ flare there ; and , I mean , it 's very depressing when somebody will say to us , ' Of course the wires showed . ' " Positioned on an overhead gantry with a hand @-@ held cruciform , the puppeteers co @-@ ordinated movements with the help of a viewfinder @-@ powered CCTV feedback system . As filming progressed , the crew started to dispense with wires and instead manipulate the puppets from the studio floor using rods .
Due to their low weight and the fact that they had only one control wire per leg , the puppets were unable to walk convincingly . Therefore , scenes involving movement were filmed from the waist up , with a puppeteer holding the legs below the level of the camera and using a " bobbing " action to simulate motion . Alternatively , dynamic shots were eliminated altogether : in an interview with New Scientist , director of photography John Read spoke of the advantages of circumventing the lack of agility so that the puppets " appear , for example , to walk through doors ( although the control wires make this impossible ) or pick up a coffee cup ( although their fingers are not in fact jointed ) . " Live @-@ action shots of human hands were inserted whenever scripts called for more dexterous actions to be performed .
= = = = Special effects = = = =
The effects for all the APF series from Supercar to UFO were directed by Derek Meddings , who later worked on the James Bond and Superman films . Knowing that Thunderbirds would be the " biggest project [ APF ] had worked on " , Meddings found himself struggling to manage his workload with the single filming unit that had produced all the effects for Stingray . He therefore established a second unit under technician Brian Johncock , and a third exclusively for filming airborne sequences . This expansion increased the number of APF crews and stages to five each . A typical episode contained around 100 effects shots ; Meddings ' team completed up to 18 per day .
An addition to the effects department was Mike Trim , who served as Meddings ' assistant in designing vehicles and buildings . Meddings and Trim jointly pioneered an " organic " design technique in which the exteriors of models and sets were customised with parts from model kits and children 's toys . Models and sets were also " dirtied down " with powder paint or pencil lead to create a used look . Toy cars and vans were used in long shot , while scale vehicles were equipped with basic steering and suspension for added realism . Miniature fans and Jetex pellets , which are capable of issuing air jets or chemical exhaust , were attached to the undersides to simulate dust trails . Another of Meddings ' inventions was a closed , cyclical effects stage nicknamed the " rolling road " : consisting of two or more loops of canvas running at different speeds , this device allowed shots of moving vehicles to be filmed on a static set to make more efficient use of the limited studio space . Airborne aircraft sequences were mounted against a " rolling sky " , with smoke fanned across to simulate passing clouds .
One of Meddings ' first tasks was to shoot stock footage of the Thunderbird machines and the series ' main locations , Tracy Island and Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion . The finished island model was a composite of more than a dozen smaller sets that could be detached from the whole and filmed separately . The architecture of the mansion was based on that of Stourhead House , located on the Stourhead Estate in Wiltshire . In the absence of head designer Reg Hill , who was serving as associate producer , Meddings was further tasked with designing the Thunderbird fleet and FAB 1 . Scale models for the six main vehicles were built by a contractor , Master Models of Middlesex . Models and puppet sets combined , more than 200 versions of the Thunderbird machines were created for the series .
During the designing and filming process , Meddings ' first priorities were realism and credibility . With the exception of Thunderbird 5 , each vehicle was built in three or four scales . Meddings ' swing @-@ wing concept for Thunderbird 1 was inspired by his wish to create something " more dynamic " than a fixed @-@ wing aircraft . He remained unsatisfied with the prototype of Thunderbird 2 until he inverted the wings , later commenting , " ... at the time , all aircraft had swept @-@ back wings . I only did it to be different . " This decision was made out of personal preference and was not informed by any expert knowledge on Meddings ' part . He described the Thunderbird 2 launch as " probably the most memorable " sequence that his team devised for an APF production .
The largest model of Thunderbird 3 , whose design was based on the Soviet Soyuz rocket , was six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall . Thunderbird 4 was particularly difficult to film : as the scale of the model did not correspond to the water inside the shooting tank , creative camera angles and rapid editing were used to produce a sense of realistic perspective . Thunderbird 5 , the most difficult vehicle for Meddings to visualise , was based on the Tracy Island Round House . Since most of the space station 's appearances were provided by stock footage , the model was rarely filmed . Pod Vehicles were designed on an episode @-@ by @-@ episode basis and built from balsa wood , Jelutong wood or fibreglass . To save time and costs , other minor vehicles were built in @-@ house from radio @-@ controlled model kits .
As the puppets of Lady Penelope and Parker needed to fit inside , the largest of all the models was the seven @-@ foot FAB 1 , which cost £ 2 @,@ 500 ( approximately £ 46 @,@ 000 today ) to build . The Rolls @-@ Royce 's name and colour were both chosen by Sylvia Anderson . Rolls @-@ Royce Ltd. supervised the construction of the plywood model and supplied APF with an authentic radiator grille for close @-@ up shots of the front of the car . In exchange for its cooperation , the company requested that a Spirit of Ecstasy be fixed to the chassis and that the characters avoid referring to the brand with abbreviations such as " Rolls " .
Scale explosions were created using substances such as fuller 's earth , petrol gel , magnesium strips and Cordtex explosive . Originally filmed at up to 120 frames per second ( f.p.s. ) , they were slowed down to 24 f.p.s. during post @-@ production to increase their apparent magnitude and length . Gunpowder canisters were ignited to create rocket jets . The wires that electronically fired the rockets also allowed a member of the crew , holding a cruciform and positioned on an overhead gantry , to " fly " the model over the set . By far the most unwieldy model was Thunderbird 2 , which Meddings remembered as being " awful " to fly . A combination of unreliable rockets and weak wiring frequently caused problems : should the former be slow to ignite , the current quickly caused the latter to overheat and snap , potentially damaging the model and even setting fire to the set . Conditions above the studio floor were often dangerous due to the heat and smoke . Although many of the exhaust sound effects used in the series were drawn from an audio library , some were specially recorded during a Red Arrows display at RAF Little Rissington in Gloucestershire .
By 1966 , Meddings ' commitments were split between Series Two and Thunderbirds Are Go . While Meddings worked on the film , camera operator Jimmy Elliott assumed the responsibility of directing the TV effects . By this stage , the basic frame of Thunderbird 2 had been damaged so many times that the model had needed to be rebuilt from scratch . Meddings was displeased with the result , reflecting that the replacement was " not only the wrong colour , it was a completely different shape ... I never felt our model @-@ makers managed to recapture the look of the original . "
Critic David Garland suggests that the challenge facing the Thunderbirds effects department was to strike a balance between the " conventional science @-@ fiction imperative of the ' futuristic ' " and the " seeping hyper @-@ realist concerns mandated by the Andersons ' approach to the puppets " . Thunderbirds has been praised for the quality of its effects . Jim Sangster and Paul Condon , writers of Collins Telly Guide , consider the model work " uniformly impressive " . To Paul Cornell , Martin Day and Keith Topping , writers of The Guinness Book of Classic British TV , the effects are " way beyond anything seen on TV previously " . Impressed by their work on Thunderbirds , film director Stanley Kubrick hired several members of Meddings ' staff to supervise the effects shooting for 2001 : A Space Odyssey .
= = = = Title sequence = = = =
The series ' title sequence , storyboarded by Gerry Anderson , is made up of two parts . It opens with a countdown of " 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 : Thunderbirds Are Go ! " , provided by Dyneley in character as Jeff Tracy . In a departure from the style of Stingray , the Thunderbirds title sequence varies with each episode : the first part consists of an action montage that serves as a preview of the plot . Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn , biographers of Gerry Anderson , compare this device favourably to a film trailer .
The second part , accompanied by composer Barry Gray 's " The Thunderbirds March " , features portraits of the main puppet cast superimposed on various vehicles and settings . Peel describes this as " ostensibly a return to the ' series stars ' concept long known in TV " , while Garland considers such imagery demonstrative of Anderson 's commitment to " incremental realism " through a convergence of human and puppet characteristics . Essayist Jonathan Bignell suggests that the use of portraits conveys Anderson 's partiality to " visual revelation of machines and physical action " .
According to Daniel O 'Brien , writer of SF : UK : How British Science Fiction Changed the World , the Thunderbirds title sequence encapsulates the reasons for the series ' enduring popularity . Dyneley 's countdown is particularly well remembered and has been widely quoted . Dean Newman of the Syfy channel website ranks Thunderbirds eighth in a list of " Top 10 TV title sequences " , while Den of Geek 's Martin Anderson considers the sequence the best of any TV series .
= = = Music = = =
The score was composed by Gray , who served as musical director for all of the Anderson productions up to the first series of Space : 1999 . In response to Gerry Anderson 's request that the main theme have a " military feel " , Gray produced a brass @-@ dominated piece titled " The Thunderbirds March " , which was recorded in December 1964 at Olympic Studios in London . The end titles were originally to have been accompanied by " Flying High " , a lyrical track sung by Gary Miller with backing by Ken Barrie . Ultimately , a variation of the march was used instead . Incidental music was recorded over nine months between March and December 1965 . As most of the music budget was spent on the series ' earlier episodes , later instalments drew heavily on APF 's ever @-@ expanding music library .
Peel considers " The Thunderbirds March " to be " one of the best TV themes ever written – perfect for the show and catchy when heard alone " . Morag Reavley of BBC Online argues that the piece is " up there ... in the quintessential soundtrack of the Sixties " with the James Bond films and the songs of Frank Sinatra , Elvis and The Beatles . More generally , he praises the series ' " catchy , pulse @-@ quickening tunes " , as well as Gray 's aptitude for " musical nuance " and the mixing of genres . Heather Phares of Allmusic considers " Thunderbirds Are Go ! " – the track accompanying the launch sequences of Thunderbirds 1 , 2 and 3 – to be a reflection of the mod aspect of 1960s British spy fiction . She also highlights Gray 's homage to – and divergence from – musical norms , commenting that his score " sends up the spy and action / adventure conventions of the ' 60s very stylishly and subtly " .
David Huckvale identifies Wagnerian homage in both the theme music and the series ' premise . Noting that the theme 's opening string ostinato is similar in effect to a recurring motif in Ride of the Valkyries , he also likens the Thunderbird machines to Valkyries themselves : " Their function is more benevolent than those warrior maidens , but they do hover over danger , death and destruction . " Kevin J. Donnelly of the University of Southampton acknowledges the series ' " big @-@ sounding orchestral score " , which he compares to that of a live @-@ action film . He also suggests that the music serves partly to draw attention away from the physical imperfections of the puppets .
To celebrate the shows anniversary , " Thunderbirds Are Go - 50 Years On " at Colston Hall , Bristol was celebrated as the theme music is brought to life , led by Charles Hazlewood and his All Star Collective .
= = Broadcast = =
Thunderbirds premiered on British television on 30 September 1965 on the ITV franchises ATV Midlands , Westward and Channel . Other broadcasters , including ATV London and Granada , started transmissions the following month . The Christmas @-@ themed series finale , " Give or Take a Million " , was first broadcast on 25 December 1966 . Despite Grade 's decision to extend the running time , Midlands and Granada broadcast each episode in two parts . In these areas , both 25 @-@ minute instalments aired on the same day , separated by the ITN Evening News . The conclusion opened with a narration by Shane Rimmer summarising the first part 's action .
Granada transmitted Thunderbirds in its original , 50 @-@ minute format for the first time with the start of repeats in 1966 . In 1968 , the franchise briefly aired episodes in three parts due to timeslot restrictions . The availability of repeats during the 1960s and 1970s varied among regions . ATV Midlands screened the series regularly into the early 1970s ; by contrast , Thunderbirds was entirely absent from Yorkshire Television between 1968 and 1976 . The series was last transmitted on the ITV franchises in 1981 .
In 1990 , 8 of the 19 audio episodes released by APF Records were converted into radio dramas , which were transmitted on BBC Radio 5 . The success of the radio series encouraged the BBC to acquire the rights to the TV episodes , which it broadcast simultaneously in all regions from September 1991 on BBC 2 .
Since the end of the first network run , which achieved average viewing figures of more than six million , the BBC has repeated the series six times : between 1992 and 1993 ( Series One only ) , 1994 and 1995 ( nine episodes only ) , and 2000 and 2001 ( in remastered form ) , as well as in 2003 , 2005 and 2006 . Other channels that have shown repeats include UK Gold ( 1994 – 95 ) , Bravo ( 1996 – 97 ) , Cartoon Network ( 2001 – 02 ) , Boomerang ( 2001 – 03 ) and Syfy ( 2009 ) . In Scotland , the BBC screened a Gaelic dub , Tairnearan Tar As ( " Thunderbirds Are Go " ) in the early 1990s .
Before its UK debut , Thunderbirds was distributed to 30 other countries including the US , Canada , Australia and Japan . Pre @-@ sales revenue totalled £ 350 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 6 million today ) . In the year following the series ' first appearance , the number of countries increased to 66 . In Japan , where it was first broadcast by NHK , Thunderbirds attracted a sizeable fan following and influenced series such as Ultraman , Mighty Jack , Himitsu Sentai Gorenger and Super Rescue Solbrain . In the US , the two @-@ part format entered first @-@ run syndication , to modest success , in 1968 . Other overseas broadcasters have included TechTV and Family Room HD ( US ) , BBC Kids and YTV ( Canada ) , Nine Network and Foxtel ( Australia ) , TV3 ( New Zealand ) , MediaCorp TV12 Kids Central ( Singapore ) and RTÉ Two ( Republic of Ireland ) .
= = Reception = =
Thunderbirds is generally considered the Andersons ' most popular series and their greatest critical and commercial success . In 1966 , the show received a Royal Television Society Silver Medal for Outstanding Artistic Achievement and Gerry Anderson received an honorary fellowship of the British Kinematograph , Sound and Television Society . In 2007 , Thunderbirds achieved 19th place in a Radio Times magazine reader poll to determine the best science @-@ fiction TV programme of all time . It is ranked fourth by the 2013 Channel 5 list show 50 Greatest Kids ' TV Shows .
For Peel , Thunderbirds is " without a doubt the peak of the Supermarionation achievement " . Suggesting that the series is pitched at a " more adult " level than its predecessors , he adds that its sense of adventure , effective humour and " gripping and convincing " episodes ensured that " everyone in the audience found something to love about it . " Simon Heffer , a fan of Thunderbirds in childhood , commented positively on the series for The Daily Telegraph in 2011 : " All the elements we children discerned in whatever grown @-@ up television we had been allowed to watch were present in Thunderbirds : dramatic theme and incidental music ; well @-@ developed plots ; goodies and baddies ; swaggering Americans , at a time when the whole of Britain was in a cultural cringe to them ; and , of course , glamorous locations ... Then , of course , there was the nail @-@ biting tension of the rescues themselves ... " Film critic Kim Newman describes the series as a " television perennial " .
In his foreword to John Marriott 's book , Thunderbirds Are Go ! , Anderson put forward several explanations for the series ' enduring popularity : it " contains elements that appeal to most children – danger , jeopardy and destruction . But because International Rescue 's mission is to save life , there is no gratuitous violence . " According to Anderson , Thunderbirds incorporates a " strong family atmosphere , where Dad reigns supreme " . Both O 'Brien and script editor Alan Pattillo have praised the series ' positive " family values " . In addition , Heffer and others have written of its cross @-@ generational appeal . In 2000 , shortly before the series ' BBC revival , Brian Viner remarked in Radio Times that Thunderbirds was on the point of " captivating yet another generation of viewers " . Stuart Hood , writing for The Spectator in 1965 , praised Thunderbirds as a " modern fairy tale " ; adding that it " can sometimes be frightening " , he recommended that children watch it accompanied by their parents . Writing for Dreamwatch in 1994 , Andrew Thomas described Thunderbirds as only " nominally " a children 's programme : " Its themes are universal and speak as much to the adult in the child as the child in the adult . "
Jeff Evans , author of The Penguin TV Companion , argues that the series ' 50 @-@ minute format allows for stronger character development and " tension @-@ building " . O 'Brien is less positive in his appraisal of the writing , asserting that the plots are often " formulaic " and are sometimes " stretched to snapping point " by the extended running time . Cornell , Day and Topping are critical : they consider the writing at times " woefully poor " and argue that Thunderbirds as a whole is " often as clichéd as previous Anderson series " . Peel , despite praising the storylines and characterisation , suggests that the " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " humour of Stingray is less evident . Where Thunderbirds improves on its predecessor , Peel believes , is in its rejection of fantasy plot devices , child and animal characters , comical and stereotyped villains and what he terms the " standard Anderson sexism " : female characters , marginalised in earlier series , are more commonly seen to play active and sometimes heroic roles .
Noting the attention to detail of the series ' launch sequences , Jonathan Bignell argues that part of the motivation for dedicating large amounts of screen time to the Thunderbird craft is the need to compensate for the limited mobility of the puppet cast . The focus on futuristic machines has also been explored by cultural historian Nicholas J. Cull , who comments that of all the Andersons ' series , Thunderbirds is the most evocative of a recurring theme : the " necessity of the human component of the machine " , whereby the failures of new technology are overcome by " brave human beings and technology working together " . This makes the series ' vision of the 2060s " wonderfully humanistic and reassuring " . O 'Brien similarly praises this optimism , comparing the Tracy family to guardian Übermensch . Writing for Wired UK magazine , Warren Ellis asserts that the series ' scientific vision could inspire the next generation of " mad and frightening engineers " , adding that Thunderbirds " trades in vast , demented concepts ... immense and very beautiful ideas as solutions to problems . "
Thomas argues that the world of Thunderbirds is similar to the 1960s to the extent that contemporary capitalism and class structures appear to have survived mostly intact . He also observes , however , that wealth and high social status are often depicted as character flaws rather than strengths . According to Thomas , a contributing factor to the series ' lasting popularity is the realism of IR 's machines . Newman , for his part , suggests that " the point isn 't realism . The 21st century of Thunderbirds is detailed ... but also de @-@ populated , a high @-@ tech toyland " . He is more negative in his comparisons of contemporary and future values , noting the " square , almost 50s " attitudes to race , gender and class . With regard to stereotyping , Hood comments that he " would be happier if [ villains ] didn 't seem to be recognisable by their pigmentation " . Cull , by contrast , considers the series largely progressive on the subject of race , arguing that it rejects negative stereotyping through the use of " positive non @-@ white characters " such as Kyrano and Tin @-@ Tin . However , he deems many of the one @-@ off villains derivative , commenting that these characters are typically presented as " corrupt businessmen , spivs and gangsters familiar from crime films " .
Various commentators – including Bignell , Cull and O 'Brien – have also discussed Thunderbirds as a product of the Cold War era . Bignell comments that the Hood 's Oriental appearance and mysterious powers draw parallels with James Bond villains and fears of China operating as " a ' third force ' antagonistic to the West " . Cull observes that , despite the series ' focus on the dangers of nuclear technology , the Thunderbird machines contradict this particular theme : in their case , " an image of technology associated with the threat of Cold War mass destruction – the rocket emerging from the hidden silo – was appropriated and deployed to save life rather than to take it . " He argues that the series adheres more closely to cultural norms by drawing on the " Cold War cult of the secret agent whose skills defend the home from enemies unknown " , noting Lady Penelope 's role as a spy in addition to two episodes ( " 30 Minutes After Noon " and " The Man from MI.5 " ) that are heavily influenced by the James Bond novels and film adaptations .
The presentation of smoking in Thunderbirds was the subject of a study published in the medical journal Tobacco Control in 2002 . Despite identifying examples in 26 episodes , Kate Hunt of the University of Glasgow concluded that Thunderbirds does not actively promote smoking – a view opposed by the Roy Castle Lung Cancer Foundation ( RCLCF ) at the time of the series ' relaunch on BBC 2 . Rejecting the RCLCF 's proposal that the remastered episodes be edited to digitally erase all visible cigarettes and cigars , the BBC stated that the series " does not glorify or encourage smoking " and described the activity as " incidental to the plot " .
= = Merchandise = =
More than 3 @,@ 000 Thunderbirds @-@ themed products have been marketed since the series ' debut . To accommodate the high demand for tie @-@ ins , APF established three dedicated subsidiaries : AP Films Merchandising , AP Films Music and AP Films Toys . Some British commentators dubbed the 1966 end @-@ of @-@ year shopping season " Thunderbirds Christmas " due to the series ' popularity . In the early 1990s , Matchbox launched a new toy range to coincide with the BBC 2 repeats . Sales figures for Christmas 1992 exceeded those achieved by the Star Wars merchandising campaigns of the 1970s and 1980s . Demand for Matchbox 's Tracy Island Playset overwhelmed supply , resulting in shop fights and a substantial black market for the toy .
A comic strip featuring the characters of Lady Penelope and Parker debuted in the early issues of APF Publishing 's children 's title TV Century 21 in 1965 . A full @-@ length Thunderbirds strip appeared a year later , at which point the Lady Penelope adventures were given their own comic . Thunderbirds , Lady Penelope and Captain Scarlet and Thunderbirds annuals were published in the late 1960s ; during the same period , eight original novels were written . In 2008 , FTL Publications of Minnesota launched a new series of tie @-@ in novels .
Between 1965 and 1967 , APF Records released 19 audio episodes in the form of vinyl EPs . Three are original stories ; the rest are adapted from TV episode soundtracks , with additional narration provided by a member of the voice cast . The series ' first video game tie @-@ in , developed for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum computers , was released by Firebird Software in 1985 . Other titles have since been released for the Game Boy Color , Game Boy Advance and PlayStation 2 . During the late 1980s , the series was issued on home video for the first time by PolyGram and its subsidiary Channel 5 . Following its acquisition by Carlton International Media in 1999 , Thunderbirds was digitally remastered for the release of the first DVD versions in 2000 . Blu @-@ ray Disc editions followed in 2008 .
= = Later productions = =
Thunderbirds has been followed by two film sequels , a live @-@ action film adaptation , two animated TV remakes and several re @-@ edited presentations for TV broadcast and home video . The second of the remakes , Thunderbirds Are Go , premiered on ITV in 2015 , the 50th anniversary year of the original .
= = = Film = = =
The feature @-@ length film sequels Thunderbirds Are Go and Thunderbird 6 were released in 1966 and 1968 . The first was greenlit by Lew Grade before the TV series had started its broadcast run . Written and produced by the Andersons and directed by David Lane , both films were distributed by United Artists . Neither was a critical or commercial success , and Century 21 Cinema 's plans for further sequels were abandoned .
In the early 1980s , episodes of Thunderbirds and other Supermarionation series were re @-@ edited by ITC 's New York offices to create a series of compilation films . Branded " Super Space Theater " , this format was mostly intended for family viewing on American cable and syndicated TV . Three Thunderbirds features were produced : Thunderbirds to the Rescue , Thunderbirds In Outer Space and Countdown to Disaster .
Plans for a live @-@ action film adaptation were first announced in 1993 . These eventually culminated in the 2004 film Thunderbirds , directed by Jonathan Frakes and produced by StudioCanal and Working Title Films . It was a critical and commercial failure and was poorly received by fans of the TV series .
= = = TV = = =
The Andersons sold their intellectual and profit participation rights to Thunderbirds and their other productions in the 1970s . As a result , they had no developmental control over subsequent adaptations of their works . Thunderbirds was first remade for TV in the early 1980s as Thunderbirds 2086 . In this anime re @-@ imagining , set 20 years after the original , the vastly expanded IR is based within an arcology and operates 17 Thunderbird machines . It was inspired by Thunderhawks , an updated story concept by Gerry Anderson and Reg Hill that later served as the basis for Anderson 's Supermacromation series Terrahawks .
Two re @-@ edited series , based on condensed versions of 13 of the original episodes , aired in the US in 1994 . The first , Thunderbirds USA , was broadcast as part of the Fox Kids programming block ; the second , Turbocharged Thunderbirds , was syndicated by UPN . Developed as a comedy , Turbocharged Thunderbirds moved the action to the planet " Thunder @-@ World " and combined the original puppet footage with new live @-@ action scenes featuring a pair of human teenagers .
As well as Thunderhawks , Anderson developed other ideas for a remake . A 1976 concept , Inter @-@ Galactic Rescue 4 , was to have featured a variable @-@ configuration craft capable of performing rescues on land and sea , in air and in space ; Anderson pitched the idea to NBC , who rejected it . This was followed in 1984 by another proposed updating , T @-@ Force , which at first could not be pursued owing to a lack of funding . Development resumed in 1993 , when it was decided to produce the series , now titled GFI , using cel animation . But Anderson was disappointed with the results and the production was abandoned .
In 2005 , Anderson re @-@ affirmed his wish to remake Thunderbirds but stated that he had been unable to secure the necessary rights from Granada Ventures . His negotiations with the company and its successor , ITV plc , continued for the next few years . In 2008 , he expressed his commitment to creating an " updated " version , ideally using CGI ; three years later , he announced that work on the series had commenced . Following Anderson 's death in December 2012 , it was confirmed that a deal had been struck between ITV Studios and Pukeko Pictures to remake Thunderbirds using a combination of CGI and live @-@ action model sets . The new version , Thunderbirds Are Go , has been commissioned for two series of 26 episodes each . The first 13 episodes of Series One were broadcast on ITV HD and CITV between April and June 2015 .
In July 2015 , to celebrate the series ' 50th anniversary , Filmed in Supermarionation documentary director Stephen La Rivière launched a Kickstarter campaign to raise the funds necessary to produce three new puppet episodes based on the Thunderbirds mini @-@ albums of the 1960s . The project , titled " Thunderbirds 1965 " , is supported by ITV , Sylvia Anderson and the estate of Gerry Anderson .
= = Influence = =
Thunderbirds has influenced TV programmes , films and various other media . The puppet comedy of the film Team America : World Police was directly inspired by the idiosyncrasies of Thunderbirds @-@ era Supermarionation techniques . Allusion and homage are also evident in Wallace and Gromit : A Close Shave , Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me and Spaced , as well as the character design of Star Wars : The Clone Wars . The BBC sketch comedy Not Only ... But Also included a segment titled " Superthunderstingcar " – a parody of Thunderbirds , Supercar and Stingray .
IR 's life @-@ saving mission inspired the founding of the volunteer International Rescue Corps , originally made up of a group of British firemen who contributed to the humanitarian effort following the 1980 Irpinia earthquake . Virgin Group has used the series in branding its services : Virgin Atlantic operates a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 airliner named Lady Penelope , while Virgin Trains owns a fleet of locomotives that are all named after main characters and vehicles and used specifically to " rescue " broken @-@ down trains .
A mimed stage show , Thunderbirds : F.A.B. , has toured internationally and popularised a staccato style of movement known colloquially as the " Thunderbirds walk " . The production has periodically been revived as Thunderbirds : F.A.B. – The Next Generation .
Cover versions of " The Thunderbirds March " have been released by musicians and bands such as Billy Cotton , Joe Loss , Frank Sidebottom , The Rezillos and The Shadows . Groups who have written songs inspired by the series include Fuzzbox ( with " International Rescue " ) , TISM ( with " Thunderbirds Are Coming Out " ) , Busted ( with " Thunderbirds / 3AM " ) and V6 ( with " Thunderbirds – Your Voice " ) . In 1991 , Anderson filmed the music video for the Dire Straits single " Calling Elvis " with a collection of Thunderbirds @-@ style puppets .
During the 1960s , APF produced themed TV advertisements for Lyons Maid and Kellogg 's . Aspects of Thunderbirds have since been used in advertising for Swinton Insurance , Nestlé Kit Kat , Specsavers and the UK Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency .
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= T. Arthur Cottam =
T. Arthur Cottam is a screenwriter , actor , producer and film director . A graduate of the Film and Television Production program at the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University , Cottam resides in Los Angeles , California . He acted in theatre , and received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello as a cast member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group . Cottam directed short films along a topical series called " Dirty Little Shorts " .
His existential work Pornographic Apathetic deals with four people recounting pornographic film dialog in a state of apathy . Pornographic Apathetic was featured in numerous movie festivals , and received eight film awards as well as critical acclaim . Cottam 's film Carbuncle was featured in 2006 at the Milano Film Festival in Italy , and was recognized with a nomination in the category of " Best Feature Film " . His 2006 film Filthy Food received the award for " Best Experimental Short Film " at the festival CineKink NYC . Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the 2010 International Short Film Festival in Piombino , Italy , and was featured in AFI FEST in the same year .
= = Education = =
Cottam graduated from the Film and Television Production program at the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University . Cottam 's thesis work at NYU was titled Beer Goggles , the film received the Best Editing award at the First Run Film Festival and was featured at the Chicago and New York Underground Film Festivals . He received a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from NYU in 1998 .
= = Career = =
T. Arthur Cottam is an actor , and film @-@ maker , based in Los Angeles , California . Cottam was a member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group , and performed along with actors Denise Devin and Bernadette Larsen in 2000 in a series of productions titled " Sketches 7 : Bury the Hatchet " , directed by Zombie Joe and Josh T. Ryan . He continued performing in theatre in Los Angeles in 2001 . In 2002 , Cottam received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello put on by the Zombie Joe group . Cottam 's short films were produced along a topical series titled , " Dirty Little Shorts " . His film Pornographic Apathetic debuted in 2002 . The existential plot features four individuals ( two women and two men ) who recreate dialog from pornographic film while in a state of apathy . Pornographic Apathetic garnered eight film awards , and was featured at more than 50 film festivals .
Pornographic Apathetic received positive reception from journalist Gary Dowell of The Dallas Morning News , who described it as " Especially notable ... an experimental work that strips the mystique from porn " . Pornographic Apathetic was selected for inclusion in the Puchon International Fantastic Festival ( PiFan ) in South Korea ; the festival " aims to identify the important elements of fantastic films , such as creativity and popularity " . The movie was shown at the Paris Porn Film Fest at the Le Brady cinema , in Paris , France . The film was featured in an exhibit in Vienna , examining the nature of pornography . Writing for San Antonio Express @-@ News , Mike Greenberg observed , " T. Arthur Cottam 's Pornographic Apathetic is just about the funniest thing I 've ever seen . ( The excellent actors are mostly clothed , never touch each other and are nearly motionless , but the dialogue is not suitable for children or bluenoses . ) " The film was given a favorable review by reporter Robert W. Butler of The Kansas City Star who covered the piece during its presentation at the Kansas City Filmmakers Jubilee . Butler wrote , " Your ears will burn while watching T. Arthur Cottam 's superlative satiric essay on the desensitizing effects of pornography , but you 'll also be laughing . ... It 's lurid . It 's raunchy . It 's vile . But all this nasty lubricity is delivered deadpan , a device that deconstructs the whole intention of porn . " Marc Mohan reviewed the film during its feature at the Portland International Short Short Film Festival , and wrote that it " makes the most of its one @-@ joke premise " . In 2007 , The Orlando Sentinel characterized Cottam as a favorite film @-@ maker at the Florida Film Festival . Los Angeles Times journalist Borzou Daragahi cited the film as an example of problems with the adult film industry in an article about a sexual art exhibit ; he commented , " The piece makes you laugh while illustrating one of the paradoxes of smut : At its core , it 's rather idiotic and boring . "
In 2006 , Cottam 's film Carbuncle competed at the Milano Film Festival , alongside another U.S. film titled The Blood of my Brother by Andrei Berends . Carbuncle received a nomination in the category of " Best Feature Film " at the Milan Film Festival . Cottam 's 2006 film Filthy Food was featured in the San Francisco Underground Short Film Festival , and received the award for " Best Experimental Short Film " at the festival CineKink NYC . In 2010 , Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the International Short Film Festival in Piombino , Italy . It was featured in a section of the International Short Film Festival which included selections of films that were considered " visionary " and contributed a " visual impact " to cinema . 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was featured in AFI FEST 2010 , where Lane Kneedler associate director of programming called it " the most outrageously ' out there ' film that we have scheduled " . In an interview with Girami , Cottam stated he had intended to direct a feature @-@ length film for some time , and wanted to combine his talents with actors who could improvise in front of the camera . Cottam said he had a great experience working with the actors on the film Carbuncle , and stated he let improvisation be the tool by which the actors could show emotions and create their characters . In September 2010 , 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was shown at the Black Rock City Film Festival located at the Burning Man site in the Nevada desert .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Partington =
Partington is a town and civil parish within the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester , England , about ten miles ( 16 km ) to the south @-@ west of Manchester city centre . Historically part of Cheshire , it lies on the southern bank of the Manchester Ship Canal , opposite Cadishead on the northern bank . It has a population of 7 @,@ 327 .
A paper mill built in Partington more than 250 years ago was the first factory in Trafford . The completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 transformed Partington into a major coal @-@ exporting port and attracted a range of other industries . Until 2007 Shell Chemicals UK operated a major petrochemicals manufacturing complex in Carrington , Partington 's closest neighbour , to the east . The gas storage facility in the north @-@ eastern corner of the town was once a gasworks and another significant employer .
Shortly after the Second World War , local authorities made an effort to rehouse people away from Victorian slums in inner @-@ city Manchester . An area of Partington extended as an overspill estate is now one of the most deprived parts of the Greater Manchester conurbation . The Cheshire Lines Committee opened a railway line through the town in 1873 , but it closed in 1964 .
Partington and Carrington Youth Partnership was established to provide the town 's youth with activities and the town has seen investment in a new youth centre . Broadoak School , the only secondary school in the town , is used by Trafford College to provide further education .
= = History = =
Partington , first recorded in 1260 , was in the medieval and post @-@ medieval parish of Bowdon . The name derives from Old English : the first element may be a personal name such as Pearta or Pærta , or part " land divided up into partitions " followed by inga , meaning " people of " ; the suffix tun means " farmstead " . The village consisted of dispersed farmsteads , with no nucleated centre . It was surrounded by wetlands on all sides , reducing the amount of land available for agriculture . According to the hearth tax returns of 1664 , Partington had a population of 99 .
In 1755 a paper mill on the River Mersey was opened in Partington , the first factory to be established in present @-@ day Trafford . Erlam Farmhouse dates from the late 18th century and is a Grade II listed building . Also protected as a Grade II listed building are the stocks on the village green . Its stone pillars are from the 18th century , although the wooden restraints were replaced in the 20th century .
The completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 transformed Partington into a major coal @-@ exporting port . The canal was widened to 250 feet ( 76 m ) for three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) to allow for the construction of a coaling basin , equipped with four hydraulic coal hoists . Partington was the nearest port to the Lancashire Coalfields , and brought the south Yorkshire collieries 30 miles ( 48 km ) closer to the sea . Between 1898 – 1911 , exports of coal accounted for 53 @.@ 4 per cent of the total export tonnage carried by the ship canal . The coal trade in turn resulted in Partington becoming a major railway depot , and attracted a range of other industries , including the Partington Steel & Iron Company , which was encouraged by the availability of coal to construct a steelworks . The works became a part of the Lancashire Steel Corporation in 1930 , and dominated the economy of nearby Irlam until their closure in 1976 . After the Second World War , Partington was extended as an overspill estate .
= = Governance = =
The civil parish of Partington was created in 1894 , under the Local Government Act 1894 and has its own town council . Partington became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in 1974 upon the borough 's creation , but was previously in Bucklow Rural District . The town is part of the Bucklow St Martin electoral ward ; Partington Parish Council is made up of local residents and ward councillors .
Partington also belongs to the Stretford and Urmston constituency and is part of the North West England constituency of the European Parliament . Since its creation in 1997 the constituency 's Member of Parliament has been a member of the Labour Party , Kate Green being the present incumbent .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 25 ′ 12 ″ N 2 ° 25 ′ 48 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 42 , − 2 @.@ 43 ) , Partington lies west of Sale , north @-@ east of the civil parish of Warburton , and is on Trafford 's northern border with the City of Salford . It is nine miles ( 14 km ) south @-@ west of Manchester city centre . Sinderland Brook runs east – west through the area , and the town is about 20 m ( 66 ft ) above sea level on generally flat ground .
Partington 's local drift geology is a mixture of alluvial deposits , fluvio @-@ glacial gravel , and peat deposited about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last ice age . The bedrock is Keuper sandstone in the south and Bunter sandstone in the north . The town 's climate is generally temperate , like the rest of Greater Manchester . The mean highest and lowest temperatures ( 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) and 6 @.@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.@ 5 ° F ) ) are slightly above the national average , while the annual rainfall ( 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) ) and average hours of sunshine ( 1394 @.@ 5 hours ) are respectively above and below the national averages .
= = Demography = =
According to the Office for National Statistics , at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Partington had a population of 7 @,@ 723 . The 2001 population density was 5 @,@ 348 inhabitants per square mile ( 2 @,@ 065 / km2 ) , with a 100 to 93 @.@ 1 female @-@ to @-@ male ratio . Of those over 16 years old , 34 @.@ 7 % were single ( never married ) , 34 @.@ 9 % married , and 10 @.@ 5 % divorced . Partington 's 3 @,@ 354 households included 33 @.@ 5 % one @-@ person , 28 @.@ 7 % married couples living together , 8 @.@ 8 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 16 @.@ 3 % single parents with their children . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 38 @.@ 9 % had no academic qualifications , significantly higher than the averages of Trafford ( 24 @.@ 7 % ) and England ( 28 @.@ 9 % ) . It has been described as one of the most deprived places in the Greater Manchester conurbation .
As of the 2001 UK census , 76 @.@ 8 % of Partington 's residents reported themselves as being Christian , 0 @.@ 8 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 % Jewish , and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . The census recorded 14 @.@ 7 % as having no religion , 0 @.@ 1 % had an alternative religion and 7 @.@ 1 % did not state their religion .
= = Economy = =
The main shopping area of Partington is on Central Road , in the centre of town . Partington also has a traditional market on Smithy Lane .
Spanish company , SAICA , bought a lease on a disused wharfside site by the Manchester Ship Canal in 2009 to recycle paper into packaging . The plant is the most " advanced , fully integrated facility in the UK " . It uses water recycled from the ship canal and its heat and power plant supplies surplus power to the national grid . The plant cost £ 300 million and production started in January 2012 .
According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents aged 16 – 74 was 19 @.@ 3 % retail and wholesale , 15 @.@ 0 % manufacturing , 14 @.@ 7 % property and business services , 10 @.@ 8 % health and social work , 9 @.@ 1 % transport and communications , 7 @.@ 2 % construction , 5 @.@ 2 % education , 4 @.@ 8 % hotels and restaurants , 3 @.@ 8 % finance , 3 @.@ 1 % public administration , 1 @.@ 3 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 7 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 1 % mining , and 4 @.@ 9 % other . Compared with national figures , Partington had a relatively high percentage of residents working in transport and communications , and a relatively low percentage working in public administration . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 1 @.@ 8 % students were with jobs , 3 @.@ 4 % students without jobs , 7 @.@ 7 % looking after home or family , 10 @.@ 6 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons . The proportion of those who were permanently sick or disabled in Partington was above the Trafford and England average ( 5 @.@ 4 % and 6 @.@ 5 % respectively ) .
= = Education = =
Trafford maintains a selective education system assessed by the Eleven Plus exam . There are three primary schools and one secondary school in Partington . The oldest school still standing in the town was opened in 1958 and used to be called Partington County Primary School . There is one other state primary schools at Forest Gate with Academy status . There is also a Roman Catholic school – Our Lady of Lourdes Primary School on Lock Lane . Broadoak School is a secondary school with academy status for pupils aged 11 to 16 .
= = Transport = =
Partington 's main road is the A6144 between Lymm and the Brooklands area of Sale . The Manchester Ship Canal also carries some industrial traffic . The nearest road crossing over the canal is at Warburton Bridge , one of the few remaining pre @-@ motorway toll bridges in the UK , and the only one in Greater Manchester . The Department for Transport describes Partington as " geographically isolated with road access restricted by the proximity of the Manchester Ship Canal and the nearby petrochemical works [ in Carrington ] " and notes that there are low levels of car ownership . The 255 operates every 30 minutes during the day , and hourly after 1955 into Manchester Piccadilly 7 days a week
The town was served by a railway station to the north of the town , the Cheshire Lines Committee Glazebrook to Stockport Tiviot Dale Line . The station was opened in 1873 , eight years after the line opened , and was in use until 30 November 1964 . A grant of £ 312 @,@ 000 was made by the government to set up Partington Cooperative Transport ( PACT ) with the purpose of improving public transport in the town .
= = Amenities = =
Founded in 2003 as part of a government project for 11- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds , Partington and Carrington Youth Partnership ( PCYP ) has since expanded its scope and provides facilities for youths up to the age of 25 . It runs a 5 @-@ a @-@ side football league and Screamin ' Wheels Skate Park . In 2009 it was announced that a £ 5 million youth centre would be built in the town . Based on designs by pupils from Broadoak Secondary School , the centre will provide facilities for workshops in dance , film @-@ making , and art . Headmaster of the school , Andy Griffin , said " It 's a massive thing for Partington as this will help kick @-@ start regeneration of the town . I think it will also help bring people to Partington rather than leaving " .
Providing opportunities for sport , a £ 2 million sports complex was opened next to Broadoak Secondary School in 2008 . It features a pool , a sports hall , outdoor pitches and grass courts , and facilities for other activities . The town is served by an Anglican church , St Mary 's , a Roman Catholic church dedicated to Our Lady of Lourdes , a Methodist chapel , and a Baptist church called the People 's Church . St Mary 's Church is a Grade II listed building , and Our Lady of Lourdes ' RC Church and parish was founded in 1957 . Partington is in the Catholic Dioceses of Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury and the Anglican Diocese of Chester .
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= Key ( basketball ) =
The key , officially referred to as the free throw lane by the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) , the restricted area by the international governing body FIBA , and colloquially as the lane or the paint , is an area on a basketball court underneath the basket bounded by the endline , the foul line and other lines which are known as freebody lines , that are usually painted ( although unpainted on some courts with painted perimeters ) . It is a critical area on the court where much of the action takes place in a game .
The key , in all games , starting with FIBA 's amendments to its rules in 2010 ( to be first implemented after the 2010 FIBA World Championship ) , is rectangular . Prior to 2006 , the key in FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments ( mostly basketball played outside the United States , and almost all international tournaments including the World Championships and the Olympics ) was trapezoidal in shape . Both NBA and FIBA keys are 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wide , while NCAA keys are narrower at 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) .
The most @-@ commonly enforced rule on the key is the " three seconds rule " in which a player from the offensive team is prohibited from staying on the key for more than three seconds , or else the player 's team will lose possession of the ball . Another rule enforced is the lane violation in which players from both teams are prohibited to enter the lane until after the free throw shooter releases the ball from his hands ( the shooter is prohibited to enter the key until after the ball hits the rim ) . An innovation is the introduction of the restricted area arc directly underneath the basket where the defending player cannot force an offensive foul on the opposing player .
= = Dimensions = =
Each level of play has different specifications for the size and shape of the key : in American leagues , where the basketball court is measured in imperial units , the shape is rectangular , while in FIBA @-@ sanctioned events , which use the metric system , the shape was trapezoidal , before being changed to a rectangle as well . In addition to the bounding rectangle , the key includes a free @-@ throw circle at its " head " or " top " .
The width of the key in the NBA is 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , including the 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) wide foul lanes ; in U.S. college ( NCAA ) and high @-@ school play , it is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) .
Beginning after the 2010 FIBA World Championship , all FIBA @-@ administered tournaments use a rectangular key 4 @.@ 9 meters ( 16 ft ) wide . From 1956 until 2010 , FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments used a trapezoidal key . The narrower end was on the free @-@ throw line , where it was 3 @.@ 6 meters ( 12 ft ) , while the wider end , at the end line , measured 6 meters ( 20 ft ) .
The free throw circle has a six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) radius and is centered at the midpoint of the free throw line ; the half of those circle on the mid @-@ court side of the free throw line is painted in solid lines . In the NBA and ULEB , the boundaries of the half closer to the basket is traced in a broken line in order to space players properly for jump balls . NBA Rule 1 ( g ) requires the key to contain two 6 inches ( 15 cm ) long hash marks , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) from the free throw line ; the marks indicate the so @-@ called lower defensive box . The free @-@ throw line is 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) from the perpendicular projection of the face of the backboard onto the court ; this projection is 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) from the end @-@ line for NBA and NCAA . The projection of the center of the basket onto the court is a perpendicular distance of 1 @.@ 575 meters ( 5 @.@ 17 ft ) from the end line in FIBA tournaments , but 4 @.@ 75 feet ( 1 @.@ 45 m ) in NBA and NCAA tournaments .
= = History = =
Originally , the key was narrower than it is today and had the shape of a skeleton / basic lever lock keyhole , measuring six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide , hence " the key " , with the free throw circle as the head , and the shaded lane as the body . Due to the narrowness of the key , imposing centers , such as George Mikan , dominated the paint , scoring at will . To counter this , the key was widened into 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) from 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at the onset of the 1951 – 52 NBA season .
Men 's professional basketball in the United States ( notably the National Basketball Association ) widened it further to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) in the 1964 – 65 NBA season to lessen the effectiveness of centers , especially Wilt Chamberlain . The NCAA retains the 12 feet key to this day .
On April 25 , 2008 , the FIBA Central Board approved rule changes that included the changes in the shape of the key ; the key is now rectangular and has virtually the same dimensions as the key used in the NBA . In addition , the no @-@ charge semicircles formally called the restricted area arc was also created .
= = Rules = =
= = = Three @-@ second violation = = =
The lane is a restricted area in which players can stay for only a limited amount of time . On all levels , a team on the offensive ( in possession of the ball ) is prohibited to stay inside the lane for more than three seconds ; after three seconds the player will be called with a three @-@ second violation which will result in a turnover .
In American professional basketball , the defending team is also prohibited from staying in the key for more than three seconds , unless a player is directly guarding an offensive player . If a player surpasses that time , his / her team will be charged with a defensive three @-@ second violation , which will result in a technical foul where the team with the ball shoots one free throw plus ball possession and a reset of the shot clock . In FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments , on the other hand , the defending team is allowed to stay on the key for an unlimited amount of time . In all cases , the count resets if the shot hits the rim or if the player steps out of the lane .
= = = Lane violation = = =
When a player is shooting free throws , there are a certain number of players at the boundaries of the key , each occupying a slot traced at the boundaries of the key . In most cases , the free throw shooter is behind the free throw line , while three of his opponents are along the sides of the key , one side with two players , the other with one . Two of his opponents are situated nearest to the basket on both sides , while his two teammates are beside the two opponents closest to the basket , with the other player from the opposing team situated farthest from the basket . In the U.S. NCAA , there are as many as six players along the key , with the opposing team allowed to have as many as four players , with the same arrangement as in the NBA and FIBA but with another player facing his teammate farthest to the basket . ( See photographs to the right . )
No player along the lane may enter the key until the shot is released ; the player shooting the free throw , and anyone on top of the key , should not pass the free throw line until the ball hits the rim . If any of the offensive players violate the rule , no points are awarded for the shot and , if there are no more shots remaining , the ball is given to the defending team . If a defending player is in the lane too soon , an extra shot will be awarded regardless of whether the shot was made or missed .
Note that in FIBA play , if the shooter commits the violation , it is an automatic turnover . If the shot is successful and the shooter does not commit a violation , but other players do commit a violation , all violations are discarded . If players from the opposing teams enter the key prior to the release of the ball , a jump ball would be done to determine who gets the possession of the ball ( NBA ) or the possession arrow rule ( for all other levels ) ; in FIBA play , that only applies if the shooter misses , since a successful attempt negates all other penalties . In all situations , lane violation penalties cannot occur if there are further free throws to be awarded .
= = = Restricted area arc = = =
In the NBA , Euroleague , and starting in 2010 , in FIBA and NCAA play , the key has an additional area , measured as an arc three feet from the basket ( collegiate ) , four feet from the basket ( NBA ) , or 1 @.@ 25 meters ( approximately 4 @.@ 1 feet ) ( FIBA ) . The area is officially known as the " restricted area " ( RA ) in the NBA , the " restricted area arc " in the NCAA and the " no @-@ charge semicircles " in FIBA .
Its purpose is to stop secondary defenders from taking a position under the basket in an attempt to draw the offensive foul when a player is driving to the basket . If an offensive player drives past his primary defender on the way to the basket and a secondary defender comes over , he must establish a legal position outside the RA to draw an offensive foul . If the drive starts inside the Lower Defensive Box ( LDB – this is the area from the bottom tip of the free throw circle to the end line between the two 3 ’ posted @-@ up marks ) , the secondary defender is legally allowed to be positioned inside the RA . The restricted area also does not apply if the secondary defender jumps in attempting to block the shot , the offensive player leads with his leg or knee in an unnatural motion or uses his off arm to prevent the defender from blocking his shot . The RA does not extend from below the backboard to the baseline . Therefore , if a player drives the baseline and is not attempting to go directly to the rim , the RA does not apply .
The restricted area arc rule was implemented in NCAA men 's basketball for the 2010 – 2011 season . The NCAA approved adding a visible restricted @-@ area arc three feet from the center of the basket in Division I men ’ s and women ’ s games for 2011 – 2012 season . The panel delayed implementation of the arc until the 2012 @-@ 13 season for Divisions II and III to allow those schools time to plan and place the restricted @-@ area arc in their home arenas . Starting with the 2015 @-@ 2016 season , the NCAA raised the RA arc to four feet from the center of the basket .
= = Terms = =
Points made on the key are termed as points in the paint or inside points . Historically , the area of the key where offensive players are prohibited from remaining longer than three seconds has been painted to distinguish the area from the rest of the court ; hence the phrase " points in the paint . " The area around the free throw circle 's farthest point from the basket is called the " top of the key " , and several plays revolve around this area , such as screens and pick and rolls . In American women 's collegiate basketball ( and for men until 2008 ) , the three @-@ point arc intersects at the top of the key , which could translate plays conducted in this area into three @-@ point field goal conversions .
The intersection of the free throw line and the free throw lane is referred to as the elbow of the key .
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= The General in His Labyrinth =
The General in His Labyrinth ( original Spanish title : El general en su laberinto ) is a novel by the Colombian writer and Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez . It is a fictionalized account of the last days of Simón Bolívar , liberator and leader of Gran Colombia . First published in 1989 , the book traces Bolívar 's final journey from Bogotá to the Caribbean coastline of Colombia in his attempt to leave South America for exile in Europe . In this dictator novel about a continental hero , " despair , sickness , and death inevitably win out over love , health , and life " . Breaking with the traditional heroic portrayal of Bolívar El Libertador , García Márquez depicts a pathetic protagonist , a prematurely aged man who is physically ill and mentally exhausted . The story explores the labyrinth of Bolívar 's life through the narrative of his memories .
Following the success of others of his works such as One Hundred Years of Solitude and Love in the Time of Cholera , García Márquez decided to write about the " Great Liberator " after reading an unfinished novel about Bolívar by his friend Álvaro Mutis . He borrowed the setting — Bolívar 's voyage down the Magdalena River in 1830 — from Mutis . After two years of research that encompassed the extensive memoirs of Bolívar 's Irish aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Daniel Florencio O 'Leary , as well as numerous other historical documents and consultations with academics , García Márquez published his novel about the last seven months of Bolívar 's life .
Its mixture of genres makes The General in His Labyrinth difficult to classify , and commentators disagree over where it lies on the scale between novel and historical account . García Márquez 's insertion of interpretive and fictionalized elements — some dealing with Bolívar 's most intimate moments — caused outrage in parts of Latin America when the book was released . Many prominent Latin American figures believed that the novel damaged the reputation of one of the region 's most important historic figures and portrayed a negative image to the outside world . Others saw The General in His Labyrinth as a tonic for Latin American culture and a challenge to the region to deal with its problems .
= = Background = =
The initial idea to write a book about Simón Bolívar came to García Márquez through his friend and fellow Colombian writer Álvaro Mutis , to whom the book is dedicated . Mutis had started writing a book called El Último Rostro about Bolívar 's final voyage along the Magdalena River , but never finished it . At the time , García Márquez was interested in writing about the Magdalena River because he knew the area intimately from his childhood . Two years after reading El Último Rostro , García Márquez asked Mutis for his permission to write a book on Bolívar 's last voyage .
García Márquez believed that most of the information available on Bolívar was one @-@ dimensional : " No one ever said in Bolívar 's biographies that he sang or that he was constipated ... but historians don 't say these things because they think they are not important . " In the epilogue to the novel , García Márquez writes that he researched the book for two years ; the task was difficult , both because of his lack of experience in conducting historical research , and the lack of documentary evidence for the events of the final period of Bolívar 's life .
García Márquez researched a wide variety of historical documents , including Bolívar 's letters , 19th @-@ century newspapers , and Daniel Florencio O 'Leary 's 34 volumes of memoirs . He engaged the help of various experts , among them geographer Gladstone Oliva ; historian and fellow Colombian Eugenio Gutiérrez Celys , who had co @-@ written a book called Bolívar Día a Día with historian Fabio Puyo ; and astronomer Jorge Perezdoval — García Márquez used an inventory drawn up by Perezdoval to describe which nights Bolívar spent under a full moon . García Márquez also worked closely with Antonio Bolívar Goyanes , a distant relative of Bolívar , during the extensive editing of the book .
= = = Historical context = = =
The novel is set in 1830 , at the tail end of the initial campaign to secure Latin America 's independence from Spain . Most of Spanish America had gained independence by this date ; only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule .
Within a few decades of Christopher Columbus 's landing on the coast of what is now Venezuela in 1498 , South America had been effectively conquered by Spain and Portugal . By the beginning of the 19th century , several factors affected Spain 's control over its colonies : Napoleon 's invasion of Spain in 1808 , the abdication of Charles IV , Ferdinand VII 's renouncement of his right to succeed , and the placement of Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne . The colonies were virtually cut off from Spain , and the American and French Revolutions inspired many creoles — American @-@ born descendants of Spanish settlers — to take advantage of Spanish weakness . As a result , Latin America was run by independent juntas and colonial self @-@ governments .
The early 19th century saw the first attempts at securing liberation from Spain , which were led in northern South America by Bolívar . He and the independence movements won numerous battles in Venezuela , New Granada and present @-@ day Ecuador and Peru . His dream of uniting the Spanish American nations under one central government was almost achieved . However , shortly after the South American colonies became independent of Spain , problems developed in the capitals , and civil wars were sparked in some provinces ; Bolívar lost many of his supporters and fell ill . Opposition to his presidency continued to increase , and in 1830 , after 11 years of rule , he resigned as president of Gran Colombia .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is written in the third @-@ person with flashbacks to specific events in the life of Simón Bolívar , " the General " . It begins on May 8 , 1830 in Santa Fe de Bogotá . The General is preparing for his journey towards the port of Cartagena de Indias , intending to leave Colombia for Europe . Following his resignation as President of Gran Colombia , the people of the lands he liberated have now turned against him , scrawling anti @-@ Bolívar graffiti and throwing waste at him . The General is anxious to move on , but has to remind the Vice @-@ President @-@ elect , General Domingo Caycedo , that he has yet to receive a valid passport to leave the country . The General leaves Bogotá with the few officials still faithful to him , including his confidante and aide @-@ de @-@ camp , José Palacios . At the end of the first chapter , the General is referred to by his full title , General Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios , for the only time in the novel .
On the first night of the voyage , the General stays at Facatativá with his entourage , which consists of José Palacios , five aides @-@ de @-@ camp , his clerks , and his dogs . Here , as throughout the journey that follows , the General 's loss of prestige is evident ; the downturn in his fortunes surprises even the General himself . His unidentified illness has led to his physical deterioration , which makes him unrecognizable , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp is constantly mistaken for the Liberator .
After many delays , the General and his party arrive in Honda , where the Governor , Posada Gutiérrez , has arranged for three days of fiestas . On his last night in Honda , the General returns late to camp and finds one of his old friends , Miranda Lyndsay , waiting for him . The General recalls that fifteen years ago , she had learned of a plot against his life and had saved him . The following morning , the General begins the voyage down the Magdalena River . Both his physical debilitation and pride are evident as he negotiates the slope to the dock : he is in need of a sedan chair but refuses to use it . The group stays a night in Puerto Real , where the General claims he sees a woman singing during the night . His aides @-@ de @-@ camp and the watchman conduct a search , but they fail to uncover any sign of a woman having been in the vicinity .
The General and his entourage arrive at the port of Mompox . Here they are stopped by police , who fail to recognize the General . They ask for his passport , but he is unable to produce one . Eventually , the police discover his identity and escort him into the port . The people still believe him to be the President of Gran Colombia and prepare banquets in his honor ; but these festivities are wasted on him due to his lack of strength and appetite . After several days , the General and his entourage set off for Turbaco .
The group spend a sleepless night in Barranca Nueva before they arrive in Turbaco . Their original plan was to continue to Cartagena the following day , but the General is informed that there is no available ship bound for Europe from the port and that his passport still has not arrived . While staying in the town , he receives a visit from General Mariano Montilla and a few other friends . The deterioration of his health becomes increasingly evident — one of his visitors describes his face as that of a dead man . In Turbaco , the General is joined by General Daniel Florencio O 'Leary and receives news of ongoing political machinations : Joaquín Mosquera , appointed successor as President of Gran Colombia , has assumed power but his legitimacy is still contested by General Rafael Urdaneta . The General recalls that his " dream began to fall apart on the very day it was realized " .
The General finally receives his passport , and two days later he sets off with his entourage for Cartagena and the coast , where more receptions are held in his honor . Throughout this time , he is surrounded by women but is too weak to engage in sexual relations . The General is deeply affected when he hears that his good friend and preferred successor for the presidency , Field Marshal Sucre , has been ambushed and assassinated .
The General is now told by one of his aides @-@ de @-@ camp that General Rafael Urdaneta has taken over the government in Bogotá , and there are reports of demonstrations and riots in support of a return to power by Bolívar . The General 's group travel to the town of Soledad , where he stays for more than a month , his health declining further . In Soledad , the General agrees to see a physician for the first time .
The General never leaves South America . He finishes his journey in Santa Marta , too weak to continue and with only his doctor and his closest aides by his side . He dies in poverty , a shadow of the man who liberated much of the continent .
= = Characters = =
= = = The General = = =
The leading character in the novel is " the General " , also called " the Liberator " . García Márquez only once names his protagonist as Simón Bolívar , the famous historical figure , whose full title was General Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios , on whom the General 's character is based . The novel 's portrait of a national and Latin American hero , which challenges the historical record , provoked outrage in some quarters on its publication .
At the beginning of the novel , the General is 46 years old and slowly dying on his last journey to the port of Cartagena de Indias , where he plans to set sail for Europe . As Palencia @-@ Roth notes , " Bolívar is cast here not only as a victim but as an agent of Latin America 's tragic political flaws " . The fortunes of the historical Simón Bolívar began to decline in 1824 after the victory of his general Antonio José de Sucre at Ayacucho . The novel draws on the fact that the historical Bolívar never remarried after the death of his wife , María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alayza . García Márquez uses other documented facts as starting points for his fictional portrait of Bolívar – for example , his dedication to the army above all else , his premature aging , and his bad temper . Of the latter , Bolívar 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp O 'Leary once remarked that " his imperious and impatient temperament would never tolerate the smallest delay in the execution of an order " .
In an interview with María Elvira Samper , García Márquez has admitted that his portrayal of Bolívar is partly a self @-@ portrait . He identifies with Bolívar in many ways , since their method of controlling their anger is the same and their philosophical views are similar : neither " pays much attention to death , because that distracts one from the most important thing : what one does in life " .
= = = José Palacios = = =
The novel begins with the name of José Palacios , who , here as with the historical figure of the same name , is Bolívar 's " long @-@ serving mayordomo " . As literary critic Seymour Menton observes , Palacios 's " total identification with Bolívar constitutes the novel 's frame " . Palacios constantly waits on the General , and at certain times he alone is allowed in the General 's room . He has learned to live with his master 's unpredictability and does not presume to read his thoughts . Born a slave , the character is six years younger than the General , and has spent his entire life in his service . Throughout the novel , Palacios provides the General with clarifications or reminders of dates and events during the General 's time of disillusion . According to one critic , Palacios 's ability to recall past events in Bolívar 's life is essential for García Márquez 's recreation of the character , as it allows the Bolívar of official history to be placed within the context of everyday life .
= = = Manuela Sáenz = = =
Manuela Sáenz is the General 's long @-@ time lover , his last since the death of his wife , 27 years earlier . Her character is based on Simón Bolívar 's historical mistress Doña Manuela Sáenz de Thorne , whom Bolívar dubbed " the liberator of the liberator " after she helped save him from an assassination attempt on the night of September 25 , 1828 . García Márquez 's fictional portrait stimulated a reassessment of this historical figure , who is increasingly seen , according to Venezuelan historian Denzil Romero , " not just as a mistress but as the intelligent , independent , forceful woman she was " . In the novel , she is described as " the bold Quiteña who loved him but was not going to follow him to his death " . The General leaves Manuela Sáenz behind , but throughout the novel he writes to her on his journey . She also attempts to write letters to him with news of the political situation , but the mail carriers have been instructed not to accept her letters . Like the historical figure on whom she is based , the fictional Manuela Sáenz is married to Dr. James Thorne , an English physician twice her age . The historical Manuela Sáenz left Thorne after Bolívar wrote declaring his undying love for her . In the novel she is characterized as astute and indomitable , with " irresistible grace , a sense of power , and unbounded tenacity " .
= = = General Francisco de Paula Santander = = =
As he reflects on the past , the General often thinks and dreams about his former friend Francisco de Paula Santander . The historical Francisco de Paula Santander was a friend of Simón Bolívar , but was later accused of complicity in a plot to assassinate him and sent into exile . In the novel , the General remembers that he had once appointed Santander to govern Colombia because he believed him to be an effective and brave soldier . He formerly regarded Santander as " his other self , and perhaps his better self " , but by the time of the events in The General in His Labyrinth Santander has become the General 's enemy and has been banished to Paris after his involvement in the assassination attempt . The General is depicted as tormented by the idea that Santander will return from his exile in France ; he dreams , for example , that Santander is eating the pages of a book , that he is covered in cockroaches , and that he is plucking out his own eyeballs .
= = = Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre = = =
Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre is portrayed as an intimate friend of the General . The historical Antonio José de Sucre , the Field Marshal of Ayacucho , had been the most trusted general of Simón Bolívar . García Márquez describes him as " intelligent , methodical , shy , and superstitious " . The Field Marshal is married to and has a daughter with Doña Mariana Carcelén . In the first chapter of the novel , the General asks Sucre to succeed him as President of the Republic , but he rejects the idea . One of the reasons Sucre gives is that he wishes only to live his life for his family . Also at the beginning of the novel , Sucre 's death is foreshadowed . Sucre tells the General that he plans on celebrating the Feast of Saint Anthony in Quito with his family . When the General hears that Sucre has been assassinated in Berruecos on his way back to Quito , he vomits blood .
= = = Minor characters = = =
The novel revolves around the fictionalized figure of Bolívar and includes many minor characters who are part of the General 's travelling party , whom he meets on his journey or who come to him in his memories and dreams of his past . Sometimes they are identified by particular quirks or tied to small but significant events . They include , for instance , General José María Carreño , a member of the entourage , whose right arm was amputated after a combat wound , and who once revealed a military secret by talking in his sleep . At other times , they are prostheses for the General 's now failing powers : Fernando , for example , the General 's nephew , is " the most willing and patient of the General 's many clerks " , and the General wakes him " at any hour to have him read aloud from a dull book or take notes on urgent extemporizations " . One of the least developed of the minor characters is the General 's wife , María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alayza , who had died , readers are told , in mysterious circumstances shortly after their marriage . The General has " buried her at the bottom of a water @-@ tight oblivion as a brutal means of living without her " ; she only fleetingly enters his memories in the book 's last chapter . According to Menton , she is " upstaged " by Manuela Sáenz , whose later history García Márquez recounts as if she instead were the General 's widow . María Teresa 's death , however , marked the General 's " birth into history " , and he has never tried to replace her .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Politics = = =
In The General in His Labyrinth , García Márquez voices his political views through the character of the General . For example , Alvarez Borland points out that in the scene where the General responds to the French diplomat , his words closely reflect García Márquez 's 1982 Nobel Address . The diplomat is critical of the barbarism in Latin America and the brutal means used in attempting to achieve independence . Bolívar replies by pointing out that Europe had centuries to progress to its current state , and that South America should be left to experience its " Middle Ages in peace " . Similarly García Márquez remarks in his Nobel Speech that " venerable Europe would perhaps be more perceptive if it tried to see Latin America in its own past . If only it recalled that London took three hundred years to build its first city wall ... " .
The novel was published in 1989 , when the Soviet Union was disintegrating and the political map was being radically redrawn . Reviewing The General in His Labyrinth in 1990 , the novelist Margaret Atwood pointed to another instance of García Márquez raising political issues through the character of the General . He has him tell his aide that the United States is " omnipotent and terrible , and that its tale of liberty will end in a plague of miseries for us all " . Atwood noted the contemporary relevance of this sentiment , since " the patterns of Latin American politics , and of United States intervention in them , have not changed much in 160 years . " She suggested that García Márquez 's fictionalization of Bolívar is a lesson " for our own turbulent age ... Revolutions have a long history of eating their progenitors . " The central character is a man at the end of his life , who has seen his revolution and dream of a united Latin America fail .
= = = Figural labyrinth = = =
According to literary critic David Danow , the labyrinth of the novel 's title refers to " a series of labyrinths that are contingent upon matters of history , geography , and biography ... that consistently and conclusively result in a dead end " — in this case , the General 's own death . His final voyage along the Magdalena River involves a doubling back and forth from one location to another that leads him and his followers nowhere . The labyrinth does not lead to happiness ; instead , it results in madness from constant pondering on the past and an impossible future . At the end of his life , the General is reduced to a spectre of his former self . The labyrinth also recalls the labyrinth built to imprison the minotaur in Greek mythology , and the endless travelling and searching of ancient Greek heroes . In Danow 's view , " The Labyrinth mirrors the wanderings and travails of the hero in search for meaning and resolution to the vicissitudes of life " .
García Márquez depicts the General 's body itself as a labyrinth . His doctor observes that " everything that enters the body , adds weight , and everything that leaves it is debased . " The General 's body is described as a " labyrinth coming to a literal dead end " . The labyrinth is also expressed in geographical and architectural imagery . The country 's destiny is imagined as a break @-@ up , a folding of north into south . The seas offer the hope of a new life and a new world , but the closer the General is to Colombia , the less chance he has of moving on . García Márquez describes buildings as " daunting , reverberating ( if not exactly reiterating ) with the echoes of a bloody past " . The portrayal of the General 's world as a labyrinth is underlined by his constant return to cities and towns he has visited before : each location belongs to the past as well as to the present . The General in his Labyrinth blurs the lines between perdition in a man @-@ made world and wandering in the natural world .
= = = Fate and love = = =
Bolívar 's fate is known from the beginning , and García Márquez constantly uses images which foreshadow this ending . For instance , a clock stuck at seven minutes past one , the exact time of the General 's death , appears repeatedly in the novel . This sense of fate is introduced in the epigraph , which comes from a letter written by the historical Bolívar to General Santander on August 4 , 1823 : " It seems that the devil controls the business of my life . " As Palencia @-@ Roth points out , the word used for devil here is demonio rather than the more familiar diablo . Demonio derives from the Greek word daimon , which can equally mean divine power , fate , or destiny . Accordingly , the General succumbs to his fate and accepts his death as destiny .
The theme of love is central to the novel . Bolívar had a reputation as a womanizer , and books have been written on his philandering ; but as depicted in this novel , during the last seven months of his life , the General could no longer engage in the activities that had fueled that reputation . García Márquez mentions a woman every few pages , many of whom are his own invention , exploring love through the General 's memories . Palencia @-@ Roth notes that the presence of these women " allows a labyrinthine exploration of his life before his final journey " and suggests that García Márquez uses love as a barometer of the General 's heart and health . Although Bolívar is usually thought to have died from tuberculosis , Palencia @-@ Roth believes that for the author , the General dies from the lack of love . " Despised by many of his countrymen , abandoned by all but a few aides and associates , left — during the final seven months of his life — without even the companionship of his longtime mistress Manuela Saenz , Bolívar had no choice but to die of a broken heart . "
= = = Numbers and religious symbols = = =
Numbers are an important symbolic aspect of the novel . The book is divided into eight chapters , almost all of equal length , which represent the eight @-@ year love affair between the General and Manuela Sáenz . The General 's last hours are marked by an octagonal clock . Allusions to the number three are even more common in the novel . As García Márquez scholar Isabel Rodríguez Vergara notes , the number three — the Trinity which occupies a vital place in the symbology of the Catholic Mass — is repeated 21 times throughout the book . She quotes Mircea Eliade : " In the novel it represents a symbolic sacrifice aimed at redeeming humankind — that of Bolívar , a misunderstood redeemer sacrificed by his own people . "
Rodríguez Vergara observes that the General is like a supernatural being , simultaneously dying and being surrounded by symbolic circumstances such as rain , fiestas , and the plague . The novel begins with Bolívar immersed in purifying waters , in a state of ecstasy and meditation that suggests a priestly ritual . One of the women with whom the General sleeps , Queen Marie Louise , is described as a virgin with the profile of an idol — an allusion to the Virgin Mary . The General rides a mule into the last towns on his journey towards death , echoing Christ 's entry into Jerusalem . He dies of mysterious and unknown causes , and the people burn his belongings in fear of catching his illness . In Rodríguez Vergara 's view , " Bolívar was sacrificed as a scapegoat to purge the guilt of the community . "
René Girard has interpreted the recurrence of rain in the novel as one of the purifying rituals the community must undergo in order to wash away the contagion of violence . The fiestas may represent another ritual of purification and also symbolize war . Fiestas are held to honour the General when he arrives at a town , but at other times , political demonstrations against the General are mistaken for a fiesta . According to Rodríguez Vergara , this shows how " information is manipulated " and " depicts an atmosphere where fiesta and war are synonymous " .
= = = Melancholy and mourning = = =
Latin American cultural theorist Carlos J. Alonso , drawing on Freudian theory , argues that the novel is essentially a therapeutic device , designed to help move Latin America past its problematic experience of modernity . He compares this to the way the healing state of mourning replaces grief in the process of recovering from a death . Both activities are mechanisms for dealing with loss . Alonso believes that The General in his Labyrinth , by almost entirely centering the novel on the General 's death , forces the reader to confront the horror of this process . In Alonso 's view , the reader is meant to pass from " a melancholy relationship vis @-@ a @-@ vis the figure of Bolívar to a relationship that has the therapeutic qualities of mourning instead " .
Latin America 's history and culture , Alonso suggests , began with the loss of Bolívar 's dream of a united continent and as a result has developed under a melancholy shadow ever since . Thus , by forcing the reader to return to the origin of modernity in Latin America and confront its death in the most horrific way , García Márquez compels the reader to move from melancholy to mourning , " so that the phantom of the lost object of modernity may cease to rule the libidinal economy of Spanish American cultural discourse and historical life " .
= = = Challenging history = = =
García Márquez comments on the nature of historical fact by drawing attention to the way history is written . The novel recreates a time in Bolívar 's life that has no historical precedent , as there is no record of the last 14 days of his life . In García Márquez 's account readers observe Bolívar intimately , seeing his human qualities . In the view of critic Isabel Alvarez Borland , by choosing to fictionalize a national hero in this way , García Márquez is challenging the claim of official history to represent the truth . In the " My Thanks " section of the novel , García Márquez asserts ironically that what he is writing is more historical than fictional , and he discusses his own historical methodology in detail . By posing in the role of a historian , he challenges the reliability of written history from within the writing process . According to Alvarez Borland , this serves to " remind us that a claim to truth is not the property of any text ; rather it is the result of how a historian ( as a reader ) interprets the facts " .
The General in His Labyrinth also confronts the methods of official historians by using an oral style of narration . The narration can be considered an oral account in that it is woven from the verbal interactions of everyday people . Alvarez Borland explains that the advantage of this technique , as discussed by Walter Ong , is that " the orality of any given culture , residing in the unwritten tales of its peoples , possesses a spontaneity and liveliness which is lost once this culture commits its tales to writing . " The oral style of narration therefore provides a truthfulness which official history lacks . Alvarez Borland concludes that The General in His Labyrinth suggests new ways of writing the past ; it takes account of voices that were never written down as part of official history .
The historian Ben Hughes commented on the novel : " The Liberator 's British confidants , including Daniel O 'Leary , were amongst the closest figures to the general in this period . Nevertheless , they are ignored in the novel . Instead , Márquez uses the character of a fictional Colombian servant , José Palacios , as The Liberator 's final sounding board , thereby neatly sidestepping the more complex reality . " In Hughes 's view modern South American literature has played a role in cleansing the national memory of British soldiers ' assistance to The Liberator .
= = Comparisons with other García Márquez novels = =
In an interview published in the Colombian weekly Revista Semana on March 20 , 1989 , García Márquez told María Elvira Samper , " At bottom , I have written only one book , the same one that circles round and round , and continues on . " Palencia @-@ Roth suggests that this novel is a " labyrinthine summation ... of García Márquez 's long @-@ standing obsessions and ever @-@ present topics : love , death , solitude , power , fate " .
Like the Patriarch in García Márquez 's The Autumn of the Patriarch , Bolívar was an absolute dictator . The Patriarch is never identified by name ; Bolívar , too , is identified chiefly by his title . Bolívar also invites comparison with Colonel Aureliano Buendía in One Hundred Years of Solitude : both characters believe the wars they have waged have been fruitless and overwhelming , and both face numerous attempts on their lives , but eventually die of natural causes . In his belief that life is controlled by fate , the General resembles Buendía in One Hundred Years of Solitude and Santiago Nasar in Chronicle of a Death Foretold .
Palencia @-@ Roth notes that critics have been struck by the humorless elegiac style of The General in His Labyrinth ; its dark mood and somber message is similar to that of The Autumn of the Patriarch . Love is a theme common to both Love in the Time of Cholera and The General in His Labyrinth , but the latter is considered a tragedy . These two novels have been used to demonstrate the range of García Márquez 's work .
Isabel Alvarez Borland , in her essay " The Task of the Historian in El general en su laberinto " , claims that " ... while El general en su laberinto is in many ways a continuation of García Márquez 's criticism of Latin America 's official history seen in his earlier works , the novel contrasts sharply with his previous fictions " . In Chronicle of a Death Foretold , according to Alvarez Borland , the narrator challenges the truth of official language . However , The General in His Labyrinth " differs from these earlier works in employing narrative strategies which seek to answer in a much more overt and didactic fashion questions that the novel poses about history " .
In a summary of Edward Hood 's book La ficcion de Gabriel García Márquez : Repetición e intertextualidad , García Márquez is characterized as an author who uses repetition and autointertextualidad ( intertextuality between the works of a single author ) extensively in his fiction , including in The General in His Labyrinth . Hood points out some obvious examples of repetition in García Márquez 's works : the themes of solitude in One Hundred Years of Solitude , tyranny in Autumn of the Patriarch , and the desire for a unified continent expressed by Bolívar in The General in His Labyrinth . An example of intertextuality can be seen in the repetition of patterns between books . For example , both Jose Arcadio Buendia in One Hundred Years of Solitude and Bolívar in The General in his Labyrinth experience labyrinthian dreams .
= = Genre = =
Critics consider García Márquez 's book in terms of the historical novel , but differ over whether the label is appropriate . In his review of The General in his Labyrinth , Selden Rodman hesitated to call it a novel , since it was so heavily researched , giving Bolívar 's views " on everything from life and love to his chronic constipation and dislike of tobacco smoke " . On the other hand , reviewer Robert Adams suggested that García Márquez had " improved on history " . According to critic Donald L. Shaw , The General in His Labyrinth is a " New Historical Novel " , a genre that he argues crosses between Boom , Post @-@ Boom , and Postmodernist fiction in Latin American literature : " New Historical Novels tend either to retell historical events from an unconventional perspective , but one which preserves their intelligibility , or to question the very possibility of making sense of the past at all . " Shaw believes that this novel belongs to the first category . García Márquez is presenting both a historical account and his own interpretation of events .
David Bushnell , writing in The Hispanic American Historical Review , points out that the work is less a pure historical account than others suggest . García Márquez 's Bolívar is a man " who wanders naked through the house , suffers constipation , uses foul language , and much more besides . " He argues that documentation does not support many of these details . Bushnell suggests , however , that the fact that the novel is not entirely historically accurate does not necessarily distinguish it from the work of professional historians . The main difference , Bushnell believes , is that García Márquez 's work " is far more readable " than a pure history .
= = Reception = =
The General in His Labyrinth was relatively poorly received by the general public in the United States , despite the praise of critics . Critic Ilan Stavans , who himself praised the book as " one of the writer 's most sophisticated and accomplished " , attributes this to the novel 's time period and to its profusion of historical information , neither of which proved attractive to English @-@ speaking readers . Isabel Alvarez Borland notes that , like Stavans , " critics in the United States have largely celebrated García Márquez 's portrait of this national hero and considered it a tour de force " ; but she also observes that in Latin America the book received more mixed reviews , ranging from " outrage to unqualified praise " .
The novel generated huge controversy in Latin America : some Venezuelan and Colombian politicians described its depiction of Bolívar as " profane " . According to Stavans , they accused García Márquez of " defaming the larger @-@ than @-@ life reputation of a historical figure who , during the nineteenth century , struggled to unite the vast Hispanic world " . The novel 's publication provoked outrage from many Latin American politicians and intellectuals because its portrayal of the General is not the saintly image long cherished by many . Mexico 's ambassador to Austria , Francisco Cuevas Cancino , wrote a damning letter , which was widely publicized in Mexico City , objecting to the portrayal of Bolívar . He stated : " The novel is plagued with errors of fact , conception , fairness , understanding of the historical moment and ignorance of its consequences ... It has served the enemies of Latin America , who care only that they can now denigrate Bolívar , and with him all of us . " Even the novel 's admirers , such as the leading Venezuelan diplomat and writer Arturo Uslar Pietri , worried that some facts were stretched . García Márquez believes , however , that Latin America has to discover the General 's labyrinth to recognize and deal with its own maze of problems .
More positively , Nelson Bocaranda , a Venezuelan TV commentator , considers the novel to be a tonic for Latin American culture : " people here saw a Bolívar who is a man of flesh and bones just like themselves " . Mexican author Carlos Fuentes agrees with Bocaranda saying : " What comes across beautifully and poignantly in this book is a man dealing with the unknown world of democratic ideas " . García Márquez realistically portrays a ridiculous figure trapped in a labyrinth , magnifying the General 's defects , and presenting an image of Bolívar contrary to that instilled in classrooms . However , the novel also depicts Bolívar as an idealist and political theorist who predicted many problems that would obstruct Latin American advancement in the future . García Márquez depicts a figure who was aware of the racial and social friction in Latin American society , feared debt , and warned against economic irresponsibility . He has the General warn his aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Agustín de Iturbide , against the future interference of the United States in the internal affairs of Latin America .
Novelist and critic Barbara Mujica comments that the book 's English translator , Edith Grossman , fully captures the multiple levels of meaning of the text , as well as García Márquez 's modulations in tone . García Márquez himself has admitted that he prefers his novels in their English translations .
= = Publication history = =
The original Spanish version of The General in His Labyrinth was published simultaneously in Argentina , Colombia , Mexico , and Spain in 1989 . The first American edition was listed as a best seller in The New York Times the following year .
The novel has been translated into many languages since its first publication in Spanish , as detailed by Sfeir de González in 2003 .
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= Copia ( museum ) =
Copia : The American Center for Wine , Food & the Arts was a non @-@ profit museum and educational center in downtown Napa , California , dedicated to wine , food and the arts of American culture . The center , planned and largely funded by vintners Robert and Margrit Mondavi , was open from 2001 to 2008 . The museum had galleries , two theaters , classrooms , a demonstration kitchen , a restaurant , a rare book library , and a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) vegetable and herb garden ; there it hosted wine and food tasting programs , exhibitions , films , and concerts . The main and permanent exhibition of the museum , " Forks in the Road " , explained the origins of cooking through to modern advances . The museum 's establishment benefited the city of Napa and the development and gentrification of its downtown .
Copia hosted its opening celebration on November 18 , 2001 . Among other notable people , Julia Child helped fund the venture , which established a restaurant named Julia 's Kitchen . Copia struggled to achieve its anticipated admissions , and had difficulty in repaying its debts . Proceeds from ticket sales , membership and donations attempted to support Copia 's payoff of debt , educational programs and exhibitions , but eventually were not sufficient . After numerous changes to the museum to increase revenue , Copia closed on November 21 , 2008 . Its library was donated to Napa Valley College and its Julia Child cookware was sent to the National Museum of American History . The 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) property had been for sale since its closure ; the Culinary Institute of America purchased the northern portion of the property in October 2015 . The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School .
= = History = =
= = = Name = = =
The museum was named after Copia , the Roman goddess of wealth and plenty . According to Joseph Spence in Polymetis ( 1755 ) , Copia is a name used to describe the goddess Abundantia in poetry , and was referred to as Bona Copia in Ovid 's Metamorphoses .
= = = Background = = =
The city of Napa has historically not received as many wine country tourists as the cities north of it . A $ 300 million flood management project around the turn of the 21st century to widen the Napa River and raise bridges prompted building developments . In the early 2000s , a large development was completed in the downtown area , as well as several hotels . Copia and the nearby Oxbow Public Market were two large developments also constructed around that time to increase tourist and media focus on the city of Napa .
The museum opened in 2001 , two months after the September 11 attacks . The museum 's visitor attendance was much lower than what was projected ; the museum partially attributed that to the depressed tourist economy stemming from the attacks .
= = = Conception and construction = = =
In 1988 , vintner Robert Mondavi , his wife Margrit Mondavi , and other members of the wine industry began to look into establishing an institution in Napa County to educate , promote , and celebrate American excellence and achievements in the culinary arts , visual arts , and winemaking . Three organizations supported the museum : the University of California at Davis , the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration , and the American Institute of Wine & Food . In 1993 , Robert Mondavi bought and donated the land for Copia for $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( $ 1 @.@ 97 million today ) , followed by a lead gift of $ 20 million ( $ 32 @.@ 8 million today ) . Mondavi chose the downtown Napa location with urging from his wife , who raised her children there . James Polshek was hired by the foundation as the architect for the building in October 1994 . Subsequently , the " Founding Seventy " , supporters from Napa Valley and the surrounding Bay Area , made substantial donations . Initial financing for Copia was $ 55 million ( $ 66 @.@ 8 million today ) , along with a $ 78 million ( $ 104 million today ) bond prior to opening in 2001 .
When the organization purchased the property , it was an empty lot next to a tire store . Steve Carlin , founder of the Oxbow Public Market , believed that Copia 's establishment helped expand Napa , its downtown area , and the Oxbow District . Construction of the facility triggered a significant growth in development of a gourmet marketplace , hotels and restaurants in downtown Napa . The museum began construction in 1999 and hosted opening celebrations on November 18 , 2001 . In 2005 , Copia sold 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) to Intrawest for construction of a Westin hotel .
= = = Decline and bankruptcy = = =
Although the facility did attract visitors , local residents ' support failed to reach the numbers expected by the founders . Original projections of 300 @,@ 000 admissions per year were never met . In October 2006 , the museum announced plans to turn galleries into conference rooms , remove most of the museum 's focus on art , and lay off 28 of its 85 employees ( most of whom were security guards for the art gallery ) . At the time , Copia had $ 68 million ( $ 74 @.@ 7 million today ) in debt . That year the museum also lowered its original adult admission fee of $ 12 @.@ 50 to $ 5 . For three months in 2006 , the museum admitted guests free of charge , and attendance and revenue increased . The museum also began hosting weddings and renting its space more frequently in order to raise revenue . In 2007 , the museum altered its theme significantly by removing its focus on food and art , and instead focusing solely on wine . It replaced some of its gardens with vineyards , changed its displays to focus more on the history and aspects of wine and viticulture , and decreased the restaurant 's and programs ' focus on food .
In September 2008 , Garry McGuire announced that 24 of 80 employees were being laid off and the days of operation would be reduced from 7 to 3 per week . Attendance figures had never reached either original or updated projections , causing the facility to operate annually in the red since its opening . In November , he announced that the property would be sold due to unsustainable debt . The museum closed on Friday , November 21 , 2008 . The closure was without warning ; visitors who had arrived for scheduled events found a paper notice at the entrance that the center was temporarily closed . The next days ' events involving chef Andrew Carmellini and singer Joni Morris were also abruptly cancelled ; the museum later stated that it would reopen on December 1 . On that day , the organization ( with $ 80 million ( $ 87 @.@ 9 million today ) in debt ) filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection . The federal bankruptcy court blocked a $ 2 million ( $ 2 @.@ 2 million today ) emergency loan with priority in security , leaving Copia with no funds to resume operations .
Writing about the failure of the project , The New York Times and other newspapers suggested that Copia had failed to clearly define its focus . Potential tourists were left feeling unsure whether they were visiting a museum , a cooking school , or a promotional center for wine .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Following the 2008 closing of Copia , a group of investors , developers , advocates , and vintners named the Coalition to Preserve Copia was formed to explore a plan to preserve the building and grounds . Part of the group 's plan included forming a Mello @-@ Roos district with participation of local hotel properties to finance bonds to purchase the property , but their effort failed . In May 2009 local developer George Altamura spoke about his interest in purchasing the property . Other developers including the Culinary Institute of America also expressed an interest in acquiring the property . Copia 's bond holder , ACA Financial Guaranty Corporation , listed the property for sale in October 2009 . Napa Valley College 's upper valley campus became the home of the center 's library of around 1 @,@ 000 cookbooks . By late 2010 , local chefs had revived the center 's garden and the parking lot had become the location of a weekly farmer 's market . In 2011 , the museum was reported to still maintain its original furnishings , with the gift store fully stocked and the restaurant still furnished . In an April 2012 auction , most of the center 's fixtures , furniture , equipment , wine collection ( around 3 @,@ 500 bottles ) , dinnerware , displays , artistic items , and antiquities were sold .
Since Copia 's closure , the building has been used for a few meetings and events , including the Napa Valley Film Festival and BottleRock Napa Valley . Triad Development arranged to buy the entire site in 2015 and planned mixed use with housing and retail . The company planned to build up to 187 housing units , 30 @,@ 000 square feet of retail space , and underground parking for 500 cars . The plan had later altered to only include purchase of the southern portion of the property . In 2015 , the Culinary Institute of America ( CIA ) put in motion plans to purchase a separate portion of Copia . The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School . The school , which was outgrowing its St. Helena campus , purchased the northern portion of the property for $ 12 @.@ 5 million in October 2015 ( it was assessed for $ 21 @.@ 3 million around 2013 ) . Among the CIA 's first events there was 2016 's Flavor ! Napa Valley , a food and wine festival sponsored by local organizations . The campus is expected to open in late 2016 , with its Chuck Williams Culinary Arts Museum opening in 2017 . The museum will house about 4 @,@ 000 items of Chuck Williams , including cookbooks , cookware , and appliances .
= = Facilities = =
Copia is located on First Street in downtown Napa , adjacent to the Oxbow Public Market . The 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) property is surrounded by an oxbow of the Napa River . The two @-@ story building is 78 @,@ 632 square feet ( 7 @,@ 305 @.@ 2 m2 ) in size , and is primarily built from polished concrete , metal , and glass . The city 's farmers ' market has been located in Copia 's parking lot since 2004 .
It had a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m2 ) gallery for art , history , and science exhibits . It also had a 280 @-@ seat indoor theater , a 500 @-@ seat outdoor theater , classrooms , an 80 @-@ seat demonstration kitchen , a rare book library , a wine @-@ tasting area , a café ( named American Market Cafe ) , gift shop ( named Cornucopia ) , and 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) of landscaped edible gardens . The building 's architect was Polshek Partnership Architects . Julia 's Kitchen was a restaurant inside the Copia building that focused on seasonal dishes and was named for honorary trustee Julia Child , who loaned part of her kitchen to the restaurant , a wall of 49 pans , pots , fish molds , and other tools and objects . Within a year of the center 's closing , the items were sent to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History , where they are included in the Julia Child 's kitchen exhibit , which up until that point was only missing that portion . The restaurant had a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 160 m2 ) dining room ( for 180 seats ) , an outdoor seating area ( 4 @,@ 300 square feet ( 400 m2 ) ) and a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 230 m2 ) kitchen . The gardens had fruit orchards , a pavilion with a kitchen and large dining table , and a small vineyard with 60 vines and 30 different grape varieties . The restaurant and café were both operated by local caterer Seasoned Elements , and later Patina Restaurant Group .
The main and permanent exhibition of the museum , called " Forks in the Road : Food , Wine and the American Table " , had displays explaining the origins of cooking through to modern advances , and included a significant portion about the history of American winemaking . The museum 's opening art exhibition was called " Active Ingredients " , and had new works related to food by eight notable artists . Copia also had an annual exhibit and event called " Canstruction " , which began in 2005 . The event involved teams of architects , students , and designers creating sculptures from cans of food , which would later be donated to the Napa Valley Food Bank . The first year 's donation consisted of 42 @,@ 000 pounds of canned food .
= = Employees and visitor admissions = =
The founding director , Peggy Loar , left Copia in March 2005 , and was replaced by Arthur Jacobus that July ; in 2008 Jacobus was replaced by Chairman Garry McGuire Jr . , who resigned on December 5 , 2008 . The wine curator , Peter Marks , left around 2008 and was replaced with dean of wine studies Andrea Robinson . Around 2008 , McGuire hired celebrity chef Tyler Florence as dean of culinary studies . Florence oversaw the museum 's food programs and Julia 's Kitchen .
Museum attendance was initially forecast at 300 @,@ 000 ; to compare , the county had 4 @.@ 5 million tourists in 2001 . 205 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2001 , 220 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2002 , and 160 @,@ 000 attended in 2003 . 150 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2007 .
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= Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm =
Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm ( also known as Fair Laughs the Morn and Youth and Pleasure ) is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1832 and currently in Tate Britain . Etty had been planning the painting since 1818 – 19 , and an early version was exhibited in 1822 . The piece was inspired by a metaphor in Thomas Gray 's poem The Bard in which the apparently bright start to the notorious misrule of Richard II of England was compared to a gilded ship whose occupants are unaware of an approaching storm . Etty chose to illustrate Gray 's lines literally , depicting a golden boat filled with and surrounded by nude and near @-@ nude figures .
Etty felt that his approach to the work illustrated a moral warning about the pursuit of pleasure , but his approach was not entirely successful . The Bard was about a supposed curse on the House of Plantagenet placed by a Welsh bard following Edward I of England 's attempts to eradicate Welsh culture , and critics felt that Etty had somewhat misunderstood the point of Gray 's poem . Some reviewers greatly praised the piece , and in particular Etty 's technical abilities , but audiences of the time found it hard to understand the purpose of Etty 's painting , and his use of nude figures led some critics to consider the work tasteless and offensive .
The painting was bought in 1832 by Robert Vernon to form part of his collection of British art . Vernon donated his collection , including Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm , to the National Gallery in 1847 , which , in turn , transferred it to the Tate Gallery in 1949 . It remains one of Etty 's best @-@ known works , and formed part of major exhibitions at Tate Britain in 2001 – 02 and at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
= = Background = =
William Etty , the seventh son of a York baker and miller , had been an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship at the age of 18 he moved to London " with a few pieces of chalk crayons " , and the intention of becoming a history painter in the tradition of the Old Masters . He enrolled in the Schools of the Royal Academy of Arts , studying under renowned portrait painter Thomas Lawrence . He submitted numerous paintings to the Royal Academy over the following decade , all of which were either rejected or received little attention when exhibited .
In 1821 Etty 's The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) was a critical success . The painting featured nude figures , and over the following years Etty painted further nudes in biblical , literary and mythological settings . All but one of the 15 paintings Etty exhibited in the 1820s included at least one nude figure .
While some nudes existed in private collections , England had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received , many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent .
= = Composition = =
Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm was inspired by a passage in Thomas Gray 's poem The Bard . The theme of The Bard was the English king Edward I 's conquest of Wales , and a curse placed by a Welsh bard upon Edward 's descendants after he ordered the execution of all bards and the eradication of Welsh culture . Etty used a passage Gray intended to symbolise the seemingly bright start to the disastrous reign of Edward 's great @-@ great @-@ grandson Richard II .
Etty chose to illustrate Gray 's words literally , creating what has been described as " a poetic romance " . Youth and Pleasure depicts a small gilded boat . Above the boat , a nude figure representing Zephyr blows on the sails . Another nude representing Pleasure lies on a large bouquet of flowers , loosely holding the helm of the boat and allowing Zephyr 's breeze to guide it . A nude child blows bubbles , which another nude on the prow of the ship , representing Youth , reaches to catch . Naiads , again nude , swim around and clamber on the boat . Although the seas are calm , a " sweeping whirlwind " is forming on the horizon , with a demonic figure within the storm clouds . ( Deterioration and restoration means this demonic figure is now barely visible . ) The intertwined limbs of the participants were intended to evoke the sensation of transient and passing pleasure , and to express the themes of female sexual appetites entrapping innocent youth , and the sexual power women hold over men .
Etty said of his approach to the text that he was hoping to create " a general allegory of Human Life , its empty vain pleasures — if not founded on the laws of Him who is the Rock of Ages . " While Etty felt that the work conveyed a clear moral warning about the pursuit of pleasure , this lesson was largely lost upon its audiences .
When Etty exhibited the completed painting at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 1832 , it was shown untitled , with the relevant six lines from The Bard attached ; writers at the time sometimes referred to it by its incipit of Fair Laughs the Morn . By the time of Etty 's death in 1849 , it had acquired its present title of Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm .
= = Versions = =
The final version of Youth and Pleasure was painted between 1830 and 1832 , but Etty had been contemplating a painting on the theme since 1818 – 19 . In 1822 he had exhibited an early version at the British Institution titled A Sketch from One of Gray 's Odes ( Youth on the Prow ) ; in this version the group of figures on the prow is reversed , and the swimmers around the boat are absent . Another rough version of the painting also survives , similar to the 1832 version but again with the figures on the prow reversed . This version was exhibited at a retrospective of Etty 's work at the Society of Arts in 1849 ; it is dated 1848 but this is likely to be a misprint of 1828 , making it a preliminary study for the 1832 painting .
Although it received little notice when first exhibited , the 1822 version provoked a strong reaction from The Times :
We take this opportunity of advising Mr. Etty , who got some reputation for painting " Cleopatra 's Galley " , not to be seduced into a style which can gratify only the most vicious taste . Naked figures , when painted with the purity of Raphael , may be endured : but nakedness without purity is offensive and indecent , and on Mr. Etty 's canvass is mere dirty flesh . Mr. Howard , whose poetical subjects sometimes require naked figures , never disgusts the eye or mind . Let Mr. Etty strive to acquire a taste equally pure : he should know , that just delicate taste and pure moral sense are synonymous terms .
An oil sketch attributed to Etty , given to York Art Gallery in 1952 by Judith Hare , Countess of Listowel and entitled Three Female Nudes , is possibly a preliminary study by Etty for Youth and Pleasure , or a copy by a student of the three central figures . Art historian Sarah Burnage considers both possibilities unlikely , as neither the arrangement of figures , the subject matter or the sea serpent approaching the group appear to relate to the completed Youth and Pleasure , and considers it more likely to be a preliminary sketch for a now @-@ unknown work .
= = Reception = =
Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm met with a mixed reception on exhibition , and while critics generally praised Etty 's technical ability , there was a certain confusion as to what the painting was actually intended to represent and a general feeling that he had seriously misunderstood what The Bard was actually about . The Library of the Fine Arts felt " in classical design , anatomical drawing , elegance of attitude , fineness of form , and gracefulness of grouping , no doubt Mr. Etty has no superior " , and while " the representation of the ideas in the lines quoted [ from The Bard ] are beautifully and accurately expressed upon the canvas " they considered " the ulterior reference of the poet [ to the destruction of Welsh culture and the decline of the House of Plantagenet ] was entirely lost sight of , and that , if this be the nearest that Art can approach in conveying to the eye the happy exemplification of the subject which Gray intended , we fear we must give up the contest upon the merits of poetry and painting . " Similar concerns were raised in The Times , which observed that it was " Full of beauty , rich in colouring , boldly and accurately drawn , and composed with a most graceful fancy ; but the meaning of it , if it has any meaning , no man can tell " , pointing out that although it was intended to illustrate Gray it " would represent almost as well any other poet 's fancies . " The Examiner , meanwhile , took issue with the cramped and overladen boat , pointing out that the characters " if not exactly jammed together like figs in a basket , are sadly constrained for want of room " , and also complained that the boat would not in reality " float half the weight which is made to press upon it . "
Other reviewers were kinder ; The Gentleman 's Magazine praised Etty 's ability to capture " the beauty of the proportion of the antique " , noting that in the central figures " there is far more of classicality than is to be seen in almost any modern picture " , and considered the overall composition " a most fortunate combination of the ideality of Poetry and the reality of Nature " . The Athenæum considered it " a poetic picture from a very poetic passage " , praising Etty for " telling a story which is very difficult to tell with the pencil " .
The greatest criticism of Youth and Pleasure came from The Morning Chronicle , a newspaper which had long disliked Etty 's female nudes . It complained " no decent family can hang such sights against their wall " , and condemned the painting as an " indulgence of what we once hoped a classical , but which are now convinced , is a lascivious mind " , commenting " the course of [ Etty 's ] studies should run in a purer channel , and that he should not persist , with an unhallowed fancy , to pursue Nature to her holy recesses . He is a laborious draughtsman , and a beautiful colourist ; but he has not taste or chastity of mind enough to venture on the naked truth . " The reviewer added " we fear that Mr. E will never turn from his wicked ways , and make himself fit for decent company . "
= = Legacy = =
Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm was purchased at the time of its exhibition by Robert Vernon for his important collection of British art . ( The price Vernon paid for Youth and Pleasure is not recorded , although Etty 's cashbook records a partial payment of £ 250 — about £ 21 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms — so it is likely to have been a substantial sum . ) Vernon later purchased John Constable 's The Valley Farm , planning to hang it in the place then occupied by Youth and Pleasure . This decision caused Constable to comment " My picture is to go into the place — where Etty 's " Bumboat " is at present — his picture with its precious freight is to be brought down nearer to the nose . " Vernon presented his collection to the nation in 1847 , and his 157 paintings , including Youth and Pleasure , entered the National Gallery .
When Samuel Carter Hall was choosing works to illustrate his newly launched The Art Journal , he considered it important to promote new British artists , even if it meant illustrations which some readers considered pornographic or offensive . In 1849 Hall secured reproduction rights to the paintings Vernon had given to the nation and soon published and widely distributed an engraving of the painting under the title Youth and Pleasure , describing it as " of the very highest class " .
Needled by repeated attacks from the press on his supposed indecency , poor taste and lack of creativity , Etty changed his approach after the response to Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm . He exhibited over 80 further paintings at the Royal Academy alone , and remained a prominent painter of nudes , but from this time made conscious efforts to reflect moral lessons . He died in November 1849 and , while his work enjoyed a brief boom in popularity , interest in him declined over time , and by the end of the 19th century all of his paintings had fallen below their original prices .
In 1949 the painting was transferred from the National Gallery to the Tate Gallery , where as of 2015 it remains . Although Youth and Pleasure is one of Etty 's best @-@ known paintings , it remains controversial , and Dennis Farr 's 1958 biography of Etty describes it as " singularly inept " . It was one of four works by Etty chosen for Tate Britain 's landmark Exposed : The Victorian Nude exhibition in 2001 – 02 , and also formed part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
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= Mozambican War of Independence =
The Mozambican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( Frente de Libertação de Moçambique ) , and Portugal . The war officially started on September 25 , 1964 , and ended with a ceasefire on September 8 , 1974 , resulting in a negotiated independence in 1975 .
Portugal 's wars against independence guerrilla fighters in its 400 @-@ year @-@ old African territories began in 1961 with Angola . In Mozambique , the conflict erupted in 1964 as a result of unrest and frustration amongst many indigenous Mozambican populations , who perceived foreign rule to be a form of exploitation and mistreatment , which served only to further Portuguese economic interests in the region . Many Mozambicans also resented Portugal 's policies towards indigenous people , which resulted in discrimination , traditional lifestyle turning difficult for many Africans , and limited access to Portuguese @-@ style education and skilled employment .
As successful self @-@ determination movements spread throughout Africa after World War II , many Mozambicans became progressively nationalistic in outlook , and increasingly frustrated by the nation 's continued subservience to foreign rule . For the other side , many enculturated indigenous Africans who were fully integrated into the Portugal @-@ ruled social organization of Portuguese Mozambique , in particular those from the urban centres , reacted to the independentist claims with a mixture of discomfort and suspicion . The ethnic Portuguese of the territory , which included most of the ruling authorities , responded with increased military presence and fast @-@ paced development projects .
A mass exile of Mozambique 's political intelligentsia to neighbouring countries provided havens from which radical Mozambicans could plan actions and foment political unrest in their homeland . The formation of the Mozambican guerrilla organisation FRELIMO and the support of the Soviet Union , China , Cuba , Yugoslavia , Bulgaria , Tanzania , Zambia , Egypt , Algeria and Gaddafi regime in Libya through arms and advisers , led to the outbreak of violence that was to last over a decade .
From a military standpoint , the Portuguese regular army held the upper hand during the conflict against the independentist guerrilla forces . Nonetheless , Mozambique succeeded in achieving independence on June 25 , 1975 , after a civil resistance movement known as the Carnation Revolution backed by portions of the military in Portugal overthrow the military dictatorship sponsored by US , thus ending 470 years of Portuguese colonial rule in the East African region . According to historians of the Revolution , the military coup in Portugal was in part fuelled by protests concerning the conduct of Portuguese troops in their treatment of some local Mozambican populace . The role of the growing communist influence over the group of Portuguese military insurgents who led the Lisbon 's military coup , and , on the other hand , the pressure of the international community over the direction of the Portuguese Colonial War in general , were main causes for the final outcome .
= = Background = =
= = = Portuguese colonial rule = = =
San hunter and gatherers , ancestors of the Khoisani peoples , were the first known inhabitants of the region that is now Mozambique , followed in the 1st and 4th centuries by Bantu @-@ speaking peoples who migrated there across the Zambezi River . In 1498 , Portuguese explorers landed on the Mozambican coastline . Portugal 's influence in East Africa grew throughout the 16th century ; she established several colonies known collectively as Portuguese East Africa . Slavery and gold became profitable for the Europeans ; influence was largely exercised through individual settlers and there was no centralised administration and , in the meantime , Portugal had turned her attention to India and Brazil .
By the 19th century , European colonialism in Africa had reached its height . Having lost control of the vast territory of Brazil in South America , the Portuguese began to focus on expanding their African outposts . This brought them into direct conflict with the British . Since David Livingstone had returned to the area in 1858 in an attempt to foster trade routes , British interest in Mozambique had risen , alarming the Portuguese government . During the 19th century , much of Eastern Africa was still being brought under British control , and in order to facilitate this , Britain required several concessions from the Portuguese colony .
As a result , in an attempt to avoid a naval conflict with the superior British Royal Navy , Portugal adjusted the borders of her colony and the modern borders of Mozambique were established in May 1881 . Control of Mozambique was left to various organisations such as the Mozambique Company , the Zambezi Company and the Niassa Company which were financed and provided with cheap labour by the British Empire to work mines and construct railways . These companies penetrated inland from the coastline , setting up plantations and taxing the local populace who had until then resisted encroachment by the colonists .
The resisting Gaza Empire , a collection of indigenous tribes who inhabited the area that now constitutes Mozambique and Zimbabwe , was defeated in 1895 , and the remaining inland tribes were eventually defeated by 1902 ; in that same year , Portugal established Lourenço Marques as the capital . In 1926 , political and economic crisis in Portugal led to the establishment of the Second Republic ( later to become the Estado Novo ) , and a revival of interest in the African colonies . Calls for self determination in Mozambique arose shortly after World War II , in light of the independence granted to many other colonies worldwide in the great wave of decolonisation .
= = = Rise of FRELIMO = = =
Portugal designated Mozambique an overseas territory in 1951 in order to show to the world that the colony had a greater autonomy . It was called the Overseas Province of Mozambique ( Província Ultramarina de Moçambique ) . Nonetheless , Portugal still maintained strong control over its overseas province . The increasing number of newly independent African nations after World War II , coupled with the ongoing mistreatment of the indigenous population , encouraged the growth of nationalist sentiments within Mozambique .
Mozambique was marked by large disparities between the wealthy Portuguese and the majority of the large rural indigenous African population . Poorer whites , many of them recent immigrants , including illiterate peasants , were given preference in lower @-@ level urban jobs , where a system of job reservation existed . In the rural areas , Portuguese controlled the trading stores with which African peasants interacted . Being largely illiterate and preserving their local traditions and ways of life , skilled employment opportunities and roles in administration and government were rare for these numerous tribal populations , leaving them few or no opportunities in the urban modern life . Many indigenous peoples saw their culture and tradition being overwhelmed by the alien culture of Portugal . A small educated African class did emerge , but faced substantial discrimination .
Vocal political dissidents opposed to Portuguese rule and claiming independence were typically forced into exile . From the mid @-@ 1920s a succession of authoritarian regimes in Portugal closed unions and left @-@ wing opposition , both within Portugal and within its colonies , notably in the Estado Novo period ( 1933 @-@ 1974 ) . The Portuguese government forced black Mozambican farmers to grow rice or cotton for export , providing little return with which the farmers could support themselves . Many other workers — over 250 @,@ 000 by 1960 — were pressured to work on coal and gold mines , in neighbouring territories , mainly in South Africa , where they comprised over 30 % of black underground miners . By 1950 , only 4 @,@ 353 Mozambicans out of 5 @,@ 733 @,@ 000 had been granted the right to vote by the Portuguese colonial government . The rift between Portuguese settlers and Mozambican locals is illustrated in one way by the small number of people with mixed Portuguese and Mozambican heritage ( mestiço ) , numbering only 31 @,@ 465 in a population of 8 – 10 million in 1960 according to that year 's census .
The Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( Frente de Libertação de Moçambique ) , formally ( Marxist @-@ Leninist as of 1977 but adherent to such positions since the late 1960s ) , was formed in Dar es Salaam , the largest city in neighbouring Tanzania , on June 25 , 1962 . It was created during a conference , by political figures who had been forced into exile , by the merging of various existing nationalist groups , including the Mozambican African National Union , National African Union of Independent Mozambique and the National Democratic Union of Mozambique which had been formed two years earlier . It was only in exile that such political movements could develop , due to the strength of Portugal 's grip on dissident activity within Mozambique itself .
A year later , in 1963 , FRELIMO set up headquarters in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , under the leadership of sociologist Eduardo Mondlane , and began to call for independence from Portugal.After two years of organisation and failing political manoeuvres in an attempt to seek a peaceful independence , Mondlane began in 1964 a campaign of guerrilla warfare in an attempt to achieve independence for Mozambique .
The United Nations also put pressure on Portugal to move for decolonisation . Portugal threatened to withdraw from NATO , which put a stop to this support and pressure , and the nationalist groups in Mozambique were forced to turn to help from the Soviet bloc .
= = = Support from the Soviet Union = = =
During the Cold War , and particularly in the late 1950s , the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China adopted a strategy of destabilisation of Western powers by disruption of their hold on African colonies . Nikita Khrushchev , in particular , viewed the ' underdeveloped third of mankind ' as a means to weaken the West . For the Soviets , Africa represented a chance to create a rift between western powers and their colonial assets , and create pro @-@ communist states in Africa with which to foster future relations .
Prior to the formation of FRELIMO , the Soviet position regarding the nationalist movements in Mozambique was one of confusion . There were multiple independence movements , and they had no sure knowledge that any would succeed . The nationalist groups in Mozambique , like those across Africa during the period , received training and equipment from the Soviet Union .
Eduardo Mondlane 's successor , future President of Mozambique , Samora Machel , acknowledged assistance from both Moscow and Peking , describing them as " the only ones who will really help us . ... They have fought armed struggles , and whatever they have learned that is relevant to Mozambique we will use . " Guerrillas received tuition in subversion and political warfare as well as military aid , specifically shipments of 122 mm artillery rockets in 1972 , with 1600 advisors from Russia , Cuba and East Germany . FRELIMO adopted Marxism @-@ Leninism at an early stage .
The Soviet Union continued to support the new FRELIMO government against counterrevolution in the years after 1975 . By 1981 , there were 230 Soviet , close to 200 Cuban military and over 600 civilian Cuban advisers still in the country . Cuba 's involvement in Mozambique was as part of a continuing effort to export the anti @-@ imperialist ideology of the Cuban Revolution and forge desperately needed new allies . Cuba provided support to liberation movements and leftist governments in numerous African countries , including Angola , Ethiopia , Guinea @-@ Bissau and Congo @-@ Brazzaville .
= = Conflict = =
= = = Insurgency under Mondlane ( 1964 – 69 ) = = =
At the war 's outset , FRELIMO had little hope for a conventional military victory , with a mere 7000 combatants against a far larger Portuguese force . Their hopes rested on urging the local populace to support the insurgency , in order to force a negotiated independence from Lisbon . Portugal fought its own version of protracted warfare , and a large military force was sent by the Portuguese government to quell the unrest , with troop numbers rising from 8 @,@ 000 to 24 @,@ 000 between 1964 and 1967 . The number of local soldiers recruited for the Portuguese cause rose to 23 @,@ 000 in the same period . 860 Special Forces operatives were also being trained in Commando Instruction Centres by 1969 .
The military wing of FRELIMO was commanded by Filipe Samuel Magaia , whose forces received training from Algeria . The FRELIMO guerrillas were armed with a variety of weapons , many provided by the Soviet Union and China . Common weapons included the Mosin – Nagant bolt @-@ action rifle , SKS and AK @-@ 47 automatic rifles and the Soviet PPSh @-@ 41 . Machine guns such as the Degtyarev light machine gun were widely used , along with the DShK and the SG @-@ 43 Gorunov . FRELIMO were supported by mortars , recoilless rifles , RPG @-@ 2s and RPG @-@ 7s , Anti @-@ aircraft weapons such as the ZPU @-@ 4 and from 1974 the Strela 2 .
In the dying stages of the conflict , FRELIMO was provided with a few SA @-@ 7 MANPAD shoulder @-@ launched missile launchers from China ; these were never used to shoot down a Portuguese plane . Only one Portuguese aircraft was lost in combat during the conflict , when Lt. Emilio Lourenço 's G.91R @-@ 4 was destroyed by premature detonation of his own ordnance .
The Portuguese forces were under the command of General António Augusto dos Santos , a man with strong faith in new counter @-@ insurgency theories . Augusto dos Santos supported a collaboration with Rhodesia to create African Scout units and other special forces teams , with Rhodesian forces even conducting their own independent operations during the conflict . Due to Portuguese policy of retaining up @-@ to @-@ date equipment for the metropole while shipping obsolete equipment to the colonies , the Portuguese soldiers fighting in the opening stages of the conflict were equipped with World War II radios and the old Mauser rifle . As the fighting progressed , the need for more modern equipment was rapidly recognised , and the Heckler & Koch G3 and FN FAL rifles were adopted as the standard battlefield weapon , along with the AR @-@ 10 for paratroopers . The MG42 and , then in 1968 , the HK21 were the Portuguese general purpose machine guns , with 60 , 81 and 120 mm mortars , howitzers and the AML @-@ 60 , Panhard EBR , Fox and Chaimite armoured cars frequently deployed for fire support .
Although helicopters were not used in Mozambique to the same extent as they were in Vietnam , the Alouette III was the most widely used , although the Puma was also used with great success . Other aircraft were employed : for air support the T6 and the Fiat G.91 were used ; for reconnaissance , the Dornier Do 27 . In the transport role , the Portuguese Air Force used mainly the Nord Noratlas and the C @-@ 47 . The Portuguese Navy also made extensive use of patrol boats , landing crafts , and inflatable Zodiacs .
= = = = Start of FRELIMO attacks = = = =
In 1964 , weak @-@ hearted attempts at peaceful negotiation by FRELIMO were abandoned and , on September 25 , 1964 , Eduardo Mondlane began to launch guerrilla attacks on targets in northern Mozambique from his base in Tanzania . FRELIMO soldiers , with logistical assistance from the local population , attacked the administrative post at Chai Chai in the province of Cabo Delgado . FRELIMO militants were able to evade pursuit and surveillance by employing classic guerrilla tactics : ambushing patrols , sabotaging communication and railroad lines , and making hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks against colonial outposts before rapidly fading into accessible backwater areas . The insurgents were typically armed with rifles and machine pistols , and the attackers took full advantage of the monsoon season in order to evade pursuit .
During heavy rains , it was much more difficult to track insurgents by air , negating Portugal 's air superiority , and Portuguese troops and vehicles found movement during rain storms difficult . In contrast , the insurgent troops , with lighter equipment , were able to flee into the bush ( the mato ) amongst an ethnically similar populace into which they could melt away . Furthermore , the FRELIMO forces were able to forage food from the surroundings and local villages , and were thus not hampered by long supply lines .
With the initial FRELIMO attacks in Chai Chai , the fighting spread to Niassa and Tete at the centre of Mozambique . During the early stages of the conflict , FRELIMO activity was reduced to small , platoon @-@ sized engagements , harassments and raids on Portuguese installations . The FRELIMO soldiers often operated in small groups of ten to fifteen soldiers . The scattered nature of FRELIMO 's initial attacks was an attempt to disperse the Portuguese forces .
The Portuguese troops began to suffer losses in November , fighting in the northern region of Xilama . With increasing support from the populace , and the low number of Portuguese regular troops , FRELIMO was quickly able to advance south towards Meponda and Mandimba , linking to Tete with the aid of forces from the neighbouring Republic of Malawi , which had become a fully independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations on July 6 , 1964 . Despite the increasing range of FRELIMO operations , attacks were still limited to small strike teams attacking lightly defended administrative outposts , with the FRELIMO lines of communication and supply utilising canoes along the Ruvuma River and Lake Malawi .
It was not until 1965 that recruitment of fighters increased along with popular support , and the strike teams were able to increase in size . The increase in popular support was in part due to FRELIMO agencies ' offer of help to exiled Mozambicans , who had fled the conflict by travelling to nearby Tanzania . Like similar conflicts against the French and United States forces in Vietnam , the insurgents also used landmines to a great extent to injure the Portuguese forces , thus straining the armed forces ' infrastructure and demoralising soldiers .
FRELIMO attack groups had also begun to grow in size to include over 100 soldiers in certain cases , and the insurgents also began to accept women fighters into their ranks . On either October 10 or October 11 , 1966 , on returning to Tanzania after inspecting the front lines , Filipe Samuel Magaia was shot dead by Lourenço Matola , a fellow FRELIMO guerrilla who was said to be in the employ of the Portuguese .
One seventh of the population and one fifth of the territory were in FRELIMO hands by 1967 ; at this time there were approximately 8000 guerrillas in combat . During this period , Mondlane urged further expansion of the war effort , but also sought to retain the small strike groups . With the increasing cost of supply , more and more territory liberated from the Portuguese , and the adoption of measures to win the support of the population , it was at this time that Mondlane sought assistance from abroad , specifically the Soviet Union and China ; from these benefactors , he obtained large @-@ calibre machine guns , anti @-@ aircraft rifles and 75 mm recoilless rifles and 122 mm rockets .
In 1968 , the second Congress of FRELIMO was a propaganda victory for the insurgents , despite attempts by the Portuguese , who enjoyed air superiority throughout the conflict , to bomb the location of the meeting late in the day . This gave FRELIMO further weight to wield in the United Nations .
= = = Portuguese development program = = =
Due to both the technological gap between civilisations and the centuries @-@ long colonial era , Portugal was a driving force in the development and shaping of all Portuguese Africa since the 15th century . In the 1960s and early 1970s , to counter the increasing insurgency of FRELIMO forces and show to the Portuguese people and the world that the territory was totally under control , the Portuguese government accelerated its major development program to expand and upgrade the infrastructure of Portuguese Mozambique by creating new roads , railways , bridges , dams , irrigation systems , schools and hospitals to stimulate an even higher level of economic growth and support from the populace .
As part of this redevelopment program , construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam began in 1969 . This particular project became intrinsically linked with Portugal 's concerns over security in the overseas colonies . The Portuguese government viewed the construction of the dam as testimony to Portugal 's " civilising mission " and intended for the dam to reaffirm Mozambican belief in the strength and security of the Portuguese colonial government . To this end , Portugal sent three thousand new troops and over one million landmines to Mozambique to defend the building project .
Realising the symbolic significance of the dam to the Portuguese , FRELIMO proceeded to spend seven years attempting to halt its construction by force . No direct attacks were ever successful , but FRELIMO had some success in attacking convoys en route to the site . FRELIMO also lodged a protest with the United Nations about the project , and their cause was aided by negative reports of Portuguese actions in Mozambique . In spite of the subsequent withdrawal of much foreign financial support for the dam , it was finally completed in December 1974 . The dam 's intended propaganda value to the Portuguese was overshadowed by the adverse Mozambican public reaction to the extensive dispersal of the indigenous populace , who were forced to relocate from their homes to allow for the construction project . The dam also deprived farmers of the critical annual floods , which formerly re @-@ fertilised the plantations .
= = = Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane = = =
On February 3 , 1969 , Eduardo Mondlane was killed by explosives smuggled into his locale . Many sources state that , in an attempt to rectify the situation in Mozambique , the Portuguese secret police assassinated Mondlane by sending a parcel to his office in Dar es Salaam . Inside the parcel was a book containing an explosive device , which detonated upon opening . Other sources state that Eduardo was killed when an explosive device detonated underneath his chair at the FRELIMO headquarters , and that the faction responsible was never identified .
The original investigations levelled accusations at Silverio Nungo ( who was later executed ) and Lazaro Kavandame , FRELIMO leader in Cabo Delgado . The latter had made no secret of his distrust of Mondlane , seeing him as too conservative a leader , and the Tanzanian police also accused him of working with PIDE ( Portugal 's secret police ) to assassinate Mondlane . Kavandame himself surrendered to the Portuguese in April of that year .
Although the exact details of the assassination remain disputed , the involvement of the Portuguese government , particularly Aginter Press or PIDE , is generally accepted by most historians and biographers and is supported by the Portuguese stay behind Gladio @-@ esque army , known as Aginter Press , that suggested in 1990 that they were responsible for the assassination . Initially , due to the uncertainty regarding who was responsible , Mondlane 's death created great suspicion within the ranks of the FRELIMO itself and a short power struggle which resulted in a dramatic swing to the political left .
Mondlane 's immediate successor was the moderate Rev. Uria Simango , who had served under him , as FRELIMO 's vice @-@ President , from its formation until 1969 . In the post @-@ assassination power @-@ struggle , Simango was ousted by the more hardline Samora Machel and Marcelino dos Santos , expelled from FRELIMO and eventually arrested and executed , post @-@ Independence , in 1975 .
= = = Continuing war ( 1969 – 74 ) = = =
In 1969 , General António Augusto dos Santos was relieved of command , with General Kaúlza de Arriaga taking over officially in March 1970 . Kaúlza de Arriaga favoured a more direct method of fighting the insurgents , and the established policy of using African counter @-@ insurgency forces was rejected in favour of the deployment of regular Portuguese forces accompanied by a small number of African fighters . Indigenous personnel were still recruited for special operations , such as the Special Groups of Parachutists in 1973 , though their role less significant under the new commander . His tactics were partially influenced by a meeting with United States General William Westmoreland .
By 1972 there was growing pressure from other commanders , particularly Kaúlza de Arriaga 's second in command , General Francisco da Costa Gomes , for the use of African soldiers in Flechas units . Flechas units ( Arrows ) were also employed in Angola and were units under the command of the Portuguese PIDE . Composed of local tribesmen , the units specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and anti @-@ terrorist operations .
Costa Gomes argued that African soldiers were cheaper and were better able to create a relationship with the local populace , a tactic similar to the ' hearts and minds ' strategy being used by United States forces in Vietnam at the time . These Flechas units saw action in the territory at the very end stages of the conflict , following the dismissal of Kaúlza de Arriaga on the eve of the Portuguese coup in 1974 – the Carnation Revolution . The units were to continue to cause problems for the FRELIMO even after the Revolution and Portuguese withdrawal , when the country splintered into civil war .
There were several Portuguese special forces units that were unique to either the Mozambican conflict or the Portuguese Colonial War as a whole :
Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais ) : units similar to the ones used in Angola
Paratrooper Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais Pára @-@ Quedistas ) : units of volunteer black soldiers that had paratrooper training
Combat Tracking Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais de Pisteiros de Combate ) : special units trained in tracking
Flechas : Local tribesmen and rebel defectors specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and terrorist operations . They sometimes patrolled in captured uniforms and are rewarded with cash bounties for every guerrilla or guerrilla weapon they capture .
During the entire period of 1970 – 74 , FRELIMO intensified guerrilla operations , specialising in urban terrorism . The use of landmines also intensified , with sources stating that they had become responsible for two out of every three Portuguese casualties . During the conflict , FRELIMO used a variety of anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ personnel mines , including the PMN ( Black Widow ) , TM @-@ 46 , and POMZ . Even amphibious mines were used , such as the PDM . Mine psychosis , an acute fear of landmines , was rampant in the Portuguese forces . This fear , coupled with the frustration of taking casualties without ever seeing the enemy forces , damaged morale and significantly hampered progress .
= = = = Portuguese counter @-@ offensive ( June 1970 ) = = = =
On June 10 , 1970 , a major counter @-@ offensive was launched by the Portuguese army . The Gordian Knot Operation ( Portuguese : Operação Nó Górdio ) targeted permanent insurgent camps and the infiltration routes across the Tanzanian border in the north of Mozambique over a period of seven months . The operation involved some 35 @,@ 000 Portuguese troops , particularly elite units like paratroopers , commandos , marines and naval fusiliers .
The Portuguese had excellent coordination between light bombers , helicopters and reinforced ground patrols . They utilised American tactics of quick airborne ( helibourne ) assaults supported by heavy aerial bombardments of FRELIMO camps by the Portuguese Air Force ( Força Aérea Portuguesa or FAP ) to surround and eliminate the guerrillas . These bombardments were accompanied by the use of heavy artillery . The Portuguese also used cavalry units to cover the flanks of patrols and where the terrain was too difficult to motor transport , and units of captured or deserted guerrillas to penetrate their former bases .
Problems for the Portuguese arose almost immediately when the offensive coincided with the beginning of the monsoon season , creating additional logistical difficulties . Not only were the Portuguese soldiers badly equipped , but there was very poor cooperation , if any at all , between the FAP and the army . Thus , the army lacked close air support from the FAP . Mounting Portuguese casualties began to outweigh FRELIMO casualties , leading to further political intervention from Lisbon .
The Portuguese eventually reported 651 as killed ( a figure of some 440 was most likely closer to reality ) , and 1 @,@ 840 captured , for the loss of 132 Portuguese . Gen. Arriaga also claimed his troops to have destroyed 61 guerrilla bases and 165 camps , while 40 tons of ammunition had been captured in the first two months . Although " Gordian Knot " was the most effective Portuguese offensive of the conflict , weakening guerrillas to such a degree that they were no longer a significant threat , the operation was deemed a failure by some military officers and the government .
By 1972 , the Portuguese military had changed its strategy , adapting the British / American search and destroy operations utilising small shock troop sweeps . They also initiated a hearts and minds campaign , named the Aldeamentos Programme , which was a forced relocation program . But on November 9 , 1972 , FRELIMO – not numbering more than 8 @,@ 000 fighters – launched a large offensive in Tete Province . The response from the Portuguese military was fierce , leading to reprisal attacks in an attempt to unbalance the local population 's continuing faith in FRELIMO .
On December 16 , 1972 , the Portuguese 6th company of Commandos in Mozambique killed the inhabitants of the village of Wiriyamu , in the district of Tete . Referred to as the ' Wiriyamu Massacre ' , the soldiers killed between 150 ( according to the Red Cross ) and 300 ( according to a much later investigation by the Portuguese newspaper Expresso based in testimonies from soldiers ) villagers accused of sheltering FRELIMO guerrillas . The action , " Operation Marosca " , was planned at the instigation of PIDE / DGS agents and guided by agent Chico Kachavi , who was later assassinated while an inquiry into the events was being carried out . The soldiers were told by this agent that " the orders were to kill them all " , never mind that only civilians , women and children included , were found . All of the victims were civilians . The massacre was recounted in July 1973 by the British Catholic priest , Father Adrian Hastings , and two other Spanish missionary priests . Later counter @-@ claims have been made in a report of Archbishop of Dar es Salaam Laurean Rugambwa that alleged that the killings were carried out by FRELIMO combatants , not Portuguese forces . In addition , others claimed that the alleged massacres by Portuguese military forces were fabricated to tar the reputation of the Portuguese state abroad . Portuguese journalist Felícia Cabrita reconstructed the Wiriyamu massacre in detail by interviewing both survivors and former members of the Portuguese Army Commandos unit that carried out the massacre . Cabrita 's report was published in the Portuguese weekly newspaper Expresso and later in a book containing several of the journalist 's articles .
By 1973 , FRELIMO were also mining civilian towns and villages in an attempt to undermine the civilian confidence in the Portuguese forces . " Aldeamentos : agua para todos " ( Resettlement villages : water for everyone ) was a commonly seen message in the rural areas , as the Portuguese sought to relocate and resettle the indigenous population , in order to isolate the FRELIMO from its civilian base . Conversely , Mondlane 's policy of mercy towards civilian Portuguese settlers was abandoned in 1973 by the new commander , Machel . " Panic , demoralisation , abandonment , and a sense of futility – all were reactions among whites in Mozambique " stated conflict historian T. H. Henricksen in 1983 .
This change in tactic led to protests by Portuguese settlers against the Lisbon government , a telltale sign of the conflict 's unpopularity . Combined with the news of the Wiriyamu massacre and that of renewed FRELIMO onslaughts through 1973 and early 1974 , the worsening situation in Mozambique later contributed to the downfall of the Portuguese government in 1974 . A Portuguese journalist argued :
= = = Political instability and ceasefire ( 1974 – 75 ) = = =
Back in Lisbon , the ' Armed Revolutionary Action ' branch of the Portuguese Communist Party , which was created in the late 1960s , and the Revolutionary Brigades ( BR ) , a left @-@ wing organisation , worked to resist the colonial wars . They had carried out multiple sabotages and bombings against military targets , such as the attack on the Tancos air base that destroyed several helicopters on March 8 , 1971 , and the attack on the NATO headquarters at Oeiras in October of the same year . The attack on the Portuguese ship Niassa illustrated the role of the colonial wars in this unrest . Niassa ( named after a Mozambican province ) was preparing to leave Lisbon with troops to be deployed in Guinea . By the time of the Carnation Revolution , 100 @,@ 000 draft dodgers had been recorded .
Fighting colonial wars in Portuguese colonies had absorbed forty @-@ four percent of the overall Portuguese budget . This led to an obvious diversion of funds from necessary infrastructural developments in Portugal itself . This contributed to the growing unrest in the European nation . Portugal 's GDP growth during the colonial war period ( 1961 – 1974 ) , was strong and reached a 6 % rate ( a percentual GDP growth which were not achieved in any other comparable period after 1974 ) .
The unpopularity of the Colonial Wars among many Portuguese led to the formation of several magazines and newspapers , such as Cadernos Circunstância , Cadernos Necessários , Tempo e Modo , and Polémica , which had support from students and called for political solutions to Portugal 's colonial problems .
The growing unrest in Portugal culminated on April 25 , 1974 , when the Carnation Revolution , a peaceful leftist military coup d 'état in Lisbon , ousted the incumbent Portuguese government of Marcelo Caetano . Thousands of Portuguese citizens left Mozambique , and the new head of government , General António de Spínola , called for a ceasefire . With the change of government in Lisbon , many soldiers refused to continue fighting , often remaining in their barracks instead of going on patrol . Negotiations between the Portuguese administration culminated in the Lusaka Accord signed on September 7 , 1974 , which provided for a complete hand @-@ over of power to FRELIMO , uncontested by elections . Formal independence was set for June 25 , 1975 , the 13th anniversary of the founding of FRELIMO .
= = Aftermath = =
Many Portuguese colonials were not typical settlers in Mozambique . While most European communities in Africa at the time - with the possible exception of Afrikaners - were established from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries , some white families and institutions in those territories still administered by Portugal had been entrenched for generations . Loss of their privileged status and fears of FRELIMO reprisal resulted in an exodus of up to 200 @,@ 000 white civilians at independence ( in Europe they were popularly known as retornados ) . Cities , towns and villages saw their Portuguese names changed after independence - Lourenço Marques to Maputo , Vila Pery to Chimoio , Vila Cabral to Lichinga , or Vila Junqueiro to Gurúè .
With the departure of Portuguese professionals and tradesmen , the new country had no senior workforce to maintain its infrastructure , and economic collapse loomed . Privileged commercial links were established with several communist countries by the FRELIMO regime at the expense of NATO , which rapidly lost influence in the region .
Samora Machel became Mozambique 's first president . The Reverend Uria Simango , his wife , and other FRELIMO dissidents were arrested in 1975 and detained without trial . Within about two years , fighting resumed with the Mozambican Civil War against RENAMO insurgents plied with Rhodesian and South African military support . Industrial and social recession , Marxist @-@ style totalitarianism , corruption , poverty , inequality and failed central planning eroded the initial revolutionary fervour . Peace returned only in 1992 , when the nation achieved relative stability for the first time in several decades .
= = = Printed sources = = =
= = = Online sources = = =
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= The Secret of Monkey Island =
The Secret of Monkey Island is a 1990 point @-@ and @-@ click graphic adventure game developed and published by Lucasfilm Games . It takes place in a fantastic version of the Caribbean during the age of piracy . The player assumes the role of Guybrush Threepwood , a young man who dreams of becoming a pirate and explores fictional islands while solving puzzles .
The game was conceived in 1988 by Lucasfilm employee Ron Gilbert , who designed it with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman . Gilbert 's frustrations with contemporary adventure titles led him to make the player character 's death almost impossible , which meant that gameplay focused the game on exploration . The atmosphere was based on that of the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park ride . The Secret of Monkey Island was the fifth game built with the SCUMM engine , which was heavily modified to include a more user @-@ friendly interface .
Critics praised The Secret of Monkey Island for its humor , audiovisuals , and gameplay . The game spawned a number of sequels , collectively known as the Monkey Island series . Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman also led the development of the sequel Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge . LucasArts released a remake of the original in 2009 , which was also well received by the gaming press .
= = Gameplay = =
The Secret of Monkey Island is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Via a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , the player guides protagonist Guybrush Threepwood through the game 's world and interacts with the environment by selecting from twelve verb commands ( nine in newer versions ) such as " talk to " for communicating with characters and " pick up " for collecting items between commands and the world 's objects in order to successfully solve puzzles and thus progress in the game . While conversing with other characters , the player may choose between topics for discussion that are listed in a dialog tree ; the game is one of the first to incorporate such a system . The in @-@ game action is frequently interrupted by cutscenes . Like other LucasArts adventure games , The Secret of Monkey Island features a design philosophy that makes the player character 's death nearly impossible ( Guybrush does drown if he stays underwater for more than ten minutes ) .
= = Plot = =
A youth named Guybrush Threepwood arrives on the fictional Mêlée IslandTM , with the desire to become a pirate . He seeks out the island 's pirate leaders , who set him three trials that must be completed to become a pirate : winning a sword duel against Carla , the island 's resident swordmaster , finding a buried treasure , and stealing a valuable idol from the governor 's mansion . These quests take Guybrush throughout the island , where he hears of stories of the Ghost Pirate LeChuck , who apparently died in an expedition to the mysterious Monkey IslandTM , an act that was meant to win the love of the governor Elaine Marley . Guybrush meets several characters of interest , including a local voodoo priestess , Stan the Used Boat Salesman , Carla the Sword Master , a prisoner named Otis , and Meathook , whose hands have been replaced by hooks .
Guybrush also encounters the governor and is instantly smitten , and she soon reciprocates . However , as he completes the tasks set for him , the island is raided by LeChuck and his undead crew , who abduct Elaine and then retreat to their secret hideout on Monkey IslandTM . Guybrush takes it upon himself to rescue her , buying a ship and hiring Carla , Otis , and Meathook as crew before setting sail for the fabled island . When Guybrush reaches Monkey Island , he discovers a village of cannibals in a dispute with Herman Toothrot , a ragged castaway marooned there . He settles their quarrel , and then recovers a magical " voodoo root " from LeChuck 's ship for the cannibals , who provide him with a seltzer bottle of " voodoo root elixir " that can destroy ghosts .
When Guybrush returns to LeChuck 's ship with the elixir , he learns that LeChuck has returned to Mêlée IslandTM to marry Elaine at the church . He promptly returns to Mêlée IslandTM and gatecrashes the wedding , only to ruin Elaine 's own plan for escape ; in the process he loses the elixir . Now confronted with a furious LeChuck , Guybrush is savagely beaten by the ghost pirate in a fight ranging across the island . The fight eventually arrives at the island 's ship emporium , where Guybrush finds a bottle of root beer . Substituting the beverage for the lost elixir , he sprays LeChuck , destroying the ghost pirate . With LeChuck defeated , Guybrush and Elaine enjoy a romantic moment , watching fireworks caused by LeChuck exploding .
= = Development = =
= = = Origin and writing = = =
Ron Gilbert conceived the idea of a pirate adventure game in 1988 , after completing Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders . He first wrote story ideas about pirates while spending the weekend at a friend 's house . Gilbert experimented with introductory paragraphs to find a satisfactory idea . His initial story featured unnamed villains that would eventually become LeChuck and Elaine ; Guybrush was absent at this point . He pitched it to Lucasfilm Games 's staff as a series of short stories . Gilbert 's idea was warmly received , but production was postponed because Lucasfilm Games assigned its designers , including Gilbert , to Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade : The Graphic Adventure . Development of The Last Crusade was finished in 1989 , which allowed Gilbert to begin production of The Secret of Monkey Island , then known internally under the working title Mutiny on Monkey Island .
Gilbert soon realised that it would be difficult to design the game by himself ; he decided to join forces with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman , both of whom he hired for Lucasfilm . The game 's insult sword fighting mechanics were influenced by swashbuckling movies starring Errol Flynn , which Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman often watched for inspiration . They noticed that pirates in those films often taunted their opponents instead of attacking them , which gave the designers the idea to base the game 's duels on insults rather than combat . Writer Orson Scott Card helped them write the insults during a visit to Lucasfilm 's headquarters at Skywalker Ranch . Many of Gilbert 's original gameplay ideas were abandoned during the production process , although he stated that " most of that stuff was left out for a reason " .
The game 's plot , as described by Dave Grossman : “ It ’ s a story about this young man who comes to an island in search of his life ’ s dream . He ’ s pursuing his career goals and he discovers love in the process and winds up thinking that was actually more important than what he was doing to begin with . You ’ re laughing , but there ’ s actually something deeper going on as well . ” When work on the plot began , Gilbert discovered that Schafer 's and Grossman 's writing styles were too different to form a cohesive whole : Grossman 's was " very kind of a dry , sarcastic humor " and Schafer 's was " just a little more in your face " . In reaction , Gilbert assigned them to different characters and story moments depending on what type of comedy was required . Grossman believed that this benefited the game 's writing , as he and Schafer " were all funny in slightly different ways , and it worked well together " . Schafer and Grossman wrote most of the dialogue while they were programming the game ; as a result , much of it was improvised . Some of the dialogue was based on the designers ' personal experiences , such as Guybrush 's line " I had a feeling in hell there would be mushrooms " , which came from Schafer 's own hatred of fungi .
The game 's world and characters were designed primarily by Gilbert . After having read Tim Powers ' historical fantasy novel On Stranger Tides , he decided to add paranormal themes to the game 's plot . He also cited Powers ' book as an influence on the characters , particularly those of Guybrush and LeChuck . Inspiration for the game 's ambiance came from Gilbert 's favorite childhood amusement park ride , Pirates of the Caribbean . Grossman said that Gilbert always wanted " to step off the ride " and " talk to the people who lived in that world " . Near the final stages of the design work , Gilbert introduced several characters who were not directly related to the game 's story . He considered this to be an important decision , as the player would need those seemingly minor characters in later parts of the game and would receive a chance to " really interact with them " .
= = = Creative and technical design = = =
Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman 's primary goal was to create a simpler and more accessible gameplay model than those presented in previous Lucasfilm titles . Gilbert had conceived the main designs and puzzles before production began , which resulted in the bulk of the designers ' work to flesh out his ideas . He was frustrated by the adventure games that Sierra On @-@ Line was releasing at the time , and later said that " you died any time you did anything wrong " . Gilbert considered such gameplay as " a cheap way out for the designer " . He had previously applied his design ideas to the 1987 graphic adventure title Maniac Mansion , but committed a number of mistakes during development , such as dead @-@ end situations that prevented the player from completing the game and poorly implemented triggers for cutscenes . Gilbert aimed to avoid such errors in The Secret of Monkey Island . The team decided to make it impossible for the player character to die , which focused gameplay primarily on world exploration . The Sierra game @-@ over screen was parodied , when Guybrush falls off a cliff only to be bounced back up by a " rubber tree " .
The Secret of Monkey Island was the fifth Lucasfilm Games project powered by the SCUMM engine , originally developed for Maniac Mansion . The company had gradually modified the engine since its creation . For Maniac Mansion , the developers hard coded verb commands in the SCUMM scripting language . These commands become more abstract in subsequent versions of the engine . The developers carried over the practice of referring to individual segments of the gameworld as " rooms " , even though the areas in Monkey Island were outdoors . The game uses the same version of the engine used in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , with minor changes . A dialog tree was added , which facilitated conversation options and the sword @-@ fighting puzzles . The developers removed the " What is " option ( an input command that describes an on @-@ screen object to the player ) in favor of allowing the player to simply highlight the object with the mouse cursor . The game 's improved interface became the standard for the company 's later titles . The game also introduced logical verb shortcuts , which could be performed with the mouse ; for example , clicking on a character defaults to the " talk " action , the most obvious action in the situation . SCUMM 's visuals were updated for the game — the original EGA version had a 320x200 pixel resolution rendered in 16 colors . According to artist Steve Purcell , that became a major limitation for the art team ; due to a low number of " ghastly " colors , they often chose bizarre tones for backgrounds . They chose black and white for Guybrush 's outfit for the same reason . The VGA version of the game later corrected these issues by implementing 256 color support , which allowed for more advanced background and character art . The VGA ( and other platform releases ) removed the infamous " stump joke " from the game , which was a joke in the EGA version in which the player would examine a tree stump in the forest . Guybrush would exclaim that there is an opening to a system of catacombs and attempt to enter , but this would result in a message stating the player needed to insert disc 22 , then 36 , then 114 in order to continue . The joke resulted in numerous calls to the LucasArts hotline asking about missing discs . As a result , the joke was removed from later editions and is a mentioned as a conversation option for the LucasArts Hint Hotline in the sequel .
The game 's " pirate reggae " music was composed by Lucasfilm Games ' in @-@ house musician Michael Land in MIDI format . It was his first project at the company . The game was originally released for floppy disk in 1990 , but a CD @-@ ROM version with a high @-@ quality CD soundtrack followed in 1992 . The music has remained popular , and has been remixed by the musicians of OverClocked ReMix and by the game 's fans .
= = = Special edition = = =
LucasArts released a remake with updated audiovisuals titled The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition in July 2009 for iPhone , Microsoft Windows , and Xbox 360 exclusively via digital distribution . PlayStation 3 , Mac OS and iPad versions followed early in 2010 for download on their respective services . LucasArts confirmed the game 's development on June 1 , 2009 ; rumors appeared several days earlier when the Xbox 360 version of the game received an USK rating . The game was first displayed to the public at the 2009 E3 in June . The remake features hand @-@ drawn visuals with more detail , a remastered musical score , voice work for characters , and a hint system . The developers included the function to switch between 2009 and original audiovisuals at will . The voice actors included Dominic Armato as Guybrush Threepwood and Earl Boen as LeChuck ; most had provided voice work in sequels to The Secret of Monkey Island .
LucasArts 's game producer Craig Derrick and his team conceived the idea of the remake in 2008 . After researching the Monkey Island series ' history , they decided to make " something fresh and new while staying true to the original " , which resulted in the idea of The Secret of Monkey Island 's remake . The developers tried to leave much of the original design unchanged . Any changes were intended to achieve the level of immersion desired for the original . To that end , they added details like a pirate ship or pirates talking in the background of scenes . While the team considered the SCUMM interface revolutionary at the time , LucasArts community manager Brooks Brown noted that it is incompatible with an analog stick , which most consoles use . The designers made the cursor contextual to the game objects as the primary interface . Brown had considered updating the reference to advertise Star Wars : The Force Unleashed because Loom was not on the market at the time , but concluded that the game would not be the same if such changes were implemented . Prior to the Special Edition release , however , LucasArts announced that Loom , along with other games from its back catalog , would be made available on Steam . Brown stated that the decision to distribute the game online was because " digital downloads have finally gotten going " .
= = Reception = =
The Secret of Monkey Island sold well and received positive reviews from critics . Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser of Dragon praised the designers ' attention to detail , and cited the game 's humor as a high point . Although they believed that the game was too expensive , they summarized it as " a highly enjoyable graphic adventure replete with interesting puzzles , a fantastic Roland soundtrack , superb VGA graphics , smooth @-@ scrolling animation , and some of the funniest lines ever seen on your computer screen . " Duncan MacDonald of Zero praised the graphics and found the game " quite amusing " . His favorite aspect was the fine @-@ tuned difficulty level , which he believed was " just right " . He ended his review , " At last an adventure game that 's enjoyable rather than frustrating . " Paul Glancey of Computer and Video Games consider the game superior to Lucasfilm 's earlier adventure titles , and wrote that , " Usually the entertainment you get from an adventure is derived solely from solving puzzles , but the hilarious characters and situations , and the movie @-@ like presentation ... make playing this more like taking part in a comedy film , so it 's much more enjoyable . " He considered the puzzles to be " brilliantly conceived " and found the game 's controls accessible . He summarized it as " utterly enthralling " .
ACE 's Steve Cooke also found the controls convenient , and he praised the game 's atmosphere . He wrote that , " in graphics and sound terms ... Monkey Island , along with King 's Quest V , is currently at the head of the pack . " However , he disliked the designers ' running joke of placing " TM " after character and place names , which he thought detracted from the atmosphere . He singled out the game 's writing , characters and plot structure as its best elements . Amiga Power 's Mark Ramshaw wrote , " With The Secret of Monkey Island , the mouse @-@ controlled , graphic @-@ adventure comes of age . " He lauded its comedic elements , which he believed were the highlight of the game . The reviewer also praised the control scheme , noting that it allows the player to " more or less forget about the specifics of what [ they are ] physically doing ... and lose [ themselves ] in the adventure instead . " He noted that the game 's plot and visual and aural presentation fit together to create a thick atmosphere , and finished , " Forget all those other milestone adventures ( Zork , The Hobbit , Lord of the Rings et al ) — for sheer enjoyment and general all @-@ round perfection , The Secret of Monkey Island creams ' em all in style . " The game , along with its sequel , was ranked the 19th best game of all time by Amiga Power .
Writing for The One , Paul Presley stated that " Lucasfilm appears to have taken all of the elements that worked in its previous releases and , not only incorporated them into this tale of scurvy swashbuckling , but even improved on them in the process ! " Like the other reviewers , he praised its controls . He also lauded its " hilarious storyline , strong characters and ... intriguing setting " , but complained about graphical slowdowns . Nick Clarkson of Amiga Computing cited the game 's graphics as " flawless " , noting that " the characters are superbly animated and the backdrops simply ooze atmosphere . " He highly praised its sound effects and music , and believed that its controls " couldn 't be simpler " . The staff of Amiga Action wrote that the " attention to detail and the finely tuned gameplay cannot be faulted . " They called the graphics " stunning throughout " , and believed that , when they were combined with the " excellent Caribbean tunes " , the result is a game filled with " character and atmosphere . " They ended by stating that " there is absolutely no excuse for not owning this game . "
The Secret of Monkey Island has featured regularly in lists of " top " games , such as Computer Gaming World 's Hall of Fame and IGN 's Video Game Hall of Fame . In 1996 , Computer Gaming World ranked it as the 19th best game of all time , " writing " Who could ever forget the insult @-@ driven duel system or the identity of the mysterious Swordmaster ? " . In 2004 , readers of Retro Gamer voted it as the 33rd top retro game . In 2010 , IGN ranked the Xbox Live Arcade version as the 20th best title of all time for that platform . In 2009 , IGN named The Secret of Monkey Island one of the ten best LucasArts adventure games .
= = = Special edition = = =
Like the original release , The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition received positive reviews from critics . Sean Ely of GamePro praised its updated audio , and said that the new graphics " blow the old clunker visuals ... out of the water " . He cited its script , humor , plot , puzzles and balanced difficulty level as high points , and finished , " The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition is impressive , hilarious and downright worth your money . " Daemon Hatfield of IGN wrote , " Almost 20 years after its release , [ The Secret of Monkey Island ] remains a blast to play . " He called the new graphics " slick , if a little generic " , and noted that the " original graphics have a certain charm to them that the fancy pants new visuals just don 't . " However , he enjoyed the redone music , the new hint function , and the added sound effects and voice acting . He summarized it as " one of the best times you 'll ever have pointing and clicking " , and noted that " few games are this funny . " Justin Calvert of GameSpot noted that " the Special Edition looks much better and is the only way to play if you want to hear ... what characters are saying , whereas the original game 's interface is less clunky . " However , he wrote that " the voice work is such a great addition to the game that it 's difficult to go back to the original edition . " He praised its humor , writing , puzzles and characters , and he believed that it had aged well . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead wrote , " Purists like me will almost certainly find something to grumble about over the span of the game , but the overall impact of the redesign is undeniably for the better . " However , he preferred the original game 's Guybrush design , and believed that the new control system was " rather less intuitive " than the old one . He finished by stating that " few games can stand the test of time with such confidence " .
= = Legacy = =
The Secret of Monkey Island spawned four sequels . The first , Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge , was released in 1991 and focuses on LeChuck 's return . Six years later , LucasArts released The Curse of Monkey Island , which features a new visual design . In 2000 , the company released Escape from Monkey Island , which uses the GrimE engine of Grim Fandango to produce 3D graphics . The next title , Tales of Monkey Island released in 2009 , is a series of five episodic chapters .
Elements of the game have appeared elsewhere in popular culture . The original version was selected as one of five for the exhibition The Art of Video Games in the Smithsonian American Art Museum in 2011 . A fictive drink recipe in the game for grog was mistakenly reported as real in 2009 by Argentinian news channel C5N , which urged adolescents against consuming the dangerous " Grog XD " drink . In Tales of Monkey Island , Guybrush refers to this news story while pushing the Grog XD button on a Grog machine .
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= Temple of Eshmun =
The Temple of Eshmun ( Arabic : معبد أشمون ) is an ancient place of worship dedicated to Eshmun , the Phoenician god of healing . It is located near the Awali river , 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Sidon in southwestern Lebanon . The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD , suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon . Although originally constructed by Sidonian king Eshmunazar II in the Achaemenid era ( c . 529 – 333 BC ) to celebrate the city 's recovered wealth and stature , the temple complex was greatly expanded by Bodashtart , Yatan @-@ milk and later monarchs . Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreign hegemony , the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences .
The sanctuary consists of an esplanade and a grand court limited by a huge limestone terrace wall that supports a monumental podium which was once topped by Eshmun 's Graeco @-@ Persian style marble temple . The sanctuary features a series of ritual ablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river ( modern Awali ) and from the sacred " Ydll " spring ; these installations were used for therapeutic and purificatory purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun . The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value , especially those inscribed with Phoenician texts , providing valuable insight into the site 's history and that of ancient Sidon .
The Eshmun Temple was improved during the early Roman Empire with a colonnade street , but declined after earthquakes and fell into oblivion as Christianity replaced paganism and its large limestone blocks were used to build later structures . The temple site was rediscovered in 1900 by local treasure hunters who stirred the curiosity of international scholars . Maurice Dunand , a French archaeologist , thoroughly excavated the site from 1963 until the beginning of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975 . After the end of the hostilities and the retreat of Israel from Southern Lebanon , the site was rehabilitated and inscribed to the World Heritage Site tentative list .
= = Eshmun = =
Eshmun was the Phoenician god of healing and renewal of life ; he was one of the most important divinities of the Phoenician pantheon and the main male divinity of Sidon . Originally a nature divinity , and a god of spring vegetation , Eshmun was equated to Babylonian deity Tammuz . His role later expanded within the Phoenician pantheon , and he gained celestial and cosmic attributes .
The myth of Eshmun was related by the sixth century Syrian Neoplatonist philosopher Damascius and ninth century Patriarch of Constantinople , Photius . They recount that Eshmun , a young man from Beirut , was hunting in the woods when Astarte saw him and was stricken by his beauty . She harassed him with her amorous pursuit until he emasculated himself with an axe and died . The grieving goddess revived Eshmun and transported him to the heavens where she made him into a god of heaven .
From a historical perspective , the first written mention of Eshmun goes back to 754 BC , the date of the signing of the treaty between Assyrian king Ashur @-@ nirari V and Mati 'el , king of Arpad ; Eshmun figures in the text as a patron of the treaty .
Eshmun was identified with Asclepius as a result of the Hellenic influence over Phoenicia ; the earliest evidence of this equation is given by coins from Amrit and Acre from the third century BC . This fact is exemplified by the Hellenized names of the Awali river which was dubbed Asclepius fluvius , and the Eshmun Temple 's surrounding groves , known as the groves of Asclepius .
= = History = =
= = = Historical background = = =
In the 9th century BC , the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II conquered the Lebanon mountain range and its coastal cities . The new sovereigns exacted tribute from Sidon , along with every other Phoenician city . These payments stimulated Sidon 's search for new means of provisioning and furthered Phoenician emigration and expansion , which peaked in the 8th century BC . When Assyrian king Sargon II died in 705 BC , the Sidonian king Luli joined with the Egyptians and Judah in an unsuccessful rebellion against Assyrian rule , but was forced to flee to Kition ( modern Larnaca in Cyprus ) with the arrival of the Assyrian army headed by Sennacherib , Sargon II 's son and successor . Sennacherib instated Ittobaal on the throne of Sidon and reimposed the annual tribute . When Abdi @-@ Milkutti ascended to Sidon 's throne in 680 BC , he also rebelled against the Assyrians . In response , the Assyrian king Esarhaddon laid siege to the city . Abdi @-@ Milkutti was captured and beheaded in 677 BC after a three @-@ year siege , while his city was destroyed and renamed Kar @-@ Ashur @-@ aha @-@ iddina ( the harbor of Esarhaddon ) . Sidon was stripped of its territory , which was awarded to Baal I , the king of rival Tyre and loyal vassal to Esarhaddon . Baal I and Esarhaddon signed a treaty in 675 in which Eshmun 's name features as one of the deities invoked as guarantors of the covenant .
= = = Construction = = =
Sidon returned to its former level of prosperity while Tyre was besieged for 13 years ( 586 – 573 BC ) by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar II . Nevertheless , the Sidonian king was still held in exile at the court of Babylon . Sidon reclaimed its former standing as Phoenicia 's chief city in the Achaemenid Empire ( c.529 – 333 BC ) . During this period , Xerxes I awarded king Eshmunazar II with the Sharon plain for employing Sidon 's fleet in his service during the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
Eshmunazar II displayed his new @-@ found wealth by constructing numerous temples to Sidonian divinities . Inscriptions found on the king 's sarcophagus reveal that he and his mother , Amashtarte , built temples to the gods of Sidon , including the Temple of Eshmun by the " Ydll source near the cistern " .
As two series of inscriptions on the foundations of the monumental podium attest , construction of the sanctuary 's podium did not begin until the reign of King Bodashtart . The first set of inscriptions bears the name of Bodashtart alone , while the second contains his name and that of the crown prince Yatan @-@ milk . A Phoenician inscription , located 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) upstream from the temple , that dates to the 14th year of Bodashtart 's reign , alludes to water adduction works from the Awali river to the " Ydll " source that was used for ritual purification at the temple .
= = = Roman era & Decline = = =
The Eshmun sanctuary was damaged by an earthquake in the fourth century BC , which demolished the marble temple atop the podium ; this structure was not rebuilt but many chapels and temples were later annexed at the base of the podium .
The temple site remained a place of pilgrimage in the classical antiquity during the early Roman Empire and until the advent of Christianity , when the cult of Eshmun was banned and a Christian church was built at the temple site across the Roman street from the podium . Remnants and mosaic floors of a Byzantine church can still be seen on the site .
A Roman colonnade was built in the third century , probably by emperor Septimius Severus , and a Roman Villa showed a period of renewed relative importance for the city during the late period of Phoenicia under Roman rule . Furthermore , within the original Phoenician temple site the Romans added the processional stairway , the basins for ablutions and a nymphaeum with pictorial mosaics , that are still largely intact . Worn statuettes of three nymphs stand in the niches of a Roman fountain .
Another earthquake hit Sidon around 570 AD ; Antoninus of Piacenza , an Italian Christian pilgrim , described the city as partly in ruins . For many years after the disappearance of the cult of Eshmun , the sanctuary site was used as a quarry : Emir Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din II , for example , used its massive blocks to build a bridge over the Awali river in the 17th century .
The site later fell into oblivion until the XIX century
= = = Modern discovery = = =
Between 1737 and 1742 , Richard Pococke , an English anthropologist , toured the Middle East and wrote of what he thought were ruins of defensive walls built with 3 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 12 ft ) stone blocks near the Awali river . When the French orientalist Ernest Renan visited the area in 1860 , he noticed that the Awali bridge abutments were built of finely rusticated blocks that originated from an earlier structure . He also noted in his report , Mission de Phénicie , that a local treasure hunter told him of a large edifice near the Awali bridge .
In 1900 , local clandestine treasure hunters digging at the Eshmun Temple site haphazardly discovered inscriptions carved onto the temple 's walls . This discovery stirred the interest of Theodore Macridy , curator of the Museum of Constantinople , who cleared the temple remains between 1901 and 1903 . Wilhelm Von Landau also excavated the site between 1903 and 1904 . In 1920 , Gaston Contenau headed a team of archaeologists who surveyed the temple complex . The first extensive archaeological excavation revealing the Eshmun Temple remains was undertaken by Maurice Dunand between 1963 and 1975 . Archaeological evidence shows that the site was occupied from the seventh century BC to the eighth century AD .
= = = After 1975 = = =
During the Lebanese Civil War and the Israeli occupation of South Lebanon ( 1985 – 2000 ) , the temple site was neglected and was invaded by vegetation overgrowth ; it was cleared and recovered its former condition after the Israeli withdrawal . Today the Eshmun sanctuary can be visited all year round and free of charge , it is accessible from an exit ramp off the main Southern Lebanon highway near Sidon 's northern entrance . The site holds a particular archaeological importance since it is the best preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon ; it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List 's Cultural category on July 1 , 1996 .
In literature , the temple of Eshmun figures in Nabil Saleh 's 2009 novel , The Curse of Ezekiel as the setting where Bomilcar falls in love and rescues princess Chiboulet from the evil design of one of the temple 's priests .
= = Location = =
A number of ancient texts mention the Eshmun Temple and its location . The Phoenician inscriptions on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II , a Sidonian king , commemorate the construction of a " house " for the " holy prince " Eshmun by the king and his mother , queen Amashtart , at the " Ydll source by the cistern " . Dionysius Periegetes , an ancient Greek travel writer , identified the Eshmun temple by the Bostrenos River , and Antonin de Plaisance , a 6th @-@ century AD Italian pilgrim recorded the shrine as near the river Asclepius fluvius.Strabo and other Sidonian sources describe the sanctuary and its surrounding " sacred forests " of Asclepius , the Hellenized name of Eshmun , in written texts .
Located about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) south of Beirut and 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Sidon , the Eshmun Temple sits on the southern bank of the modern Awali river , previously referred to as Bostrenos or Asclepius fluvius in ancient text . Citrus groves , known as Bustan el @-@ Sheikh ( Arabic : بستان الشيخ , the grove of the Sheikh ) , occupy the ancient " sacred forests " of Asclepius and are a favorite summer picnic location for locals .
= = Architecture and description = =
Built under Babylonian rule ( 605 – 539 BC ) , the oldest monument at the site is a pyramidal building resembling a ziggurat that includes an access ramp to a water cistern . Fragments of marble column bases with Torus moldings and facetted columns found east of the podium are also attributed to the Babylonian era .
The pyramidal structure was superimposed during Persian rule by a massive ashlar podium constructed from heavily bossed limestone blocks that measured more than 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) across by 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) thick , which were laid down in courses 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high . The podium stands 22 metres ( 72 ft ) high , runs50 metres ( 160 ft ) into the hillside , and boasts a 70 @-@ metre ( 230 ft ) wide façade . The terrace atop of the podium was once covered by a Greco @-@ Persian style marble temple probably built by Ionic artisans around 500 BC . The marble temple has been reduced to a few remaining stone fragments due to theft .
During the Hellenistic period , the sanctuary was extended from the base of the podium across the valley . To the east base of the podium stands a large chapel , 10 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 34 ft × 38 ft ) , dating to the 4th century BC . The chapel was adorned with a paved pool and a large stone throne carved of a single block of granite in the Egyptian style ; it is flanked by two sphinx figures and surrounded by two lion sculptures . The throne , attributed to the Sidonian goddess Astarte , rests against the chapel wall , which is embellished by relief sculptures of hunting scenes . The once important Astarte basin lost its function during the 2nd century AD and was filled with earth and statue fragments . The west base contains another 4th century BC chapel — centered on a bull protome topped capital — that remains preserved at the National Museum of Beirut .
Widely known as the " Tribune of Eshmun " because of its shape , the altar of Eshmun is a white marble structure dating to the 4th century BC . It is 2 @.@ 15 metres ( 7 @.@ 1 ft ) long by 2 @.@ 26 metres ( 7 @.@ 4 ft ) wide and 2 @.@ 17 metres ( 7 @.@ 1 ft ) tall . Unearthed in 1963 by Maurice Dunand , it stands on a limestone socleplated with marble blocks that rest against a retaining wall . The altar is adorned with Hellenistic style relief sculptures and is framed by decorative moldings , one of which divides the altar into two distinct registers of symmetrical composition . The upper register portrays 18 Greek deities , including two charioteers surrounding the Greek god Apollo , who is depicted playing a cithara ( a type of lyre ) . The lower register honors Dionysus , who leads his thiasos ( his ecstatic revenue ) in a dance to the music of pipe and cithara players . The Tribune is displayed at the National Museum of Beirut .
Northeast of the site , another 3rd century BC temple stands adjacent to the Astarte chapel . Its 22 @-@ metre ( 72 ft ) façade is built with large limestone blocks and displays a two @-@ register relief decoration illustrating a drunken revelry in honor of Dionysus , the Greek god of wine . Among the temple reliefs , one shows a man attempting to seize a large rooster which was the common sacrificial animal for Eshmun @-@ Asclepius .
The Eshmun Temple complex comprises an elaborate hydraulic installation channeling water from " Ydll " spring that is made up of an intricate system of water canals , a series of retaining basins , sacred ablution basins and paved pools . This system demonstrates the importance of ritual ablutions in Phoenician therapeutic cults .
Later vestiges date from the Roman epoch and include a colonnaded road lined with shops . Of the large marble columns bordering the Roman street only fragments and bases remain . The Romans also built a monumental staircase adorned with mosaic patterns that leads to the top of the podium . To the right of the Roman road , near the entrance of the site stands a nymphaeum with niches where statues of the nymphs once stood . The floor of the nymphaeum is covered by a mosaic depicting the Maenads . Across the colonnaded road , facing the nymphaeum , are the ruins of a Roman villa ; only the villa 's courtyard has survived along with the remains of a mosaic depicting the four seasons . To the right of the processional Roman staircase stands a cubic altar , also of Roman construction . Other Roman period structures include two columns of a great portico leading to pools and other cultic installations .
= = Function = =
Eshmun 's cult enjoyed a particular importance at Sidon as he was the chief deity after 500 BC . Aside from the extramural sanctuary at Bustan el @-@ Sheikh , Eshmun also had a temple within the city . The extramural Eshmun Temple was associated with purification and healing ; ritual lustral ablutions were performed in the sanctuary 's sacred basins supplemented by running water from the Asclepius River and the " Ydll " spring water which was considered to have a sacred character and therapeutic quality . The healing attributions of Eshmun were combined with his divine consort Astarte 's fertilizing powers ; the latter had an annex chapel with a sacred paved pool within the Eshmun sanctuary . Pilgrims from all over the ancient world flocked to the Eshmun Temple leaving votive traces of their devotion and proof of their cure . There is evidence that from the 3rd century BC onwards there have been attempts to Hellenize the cult of Eshmun and to associate him with his Greek counterpart Asclepius , but the sanctuary retained its curative function .
= = Artifacts and finds = =
Apart from the large decorative elements , carved friezes and mosaics which were left in situ , many artifacts were recovered and moved from the Eshmun Temple to the national museum , the Louvre or are in possession of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities . Some of these smaller finds include a collection of inscribed ostraca unearthed by Dunand providing rare examples of cursive Phoenician writing in the Phoenician mainland . One of the recovered ostracon bears the theophoric Phoenician name " grtnt " which suggests that veneration of the lunar @-@ goddess Tanit occurred in Sidon .
A number of fragmented votive life @-@ size sculptures of little children lying on their side and holding a pet animal or a small object were also recovered at the temple site ; among the best known of these is a sculpture of a royal child holding a dove with his right hand ; the boy 's head is shaved , his torso is bare and his lower body is wrapped in a large cloth . The socle of this sculpture is inscribed with a dedication from Baalshillem , the son of a Sidonian king to Eshmun , which illustrates the importance of the site to the Sidonian monarchy . These votive sculptures appear to have been purposely broken after dedication to Eshmun and then ceremoniously cast into the sacred canal , probably simulating the sacrifice of the sick child . All of these sculptures represent boys . A31.5 cm × 27 cm ( 12 @.@ 4 in × 10 @.@ 6 in ) limestone bust of a Kouros dating from the 6th century BC was found at the site , but unlike the archaic Greek kouroi this figure is not bare .
Among the notable finds is a golden plaque showing a snake curling on a staff , a Hellenic symbol of Eshmun. and a granite altar bearing the name of Egyptian Pharaoh Achoris uncovered in the Eshmun sanctuary . This gift attests to the good relations between the Pharaoh and the kings of Sidon .
The repute of the sanctuary was far reaching . Cypriot pilgrims from Paphos left marks of their devotion for Astarte on a marble stele inscribed both in Greek and Cypriot syllabary at Astarte 's shrine ; this stele is now in the custody of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities .
= = Pillaging = =
Treasure hunters have sought out the Eshmun Temple since antiquity ; around 1900 artifacts bearing Phoenician inscriptions from the temple site found their way to Beirutine antiquities markets where they stirred the interest of the Ottoman authorities and prompted a series of archeological digs . During the civil war , upon a request from then Lebanese director general of antiquities Maurice Chehab , Maurice Dunand moved more than 2000 artifacts from Sidon to a subterranean chamber at the Byblos crusader castle , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of Beirut . In 1981 , the depot was looted and around 600 sculptures and architectural elements were stolen and smuggled out of Lebanon . Rolf Stucky , ex @-@ director of the Institute of Classical Archeology of Basel affirmed during a conference in Beirut in December 2009 the successful identification and return of eight sculptures to the Lebanese national museum .
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= Wilhelm Busch =
Heinrich Christian Wilhelm Busch ( 15 April 1832 – 9 January 1908 ) was a German humorist , poet , illustrator and painter . He published comic illustrated cautionary tales from 1859 , achieving his most notable works in the 1870s . Busch 's illustrations used wood engraving , and later , zincography .
Busch drew on contemporary parochial and city life , satirizing Catholicism , Philistinism , strict religious morality and bigotry . His comic text was colourful and entertaining , using onomatopoeia , neologisms and other figures of speech , and led to some work being banned by the authorities .
Busch was influential in both poetry and illustration , and became a source for future generations of comic artists . The Katzenjammer Kids was inspired by Busch 's Max and Moritz , one of a number of imitations produced in Germany and the United States . The Wilhelm Busch Prize and the Wilhelm Busch Museum help maintain his legacy . His 175th anniversary in 2007 was celebrated throughout Germany . Busch remains one of the most influential poets and artists in Western Europe .
= = Family background = =
In the late 18th century Johann Georg Kleine , Wilhelm Busch 's maternal grandfather , settled in the small village of Wiedensahl . There , in 1817 , he bought a thatched half @-@ timbered house , where Wilhelm Busch was to be born about 15 years later . Amalie Kleine , Johann 's wife and Wilhelm Busch 's grandmother , kept a shop in which Busch 's mother Henriette assisted while her two brothers attended high school . When Johann Georg Kleine died in 1820 , his widow continued to run the shop with Henriette .
At the age of 19 Henriette Kleine married surgeon Friedrich Wilhelm Stümpe . Henriette became widowed at the age of 26 , with her three children to Stümpe dying as infants . About 1830 Friedrich Wilhelm Busch , the illegitimate son of a farmer , settled in Wiedensahl after completing a business apprenticeship in the nearby village of Loccum . He took over the Kleine shop in Wiedensahl , which he completely modernised .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Wilhelm Busch was born on 15 April 1832 , the first of seven children to the marriage of Henriette Kleine and Friedrich Wilhelm Busch . His six siblings followed shortly after : Fanny ( 1834 ) , Gustav ( 1836 ) , Adolf ( 1838 ) , Otto ( 1841 ) , Anna ( 1843 ) and Hermann ( 1845 ) ; all survived childhood . His parents were ambitious , hard @-@ working and devout Protestants who later , despite becoming relatively prosperous , could not afford to educate all three sons . Busch 's biographer Berndt W. Wessling suggested that Friedrich Wilhelm Busch invested heavily in his sons ' education partly because his own illegitimacy held significant stigma in rural areas .
The young Wilhelm Busch was a tall child , but with a rather delicate and graceful physique . The coarse boyishness of his later protagonists " Max and Moritz " was rare in his childhood . He described himself in autobiographical sketches and letters as sensitive and timid , as someone who " carefully studied apprehension " , and who reacted with fascination , compassion and distress when animals were killed in the autumn . He described the " transformation to sausage " as " dreadfully compelling " , leaving a lasting impression ; pork nauseated him throughout his life .
In the autumn of 1841 , after the birth of his brother Otto , Busch 's education was entrusted to the 35 @-@ year @-@ old clergyman Georg Kleine , his maternal uncle at Ebergötzen , this probably through lack of space in the Busch family home , and his father 's desire for a better education than the small local school could provide , where 100 children were taught within a space of 66 m2 ( 710 sq ft ) . The nearest convenient school was located in Bückeburg , 20 km ( 12 mi ) from Wiedensahl . Kleine , with his wife Fanny Petri , lived in a rectory at Ebergötzen , while Busch was lodged with an unrelated family . Kleine and his wife were responsible and caring , exercised a substitute parental role , and provided refuge for him in future unsuccessful times .
Kleine 's private lessons for Busch were also attended by Erich Bachmann , the son of a wealthy Ebergötzen miller . Both became friends , according to Busch the strongest friendship of his childhood . This friendship was echoed in the 1865 story Max and Moritz . A small pencil portrait by the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Busch depicted Bachmann as a chubby , confident boy , and showed similarities with Max . Busch portrayed himself with a " cowlick " , in the later " Moritzian " perky style .
Kleine was a philologist , his lessons not held in contemporary language , and it is not known for certain all subjects Busch and his friend were taught . Busch did learn elementary arithmetic from his uncle , although science lessons might have been more comprehensive , as Kleine , like many other clergymen , was a beekeeper , and published essays and textbooks on the subject — Busch demonstrated his knowledge of bee @-@ keeping in his future stories . Drawing , and German and English poetry , were also taught by Kleine .
Busch had little contact with his natural parents during this period . At the time , the 165 km ( 103 mi ) journey between Wiedensahl and Ebergötzen took three days by horse . His father visited Ebergötzen two to three times a year , while his mother stayed in Wiedensahl to look after the children . The 12 @-@ year @-@ old Busch visited his family once ; his mother at first did not recognize him . Some Busch biographers think that this early separation from his parents , especially from his mother , resulted in his eccentric bachelorhood . In the autumn of 1846 , Busch moved with the Kleine 's to Lüthorst , where , on 11 April 1847 , he was confirmed .
= = = Study = = =
In September 1847 Busch began studying mechanical engineering at Hanover Polytechnic . Busch 's biographers are not in agreement as to why his Hanover education ended ; most believe that his father had little appreciation of his son 's artistic inclination . Biographer Eva Weissweiler suspects that Kleine played a major role , and that other possible causes were Busch 's friendship with an innkeeper , Brümmer , political debates in Brümmer 's tavern , and Busch 's reluctance to believe every word of the Bible and catechism .
Busch studied for nearly four years at Hanover , despite initial difficulties in understanding the subject matter . A few months before graduation he confronted his parents with his aspiration to study at the Düsseldorf Art Academy . According to Bush 's nephew Hermann Nöldeke , his mother supported this inclination . His father eventually acquiesced and Busch moved to Düsseldorf in June 1851 , where , to his disappointment at not being admitted to the advanced class , he entered preparatory classes . Busch 's parents had his tuition fees paid for one year , so in May 1852 he traveled to Antwerp to continue study at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts under Josephus Laurentius Dyckmans . He led his parents to believe that the Academy was less regimented than Düsseldorf , and had the opportunity to study old masters . At Antwerp he saw for the first time paintings by Peter Paul Rubens , Adriaen Brouwer , David Teniers and Frans Hals . The pictures aroused his interest , but made him doubt his own skills . Eventually , in 1853 , after suffering heavily from typhus , he abandoned his Antwerp studies and returned penniless to Wiedensahl .
= = = Munich = = =
Busch was ravaged by disease , and for five months spent time painting and collecting folk tales , legends , songs , ballads , rhymes and fragments of regional superstitions . Busch 's biographer Joseph Kraus saw these collections as useful additions to folklore , as Busch noted the narrative background to tales and the idiosyncrasies of storytellers . Busch tried to release the collections , but as a publisher could not be found at the time they were issued after his death . During the Nazi era Busch was known as an " ethnic seer " .
After Busch had spent six months with his uncle Kleine at Lüthorst , he expressed an aim to continue study in Munich . This request caused a rift with his father who , however , eventually funded this move ; - see for comparison Busch 's illustrated story of Painter Klecksel . Busch 's expectations of the Munich Academy of Fine Arts were not met . His life became aimless ; there were occasional return visits to Lüthorst , but contact with his parents had been broken off . In 1857 and 1858 , as his position seemed to be without prospects , he contemplated emigration to Brazil to keep bees .
Busch made contact with the artist association Jung München ( Young Munich ) , met several notable Munich artists , and wrote and provided cartoons for the Jung München newspaper . Kaspar Braun , who published the satirical newspapers Münchener Bilderbogen ( Picture Sheets from Munich ) and Fliegende Blätter ( Flying Leaves ) , proposed a collaboration with Busch . This association provided Busch with sufficient funds to live . An existing self @-@ caricature suggests that at this time he had an intense relationship with a woman from Ammerland . His courtship with a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old merchant 's daughter , Anna Richter , whom Busch met through his brother Gustav , ended in 1862 . Busch 's biographer , Diers , suggests that her father probably refused to entrust his daughter to an almost unknown artist without regular income .
In his early Munich years Busch 's attempt to write libretti , which are almost forgotten today , were unsuccessful . Up to 1863 he worked on two or three major works ; the third was composed by Georg Kremplsetzer . Busch 's Liebestreu und Grausamkeit , a romantic opera in three acts , Hansel und Gretel and Der Vetter auf Besuch , an opera buffa of sorts , were not particularly successful . There was a dispute between Busch and Kremplsetzer during the staging of Der Vetter auf Besuch , leading to the removal of Busch 's name from the production ; the piece was renamed Singspiel von Georg Kremplsetzer .
In 1873 Busch returned several times to Munich , and took part in the intense life of the Munich Art Society as an escape from provincial life . In 1877 , in a last attempt to be a serious artist , he took a studio in Munich . He left Munich abruptly in 1881 , after he disrupted a variety show and subsequently made a scene through the effects of alcohol The 1878 nine episode illustrated tale Eight Sheets in the Wind describes how humans behave like animals when drunk . Busch 's biographer Weissweiler felt the story was only superficially funny and harmless , but was a study on addiction and its induced state of delusion .
= = = Publication of Max and Moritz = = =
Between 1860 and 1863 Busch wrote over one hundred articles for the Münchener Bilderbogen and Fliegende Blätter , but he felt his dependence on publisher Kaspar Braun had become constricting . Busch appointed Dresden publisher Heinrich Richter , the son of Saxon painter Ludwig Richter , as his new publisher — Richter 's press up to that time was producing children 's books and religious Christian devotional literature . Busch could choose themes , although Richter raised some concerns regarding four suggested illustrated tales that were proposed . However , some were published in the 1864 as Bilderpossen , proving a failure . Busch then offered Richter the manuscripts of Max and Moritz , waiving any fees . Richter rejected the manuscript as sales prospects seemed poor . Busch 's former publisher , Braun , purchased the right to Max and Moritz for 1 @,@ 000 gulden , corresponding to approximately double the annual wage of a craftsman .
For Braun the manuscript was fortuitous . Initially the sales of Max and Moritz were slow , but sales figures improved after the 1868 second edition . Overall there were 56 editions and more than 430 @,@ 000 copies sold up to Busch 's death in 1908 . Despite at first being ignored by critics , teachers in the 1870s described Max and Moritz as frivolous and an undesirable influence on the moral development of young people .
= = = Frankfurt = = =
Increasing economic success allowed Busch to visit Wiedensahl more frequently . Busch had decided to leave Munich , as only few relatives lived there , and the artists ' association was temporarily disbanded . In June 1867 Busch met his brother Otto for the first time , in Frankfurt . Otto was working as a tutor to the family of a wealthy banker and industrialist , Kessler . Busch became friends with Kessler 's wife , Johanna , a mother of seven and an influential art and music patron of Frankfurt . She regularly opened salons at her villa , frequented by artists , musicians and philosophers . She believed Busch to be a great painter , a view supported by Anton Burger , a leading painter of the Kronberger Malerkolonie , the Kronberg @-@ based group of painters . While his humorous drawings did not appeal to her , she supported his painting career . At first she established an apartment and studio for Busch in her villa , later providing him with an apartment nearby . Motivated by Kessler 's support and admiration , and introduction to the cultural life of Frankfurt , the ' Frankfurter Years ' were the most artistically productive for Busch . At this time he and Otto discovered the philosophical works of Arthur Schopenhauer .
Busch did not remain in Frankfurt . Towards the end of the 1860s he alternated between Wiedensahl and Lüthorst , and Wolfenbüttel where his brother Gustav lived . The association with Johanna Kessler lasted five years , and after his return to Wiedensahl in 1872 they communicated by letter . This contact was interrupted between 1877 and 1891 , after which it was revived with the help of Kessler 's daughters .
= = = Later life = = =
Biographer Weissweiler does not dismiss the possibility that Busch 's increasing alcohol dependence hindered self @-@ criticism . He refused invitations to parties , and publisher Otto Basserman sent him to Wiedensahl to keep his alcohol problem undetected from those around him . Busch was also a heavy smoker , resulting in symptoms of severe nicotine poisoning in 1874 . He began to illustrate drunkards more often .
Dutch writer Marie Anderson corresponded with Busch . More than fifty letters were exchanged between January and October 1875 in which they discussed philosophy , religion and ethics . Although only one Anderson letter survives , Busch 's letters are in manuscripts . They met in Mainz in October 1875 , after which he returned to Basserman at Heidelback in a " horrible mood " . According to several people at the time , Busch 's failure to find a wife was responsible for his conspicuous behaviour . There is no evidence that Busch had a close relationship with any woman after that with Anderson .
Busch lived with his sister Fanny 's family after her husband Pastor Hermann Nöldeke 's death in 1879 . His nephew Adolf Nöldeke remembers that Busch wanted to move back to Wiedensahl with the family . Busch renovated the house , which Fanny looked after even though he was a rich man , and became " father " to his three young nephews . She would , however , have preferred to live in a more urban area for the education of her sons . For Fanny and her three sons , Busch could not replace their former idyllic life . The years around 1880 were psychically and emotionally exhausting for Busch , who was still reliant on alcohol . He would not invite visitors to Wiedensahl ; because of this Fanny lost contact with her friends in the village , and whenever she questioned his wishes , Busch became furious ; Even his friends Otto Friedrich Bassermann , Franz von Lenbach , Hermann Levi and Wilhelm von Kaulbach were not invited ; he would meet them in Kassel or Hanover .
Busch stopped painting in 1896 and signed @-@ over all publication rights to Bassermann Verlag for 50 @,@ 000 gold marks . Busch , now aged 64 , felt old . He needed spectacles for writing and painting , and his hands trembled slightly . In 1898 , together with his aging sister Fanny Nöldeke , he accepted Bassermann 's suggestion to move into a large parsonage in Mechtshausen . Busch read biographies , novels and stories in German , English and French . He organized his works and wrote letters and poems . Most of the poems from the collections Schein und Sein and Zu guter Letzt were written in 1899 . The following years were eventless for Busch . He developed a sore throat in early January 1908 , and his doctor detected a weak heart . During the night of 8 – 9 January 1908 Busch slept uneasily , taking camphor , and a few drops of morphine as a tranquilizer . Busch died the following morning before his physician , called by Otto Nöldeke , came to assist .
= = Work = =
During the Frankfort period Busch published three self @-@ contained illustrated satires . Their anti @-@ clerical themes proved popular during the Kulturkampf . Busch 's satires typically did not address political questions , but exaggerated churcheyness , superstition and philistine double @-@ standards . This exaggeration made at least two of the works historically erroneous . The third illustrated satire , Father Filucius ( Pater Filucius ) , described by Busch as an " allegorical mayfly " , has greater historical context .
= = = Max and Moritz = = =
In German Eine Bubengeschichte in sieben Streichen , Max and Moritz is a series of seven illustrated stories concerning the mischievous antics of two boys , who are eventually ground @-@ down and fed to ducks .
= = = Saint Antonius of Padua and Helen Who Couldn 't Help It = = =
In Saint Antonius of Padua ( Der Heilige Antonius von Padua ) Busch challenges Catholic belief . It was released by the publisher Moritz Schauenburg at the time Pope Pius IX proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility that was harshly criticized by Protestants . The publisher 's works were heavily scrutinized or censored , and the state 's attorney in Offenburg charged Schauenberg with " vilification of religion and offending public decency through indecent writings " — a decision which affected Busch . Scenes of Antonius accompanied by a pig being admitted to heaven , and the devil being shown as a half @-@ naked ballet dancer seducing Antonius , were deemed controversial . The district court of Düsseldorf subsequently banned Saint Antonius . Schauenburg was acquitted on 27 March 1871 in Offenburg , but in Austria the satire 's distribution was prohibited until 1902 . Schauenburg refused to publish further Busch satires to avoid future accusations .
Busch 's following work , Helen Who Couldn 't Help It ( Die fromme Helene ) , was published by Otto Friedrich Bassermann , a friend whom Busch met in Munich . Helen Who Couldn 't Help It , which was soon translated into other European languages , satirizes religious hypocrisy and dubious morality :
Many details from Helen Who Couldn 't Help It criticizes the way of life of the Kesslers . Johanna Kessler was married to a much older man and entrusted her children to governesses and tutors , while she played an active role in the social life of Frankfurt .
The character of Mr. Schmock — the name based on the Yiddish insult " schmuck " — shows similarities with Johanna Kessler 's husband , who was uninterested in art and culture .
In the second part of Helen Who Couldn 't Help It Busch attacks Catholic pilgrimages . The childless Helen goes on a pilgrimage , accompanied by her cousin and Catholic priest Franz . The pilgrimage is successful as later Helen gives birth to twins , who resemble Helen and Franz . Franz is later killed by a jealous valet , Jean , for his interest in female kitchen staff . The now widowed Helen is left with only a rosary , prayer book and alcohol . Drunk , she falls into a burning oil lamp . Finally , Nolte coins a moral phrase , echoing the philosophy of Schopenhauer :
Pater Filucius ( Father Filucius ) is the only illustrated satire of this period suggested by the publisher . Also aimed at anti @-@ Catholic taste and buyers , it criticizes the Jesuit Order . Kraus felt it was the weakest of all three anti @-@ clerical works . Some satires refer to contemporary events , such as Monsieur Jacques à Paris during the Siege of 1870 ( Monsieur Jacques à Paris während der Belagerung von 1870 ) . Busch biographer Manuela Diers declares the story " tasteless work , drawing on anti @-@ French emotions and mocking the misery of French people in Paris , which is occupied by Prussian troops " . It depicts an increasingly desperate French citizen who at first eats a mouse during the German siege , then amputates his dog 's tail to cook it , and finally invents an explosion pill which kills his dog and two fellow citizens . Weissweiler believes that Busch wrote with irony . In Eginhard and Emma ( 1864 ) , a fictional family story that takes place in the Charlemagne era , he criticizes the Holy Roman Empire and calls for a German empire in its place ; in The Birthday or the Particularists ( Der Geburtstag oder die Partikularisten ) he satirizes the anti @-@ Prussian sentiments of his Hanover countrymen .
= = = Critique of the Heart = = =
Busch did not write further illustrated tales for a while , and focused on the literary Kritik des Herzens ( Critique of the Heart ) , wanting to appear more serious to his readers . Contemporary reception for the collection of 81 poems was mainly poor ; it was criticized for its focus on marriage and sexuality . His long @-@ time friend Paul Lindau called it " very serious , heartfelt , charming poems " . Dutch writer Marie Anderson was one of few people who enjoyed his Kritik des Herzens , and even planned to publish it in a Dutch newspaper .
= = = Adventures of a Bachelor = = =
Notwithstanding the hiatus after moving from Frankfurt , the 1870s were one of Busch 's most productive decades . In 1874 he produced the short illustrated tale Diddle @-@ Boom ! ( Dideldum ! ) .
Following , in 1875 , was the Knopp Trilogy , about the life of Tobias Knopp : Adventures of a Bachelor ( Abenteuer eines Junggesellen ) , Mr. and Mrs. Knopp ( Herr und Frau Knopp ) ( 1876 ) , and " Julie " ( Julchen ) ( 1877 ) . The antagonists of the trilogy are not pairs of nuisances as with Max and Moritz or Jack Crook , Bird of Evil ( Hans Huckebein , der Unglücksrabe ) . Without pathos , Busch makes Knopp become aware of his mortality :
In the first part of the trilogy , Knopp is depressed and will look for a wife . He visits his old friends and their wives who he finds in unenviable relationships . Still not convinced that the life of a bachelor is one for him , he returns home , and without further ado proposes to his housekeeper . The following marriage proposal is , according to Busch biographer Joseph Kraus , one of the shortest in the history of German literature :
According to Wessling , Busch became skeptical of marriage after writing the story . To Marie Anderson he wrote : " I will never marry ( ... ) I am already in good hands with my sister " .
= = = Last works = = =
Among Busch 's last works were the stories Clement Dove , the Poet Thwarted ( Balduin Bählamm , der verhinderte Dichter ) ( 1883 ) and Painter Squirtle ( Maler Klecksel ) ( 1884 ) , both of which focus on artistic failure , and indirectly his own failure . Both stories begin with a preface , which , for biographer Joseph Kraus , were bravura pieces of " Komische Lyrik " — German comic poetry . Clement Dove ridicules the bourgeois amateur poet circle of Munich , " The Crocodiles " ( Die Krokodile ) , and their prominent members Emanuel Geibel , Paul von Heyse and Adolf Wilbrandt . Painter Squirtle criticizes the bourgeois art connoisseur , who believes the worth of art is gauged by its price .
The prose play Edwards Dream ( Eduards Traum ) was released in 1891 , composed of several small grouped episodes , rather than one linear storyline . The work received mixed reception . Joseph Kraus felt it was the peak of Busch 's life 's work , his nephews called it a masterwork of world literature , and the publisher of a critical collective edition spoke of a narrative style that is not found in contemporary literature . Eva Weissweiler saw in the play Busch 's attempt to prove himself in the novella genre , believing that everything that angered or insulted him , and his accompanying emotional depths , are apparent in the story . The 1895 story The Butterfly ( Der Schmetterling ) parodies themes and motifs and ridicules the religious optimism of a German romanticism which contradicted Busch 's realistic anthropology influenced by Schopenhauer and Charles Darwin . Its prose is more stringent in narrative style compared to Edwards Dream . Both were not popular amongst readers , because of their unfamiliar style .
= = = Painting = = =
Busch felt his painting skills could not compete with those of the Dutch masters . He regarded few of his paintings as finished , often stacking them one on top of the other in damp corners of his studio , where they stuck together . If the pile of paintings became too high , he burnt some in his garden . Since only a few remaining pictures are dated , categorizing them is difficult . His doubts regarding his skills are expressed in his choice of materials . His ground was usually chosen carelessly . Sometimes he used uneven cardboard or poorly @-@ prepared spruce @-@ wood boards . One exception is a portrait of Johanna Kessler , on a canvas support measuring 63 centimetres ( 25 in ) by 53 centimetres ( 21 in ) , one of his largest paintings . Most of his works , even landscapes , are small . As Busch used poor grounds and colours , most are heavily darkened and have an almost monochrome effect .
Many pictures depict the countryside at Wiedensahl and Lüthorst . They include pollarded willows , cottages in cornfields , cowherds , autumn landscapes and meadows with streams . A particular feature is the use of red jackets , found in about 280 of 1000 Busch paintings and drawings . The muted or bright red coats are worn usually by a small figure , depicted from behind . The paintings generally represent typical villages . Portraits of the Kesslers , and a series of other portraits depicting Lina Weissenborn in the mid @-@ 1870s , are exceptions . A painting of a 10 @-@ year @-@ old girl from a Jewish family at Lüthorst portrays her as serious , and having dark , oriental features .
The influence of Dutch painters is clearly visible in Busch 's work . " Hals diluted and shortened ( ... ) but still Halsian " , wrote Paul Klee after visiting a Busch memorial exhibition in 1908 . A strong influence on Busch was Adriaen Brouwer , whose themes were farming and inn life , rustic dances , card players , smokers , drunkards and rowdies . He dismissed the techniques of Impressionism with its strong preoccupation with the effect of light , and used new colours , such as Aniline Yellow , and photographs , as an aid . The landscapes from the mid @-@ 1880s show the same broad brushstrokes as seen in the paintings of the young Franz von Lenbach . Busch refused to exhibit work even though he was befriended by many artists of the Munich School , which would have allowed him to do so ; it was not until near the end of his life that he presented his paintings to the public .
= = Themes , technique and style = =
Busch biographer Joseph Kraus divided his work into three periods . He points out , however , that this classification is a simplification , as some works by their nature can be of a later or earlier period . All three periods show Busch 's obsession with German middle class life . His peasants are devoid of sensitivity and village life is marked by a vivid lack of sentiment .
From 1858 to 1865 Busch chiefly worked for the Fliegenden Blätter and the Münchener Bilderbogen . The period from 1866 to 1884 is characterized by his major illustrated stories , such as Helen Who Couldn 't Help It . These stories are different in theme from works of his earlier period . The life of his characters start well , but disintegrate , as in Painter Squirtle ( Maler Klecksel ) ; someone sensitive who becomes a pedant . Others concern recalcitrant children or animals , or make the great or significant foolish and ridiculous . The early stories follow the pattern of children 's books of orthodox education , such as those by Heinrich Hoffmann 's Struwwelpeter , that aim to teach the devastating consequences of bad behaviour . Busch did not assign value to his work , as he once explained to Heinrich Richter : " I look at my things for what they are , as Nuremberg trinkets [ toys ] , as Schnurr Pfeiferen [ worthless and useless things ] whose value is to be found not in its artistic content , but in public demand ( ... ) " .
From 1885 until his death in 1908 his work was dominated by prose and poems . The 1895 prose text Der Schmetterling contains autobiographical accounts . Peter 's enchantment by the witch Lucinde , of whom he regards himself a slave , is possibly in reference to Johanna Kessler . Peter , like Busch , returns to his birthplace . It is similar in style to the romantic travel story that Ludwig Tieck established with his 1798 Franz Sternbald 's Wanderungen . Busch plays with its traditional forms , motifs , pictures , literary topics and form of narration .
= = = Technique = = =
Publisher Kaspar Braun , who commissioned Busch 's first illustrations , had established the first workshop in Germany to use wood engraving . This letterpress printing technique was developed by English graphic artist Thomas Bewick near the end of the 18th century and became the most widely used reproduction system for illustrations over the years . Busch insisted on first making the drawings , afterwards writing the verse . Surviving preparatory drawings show line notes , ideas , and movement and physiognomy studies . The draft was then transferred by pencil on white @-@ primed panels of hardwood end grain . Not only was it hard work , but the quality of the printing block was crucial . Everything left white on the block , around Busch 's drawn lines , was cut from the plate by skilled engravers . Wood engraving allows a finer differentiation than woodcut and the potential tonal values are of almost the quality of intaglio printing , such as copper engraving . Sometimes the result was not satisfactory , leading Busch to rework or reproduce plates . The wood engraving technique did not allow for fine lines , which is why Busch 's drawing , especially in his illustrated tales up to the mid @-@ 1870s , are boldly drawn , giving his work its particular characteristic .
From the mid @-@ 1870s Busch 's illustrations were printed using zincography . With this technique there was no longer any danger that a wood engraver could change the character of his drawings . The originals were photographed and transferred onto a photosensitive zinc plate . This process allowed for the application of a clear , free pen @-@ drawn ink line , and was a much faster printing method . Busch 's use of zincography began with Mr. and Mrs. Knopp .
= = = Language = = =
The effect of Busch 's illustrations are enhanced by his forthright verse , with taunts , derision , ironic twists , exaggeration , ambiguity and startling rhymes . His language had an influence on the humorous poetry of Erich Kästner , Kurt Tucholsky , Joachim Ringelnatz and Christian Morgenstern . The contrast in his later work between comic illustration and its seemingly serious accompanying text — already demonstrated in his earlier Max and Moritz — is shown in Widow Bolte 's mawkish dignity which is disproportionate to the loss of her chickens :
Many of Brusch 's couplets , part of contemporary common usage , give the impression of weighty wisdom , but in his hands become only apparent truths , hypocrisy or platitudes . His use of onomatopoeia is a characteristic of his work : " Allez @-@ oop @-@ da " — Max and Moritz steal fried chickens with a fishing rod down a chimney — " reeker @-@ rawker " ; " at the plank from bank to bank " ; " rickle @-@ rackle " , " hear the millstones grind and crackle " ; and " tinkly @-@ clinket " as Eric the cat rips a chandelier from a ceiling in Helen Who Couldn 't Help It . Busch uses names he gives characters to describe their personality . " Studiosus Döppe " ( Young Bumbel ) has little mental ability ; " Sauerbrots " ( Sourdough ) would not be of a cheerful disposition ; and " Förster Knarrtje " ( Forester Knarrtje ) could hardly be a socialite .
Many of his picture stories use verses with trochee structure :
The overweighting of the stressed syllables strengthens the humour of the lines . Busch also uses dactyls , where one accented syllable is followed by two unaccented syllables , as in his Plisch und Plum , where they underline the pedantic and solemn words with which teacher Bokelmann educates his pupils . They create tension in the Sourdough chapter from Adventures of a Bachelor , through the alternation of trochees and dactyls . Busch often synchronizes format and content in his poems , as in Fips the Monkey , where he uses the epic hexameter in a speech about wisdom .
In both his illustrations and poems Busch uses familiar fables , occasionally appropriating their morality and stories , spinning them to illustrate a very different and comic " truth " , and bringing to bear his pessimistic view of the world and human condition . While traditional fables follow the typical philosophy of differentiating between good and evil behaviour , Busch combines both .
= = = Canings and other cruelties = = =
It is not unusual to see thrashing , tormenting and caning in Busch 's works . Sharp pencils pierced through models , housewives fall onto kitchen knives , thieves are spiked by umbrellas , tailors cut their tormentors with scissors , rascals are ground in corn mills , drunkards burn , and cats , dogs and monkeys defecate while being tormented . Busch has been frequently called a sadist by educators and psychologists . Tails that are burnt , pulled off , trapped , stretched or eaten is seen by Weissweiler as not aggression against animals , but a phallic allusion to Busch 's undeveloped sexual life . Such graphic text and imagery in cartoon form was not unusual at the time , and publishers , the public or censors found it not particularly noteworthy . Topics and motifs for his early work were derived from 18th- and 19th @-@ century popular literature , the gruesome endings of which he often softened .
Caning , a common aspect of 19th @-@ century teaching , is prevalent in many of his works , for example Meister Druff in Adventures of a Bachelor and Lehrer Bokelmann in Plish and Plum , where is shown an almost sexual pleasure in applying punishment . Beatings and humiliation are found in his later work too ; biographer Gudrun Schury described this as Busch 's life @-@ motif .
In the estate of Busch there is the note " Durch die Kinderjahre hindurchgeprügelt " ( Beaten through the childhood years ) , however there is no evidence that Busch was referring to himself . He couldn 't recall any beating from his father . His uncle Kleine beat him once , not with the conventional rattan stick , but symbolically with dried dahlia stalks , this for stuffing cow hairs into a village idiot 's pipe . Weissweiler observes that Busch probably saw canings at his village school , where he went for three years , and quite possibly also received this punishment . In Abenteuer eines Junggesellen Busch illustrates a form of nonviolent progressive education that fails in one scene , and caning in the following scene ; the canings that ensued indicate Busch 's pessimistic picture of life , which has its roots in the Protestant ethic of the 19th century , in which he believed that man is inherently evil and will never master his vices . Civilisation is the aim of education , but it can only mask man 's instincts superficially . Gentleness only leads to a continuation of man 's misdeeds , therefore punishment is required , even if he retains his unrepentant character , becomes a trained puppet , or in extreme cases , dies .
= = = Antisemitism = = =
The Panic of 1873 led to growing criticism of high finance and the spread of radical Antisemitism , which in the 1880s became a broad undercurrent . These criticisms saw a separation of capital into what was construed as " raffendes " ( speculative capital ) , and what constituted " constructive " creative production capital . The " good " , " native " and " German " manufacturer was praised by Antisemitic agitators , such as Theodor Fritsch , who opposed what he saw as " ' rapacious ' ' greedy ' , ' blood @-@ sucking ' , ' Jewish ' financial capitalism in the form of ' plutocrats ' and ' usurers ' " . Busch was thought to have embraced those stereotypes . Two passages are often underlined , one in Helen Who Couldn 't Help It :
Robert Gernhardt defended Busch by stating that Jews are satirized only in three passages , of which the oldest is an illustration of a text by another author , published in 1860 . He stated that Busch 's Jewish figures are merely stereotypical , one of a number of stereotypes , such as the " limited Bavarian farmer " and the " Prussian tourist " . Joseph Kraus shares the same view , and uses a couplet from Eight Sheets in the Wind ( Die Haarbeutel ) , in which profit @-@ seeking people are :
Although Gernhardt felt that Jews for Busch were alien , the Jewish conductor Hermann Levi befriended him , suggesting that Busch had a slight bias towards Jews .
= = Biographies = =
The first biography on Busch , Über Wilhelm Busch und seine Bedeutung ( About Wilhelm Busch and His Importance ) , was released in 1886 . The publisher Eduard Daelen , also an artist and writer , echoed Busch 's anti @-@ Catholic bias , putting him on equal footing with Leonardo da Vinci , Peter Paul Rubens and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , and uncritically quoting correspondences . Even Busch and his friends were embarrassed . Literary scholar Friedrich Theodor Vischer attacked Daelen 's biography and called him the " envious eunuch of the desiccated Philistine " . After reading this biography Johannes Proelß posted an essay in the Frankfurter Zeitung , which contained many biographical falsehoods — as a response to this , Busch wrote two articles in the same newspaper . Published in October and December 1886 , the autobiographical essay Regarding Myself ( Was Mich Betrifft ) includes basic facts , and some description of his troubles ; analysts see within the essay a deep identity crisis . Busch revised his autobiography over the following years . The last such essay was published under the title From Me About Me ( Von mir über mich ) , which includes fewer biographical details and less reflection on bitterness and amusement than Regarding Myself .
= = Legacy = =
Busch celebrated his 70th anniversary at his nephew 's house in Hattorf am Harz . Over 1 @,@ 000 congratulatory messages were sent to Mechtshausen from around the world . Wilhelm II praised the poet and artist , whose " exquisite works are full of genuine humour and are everlasting for the German people " . The Austrian Alldeutsche Vereinigung ( Pan @-@ German Association ) repealed the ban on Der heilige Antonius von Padua . Verlag Braun & Schneider , who owned the rights of Max and Moritz , gave Busch 20 @,@ 000 Reichsmark ( around € 200 @,@ 000 or $ 270 @,@ 000 ) , which was donated to two hospitals in Hanover .
Since then , on the dates of his birth and death , he has been celebrated frequently . During the 175th anniversary in 2007 , there were numerous re @-@ publications of Busch works . Deutsche Post issued stamps depicting the Busch character Hans Huckebein — itself the inspiration for the nickname of the never @-@ built Focke @-@ Wulf Ta 183 German jet fighter design of 1945 — and the German Republic minted a 10 Euro silver coin faced with his portrait . Hanover declared 2007 the " Wilhelm Busch Year " , with images featuring Busch works erected within the city centre .
The Wilhelm Busch Prize is awarded annually for satirical and humorous poetry . The Wilhelm Busch Society , active since 1930 , aims to " ( ... ) collect , scientifically revise and promote Wilhelm Busch 's works with the public " . It supports the development of caricature and satirical artwork as a recognized branch of the visual arts . It is an advocate of the Wilhelm Busch Museum . Memorials are located in places he lived , including Wiedensahl , Ebergötzen , Lüthorst , Mechtshausen and Hattorf am Harz .
= = = Influence on comics = = =
Andreas C. Knigge described Busch as the " first virtuoso " of illustrated stories . From the second half of the 20th century he was considered the " Forefather of Comics " . His early illustrations differ from those of the colleagues of Kaspar Braun . They show an increasing focus on protagonists , are less detailed in drawing and atmosphere , and develop from a dramatic understanding of the whole story . All Busch 's illustrated tales have a plot that firstly describes the circumstance , then a resulting conflict , then solution . Plots are developed through consecutive scenes , similar to film storyboards . Busch conveys an impression of movement and action , at times strengthened through a change of perspective . According to Gert Ueding , his depiction of movement is unique .
One of Busch 's notable stories is Der Virtuos ( 1865 ) , which describes the life of a pianist who plays privately for an excited listener . Satirizing the self @-@ publicizing artist 's attitude and his overblown adoration , it varies from Busch 's other stories as each scene does not contain prose , but is defined with music terminology , such as " Introduzione " , " Maestoso " and " Fortissimo vivacissimo " . As the scenes increase in tempo , each part of his body and lappet run around . The penultimate scene again depicts the pianist 's movements , with score sheets floating above the grand piano on which musical notes are dancing . Over the years graphic artists have been fascinated by Der Virtuos . August Macke , in a letter to gallery owner Herwarth Walden , described Busch as the first Futurist , stating how well he captured time and movement . Similar pioneering scenes are in Bilder zur Jobsiade ( 1872 ) . Job fails to answer rather easy questions set by twelve clergy , who shake their heads in synchronicity . Each scene is a movement study that presages Eadweard Muybridge 's photography . Muybridge began his work in 1872 , not released until 1893 .
= = = " Moritzian " influence = = =
Busch 's greatest success , both within Germany and internationally , was with Max and Moritz : Up to the time of his death it was translated into English , Danish , Hebrew , Japanese , Latin , Polish , Portuguese , Russian , Hungarian , Swedish and Walloonian . Several countries banned the story – about 1929 the Styrian school board prohibited sales of Max and Moritz to teens under eighteen . By 1997 more than 281 dialect and language translations had been produced .
Some early " Moritzian " comic strips were heavily influenced by Busch in plot and narrative style . Tootle and Bootle ( 1896 ) , borrowed so much content from Max and Moritz that it was described as a pirate edition . The true " Moritzian " recreation is The Katzenjammer Kids by German artist Rudolph Dirks , published in the New York Journal from 1897 . It was published though William Randolph Hearst 's suggestion that a pair of siblings following the pattern of " Max and Moritz " should be created . The Katzenjammer Kids is regarded as one of the oldest , continuous comic strips .
German " Moritzian " -inspired stories include Lies und Lene ; die Schwestern von Max und Moritz ( Hulda Levetzow , F. Maddalena , 1896 ) , Schlumperfritz und Schlamperfranz ( 1922 ) , Sigismund und Waldemar , des Max und Moritz Zwillingspaar ( Walther Günther , 1932 ) and Mac und Mufti ( Thomas Ahlers , Volker Dehs , 1987 ) . These are shaped by observations of the First and Second World Wars , while the original is a moral story . In 1958 the Christian Democratic Union used the Max and Moritz characters for a campaign in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , the same year that the East German satirical magazine Eulenspiegel used them to caricature black labour . In 1969 Max and Moritz " participated " in late 1960s student activism .
= = Partial list of works = =
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= Crown Fountain =
Crown Fountain is an interactive work of public art and video sculpture featured in Chicago 's Millennium Park , which is located in the Loop community area . Designed by Catalan artist Jaume Plensa and executed by Krueck and Sexton Architects , it opened in July 2004 . The fountain is composed of a black granite reflecting pool placed between a pair of glass brick towers . The towers are 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) tall , and they use light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) to display digital videos on their inward faces . Construction and design of the Crown Fountain cost $ 17 million . The water operates from May to October , intermittently cascading down the two towers and spouting through a nozzle on each tower 's front face .
Residents and critics have praised the fountain for its artistic and entertainment features . It highlights Plensa 's themes of dualism , light , and water , extending the use of video technology from his prior works . Its use of water is unique among Chicago 's many fountains , in that it promotes physical interaction between the public and the water . Both the fountain and Millennium Park are highly accessible because of their universal design .
Crown Fountain has been one of the most controversial of all the Millennium Park features . Before it was even built , some were concerned that the sculpture 's height violated the aesthetic tradition of the park . After construction , surveillance cameras were installed atop the fountain , which led to a public outcry ( and their quick removal ) .
However , the fountain has survived its contentious beginnings to find its way into Chicago pop culture . It is a popular subject for photographers and a common gathering place . While some of the videos displayed are of scenery , most attention has focused on its video clips of local residents ; hundreds of Chicagoans visit the fountain hoping to see themselves appearing on one of the fountain 's two screens . The fountain is a public play area and offers people an escape from summer heat , allowing children to frolic in the fountain 's water .
= = Concept and design = =
Grant Park , which is between Lake Michigan and the central business district , is commonly called " Chicago 's Front Yard " . Its northwest corner had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Millennium Park was conceived in 1998 as the capstone of Grant Park , to celebrate the new millennium and to feature world @-@ renowned architects , artists , designers , landscape architects , and urban planners . As of 2007 , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction . The fountain is centrally located in Chicago : it is east of Michigan Avenue and its Historic Michigan Boulevard District , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute of Chicago ; and south of Madison Street . Looking north from the fountain , viewers see some of the tallest buildings in the United States ( Aon Center , Two Prudential Plaza , and One Prudential Plaza ) .
= = = Selection of artist = = =
In December 1999 , Lester Crown and his family agreed to sponsor a water feature in Millennium Park . Unlike other park feature sponsors , the Crowns acted independently of Millennium Park officials ; they conducted independent surveys of water technologies , held their own informal design contest , and stayed active in the design and engineering of the project .
The Crowns were open @-@ minded about the choice of artist ; wanting a modern work , they solicited proposals from a list of prospective artists and architects . Jaume Plensa researched the traditions and history of fountains and studied anthropomorphism in fountain imagery . Some of his early ideas for the project referenced Buckingham Fountain , but these were soon abandoned . His presentation to the Crown family started with a slide show of fountains from the Middle Ages through the 20th century . Plensa focused on the philosophical meanings associated with fountains , their history , use and art . His presentation included computer animation of facial expressions . The other finalists were Maya Lin , who presented a low @-@ height horizontal form , and Robert Venturi , who presented a fountain that would have been 150 feet ( 46 m ) tall . In January 2000 , Plensa won the commission to design the fountain over Lin and Venturi . The installation is a video sculpture , commissioned to operate thirty years .
= = = Artistic design = = =
Prior to Crown Fountain , Plensa 's dominant theme had been dualism , which he had expanded to artworks in which the viewers are outside , and the visible subjects of the art are inside containers and hollow spaces . In the 1990s , he completed several outdoor sculptures in which he explored the use of light ( The Star of David ( 1998 ) at Stockholm 's Raoul Wallenberg Square , Bridge of Light ( 1998 ) in Jerusalem ) , and LED technology , video , and computer design ( Gläserne Seele & Mr. Net in Brandenburg ( 1999 – 2000 ) ) . In his public art , Plensa challenged himself to involve the viewer with his art , which led to his conception of the Crown Fountain . His objective was to create a socially relevant , interactive fountain for the 21st century . Since water is the focus of a fountain , and since Chicago , and especially Millennium Park , is so greatly affected by the nearby waterfront , Plensa sought to create an eternal water work to complement the local natural inspirations . Because of the colder winters common to the climate of Chicago , Plensa created a fountain that would remain vibrant when the water was inactive in the wintertime , so the fountain is an experience of light themes and the use of video technology .
Plensa explores dualism with Crown Fountain , where he has two randomly selected faces " conversing " with each other . Plensa feels that by using faces , he can represent the diversity of the city both in ethnicity and in age . The artist intends to portray the sociocultural evolution of the city by updating the collection of images . His representation has become a part of the city 's pop culture ; the first few episodes of the first season of Prison Break featured shots of the fountain .
Plensa feels that the challenge in the creation of successful work of public art is to integrate the viewer into an interactive relationship with the art . The fountain is known for encouraging its visitors to splash and slide in the reflecting pool , jostle for position under the water spout and place themselves under the cascade . This interactivity was to some degree accidental . Although the city planned for some interactivity , the transformation of the fountain into a water park for kids within hours of opening surprised Plensa . Now , when the National Weather Service issues summer heat advisories and the Governor of Illinois declares state office buildings as official daytime cooling centers , the national press points to Crown Fountain as a respite for inhabitants of the Chicago metropolitan area .
= = = Video production = = =
Approximately 75 ethnic , social , and religious Chicago organizations were asked to provide candidates whose faces would be photographed for integration into the fountain . The subjects were chosen from local schools , churches and community groups , and filming began in 2001 at the downtown campus of the School of the Art Institute of Chicago ( SAIC ) . The SAIC students filmed their subjects with a $ 100 @,@ 000 high @-@ definition HDW @-@ F900 video camera , the same model used in the production of the three Star Wars prequels . About 20 SAIC students took part in what became an informal master 's course in public art for the project . Faculty from Columbia College Chicago was also involved in the production of the video . The high @-@ definition equipment was used because of the scale of the project . Because the image proportions were like a movie screen with a width far exceeding its height , the camera was turned on its side during filming .
Each face appears on the sculpture for a total of 5 minutes using various parts of individual 80 @-@ second videos . A 40 @-@ second section is played at one @-@ third speed forward and backward , running for a total of 4 minutes . Then , there is a subsequent segment , where the mouth is puckering , that is stretched to 15 seconds . This is followed by a section , in which the water appears to spout from the open mouth , that is stretched to last for 30 seconds . Finally , there is a smile after the completion of the water spouting from the mouth , that is slowed to extend for 15 seconds . Of the original 1 @,@ 051 subjects filmed , 960 videos were determined to be usable for the project . Originally , the set of images was presumed to be the beginning of a work in progress , but as of 2009 no additional videos are planned .
To achieve the effect in which water appears to be flowing from subjects ' mouths , each video has a segment where the subject 's lips are puckered , which is then timed to correspond to the spouting water , reminiscent of gargoyle fountains . Each face is cropped so that no hair and usually no ears are visible . Since there is no tripod designed for cameras turned on their sides , an adjustable barber / dentist 's chair was used to minimize the need for the movement of the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art camera during filming . Nonetheless , in some case , digital manipulation was necessary to properly simulate puckering in the exact proper location on the video . Many of the faces had to be stretched in order to get the mouths properly positioned . Additionally , each video was color @-@ corrected for brightness , contrast and color saturation . Both the playback equipment and the final videos had to be further adjusted to account for sunlight during viewing .
= = Construction and engineering = =
The Crown family , for whom the fountain is named , donated $ 10 million of the $ 17 million construction and design cost . The Goodman family , known for funding the Goodman Theatre , was also a large contributor ; the entire $ 17 million cost was provided by private donations . The initial proposed cost for the fountain had been $ 15 million .
After two architectural firms refused the contract to make Plensa 's design a reality , the firm Krueck and Sexton Architects accepted . Public art was a departure from Krueck & Sexton 's residential and corporate office @-@ dominated portfolio , which includes buildings like the Spertus Institute . Collaboration between the artist , architectural team , and consultants proved to be crucial to the success of the project . The fountain 's black granite reflecting pool measures 48 by 232 feet ( 15 by 71 m ) and has an approximate water depth of 0 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) . It displays videos on two LED screens , each encapsulated in a glass brick tower measuring 50 by 23 by 16 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 by 7 @.@ 0 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) . The firm designed a special stainless steel T @-@ frame both to bear the load of the walls , which are 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , and to withstand lateral wind forces . The frame holds all the glass blocks and transfers the load to the base in a zigzag pattern . Rods measuring 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) in diameter anchor to the structure and project into the frame for lateral stability , while triangular corner brackets add support .
After several dozen glass manufacturing firms were interviewed , L. E. Smith Glass Company emerged as the company to produce 22 @,@ 500 glass blocks near the upper limit of the size of press glass formed from hand @-@ poured molten glass and cast iron molds . The process used sand and soda ash heated to a temperature of 2 @,@ 600 ° F ( 1 @,@ 430 ° C ) and " gathered " with a large clay ball resembling a honey dipper . Rather than use a standard plunger to ensure the glass that sagged off the rod spread to the corners of the mold , they relied on gravity . The full mold was annealed ( reheated in an oven to 1 @,@ 100 ° F ( 593 ° C ) ) and cooled . Over the course of four months of production , about 350 blocks were produced per day .
The glass was custom @-@ made at a factory in Mount Pleasant , Pennsylvania , and shipped to the structural glass panel manufacturer in Melbourne , Florida . The panels were then shipped by truck to Chicago . The glass is white glass , rather than the usual green glass that results from iron impurities . This has the tradeoff of increased image clarity , but greater dirt visibility . Each block is 5 by 10 by 2 inches ( 127 by 254 by 51 mm ) with glass thin enough to avoid image distortion . On each block , one of the six faces is polished , and the other five surfaces are textured .
The structure for the blocks was a challenge . At first , the design team had considered switching to plastic blocks , until the team found Circle Redmont Inc . , a prefabricated glass panel company in Melbourne , Florida which specializes in structural glass panel systems . Circle Redmont came up with the plan of turning grates on their sides to be used as building elements . The individual grids are 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) tall and either 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) or 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) wide with cell capacity of an average of 250 blocks . Each tower is composed of 44 grids stacked and welded . The combination of the refraction of the glass and the thinness of the metal make the grid virtually invisible .
The fountain uses 11 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 50 @,@ 000 L ) per hour , 97 % of which is recycled back into the system . Getting the water to the spout took ingenuity . Although consideration was given to omitting a LED tile , it was determined that the images would then look as though they were each missing a tooth . Instead , one tile in each tower is recessed about 6 inches ( 150 mm ) to allow the installation of 1 inch ( 25 mm ) clear tubing for the water nozzle . The water regularly spills over the fountain and down the sides of the towers and intermittently spouts from the nozzle . Two essential custom fittings contribute to the artistic vision of the fountain : a custom glass block at the upper edge for guiding the water 's descent while remaining unobtrusive , and a plastic nozzle fitted to the stainless steel frame to control the rate of water flow and reduce liability to the city for any injuries sustained by the fountain 's interactive participants . The interactive participants are usually children playing in the stream from the water spout or under the cascade . The risk that the spouting water would knock people down made the design both a legal and a physical challenge .
The fountains use over one million LEDs . The inner surface of each tower uses 147 smaller screens with a total of 264 @,@ 480 LED points ( each with two red , one blue and two green LEDs ) . The physical demands of LED screens , in particular the red , green , and blue long @-@ life light bulbs and the requisite circuitry , created three major challenges : supporting the physical structure , combating heat buildup , and optimizing perceptibility of the display . Plensa had used LED fixtures on previous projects , and thus had some experience with these issues . The LED structure is not supported as a single wall ( which would be 50 feet ( 15 m ) high ) , but rather as several segments that are noticeable as visible horizontal bands every few feet : these show where the LED equipment is supported . The heat generated is handled by fans that cool the air at the bottom , that then works its way through the chimney @-@ like tower . Perceptibility was determined to be optimal with LED lights 2 inches ( 51 mm ) behind the glass .
LEDs were chosen because they were viewed as the lowest maintenance option of the possible color changing fixtures . LEDs fit into an electrical circuit , causing illumination by the movement of electrons in the semiconductor material and making a filament unnecessary , so the bulbs never burn out and do not get too hot . Fins were added to the screens to keep direct sunlight from hitting the LEDs . Color Kinetics ( now part of Philips Solid @-@ State Lighting Solutions , which is now called Philips Color Kinetics ) ColorBlast 12 LEDs fixtures are used to illuminate the tower structures and glass in an attempt to meet Plensa 's objective that the towers have a light and translucent appearance , with their internal structures reflecting light from behind the glass surface . The electronics were designed to be adaptable to the time of day , weather and season and to meet the desired century @-@ long longevity and dependability objectives set by the design team in response to the thirty @-@ year directive .
The 9 @,@ 423 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 875 @.@ 4 m2 ) pool used 3 by 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 by 0 @.@ 91 m ) pavers that weigh 250 pounds ( 110 kg ) . The pavers were rested on screw jack pedestals in order to be leveled and shimmed . The pavers had to be perfectly leveled for the water to work correctly because the fountain incorporates numerous sensors to regulate the flow and level of the water .
During construction the underground parking garage remained open . An additional challenge was designing the structure to facilitate interior access for ongoing maintenance and repairs , while accommodating two levels of underground parking underneath . The challenge was solved by combining a T @-@ bar grid to absorb weight with about 150 " outriggers " , or " tiebacks " , inserted through the video wall to support the glass blocks and absorb wind loads . This design allows for the removal of individual glass blocks for cleaning or repair without disruption to the display . The filtered air inside the towers helps minimize the need for cleaning . Crown Fountain 's design not only included interior access for technical repairs , but also incorporated exemplary , non @-@ discriminatory , barrier @-@ free accessibility , because its interactivity is not limited to the able @-@ bodied . The force of the water accounts for the entire range of possible interactive visitors .
= = Dedication and operation = =
= = = Unveiling = = =
Construction of the video sculpture was completed for testing without the fountain 's water features on May 18 , 2004 . Originally , Plensa had planned to have each face appear for 13 minutes , and this continued to be the targeted duration when the testing of the sculpture occurred . Eventually , professors at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago convinced him to use only five @-@ minute videos .
Plensa 's design of Crown Fountain was unveiled to the public on July 16 – 18 , during the 2004 grand opening celebrations for Millennium Park , which was sponsored by J.P. Morgan Chase & Co . At the time of the unveiling , Crown Fountain , like the nearby Cloud Gate , was incomplete because only 300 of the videos had been refined for public display . It was officially dedicated on July 24 , 2004 as part of a special private fundraising party that raised $ 3 million for the Millennium Park Conservancy fund .
= = = Operation = = =
The control center for the synchronization of images , water flow , and lighting color and intensity is beneath one of the towers , in a room that covers 550 square feet ( 51 m2 ) . The room houses high @-@ definition video servers and equipment temperature sensors . Hard drives contain all the individual electronic computer files of the face videos . Generally , the computer programs automatically perform tasks such as determining when the face will pucker and , if weather conditions permit , when to turn the water on and off . Using low- rather than high @-@ resolution images was both less expensive and created a better display for the average viewer . A Barco show controller selects the sequence of faces one at a time and determines a random tower lighting selection of one of eight LED colors programmed into an Electronic Theatre Controls ( ETC ) Emphasis control system . At night , the ETC system controls spotlights that illuminate the cascading water and that are dimmed by special wet @-@ use location ground fault circuit interrupters . The control room covers an area equal to 26 parking spaces in the underground parking garage , which costs the city $ 100 @,@ 000 annually in terms of the opportunity cost of lost revenue ( in 2004 dollars ) . Maintenance issues for the fountain range from kids removing the adhesive between the bricks to pipes in need of maintenance . As of 2014 , annual upkeep costs were approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Video sculpture = = = =
The front face of each tower is animated with a continuous , dynamic exhibit of lights and electronic images . Although the screens on the towers periodically display clips of landscapes such as waterfalls , most intriguing are the display of faces of Chicago residents . About 1 @,@ 000 faces of Chicagoans are shown in a random rotation , the order determined using a Barco show controller . Each face is displayed for five minutes , with a brief period between each of these videos during which the sculpture is unlit . As a result , no more than 12 faces appear per hour during the summer . However , during the winter a version without the final one minute of puckering is shown , so the video segments then are only four minutes each . The video pattern also includes a three @-@ minute water scene every half @-@ hour and a 30 @-@ second fade @-@ to @-@ black every 15 minutes . If all the faces were shown consecutively , instead of randomly , they would each appear about once every eight days . A June 2007 article in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported that many of the subjects who had their images digitized for the project had yet to either see their own images or hear of anyone who had seen them .
The spouting water from the faces of the towers appears to be flowing from the displayed subject 's mouth from a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) nozzle located in the center of each interior face 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above the reflecting pool . Images are shown daily year @-@ round , while the water feature only operates from May 1 to approximately October 31 , weather permitting . The park is open to the public daily from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m.
Each tower is illuminated from within on three sides by approximately 70 color @-@ changing Color Kinetics LED lighting fixtures per tower , while the fourth side features opposing Barco LED display screens . At night , some of the videos are replaced by images of nature or solid colors . Also at night , the other three sides of the fountain display changing colors . The outer Color Kinetics surfaces randomly display the translucent glow of one of eight colors along with each of the inner opposing faces . As a video sculpture with a variety of cascade and water spout fountain modes , the sculpture is a fluid , dynamic evolving artwork .
= = = = Fountain = = = =
Crown Fountain has both slits and a grate for drainage ( pictured above right ) to drain the 11 @,@ 520 US gal ( 43 @,@ 608 l ; 9 @,@ 592 imp gal ) of water per minute . When the videos are not on the front of the tower , water cascades down each of the facades . The water is filtered , pumped and recirculated through the fountain . Dual pump rooms below each tower draw water from a reservoir beneath the reflecting pool . There are 12 mechanical pumps that are regulated from a control room in the underground parking garage beneath the south tower of the fountain . The water in the reflecting pool has a depth of about 0 @.@ 33 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 013 in ) .
= = Controversies = =
Before the fountain was completed in 2004 , Art Institute of Chicago president James Wood felt the columns would be too tall and other community leaders felt that the height and scale of the project stemmed from a " pissing contest " with other park feature artists . Grant Park has been protected since 1836 by " forever open , clear and free " legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings . Aaron Montgomery Ward twice sued the city of Chicago in the 1890s to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park , and to keep it from building new ones . As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park . However , Crown Fountain and Jay Pritzker Pavilion , which stands 139 feet ( 42 m ) tall , were exempt from the height restriction because they were classified as works of art and not buildings or structures .
In November 2006 , Crown Fountain became the focus of a public controversy when the city added surveillance cameras atop each tower . Purchased through a $ 52 million Department of Homeland Security grant to the Chicago area , the cameras were part of a surveillance system augmenting eight other cameras covering all of Millennium Park . The city said the cameras , similar to those used throughout the city at high @-@ crime areas and traffic intersections , were intended to remain on the towers for several months until permanent , less intrusive replacements were secured . City officials had consulted the architects who collaborated with Plensa on the tower designs , but Plensa himself had not been notified . Public reaction was negative , as bloggers and the artistic community decried the cameras on the towers as inappropriate and a blight . The city said that the cameras were largely for security reasons , but also partly to help park officials monitor burnt @-@ out lights . The Chicago Tribune quickly published an article concerning the cameras as well as the public reaction , and the cameras were removed the next day . Plensa supported their removal .
= = Updating = =
In 2014 , the hardware and software behind the fountain 's operation were replaced . At the time there were plans to replace LED lighting with incandescent bulbs on each of the non @-@ video display surfaces and to replace the video surface LEDs . Plensa , who maintained control of the video faces for the first two years of the fountain 's operation , understands that future generations may wish to update the faces used in the rotation of videos to reflect changes in humanity going forward . In 2014 , an additional 1000 faces were anticipated for 2016 .
= = Critical reception = =
Crown Fountain , Trevi Fountain , and Buckingham Fountain , as well as natural water features such as Old Faithful , are examples of the ability of water to attract people and hold their attention . Crown Fountain has more interactivity than other Chicago fountains , such as Buckingham Fountain and Lorado Taft 's Fountain of the Great Lakes and Fountain of Time ( all but the last are in Grant Park ) . These other Chicago fountains are traditional in that they discourage viewer touching ; Buckingham Fountain is surrounded by a fence , and Taft 's fountains are surrounded by moats . In contrast , Crown Fountain provides an open invitation to play in the fountain 's water .
U.S. News & World Report describes the fountain as an exemplary feature of the city 's numerous urban parks . Chicago Tribune architecture critic Blair Kamin , who is pleased with the sculptures ' verticalness , says the fountain helps appropriately depict the modern 21st @-@ century urban park . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times describes the fountain as " eye @-@ catching , crowd @-@ friendly ... high @-@ tech [ and ] ... contemporary " . The New York Times calls the fountain an " extraordinary art object " . Frommer 's describes the fountain as public art at its best . The beauty of the fountain is , as the San Francisco Chronicle explains , that it is high @-@ concept art for all to enjoy . The Financial Times refers to the fountain as a " techno @-@ fountain " . The fountain is praised for its technical features by industry magazines and has won various awards . The project won the 2006 Bombay Sapphire prize for its design work with glass . Critical reviews were not unanimous in their praise . One Chicago Tribune critic was not impressed with JumboTron @-@ like art , although he conceded the participatory element reminded him in a positive way of the jungle gym element of the Chicago Picasso .
The fountain is featured on the cover of Philip Jodidio 's 2005 book , Architecture : Art . Although Plensa is considered to be a conceptual artist , according to Jodidio , Plensa created a work whose architectural aspects are paramount . Its location juxtaposed with the Historic Michigan Boulevard District 's skywall highlights these aspects . Jodidio considers the work to be a modernization of the gargoyle theme , and feels that the scale of the enlarged faces humanize the work and challenges the architecture . The towers are an integral part of the skyline that have achieved rare permanence for contemporary art .
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= Canning Dam =
The Canning Dam and reservoir provide a major fresh water resource for the city of Perth , Western Australia . The dam is situated on the Darling Scarp and is an impoundment of the Canning River . It is noted for its innovative structural and hydraulic design that was considered to be at the forefront of concrete gravity dam design at the time of construction . The Canning Dam was Perth 's primary water supply up until the 1960s when other sources of fresh water were tapped . Currently the dam supplies approximately 20 percent of Perth 's fresh water . Inflow into the Canning Reservoir is estimated to be 22 gigalitres ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) and has a storage capacity of 90 @,@ 352 megalitres ( 3 @,@ 190 @.@ 8 × 10 ^ 6 cu ft ) .
Since its completion in 1940 , the Canning Dam has contributed to a wide range of environmental and ecological problems in surrounding regions , problems include more common algal blooms , habitat loss and sedimentation . Despite these issues , Canning Dam and the adjacent parks and forests provide a variety of recreational activities for the public such as bushwalking , historic walks and picnic facilities .
= = History = =
Development of the Canning River as a source of water for Perth was first proposed in a report of the first Metropolitan Water Works Board of Perth in 1896 . Investigation of the site began in 1897 when engineer Thomas Hodgson surveyed and proposed the dam 's current location as a possible site . However , despite the recommendations of further inquiries , and an extreme shortage of water in some years , government funds were not allocated for the construction of a dam until the Great Depression in the 1930s .
In 1924 a small pipehead dam was built 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) downstream from the present Canning Dam . It was only intended as a quick fix to the water supply problem and it soon became apparent that a major reservoir was needed , although it would be nine years before work on the current Canning Dam would begin . The new dam was completed in 1940 at a cost of AU £ 1 @.@ 1 million . Engineer Russell Dumas designed the dam and directed most of its construction .
A further improvement was made in 1951 when a concrete @-@ lined channel was constructed to divert stream flow from the nearby Kangaroo Gully catchment . The Canning Dam and reservoir was Perth 's primary source of water until the boom growth of the city in the 1960s and the completion of Serpentine Dam in 1961 . In 1975 the reservoir was connected to Perth 's Integrated Water Supply Scheme by the Canning Tunnel . Prior to its opening water had flowed through the Canning Contour Channel to Gosnells .
The Canning Dam and reservoir still supplies approximately 20 percent of Perth 's drinking water requirements and plays an important role in the context of the development of Perth .
The Canning reservoir is also used to store water from the newly completed Kwinana Desalination Plant . Treated water can be pumped from the plant to the reservoir through the new Forrestdale Pumping Station .
= = Hydrology = =
The Canning Dam Catchment lies within the Darling Scarp which forms part of an Archaean Shield composed largely of granite with some invaded linear belts of metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks .
The dam wall is situated in a narrow gorge running east and west , with rock sides sloping upward from the river bed . Behind the dam wall , the south branch of the Canning River joins the main stream , with the impounded water forming a lake which stretches back in three major arms to the east south @-@ east and south .
The catchment has an area of 804 square kilometres ( 310 sq mi ) . The reservoir is at 200 metres ( 660 ft ) AHD and the highest point of the catchment , Mount Cooke is at 582 metres ( 1 @,@ 909 ft ) AHD .
Climatically , the area receives about 900 millimetres ( 35 in ) of rainfall per annum with most of this falling between May and September . There is widespread variability of rainfall across the catchment however , from between 700 and 1 @,@ 300 millimetres ( 28 and 51 in ) .
Since 1975 long @-@ term average rainfalls at the dam wall have decreased by 20 percent and streamflow into the catchment by approximately 60 percent — the average annual inflow between 1948 and 1974 was 52 gigalitres ( 1 @.@ 8 × 109 cu ft ) which had reduced to 22 gigalitres ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) between 1975 and 2004 .
= = Construction = =
The construction of Canning Dam ended a long period during which Perth 's water supply was generally unsatisfactory in quality ( either due to salinity or bacterial pollution or both ) and in quantity . The project , the biggest public works program of the decade , stimulated significant growth in the local economy and provided desperately needed work for around five hundred men .
Several innovative design concepts and construction methods which were new to Australia were introduced on the project , while others which were used on the nearby Wellington Dam , were improved upon at the Canning dam site .
At the Canning Dam and indeed all dams , care had to be taken to prevent water seepage between the foundation rock and the structure of the dam . At the Canning in addition to cutting back the foundation to solid unfractured rock , a cut @-@ off trench was sited near the upstream face of the dam , down stream which a rock filled drain containing open jointed pipes was provided to intercept any seepage between the rock face and the concrete of the dam . The inclusion of an internal drainage system was considered innovative at the period . Near vertical tubular 8 in ( 200 mm ) cut @-@ off drains were provided at five @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) intervals along the dam to relieve internal seepage through the concrete .
While state of the art materials @-@ handling methods were used , in some instances labour @-@ saving machinery worked beside operations intended to maximise the labour content . Sustenance workers were employed chiefly for on @-@ site preparation , road construction , foundation excavation , clearing timber from the reservoir basin , and on some concreting operations . Skilled workers were required on the dam for fixing the formwork where the concrete was poured . These workers were probably employed at normal day labour rates , the main employment method used on the project . Bulk handling of cement was also used for the first time in Australia , this saw a significant saving as opposed to bagged cement which was the standard practice of the day .
Generally construction work proceeded smoothly and from an engineering point of view there were few setbacks . However , one did occur in the early stages of construction . In March 1934 there was a violent storm bringing 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 12 in ) of rain in less than two days . As a result , the river rose rapidly which flooded the dam foundation workings . Pumps had to be installed and work resumed three days later .
The dam was completed in September 1940 . When built it was the longest concrete gravity dam in Australia , and also the second highest after the Burrinjuck Dam in New South Wales . As of 1997 of the 90 large concrete and masonry gravity dams in Australia the Canning Dam is still the fifth highest and the sixth longest . It is the largest concrete dam in Western Australia in terms of length of crest and volume of concrete .
The final cost of the dam was significantly less than had been originally budgeted for , and the work was completed on schedule to a date that was calculated seven years previously .
= = = Remedial works = = =
Recently the Canning Dam has been subjected to considerable cracking of the upper parts of the dam and upper gallery . Investigations have shown that cracking was due to strong AAR ( alkali aggregate reactivity ) in the concrete . AAR results in swelling of the concrete , which may cause secondary compressive stresses , localised map cracks , and , ultimately structural cracks . In addition , the concrete tensile strength and elasticity significantly decreases . Many old concrete dams are known to suffer from AAR , including Fontana Dam in Tennessee and Pian Telessio dam in Italy among others .
Extensive remedial works were undertaken between 1999 & 2001 to strengthen the dam wall . This work involved removing the top 3 @.@ 8 m ( 12 ft ) of the existing dam wall and drilling / blasting through the dam wall plus up to a further 70 m ( 230 ft ) into the bedrock below . The top section of the wall was then rebuilt using reinforced concrete . Finally , permanent , re @-@ stressable ground anchors were then installed through the formed and drilled holes from the crest to be stressed and grouted into the foundation rock . At time of completion , these were the largest capacity and longest permanent ground anchors ever installed in the world .
An innovative drilling and blasting technique called Penetrating Cone Fracture ( PCF ) was used in the remedial works process . PCF was chosen over conventional drilling and / or blasting techniques due to the reduced risk of damage to the existing structure from vibration , as well as lower noxious fume and dust levels .
= = Environmental issues = =
Since the construction of the Canning Dam , among other drinking water supply dams , water flow into the Canning River has been reduced by up to 96 % . A number of freshwater fish species which are endemic to the south @-@ west of Western Australia are found in the Canning River system , however studies of fish and fish habitats in the area have shown that fish numbers are low due to a loss of habitat and a loss of linkage between breeding areas due to low flows , preventing fish migrating upstream and reaching important breeding and nursery grounds . Stagnant water caused by a lack of water flow has provided a suitable habitat for successful breeding of an introduced pest , the mosquitofish .
Damming of the Canning caused dramatic flow reductions that significantly altered downstream aquatic macroinvertebrate communities . The lack of water flow has also resulted in a poor flushing effect below the dam wall . An excessive amount of nutrients from fertilizers and animal waste has caused algal blooms and eutrophication .
Many river pools which are an important summer refuge and habitat for aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna have been lost due to sedimentation and modification of the flow regime caused by impoundments in the Canning River .
Periodic flooding of the Canning River from the dam is required to disperse seed , stimulate germination and ensure seedlings survive , recharge shallow groundwater tables that are important during periods of drought and to discourage and prevent weed growth . However , during times of low rainfall periodic flooding is reduced .
= = Recreation = =
A number of recreation activities occur in and around the dam and catchment area . Canning Dam features a number of picnic areas ( with gas barbecues ) , look outs and historic walks – many with disabled access . Bushwalking occurs throughout the catchment , particularly along the Bibbulmun Track , which passes through the catchment about 10 km upstream of Canning Dam . Several mountain bike trails run either through the Canning National Park or adjacent State Forest areas .
The Canning Reservoir , Canning River and tributaries are illegally fished for marron , especially during summer . Boating , fishing and swimming are prohibited in the reservoir for health and hygiene reasons . Unauthorised camping ( including overnight stays and / or outside of designated areas ) and unauthorised trail establishment occur more and more frequently in the Canning catchment .
= = Gallery = =
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= Midge ( Barbie ) =
Midge Hadley is a fictional doll character in the Barbie line of toys by Mattel that was first released in 1963 . Midge was created , along with Skipper , to counteract criticism that claimed Barbie was a sex symbol . She was marketed as Barbie 's best friend . No Midge dolls were sold for the rest of the vintage years after the 1960s .
Midge was re @-@ introduced in 1988 as part of the play line , though two vintage reproduction dolls were made specifically for collectors in 1993 and 1998 . The dolls sold in this time period usually had red hair , often with freckles , and her eye color was usually blue . Also in the period , Wedding Day Midge was sold , with the groom being Alan Sherwood , who had been marketed as Midge 's boyfriend in the vintage years . Midge and Alan had three children introduced named Ryan , Nikki , and Cassandra . They also had twins who were never introduced . This was known as the Happy Family line , and in the set , Midge was sold " pregnant " with Nikki as a newborn baby . The Happy Family product became the subject of controversy when some parents disliked the " pregnant " Midge toy because they believed that Midge was too young to have children .
In 2013 Mattel decided to revamp Midge 's history , reintroducing her as a best friend of Barbie 's , but unmarried , without children , and with no connection to Alan .
= = Vintage years = =
When Barbie first came out , she was the subject of a lot of criticism , some of which that claimed Barbie was too mature @-@ looking for children . Midge was the first same @-@ size friend of Barbie ever sold , and was created to oppose these controversies aimed at Barbie . She had a fuller , gentler face mold that was less sexually intimidating , although her body proportions were the same as Barbie and they both stood at 11 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 290 mm ) tall . This allowed the two dolls to be able to share clothes and accessories . Her head mold was stamped " 1958 " , the same as Barbie . When Midge arrived , the markings on the straight leg body mold they shared changed to include both her and Barbie . Midge had shoulder @-@ length hair that flipped at the ends . Buyers had an option of buying a doll with one of three different hair colors : red , blond , or brunette . Her face was usually brushed with freckles . The dolls that were sold without freckles had a longer hair style and are now hard to find . Depending on the doll 's hair color , the color of her two @-@ piece swimming suit varied . If Midge had red hair her swimsuit was yellow and orange , for blond hair it was in two shades of blue , and if she was brunette it was pink and red . The first vintage Midge dolls had a value of $ 175 MIB ( Mint In Box ) in 2007 .
For the first two years that Midge was sold , she had " straight legs " that could not bend at the knee . A rare Midge with teeth was sold the first year and is now sought after by collectors . One year later , in 1964 the dolls that were sold had slightly longer hair . Midge 's boyfriend Allan arrived as well . Early in 1965 , Wigs Wardrobe Midge was sold , and consisted of a Midge head with short molded hair and three wigs . This was the Midge counterpart of the Fashion Queen Barbie . Since she came with only a head , another doll had to provide for the body . In 1965 Midge with bendable legs was introduced . She had shorter " bobbed " hair , like the American Girl Barbie , with a blue headband . Her swimming suit was different as well , and was now one @-@ piece and striped .
= = Return = =
From her introduction to until 1967 , Midge was marketed as Barbie 's original best friend , but no dolls were sold for about 20 years until 1988 , when California Dream Midge was sold as part of a beach line , which used the " Steffie " mold . The same " Steffie " mold was used for Cool Times Midge in 1989 . In 1990 , she began to use the " Diva " mold for All Stars Midge and The Beat Midge . In 1991 she was married to Allan ( now spelled " Alan " ) . Before and after the Wedding Day Midge doll was sold , many Midge play line dolls were produced . Before Wedding Day Midge , Midge dolls still had freckles , but up until Hawaii Midge was sold in 1999 , the dolls lacked freckles . Most of the dolls were red @-@ haired with blue or green eyes , but some dolls were brunette . The most commonly used head mold for Midge in this period was the " Diva " mold , stamped 1985 .
A 35th anniversary Midge reproduction doll was sold in 1998 for collectors , made to look like the vintage Midge dolls . She had red hair , was dressed in her original orange and lime two @-@ piece swimming suit , and came with a reproduction of the Senior Prom outfit from 1964 – 1965 as well as a reproduction of the box the Midge dolls originally came in . Earlier in 1993 , for Midge 's 30th anniversary , a Midge reproduction doll was also produced , but she did not possess a reproduction of her original swimsuit or the original box . Like the later version , she came in a reproduction of the Senior Prom outfit .
In 2013 , Midge appeared on the webseries Barbie : Life in the Dreamhouse where it is revealed that she has moved to Malibu . With this , her canon has been changed extensively , and she is a teenager who is retro at heart and still uses old @-@ fangled terms . The whole ' Happy Family ' canon has been dropped altogether due to controversy . Two Midge dolls will be released in 2013 - one is as part of a collectors set with Barbie , and the other on her own in the Life in the Dreamhouse doll line .
= = " Happy Family " line = =
The year after Midge and Alan were married , a picture of the couple with twin babies was shown in a pamphlet , but the dolls were never produced . However , in 2003 , she and Alan were re @-@ introduced with a family consisting of them and three different kids , three @-@ year @-@ old Ryan , and newborn baby Nikki . This was known as the " Happy Family " line , and was similar to the discontinued Heart Family line of the 1980s . The dolls came in both European American and African American versions . This was the first time an African American Midge was ever produced .
Midge was sold " pregnant " with Nikki , who was a tiny baby inside Midge 's magnetic removable womb . This led to some controversy with some consumers saying that the doll was inappropriate for children , or that it promoted teen pregnancy . Another cause for this controversy was that Midge did not initially have a wedding ring , but this was later fixed . She also was packaged without Alan . Customers complaining about the doll led to Wal @-@ Mart pulling the Happy Family line off their shelves . A new version of this Midge was produced for Wal @-@ Mart , this time not pregnant and with a cardboard cut @-@ out display of Alan and Ryan standing next to her inside the box . The Happy Family Line included everything from a talking house , a backyard swimming pool , neighborhood market , and playground .
Later , around Nikki 's first birthday , Midge was " pregnant " again with another child , who wasn 't named or given a specific gender , as the gender was a surprise when the owner opened the doll 's box . Midge 's new baby was later named Cassandra . Midge has two known parents who are simply called " Grandpa " and " Grandma " . At first , the grandparent dolls were sold together as part of a big set consisting of the dolls and a kitchen play set , but for Nikki 's first birthday they were sold separately . Midge , Alan , and Ryan gave Nikki a dog for her birthday . They too came in both Caucasian and African American versions . They use different body molds , to reflect their age .
= = Head Molds = =
Midge 's first appearance was made with her own headmold , Vintage Midge
Later , we have Midge using DIVA ( by Barbie and the Rockers ) headmold
Before Teresa made her debut , Midge used Steffie headmold
Midge comes and goes so many times , but with her 50th birthday , she returns with the Steffie headmold
Florida Midge uses Mackie headmold .
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= The Tempest ( album ) =
The Tempest is the tenth studio album by American hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse . Released in 2007 , the album marks the return of producer Mike E. Clark , who had a falling @-@ out with the duo in 2000 . However , he did not collaborate directly with ICP , and would not do so until their 2009 album Bang ! Pow ! Boom !
The album 's concept compares a violent storm to a roller coaster ; its lyrical themes vary from horrorcore @-@ based character deconstructions and songs about the supernatural to humorous and lighter subject matter . Clark 's production was praised by critics , and the album peaked at # 20 on the Billboard 200 . It is the group 's 23rd overall release .
= = History = =
Mike E. Clark produced much of Insane Clown Posse 's discography , as well as working with other groups on Psychopathic Records , until having a falling @-@ out with ICP in 2000 , after completing ICP 's album 's Bizaar and Bizzar , and beginning production on the Dark Lotus debut album Tales from the Lotus Pod .
After becoming a full @-@ time producer for Kid Rock , Clark contracted pneumonia , but ignored the illness , and began coughing severely as he awoke , leading to a three @-@ month stay in Mount Clemens General Hospital , during which one of his lungs collapsed three times . As the result of his near @-@ death experience , Clark decided to reconcile with Bruce and Utsler . Phone conversations between Clark and Insane Clown Posse led to Clark producing Shaggy 2 Dope 's 2006 solo album F.T.F.O .. The following year , Clark produced The Tempest ; however , in both instances , he did not work with Psychopathic Records directly . Because of this , ICP felt that The Tempest was missing the collaborative element that they felt made their earlier albums enjoyable . Clark would not work directly work with Psychopathic Records until 2009 's Bang ! Pow ! Boom !
= = Music and lyrics = =
Unlike previous Insane Clown Posse albums , The Tempest is not connected to the Dark Carnival mythology , which formed the basis for ICP 's " Joker 's Cards " series , which began in 1992 with Carnival of Carnage and concluded with the albums The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La and Hell 's Pit ; however , it references themes , concepts and songs from previous albums . Joseph Bruce ( Violent J ) said that The Tempest is a concept album in its own right . Bruce describes the album 's concept as relating to both a violent storm which turns into a tornado and pulls people into a hurricane as well as a roller coaster . According to Bruce , " That 's a lot like riding on a violent roller coaster , I 'd assume . You get jerked to the left , jerked to the right , sucked way up into the sky , and then you go shooting down to the floor , and then you jerk up to the left and then you whip around to the right . Well , The Tempest is a storm in the form of a roller coaster . " As a result of this concept , the album focuses on a variety of different moods .
The Tempest maintains much of the horrorcore lyrical content ICP is known for , as well as their humorous perspective . Unlike previous albums , this album does not contain any disses aimed at other rappers or music industry figures . Bruce and Joseph Utsler ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ' s rapping on this album is described by Allmusic reviewer David Jeffries as being delivered in " a carnival barker fashion that fits with their circus motif " , and contrasted Bruce and Utsler themselves as being like " Alice Cooper with a mallrat attitude " .
The lyrics of " Growing Again " , which describes Violent J growing into a giant , were inspired by Bruce 's weight gain ; Bruce also says that the song reflects the feeling of being able to " rap about anything we want [ ... ] I feel we have the right for some songs to be softer and not about killing or Dark Carnival . " " The Tower " describes a war veteran and expert marksman climbing a college tower and shooting people with an arsenal of weapons , a reference to Charles Whitman 's 1966 murder spree .
Mike E. Clark 's production incorporates elements of rock and heavy metal , as well as live instrumentation . Reviewer Lana Cooper of PopMatters compares " Ride the Tempest " to Flock of Seagulls , and describes the instrumentation as incorporating elements of synthesizers and calliope . Cooper says that " Growing Again " incorporates power ballad chords . Jeffries describes " I Do This ! " as being influenced by psychedelia , and called " Mexico City " " Low Rider music " .
= = Release and reception = =
The album was released with a bonus poster . The Tempest debuted at # 20 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , selling about 33 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Reviews from Allmusic and PopMatters generally appraised Mike E. Clark 's production as the album 's most appealing element . Allmusic 's David Jeffries wrote , " there 's no denying that Clark 's vision does wonders for the duo . " PopMatters ' Lana Cooper said that " [ Insane Clown Posse 's ] theatrics have to be given their due . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
Joseph Bruce – vocals , composer
Shaggy 2 Dope — vocals , scratching
Mike E. Clark – composer , engineer , mixing , producer , programming
Jeffrey Campo – mastering
Brian Debler – artwork , cover design
DJ Clay — scratching , vocals
Insane Clown Posse — composer , vocals
James Mitchell — vocals
The R.O.C. — vocals , background vocals
Razor Ray — guitar , soloist , vocals , background vocals
Michael Scotta — artwork , cover design
Cindy Wulkan — artwork , cover design
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= Star =
A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity . The nearest star to Earth is the Sun . Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night , appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth . Historically , the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms , the brightest of which gained proper names . Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations . However , most of the stars in the Universe , including all stars outside our galaxy , the Milky Way , are invisible to the naked eye from Earth . Indeed , most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes .
For at least a portion of its life , a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core , releasing energy that traverses the star 's interior and then radiates into outer space . Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star 's lifetime , and for some stars by supernova nucleosynthesis when it explodes . Near the end of its life , a star can also contain degenerate matter . Astronomers can determine the mass , age , metallicity ( chemical composition ) , and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space , its luminosity , and spectrum respectively . The total mass of a star is the main factor that determines its evolution and eventual fate . Other characteristics of a star , including diameter and temperature , change over its life , while the star 's environment affects its rotation and movement . A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a Hertzsprung – Russell diagram ( H – R diagram ) . Plotting a particular star on that diagram allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined .
A star 's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material composed primarily of hydrogen , along with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements . When the stellar core is sufficiently dense , hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion , releasing energy in the process . The remainder of the star 's interior carries energy away from the core through a combination of radiative and convective heat transfer processes . The star 's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity . When the hydrogen fuel at the core is exhausted , a star of mass 0 @.@ 4 times greater than the Sun 's will expand to become a red giant . In some cases , it will fuse heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core . As the star expands it throws a part of its mass , enriched with those heavier elements , into the interstellar environment , to be recycled later as new stars . Meanwhile , the core becomes a stellar remnant : a white dwarf , a neutron star , or if it is sufficiently massive a black hole .
Binary and multi @-@ star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound and generally move around each other in stable orbits . When two such stars have a relatively close orbit , their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution . Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure , such as a star cluster or a galaxy .
= = Observation history = =
Historically , stars have been important to civilizations throughout the world . They have been part of religious practices and used for celestial navigation and orientation . Many ancient astronomers believed that stars were permanently affixed to a heavenly sphere and that they were immutable . By convention , astronomers grouped stars into constellations and used them to track the motions of the planets and the inferred position of the Sun . The motion of the Sun against the background stars ( and the horizon ) was used to create calendars , which could be used to regulate agricultural practices . The Gregorian calendar , currently used nearly everywhere in the world , is a solar calendar based on the angle of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to its local star , the Sun .
The oldest accurately dated star chart was the result of ancient Egyptian astronomy in 1534 BC . The earliest known star catalogues were compiled by the ancient Babylonian astronomers of Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BC , during the Kassite Period ( ca . 1531 – 1155 BC ) .
The first star catalogue in Greek astronomy was created by Aristillus in approximately 300 BC , with the help of Timocharis . The star catalog of Hipparchus ( 2nd century BC ) included 1020 stars , and was used to assemble Ptolemy 's star catalogue . Hipparchus is known for the discovery of the first recorded nova ( new star ) . Many of the constellations and star names in use today derive from Greek astronomy .
In spite of the apparent immutability of the heavens , Chinese astronomers were aware that new stars could appear . In 185 AD , they were the first to observe and write about a supernova , now known as the SN 185 . The brightest stellar event in recorded history was the SN 1006 supernova , which was observed in 1006 and written about by the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and several Chinese astronomers . The SN 1054 supernova , which gave birth to the Crab Nebula , was also observed by Chinese and Islamic astronomers .
Medieval Islamic astronomers gave Arabic names to many stars that are still used today and they invented numerous astronomical instruments that could compute the positions of the stars . They built the first large observatory research institutes , mainly for the purpose of producing Zij star catalogues . Among these , the Book of Fixed Stars ( 964 ) was written by the Persian astronomer Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Sufi , who observed a number of stars , star clusters ( including the Omicron Velorum and Brocchi 's Clusters ) and galaxies ( including the Andromeda Galaxy ) . According to A. Zahoor , in the 11th century , the Persian polymath scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Milky Way galaxy as a multitude of fragments having the properties of nebulous stars , and also gave the latitudes of various stars during a lunar eclipse in 1019 .
According to Josep Puig , the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars that almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material , citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH ( 1106 / 1107 AD ) as evidence . Early European astronomers such as Tycho Brahe identified new stars in the night sky ( later termed novae ) , suggesting that the heavens were not immutable . In 1584 Giordano Bruno suggested that the stars were like the Sun , and may have other planets , possibly even Earth @-@ like , in orbit around them , an idea that had been suggested earlier by the ancient Greek philosophers , Democritus and Epicurus , and by medieval Islamic cosmologists such as Fakhr al @-@ Din al @-@ Razi . By the following century , the idea of the stars being the same as the Sun was reaching a consensus among astronomers . To explain why these stars exerted no net gravitational pull on the Solar System , Isaac Newton suggested that the stars were equally distributed in every direction , an idea prompted by the theologian Richard Bentley .
The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667 . Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby " fixed " stars , demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus .
William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky . During the 1780s he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars observed along each line of sight . From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky , in the direction of the Milky Way core . His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction . In addition to his other accomplishments , William Herschel is also noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight , but are also physical companions that form binary star systems .
The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi . By comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun , they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption lines — the dark lines in a stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere 's absorption of specific frequencies . In 1865 Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types . However , the modern version of the stellar classification scheme was developed by Annie J. Cannon during the 1900s .
The first direct measurement of the distance to a star ( 61 Cygni at 11 @.@ 4 light @-@ years ) was made in 1838 by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique . Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens . Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century . In 1834 , Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion . Edward Pickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star Mizar in a 104 @-@ day period . Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as William Struve and S. W. Burnham , allowing the masses of stars to be determined from computation of orbital elements . The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827 . The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars . The photograph became a valuable astronomical tool . Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and , hence , its temperature , could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude . The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals . In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory .
Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century . In 1913 , the Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram was developed , propelling the astrophysical study of stars . Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution . Cecilia Payne @-@ Gaposchkin first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 PhD thesis . The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in quantum physics . This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined .
With the exception of supernovae , individual stars have primarily been observed in the Local Group , and especially in the visible part of the Milky Way ( as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for our galaxy ) . But some stars have been observed in the M100 galaxy of the Virgo Cluster , about 100 million light years from the Earth . In the Local Supercluster it is possible to see star clusters , and current telescopes could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Group ( see Cepheids ) . However , outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies , neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed . The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located at a distance of one billion light years — ten times further than the most distant star cluster previously observed .
= = Designations = =
The concept of a constellation was known to exist during the Babylonian period . Ancient sky watchers imagined that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns , and they associated these with particular aspects of nature or their myths . Twelve of these formations lay along the band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology . Many of the more prominent individual stars were also given names , particularly with Arabic or Latin designations .
As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself , individual stars have their own myths . To the Ancient Greeks , some " stars " , known as planets ( Greek πλανήτης ( planētēs ) , meaning " wanderer " ) , represented various important deities , from which the names of the planets Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were taken . ( Uranus and Neptune were also Greek and Roman gods , but neither planet was known in Antiquity because of their low brightness . Their names were assigned by later astronomers . )
Circa 1600 , the names of the constellations were used to name the stars in the corresponding regions of the sky . The German astronomer Johann Bayer created a series of star maps and applied Greek letters as designations to the stars in each constellation . Later a numbering system based on the star 's right ascension was invented and added to John Flamsteed 's star catalogue in his book " Historia coelestis Britannica " ( the 1712 edition ) , whereby this numbering system came to be called Flamsteed designation or Flamsteed numbering .
The only internationally recognized authority for naming celestial bodies is the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . A number of private companies sell names of stars , which the British Library calls an unregulated commercial enterprise . The IAU has disassociated itself from this commercial practice , and these names are neither recognized by the IAU nor used by them . One such star @-@ naming company is the International Star Registry , which , during the 1980s , was accused of deceptive practice for making it appear that the assigned name was official . This now @-@ discontinued ISR practice was informally labeled a scam and a fraud , and the New York City Department of Consumer Affairs issued a violation against ISR for engaging in a deceptive trade practice .
= = Units of measurement = =
Although stellar parameters can be expressed in SI units or CGS units , it is often most convenient to express mass , luminosity , and radii in solar units , based on the characteristics of the Sun :
Large lengths , such as the radius of a giant star or the semi @-@ major axis of a binary star system , are often expressed in terms of the astronomical unit — approximately equal to the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun ( 150 million km or 93 million miles ) .
= = Formation and evolution = =
Stars condense from regions of space of higher density , yet those regions are less dense than within a vacuum chamber . These regions - known as molecular clouds - consist mostly of hydrogen , with about 23 to 28 percent helium and a few percent heavier elements . One example of such a star @-@ forming region is the Orion Nebula . Most stars form in groups of dozens to hundreds of thousands of stars . Massive stars in these groups may powerfully illuminate those clouds , ionizing the hydrogen , and creating H II regions . Such feedback effects , from star formation , may ultimately disrupt the cloud and prevent further star formation .
All stars spend the majority of their existence as main sequence stars , fueled primarily by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium within their cores . However , stars of different masses have markedly different properties at various stages of their development . The ultimate fate of more massive stars differs from that of less massive stars , as do their luminosities and the impact they have on their environment . Accordingly , astronomers often group stars by their mass :
Very low mass stars , with masses below 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , are fully convective and distribute helium evenly throughout the whole star while on the main sequence . Therefore , they never undergo shell burning , never become red giants , which cease fusing and become helium white dwarfs and slowly cool after exhausting their hydrogen . However , as the lifetime of 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ stars is longer than the age of the universe , no such star has yet reached the white dwarf stage .
Low mass stars ( including the Sun ) , with a mass between 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ and 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 M ☉ depending on composition , do become red giants as their core hydrogen is depleted and they begin to burn helium in core in a helium flash ; they develop a degenerate carbon @-@ oxygen core later on the asymptotic giant branch ; they finally blow off their outer shell as a planetary nebula and leave behind their core in the form of a white dwarf .
Intermediate @-@ mass stars , between 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 M ☉ and 5 – 10 M ☉ , pass through evolutionary stages similar to low mass stars , but after a relatively short period on the RGB they ignite helium without a flash and spend an extended period in the red clump before forming a degenerate carbon @-@ oxygen core .
Massive stars generally have a minimum mass of 7 – 10 M ☉ ( possibly as low as 5 – 6 M ☉ ) . After exhausting the hydrogen at the core these stars become supergiants and go on to fuse elements heavier than helium . They end their lives when their cores collapse and they explode as supernovae .
= = = Star formation = = =
The formation of a star begins with gravitational instability within a molecular cloud , caused by regions of higher density - often triggered by compression of clouds by radiation from massive stars , expanding bubbles in the interstellar medium , the collision of different molecular clouds , or the collision of galaxies ( as in a starburst galaxy ) . When a region reaches a sufficient density of matter to satisfy the criteria for Jeans instability , it begins to collapse under its own gravitational force .
As the cloud collapses , individual conglomerations of dense dust and gas form " Bok globules " . As a globule collapses and the density increases , the gravitational energy converts into heat and the temperature rises . When the protostellar cloud has approximately reached the stable condition of hydrostatic equilibrium , a protostar forms at the core . These pre – main sequence stars are often surrounded by a protoplanetary disk and powered mainly by the conversion of gravitational energy . The period of gravitational contraction lasts about 10 to 15 million years .
Early stars of less than 2 M ☉ are called T Tauri stars , while those with greater mass are Herbig Ae / Be stars . These newly formed stars emit jets of gas along their axis of rotation , which may reduce the angular momentum of the collapsing star and result in small patches of nebulosity known as Herbig – Haro objects . These jets , in combination with radiation from nearby massive stars , may help to drive away the surrounding cloud from which the star was formed .
Early in their development , T Tauri stars follow the Hayashi track — they contract and decrease in luminosity while remaining at roughly the same temperature . Less massive T Tauri stars follow this track to the main sequence , while more massive stars turn onto the Henyey track .
Most stars are observed to be members of binary star systems , and the properties of those binaries are the result of the conditions in which they formed . A gas cloud must lose its angular momentum in order to collapse and form a star . The fragmentation of the cloud into multiple stars distributes some of that angular momentum . The primordial binaries transfer some angular momentum by gravitational interactions during close encounters with other stars in young stellar clusters . These interactions tend to split apart more widely separated ( soft ) binaries while causing hard binaries to become more tightly bound . This produces the separation of binaries into their two observed populations distributions .
= = = Main sequence = = =
Stars spend about 90 % of their existence fusing hydrogen into helium in high @-@ temperature and high @-@ pressure reactions near the core . Such stars are said to be on the main sequence , and are called dwarf stars . Starting at zero @-@ age main sequence , the proportion of helium in a star 's core will steadily increase , the rate of nuclear fusion at the core will slowly increase , as will the star 's temperature and luminosity . The Sun , for example , is estimated to have increased in luminosity by about 40 % since it reached the main sequence 4 @.@ 6 billion ( 4 @.@ 6 × 109 ) years ago .
Every star generates a stellar wind of particles that causes a continual outflow of gas into space . For most stars , the mass lost is negligible . The Sun loses 10 − 14 M ☉ every year , or about 0 @.@ 01 % of its total mass over its entire lifespan . However , very massive stars can lose 10 − 7 to 10 − 5 M ☉ each year , significantly affecting their evolution . Stars that begin with more than 50 M ☉ can lose over half their total mass while on the main sequence .
The time a star spends on the main sequence depends primarily on the amount of fuel it has and the rate at which it fuses it . The Sun 's is expected to live 10 billion ( 1010 ) years . Massive stars consume their fuel very rapidly and are short @-@ lived . Low mass stars consume their fuel very slowly . Stars less massive than 0 @.@ 25 M ☉ , called red dwarfs , are able to fuse nearly all of their mass while stars of about 1 M ☉ can only fuse about 10 % of their mass . The combination of their slow fuel @-@ consumption and relatively large usable fuel supply allows low mass stars to last about one trillion ( 1012 ) years ; the most extreme of 0 @.@ 08 M ☉ ) will last for about 12 trillion years . Red dwarfs become hotter and more luminous as they accumulate helium . When they eventually run out of hydrogen , they contract into a white dwarf and decline in temperature . However , since the lifespan of such stars is greater than the current age of the universe ( 13 @.@ 8 billion years ) , no stars under about 0 @.@ 85 M ☉ are expected to have moved off the main sequence .
Besides mass , the elements heavier than helium can play a significant role in the evolution of stars . Astronomers label all elements heavier than helium " metals " , and call the chemical concentration of these elements in a star , its metallicity . A star 's metallicity can influence the time the star takes to burn its fuel , and controls the formation of its magnetic fields , which affects the strength of its stellar wind . Older , population II stars have substantially less metallicity than the younger , population I stars due to the composition of the molecular clouds from which they formed . Over time , such clouds become increasingly enriched in heavier elements as older stars die and shed portions of their atmospheres .
= = = Post – main sequence = = =
As stars of at least 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ exhaust their supply of hydrogen at their core , they start to fuse hydrogen in a shell outside the helium core . Their outer layers expand and cool greatly as they form a red giant . In about 5 billion years , when the Sun enters the helium burning phase , it will expand to a maximum radius of roughly 1 astronomical unit ( 150 million kilometres ) , 250 times its present size , and lose 30 % of its current mass .
As the hydrogen shell burning produces more helium , the core increases in mass and temperature . In a red giant of up to 2 @.@ 25 M ☉ , the mass of the helium core becomes degenerate prior to helium fusion . Finally , when the temperature increases sufficiently , helium fusion begins explosively in what is called a helium flash , and the star rapidly shrinks in radius , increases its surface temperature , and moves to the horizontal branch of the HR diagram . For more massive stars , helium core fusion starts before the core becomes degenerate , and the star spends some time in the red clump , slowly burning helium , before the outer convective envelope collapses and the star then moves to the horizontal branch .
After the star has fused the helium of its core , the carbon product fuses producing a hot core with an outer shell of fusing helium . The star then follows an evolutionary path called the asymptotic giant branch ( AGB ) that parallels the other described red giant phase , but with a higher luminosity . The more massive AGB stars may undergo a brief period of carbon fusion before the core becomes degenerate .
= = = = Massive stars = = = =
During their helium @-@ burning phase , stars of more than nine solar masses expand to form red supergiants . When this fuel is exhausted at the core , they continue to fuse elements heavier than helium .
The core contracts and the temperature and pressure rises enough to fuse carbon ( see Carbon burning process ) . This process continues , with the successive stages being fueled by neon ( see neon burning process ) , oxygen ( see oxygen burning process ) , and silicon ( see silicon burning process ) . Near the end of the star 's life , fusion continues along a series of onion @-@ layer shells within a massive star . Each shell fuses a different element , with the outermost shell fusing hydrogen ; the next shell fusing helium , and so forth .
The final stage occurs when a massive star begins producing iron . Since iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any heavier nuclei , any fusion beyond iron does not produce a net release of energy . To a very limited degree such a process proceeds , but it consumes energy . Likewise , since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei , such energy cannot be released by fission . In relatively old , very massive stars , a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the center of the star . The heavier elements in these stars can work their way to the surface , forming evolved objects known as Wolf @-@ Rayet stars that have a dense stellar wind which sheds the outer atmosphere .
= = = = Collapse = = = =
As a star 's core shrinks , the intensity of radiation from that surface increases , creating such radiation pressure on the outer shell of gas that it will push those layers away , forming a planetary nebula . If what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , it shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth , known as a white dwarf . White dwarfs lack the mass for further gravitational compression to take place . The electron @-@ degenerate matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma , even though stars are generally referred to as being spheres of plasma . Eventually , white dwarfs fade into black dwarfs over a very long period of time .
In larger stars , fusion continues until the iron core has grown so large ( more than 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) that it can no longer support its own mass . This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons , forming neutrons , neutrinos , and gamma rays in a burst of electron capture and inverse beta decay . The shockwave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova . Supernovae become so bright that they may briefly outshine the star 's entire home galaxy . When they occur within the Milky Way , supernovae have historically been observed by naked @-@ eye observers as " new stars " where none seemingly existed before .
A supernova explosion blows away the star 's outer layers , leaving a remnant such as the Crab Nebula . The core is compressed into a neutron star , which sometimes manifests itself as a pulsar or X @-@ ray burster . In the case of the largest stars , the remnant is a black hole greater than 4 M ☉ ) s . In a neutron star the matter is in a state known as neutron @-@ degenerate matter , with a more exotic form of degenerate matter , QCD matter , possibly present in the core . Within a black hole , the matter is in a state that is not currently understood .
The blown @-@ off outer layers of dying stars include heavy elements , which may be recycled during the formation of new stars . These heavy elements allow the formation of rocky planets . The outflow from supernovae and the stellar wind of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium .
= = = = Binary stars = = = =
The post – main @-@ sequence evolution of binary stars may be significantly different from the evolution of single stars of the same mass . If stars in a binary system are sufficiently close , when one of the stars expands to become a red giant it may overflow its Roche lobe , the region around a star where material is gravitationally bound to that star , leading to transfer of material to the other . When the Roche lobe is violated , a variety of phenomena can result , including contact binaries , common @-@ envelope binaries , cataclysmic variables , and type Ia supernovae .
= = Distribution = =
In addition to isolated stars , a multi @-@ star system can consist of two or more gravitationally bound stars that orbit each other . The simplest and most common multi @-@ star system is a binary star , but systems of three or more stars are also found . For reasons of orbital stability , such multi @-@ star systems are often organized into hierarchical sets of binary stars . Larger groups called star clusters also exist . These range from loose stellar associations with only a few stars , up to enormous globular clusters with hundreds of thousands of stars . Such systems orbit our Milky Way galaxy .
It has been a long @-@ held assumption that the majority of stars occur in gravitationally bound , multiple @-@ star systems . This is particularly true for very massive O and B class stars , where 80 % of the stars are believed to be part of multiple @-@ star systems . The proportion of single star systems increases with decreasing star mass , so that only 25 % of red dwarfs are known to have stellar companions . As 85 % of all stars are red dwarfs , most stars in the Milky Way are likely single from birth .
Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe , but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust . A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars , and there are more than 100 billion ( 1011 ) galaxies in the observable universe . In 2010 , one estimate of the number of stars in the observable universe was 300 sextillion ( 3 × 1023 ) . While it is often believed that stars only exist within galaxies , intergalactic stars have been discovered .
The nearest star to the Earth , apart from the Sun , is Proxima Centauri , which is 39 @.@ 9 trillion kilometres , or 4 @.@ 2 light @-@ years . Travelling at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle ( 8 kilometres per second — almost 30 @,@ 000 kilometres per hour ) , it would take about 150 @,@ 000 years to arrive . This it typical of stellar separations in galactic discs . Stars can be much closer to each other in the centres of galaxies and in globular clusters , or much farther apart in galactic halos .
Due to the relatively vast distances between stars outside the galactic nucleus , collisions between stars are thought to be rare . In denser regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic center , collisions can be more common . Such collisions can produce what are known as blue stragglers . These abnormal stars have a higher surface temperature than the other main sequence stars with the same luminosity of the cluster to which it belongs .
= = Characteristics = =
Almost everything about a star is determined by its initial mass , including such characteristics as luminosity , size , evolution , lifespan , and its eventual fate .
= = = Age = = =
Most stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old . Some stars may even be close to 13 @.@ 8 billion years old — the observed age of the universe . The oldest star yet discovered , HD 140283 , nicknamed Methuselah star , is an estimated 14 @.@ 46 ± 0 @.@ 8 billion years old . ( Due to the uncertainty in the value , this age for the star does not conflict with the age of the Universe , determined by the Planck satellite as 13 @.@ 799 ± 0 @.@ 021 ) .
The more massive the star , the shorter its lifespan , primarily because massive stars have greater pressure on their cores , causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly . The most massive stars last an average of a few million years , while stars of minimum mass ( red dwarfs ) burn their fuel very slowly and can last tens to hundreds of billions of years .
= = = Chemical composition = = =
When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71 % hydrogen and 27 % helium , as measured by mass , with a small fraction of heavier elements . Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere , as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure . The portion of heavier elements may be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system .
The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327 @-@ 2326 , with only 1 / 200,000th the iron content of the Sun . By contrast , the super @-@ metal @-@ rich star μ Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun , while the planet @-@ bearing star 14 Herculis has nearly triple the iron . There also exist chemically peculiar stars that show unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrum ; especially chromium and rare earth elements . Stars with cooler outer atmospheres , including the Sun , can form various diatomic and polyatomic molecules .
= = = Diameter = = =
Due to their great distance from the Earth , all stars except the Sun appear to the unaided eye as shining points in the night sky that twinkle because of the effect of the Earth 's atmosphere . The Sun is also a star , but it is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead , and to provide daylight . Other than the Sun , the star with the largest apparent size is R Doradus , with an angular diameter of only 0 @.@ 057 arcseconds .
The disks of most stars are much too small in angular size to be observed with current ground @-@ based optical telescopes , and so interferometer telescopes are required to produce images of these objects . Another technique for measuring the angular size of stars is through occultation . By precisely measuring the drop in brightness of a star as it is occulted by the Moon ( or the rise in brightness when it reappears ) , the star 's angular diameter can be computed .
Stars range in size from neutron stars , which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km ( 25 mi ) in diameter , to supergiants like Betelgeuse in the Orion constellation , which has a diameter approximately 1 @,@ 070 times that of the Sun — about 1 @,@ 490 @,@ 171 @,@ 880 km ( 925 @,@ 949 @,@ 878 mi ) . Betelgeuse , however , has a much lower density than the Sun .
= = = Kinematics = = =
The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the origin and age of a star , as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy . The components of motion of a star consist of the radial velocity toward or away from the Sun , and the traverse angular movement , which is called its proper motion .
Radial velocity is measured by the doppler shift of the star 's spectral lines , and is given in units of km / s . The proper motion of a star , its parallax , is determined by precise astrometric measurements in units of milli @-@ arc seconds ( mas ) per year . With knowledge of the star 's parallax and its distance , the proper motion velocity can be calculated . Together with the radial velocity , the total velocity can be calculated . Stars with high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun , making them good candidates for parallax measurements .
When both rates of movement are known , the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the galaxy can be computed . Among nearby stars , it has been found that younger population I stars have generally lower velocities than older , population II stars . The latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy . A comparison of the kinematics of nearby stars has allowed astronomers to trace their origin to common points in giant molecular clouds , and are referred to as stellar associations .
= = = Magnetic field = = =
The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the interior where convective circulation occurs . This movement of conductive plasma functions like a dynamo , wherein the movement of elecrical charges induce magnetic fields , as does a mechanical dynamo . Those magnetic fields have a great range that extend throughout and beyond the star . The strength of the magnetic field varies with the mass and composition of the star , and the amount of magnetic surface activity depends upon the star 's rate of rotation . This surface activity produces starspots , which are regions of strong magnetic fields and lower than normal surface temperatures . Coronal loops are arching magnetic field flux lines that rise from a star 's surface into the star 's outer atmosphere , its corona . The coronal loops can be seen due to the plasma they conduct along their length . Stellar flares are bursts of high @-@ energy particles that are emitted due to the same magnetic activity .
Young , rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity because of their magnetic field . The magnetic field can act upon a star 's stellar wind , functioning as a brake to gradually slow the rate of rotation with time . Thus , older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation and a lower level of surface activity . The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical manner and can shut down altogether for periods of time . During the Maunder minimum , for example , the Sun underwent a 70 @-@ year period with almost no sunspot activity .
= = = Mass = = =
One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae , which , with 100 – 150 times as much mass as the Sun , will have a lifespan of only several million years . Studies of the most massive open clusters suggests 150 M ☉ as an upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe . This represents an empirical value for the theoretical limit on the mass of forming stars due to increasing radiation pressure on the accreting gas cloud . Several stars in the R136 cluster in the Large Magellanic Cloud have been measured with larger masses , but it has been determined that they could have been created through the collision and merger of massive stars in close binary systems , sidestepping the 150 M ☉ limit on massive star formation .
The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger , up to 300 M ☉ , due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition . This generation of supermassive population III stars is likely to have existed in the very early universe ( i.e. , they are observed to have a high redshift ) , and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life . In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z = 6 @.@ 60 .
With a mass only 80 times that of Jupiter ( MJ ) , 2MASS J0523 @-@ 1403 is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core . For stars with metallicity similar to the Sun , the theoretical minimum mass the star can have and still undergo fusion at the core , is estimated to be about 75 MJ . When the metallicity is very low , however , the minimum star size seems to be about 8 @.@ 3 % of the solar mass , or about 87 MJ . Smaller bodies called brown dwarfs , occupy a poorly defined grey area between stars and gas giants .
The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines its surface gravity . Giant stars have a much lower surface gravity than do main sequence stars , while the opposite is the case for degenerate , compact stars such as white dwarfs . The surface gravity can influence the appearance of a star 's spectrum , with higher gravity causing a broadening of the absorption lines .
= = = Rotation = = =
The rotation rate of stars can be determined through spectroscopic measurement , or more exactly determined by tracking their starspots . Young stars can have a rotation greater than 100 km / s at the equator . The B @-@ class star Achernar , for example , has an equatorial velocity of about 225 km / s or greater , causing its equator to be slung outward and giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than 50 % greater than between the poles . This rate of rotation is just below the critical velocity of 300 km / s at which speed the star would break apart . By contrast , the Sun rotates once every 25 – 35 days , with an equatorial velocity of 1 @.@ 994 km / s . A main sequence star 's magnetic field and the stellar wind serve to slow its rotation by a significant amount as it evolves on the main sequence .
Degenerate stars have contracted into a compact mass , resulting in a rapid rate of rotation . However they have relatively low rates of rotation compared to what would be expected by conservation of angular momentum — the tendency of a rotating body to compensate for a contraction in size by increasing its rate of spin . A large portion of the star 's angular momentum is dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar wind . In spite of this , the rate of rotation for a pulsar can be very rapid . The pulsar at the heart of the Crab nebula , for example , rotates 30 times per second . The rotation rate of the pulsar will gradually slow due to the emission of radiation .
= = = Temperature = = =
The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production of its core and by its radius , and is often estimated from the star 's color index . The temperature is normally given in terms of an effective temperature , which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star . Note that the effective temperature is only a representative of the surface , as the temperature increases toward the core . The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins .
The stellar temperature will determine the rate of ionization of various elements , resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum . The surface temperature of a star , along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption features , is used to classify a star ( see classification below ) .
Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50 @,@ 000 K. Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about 3 @,@ 600 K ; but they also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area .
= = Radiation = =
The energy produced by stars , a product of nuclear fusion , radiates to space as both electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation . The particle radiation emitted by a star is manifested as the stellar wind , which streams from the outer layers as electrically charged protons and alpha and beta particles . Although almost massless , there also exists a steady stream of neutrinos emanating from the star 's core .
The production of energy at the core is the reason stars shine so brightly : every time two or more atomic nuclei fuse together to form a single atomic nucleus of a new heavier element , gamma ray photons are released from the nuclear fusion product . This energy is converted to other forms of electromagnetic energy of lower frequency , such as visible light , by the time it reaches the star 's outer layers .
The color of a star , as determined by the most intense frequency of the visible light , depends on the temperature of the star 's outer layers , including its photosphere . Besides visible light , stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the human eye . In fact , stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic spectrum , from the longest wavelengths of radio waves through infrared , visible light , ultraviolet , to the shortest of X @-@ rays , and gamma rays . From the standpoint of total energy emitted by a star , not all components of stellar electromagnetic radiation are significant , but all frequencies provide insight into the star 's physics .
Using the stellar spectrum , astronomers can also determine the surface temperature , surface gravity , metallicity and rotational velocity of a star . If the distance of the star is found , such as by measuring the parallax , then the luminosity of the star can be derived . The mass , radius , surface gravity , and rotation period can then be estimated based on stellar models . ( Mass can be calculated for stars in binary systems by measuring their orbital velocities and distances . Gravitational microlensing has been used to measure the mass of a single star . ) With these parameters , astronomers can also estimate the age of the star .
= = = Luminosity = = =
The luminosity of a star is the amount of light and other forms of radiant energy it radiates per unit of time . It has units of power . The luminosity of a star is determined by its radius and surface temperature . Many stars do not radiate uniformly across their entire surface . The rapidly rotating star Vega , for example , has a higher energy flux ( power per unit area ) at its poles than along its equator .
Patches of the star 's surface with a lower temperature and luminosity than average are known as starspots . Small , dwarf stars such as our Sun generally have essentially featureless disks with only small starspots . Giant stars have much larger , more obvious starspots , and they also exhibit strong stellar limb darkening . That is , the brightness decreases towards the edge of the stellar disk . Red dwarf flare stars such as UV Ceti may also possess prominent starspot features .
= = = Magnitude = = =
The apparent brightness of a star is expressed in terms of its apparent magnitude . It is a function of the star 's luminosity , its distance from Earth , and the altering of the star 's light as it passes through Earth 's atmosphere . Intrinsic or absolute magnitude is directly related to a star 's luminosity , and is what the apparent magnitude a star would be if the distance between the Earth and the star were 10 parsecs ( 32 @.@ 6 light @-@ years ) .
Both the apparent and absolute magnitude scales are logarithmic units : one whole number difference in magnitude is equal to a brightness variation of about 2 @.@ 5 times ( the 5th root of 100 or approximately 2 @.@ 512 ) . This means that a first magnitude star ( + 1 @.@ 00 ) is about 2 @.@ 5 times brighter than a second magnitude ( + 2 @.@ 00 ) star , and about 100 times brighter than a sixth magnitude star ( + 6 @.@ 00 ) . The faintest stars visible to the naked eye under good seeing conditions are about magnitude + 6 .
On both apparent and absolute magnitude scales , the smaller the magnitude number , the brighter the star ; the larger the magnitude number , the fainter the star . The brightest stars , on either scale , have negative magnitude numbers . The variation in brightness ( ΔL ) between two stars is calculated by subtracting the magnitude number of the brighter star ( mb ) from the magnitude number of the fainter star ( mf ) , then using the difference as an exponent for the base number 2 @.@ 512 ; that is to say :
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Relative to both luminosity and distance from Earth , a star 's absolute magnitude ( M ) and apparent magnitude ( m ) are not equivalent ; for example , the bright star Sirius has an apparent magnitude of − 1 @.@ 44 , but it has an absolute magnitude of + 1 @.@ 41 .
The Sun has an apparent magnitude of − 26 @.@ 7 , but its absolute magnitude is only + 4 @.@ 83 . Sirius , the brightest star in the night sky as seen from Earth , is approximately 23 times more luminous than the Sun , while Canopus , the second brightest star in the night sky with an absolute magnitude of − 5 @.@ 53 , is approximately 14 @,@ 000 times more luminous than the Sun . Despite Canopus being vastly more luminous than Sirius , however , Sirius appears brighter than Canopus . This is because Sirius is merely 8 @.@ 6 light @-@ years from the Earth , while Canopus is much farther away at a distance of 310 light @-@ years .
As of 2006 , the star with the highest known absolute magnitude is LBV 1806 @-@ 20 , with a magnitude of − 14 @.@ 2 . This star is at least 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 times more luminous than the Sun . The least luminous stars that are currently known are located in the NGC 6397 cluster . The faintest red dwarfs in the cluster were magnitude 26 , while a 28th magnitude white dwarf was also discovered . These faint stars are so dim that their light is as bright as a birthday candle on the Moon when viewed from the Earth .
= = Classification = =
The current stellar classification system originated in the early 20th century , when stars were classified from A to Q based on the strength of the hydrogen line . It thought that the hydrogen line strength was a simple linear function of temperature . Rather , it was more complicated ; it strengthened with increasing temperature , it peaked near 9000 K , and then declined at greater temperatures . When the classifications were reordered by temperature , it more closely resembled the modern scheme .
Stars are given a single @-@ letter classification according to their spectra , ranging from type O , which are very hot , to M , which are so cool that molecules may form in their atmospheres . The main classifications in order of decreasing surface temperature are : O , B , A , F , G , K , and M. A variety of rare spectral types are given special classifications . The most common of these are types L and T , which classify the coldest low @-@ mass stars and brown dwarfs . Each letter has 10 sub @-@ divisions , numbered from 0 to 9 , in order of decreasing temperature . However , this system breaks down at extreme high temperatures as classes O0 and O1 may not exist .
In addition , stars may be classified by the luminosity effects found in their spectral lines , which correspond to their spatial size and is determined by their surface gravity . These range from 0 ( hypergiants ) through III ( giants ) to V ( main sequence dwarfs ) ; some authors add VII ( white dwarfs ) . Most stars belong to the main sequence , which consists of ordinary hydrogen @-@ burning stars . These fall along a narrow , diagonal band when graphed according to their absolute magnitude and spectral type . The Sun is a main sequence G2V yellow dwarf of intermediate temperature and ordinary size .
Additional nomenclature , in the form of lower @-@ case letters added to the end of the spectral type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum . For example , an " e " can indicate the presence of emission lines ; " m " represents unusually strong levels of metals , and " var " can mean variations in the spectral type .
White dwarf stars have their own class that begins with the letter D. This is further sub @-@ divided into the classes DA , DB , DC , DO , DZ , and DQ , depending on the types of prominent lines found in the spectrum . This is followed by a numerical value that indicates the temperature .
= = Variable stars = =
Variable stars have periodic or random changes in luminosity because of intrinsic or extrinsic properties . Of the intrinsically variable stars , the primary types can be subdivided into three principal groups .
During their stellar evolution , some stars pass through phases where they can become pulsating variables . Pulsating variable stars vary in radius and luminosity over time , expanding and contracting with periods ranging from minutes to years , depending on the size of the star . This category includes Cepheid and Cepheid @-@ like stars , and long @-@ period variables such as Mira .
Eruptive variables are stars that experience sudden increases in luminosity because of flares or mass ejection events . This group includes protostars , Wolf @-@ Rayet stars , and flare stars , as well as giant and supergiant stars .
Cataclysmic or explosive variable stars are those that undergo a dramatic change in their properties . This group includes novae and supernovae . A binary star system that includes a nearby white dwarf can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar explosions , including the nova and a Type 1a supernova . The explosion is created when the white dwarf accretes hydrogen from the companion star , building up mass until the hydrogen undergoes fusion . Some novae are also recurrent , having periodic outbursts of moderate amplitude .
Stars can also vary in luminosity because of extrinsic factors , such as eclipsing binaries , as well as rotating stars that produce extreme starspots . A notable example of an eclipsing binary is Algol , which regularly varies in magnitude from 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 5 over a period of 2 @.@ 87 days .
= = Structure = =
The interior of a stable star is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium : the forces on any small volume almost exactly counterbalance each other . The balanced forces are inward gravitational force and an outward force due to the pressure gradient within the star . The pressure gradient is established by the temperature gradient of the plasma ; the outer part of the star is cooler than the core . The temperature at the core of a main sequence or giant star is at least on the order of 107 K. The resulting temperature and pressure at the hydrogen @-@ burning core of a main sequence star are sufficient for nuclear fusion to occur and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further collapse of the star .
As atomic nuclei are fused in the core , they emit energy in the form of gamma rays . These photons interact with the surrounding plasma , adding to the thermal energy at the core . Stars on the main sequence convert hydrogen into helium , creating a slowly but steadily increasing proportion of helium in the core . Eventually the helium content becomes predominant , and energy production ceases at the core . Instead , for stars of more than 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ , fusion occurs in a slowly expanding shell around the degenerate helium core .
In addition to hydrostatic equilibrium , the interior of a stable star will also maintain an energy balance of thermal equilibrium . There is a radial temperature gradient throughout the interior that results in a flux of energy flowing toward the exterior . The outgoing flux of energy leaving any layer within the star will exactly match the incoming flux from below .
The radiation zone is the region of the stellar interior where the flux of energy outward is dependent on radiative heat transfer , since convective heat transfer is inefficient in that zone . In this region the plasma will not be perturbed , and any mass motions will die out . If this is not the case , however , then the plasma becomes unstable and convection will occur , forming a convection zone . This can occur , for example , in regions where very high energy fluxes occur , such as near the core or in areas with high opacity ( making radiatative heat transfer inefficient ) as in the outer envelope .
The occurrence of convection in the outer envelope of a main sequence star depends on the star 's mass . Stars with several times the mass of the Sun have a convection zone deep within the interior and a radiative zone in the outer layers . Smaller stars such as the Sun are just the opposite , with the convective zone located in the outer layers . Red dwarf stars with less than 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ are convective throughout , which prevents the accumulation of a helium core . For most stars the convective zones will also vary over time as the star ages and the constitution of the interior is modified .
The photosphere is that portion of a star that is visible to an observer . This is the layer at which the plasma of the star becomes transparent to photons of light . From here , the energy generated at the core becomes free to propagate into space . It is within the photosphere that sun spots , regions of lower than average temperature , appear .
Above the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere . In a main sequence star such as the Sun , the lowest level of the atmosphere , just above the photosphere , is the thin chromosphere region , where spicules appear and stellar flares begin . Above this is the transition region , where the temperature rapidly increases within a distance of only 100 km ( 62 mi ) . Beyond this is the corona , a volume of super @-@ heated plasma that can extend outward to several million kilometres . The existence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective zone in the outer layers of the star . Despite its high temperature , and the corona emits very little light , due to its low gas density . The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a solar eclipse .
From the corona , a stellar wind of plasma particles expands outward from the star , until it interacts with the interstellar medium . For the Sun , the influence of its solar wind extends throughout a bubble @-@ shaped region called the heliosphere .
= = Nuclear fusion reaction pathways = =
A variety of nuclear fusion reactions take place in the cores of stars , that depend upon their mass and composition . When nuclei fuse , the mass of the fused product is less than the mass of the original parts . This lost mass is converted to electromagnetic energy , according to the mass @-@ energy equivalence relationship E = mc2 .
The hydrogen fusion process is temperature @-@ sensitive , so a moderate increase in the core temperature will result in a significant increase in the fusion rate . As a result , the core temperature of main sequence stars only varies from 4 million kelvin for a small M @-@ class star to 40 million kelvin for a massive O @-@ class star .
In the Sun , with a 10 @-@ million @-@ kelvin core , hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton @-@ proton chain reaction :
41H → 22H + 2e + + 2νe ( 2 x 0 @.@ 4 MeV )
2e + + 2e- → 2γ ( 2 x 1 @.@ 0 MeV )
21H + 22H → 23He + 2γ ( 2 x 5 @.@ 5 MeV )
23He → 4He + 21H ( 12 @.@ 9 MeV )
These reactions result in the overall reaction :
41H → 4He + 2e + + 2γ + 2νe ( 26 @.@ 7 MeV )
where e + is a positron , γ is a gamma ray photon , νe is a neutrino , and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium , respectively . The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts , which is actually only a tiny amount of energy . However enormous numbers of these reactions occur constantly , producing all the energy necessary to sustain the star 's radiation output . In comparison , the combustion of two hydrogen gas molecules with one oxygen gas molecule releases only 5 @.@ 7 eV .
In more massive stars , helium is produced in a cycle of reactions catalyzed by carbon called the carbon @-@ nitrogen @-@ oxygen cycle .
In evolved stars with cores at 100 million kelvin and masses between 0 @.@ 5 and 10 M ☉ , helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple @-@ alpha process that uses the intermediate element beryllium :
4He + 4He + 92 keV → 8 * Be
4He + 8 * Be + 67 keV → 12 * C
12 * C → 12C + γ + 7 @.@ 4 MeV
For an overall reaction of :
34He → 12C + γ + 7 @.@ 2 MeV
In massive stars , heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core through the neon burning process and oxygen burning process . The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the silicon burning process that results in the production of the stable isotope iron @-@ 56 , an endothermic process that consumes energy , and so further energy can only be produced through gravitational collapse .
The example below shows the amount of time required for a star of 20 M ☉ to consume all of its nuclear fuel . As an O @-@ class main sequence star , it would be 8 times the solar radius and 62 @,@ 000 times the Sun 's luminosity .
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= Perry the Platypus =
Perry the Platypus , also known as Agent P or simply Perry , is an anthropomorphic platypus from the animated series Phineas and Ferb . Perry was created by the series ' co @-@ founders , Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . He first appeared along with the majority of the main cast in the pilot episode " Rollercoaster . " Perry is featured as the star of the B @-@ plot for every episode of the series , alongside his nemesis Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz . A mostly silent character , his lone vocal characteristic ( a rattling of Perry 's beak ) was provided by Dee Bradley Baker .
Perry is the pet platypus of the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family , and is perceived as mindless and domesticated . In secret , however , he lives a double life as a member of an all @-@ animal espionage organization referred to as O.W.C.A. ( The Organization Without a Cool Acronym ) . Many secret entrances to his underground lair exist all around the house ; such as the side of the house , most notably the tree that his owners sit under in the backyard , and several other everyday objects that seem to elude the family 's attention . He engages in daily battles with Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , an evil scientist who desires to take over the Tri @-@ state area with obscure contraptions that work perfectly according to his intended function but fail in his application of them every time .
Perry was made a platypus because of the animal 's striking appearance and the lack of public knowledge of the animal , which allowed the writers to make things up about the species . Critical reception for the character from both professionals and fans have been considerably positive . Merchandising of the character include plush toys , t @-@ shirts , wooden toys , glasses , and coloring books , along with appearances in literature and a 2009 video game for the Nintendo DS .
= = Role in Phineas and Ferb = =
Perry is the docile pet platypus of the blended Flynn @-@ Fletcher family , who adopted him because his unfocused gaze made it seem as if he were looking at both Phineas and Ferb at the same time , as shown in the 2011 movie , Phineas and Ferb the Movie : Across the 2nd Dimension . Unbeknownst to them , Perry lives a double life as a crime @-@ fighting spy working for the " Organization Without a Cool Acronym " / The OWCA , going by the codename " Agent P. " He reports to his superior , Major Monogram , via telecast in his large , high @-@ tech , underground hideout . Every day , he engages in battles with the evil scientist Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , who tries using inventions to take over the tri @-@ state area . Perry is always able to foil Doofenshmirtz 's plans and in doing so accidentally leads to the destruction of whatever form of contraption his owners , Phineas Flynn and Ferb Fletcher , are building in order to make summer better . Phineas and Ferb are aware that something happens to get rid of their scheme for the day , but do not know that Perry is the cause behind it and are largely dismissive of it . Their sister , Candace , also does not know that Perry is behind the destruction and is driven to near insanity trying to figure it out . Throughout the series , Perry is aware of Phineas and Ferb 's inventions , but is largely uninterested in them , save whenever he notices that their latest invention may help him thwart Doofenshmirtz .
Perry and Doofenshmirtz at first seem to loathe each other in the beginning of the series , and have been arch @-@ nemeses since the day they met . However , they are often cordial and friendly towards one another and it is said by Doofenshmirtz that Perry is his best friend , and Perry will often act to save Doofenshmirtz 's life when his plot inevitably blows up in his face . Habitually , their daily brawls involve Doofenshmirtz devising a scheme , which Perry goes to stop after being briefed by Major Monogram . He is trapped by Doofenshmirtz while trying to do so and is told of the doctor 's scheme , usually pertaining to some backstory or pet peeve . He then escapes and the two fight , Perry coming out victorious . The two rely on this daily structure , Doofenshmirtz even specifically mentioning it in " Journey to the Center of Candace " and in episodes such as " It 's About Time ! " in which Doofenshmirtz temporarily replaces Perry with secret agent Peter The Panda and they become depressed about not having each other to fight . Perry realizes he misses Doof too . When Perry does not arrive on the scene of Doofenshmirtz 's evil plan , the doctor hesitates to execute his plans and fears for where Perry has gone , though he notes that he " hopes something terrible has happened to him . " . Sometimes , they decided not to fight and have fun , as shown in " Happy New Year ! " and " Candace Disconnected " . On other occasions , depending on whatever situation Doofenshmirtz is facing , Perry would often help Doofenshmirtz with his non @-@ evil plans , such as helping him overcome evil scientist 's block , helping him put on a birthday party for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Vanessa , impressing a square dancing girl with programmable square dancing boots that Doofenshmritz created , working together to stop a raging platypus hunter from hunting them down , or helping him convince his rich ex @-@ wife to help pay off his mortgage debt . Also , Perry tends to use Doofenshmirtz 's inventions to erase evidence of whatever contraptions Phineas and Ferb had made , leaving Candace unable to bust them . Examples include when Perry asked to borrow Doofenshmirtz 's robot Norm to pick up footage from the city surveillance cameras in order to preserve his job as an agent , as well as using Doofenshmirtz 's Pick @-@ Him @-@ Up @-@ inator to rescue a lost Candace and bring her home .
In Phineas and Ferb the Movie : Across the 2nd Dimension , an alternate reality ( yet more evil and ruthless ) version of Perry ( known as Platyborg ) appears as the secondary antagonist , with the regular Perry serving as a supporting protagonist . Platyborg would later return in the episode sequel , Tales from the Resistance : Back to the 2nd Dimension , this time , as a supporting protagonist .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and conception = = =
While working on the animated television series Rocko 's Modern Life , Phineas and Ferb co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh utilized several recurring elements in the episodes that they wrote . Among these were actions sequences and chase scenes . Povenmire and Marsh wanted to reuse these elements in their series and chose Perry to execute it . The pair gave him a consistent and continuous nemesis in the form of Doofenshmirtz as a means of allowing viewers to get to know him .
While choosing a species for Perry , Povenmire and Marsh wanted to keep in mind selecting one that was uncommon , an animal that kids could not " pick out at a pet store and beg [ their parents ] for . " They chose a platypus because of the animal 's obscure and striking appearance . The animal was scarcely used in American animated programs , so the pair opined that Perry " would not have to compete with preconceived notions that viewers might bring to a more conventional critter . " The blank storyboard they were given allowed them to " make stuff up " since " no one knows very much about [ them ] . "
Perry has a theme song tentatively entitled " Perry , " performed by Randy Crenshaw and Laura Dickinson , and written by Povenmire and Marsh , who write the majority of songs in the series . The song , along with the number " Gitchee Gitchee Goo " from the episode " Flop Starz , " was the first musical composition Povenmire and Marsh pitched to The Walt Disney Company . They were nervous doing so , because , as Povenmire explained , " Disney has a big history of music -- what if they hate it ? " Their reaction , however , was considerably positive and the pair was asked to write a song for each episode , which they vehemently agreed to . The opening lyrics for the song describe Perry as a standard textbook definition of a platypus : " He 's a semi @-@ aquatic egg @-@ laying mammal of action . "
= = = Design = = =
Like the other characters of the series , Perry was structured in a simple style to allow young viewers to easily draw him . In keeping with the show 's general design scheme , Perry is constructed of geometric shapes in a style reminiscent of deceased Looney Tunes animator Tex Avery . Povenmire uses different design styles for drawing Perry depending on how he is portrayed . When Perry is portrayed as a domesticated and mindless pet , Povenmire begins with a square shaped like a loaf of bread . He then draws his front legs and feet before drawing his bill , which is set at a certain angle . Povenmire then draws his eyeballs , which are never focused and look in opposing directions in a daze . He concludes the figure by adding his hind legs , tail , hair , and finally color .
When portrayed as a secret agent , Povenmire starts with a similar bread loaf square design , but draws it standing up vertically and places a fedora on the top of his head , which is combined with the square torso . In contrast to his mindless and wild @-@ eyed expression as a pet , the secret agent version of Perry is detailed with eyes " full of steely blue resolve . " Povenmire proceeds by drawing his arms , which bear hands that are open and prepared for fighting or any danger . His legs are bent , as well prepared for an act of danger or action needed . Povenmire finishes the design by adding his beaver tail and color .
= = = Personality = = =
Perry 's undercover identity as a pet leads to characters throughout the series to deem him as a " mindless domestic pet " that " doesn 't do much " . This definition of the character led to Phineas and Ferb spearheading production of a new toyline based on Perry called " Perry the Inaction Figure , " whose tagline revolved around it not doing anything but allowing the customer to make it whatever they desire it to be . In all actuality , Perry is a skilled fighter who is able to perform several implausible judo fighting moves and escapes . He has access to several different types of technology and inventions provided to him by The O.W.C.A. , including a hover craft dubbed the " Platypusmobile , " a jet ski , and a whistle set that allows him to summon different types of animals .
Although his appearance as a domestic pet is mostly a cover , Perry has nonetheless expressed care and devotion for the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family . In the episode " The Ballad of Bad Beard " , Perry managed to drag Candace out of the Dark Cave before it caved in because of Dr. Doofenshmirthz 's " self destruction button " that which Candace had accidentally pressed while under the orange moss hallucination , thinking it was a vending machine . He did this even though he knew that Candace saw that Perry was a secret agent talking to Agent E ( Eagle ) and to Major Monogram in a cracked egg . Candace thought she was just hallucinating because of the orange moss she accidentally touched earlier in the episode . Also , when an invention of Doofenshmirtz 's in the episode " Journey to the Center of Candace " might cause severe harm to Phineas and Ferb , Perry thoroughly beats up Doofenshmirtz and quickly handcuffs him . He then ties him to a pipe and , instead of just leaving him like he usually does in the series , calls for special forces from the O.W.C.A. to come and arrest the doctor , though they never show up . In " Oh , There You Are , Perry , " Doofenshmirtz is downgraded to a low threat level and Perry is reassigned to a new nemesis . This causes him to have to leave his home with the Flynn @-@ Fletchers , which makes him sad and he does not enjoy his new villain . Phineas and Ferb are fearful about where Perry could have gone to and put up several flyers around town for people to find him . They decide to throw a concert on the roof of a building , singing a song about how much they love Perry and want him to come home . Concurrently , Perry is reassigned to Doofenshmirtz again and returns to the brothers once more .
Though Perry is anthropomorphic , he does not speak , only communicating through an " aggravated purr " type of noise made by flapping his bill . This noise is provided by actor Dee Bradley Baker ; to this day , Povenmire and Marsh do not understand how Baker produces the noise . Thomas Sangster , who plays Ferb , is notoriously good at making the noise and is considered second only to Baker himself . When in his " Agent P " persona , Perry is almost completely silent .
= = Reception = =
As a character , Perry has been well received by both fans and critics . As Cynthia Littleton of Variety magazine wrote , " Perry the platypus is a breakout star from the Disney Channel toon ' Phineas and Ferb . ' " The New York Times writer Susan Stewart called him " intrepid . " Jean Yoo , a press member for Disney Channel , said that Perry is " suave " and " makes James Bond look like a rank amateur . " Aaron H. Bynum of Animator Insider opined that he is " indubitably confident . " Carly H. of Scholastic , Inc. declared Perry " pretty darn awesome . " Josh Jackson , editor of Paste , described Perry and Doofenshmirtz 's relationship as " pitch @-@ perfect . "
Certain reviewers have also commented negatively about Perry and his subplot , which Sherry Robinson of the St. Petersburg Times considers " pretty trippy . " Kevin McDonough of Sun Coast Today described it as " complicated " and " loosely connected " to the rest of the series , writing that he is " not sure what this accomplishes except to add the noise of explosions to the already constant din of singing and screaming . " Ed Liu of Toon Zone feels it is " truly puzzling what Perry the secret agent is doing in this show in the first place . " Liu considers his subplot to be a type of " throw everything against the wall and see what sticks " element and writes that " many of the earlier episodes of the show don 't manage to do a very good job of balancing the subplot and the main one . "
Perry was nominated for a Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Award in 2014 under the category of Favorite Animated Animal Sidekick .
= = In other media = =
In addition to the main television series , Perry has appeared in several pieces of Phineas and Ferb merchandise . To date , he has appeared in all Phineas and Ferb novelizations , published by Disney Press . The character has been adapted into a 20 inch plush toy , released by The Walt Disney Company . The plush has a button on its hand that allows it to emit Perry 's signature chattering noise . Certain t @-@ shirts based on the series released by both Disney and the online retail website Zazzle also display Perry and the phrase " Hey , where 's Perry ? " which most characters like Phineas , Isabella , Stacy , Irving , Ferb , and Lawrence utter when Perry goes to Major Monogram in his secret lair in almost every episode . There also is a T @-@ Shirt with Perry 's face . Perry appears in the Nintendo DS video game based on the series , simply titled Phineas and Ferb , where a mini @-@ game involves Perry stopping Doofenshmirtz 's latest evil scheme . As of 1 April 2014 , Perry is also a playable character in the video game Disney Infinity .
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= Amylostereum =
Amylostereum is the single genus in the fungal family Amylostereaceae . The genus currently comprises four saprotrophic and parasitic species , which live off living or dead wood . The Amylostereaceae cause white rot in the wood by disintegrating the tissue component lignin . They produce crust @-@ like , partially wavy fruit bodies on the surface of infested trees , which are similar to those produced by Stereum species .
There are four described species in the Amylostereaceae : A. chailletii ( the type ) , A. areolatum , A. ferreum and A. laevigatum . The species were initially considered part of Stereum until mycologist Jacques Boidin found atypical microscopic differences between them . Forty years after his extensive researches from 1958 , Boidin reclassified Amylostereum into its own family .
Three Amylostereum species are symbionts of wood wasps in the genera Sirex , Urocerus , and Xoanon , which infest conifers . The female wood wasps deposit their eggs together with fungal spores and mucus in trees , and the fungus is eaten by the wasp 's larva as food . The fungus propagates vegetatively through the formation of asexual spores in newly emerged females that are stored in special structures adapted for the transport of symbiotic fungi . The A. areolatum – Sirex woodwasp ( S. noctilio ) symbiont complex has been studied extensively because of its potential to cause substantial economic losses in the forestry industry , particularly in non @-@ native regions .
= = Taxonomy and history of research = =
Amylostereaceae species were for a long time classified in the genus Stereum , based primary on the layered structure of the fruit body and the similar physiological activity . Mycologist Jacques Boidin separated Amylosterum from Stereum in 1958 , justifying this decision by explaining that microscopic differences such as amyloid spores and encrusted cystidia were sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition as a new genus . Although the type species of the genus ( today called A. chailletii ) was initially named Trichocarpus ambiguus , the name Trichocarpus had already been used for a genus in the flowering plant family Malvaceae . Boidin thus chose the genus name Amylostereum , referring to the amyloid spores .
Based on DNA analysis , Boidin in 1998 moved Amylostereum into a new , monotypic family , the Amylostereaceae , which he attributed to the Hericiales order . Later studies , however , supported the initial classification in the Russulales .
= = = Classification = = =
The classification of the Amylostereaceae is not completely resolved . The next closest relatives might be – depending on the research – either Echinodontium tinctorium and most other species of the genus Echinodontium , or Artomyces pyxidatus . Most of the previous DNA analysis results suggest a narrow relation to Echinodontium , but several results of studies partially contradict this conclusion . Only the classification to the Russulales is regarded as correct . Some authors have suggested that Amylostereum should be placed in the family Echinodontiaceae .
The similarities between A. chailletii and A. areolatum have caused some confusion regarding their placement in the genus . As only the size of their fruit bodies differ from each other in appearance , researcher German Josef Krieglsteiner assumed that both are the same species in different age stages . Experiments with pure cultures of the fungi , however , showed that the mycelia of A. chailletii , A. laevigatum and A. ferreum were partially compatible to each other , but the mycelium of A. areolatum was incompatible to other species . Boidin believes that the common ancestor of all Amylostereum fungi used yellowwoods as a host . This genus of conifers was native in Europe until the Paleogene and Neogene Periods ( 66 million to 2 @.@ 6 million years ago ) , but became extinct there , so the Amylostereum fungi specialized on other conifers and differentiated into several species . Only A. ferreum specialized on yellowwoods in South America .
Compatibility tests as well as molecular analysis indicated that A. areolatum separated very early from other Amylostereum fungi . The other three species separated later from each other and are thus partially compatible to each other . A. ferreum and A. laevigatum produced in 59 % of all cases a common mycelium , A. ferreum and A. chailletii only in 44 % . There is an undescribed species in Amylostereum ; according to DNA analysis , it stands between A. laevigatum and A. ferreum . This is remarkable , as these fungi originated from Mycetangae ( storing organs of Platypodinae ) of a North American wood wasp , while A. laevigatum has never been seen as symbiont of wood wasps , neither in North American nor in Europe . The fungus possibly represents a separated species or a subtaxon of A. laevigatum . As A. areolatum and A. chailletii mainly reproduce asexually through the symbiosis of wood wasps , the genetic variability within these species is relatively low .
= = Description = =
= = = Macroscopic = = =
The Amylostereaceae produce crust @-@ like , dry and leathery @-@ corky fruit bodies on the bark of infested trees . The fruit bodies are 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 – 0 @.@ 06 in ) thick , irregularly shaped and are able to cover a large surface on the bark or otherwise can appear as small spots . They lie directly on the bark . The ochrous , grey or brownish fruit body ( hymenium ) has a smooth to warty surface texture and is turned outwards . It is bordered by a highly bent and wavy ( effuso @-@ reflex ) edge on all species except A. laevigatum , which has a churlish surface ( a tomentum ) and is usually dirty @-@ brown coloured . In some species , the tomentum stands clearly above and forms a kind of roof above the fruit body ; if it completely surrounds this roof , there might appear cuplike shapes .
= = = Microscopic = = =
The Amylostereaceae possess a dimitic trama , meaning that there are in its mycelia two kinds of hyphae . The first type is brownish skeletal hyphae , which provide stability to the fruit body . These hyphae run parallel to the bark and often have hairpin @-@ like turns , so that the loops form thick @-@ walled , cystidium @-@ like structures , the so @-@ called pseudocystidia . The second type is generative hyphae . They are translucent ( hyaline ) and serve to promote the growth of the fungus . Genuine cystidia arise in the hymenium and the layer directly below , the subhymenium . Both pseudocystidia and cystidia are encrusted , meaning that they feature crystal @-@ like structures on the top .
With the exception of A. laevigatum , all species have a thin separating layer , the cortex , between the hymenium and the tomentum . A cortex is also present on many Stereum fungi ( on a broader front ) and serves to bend up the fruit body . As this cortex is missing on A. laevigatum , its fruit body lies flat on the bark .
The basidia are 15 – 25 × 3 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm and have a slim , club @-@ like shape . Each basidium features four sterigmata , each of which bear one spore . The spores ' shape is slimly ellipsoidal or cylindrical . Their surface is smooth and their walls are thin . Although they are colourless and hyaline , the spores are amyloid , meaning they will turn bluish or purple when stained with Melzer 's reagent . This characteristic differs from other very similar species , and this gave the genus its name .
= = Distribution = =
The range of the Amylostereaceae originally comprised only Holarctic regions , including North America and Eurasia , and the Neotropics , with Central and South America . The introduction of A. areolatum and its symbionts , the Sirex woodwasps , saw the spread of the genus to all continents except Antarctica .
Amylostereum chailletiiz is common in the temperate regions of North America and Eurasia . A. laevigatum can be also found in temperate Eurasia , but it is unclear how broadly this species is distributed in North America . A. areolatum is originally native in North Africa and Eurasia ; it was however distributed through the 20th century in Australia , New Zealand , Southern Africa as well as in South and North America . Only A. ferreum is originally native in the tropics and is common in Brazil and the Caribbean .
= = Ecology = =
Amylostereaceae usually infest only dead or cut down conifer wood . Three species – A. areolatum , A. laevigatum and A. chailletii – may also establish a symbiosis with wood wasps ( Siricidae ) , which beside freshly logged trees also infest living trees and infect them with fungi . Symbioses have been recorded with several species : Sirex noctilio , S. juvencus , S. nitobei , S. cyaneus , S. edwarsii , S. nitidus , and , in Japan , Urocerus antennatus and Xoanon matsumurae . Wasps of the genera Sirex and Urocerus store oidia ( the hypha of fungi split up to spores ) in special abdominal organs . The wood wasps infect trees by splashing a phytotoxic secretion below the bark and at the same time injecting fungal spores into the hole . The secretion weakens the tree and temporarily diminishes its immune system , whereby the fungus can spread along the xylem . The infection with Amylostereaceae fulfill two functions for the wasps : it provides the larvae food , because the white rot softens the wood ; at the same time , the mycelia of the fungi serves as food for the larvae . After the larvae pupate , it absorbs the mycelia of the Amylostereaceae into its body to oviposit together with its eggs . The fungus benefits from the symbiosis as it spreads faster and more effectively than through airborne spores and furthermore does not need to develop fruit bodies . A. ferreum is the only Amylosterum species that has not been associated with any woodwasps .
= = = Host spectrum = = =
The host spectrum of the Amylostereaceae comprises several , partially very different genera of Coniferae . A. chailletii usually infests Pinaceae such as firs ( Abies ) and spruces ( Picea ) , but also cedars ( Cedrus ) and Douglas firs ( Pseudotsuga ) . A. areolatum has a similar host spectrum , which uses mainly firs , Japanese cedars ( Cryptomeria ) , larches ( Larix ) , spruces , pines ( Pinus ) and Douglas firs as hosts . While spruces dominate as hosts in the native habitat , this species is more common in pines on other locations . The host spectrum of A. laevigatum comprises Cupressaceae such as junipers ( Juniperus ) or cypresses ( Cupressus ) and the English yew ( Taxus baccata ) . A. ferreum is , however , only common on neotropic yellowwoods ( Podocarpus ) .
= = = Symptoms of infestation = = =
The Amylostereaceae are white rot pathogens . They disintegrate the lignin of the host wood , whereby the infested wood parts become less stable and take a fibrous structure . The wood bleaches as fungal enzymes break down and remove the brown @-@ pigmented lignin . The distribution in wood takes place mainly along the transport channels in the xylem . If the wood is crosscut , the red rot is vertically positioned , on which bleached , infested areas contrast with intact wood . Symptoms of infestion by the symbiotic partner — wood wasps — include circular exit holes in the crust and acute stress through dryness , common in hanging , falling or tanning needles .
= = Ecological and economical importance = =
In their native habitat , all Amylostereum species have a minor importance as forest pests . The infestation through wood wasps does not assume greater dimensions and is , compared with other pests , almost insignificant . The infection rates are even lower during sexual reproduction via fruit bodies , as the wasps do not play a part in the process . Furthermore , the Amylostereum fungi are alone often incapable of infesting healthy trees . They thus mostly act as saprobiontics . Pine monocultures in Australia , New Zealand , Africa and South America were shown to be susceptible to the Sirex woodwasp ( Sirex noctilio ) , which was introduced there and which is associated with A. areolatum . The wasp 's phytotoxic secretion , its larvae and the fungus combine very effectively with each other and contribute to forest decline rates of up to 80 % . This is mainly owing to the poor water and nutrient supply of the trees , which can poorly reconcile the drought stress caused by infestation . S. noctilio was detected in North America in the 2000s ( decade ) ; in Canada alone , the total economic loss to the forestry industry caused by the Sirex – Amylostereum symbiosis could be as high as $ 254 million per year for the next 20 years .
As a countermeasure , cultures of the nematode Deladenus siricidicola have been used as biological control to protect trees since the 1980s . This parasite feeds on the mycelia of A. areolatum and is therefore a food competitor of wood wasp larvae . Where S. noctilio larvae are present , the parasite infects and sterilizes the eggs of female wasps , causing them to be infertile . These infertile females lay infected eggs into new trees and thus spread the nematode . This control method has proven to be relatively successful to combat the Sirex – Amylostereum complex . In the Southern Hemisphere , where the technique has been widely employed , reductions of parasitism levels of 70 % – 100 % have been achieved .
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= Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan =
Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan ( French : [ ʃaʁl valɑ ̃ tɛ ̃ alkɑ ̃ ] ; 30 November 1813 – 29 March 1888 ) was a French @-@ Jewish composer and virtuoso pianist . At the height of his fame in the 1830s and 1840s he was , alongside his friends and colleagues Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt , among the leading pianists in Paris , a city in which he spent virtually his entire life .
Alkan earned many awards at the Conservatoire de Paris , which he entered before he was six . His career in the salons and concert halls of Paris was marked by his occasional long withdrawals from public performance , for personal reasons . Although he had a wide circle of friends and acquaintances in the Parisian artistic world , including Eugène Delacroix and George Sand , from 1848 he began to adopt a reclusive life style , while continuing with his compositions – virtually all of which are for the keyboard . During this period he published , among other works , his collections of large @-@ scale studies in all the major keys ( Op. 35 ) and all the minor keys ( Op. 39 ) . The latter includes his Symphony for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , nos . 4 – 7 ) and Concerto for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , nos . 8 – 10 ) , which are often considered among his masterpieces and are of great musical and technical complexity . Alkan emerged from self @-@ imposed retirement in the 1870s to give a series of recitals that were attended by a new generation of French musicians .
Alkan 's attachment to his Jewish origins is displayed both in his life and his work . He was the first composer to incorporate Jewish melodies in art music . Fluent in Hebrew and Greek , he devoted much time to a complete new translation of the Bible into French . This work , like many of his musical compositions , is now lost . Alkan never married , but his presumed son Élie @-@ Miriam Delaborde was , like Alkan , a virtuoso performer on both the piano and the pedal piano , and edited a number of the elder composer 's works .
Following his death ( which according to persistent but unfounded legend was caused by a falling bookcase ) Alkan 's music became neglected , supported by only a few musicians including Ferruccio Busoni , Egon Petri and Kaikhosru Sorabji . From the late 1960s onwards , led by Raymond Lewenthal and Ronald Smith , many pianists have recorded his music and brought it back into the repertoire .
= = Life = =
= = = Family = = =
Alkan was born Charles @-@ Valentin Morhange on 30 November 1813 at 1 , Rue de Braque in Paris to Alkan Morhange ( 1780 – 1855 ) and Julie Morhange , née Abraham . Alkan Morhange was descended from a long @-@ established Jewish Ashkenazic community in the region of Metz ; the village of Morhange is located about 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the city of Metz . Charles @-@ Valentin was the second of six children – one elder sister and four younger brothers ; his birth certificate indicates that he was named after a neighbour who witnessed the birth .
Alkan Morhange supported the family as a musician and later as the proprietor of a private music school in le Marais , the Jewish quarter of Paris . At an early age , Charles @-@ Valentin and his siblings adopted their father 's first name as their last ( and were known by this during their studies at the Conservatoire de Paris and subsequent careers ) . His brother Napoléon ( 1826 – 1906 ) became professor of solfège at the Conservatoire , his brother Maxim ( 1818 – 1897 ) had a career writing light music for Parisian theatres , and his sister , Céleste ( 1812 – 1897 ) , was also a pianist . His brother Ernest ( 1816 – 1876 ) was a professional flautist , while the youngest brother Gustave ( 1827 – 1882 ) was to publish various dances for the piano .
= = = Prodigy ( 1819 – 1831 ) = = =
Alkan was a child prodigy . He entered the Conservatoire de Paris at an unusually early age , and studied both piano and organ . The records of his auditions survive in the Archives Nationales in Paris . At his solfège audition on 3 July 1819 , when he was just over 5 years 7 months , the examiners noted Alkan ( who is referred to even at this early date as " Alkan ( Valentin ) " , and whose age is given incorrectly as six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half ) as " having a pretty little voice " . The profession of Alkan Morhange is given as " music @-@ paper ruler " . At Charles @-@ Valentin 's piano audition on 6 October 1820 , when he was nearly seven ( and where he is named as " Alkan ( Morhange ) Valentin " ) , the examiners comment " This child has amazing abilities . "
Alkan became a favourite of his teacher at the Conservatoire , Joseph Zimmermann , who also taught Georges Bizet , César Franck , Charles Gounod , and Ambroise Thomas . At the age of seven , Alkan won a first prize for solfège and in later years prizes in piano ( 1824 ) , harmony ( 1827 ) , and organ ( 1834 ) . At the age of seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half he gave his first public performance , appearing as a violinist and playing an air and variations by Pierre Rode . Alkan 's Opus 1 , a set of variations for piano based on a theme by Daniel Steibelt , dates from 1828 , when he was 14 years old . At about this time he also undertook teaching duties at his father 's school . Antoine Marmontel , one of Charles @-@ Valentin 's pupils there , who was later to become his bête noire , wrote of the school :
Young children , mostly Jewish , were given elementary musical instruction and also learnt the first rudiments of French grammar ... [ There ] I received a few lessons from the young Alkan , four years my senior ... I see once more ... that really parochial environment where the talent of Valentin Alkan was formed and where his hard @-@ working youth blossomed ... It was like a preparatory school , a juvenile annexe of the Conservatoire .
From about 1826 Alkan began to appear as a piano soloist in leading Parisian salons , including those of the Princesse de la Moskova ( widow of Marshal Ney ) , and the Duchesse de Montebello . He was probably introduced to these venues by his teacher Zimmermann . At the same time , Alkan Morhange arranged concerts featuring Charles @-@ Valentin at public venues in Paris , in association with leading musicians including the sopranos Giuditta Pasta and Henriette Sontag , the cellist Auguste Franchomme and the violinist Lambert Massart , with whom Alkan gave concerts in a rare visit out of France to Brussels in 1827 . In 1829 , at the age of 15 , Alkan was appointed joint professor of solfège – among his pupils in this class a few years later was his brother Napoléon . In this manner Alkan 's musical career was launched well before the July Revolution of 1830 , which initiated a period in which " keyboard virtuosity ... completely dominated professional music making " in the capital , attracting from all over Europe pianists who , as Heinrich Heine wrote , invaded " like a plague of locusts swarming to pick Paris clean " . Alkan nonetheless continued his studies and in 1831 enrolled in the organ classes of François Benoist , from whom he may have learnt to appreciate the music of Johann Sebastian Bach , of whom Benoist was then one of the few French advocates .
= = = Early fame ( 1831 – 1837 ) = = =
Throughout the early years of the July Monarchy , Alkan continued to teach and play at public concerts and in eminent social circles . He became a friend of many who were active in the world of the arts in Paris , including Franz Liszt ( who had been based there since 1827 ) , George Sand , and Victor Hugo . It is not clear exactly when he first met Frédéric Chopin , who arrived in Paris in September 1831 . In 1832 Alkan took the solo role in his first Concerto da camera for piano and strings at the Conservatoire . In the same year , aged 19 , he was elected to the influential Société Académique des Enfants d 'Apollon ( Society of the Children of Apollo ) , whose members included Luigi Cherubini , Fromental Halévy , the conductor François Habeneck , and Liszt , who had been elected in 1824 at the age of twelve . Between 1833 and 1836 Alkan participated at many of the Society 's concerts . Alkan twice competed unsuccessfully for the Prix de Rome , in 1832 and again in 1834 ; the cantatas which he wrote for the competition , Hermann et Ketty and L 'Entrée en loge , have remained unpublished and unperformed .
In 1834 Alkan began his friendship with the Spanish musician Santiago Masarnau , which was to result in an extended and often intimate correspondence which only came to light in 2009 . Like virtually all of Alkan 's correspondence , this exchange is now one @-@ sided ; all of his papers ( including his manuscripts and his extensive library ) were either destroyed by Alkan himself , as is clear from his will , or became lost after his death . Later in 1834 Alkan made a visit to England , where he gave recitals and where the second Concerto da camera was performed in Bath by its dedicatee Henry Ibbot Field ; it was published in London together with some solo piano pieces . A letter to Masarnau and a notice in a French journal that Alkan played in London with Moscheles and Cramer , indicate that he returned to England in 1835 . Later that year , Alkan , having found a place of retreat at Piscop outside Paris , completed his first truly original works for solo piano , the Twelve Caprices , published in 1837 as Opp . 12 , 13 , 15 and 16 . Op. 16 , the Trois scherzi de bravoure , is dedicated to Masarnau . In January 1836 , Liszt recommended Alkan for the post of Professor at the Geneva Conservatoire , which Alkan declined , and in 1837 he wrote an enthusiastic review of Alkan 's Op. 15 Caprices in the Revue et gazette musicale .
= = = At the Square d 'Orléans ( 1837 – 1848 ) = = =
From 1837 , Alkan lived in the Square d 'Orléans in Paris , which was inhabited by numerous celebrities of the time including Marie Taglioni , Alexandre Dumas , George Sand , and Chopin . Chopin and Alkan were personal friends and often discussed musical topics , including a work on musical theory that Chopin proposed to write . By 1838 , at 25 years old , Alkan had reached a peak of his career . He frequently gave recitals , his more mature works had begun to be published , and he often appeared in concerts with Liszt and Chopin . On 23 April 1837 Alkan took part in Liszt 's farewell concert in Paris , together with the 14 @-@ year @-@ old César Franck and the virtuoso Johann Peter Pixis . On 3 March 1838 , at a concert at the piano @-@ maker Pape , Alkan played with Chopin , Zimmerman , and Chopin 's pupil Adolphe Gutmann in a performance of Alkan 's transcription , now lost , of two movements of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony for two pianos , eight hands .
At this point , for a period which coincided with the birth and childhood of his natural son , Élie @-@ Miriam Delaborde ( 1839 – 1913 ) , Alkan withdrew into private study and composition for six years , returning to the concert platform only in 1844 . Alkan neither asserted or denied his paternity of Delaborde , which , however , his contemporaries seemed to assume . Marmontel wrote cryptically in a biography of Delaborde that " [ his ] birth is a page from a novel in the life of a great artist " . Alkan gave early piano lessons to Delaborde , who was to follow his natural father as a keyboard virtuoso .
Alkan 's return to the concert platform in 1844 was greeted with enthusiasm by critics , who noted the " admirable perfection " of his technique , and lauded him as " a model of science and inspiration " , a " sensation " and an " explosion " . They also commented on the attending celebrities including Liszt , Chopin , Sand and Dumas . In the same year he published his piano étude Le chemin de fer , which critics , following Ronald Smith , believe to be the first representation in music of a steam engine . Between 1844 and 1848 Alkan produced a series of virtuoso pieces , the 25 Préludes Op. 31 for piano or organ , and the sonata Op. 33 Les quatre âges . Following an Alkan recital in 1848 , the composer Giacomo Meyerbeer was so impressed that he invited the pianist , whom he considered " a most remarkable artist " , to prepare the piano arrangement of the overture to his forthcoming opera , Le prophète . Meyerbeer heard and approved Alkan 's arrangement of the overture for four hands ( which Alkan played with his brother Napoléon ) in 1849 ; published in 1850 , it is the only record of the overture , which was scrapped during rehearsals at the Opéra .
= = = Retreat ( 1848 – 1872 ) = = =
In 1848 Alkan was bitterly disappointed when the head of the Conservatoire , Daniel Auber , replaced the retiring Zimmermann with the mediocre Marmontel as head of the Conservatoire piano department , a position which Alkan had eagerly anticipated , and for which he had strongly lobbied with the support of Sand , Dumas , and many other leading figures . A disgusted Alkan described the appointment in a letter to Sand as " the most incredible , the most shameful nomination " ; and Delacroix noted in his journal " By his confrontation with Auber , [ Alkan ] has been very put out and will doubtless continue to be so . " The upset arising from this incident may account for Alkan 's reluctance to perform in public in the ensuing period . His withdrawal was also influenced by the death of Chopin ; in 1850 he wrote to Masarnau " I have lost the strength to be of any economic or political use " , and lamented " the death of poor Chopin , another blow which I felt deeply . " Chopin , on his deathbed in 1849 , had indicated his respect for Alkan by bequeathing him his unfinished work on a piano method , intending him to complete it , and after Chopin 's death a number of his students transferred to Alkan . After giving two concerts in 1853 , Alkan withdrew , in spite of his fame and technical accomplishment , into virtual seclusion for some twenty years .
Little is known of this period of Alkan 's life , other than that apart from composing he was immersed in the study of the Bible and the Talmud . Throughout this period Alkan continued his correspondence with Ferdinand Hiller , whom he had probably met in Paris in the 1830s , and with Masarnau , from which some insights can be gained . It appears that Alkan completed a full translation into French , now lost , of both the Old Testament and the New Testament , from their original languages . In 1865 , he wrote to Hiller : " Having translated a good deal of the Apocrypha , I 'm now onto the second Gospel which I am translating from the Syriac ... In starting to translate the New Testament , I was suddenly struck by a singular idea – that you have to be Jewish to be able to do it . "
Despite his seclusion from society , this period saw the composition and publication of many of Alkan 's major piano works , including the Douze études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 ( 1857 ) , the Sonatine , Op. 61 ( 1861 ) , the 49 Esquisses , Op. 63 ( 1861 ) , and the five collections of Chants ( 1857 – 1872 ) , as well as the Sonate de concert for cello and piano , Op. 47 ( 1856 ) . These did not pass unremarked ; Hans von Bülow , for example , gave a laudatory review of the Op. 35 Études in the Neue Berliner Musikzeitung in 1857 , the year in which they were published in Berlin , commenting that " Alkan is unquestionably the most eminent representative of the modern piano school at Paris . The virtuoso 's disinclination to travel , and his firm reputation as a teacher , explain why , at present , so little attention has been given to his work in Germany . "
From the early 1850s Alkan began to turn his attention seriously to the pedal piano ( pédalier ) . Alkan gave his first public performances on the pédalier to great critical acclaim in 1852 . From 1859 onwards he began to publish pieces designated as " for organ or piano à pédalier " .
= = = Reappearance ( 1873 – 1888 ) = = =
It is not clear why , in 1873 , Alkan decided to emerge from his self @-@ imposed obscurity to give a series of six Petits Concerts at the Érard piano showrooms . It may have been associated with the developing career of Delaborde , who , returning to Paris in 1867 , soon became a concert fixture , including in his recitals many works by his father , and who was at the end of 1872 given the appointment that had escaped Alkan himself , Professor at the Conservatoire . The success of the Petits Concerts led to them becoming an annual event ( with occasional interruptions caused by Alkan 's health ) until 1880 or possibly beyond . The Petits Concerts featured music not only by Alkan but of his favourite composers from Bach onwards , played on both the piano and the pédalier , and occasionally with the participation of another instrumentalist or singer . He was assisted in these concerts by his siblings , and by other musicians including Delaborde , Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , and Auguste Franchomme .
Those encountering Alkan at this phase included the young Vincent d 'Indy , who recalled Alkan 's " skinny , hooked fingers " playing Bach on an Érard pedal piano : " I listened , riveted to the spot by the expressive , crystal @-@ clear playing . " Alkan later played Beethoven 's Op. 110 sonata , of which d 'Indy said : " What happened to the great Beethovenian poem ... I couldn 't begin to describe – above all in the Arioso and the Fugue , where the melody , penetrating the mystery of Death itself , climbs up to a blaze of light , affected me with an excess of enthusiasm such as I have never experienced since . This was not Liszt — perhaps less perfect , technically — but it had greater intimacy and was more humanly moving ... "
The biographer of Chopin , Frederick Niecks , sought Alkan for his recollections in 1880 but was sternly denied access by Alkan 's concierge – " To my ... enquiry when he could be found at home , the reply was a ... decisive ' Never ' . " However , a few days later he found Alkan at Érard 's , and Niecks writes of their meeting that " his reception of me was not merely polite but most friendly . "
= = = Death = = =
According to his death certificate , Alkan died in Paris on 29 March 1888 at the age of 74 . Alkan was buried on 1 April ( Easter Sunday ) in the Jewish section of Montmartre Cemetery , Paris , not far from the tomb of his contemporary Fromental Halévy ; his sister Céleste was later buried in the same tomb .
For many years it was believed that Alkan met his death when a bookcase toppled over and fell on him as he reached for a volume of the Talmud from a high shelf . This tale , which was circulated by the pianist Isidor Philipp , is dismissed by Hugh Macdonald , who reports the discovery of a contemporary letter by one of his pupils explaining that Alkan had been found prostrate in his kitchen , under a porte @-@ parapluie ( a heavy coat / umbrella rack ) , after his concierge heard his moaning . He had possibly fainted , bringing it down on himself while grabbing out for support . He was reportedly carried to his bedroom and died later that evening . The story of the bookcase may have its roots in a legend told of Aryeh Leib ben Asher , rabbi of Metz , the town from which Alkan 's family originated .
= = Personality = =
Alkan was described by Marmontel ( who refers to " a regrettable misunderstanding at a moment of our careers in 1848 " ) , as follows :
" We will not give the portrait of Valentin Alkan from the rear , as in some photographs we have seen . His intelligent and original physiognomy deserves to be taken in profile or head @-@ on . The head is strong ; the deep forehead is that of a thinker ; the mouth large and smiling , the nose regular ; the years have whitened the beard and hair ... the gaze fine , a little mocking . His stooped walk , his puritan comportment , give him the look of an Anglican minister or a rabbi – for which he has the abilities . "
Alkan was not always remote or aloof . Chopin describes , in a letter to friend , visiting the theatre with Alkan in 1847 to see the comedian Arnal : " [ Arnal ] tells the audience how he was desperate to pee in a train , but couldn 't get to a toilet before they stopped at Orléans . There wasn 't a single vulgar word in what he said , but everyone understood and split their sides laughing . " Hugh Macdonald notes that Alkan " particularly enjoyed the patronage of Russian aristocratic ladies , ' des dames très parfumées et froufroutantes [ highly perfumed and frilled ladies ] ' , as Isidore Philipp described them . "
Alkan 's aversion to socialising and publicity , especially following 1850 , appeared to be self @-@ willed . Liszt is reported to have commented to the Danish pianist Frits Hartvigson that " Alkan possessed the finest technique he had ever known , but preferred the life of a recluse . " Stephanie McCallum has suggested that Alkan may have suffered from Asperger syndrome , schizophrenia or obsessive – compulsive disorder .
Alkan 's later correspondence contains many despairing comments . In a letter of about 1861 he wrote to Hiller : " I 'm becoming daily more and more misanthropic and misogynous ... nothing worthwhile , good or useful to do ... no one to devote myself to . My situation makes me horridly sad and wretched . Even musical production has lost its attraction for me for I can 't see the point or goal . " This spirit of anomie may have led him to reject requests in the 1860s to play in public , or to allow performances of his orchestral compositions . However , it should not be ignored that he was writing similarly frantic self @-@ analyses in his letters of the early 1830s to Masarnau .
Jack Gibbons writes of Alkan 's personality : " Alkan was an intelligent , lively , humorous and warm person ( all characteristics which feature strongly in his music ) whose only crime seems to have been having a vivid imagination , and whose occasional eccentricities ( mild when compared with the behaviour of other ' highly @-@ strung ' artistes ! ) stemmed mainly from his hypersensitive nature . " Macdonald , however , suggests that " Alkan was a man of profoundly conservative ideas , whose lifestyle , manner of dress , and belief in the traditions of historic music , set him apart from other musicians and the world at large . "
= = Judaism = =
Alkan grew up in a religiously observant Jewish household . His grandfather Marix Morhange had been a printer of the Talmud in Metz , and was probably a melamed ( Hebrew teacher ) in the Jewish congregation at Paris . Alkan 's widespread reputation as a student of the Old Testament and religion , and the high quality of his Hebrew handwriting testify to his knowledge of the religion , and many of his habits indicate that he practised at least some of its obligations , such as maintaining the laws of kashrut . Alkan was regarded by the Paris Consistory , the central Jewish organisation of the city , as an authority on Jewish music . In 1845 he assisted the Consistory in evaluating the musical ability of Samuel Naumbourg , who was subsequently appointed as hazzan ( cantor ) of the main Paris synagogue ; and he later contributed choral pieces in each of Naumbourg 's collections of synagogue music ( 1847 and 1856 ) . Alkan was appointed organist at the Synagogue de Nazareth in 1851 , although he resigned the post almost immediately for " artistic reasons " .
Alkan 's Op. 31 set of Préludes includes a number of pieces based on Jewish subjects , including some titled Prière ( Prayer ) , one preceded by a quote from the Song of Songs , and another titled Ancienne mélodie de la synagogue ( Old synagogue melody ) . The collection is believed to be " the first publication of art music specifically to deploy Jewish themes and ideas . " Alkan 's three settings of synagogue melodies , prepared for his former pupil Zina de Mansouroff , are further examples of his interest in Jewish music ; Kessous Dreyfuss provides a detailed analysis of these works and their origins . Other works evidencing this interest include no . 7 of his Op. 66 . 11 Grands préludes et 1 Transcription ( 1866 ) , entitled " Alla giudesca " and marked " con divozione " , a parody of excessive hazzanic practice ; and the slow movement of the cello sonata Op. 47 ( 1857 ) , which is prefaced by a quotation from the Old Testament prophet Micah and uses melodic tropes derived from the cantillation of the haftarah in the synagogue .
The inventory of Alkan 's apartment made after his death indicates over 75 volumes in Hebrew or related to Judaism , left to his brother Napoléon ( as well as 36 volumes of music manuscript ) . These are all lost . Bequests in his will to the Conservatoire to found prizes for composition of cantatas on Old Testament themes and for performance on the pedal @-@ piano , and to a Jewish charity for the training of apprentices , were refused by the beneficiaries .
= = Music = =
= = = Influences = = =
Brigitte François @-@ Sappey points out the frequency with which Alkan has been compared to Berlioz , both by his contemporaries and later . She mentions that Hans von Bülow called him " the Berlioz of the piano " , while Schumann , in criticising the Op. 15 Romances , claimed that Alkan merely " imitated Berlioz on the piano . " She further notes that Ferruccio Busoni repeated the comparison with Berlioz in a draft ( but unpublished ) monograph , while Kaikhosru Sorabji commented that Alkan 's Op. 61 Sonatine was like " a Beethoven sonata written by Berlioz " . Berlioz was ten years older than Alkan , but did not attend the Conservatoire until 1826 . The two were acquainted , and were perhaps both influenced by the unusual ideas and style of Anton Reicha who taught at the Conservatoire from 1818 to 1836 , and by the sonorities of the composers of the period of the French Revolution . They both created individual , indeed , idiosyncratic sound @-@ worlds in their music ; there are , however , major differences between them . Alkan , unlike Berlioz , remained closely dedicated to the German musical tradition ; his style and composition were heavily determined by his pianism , whereas Berlioz could hardly play at the keyboard and wrote nothing for piano solo . Alkan 's works therefore also include miniatures and ( among his early works ) salon music , genres which Berlioz avoided .
Alkan 's attachment to the music of his predecessors is demonstrated throughout his career , from his arrangements for keyboard of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony ( 1838 ) , and of the minuet of Mozart 's 40th Symphony ( 1844 ) , through the sets Souvenirs des concerts du Conservatoire ( 1847 and 1861 ) and the set Souvenirs de musique de chambre ( 1862 ) , which include transcriptions of music by Mozart , Beethoven , J. S. Bach , Haydn , Gluck , and others . In this context should be mentioned Alkan 's extensive cadenza for Beethoven 's 3rd Piano Concerto ( 1860 ) , which includes quotes from the finale of Beethoven 's 5th Symphony . Alkan 's transcriptions , together with original music of Bach , Beethoven , Handel , Mendelssohn , Couperin and Rameau , were frequently played during the series of Petits Concerts given by Alkan at Erard .
As regards the music of his own time , Alkan was unenthusiastic , or at any rate detached . He commented to Hiller that " Wagner is not a musician , he is a disease . " While he admired Berlioz 's talent , he did not enjoy his music . At the Petits Concerts , little more recent than Mendelssohn and Chopin ( both of whom had died around 25 years before the series of concerts was initiated ) was played , except for Alkan 's own works and occasionally some by his favourites such as Saint @-@ Saëns .
= = = Style = = =
" Like ... Chopin " , writes pianist and academic Kenneth Hamilton , " Alkan 's musical output was centred almost exclusively on the piano " . Some of his music requires extreme technical virtuosity , clearly reflecting his own abilities , often calling for great velocity , enormous leaps at speed , long stretches of fast repeated notes , and the maintenance of widely spaced contrapuntal lines . The illustration ( right ) from the Grande sonate is analysed by Smith as " six parts in invertible counterpoint , plus two extra voices and three doublings – eleven parts in all . " Some typical musical devices , such as a sudden explosive final chord following a quiet passage , were established at an early stage in Alkan 's compositions . Macdonald suggests that
unlike Wagner , Alkan did not seek to refashion the world through opera ; nor , like Berlioz , to dazzle the crowds by putting orchestral music at the service of literary expression ; nor even , as with Chopin or Liszt , to extend the field of harmonic idiom . Armed with his key instrument , the piano , he sought incessantly to transcend its inherent technical limits , remaining apparently insensible to the restrictions which had withheld more restrained composers .
However , not all of Alkan 's music is either lengthy or technically difficult ; for example , many of the Op. 31 Préludes and of the set of Esquisses , Op. 63 .
Moreover , in terms of structure , Alkan in his compositions sticks to traditional musical forms , although he often took them to extremes , as he did with piano technique . The study Op. 39 , no . 8 ( the first movement of the Concerto for solo piano ) takes almost half an hour in performance . Describing this " gigantic " piece , Ronald Smith comments that it convinces for the same reasons as does the music of the classical masters ; " the underlying unity of its principal themes , and a key structure that is basically simple and sound . "
Some of Alkan 's music gives hints of the obsessiveness which some have detected in his personality . The Chant Op. 38 , no . 2 , entitled Fa , repeats the note of its title incessantly ( in total 414 times ) against shifting harmonies which make it " cut ... into the texture with the ruthless precision of a laser beam . " In modelling his five sets of Chants on the first book of Mendelssohn 's Songs Without Words , Alkan ensured that the pieces in each of his sets followed precisely the same key signatures , and even the moods , of the original . Alkan was rigorous in his enharmonic spelling , occasionally modulating to keys containing double @-@ sharps or double @-@ flats , so pianists are occasionally required to come to terms with unusual keys such as E @-@ sharp major , enharmonic equivalent to F major , and the occasional triple @-@ sharp .
= = = Works = = =
= = = = Early works = = = =
Alkan 's earliest works indicate , according to Smith , that in his early teens he " was a formidable musician but as yet ... industrious rather than ... creative " . Only with his 12 Caprices ( Opp.12 – 13 and 15 – 16 , 1837 ) did his compositions begin to attract serious critical attention . The op . 15 set , Souvenirs : Trois morceaux dans le genre pathétique , dedicated to Liszt , contains Le vent ( The Wind ) , which was at one time the only piece by the composer to figure regularly in recitals . These works , however , did not meet with the approval of Robert Schumann , who wrote : " One is startled by such false , such unnatural art ... the last [ piece , titled Morte ( Death ) , is ] a crabbed waste , overgrown with brush and weeds ... nothing is to be found but black on black " . Ronald Smith , however , finds in this latter work , which cites the Dies Irae theme also used by Berlioz , Liszt and others , foreshadowings of Maurice Ravel , Modest Mussorgsky and Charles Ives . Schumann did , however , respond positively to the pieces of Les mois ( originally part published as Op. 8 in 1838 , later published as a complete set in 1840 as Op. 74 ) : " [ Here ] we find such an excellent jest on operatic music in no . 6 [ L 'Opéra ] that a better one could scarcely be imagined ... The composer ... well understands the rarer effects of his instrument . " Alkan 's technical mastery of the keyboard was asserted by the publication in 1838 of the Trois grandes études ( originally without opus number , later republished as Op. 76 ) , the first for the left hand alone , the second for the right hand alone , the third for both hands ; and all of great difficulty , described by Smith as " a peak of pianistic transcendentalism " . This is perhaps the earliest example of writing for a single hand as " an entity in its own right , capable of covering all registers of the piano , of rendering itself as accompanied soloist or polyphonist . "
= = = = Early maturity = = = =
Alkan 's large scale Duo ( in effect a sonata ) Op. 21 for violin and piano ( dedicated to Chrétien Urhan ) and his Piano Trio Op. 30 appeared in 1841 . Apart from these , Alkan published only a few minor works between 1840 and 1844 , after which a series of virtuoso works was issued , many of which he had played at his successful recitals at Érard and elsewhere ; these included the Marche funèbre ( Op. 26 ) , the Marche triomphale ( Op. 27 ) and Le chemin de fer ( also published , separately , as Op. 27 ) . In 1847 appeared the Op. 31 Préludes and his first large @-@ scale unified piano work , the Grande sonate Les quatre âges ( Op. 33 ) . The sonata is structurally innovative in two ways ; each movement is slower than its predecessor , and the work anticipates the practice of progressive tonality , beginning in D major and ending in G @-@ sharp minor . Dedicated to Alkan Morhange , the sonata depicts in its successive movements its ' hero ' at the ages of 20 ( optimistic ) , 30 ( " Quasi @-@ Faust " , impassioned and fatalistic ) , 40 ( domesticated ) and 50 ( suffering : the movement is prefaced by a quotation from Aeschylus 's Prometheus Unbound ) . In 1848 followed Alkan 's set of 12 études dans tous les tons majeurs Op. 35 , whose substantial pieces range in mood from the hectic Allegro barbaro ( no . 5 ) and the intense Chant d 'amour @-@ Chant de mort ( Song of Love – Song of Death ) ( no . 10 ) to the descriptive and picturesque L 'incendie au village voisin ( The Fire in the Next Village ) ( no . 7 ) .
A number of Alkan 's compositions from this period were never performed and have been lost . Among the missing works are some string sextets and a full @-@ scale orchestral symphony in B minor , which was described in an article in 1846 by the critic Léon Kreutzer , to whom Alkan had shown the score . Kreutzer noted that the introductory adagio of the symphony was headed " by Hebrew characters in red ink ... This is no less than the verse from Genesis : And God said , Let there be light : and there was light . " Kreutzer opined that , set beside Alkan 's conception , Joseph Haydn 's Creation was a " mere candle ( lampion ) . "
= = = = Internal exile = = = =
During his twenty @-@ year absence from the public between 1853 and 1873 Alkan produced many of his most notable compositions , although there is a ten @-@ year gap between publication of the Op. 35 studies and that of his next group of piano works in 1856 and 1857 . Of these , undoubtedly the most significant was the enormous Opus 39 collection of twelve studies in all the minor keys , which contains the Symphony for Solo Piano ( numbers four , five , six and seven ) , and the Concerto for Solo Piano ( numbers eight , nine and ten ) . The Concerto takes nearly an hour in performance . Number twelve of Op. 39 is a set of variations , Le festin d 'Ésope ( Aesop 's Feast ) . The other components of Op. 39 are of a similar stature . Smith describes Op. 39 as a whole as " a towering achievement , gathering ... the most complete manifestation of Alkan 's many @-@ sided genius : its dark passion , its vital rhythmic drive , its pungent harmony , its occasionally outrageous humour , and , above all , its uncompromising piano writing . "
In the same year appeared the Sonate de Concert , Op. 47 , for cello and piano , " among the most difficult and ambitious in the romantic repertoire ... anticipating Mahler in its juxtaposition of the sublime and the trivial " , and with its four movements showing again an anticipation of progressive tonality , each ascending by a major third . Other anticipations of Mahler ( who was born in 1860 ) can be found in the two " military " Op. 50 piano studies of 1859 Capriccio alla soldatesca and Le tambour bat aux champs ( The drum beats the retreat ) , as well as in certain of the miniatures of the 1861 Esquisses , Op. 63 . The bizarre and unclassifiable Marcia funebre , sulla morte d 'un Pappagallo ( Funeral march on the death of a parrot , 1859 ) , for three oboes , bassoon and voices , described by Kenneth Hamilton as " Monty @-@ Pythonesque " , is also of this period .
The Esquisses of 1861 are a set of highly varied miniatures , ranging from the tiny 18 @-@ bar no . 4 , Les cloches ( The Bells ) , to the strident tone clusters of no . 45 , Les diablotins ( The Imps ) , and closing with a further evocation of church bells in no . 49 , Laus Deo ( Praise God ) . They were preceded in publication by Alkan 's deceptively titled Sonatine , Op. 61 , in ' classical ' format , but a work of " ruthless economy [ which ] although it plays for less than twenty minutes ... is in every way a major work . "
Two of Alkan 's substantial works from this period are musical paraphrases of literary works . Salut , cendre du pauvre , Op. 45 ( 1856 ) , follows a section of the poem La Mélancolie by Gabriel @-@ Marie Legouvé ; while Super flumina Babylonis , Op. 52 ( 1859 ) , is a blow @-@ by @-@ blow recreation in music of the emotions and prophecies of Psalm 137 ( " By the waters of Babylon ... " ) . This piece is prefaced by a French version of the psalm which is believed to be the sole remnant of Alkan 's Bible translation . Alkan 's lyrical side was displayed in this period by the five sets of Chants inspired by Mendelssohn , which appeared between 1857 and 1872 , as well as by a number of minor pieces .
Alkan 's publications for organ or pédalier commenced with his Benedictus , Op. 54 ( 1859 ) . In the same year he published a set of very spare and simple preludes in the eight Gregorian modes ( 1859 , without opus number ) , which , in Smith 's opinion , " seem to stand outside the barriers of time and space " , and which he believes reveal " Alkan 's essential spiritual modesty . " These were followed by pieces such as the 13 Prières ( Prayers ) , Op. 64 ( 1865 ) , and the Impromptu sur le Choral de Luther " Un fort rempart est notre Dieu " , op . 69 ( 1866 ) . Alkan also issued a book of 12 studies for the pedalboard alone ( no opus number , 1866 ) and the Bombardo @-@ carillon for pedalboard duet ( four feet ) of 1872 .
Alkan 's return to the concert platform at his Petits Concerts , however , marked the end of his publications ; his final work to be issued was the Toccatina , Op. 75 , in 1872 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Alkan had few followers ; however , he had important admirers , including Liszt , Anton Rubinstein , Franck , and , in the early twentieth century , Busoni , Petri and Sorabji . Rubinstein dedicated his fifth piano concerto to him , and Franck dedicated to Alkan his Grand pièce symphonique op . 17 for organ . Busoni ranked Alkan with Liszt , Chopin , Schumann and Brahms as one of the five greatest composers for the piano since Beethoven . Isidor Philipp and Delaborde edited new printings of his works in the early 1900s . In the first half of the twentieth century , when Alkan 's name was still obscure , Busoni and Petri included his works in their performances . Sorabji published an article on Alkan in his 1932 book Around Music ; he promoted Alkan 's music in his reviews and criticism , and his Sixth Symphony for Piano ( Symphonia claviensis ) ( 1975 – 76 ) , includes a section entitled Quasi Alkan . The English composer and writer Bernard van Dieren praised Alkan in an essay in his 1935 book , Down Among the Dead Men , and the composer Humphrey Searle also called for a revival of his music in a 1937 essay .
For much of the 20th century , Alkan 's work remained in obscurity , but from the 1960s onwards it was steadily revived . Raymond Lewenthal gave a pioneering extended broadcast on Alkan on WBAI radio in New York in 1963 , and later included Alkan 's music in recitals and recordings . The English pianist Ronald Smith championed Alkan 's music through performances , recordings , a biography and the Alkan Society of which he was president for many years . Works by Alkan have also been recorded by Jack Gibbons , Marc @-@ André Hamelin , Mark Latimer , John Ogdon , and Hüseyin Sermet , among many others . Ronald Stevenson has composed a piano piece Festin d 'Alkan ( referring to Alkan 's Op. 39 , no . 12 ) and the composer Michael Finnissy has also written piano pieces referring to Alkan , e.g. Alkan @-@ Paganini , no . 5 of The History of Photography in Sound . Marc @-@ André Hamelin 's Étude No . IV is a moto perpetuo study combining themes from Alkan 's Symphony , Op. 39 , no . 7 , and Alkan 's own perpetual motion étude , Op. 76 , no . 3 . It is dedicated to Averil Kovacs and François Luguenot , respectively activists in the English and French Alkan Societies . As Hamelin writes in his preface to this étude , the idea to combine these came from the composer Alistair Hinton , the finale of whose Piano Sonata No. 5 ( 1994 – 95 ) includes a substantial section entitled " Alkanique " .
Alkan 's compositions for organ have been among the last of his works to be brought back to the repertoire . As to Alkan 's pedal @-@ piano works , due to a recent revival of the instrument , they are once again being performed as originally intended ( rather than on an organ ) , such as by Italian pedal @-@ pianist Roberto Prosseda , and recordings of Alkan on the pedal piano have been made by Jean Dubé and Olivier Latry .
= = Selected recordings = =
This list comprises a selection of some premiere and other recordings by musicians who have become closely associated with Alkan 's works . A comprehensive discography is available at the Alkan Society website .
Piano Trio , Op. 30 – played by Trio Alkan . Recorded 1992 . Naxos , 8555352 ( 2001 )
Grande sonate , Op. 33 – played by Marc @-@ André Hamelin ( piano ) . Recorded 1994 . Hyperion , CDA669764 ( 1995 ) .
Études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 – played by Ronald Smith ( piano ) . Recorded 1977 . EMI , SLS 5100 [ 3 LPs ] ( 1978 ) , partly reissued EMI Gemini , 585 4842 ( 2003 )
Études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 and other works – played by Jack Gibbons ( piano ) . Recorded 1995 . ASV , CD DCS 227 [ 2 CDs ] ( 1995 )
Concerto , Op. 39 , nos . 8 – 10 – played by John Ogdon ( piano ) . Recorded 1969 . RCA , LSC @-@ 3192 [ LP ] ( 1972 ) . Great British Pianists , 4569132 ( 1999 )
Le festin d 'Esope ( Op. 39 , no . 12 ) and other works – played by Raymond Lewenthal . Recorded 1966 . RCA LM 2815 [ LP mono ] , LSC @-@ 2815 [ LP stereo ] ; BMG High Performance Series 633310 ( 1999 )
Sonate de concert , Op. 47 , for cello and piano – played by Steven Osborne ( piano ) and Alban Gebhart ( cello ) . Recorded 2008 . Hyperion CDA67624 ( 2008 ) .
11 Pièces dans le style religieux , et une transcription du Messie de Hændel , Op. 72 – played by Kevin Bowyer ( organ ) . Recorded 2005 . Toccata TOCC 0031 ( 2007 )
Symphony for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , no . 4 @-@ 7 ) – played by Egon Petri ( piano ) . c . 1952 – 53 . Symposium Records , CD 1145 ( 1993 )
= = = About Alkan = = =
Alkan Society , including complete and regularly updated discography
Alkan web site of Sylvain Chosson , contains detailed listing of Alkan 's works , with some downloadable scores
" The Myths of Alkan " by Jack Gibbons
Unriddling Alkan by David Conway
Alkan @-@ Zimmerman International Music Association
Pictures of Alkan
= = = Scores and sheet @-@ music = = =
Free Alkan scores and manuscripts – site of Sylvain Chosson
Kunst der Fuge : many of Alkan 's piano works in MIDI performances
Alkan Piano Trio @-@ Discussion of work and soundbites
www.kreusch @-@ sheet @-@ music.net – Free Scores by Alkan
Free scores by Alkan at the International Music Score Library Project
= = = Performances on the Web = = =
Trois Andantes Romantiques , Op. 13 , No 2 on YouTube , played by Lloyd Buck
Scherzo Focoso , Op. 34 on YouTube , played by Lloyd Buck
" Allegro Barbaro " , Op. 35 , No. 5 on YouTube , played by Jack Gibbons
Menuet , Symphonie , Op. 39 , No. 6 on YouTube , played by Jonathan Powell
Last movement , Symphonie , Op. 39 , No. 7 on YouTube , played by Jonathan Powell
First movement , Concerto , Op. 39 , No. 8 on YouTube , played by Jack Gibbons
Le Festin d 'Ésope , Op. 39 , no . 12 on YouTube , played by Edward Cohen
Four Esquisses from Op. 63 on YouTube , played by Edward Cohen
" Trois anciennes mélodies de la synagogue " and " Sicut cerva " on YouTube - Klára Kolonits ( soprano ) and Daniel Dinyes ( piano )
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= Business School ( The Office ) =
" Business School " is the seventeenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's forty @-@ fifth episode overall . Written by Brent Forrester , and directed by Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Firefly creator Joss Whedon , the episode aired on NBC on February 15 , 2007 .
In the episode , Michael is invited by Ryan to speak to his business school class . When many of the students question the usefulness of paper in a computerized world , Michael attempts to inform the class of how essential paper is . Meanwhile , a bat becomes trapped in the office , leading Dwight and Creed on a mission to protect the employees .
= = Plot = =
Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) invites Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) to speak at his business school class . Michael is excited , but Ryan admits in a talking head interview that he has only invited Michael because his professor promised to bump up the grade of any student who brings his boss into class . During his introduction of Michael to his classmates , Ryan predicts that Dunder Mifflin will become obsolete within five to ten years . However , Michael could not hear him and proceeds to ruin the event with his antics ( including tearing pages out of a student 's textbook to prove you " can 't learn from textbooks " ) . Michael is then taken aback when one of Ryan 's classmates asks for Michael 's opinion of Ryan 's prediction . Infuriated and hurt , Michael punishes Ryan by relocating his desk to the " annex , " where Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) works , who babbles uncontrollably in excitement .
Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) discovers a bat in the ceiling , and accidentally lets it loose into the office , sending the employees scurrying for cover . Stanley immediately goes home . As many of the employees hide , Dwight enlists the help of Creed ( Creed Bratton ) to expel the bat . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) exploits Dwight 's paranoia , and pretends that he is turning into a vampire . Dwight eventually catches the bat with a garbage bag after it lands on Meredith 's head .
Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , in the meantime , invites her co @-@ workers to her art show after work , but few show any enthusiasm , leaving her feeling alienated and sad . The art show doesn 't go as planned , and she begins to doubt her abilities . When Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) shows up with his partner Gil , they critique her art , and note that Pam 's art has been let down by her lack of courage , not realizing that she is standing right behind them . As she begins to take her work down , Michael appears and , in a moment of sincere kindness , compliments her work and asks to buy her drawing of the office building . Pam embraces him as her eyes tear up . Michael soon places Pam 's drawing on the wall next to his office .
= = Production = =
" Business School " was the second Office episode written by Brent Forrester . Forrester had previously written " The Merger " . The episode was the first to be directed by Joss Whedon . Whedon , who is a friend of both producer Greg Daniels and Jenna Fischer , and also met most of the production staff prior to the episode , stated that he chose to direct the episode " because I already know the writing staff and a bunch of the cast , and I adore the show . " When informed that the episode was about a bat entering into the office and one of the characters pretending to be a vampire , Whedon thought that it was a joke , stating " Didn 't I just leave this party ? " in reference to Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In an interview featured on the third season DVD , Whedon joked that the " Business School " episode and his former TV show were very similar because " Buffy [ ... ] was sad and depressing but ... it was funny . Especially when people died . And a lot of people do die in [ ' Business School ' ] . " But upon completing the episode , Whedon stated " That was just coincidence . But that 's how that happened . God , it was fun . " Whedon stated that he was surprised with the amount of input he was allowed with the script . " I wouldn 't say freedom to do things with it ... But way more input was asked for than I would have ever anticipated . " At Pam 's art show , the pieces which she was supposed to have painted didn 't suit Whedon . " I got to the set and saw Pam 's art , and I was like , ' This is not right . ' " Whedon said that he held up filming for over an hour until the staff was able create new pieces of art .
For the scenes which involved filming with a bat , the production team used an actual bat , an animated bat , and a mechanical bat . When around the actual bat , Kate Flannery , who portrays Meredith Palmer , stated that " we had to be extremely quiet around [ it ] , basically pretending to scream . " California State University , Northridge served as the backdrop for Ryan 's business school and the art show .
= = Reception = =
The episode received generally good reviews from critics . Brian Zoromski , of IGN , stated that " ' Business School ' was an exercise in what works best in an Office episode . " Zoromski also praised Joss Whedon 's directorial debut for the show , stating that " Whedon 's direction and sense of humor was both excellently put to use and alluded to in the scenes in which Jim hilariously pretended to become a vampire . " Zoromski went on to say that the acting of John Krasinski and Rashida Jones , who portrays Karen Filippelli , helped to make the vampire scenes the funniest parts of the episode . He gave the episode a 9 @.@ 1 out of 10 . Abby West , of Entertainment Weekly , stated that " This show has always been able to turn on a dime and take the comedy to a soul @-@ stirring dramatic climax with just the lightest of touches , and last night was no different . " West went on to praise Michael and Pam 's scene at the art show as one of these moments .
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= M @-@ 81 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 81 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The trunkline travels from the city of Saginaw at the junction with M @-@ 13 to the junction with M @-@ 53 east of Cass City over the county line in Greenleaf Township in northwestern Sanilac County in The Thumb area of the state . Outside of the cities and villages along its route , M @-@ 81 passes through mostly rural farm country . Near Saginaw it intersects the freeway that carries both Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) in an industrial area .
A road bearing the M @-@ 81 designation has existed since at least July 1 , 1919 , when the state initially numbered its trunkline highways . Since that time , it has been extended , rerouted or shortened several times . These changes resulted in essentially the modern highway routing by 1926 ; the highway was fully paved in the 1940s . A change made in 1929 was reversed in 1933 , and an extension through downtown Saginaw in the 1960s was overturned in the 1970s . The last change was the construction of a pair of roundabouts at the I @-@ 75 / US 23 interchange in 2006 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 81 starts at a junction with M @-@ 13 , with the two directions of each highway separated by a median . This central feature ends for M @-@ 81 immediately east of the intersection as the highway runs east out of Saginaw . The trunkline follows Washington Road easterly through residential subdivisions to an interchange with I @-@ 75 / US 23 in an industrial area of Buena Vista Township . This interchange , exit 151 along the freeway , is built with roundabouts on either side of the bridge that carries Washington Road over the freeway in a variant of the diamond interchange design called a dumbbell interchange . After leaving the industrial properties on the east side of I @-@ 75 / US 23 , M @-@ 81 follows Washington Road through a mixture of farm fields and residential subdivisions . North of the community of Arthur , the highway intersects M @-@ 15 ( Vassar Road ) . Further east , M @-@ 81 crosses out of Saginaw County ; across the border in Tuscola County , the highway follows Saginaw Road .
In the village of Reese , M @-@ 81 crosses the Huron and Eastern Railway twice . East of town , the highway follows Caro Road through more farm fields through the community of Watrousville . Near the south side of the Tuscola Area Airport , M @-@ 81 turns to the northeast running along the Cass River to Caro . In the city , the trunkline follows State Street past the fairgrounds . At the intersection with Ellington Street , M @-@ 81 crosses M @-@ 24 . The highway continues northeasterly out of town and through the community of Ellington . Northeast of Elmwood , M @-@ 81 turns due east along Cass City Road . The trunkline runs to the village of Cass City where it follows Main Street through residential neighborhoods and the central business district . East of Cass City , the highway crosses the Cass River before crossing the county line into Sanilac County . Approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) into the county , M @-@ 81 ends at the intersection with M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) .
M @-@ 81 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 81 were the 17 @,@ 839 vehicles daily between Van Gelsen Road and Frank Street in Caro ; the lowest counts were the 3 @,@ 527 vehicles per day east of Cass City to the M @-@ 53 intersection . No sections of M @-@ 81 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When originally signed around July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 81 ran from Bay City southeast and east to the Munger area ; from there it ran south concurrently with M @-@ 31 to the Reese area before running northeasterly to the east of Cass City to M @-@ 53 . By 1921 , the eastern end was extended southerly from Caro to Mayville along a highway that is now part of M @-@ 24 . In late 1926 , the western end was changed so that M @-@ 81 followed the former M @-@ 31 from Reese into Saginaw and the eastern end was rerouted from Caro northeasterly to the Cass City area . With the exception of the routing through downtown Saginaw , the highway followed the approximate routing of the current highway .
In the latter half of 1929 , the highway was rerouted between Saginaw and Reese , using a set of parallel roadways to the south of the previous routing ; this change was reversed in 1933 . M @-@ 81 was fully paved when the last section between Ellington and Elmwood in Tuscola County was finished in late 1946 or early 1947 .
Starting in 1953 , the westernmost approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of M @-@ 81 was also used for a US 23 concurrency . When the bypass of Saginaw was completed in late 1961 , M @-@ 81 was extended along M @-@ 13 southwesterly into downtown Saginaw where it turned west across the Saginaw River to Midland Road west of the city . This routing across the city was removed in 1971 when I @-@ 675 was completed ; west of that freeway the highway became M @-@ 58 , the rest was either removed from the highway system and turned back to local control , or it had the M @-@ 81 designation removed . Since this truncation , M @-@ 81 has ended at its junction with M @-@ 13 north of downtown Saginaw . In 2006 , MDOT completed the reconstruction of the interchange between M @-@ 81 and I @-@ 75 / US to incorporate a pair of roundabouts along Washington Road .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Common starling =
The common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the European starling , or in the British Isles just the starling , is a medium @-@ sized passerine bird in the starling family , Sturnidae . It is about 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic sheen , which is speckled with white at some times of year . The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer ; young birds have browner plumage than the adults . It is a noisy bird , especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations , with an unmusical but varied song . Its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature including the Mabinogion and the works of Pliny the Elder and William Shakespeare .
The common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and western Asia , and it has been introduced to Australia , New Zealand , Canada , United States , Mexico , Peru , Argentina , the Falkland Islands , Brazil , Chile , Uruguay , South Africa and Fiji . This bird is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia , while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa . The common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy , pale blue eggs are laid . These take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks . There are normally one or two breeding attempts each year . This species is omnivorous , taking a wide range of invertebrates , as well as seeds and fruit . It is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey , and is host to a range of external and internal parasites .
Large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests ; however , starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops . Common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts . Introduced populations in particular have been subjected to a range of controls , including culling , but these have had limited success except in preventing the colonisation of Western Australia . The species has declined in numbers in parts of northern and western Europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks . Despite this , its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly , so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The common starling was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current binomial name . Sturnus and vulgaris are derived from the Latin for " starling " and " common " respectively . The Old English staer , later stare , and the Latin sturnus are both derived from an unknown Indo @-@ European root dating back to the second millennium BC . " Starling " was first recorded in the 11th century , when it referred to the juvenile of the species , but by the 16th century it had already largely supplanted " stare " to refer to birds of all ages . The older name is referenced in William Butler Yeats ' poem " The Stare 's Nest by My Window " . The International Ornithological Congress ' preferred English vernacular name is common starling .
The starling family , Sturnidae , is an entirely Old World group apart from introductions elsewhere , with the greatest numbers of species in Southeast Asia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The genus Sturnus is polyphyletic and relationships between its members are not fully resolved . The closest relation of the common starling is the spotless starling . The non @-@ migratory spotless starling may be descended from a population of ancestral S. vulgaris that survived in an Iberian refugium during an ice age retreat , and mitochondrial gene studies suggest that it could be considered as a subspecies of the common starling . There is more genetic variation between common starling populations than between nominate common starling and spotless starling . Although common starling remains are known from the Middle Pleistocene , part of the problem in resolving relationships in the Sturnidae is the paucity of the fossil record for the family as a whole .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are several subspecies of the common starling , which vary clinally in size and the colour tone of the adult plumage . The gradual variation over geographic range and extensive intergradation means that acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities .
Subspecies
Birds from Fair Isle , St Kilda and the Outer Hebrides are intermediate in size between S. v. zetlandicus and the nominate form , and their subspecies placement varies according to the authority . The dark juveniles typical of these island forms are occasionally found in mainland Scotland and elsewhere , indicating some gene flow from faroensis or zetlandicus , subspecies formerly considered to be isolated .
Several other subspecies have been named , but are generally no longer considered valid . Most are intergrades that occur where the ranges of various subspecies meet . These include : S. v. ruthenus Menzbier , 1891 and S. v. jitkowi Buturlin , 1904 , which are intergrades between vulgaris and poltaratskyi from western Russia ; S. v. graecus Tschusi , 1905 and S. v. balcanicus Buturlin and Harms , 1909 , intergrades between vulgaris and tauricus from the southern Balkans to central Ukraine and throughout Greece to the Bosporus ; and S. v. heinrichi Stresemann , 1928 , an intergrade between caucasicus and nobilior in northern Iran . S. v. persepolis Ticehurst , 1928 from southern Iran 's ( Fars Province ) is very similar to S. v. vulgaris , and it is not clear whether it is a distinct resident population or simply migrants from southeastern Europe .
= = Description = =
The common starling is 19 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) long , with a wingspan of 31 – 44 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) and a weight of 58 – 101 g ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 6 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 11 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 in ) , the tail is 5 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 7 in ) , the culmen is 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 26 in ) and the tarsus is 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) . The plumage is iridescent black , glossed purple or green , and spangled with white , especially in winter . The underparts of adult male common starlings are less spotted than those of adult females at a given time of year . The throat feathers of males are long and loose and are used in display while those of females are smaller and more pointed . The legs are stout and pinkish- or greyish @-@ red . The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip ; in the winter it is brownish @-@ black but in summer , females have lemon yellow beaks while males have yellow bills with blue @-@ grey bases . Moulting occurs once a year- in late summer after the breeding season has finished ; the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white ( breast feathers ) or buff ( wing and back feathers ) , which gives the bird a speckled appearance . The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off . Juveniles are grey @-@ brown and by their first winter resemble adults though often retaining some brown juvenile feathering , especially on the head . They can usually be sexed by the colour of the irises , rich brown in males , mouse @-@ brown or grey in females . Estimating the contrast between an iris and the central always @-@ dark pupil is 97 % accurate in determining sex , rising to 98 % if the length of the throat feathers is also considered . The common starling is mid @-@ sized by both starling standards and passerine standards . It is readily distinguished from other mid @-@ sized passerines , such as thrushes , icterids or small corvids , by its relatively short tail , sharp , blade @-@ like bill , round @-@ bellied shape and strong , sizeable ( and rufous @-@ coloured ) legs . In flight , its strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive , while on the ground its strange , somewhat waddling gait is also characteristic . The colouring and build usually distinguish this bird from other starlings , although the closely related spotless starling may be physically distinguished by the lack of iridescent spots in adult breeding plumage .
Like most terrestrial starlings the common starling moves by walking or running , rather than hopping . Their flight is quite strong and direct ; their triangular @-@ shaped wings beat very rapidly , and periodically the birds glide for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight . When in a flock , the birds take off almost simultaneously , wheel and turn in unison , form a compact mass or trail off into a wispy stream , bunch up again and land in a coordinated fashion . Common starling on migration can fly at 60 – 80 km / h ( 37 – 50 mph ) and cover up to 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 km ( 620 – 930 mi ) .
Several terrestrial starlings , including those in the genus Sturnus , have adaptations of the skull and muscles that help with feeding by probing . This adaptation is most strongly developed in the common starling ( along with the spotless and white @-@ cheeked starlings ) , where the protractor muscles responsible for opening the jaw are enlarged and the skull is narrow , allowing the eye to be moved forward to peer down the length of the bill . This technique involves inserting the bill into the ground and opening it as a way of searching for hidden food items . Common starlings have the physical traits that enable them to use this feeding technique , which has undoubtedly helped the species spread far and wide .
In Iberia , the western Mediterranean and northwest Africa , the common starling may be confused with the closely related spotless starling , the plumage of which , as its name implies , has a more uniform colour . At close range it can be seen that the latter has longer throat feathers , a fact particularly noticeable when it sings .
= = = Voice = = =
The common starling is a noisy bird . Its song consists of a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical @-@ sounding noises as part of a ritual succession of sounds . The male is the main songster and engages in bouts of song lasting for a minute or more . Each of these typically includes four varieties of song type , which follow each other in a regular order without pause . The bout starts with a series of pure @-@ tone whistles and these are followed by the main part of the song , a number of variable sequences that often incorporate snatches of song mimicked from other species of bird and various naturally occurring or man @-@ made noises . The structure and simplicity of the sound mimicked is of greater importance than the frequency with which it occurs . Each sound clip is repeated several times before the bird moves on to the next . After this variable section comes a number of types of repeated clicks followed by a final burst of high @-@ frequency song , again formed of several types . Each bird has its own repertoire with more proficient birds having a range of up to 35 variable song types and as many as 14 types of clicks .
Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs have bonded . In the presence of a female , a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance , apparently attempting to entice the female in . Older birds tend to have a wider repertoire than younger ones . Those males that engage in longer bouts of singing and that have wider repertoires attract mates earlier and have greater reproductive success than others . Females appear to prefer mates with more complex songs , perhaps because this indicates greater experience or longevity . Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and deterring less experienced males from encroaching .
Singing also occurs outside the breeding season , taking place throughout the year apart from the moulting period . The songsters are more commonly male although females also sing on occasion . The function of such out @-@ of @-@ season song is poorly understood . Eleven other types of call have been described including a flock call , threat call , attack call , snarl call and copulation call . The alarm call is a harsh scream , and while foraging together common starlings squabble incessantly . They chatter while roosting and bathing , making a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to people living nearby . When a flock of common starlings is flying together , the synchronised movements of the birds ' wings make a distinctive whooshing sound that can be heard hundreds of metres ( yards ) away .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The common starling is a highly gregarious species , especially in autumn and winter . Although flock size is highly variable , huge , noisy flocks - murmurations - may form near roosts . These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey such as peregrine falcons or Eurasian sparrowhawks . Flocks form a tight sphere @-@ like formation in flight , frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape , seemingly without any sort of leader . Each common starling changes its course and speed as a result of the movement of its closest neighbours . Very large roosts , exceptionally up to 1 @.@ 5 million birds , can form in city centres , woodlands or reedbeds , causing problems with their droppings . These may accumulate up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) deep , killing trees by their concentration of chemicals . In smaller amounts , the droppings act as a fertiliser , and therefore woodland managers may try to move roosts from one area of a wood to another to benefit from the soil enhancement and avoid large toxic deposits .
Huge flocks of more than a million common starlings may be observed just before sunset in spring in southwestern Jutland , Denmark over the seaward marshlands of Tønder and Esbjerg municipalities between Tønder and Ribe . They gather in March until northern Scandinavian birds leave for their breeding ranges by mid @-@ April . Their swarm behaviour creates complex shapes silhouetted against the sky , a phenomenon known locally as sort sol ( " black sun " ) . Flocks of anything from five to fifty thousand common starlings form in areas of the UK just before sundown during mid @-@ winter . These flocks are commonly called murmurations .
= = = Feeding = = =
The common starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on both pest and other arthropods . The food range includes spiders , crane flies , moths , mayflies , dragonflies , damsel flies , grasshoppers , earwigs , lacewings , caddisflies , flies , beetles , sawflies , bees , wasps and ants . Both adults and larvae are consumed and common starlings will also feed on earthworms , snails , small amphibians and lizards . While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding , common starlings are omnivorous and can also eat grains , seeds , fruits , nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises . The Sturnidae differ from most birds in that they cannot easily metabolise foods containing high levels of sucrose , although they can cope with other fruits such as grapes and cherries . The isolated Azores subspecies of the common starling eats the eggs of the endangered roseate tern . Measures are being introduced to reduce common starling populations by culling before the terns return to their breeding colonies in spring .
There are several methods by which common starlings obtain their food but for the most part , they forage close to the ground , taking insects from the surface or just underneath . Generally , common starlings prefer foraging amongst short @-@ cropped grasses and are often found among grazing animals or perched on their backs , where they will also feed on the mammal 's external parasites . Large flocks may engage in a practice known as " roller @-@ feeding " , where the birds at the back of the flock continually fly to the front where the feeding opportunities are best . The larger the flock , the nearer individuals are to one another while foraging . Flocks often feed in one place for some time , and return to previous successfully foraged sites .
There are three types of foraging behaviour observed in the common starling . " Probing " involves the bird plunging its beak into the ground randomly and repetitively until an insect has been found , and is often accompanied by bill gaping where the bird opens its beak in the soil to enlarge a hole . This behaviour , first described by Konrad Lorenz and given the German term zirkeln , is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags . It takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique , and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects . " Hawking " is the capture of flying insects directly from the air , and " lunging " is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground . Earthworms are caught by pulling from soil . Common starlings that have periods without access to food , or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding , compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat .
= = = Nesting = = =
Unpaired males find a suitable cavity and begin to build nests in order to attract single females , often decorating the nest with ornaments such as flowers and fresh green material , which the female later disassembles upon accepting him as a mate . The amount of green material is not important , as long as some is present , but the presence of herbs in the decorative material appears to be significant in attracting a mate . The scent of plants such as yarrow acts as an olfactory attractant to females .
The males sing throughout much of the construction and even more so when a female approaches his nest . Following copulation , the male and female continue to build the nest . Nests may be in any type of hole , common locations include inside hollowed trees , buildings , tree stumps and man @-@ made nest @-@ boxes . S. v. zetlandicus typically breeds in crevices and holes in cliffs , a habitat only rarely used by the nominate form . Nests are typically made out of straw , dry grass and twigs with an inner lining made up of feathers , wool and soft leaves . Construction usually takes four or five days and may continue through incubation .
Common starlings are both monogamous and polygamous ; although broods are generally brought up by one male and one female , occasionally the pair may have an extra helper . Pairs may be part of a colony , in which case several other nests may occupy the same or nearby trees . Males may mate with a second female while the first is still on the nest . The reproductive success of the bird is poorer in the second nest than it is in the primary nest and is better when the male remains monogamous .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding takes place during the spring and summer . Following copulation , the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days . If an egg is lost during this time , she will lay another to replace it . There are normally four or five eggs that are ovoid in shape and pale blue or occasionally white , and they commonly have a glossy appearance . The colour of the eggs seems to have evolved through the relatively good visibility of blue at low light levels . The egg size is 26 @.@ 5 – 34 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 04 – 1 @.@ 36 in ) in length and 20 @.@ 0 – 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 0 @.@ 89 in ) in maximum diameter .
Incubation lasts thirteen days , although the last egg laid may take 24 hours longer than the first to hatch . Both parents share the responsibility of brooding the eggs , but the female spends more time incubating them than does the male , and is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost . The young are born blind and naked . They develop light fluffy down within seven days of hatching and can see within nine days . Once the chicks are able to regulate their body temperature , about six days after hatching , the adults largely cease removing droppings from the nest . Prior to that , the fouling would wet both the chicks ' plumage and the nest material , thereby reducing their effectiveness as insulation and increasing the risk of chilling the hatchlings . Nestlings remain in the nest for three weeks , where they are fed continuously by both parents . Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another one or two weeks . A pair can raise up to three broods per year , frequently reusing and relining the same nest , although two broods is typical , or just one north of 48oN . Within two months , most juveniles will have moulted and gained their first basic plumage . They acquire their adult plumage the following year . As with other passerines , the nest is kept clean and the chicks ' faecal sacs are removed by the adults .
Intraspecific brood parasites are common in common starling nests . Female " floaters " ( unpaired females during the breeding season ) present in colonies often lay eggs in another pair 's nest . Fledglings have also been reported to invade their own or neighbouring nests and evict a new brood . Common starling nests have a 48 % to 79 % rate of successful fledging , although only 20 % of nestlings survive to breeding age ; the adult survival rate is closer to 60 % . The average life span is about 2 – 3 years , with a longevity record of 22 yr 11 m .
= = Predators and parasites = =
A majority of starling predators are avian . The typical response of starling groups is to take flight , with a common sight being undulating flocks of starling flying high in quick and agile patterns . Their abilities in flight are seldom matched by birds of prey . Adult common starlings are hunted by hawks such as the northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) and Eurasian sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) , and falcons including the peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) , Eurasian hobby ( Falco subbuteo ) and common kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ) . Slower raptors like black and red kites ( Milvus migrans & milvus ) , eastern imperial eagle ( Aquila heliaca ) , common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) and Australasian harrier ( Circus approximans ) tend to take the more easily caught fledglings or juveniles . While perched in groups by night , they can be vulnerable to owls , including the little owl ( Athene noctua ) , long @-@ eared owl ( Asio otus ) , short @-@ eared owl ( Asio flammeus ) , barn owl ( Tyto alba ) , tawny owl ( Strix aluco ) and Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( Bubo bubo ) .
More than twenty species of hawk , owl and falcon are known to occasionally predate feral starlings in North America , though the most regular predators of adults are likely to be urban @-@ living peregrine falcons or merlins ( Falco columbarius ) . Common mynas ( Acridotheres tristis ) sometimes evict eggs , nestlings and adult common starlings from their nests , and the lesser honeyguide ( Indicator minor ) , a brood parasite , uses the common starling as a host . Starlings are more commonly the culprits rather than victims of nest eviction however , especially towards other starlings and woodpeckers . Nests can be raided by animals capable of climbing to them , such as stoats ( Mustela erminea ) , raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) and squirrels ( Sciurus spp . ) , and cats may catch the unwary .
Common starlings are hosts to a wide range of parasites . A survey of three hundred common starlings from six US states found that all had at least one type of parasite ; 99 % had external fleas , mites or ticks , and 95 % carried internal parasites , mostly various types of worm . Blood @-@ sucking species leave their host when it dies , but other external parasites stay on the corpse . A bird with a deformed bill was heavily infested with Mallophaga lice , presumably due to its inability to remove vermin .
The hen flea ( Ceratophyllus gallinae ) is the most common flea in their nests . The small , pale house @-@ sparrow flea C. fringillae , is also occasionally found there and probably arises from the habit of its main host of taking over the nests of other species . This flea does not occur in the US , even on house sparrows . Lice include Menacanthus eurystemus , Brueelia nebulosa and Stumidoecus sturni . Other arthropod parasites include Ixodes ticks and mites such as Analgopsis passerinus , Boydaia stumi , Dermanyssus gallinae , Ornithonyssus bursa , O. sylviarum , Proctophyllodes species , Pteronyssoides truncatus and Trouessartia rosteri . The hen mite D. gallinae is itself preyed upon by the predatory mite Androlaelaps casalis . The presence of this control on numbers of the parasitic species may explain why birds are prepared to reuse old nests .
Flying insects that parasitise common starlings include the louse @-@ fly Omithomya nigricornis and the saprophagous fly Camus hemapterus . The latter species breaks off the feathers of its host and lives on the fats produced by growing plumage . Larvae of the moth Hofmannophila pseudospretella are nest scavengers , which feed on animal material such as faeces or dead nestlings . Protozoan blood parasites of the genus Haemoproteus have been found in common starlings , but a better known pest is the brilliant scarlet nematode Syngamus trachea . This worm moves from the lungs to the trachea and may cause its host to suffocate . In Britain , the rook and the common starling are the most infested wild birds . Other recorded internal parasites include the spiny @-@ headed worm Prosthorhynchus transverses .
Common starlings may contract avian tuberculosis , avian malaria and retrovirus @-@ induced lymphomas . Captive starlings often accumulate excess iron in the liver , a condition that can be prevented by adding black tea @-@ leaves to the food .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The global population of common starlings was estimated to be 310 million individuals in 2004 , occupying a total area of 8 @,@ 870 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 420 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere , the bird is native to Eurasia and is found throughout Europe , northern Africa ( from Morocco to Egypt ) , India ( mainly in the north but regularly extending further south and extending into the Maldives ) Nepal , the Middle East including Syria , Iran , and Iraq and north @-@ western China .
Common starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude 40oN are mainly resident , although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh , the ground frozen and food scarce . Large numbers of birds from northern Europe , Russia and Ukraine migrate south westwards or south eastwards . In the autumn , when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe , many of Britain 's common starlings are setting off for Iberia and North Africa . Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross . Of the 15 @,@ 000 birds ringed as nestlings in Merseyside , England , individuals have been recovered at various times of year as far afield as Norway , Sweden , Finland , Russia , Ukraine , Poland , Germany and the Low Countries . Small numbers of common starling have sporadically been observed in Japan and Hong Kong but it is unclear from where these birds originated . In North America , northern populations have developed a migration pattern , vacating much of Canada in winter . Birds in the east of the country move southwards , and those from further west winter in the southwest of the US .
Common starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites . Reedbeds are also favoured for roosting and the birds commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland , grazing pastures , playing fields , golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy . They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and are sometimes found in shrubby areas such as Australian heathland . Common starlings rarely inhabit dense , wet forests ( i.e. rainforests or wet sclerophyll forests ) but are found in coastal areas , where they nest and roost on cliffs and forage amongst seaweed . Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed them to disperse and establish themselves in diverse locations around the world resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests , from sea cliffs to mountain ranges 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) above sea level .
= = = Introduced populations = = =
The common starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , North America , Fiji and several Caribbean islands . As a result , it has also been able to migrate to Thailand , Southeast Asia and New Guinea .
= = = = South America = = = =
Five individuals conveyed on a ship from England alighted near Lago de Maracaibo in Venezuela in November 1949 , but subsequently vanished . In 1987 , a small population of common starlings was observed nesting in gardens in the city of Buenos Aires . Since then , despite some initial attempts at eradication , the bird has been expanding its breeding range at an average rate of 7 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) per year , keeping within 30 km ( 19 mi ) of the Atlantic coast . In Argentina , the species makes use of a variety of natural and man @-@ made nesting sites , particularly woodpecker holes .
= = = = Australia = = = =
The common starling was introduced to Australia to consume insect pests of farm crops . Early settlers looked forward to their arrival , believing that common starlings were also important for the pollination of flax , a major agricultural product . Nest @-@ boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops . The common starling was introduced to Melbourne in 1857 and Sydney two decades later . By the 1880s , established populations were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of acclimatisation committees . By the 1920s , common starlings were widespread throughout Victoria , Queensland and New South Wales , but by then they were considered to be pests . Although common starlings were first sighted in Albany , Western Australia in 1917 , they have been largely prevented from spreading to the state . The wide and arid Nullarbor Plain provides a natural barrier and control measures have been adopted that have killed 55 @,@ 000 birds over three decades . The common starling has also colonised Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island .
= = = = New Zealand = = = =
The early settlers in New Zealand cleared the bush and found their newly planted crops were invaded by hordes of caterpillars and other insects deprived of their previous food sources . Native birds were not habituated to living in close proximity to man so the common starling was introduced from Europe to control the pests . It was first brought over in 1862 by the Nelson Acclimatisation Society and other introductions followed . The birds soon became established and are now found all over the country including the subtropical Kermadec Islands to the north and the equally distant Macquarie Island far to the south .
= = = = North America = = = =
After two failed attempts , about 60 common starlings were released in 1890 into New York 's Central Park by Eugene Schieffelin . He was president of the American Acclimatization Society , which tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America . About the same date , the Portland Song Bird Club released 35 pairs of common starlings in Portland , Oregon . These birds became established but disappeared around 1902 . Common starlings reappeared in the Pacific Northwest in the mid @-@ 1940s and these birds were probably descendants of the 1890 Central Park introduction . The original 60 birds have since swelled in number to 150 million , occupying an area extending from southern Canada and Alaska to Central America .
= = = = Polynesia = = = =
The common starling appears to have arrived in Fiji in 1925 on Ono @-@ i @-@ lau and Vatoa islands . It may have colonised from New Zealand via Raoul in the Kermadec Islands where it is abundant , that group being roughly equidistant between New Zealand and Fiji . Its spread in Fiji has been limited , and there are doubts about the population 's viability . Tonga was colonised at about the same date and the birds there have been slowly spreading north through the group .
= = = = South Africa = = = =
In South Africa , the common starling was introduced in 1897 by Cecil Rhodes . It spread slowly and by 1954 had reached Clanwilliam and Port Elizabeth . It is now common in the southern Cape region , thinning out northwards to the Johannesburg area . It is present in the Western Cape , the Eastern Cape and the Free State provinces of South Africa and lowland Lesotho , with occasional sightings in KwaZulu @-@ Natal , Gauteng and around the town of Oranjemund in Namibia . In Southern Africa populations appear to be resident and the bird is very much associated with man , his habitations and pastures . It favours irrigated land and is absent from regions where the ground is baked so dry that it cannot probe for insects . It may compete with native birds for crevice nesting sites but the indigenous species are probably more disadvantaged by destruction of their natural habitat than they are by inter @-@ specific competition . It breeds from September to December and outside the breeding season may congregate in large flocks , often roosting in reedbeds . It is the most common bird species in urban and agricultural areas .
= = = = West Indies = = = =
The common starling was introduced to Jamaica in 1903 , and the Bahamas and Cuba were colonised naturally from the US . This bird is fairly common but local in Jamaica , Grand Bahama and Bimini , and is rare in the rest of the Bahamas , eastern Cuba , the Cayman Islands , Puerto Rico and St. Croix .
= = Status = =
The global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than 310 million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly , so the bird is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 60s . In about 1830 , S. v. vulgaris expanded its range in the British Isles , spreading into Ireland and areas of Scotland where it had formerly been absent , although S. v. zetlandicus was already present in Shetland and the Outer Hebrides . The common starling has bred in northern Sweden from 1850 and in Iceland from 1935 . The breeding range spread through southern France to northeastern Spain , and there were other range expansions particularly in Italy , Austria and Finland . It started breeding in Iberia in 1960 , while the spotless starling 's range had been expanding northward since the 1950s . The low rate of advance , about 4 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) per year for both species , is due to the suboptimal mountain and woodland terrain . Expansion has since slowed even further due to direct competition between the two similar species where they overlap in southwestern France and northwestern Spain .
Major declines in populations have been observed from 1980 onward in Sweden , Finland , northern Russia ( Karelia ) and the Baltic States , and smaller declines in much of the rest of northern and central Europe . The bird has been adversely affected in these areas by intensive agriculture , and in several countries it has been red @-@ listed due to population declines of more than 50 % . Numbers dwindled in the United Kingdom by more than 80 % between 1966 and 2004 ; although populations in some areas such as Northern Ireland were stable or even increased , those in other areas , mainly England , declined even more sharply . The overall decline seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds , which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices . The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available , and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Benefits and problems = = =
Since common starlings eat insect pests such as wireworms , they are considered beneficial in northern Eurasia , and this was one of the reasons given for introducing the birds elsewhere . Around 25 million nest boxes were erected for this species in the former Soviet Union , and common starlings were found to be effective in controlling the grass grub Costelytra zelandica in New Zealand . The original Australian introduction was facilitated by the provision of nest boxes to help this mainly insectivorous bird to breed successfully , and even in the US , where this is a pest species , the Department of Agriculture acknowledges that vast numbers of insects are consumed by common starlings .
Common starlings introduced to areas such as Australia or North America , where other members of the genus are absent , may affect native species through competition for nest holes . In North America , chickadees , nuthatches , woodpeckers , purple martins and other swallows may be affected . In Australia , competitors for nesting sites include the crimson and eastern rosellas . For its role in the decline of local native species and the damages to agriculture , the common starling has been included in the IUCN List of the world 's 100 worst invasive species .
Common starlings can eat and damage fruit in orchards such as grapes , peaches , olives , currants and tomatoes or dig up newly sown grain and sprouting crops . They may also eat animal feed and distribute seeds through their droppings . In eastern Australia , weeds like bridal creeper , blackberry and boneseed are thought to have been spread by common starlings . Agricultural damage in the US is estimated as costing about US $ 800 million annually . This bird is not considered to be as damaging to agriculture in South Africa as it is in the United States .
The large size of flocks can also cause problems . Common starlings may be sucked into aircraft jet engines , one of the worst instances of this being an incident in Boston in 1960 , when sixty @-@ two people died after a turboprop airliner flew into a flock and plummeted into the sea at Winthrop Harbor .
Starlings ' droppings can contain the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum , the cause of histoplasmosis in humans . At roosting sites this fungus can thrive in accumulated droppings . There are a number of other infectious diseases that can potentially be transmitted by common starlings to humans , although the potential for the birds to spread infections may have been exaggerated .
= = = Control = = =
Because of the damage they do , there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings . Within the natural breeding range , this may be affected by legislation . For example , in Spain , this is a species hunted commercially as a food item , and has a close season , whereas in France , it is classed as a pest , and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year . In the UK , the common starling may be killed at any time of year . This species is migratory , so birds involved in control measures may have come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected . In Europe , the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may have limited long @-@ term results . Non @-@ lethal techniques such as scaring with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case .
Huge urban roosts in cities can create problems due to the noise and mess made and the smell of the droppings . In 1949 , so many birds landed on the clock hands of London 's Big Ben that it stopped , leading to unsuccessful attempts to disrupt the roosts with netting , repellent chemical on the ledges and broadcasts of common starling alarm calls . An entire episode of The Goon Show in 1954 was a parody of the futile efforts to disrupt the large common starling roosts in central London .
Where it is introduced , the common starling is unprotected by legislation , and extensive control plans may be initiated . Common starlings can be prevented from using nest boxes by ensuring that the access holes are smaller than the 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) diameter they need , and the removal of perches discourages them from visiting bird feeders .
Western Australia banned the import of common starlings in 1895 . New flocks arriving from the east are routinely shot , while the less cautious juveniles are trapped and netted . New methods are being developed , such as tagging one bird and tracking it back to establish where other members of the flock roost . Another technique is to analyse the DNA of Australian common starling populations to track where the migration from eastern to western Australia is occurring so that better preventive strategies can be used . By 2009 , only 300 common starlings were left in Western Australia , and the state committed a further A $ 400 @,@ 000 in that year to continue the eradication programme .
In the United States , common starlings are exempt from the Migratory Bird Treaty Act , which prohibits the taking or killing of migratory birds . No permit is required to remove nests and eggs or kill juveniles or adults . Research was undertaken in 1966 to identify a suitable avicide that would both kill common starlings and would readily be eaten by them . It also needed to be of low toxicity to mammals and not likely to cause the death of pets that ate dead birds . The chemical that best fitted these criteria was DRC @-@ 1339 , now marketed as Starlicide . In 2008 , the United States government poisoned , shot or trapped 1 @.@ 7 million birds , the largest number of any nuisance species to be destroyed . In 2005 , the population in the United States was estimated at 140 million birds , around 45 % of the global total of 310 million .
= = = In science and culture = = =
Common starlings may be kept as pets or as laboratory animals . Austrian ethologist Konrad Lorenz wrote of them in his book King Solomon 's Ring as " the poor man 's dog " and " something to love " , because nestlings are easily obtained from the wild and after careful hand rearing they are straightforward to look after . They adapt well to captivity , and thrive on a diet of standard bird feed and mealworms . Several birds may be kept in the same cage , and their inquisitiveness makes them easy to train or study . The only disadvantages are their messy and indiscriminate defecation habits and the need to take precautions against diseases that may be transmitted to humans . As a laboratory bird , the common starling is second in numbers only to the domestic pigeon .
The common starling 's gift for mimicry has long been recognised . In the medieval Welsh Mabinogion , Branwen tamed a common starling , " taught it words " , and sent it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brothers , Bran and Manawydan , who then sailed from Wales to Ireland to rescue her . Pliny the Elder claimed that these birds could be taught to speak whole sentences in Latin and Greek , and in Henry IV , William Shakespeare had Hotspur declare " The king forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer . But I will find him when he is asleep , and in his ear I 'll holler ' Mortimer ! ' Nay I 'll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but Mortimer , and give it to him to keep his anger still in motion . "
Mozart had a pet common starling which could sing part of his Piano Concerto in G Major ( KV . 453 ) . He had bought it from a shop after hearing it sing a phrase from a work he wrote six weeks previously , which had not yet been performed in public . He became very attached to the bird and arranged an elaborate funeral for it when it died three years later . It has been suggested that his A Musical Joke ( K. 522 ) might be written in the comical , inconsequential style of a starling 's vocalisation . Other people who have owned common starlings report how adept they are at picking up phrases and expressions . The words have no meaning for the starling , so they often mix them up or use them on what to humans are inappropriate occasions in their songs . Their ability at mimicry is so great that strangers have looked in vain for the human they think they have just heard speak .
Common starlings are trapped for food in some Mediterranean countries . The meat is tough and of low quality , so it is casseroled or made into pâté . One recipe said it should be stewed " until tender , however long that may be " . Even when correctly prepared , it may still be seen as an acquired taste .
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= William McGregor ( football ) =
William McGregor ( 13 April 1846 – 20 December 1911 ) was a Scottish association football administrator in the Victorian era who is regarded as the founder of the Football League , the first organised association football league in the world .
After moving from Perthshire to Birmingham to set up business as a draper , McGregor became involved with local football club Aston Villa , which he helped to establish as one of the leading teams in England . He served the club for over 20 years in various capacities , including president , director and chairman . In 1888 , frustrated by the regular cancellation of Villa 's matches , McGregor organised a meeting of representatives of England 's leading clubs , which led to the formation of the Football League , giving member clubs a guaranteed fixture list each season . This was instrumental in the transition of football from an amateur pastime to a professional business .
McGregor served as both chairman and president of the Football League and was also chairman of The Football Association ( the FA ) . He was recognised by the FA for his service to the game shortly before his death in 1911 , and was posthumously honoured by the local football authorities and Aston Villa .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Braco in Perthshire , Scotland , McGregor first became interested in football after watching a match between locals and visiting artisans at Ardoch . He served an apprenticeship as a draper in Perth , and in 1870 , following the example of his brother Peter , moved to Birmingham , and opened his own drapery business in Aston , an area just outside the city . Upon his arrival in the English Midlands he became involved with a local football club , Calthorpe , which had been formed by a fellow Scot , Campbell Orr . McGregor was enthusiastic enough about the game to arrange for his shop to close early on Saturdays to allow him to watch matches , and he later sold football kits at the shop , which became a popular meeting place for football enthusiasts .
McGregor was married to Jessie , and the couple had a daughter and a son , also named Jessie and William . A teetotaller , McGregor was a supporter of the Temperance movement , and was active in the local branch of the Liberal Party until his membership lapsed in 1882 due to the increasing amount of time he devoted to football . He was involved in the early attempts to establish a baseball league in the United Kingdom , and served as the honorary treasurer of the Baseball Association of Great Britain and Ireland . Despite his commitment to sport , he held desperately on to his drapery business throughout his life .
McGregor was a committed Christian who was widely respected for his honesty and integrity . He worshipped for forty years at the Congregational church in Wheeler Street , Aston . His pastor , the Revd . W.G. Percival said that the best thing about him " was not so much the genial , kindly , honest sportsman , but the Christian behind it all " . He described him as " a man of absolutely unblemished personal character " .
= = Association with Aston Villa = =
In 1877 , McGregor was invited to become a committee member of Aston Villa , a football club formed three years earlier . He also umpired matches for the club . At the time the club played at Aston Park , close to the premises of McGregor 's business . He became interested in joining Villa due to the strong Scottish contingent in the club 's ranks , the team 's exciting style of play , and the club 's connection to a Wesleyan Chapel . He quickly assumed the post of club administrator , helping the impecunious club to survive its financial troubles . After some of Aston Villa 's possessions were seized by bailiffs , McGregor allowed the club to use his shop as a store to prevent further seizures . Under McGregor 's leadership , Aston Villa won their first trophy , the Birmingham Senior Cup , in 1880 , shortly after which McGregor became the club 's president .
The following year McGregor became a member of the club 's board of directors . Villa 's standing within the game continued to grow , and in 1887 the club became the first from the Midlands to win the FA Cup , defeating local rivals West Bromwich Albion in the final . In 1895 , McGregor became vice @-@ chairman , and went on to become the club 's chairman in 1897 . During his time at the club he was noted for his organisational skills and ambition , and was responsible for adopting the lion rampant depicted on the Royal Standard of Scotland , as the club 's crest .
= = Founder of the Football League = =
As the 1880s progressed , the balance of power within English football began to change . The first national competition , the FA Cup , had previously been dominated by amateur clubs from privileged backgrounds , such as Wanderers and Old Etonians . However the 1883 FA Cup Final saw the first victory by a working @-@ class team , Blackburn Olympic . At this time professionalism was not permitted . Clubs from urban areas in the north were strong advocates of the practice , but the southern amateur teams and the FA authorities were firmly opposed . Though not initially an advocate of professionalism , McGregor came to favour its introduction . By 1885 the issue threatened to split the FA when a group of clubs , predominantly from Lancashire , announced their intention to leave and form a rival British Football Association if professionalism was not accepted . An emergency FA conference was called in response . Representing Aston Villa , McGregor spoke in favour of professionalism , the only delegate from the Midlands to do so , and was one of the few delegates to admit that his club had been paying players . Though not as outspoken as stronger proponents , such as Preston North End 's William Sudell , McGregor was well respected . The conference ended with the FA accepting professionalism , although each club was permitted only to pay players who had been born or lived for at least two years within six miles of its home stadium .
Professionalism brought fresh complications for club administrators . Many friendlies were cancelled due to opponents ' FA Cup or county cup matches taking precedence or clubs simply failing to honour a fixture in favour of a more lucrative match elsewhere . This made it hard for the clubs to pay players ' wages on a regular basis . McGregor took action after seeing Villa matches cancelled , to the increasing frustration of the club 's fans , on five consecutive Saturdays . On 2 March 1888 , he wrote to the committee of his own club , Aston Villa , as well as to those of Blackburn Rovers , Bolton Wanderers , Preston North End and West Bromwich Albion , suggesting the creation of a league competition that would provide a number of guaranteed fixtures for its member clubs each season . Corinthian F.C. founder N. Lane Jackson , writing in 1899 , stated that McGregor took his inspiration from the existing league set @-@ up used in American baseball , although McGregor himself cited the County Cricket Championship as his inspiration . McGregor 's letter to the clubs read :
Every year it is becoming more and more difficult for football clubs of any standing to meet their friendly engagements and even arrange friendly matches . The consequence is that at the last moment , through cup @-@ tie interference , clubs are compelled to take on teams who will not attract the public .
I beg to tender the following suggestion as a means of getting over the difficulty : that ten or twelve of the most prominent clubs in England combine to arrange home @-@ and @-@ away fixtures each season , the said fixtures to be arranged at a friendly conference about the same time as the International Conference .
This combination might be known as the Association Football Union , and could be managed by representative from each club . Of course , this is in no way to interfere with the National Association ; even the suggested matches might be played under cup @-@ tie rules . However , this is a detail .
My object in writing to you at present is merely to draw your attention to the subject , and to suggest a friendly conference to discuss the matter more fully . I would take it as a favour if you would kindly think the matter over , and make whatever suggestions you deem necessary . I am only writing to the following – Blackburn Rovers , Bolton Wanderers , Preston North End , West Bromwich Albion , and Aston Villa , and would like to hear what other clubs you would suggest .
I am , yours very truly , William McGregor ( Aston Villa F.C. )
P.S. How would Friday , 23 March 1888 , suit for the friendly conference at Anderton 's Hotel , London ?
McGregor chose 23 March as the date of his proposed meeting because it was the day before the FA Cup final and representatives of the country 's top clubs would be in London . Representatives from ten clubs attended , including the FA Cup finalists West Bromwich Albion and Preston North End , but it quickly became clear that clubs from the South of England were not interested in McGregor 's proposal and none attended . A second meeting was held in Manchester on 17 April , and details concerning the new competition were finalised . McGregor 's suggested name for the competition , " The Association Football Union " was rejected as too similar to that of the Rugby Football Union and " The Football League " was chosen , despite McGregor 's opposition on the grounds that he felt it might invoke associations with the unpopular Irish Land League . The term English League was avoided , to leave the possibility of future applications from Scottish clubs . McGregor also proposed a rule that only one club from each town should be included . The other founders agreed to this rule , which caused controversy , as it meant Birmingham team Mitchell St. George 's were denied membership in favour of McGregor 's Aston Villa . Twelve clubs kicked off the first season of League football in September 1888 .
McGregor served as the first chairman of the League 's Management Committee . One of the committee 's main jobs was handling issues of discipline , but committee members were not barred from involvement in decisions involving their own clubs . In fact , the first disciplinary meeting saw fines issued to three of the four clubs with representatives on the committee . McGregor was re @-@ elected unopposed in 1891 . Earlier he had spoken of his pleasure that " of the 132 matches in which the League clubs have taken part and in which about 300 players have taken the field , not a single fatal accident has to be recorded " . A year later he oversaw the expansion of the Football League into two divisions when the rival Football Alliance was merged into the competition , but he relinquished his post later that year due to ill health , which caused him to miss meetings .
After stepping down as chairman , he was unanimously elected to an honorary position of president , a role he kept until 1894 , and was named the first @-@ ever life member of the League in 1895 . The role was that of a figurehead with little actual authority , but he was used as a mediator to resolve league disagreements . In the second half of the decade McGregor 's failure to attend many committee meetings led to criticism from John Bentley , his successor as president . Bentley 's criticism achieved the desired effect ; from 1899 until his health deteriorated in 1910 , McGregor seldom missed a meeting . During this period McGregor was noted for his reserved nature . He was silent for large parts of committee meetings , but would contribute enthusiastically on the occasions he felt his input was necessary .
= = Other football activities = =
Between 1888 and 1894 McGregor also served as chairman of The Football Association ( the FA ) , English football 's overall governing body , which had existed since 1863 . He became known as a football celebrity , writing a weekly column for the Birmingham Gazette and endorsing products such as footballs , and a type of football boot which the manufacturer billed as the " McGregor lace @-@ to @-@ toe boot " . Though he held many different administrative posts in his lifetime , McGregor never played the sport competitively ; his only on @-@ pitch involvement was occasional goalkeeping during Aston Villa practices in the 1870s .
= = Death and legacy = =
Although McGregor envisaged the League as a friendly union , within which clubs would share ticket revenues and work together in their mutual best interests , the immediate effect of its creation was that football came to be treated as a business for the first time , as opposed to something that players and officials simply regarded as a pastime . All the clubs involved experienced significant increases in their turnover , which at Aston Villa , McGregor 's own club , increased more than sixfold between 1889 and 1899 . The wages paid to players , however , remained low due to restrictions imposed by the FA , so clubs were able to use their increased profitability to build larger stadiums and accommodate ever larger crowds of spectators . Although the League initially contained a small number of clubs , all of which were based in the northern half of the country , by the early years of the twentieth century it included clubs from all parts of England . At its peak nearly 100 clubs played in the Football League , and it remained the pre @-@ eminent competition in English football until the 1990s , when the top clubs broke away to form the Premier League . In keeping with McGregor 's views on mutual support and co @-@ operation , gate receipts were shared amongst the clubs until the 1980s , which helped to ensure that a select few wealthy clubs were not able to dominate the competition . McGregor himself had little interest in the business aspect of football , and was adamant that the Football League should not challenge the longstanding authority of the FA . The success of the Football League directly inspired the creation of similar competitions in other countries , beginning with Scotland , where the Scottish Football League was formed in 1890 .
In May 1910 , McGregor was taken ill and later confined to a nursing home . His condition worsened towards the end of 1911 . His last public appearance was a committee meeting on 4 December , and he underwent an operation on 19 December . However , after a brief improvement in his condition he relapsed and died the following day . Although a devout Congregationalist , he is buried in the grounds of a Church of England church , St. Mary 's , in the Handsworth district of Birmingham , alongside his wife , who died in 1908 . McGregor is remembered as the " father of The Football League " , an Aston Villa legend , and a legend of football in general .
Shortly before his death , the FA presented McGregor , who was at that time a vice @-@ president of the association , with a long service medal . After his death , Aston Villa dedicated a bed in the children 's ward of one of Birmingham 's hospitals in his honour , and the Birmingham County Football Association unveiled a commemorative drinking fountain , which is now preserved at Villa Park , current home of his former club . In the modern era , Aston Villa selected him as one of the twelve inaugural members of its Hall of Fame , and named a hospitality suite at Villa Park after him . In 2008 , the Aston Villa Supporters ' Trust announced plans to further honour him with a bronze statue outside the stadium . The statue , by sculptor Sam Holland , is displayed outside the Directors ' Entrance of the Trinity Road Stand , and was unveiled on 28 November 2009 . The Trust also raised £ 1 @,@ 000 to restore and rededicate McGregor 's grave in 2011 .
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= Climate of Buenos Aires =
Buenos Aires , the capital of Argentina , has a temperate climate , which is classified as a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) under the Köppen climate classification with four distinct seasons . Summers are hot and humid with frequent thunderstorms while winters are cool and drier with frosts that occurs on average twice per year . Spring and fall are transition seasons characterized by changeable weather . At the central observatory , the highest recorded temperature is 43 @.@ 3 ° C ( 109 @.@ 9 ° F ) while the lowest recorded temperature is − 5 @.@ 4 ° C ( 22 @.@ 3 ° F ) .
Different climatic factors influence the climate of Buenos Aires . The semi – permanent South Atlantic High influences its climate throughout the year by bringing in moist winds from the northeast , which bring most of the precipitation to the city in the form of frontal systems during winter or storms produced by cyclogenesis in autumn and winter . The hot temperatures and high insolation in the summer months form a low pressure system called the Chaco Low over northern Argentina , generating a pressure gradient that brings moist easterly winds to the city – because of this , summer is the rainiest season . In contrast , this low pressure system weakens in the winter , which combined with strong southerly winds results in a drier season due to weaker easterly winds . Being located in the Pampas , Buenos Aires has variable weather due to the passage of contrasting air mass – the cold , dry Pampero from the south and warm , humid tropical air from the north . The coastal location results in a strong maritime influence , causing extreme temperatures ( hot or cold ) to be rare .
= = General climatology = =
Buenos Aires is located in the humid subtropical climate zone ( Köppen climate classification : Cfa ) . Due to the maritime influences from the adjoining Atlantic Ocean , its climate is temperate with extreme temperatures ( both hot and cold ) being rare . Thus , cold air coming directly from the south are moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and warmer than winds from the southwest ( which are not moderated by it ) .
The climate of Buenos Aires is dominated by the semi – permanent South Atlantic High throughout the year . This brings in moist winds from the northeast , which brings most of the precipitation to the city . During winter , it brings in frontal systems responsible for precipitation in the city . In autumn and summer , it produces storms that are generally located north of the city and produces strong winds from the south or southeast that can occasionally lead to the swelling of the Río de la Plata , flooding coastal areas . The South Pacific High is the origin of polar air masses that are responsible for the coldest temperatures and result in clear and very dry conditions . These air masses originate from the South Pacific high and move in a northeastern direction during winter towards Buenos Aires by passing . Although it is polar maritime ( this is a cool , moist air mass that forms from oceans located in the subarctic and arctic regions at the southern tip of South America ) , it becomes modified as it passes over the South American continent , becoming drier as it arrives at Buenos Aires . This is because as the cold air masses from the South Pacific High move over the Pacific Ocean and the Andes and reach the land south of 35oS ( where the Andes are shorter in height ) , anticyclogenesis leads to the formation of a strong high pressure system in the center of the country ( at around 40oS ) . This high pressure system brings cold and dry , polar continental air masses to Buenos Aires . Cold fronts are more common during winter than in summer as the South Atlantic and South Pacific highs are at their southernmost positions during summer , making it difficult for cold fronts to enter .
The city is located in an area in which the Pampero and the Sudestada winds pass by . Being located in the Pampas , the weather is variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms . The Pampero wind brings in cold , dry air from the south while warm humid tropical air produces sultry nortes ( a gentle wind usually from the northeast formed by trade winds and the South Atlantic High that brings cloudy , hot , and humid weather and is responsible for bringing heat waves ) . Often , the passage of the Pampero winds occurs as a cold front passes through , leading to strong gusts from the south or southeast , a decrease in humidity and temperature , and an increase in the atmospheric pressure . When the cold Pampero winds meet with warm humid air from the north , thunderstorms are produced . The Sudestada winds are formed when a high pressure system located in southern Argentina interacts with a low pressure system over Uruguay and southern Brazil . When Sudestadas form , they bring long periods of precipitation , cloudy weather and cooler temperatures . These are common during the winter months . Because the Sudestada brings the highest wind speeds ( particularly when these winds are combined with the astronomical tides ) , the Sudestada is responsible for floods that occur in low @-@ lying areas . Its geomorphology along with inadequate drainage network and infrastructure , a flat landscape , and low elevations ( much of Buenos Aires lies between 4 and 24 metres ( 13 and 79 ft ) above sea level ) makes Buenos Aires highly vulnerable to flooding , particularly during heavy rainfall . Flooding impacts the neighbourhoods La Boca and Barracas which are in the southern parts of the city , more low @-@ lying and inhabited by poor people ( of low socioeconomic status ) .
The urban heat island makes the city warmer than suburban and rural areas . On average , Buenos Aires is warmer than the surrounding areas by 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 5 ° C ( 2 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 3 ° F ) owing to the urban heat island . The average heat island is in summer than in winter . This varies by season ; its influence during the day is the strongest in July than in January . In contrast , the urban heat island effect during nights is the most intense in January than in July .
The El Niño – Southern Oscillation is a major factor in the variation of annual precipitation within Buenos Aires and the Pampas , particularly during spring and summer . During an El Niño year , precipitation is higher , with a significant increase in precipitation from November to January . In contrast , La Niña years are associated with lower precipitation ; precipitation is below average during October – December .
= = Seasonal weather = =
= = = Spring = = =
Springs in Buenos Aires are typically mild during the day with cool to cold nights . The average high is 22 @.@ 5 ° C ( 72 @.@ 5 ° F ) while the average low is 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) . It is one of the rainiest seasons in the city , averaging 316 @.@ 5 mm ( 12 @.@ 46 in ) of precipitation and 28 days with measurable precipitation . Nonetheless , most precipitation events are short in duration .
Spring is characterized by changeable weather with temperatures that can fluctuate . Cold polar air from the south can bring cooler temperatures . An extreme example of this was in November 2007 , when cold polar air from the south brought temperatures down to 2 @.@ 5 ° C ( 36 @.@ 5 ° F ) on the morning of November 15 . The same polar air affected many parts of the country , bringing cold temperatures and snow in coastal parts of Patagonia . In contrast , hot humid air from the north produces sultry days ; the highest temperature recorded in spring is 36 @.@ 8 ° C ( 98 @.@ 2 ° F ) on 27 November 1955 . In some cases , heat waves , can occur , particularly in November .
= = = Summer = = =
Summers are hot and humid . On average , mornings and afternoons are hot whereas temperatures drop considerably at night . The average high is 29 @.@ 1 ° C ( 84 @.@ 4 ° F ) while the average low is 19 @.@ 3 ° C ( 66 @.@ 7 ° F ) . With a mean precipitation of 384 @.@ 8 mm ( 15 @.@ 15 in ) , it is the rainiest season . This is due to hot temperatures and high insolation that lead to the development of a low pressure system called the Chaco Low situated over northern Argentina that interacts with the South Atlantic High to generate a pressure gradient that brings moist easterly winds to the region , favouring precipitation , which mostly occurs in the form of convective thunderstorms . The Chaco Low also interacts with the South Atlantic high to bring warm and tropical air from the north which is the strongest in summer when the Chaco Low is at its strongest due to higher insolation .
Heat waves are a common feature of summers in the city . These heat waves place extra demand on electricity usage , leading to shortages . In extreme cases , these power shortages during heat waves can cause traffic jams and protests , such as the December 2013 heat wave ( longest heat wave ever recorded in Buenos Aires ) where increased energy demand lead to energy shortages and power cuts , protests against the government over the lack of service , and traffic jams as a result of these protests . However , most heat waves are of short duration ( usually less than a week ) , and are followed by the passage of the cold , dry Pampero wind , which brings violent and intense thunderstorms with strong gusts and hail followed by cooler temperatures and lower humidity . Occasionally , a tornado can form , which can strike the city although most tornadoes are relatively weak and rarely cause deaths . The greatest risk for tornadoes occurs in the summer season due to the favourable conditions . These severe storms can damage cars , houses and disrupt public services such as transportation and collection and disposal of urban solid waste .
= = = Autumn = = =
At the beginning of autumn , temperatures are warm to hot in the afternoon while nights and mornings are mild . Later on in the season , conditions are cooler featuring mild afternoons , and cold nights and mornings . The average high and low are 23 @.@ 0 ° C ( 73 @.@ 4 ° F ) and 14 @.@ 0 ° C ( 57 @.@ 2 ° F ) respectively while precipitation averages 351 @.@ 4 mm ( 13 @.@ 83 in ) during this season . Similar to spring , the season is characterized by changeable weather conditions with temperatures that can fluctuate ; temperatures as high as 37 @.@ 9 ° C ( 100 @.@ 2 ° F ) and as low as − 4 @.@ 0 ° C ( 24 @.@ 8 ° F ) have been recorded . Periods of rainy weather occur although these are usually of short duration . Frosts rarely occur , though they can occur as early as May .
= = = Winter = = =
June to August are the winter months in Buenos Aires . Winters are cold with mild temperatures during the day and cold nights . Highs during the season average 16 @.@ 3 ° C ( 61 @.@ 3 ° F ) while lows average 8 @.@ 1 ° C ( 46 @.@ 6 ° F ) . Lows rarely drop below 0 ° C ( 32 @.@ 0 ° F ) , averaging 2 days each year at the central observatory , and 1 day at Aeroparque . Cold waves can occur in these months in which periods of cold temperatures can persist for days . These cold waves , particularly during severe winters lead to increases in energy demand , which can cause significant energy shortages . Snowfall occasionally occurs in the surrounding areas of the city but rarely within Buenos Aires proper ; since the start of meteorological observations in 1906 at the central observatory , snowfall has only been observed thrice : on 9 July 2007 during a winter storm , June 1918 , and July 1928 . This is due to the city center having higher temperatures than the surrounding areas owing to the urban heat island effect .
Most of the precipitation comes from frontal systems associated with cyclogenesis and strong southeasterly winds ( Sudestada ) , which bring long periods of precipitation , cloudy weather and cooler temperatures . Winters are cloudy while relative humidity is very high , often 90 % or higher , making the weather dull , grey and cool . Occasionally , warm air masses from the north bring warmer temperatures . These warm air masses can bring sunny weather , particularly during the afternoon when they come from the north or northwest as a result of a trough located in central Argentina . On the other hand , warm air masses from Brazil bring humid conditions , featuring high humidity with high cloud cover that is typical of a warm front of a frontal system and typical of tropical maritime air . These warm air masses that are responsible for the high humidity and cloud cover are the warmest air masses , leading to the warmest temperatures . Nonetheless , these are short lived as the Chaco Low , which is responsible for bringing in warm and tropical air from the north is weaker in winter due to lower insolation , leading to the winds from the north being less intense and shorter lived .
Towards the end of winter in August , there are important changes in the atmospheric circulation . Warm , humid air penetrates the city , higher solar radiation and frequent synoptic weather disturbances from the west occur during the end of the winter . As such , the end of winter is usually characterized by heavy storms with lightning . This is popularly known as the Santa Rosa Storm , around August 30 . Based on 107 years of weather observations ( 1906 – 2012 ) from the central observatory , 58 years have seen stormy weather occurring on days close to August 30 , although not all of these have led to heavy precipitation .
= = Extremes = =
= = = Temperature = = =
According to the central observatory , which has one of the most reliable and oldest records in South America , the highest temperature in Buenos Aires , 43 @.@ 3 ° C ( 109 @.@ 9 ° F ) , was recorded on 29 January 1957 while the lowest temperature recorded is − 5 @.@ 4 ° C ( 22 @.@ 3 ° F ) on 9 July 1918 . The warmest year on record is 2015 , with a mean annual temperature of 18 @.@ 6 ° C ( 65 @.@ 5 ° F ) . On the other hand , 1911 was the coldest year , with a mean annual temperature of 15 @.@ 4 ° C ( 59 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
= = = Precipitation = = =
The year with the maximum precipitation was 1900 , when the city received 2 @,@ 024 mm ( 79 @.@ 7 in ) of precipitation . On the other hand , 1916 has been the driest year , with a mean annual precipitation of 504 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) . The highest precipitation for a single day was recorded on 27 February 1930 , when 194 @.@ 1 mm ( 7 @.@ 64 in ) of precipitation fell .
= = Statistics = =
= = Books = =
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= Early skyscrapers =
The early skyscrapers were a range of tall , commercial buildings built between 1884 and 1939 , predominantly in the American cities of New York and Chicago . Cities in the United States were traditionally made up of low @-@ rise buildings , but significant economic growth after the Civil War and increasingly intensive use of urban land encouraged the development of taller buildings beginning in the 1870s . Technological improvements enabled the construction of fireproofed iron @-@ framed structures with deep foundations , equipped with new inventions such as the elevator and electric lighting . These made it both technically and commercially viable to build a new class of taller buildings , the first of which , Chicago 's 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) tall Home Insurance Building , opened in 1884 . Their numbers grew rapidly and by 1888 they were being labelled skyscrapers .
Chicago initially led the way in skyscraper design , with many constructed in the center of the financial district during the late 1880s and early 1890s . Sometimes termed the products of the Chicago school of architecture , these skyscrapers attempted to balance aesthetic concerns with practical commercial design , producing large , square palazzo @-@ styled buildings hosting shops and restaurants on the ground level and containing rentable offices on the upper floors . In contrast , New York 's skyscrapers were frequently narrower towers which , more eclectic in style , were often criticized for their lack of elegance . In 1892 , Chicago banned the construction of new skyscrapers taller than 150 feet ( 46 m ) , leaving the development of taller buildings to New York .
The first decade of the 20th century saw a new wave of skyscraper construction . The demand for new office space to hold America 's expanding workforce of white @-@ collar staff continued to grow . Engineering developments made it easier to build and live in yet taller buildings . Chicago built new skyscrapers in its existing style , while New York experimented further with tower design . Iconic buildings such as the Flatiron were followed by the 612 @-@ foot ( 187 m ) tall Singer Tower , the 700 @-@ foot ( 210 m ) Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower and the 792 @-@ foot ( 241 m ) Woolworth Building . Though these skyscrapers were commercial successes , criticism mounted as they broke up the ordered city skyline and plunged neighboring streets and buildings into perpetual shadow . Combined with an economic downturn , this led to the introduction of zoning restraints in New York in 1916 .
In the interwar years , skyscrapers spread to nearly all major US cities , while a handful were built in other Western countries . The economic boom of the 1920s and extensive real estate speculation encouraged a wave of new skyscraper projects in New York and Chicago . New York City 's 1916 Zoning Resolution helped shape the Art Deco or " set @-@ back " style of skyscrapers , leading to structures that focused on volume and striking silhouettes , often richly decorated . Skyscraper heights continued to grow , with the Chrysler and the Empire State Building each claiming new records , reaching 1 @,@ 046 feet ( 319 m ) and 1 @,@ 250 feet ( 380 m ) respectively . With the onset of the Great Depression , the real estate market collapsed and new builds stuttered to a halt . Popular and academic culture embraced the skyscraper through films , photography , literature and ballet , seeing the buildings as either positive symbols of modernity and science , or alternatively examples of the ills of modern life and society . Skyscraper projects after World War II typically rejected the designs of the early skyscrapers , instead embracing the international style ; many older skyscrapers were redesigned to suit contemporary tastes or even demolished — such as the Singer Tower , once the world 's tallest skyscraper .
= = Background : 1850 – 79 = =
= = = Commercial and social drivers = = =
Early skyscrapers emerged in the US as a result of economic growth , the financial organization of American businesses , and the intensive use of land . New York was one of the centers of early skyscraper construction , and had a history as a key seaport located on the small island of Manhattan , on the east coast of the US . As a consequence of its colonial history , New York real estate was broken up into many small parcels of land , with few large sites . During the first half of the 19th century it became the national center of American finance , and the banks in the financial district of Wall Street competed fiercely with English institutions for international dominance .
The Great Fire of 1835 destroyed most of the old financial buildings , and in their place a wide variety of new buildings were erected and demolished in quick succession during the 1840s and 1850s ; traveler Philip Hone suggested that the entire city was being rebuilt every decade . Most buildings adopted the Italian Renaissance inspired palazzo @-@ style of architecture popular amongst their rivals in England , and rose no more than five or six stories . New York did not have any restrictions on the height of buildings but in practice low @-@ rise buildings were the norm , at least until 1865 , with the tallest buildings being the city 's churches . New York 's population tripled between 1840 and 1870 , and property values soared , increasing by more than 90 percent between 1860 and 1875 .
Further west , the city of Chicago became the other major site in the development of early skyscrapers . In contrast to New York , Chicago emerged as a major metropolis only in the mid @-@ 19th century , growing from a village of around fifty inhabitants in 1830 , to a city of 30 @,@ 000 in 1850 and nearly 300 @,@ 000 by 1870 . Chicago became the railroad hub for the American West and the primary trading city for the emerging territories , famous for its commercial culture . It saw itself as different from the cities on the east coast and was immensely proud of its status as a growing , vibrant center .
By the 1870s Chicago had become the main financial center for the West , but in October 1871 the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the wooden heart of the city . The city was rebuilt on large plots of land in a new grid network , and followed new city ordinances that prohibited construction in wood . These factors encouraged the building of taller properties in new innovative designs , which , like New York , saw a range of businesses and services being packed into single buildings .
The construction of taller buildings during the 1870s was hindered by the financial Panic of 1873 and the ensuing economic depression , which lasted until around 1879 . Construction slowed and property values slumped . By 1880 , however , the recovery was well underway , with new builds in New York returning to the pace of 1871 , and the economic upturn making the construction of taller buildings an attractive financial option again , establishing many of the preconditions for the development of the skyscraper .
= = = Technological developments = = =
The emergence of skyscrapers was made possible by technological improvements during the middle of the 19th century . One of these developments was the iron framed building . Traditional buildings supported their internal floors through their walls , but the taller the building , the thicker the walls had to become , particularly at the base : buildings of any substantial height rapidly saw their lower floors eaten up by brick or masonry . In the 1860s French engineers experimented with using built @-@ up plate girders made of wrought iron to construct buildings supported by internal metal frames . These frames were stronger than traditional masonry and permitted much thinner walls . The methodology was extensively described in engineering journals and was initially used to build warehouses .
Using these metal frames for taller buildings , however , meant exposing them to the potentially devastating effects of wind pressure . As a consequence , protective wind bracing had to be introduced , enabled by the work of Augustin @-@ Jean Fresnel who produced equations for calculating the loads and moments on larger buildings . Metal @-@ framed buildings were also particularly vulnerable to fire and required special fireproofing . French engineers had made advances in this area in the early 19th century , but major breakthroughs only came with the work of architect Peter Wight in the 1860s . Spurred on by the catastrophic fires in Chicago in 1871 and Boston in 1872 , his findings were turned into a wide variety of patented fire proofing products during the 1870s .
Taller , heavier buildings such as skyscrapers also required stronger foundations than smaller buildings . Earlier buildings had typically rested their foundations on rubble , which was in turn laid down on the soft top layer of the ground called the overburden . As buildings became taller and heavier , the overburden could not support their weight and foundations increasingly needed to rest directly on the bedrock below . In both New York and Chicago this required digging down a considerable distance through soft and often @-@ waterlogged soil , risking the hole filling up with water before the foundations were complete . The deeper the foundations needed to be , the greater the challenge . Special water @-@ tight boxes called caissons were invented to deal with this problem in England in 1830 , and adopted in the US during the 1850s and 1860s .
The development of the elevator was also essential to the emergence of the early skyscrapers , as office building taller than around six stories would have been impractical without them . Powered elevators were first installed in England during the 1830s and spread to US factories and hotels by the 1840s . Elevators using hoist ropes , however , could only function effectively in low @-@ rise buildings and this limitation encouraged the introduction of the hydraulic elevator in 1870 , even though early models contained dangerous design flaws . By 1876 these problems had been resolved , providing a solution for servicing the early skyscrapers .
New environmental technologies in heating , lighting , ventilation and sanitation were also critical to creating taller buildings that were attractive to work in . Central heating could not be easily extended to serve larger buildings ; in the 1850s , a system using low @-@ pressure steam and steam @-@ operated fans became adopted in the construction of the later skyscrapers . Many US buildings were lit by gas but this carried safety risks and was difficult to install in taller buildings . As an alternative , electric lights were installed from 1878 onwards , powered by basement generators . Ventilation was also a challenge , as smoke drifting into offices from the streets and the fumes from the gas lighting made air quality a major health issue . A steam @-@ driven , forced @-@ draft ventilation system was invented in 1860 and became widely used in taller buildings by the 1870s , overcoming much of the problem . Improvements in iron piping permitted running hot and cold water and sanitation facilities to be installed throughout taller buildings for the first time .
= = Emergence of the skyscraper : 1880 – 99 = =
= = = The first skyscraper = = =
There is academic disagreement over which building should be considered the first skyscraper . The term was first used in the 1780s to describe a particularly tall horse , before later being applied to the sail at the top of a ship 's mast , tall hats and bonnets , tall men and a ball that was hit high into the air . In the 1880s it began to be applied to buildings , first in 1883 to describe large public monuments and then in 1889 as a label for tall office blocks , coming into widespread use over the next decade . Identifying the first " true skyscraper " is not straightforward , and various candidates exist depending on the criteria applied . George Post 's New York Equitable Life Building of 1870 , for example , was the first tall office building to use the elevator , while his Produce Exchange of 1884 made substantial structural advances in metal frame design . The Home Insurance Building in Chicago , opened in 1884 , is , however , most often labelled the first skyscraper because of its innovative use of structural steel in a metal frame design .
The Home Insurance Building was a 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) tall , 10 @-@ story skyscraper designed by William Le Baron Jenney , who had been trained as an engineer in France and was a leading architect in Chicago . Jenney 's design was unusual in that it incorporated steel into the building 's internal metal frame alongside the traditional wrought iron . This frame took the weight of the floors of the building and helped to support the weight of the external walls as well , proving an important step towards creating the genuine non @-@ structural curtain walls that became a feature of later skyscrapers . The design was not perfect – some of the weight was still carried by masonry walls , and the metal frame was bolted , rather than riveted , together – but it was clearly a significant advance in tall building construction .
The approach quickly caught on in Chicago . In 1889 the Tacoma Building replaced the bolted metal design with a stronger , riveted approach , and Chicago 's Chamber of Commerce Building introduced interior light courts to the structural design of skyscrapers . In the 1890 Rand McNally Building the last remaining technical issues were resolved , resulting in the first entirely self @-@ supporting , steel @-@ framed skyscraper . Some buildings , such as The Rookery and the Monadnock Building , combined elements of both the newer and older styles , but generally Chicago rapidly adopted steel structures as a flexible and effective way to produce a range of tall buildings . Specialist professional structural engineers began to establish practices in Chicago specialising in the steel frames need for the new skyscraper .
Technical challenges overcome , there was a boom in skyscraper construction in Chicago from 1888 onwards , the city leading the way in the new form . By 1893 , Chicago had built 12 skyscrapers between 16 and 20 stories tall , tightly clustered in the centre of the financial district . Chicago 's skyscrapers , however , were constrained by the contemporary limits of steel @-@ frame design and the muddy sub @-@ soil in the city , which together limited most of their skyscrapers to around 16 or 17 stories . Chicago 's skyscrapers rapidly became tourist destinations , for the views of the wider city they provided from their upper floors and as attractive sites in their own right . Tourists were advised to hire cabs for street tours of the skyscrapers – by lying back in the cab , they would be able to safely take in the tops of the tall buildings .
The Masonic Temple was the most prominent of these new skyscrapers . Built by the Freemasons of Chicago in 1892 , at a time when the Masons was a fast @-@ growing social community , the lavish 302 @-@ foot ( 92 m ) tall skyscraper had 19 stories , the bottom ten holding shops and the higher levels containing the Masons ' private suites and meeting halls , some able to hold up to 1 @,@ 300 people . At the top was a roof garden and observation gallery . The Freemasons were competing with their local rivals the Odd Fellows , who intended to build a much higher skyscraper , 556 feet ( 169 m ) tall , that they announced would be the tallest building in the world . Newspapers picked up the story , circulating facts about the size of the Temple and making comparison to historical buildings such as the Capitol or the Statue of Liberty . The Odd Fellows project failed , but the Masonic Temple capitalized on the publicity , being declared the " tallest commercial building in the world " .
In comparison , New York trailed behind Chicago , having only four buildings over 16 stories tall by 1893 . Part of the delay was caused by the slowness of the city authorities to authorize metal @-@ frame construction techniques ; it was not until 1889 that they relented and allowed Bradford Gilbert to construct the Tower Building , an 11 @-@ story iron @-@ framed skyscraper . This encouraged the building of more skyscraper towers in New York , although the city remained cautious about the technology for some years . Finally , in 1895 a breakthrough was made with the construction of the American Surety Building , a twenty @-@ story , 303 @-@ foot ( 92 m ) high @-@ steel development that broke Chicago 's height record . From then on , New York thoroughly embraced skeleton frame construction . In particular , New York newspaper companies adopted the skyscraper , building several along Park Row , sometimes termed " Newspaper Row " , in the 1880s and 1890s . A few early skyscrapers were also constructed in Baltimore , Boston , Pittsburgh , St. Louis , and Buffalo , including the Wainwright and the Guaranty Buildings . Early examples on the West Coast include the Old Chronicle Building and the Call Building in San Francisco , as well as the Luzon Building in Tacoma , Washington .
= = = Architectural challenges = = =
The architects of early skyscrapers faced a number of challenges . The most fashionable architectural style in the late 19th century was the French Beaux @-@ Arts movement , sometimes termed the Italian Renaissance style , which applied Classical aesthetic principles to modern buildings . American architects trained in the Beaux @-@ Arts style at the Parisian Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts began to return home in the 1880s , bringing these ideals and standards with them . Applying contemporary Beaux @-@ Arts standards to early skyscrapers , however , was not straightforward . The buildings that the Beaux @-@ Arts movement emulated and built were typically much shorter and broader than any skyscraper , and it was impossible to accurately reproduce the style in a tall , narrow building .
Skyscrapers were also primarily commercial buildings , and economics as well as aesthetics had to play an important part in their design . The architectural writer Barr Ferree noted in 1893 that " current American architecture is not a matter of art , but of business . A building must pay , or there will be no investor ready with the money to meet its cost . This is at once the curse and the glory of American architecture . " George Hill echoed the theme , condemning unnecessary features on the basis that " every cubic foot that is used for purely ornamental purposes beyond that needed to express its use and to make it harmonize with others of its class , is a waste " .
By the 1890s , Chicago architects were producing a solution to this problem , creating a new architectural style , often termed the " Chicago school of architecture " . The school included architects such as Louis Sullivan , William Le Baron Jenney and John Root , whose designs combined architectural aesthetic theory with practical commercial sense . They favoured placing rich , ornate designs on the outside of skyscrapers at the ground level and simpler , plainer ornamentation on the upper levels , with strong vertical lines . The roofs of their skyscrapers typically formed a comprehensible outline and structure when seen at a distance as part of the city skyline . The intent was to draw the observer 's eye upwards , celebrating what Sullivan termed the " lofty " nature of the skyscraper , but not wasting resources on intricate detailing unlikely to appeal to a busy businessman . At the same time , the more lavish ground floor designs would make the building stand out to passers @-@ by and pull in the necessary business for a successful commercial building .
This community also saw close collaboration between architects , specialist structural engineers and building contractors emerge on the new skyscraper projects . Historically the industry had been dominated by individuals and small firms who combined the roles of architect and engineer , but this broke down in Chicago during the period , being replaced by a partnership between specialist architects who focused on the appearance of the skyscraper , and specialist engineers who focused on the structures that enabled it to be built . Chicago architectural firms grew to be large , hierarchical and with numerous specialist staff ; the famous D. H. Burnham & Company , for example , felt like a small factory to visitors , and ultimately expanded to employ 180 staff .
The resulting Chicago school produced large , solid @-@ looking skyscrapers , built with a common appearance and to a common height . The result was usually a box @-@ like palazzo , illuminated with a large light court , ideally , if space allowed , in the center . The outside of the building was commonly divided into three parts : a base , middle section and the roof line . This tripartite design was intended both to emulate classical columns , and reflect the functions of the different parts of the skyscraper . The central court could form a simple courtyard , but many companies preferred to roof over the courtyard with glass to produce an atrium for shops and restaurants . Rents for these shops were up to five or six times that for office space , and made an important difference to the income from a property . Chicago skyscraper windows were also a feature of the style ; these were large , fixed windows flanked by smaller sash windows on either side , which provided access to sunlight and adequate ventilation . Sometimes these protruded from the building to form a slight bay .
Although the exterior of the Chicago skyscrapers buildings were relatively plain , the entrance ways and lobbies were fitted out in a grand style . The Unity Building , for example , was reported as including " Numidian , Alps , Green and Sienna marbles ... an artistic screen of glass and bronze ... a marble balcony " alongside " Corinthian columns with finely carved capitals , gold @-@ leaf and silver chandeliers , and silver @-@ plated latticework " on the elevators . The aim was to project a sense of prosperity and solid financial credentials , which in turn would attract tenants willing to pay high rents . For the tenants , such surroundings were good for their own business credibility , and affirmed their own social status as professionals .
New York faced similar architectural challenges , but , in comparison to Chicago , skyscraper architects there worked less closely with engineers and other specialists and instead , held strong backgrounds in the Beaux Arts movement and perceived their role to be primarily artistic rather than a partnership with the mechanical arts . Their practices tended to be smaller , resembling atelier style workshops . Structural engineers in New York took longer to build up a strong professional role there , a trend reflected in the lower engineering quality of many early skyscrapers in the city . The New York style emphasised stunning height and a somewhat eclectic use of architectural features from other periods , creating an energetic , flamboyant appearance . Towers were common , making best use of the relatively small plots of land in New York . Some New York skyscrapers emulated the tripartite style of Chicago , but others broke their exterior down into many different layers , each with its own style . Proponents argued that this reintroduced a sense of human proportion to these tall buildings ; critics felt that the results were confused and ungainly .
= = = Life in early skyscrapers = = =
Early skyscrapers were mainly made up of small office cubicles , commonly only 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) across , which were placed adjacent to one another along long corridors , following a pattern first invented in the Oriel Chambers building in England in 1864 . This allowed the average small company to rent a small amount of space using one or two offices , but held out the option for future expansion by renting additional office cubicles if required at a later date . A skyscraper office relied on natural sunlight from the windows but if necessary was dimly lit from electric desk @-@ top lamps . By the standards of the day , these offices were very modern , with radiators , air vents and the latest fixtures and fittings , and modern communication systems , including telephone and pneumatic tubes were often installed . As a result , many businesses chose to move out of their older , low @-@ rise offices in Chicago to take up tenancy in the new skyscrapers , which were felt to be more convenient and healthier .
The first skyscrapers were mainly occupied by male workers but this changed during the 1890s , with female employees becoming more common . The percentage of female clerical workers in Chicago , for example , increased from 11 percent in 1880 to 21 percent by 1890 , reaching 30 percent by 1900 . Various moral concerns were raised about men and women mixing in such offices , which were characterised as being masculine spaces , full of tobacco smoke and profanity and therefore unsuitable for women . The new female workers typically worked as typists or stenographers , using the recently invented typewriter , which grew in number in US offices from 146 in 1879 to 65 @,@ 000 by 1890 .
Skyscrapers provided a wide range of in @-@ house services for their tenants , including shops , restaurants , barbers , tobacconists , newsagents , tailors , professional specialists and libraries . Skyscrapers also employed a substantial number of service staff to maintain and support them ; a building such as the Chicago Board of Trade spent 20 percent of its rental revenue on service staff , employing 41 people , including janitors , elevator operators , engineers and an electrician . With this collection of services and facilities , skyscrapers of the period were often referred to as small cities in their own right .
= = = Criticism and reform in Chicago = = =
Opposition to Chicago 's skyscrapers began to grow during the late 1880s and early 1890s . Even before the development of the skyscraper , some criticized large buildings in Chicago for dominating churches and private houses , and this sentiment strengthened . Critics complained that the concentration of tall buildings in the center of the city was causing huge congestion , and each new skyscraper was also burning additional coal to power its facilities , together consuming a total of over one million tons each year , leaving smoke and stagnant air hanging over Chicago . Many were concerned over the risk of a major fire breaking out and spreading , uncontrolled , from building to building .
Chicago was not alone in having concerns over the growth of the skyscraper . In Boston , the Fiske and the Ames Buildings were built in the late 1880s , 183 feet ( 56 m ) and 190 feet ( 58 m ) tall respectively , but protests by local civic campaigners and the real estate industry resulted in the city passing a law to limit new buildings to a maximum of 123 feet ( 37 m ) , effectively banning the construction of skyscrapers . The cities of Philadelphia , Los Angeles and Washington D.C. similarly introduced height controls to limit skyscraper construction .
The decisive factor in favour of change in Chicago , however , was the economic slowdown in the early 1890s , which would end in the financial panic of 1893 . The recession , combined with the frantic building of the previous few years , meant that Chicago suddenly had a significant surplus of office space , threatening occupancy levels and rents . Regulation was introduced by the city council to control the problem in 1892 , with support from the real estate industry who hoped to slow the construction of additional office space and shore up their diminishing profit margins . The height of new buildings was limited to 150 feet ( 46 m ) , with lower height levels on narrower streets , effectively curtailing the construction of any taller skyscrapers .
= = The " First Great Age " : 1900 – 19 = =
= = = Pre @-@ war boom = = =
The early years of the 20th century saw a range of technically sophisticated , architecturally confident skyscrapers built in New York ; academics Sarah Landau and Carl Condit term this " the first great age " of skyscraper building . Some were relatively conservative buildings in a classical style , such as the Mutual Life , Atlantic Mutual and Broad Exchange Buildings , all designed by Clinton and Russell . Others broke new ground , including the Flatiron Building which opened in 1903 near Madison Square . The Chicago firm of Daniel Hudsdon Burnham designed the 307 feet ( 94 m ) high , 21 story structure ; the unusually shaped , narrow building needed particularly strong wind bracing , while the facade was richly textured and incorporated stylistic features more common in Chicago . A critical and popular success , the Flatiron was likened to the Parthenon of Ancient Greece and became , for a time , a New York icon .
The construction of the Singer Tower was announced by the company in 1906 , who intended to produce the tallest skyscraper in the world . The company already had several lower @-@ rise buildings in New York that the tower would be incorporated into and planned to rent out the bottom half of the tower to tenants to subsidise their use of the upper half . The skyscraper was designed by Ernest Flagg , a Beaux @-@ Arts advocate and noted critic of existing skyscrapers , who justified taking on the project as a way of generating support for skyscraper reform . The design was technically challenging , as such a tall , narrow tower needed special wind bracing , and the deep bedrock on the site required particularly deep foundations . The tower was faced in dark brick and followed the Beaux @-@ Arts style used by the rest of the complex , with a galleried lobby fitted out in Italian marble . When it opened in 1908 it had 47 stories and was 612 feet ( 187 m ) tall ; visitors paid $ 0 @.@ 50 ( $ 12 in 2010 terms ) each to use the observation area at the top of the building to see the views .
The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower was opened in 1909 , the culmination of a long building project by N. LeBrun and Sons to hold Metropolitan Life 's growing headquarters staff , 2 @,@ 800 strong by 1909 . At 700 feet ( 210 m ) high and with 50 stories , it became the world 's new tallest building . Metropolitan Life intended the skyscraper to promote the company 's image and the build was surrounded by publicity . The tower featured on the front of prominent magazines such as Scientific American , as well as on the sides of corn flake boxes , coffee packets and cars . The tower was loosely modelled on the Venician St Mark 's Campanile , and featured extensive Early Renaissance @-@ styled detailing , with the more modern additions of huge clock faces , electric flashlights for night @-@ time illumination and an observation deck at the top . Contemporary architects Everett Waid and Harvey Corbett described how the building had " the latest ideas in ventilation , air conditioning , sound deadening , artificial lighting , intercommunicating pneumatic tubes , telephones , call bells , unit operating clock systems [ and ] special elevator and escalator installations " . The design won critical acclaim within the American architectural profession .
The construction of the Woolworth Building was announced in 1910 by Frank Woolworth , who wanted to create the largest income @-@ producing property in the US . The project grew , and Woolworth finally opted for a 55 story , 792 @-@ foot ( 241 m ) high skyscraper , the latest tallest building in the world , at a cost of $ 13 @.@ 5 million ( $ 5 @.@ 1 billion in 2010 terms ) . The architect Cass Gilbert designs included a very high proportion of usable – and thus rentable – floor space , with a great deal of light and a flexible floor plan that could be subdivided for different tenants . Up @-@ to @-@ date fittings were installed to encourage a high @-@ class of tenants , including the world 's fastest elevators , safety features and a swimming pool . Gilbert adopted the Beaux @-@ Arts style , using accented terracotta and glass to emphasis vertical lines , elegantly echoing the structural frame underneath and incorporating 15th and 16th century Flamboyant Gothic @-@ styled features . It was capped by a gilded tower that blended into the sky behind it to produce an illusion of even greater height . The building was floodlit at night , topped with red and white flashing lights . It was famously dubbed the " Cathedral of Commerce " , rather to Gilbert 's displeasure as he had attempted to avoid copying ecclesiastical architecture .
Meanwhile , Chicago 's skyscraper industry also boomed during the decade before World War I. The city 's elevated train network was operating by 1910 , allowing more workers to come into the centre . In 1910 alone 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new offices were opened and by the end of the decade , Chicago had the second largest number of headquarters offices in the US . Chicago architectural firms such as Daniel H. Burnham and then Graham , Anderson , Probst & White continued to design skyscrapers in the palazzo style made popular in the previous decade . Chicago had hosted the World 's Columbian Exposition in 1895 , a massive international event which had excited interest in the themes of classical architecture and well @-@ designed city landscapes . Chicago also had extensive discussions in 1909 about the potential for designing large parts of the city , the Burnham Plan of Chicago .
The resulting skyscrapers reflected these debates : the Railway Exchange , the Peoples Gas and the Illinois Continental and Commercial Bank Buildings were each substantial , quarter of block wide palazzo cubes of common height , their facades divided into a classical tripartite design , and sporting classical columns and other features . Despite the apparent uniformity of design , individual buildings varied considerably in the detail of their designs in effort to express their particular identities , the Peoples Gas Building using texture and the Railway Exchange Building white terracotta , for example .
= = = Improvements in construction = = =
The process of building skyscrapers became more sophisticated , starting with the acquisition of the real estate needed for the site . Brokers working on commission would secretly acquire the individual bits of land required for a project , operating under a variety of names to avoid the price increasing once a planned build became known . The properties at the front of the site would typically be bought first , as if news broke of the skyscraper then those owning property at the back of the plot would have little choice but to sell anyway . The funding for skyscraper developments was normally lent by banks , insurance companies or raised through bonds sold through a specialised bond house , with the latter becoming increasingly popular after World War I.
Efforts were made to improve the processes for erecting skyscrapers , largely through the work of general contractors such as Louis Horowitz and Frank Gilbreth , who in turn drew on recent work by efficiency specialist Frederick Taylor . Time schedules were devised for all the work to be undertaken , with cost carefully monitored and reports produced each day . The results were demonstrated on the Woolworth Building construction project , where 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 153 @,@ 000 kg ) of steel were assembled in only six days , a record for the period . Improved windbracing techniques introduced . The use of pneumatic caissons in skyscraper foundations grew more advanced ; in the construction of the 1908 Manhattan Municipal Building they were successfully sunk 144 feet ( 44 m ) below the surface , with specially conditioned workers operating in shifts with constant medical support .
New technologies were also introduced within the buildings . Fast Otis elevators powered by electricity rather than steam @-@ driven hydraulics began to be installed in skyscrapers for the first time , with Ellithorpe safety air cushions protecting the passengers in the case of failure . Lighting improved with the recommended levels in 1916 being around twice the level of electric lighting than in the 1890s . Nonetheless , skyscrapers still relied primarily on natural sunlight , which required installing large windows and having tall ceilings to allow the sunlight to penetrate the back of the offices ; an office deeper than 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) was not considered a practical design .
= = = Life in the skyscrapers = = =
One of the reasons for the increase in the numbers of skyscrapers during the period was the growth in demand for office workers . In part this demand was fuelled by many US firms becoming larger and more complex , and white @-@ collar sectors such as insurance and banking grew in scale . It was also driven by changing technology . The typewriter was joined in the office by the adding machine , the telephone and filing cabinets , all adding to the demand for office space and requiring increasingly specialised workers .
Tenants and rental income were essential to the financial success of any skyscraper , as even the largest skyscrapers and those founded by prominent companies rented out much of their office space . Owners could charge significantly more for office space close to the main windows , making it most efficient to build skyscrapers with as much premium office space as possible , even if this cost slightly more to construct in the first instance . As a result , a standard pattern for office units in both New York and Chicago emerged , with either a single rectangular office adjoining an exterior wall , or a " T " shaped design , with a reception room giving way to two windowed offices , separated by glass partitions . Skyscrapers usually took on large numbers of relatively small companies as their tenants . A skyscraper such as the Woolworth Tower had around 600 different tenants in 1913 , for example , while a typical tenant might rent four or five office units in a skyscraper .
= = = Criticism = = =
Skyscrapers , particularly those in New York , attracted considerable comment , much of it negative . On his return to New York , the writer Henry James condemned the buildings in The American Scene as simply " giants of the mere market " , " mercenary monsters " doomed to be torn down in turn as other , even larger , buildings took their place . In Chicago the combination of the environmental pollution and skyscrapers meant that , as Charles Warner complained , " one can scarcely see across the streets on a damp day , and the huge buildings loom up in the black sky in ghostly dimness " .
Wider artistic sentiments varied . Many , like , Alfred Stieglitz harboured mixed feelings over New York 's skyscrapers , reflected in his famous 1903 portrait of the Gridiron building , and his 1910 work Old and New New York that contrasts the growing steel frame of the emerging Vanderbilt Hotel with the old low @-@ rise blocks of the street below . Poets also wrote about the issues , the early Modernist Sadakichi Hartmann describing how " from the city 's stir and madd 'ning roar " the Flatiron 's " monstrous shape soars in massive flight " . Artists such as Alvin Coburn and John Marin experimented with producing portraits of New York 's skyscrapers , capturing the positive and negative aspects of the modern structures . In 1908 artist Harry Pettit produced a romantic interpretation of a future New York , filled with giant skyscrapers supporting aerial bridges and receiving dirigibles from around the globe .
Amongst the architectural community , the Exposition in Chicago inspired many in America to champion designing cities that had a unified design , in which each building had unique features but elegantly complemented its neighbours , typically by being built to a common height : " horizontal visual unity " . In the aftermath of the Exposition , many of these advocates joined with the Beaux @-@ Arts movement to form the City Beautiful movement , proposing low @-@ rise cities with wide boulevards , built in a classical style . These critics condemned New York 's skyscrapers , Montgomery Schuyler describing how they had produced a " horribly jagged sierra " of a city skyline and complaining that no modern skyscraper had turned out to be an architectural success . Charles Lamb argued that the skyscraper impinged on the rights of the rest of the city by destroying the collective appearance of an urban area . Some architects , such as Charles McKim and Stanford White refused to work on such projects altogether .
= = = Reform in New York = = =
Calls were made in New York for legislation to prevent the growth of skyscrapers , citing their effect on the city skylines , but these attempts faced legal obstacles . The US constitution did not give local authorities authority to prevent the buildings on the grounds of aesthetics alone , and any such law in New York was considered likely to face judicial challenge .
Others argued that legal reform of skyscraper construction was needed for public health and safety reasons , an area in which US law was normally more supportive of state intervention . The risk of fire was one concern ; while skyscrapers might be relatively fireproof , their height made conventional fire @-@ fighting difficult . The architect Charles Bragdon considered a large scale , devastating high @-@ rise fire to be inevitable if regulation was not forthcoming . The Baltimore fire of 1904 was widely cited as an example of this risk and , although Baltimore had almost no real skyscrapers , city lawyers argued that the taller buildings had caused the flames to spread through the city during the blaze . Baltimore subsequently passed a law in 1904 , banning buildings higher than 70 feet ( 21 m ) . Other campaigners argued that skyscrapers were compromising access to light and air , noting that when tall buildings rose straight up from the sidewalk , they cast long shadows across the street , preventing healthy sunlight from ever reaching smaller buildings below .
Early attempts by Ernest Flagg to limit the height of New York 's skyscrapers in 1896 failed ; further unsuccessful attempts followed between 1906 and 1908 , and legislation was turned down again in 1909 , partially due to pressure from the real estate industry . After 1913 , however , the property market in New York entered a recession and vacancy levels in buildings began to rise . The campaign for change was helped by the construction of the Equitable Building in 1915 at the estimated cost of $ 29 million ( $ 10 @.@ 9 billion in 2010 terms ) , which rapidly became infamous as its vast height and bulk blocked views and cast neighbours into permanent shade . The real estate industry finally ceased its objections to new legislation and the 1916 Zoning Resolution was passed .
The details of the legislation itself was largely the work of architect George Ford . Ford had sympathies with the City Beautiful movement , disliked the unimaginative form of many New York skyscrapers and had concerns over urban public health , but he also found tall buildings exciting and believed that horizontal visual unity produced boring architecture . As a consequence of Ford 's influence , New York 's laws were relatively complex and divided up the city into different zones ; in each zone , a particular zoning envelope applied , controlling the height to which buildings could be built . Typically a building could only rise up from the sidewalk vertically by around 100 feet ( 30 m ) , after which the building had to be set back at a set angle to allow sunlight to reach the street below . On a quarter of the site , however , the owner could build as high as they wished , without any further restrictions .
= = Inter @-@ war period , boom and depression : 1920 – 39 = =
= = = Post @-@ war boom = = =
A real estate boom occurred in the US after the end of the First World War , with a particular surge in the construction of new skyscrapers between 1925 and 1931 . In New York , a quarter of the financial district was rebuilt between 1928 and 1931 , with 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new office @-@ space added between 1925 and 1929 alone . Chicago saw pressure grow on its existing office @-@ space during the war ; limited wartime construction created supply shortages and rent levels rose in response by around 100 percent between 1919 and 1924 . This level of potential profits encouraged an explosion of new building projects in the city . The boom inflated prices in the real estate market , leading to speculative financing and building projects , including the introduction of 100 percent mortgages for new builds . An early edition of the Fortune magazine commented wryly that " all a man needs to own a skyscraper is the money and the land . And he may be able to get along without the money . "
Skyscrapers continued to grow in height throughout the 1920s . In part this was the result of improvements in technology : steel @-@ frame structures had become increasingly efficient , while improvements in elevator design made taller buildings easier to ascend . Commercial factors were at work too , as growing commercial demand pushed up rents , enabling taller projects , while the higher offices attracted more sunlight , permitting the charging of premium rents . The tallest buildings could also acquire publicity for their owners , in turn making it easier to find and keep the best tenants . Furthermore , the higher the cost of the underlying real estate , the taller a building needed to be to generate a suitable return on the investment , and the minimum sensible commercial height for a skyscraper project grew to between 40 and 45 stories . 70 story skyscrapers became relatively common , although an influential 1930 study demonstrated that the best rate of return on a skyscraper was to build it 63 stories high , returning an annual profit of 10 @.@ 25 percent .
Skyscrapers continued to spread both across the US and internationally . New York and Chicago remained the center of skyscraper development but most major centres in the US had built skyscrapers by 1929 , frequently as a result of competition between rival cities for status and investment . Cincinnati built the Cincinnati Towers in 1914 , followed by the Carew Tower Complex in 1930 . In Detroit , the General Motors Building opened in 1920 and the Fisher Building in 1928 . Cleveland acquired the Union Trust Building in 1923 and the Terminal Tower in 1929 ; the latter , built by the Van Sweringen brothers , was , for a short period , the second tallest building in the world . Seattle had built Smith Tower as early as 1914 and the Los Angeles local government granted itself an exemption from city planning restrictions , in order to build the Los Angeles City Hall in 1928 . In 1928 , the Industrial Trust Tower was built in Providence .
Skyscrapers were also built in other developed countries , although reaching nowhere near the level of construction seen in the US . This was partially due to a lack of funding but also because of local architectural preferences . European cities including London and Paris had laws to ban tall buildings , but elsewhere skyscrapers began to appear including Toronto 's Imperial Bank of Commerce Building , Antwerp 's Boerentoren or Buenos Aires ' Kavanagh Building . Many other European skyscrapers were proposed in a frenzy of excited planning , although few materialised . Soviet Russia began the construction of the 1 @,@ 365 @-@ foot ( 416 m ) Palace of the Soviets in the late 1930s , in the Socialist Classicism style , which would have become the tallest building in the world , but war intervened and the skyscraper was never completed . In the post @-@ war years , this style would result in the monumental Seven Sisters of Moscow building .
The technology used in constructing skyscrapers continued to develop . Time was increasingly a factor in the projects , and architects and their specialist teams developed faster ways to design and construct the buildings to minimise the interest payments during the build and hasten the arrival of rental income . By 1930 skyscrapers were being erected in just 12 months by teams of workers totalling 5 @,@ 000 men , with four floors being assembled in a typical week . Building skyscraper towers involved some adaption of engineering techniques , as effectively two different buildings were being designed – the base and the tower – which needed to be efficiently linked using elevators and other service facilities . Most new offices settled around a standard size , 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) wide by 20 to 30 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 m ) deep , depending on the height of the ceiling , with multiple small windows considered better than a few larger ones . The output of electric lighting continued to improve , although this began to give off excessive heat within the offices . Air conditioning was first installed in a few skyscrapers during the 1930s .
= = = Art Deco skyscrapers and New York 's set @-@ back style = = =
During the 1920s and 1930s many skyscrapers were designed in an Art Deco style . This architectural approach typically combined what Carol Willis terms an " aesthetic of simple , sculptural mass " with the use of rich colour and ornamentation on the surfaces of the buildings . The aim was to call attention to the increasingly complex three @-@ dimensional shape of the skyscraper , in contrast to earlier styles which could be critiqued , as historian Larry Ford suggests , as being merely " short buildings made taller with additional stories " . Windows were de @-@ emphasised in favour of creating a strong sense of shape and mass , the surrounding walls treated as textured fabric , dressing the building underneath . Skyscrapers of this period typically lost their ornamental horizontal divisions , being broken up by physical changes in their shape as one looked up the building , the whole forming a striking silhouette .
In New York , the 1916 act to allow light and air to reach the streets encouraged a stepped or ziggurat approach to skyscraper design ; this " set @-@ back " style often made unrestricted use of the 25 percent of the site allowed by law to complete with a very tall tower . This encouraged a diversity of buildings , while maintaining an element of harmony and consistency of style . The Paramount Building and 120 Wall Street , for example , were constructed in the set @-@ back style without towers , partially because the limited size of the sites would have made the towers relatively narrow and – when packed with the necessary elevators and service facilities – economically unviable . Many other skyscrapers built on larger or more expensive plots opted for the tallest towers possible , including the $ 24 million ( $ 3 @.@ 8 billion in 2010 terms ) Bank of Manhattan Trust Building and the City Bank @-@ Farmers Trust Company Building . New York continued its lead in tall skyscrapers throughout the period ; in 1920 it had ten times the number of tall buildings than its nearest rival Chicago .
Some New York skyscrapers complemented traditional , cubicle offices linked by corridors , with larger , more open @-@ plan spaces called " general offices " . These maximised the number of workers that could fitted into a given space , and provided for greater flexibility . Expensive corporate suites were also created during the 1930s , especially on Wall Street , typically on the highest levels of the buildings . These were used by the corporate executives and were usually lavishly outfitted in a range of traditional and exotic styles . The lobbies of these skyscrapers remained grand affairs , although some banks now eschewed renting out space to shops and restaurants in favour of a more exclusive atmosphere . The largest skyscrapers held up to 16 @,@ 000 workers , although between 5 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 was more common , and the buildings held a wide range of services to support them , including beauty salons , private luncheon clubs , chiropodists and gymnasiums . A skyscraper such as the Cities Service Building directly employed over 200 staff to manage and protect the property . The technology within the offices also grew still more sophisticated , with dictating , automatic typing and tabulating machines being used by teams of ever more specialised office workers .
= = = Chicago 's towers = = =
Chicago altered its laws in the 1920s to allow towers to be built as part of its skyscrapers . In 1920 the maximum building height in Chicago was increased to 260 feet ( 79 m ) , and unoccupied structures on a building , such as ornamental towers , were allowed to extend up to 400 feet ( 120 m ) high . Additional changes came in 1923 , with taller , occupied towers being permitted for the first time , but subject to controls on overall volumes . The main building of a skyscraper could be up to 264 feet ( 80 m ) tall , and a tower could be built on up to 25 percent of the plot , but this tower could not have a volume of more than a sixth of the main block . In practice , this meant that a tower could not be built more than around 20 stories tall in a typical Chicago skyscraper development .
Initially , Chicago still preferred palazzo @-@ styled buildings with large light courts in the centre , not least because they remained the most profitable designs . The Wrigley Building , built under the 1920 law , demonstrated the effect of two ornamental towers on top of a skyscraper . Under the revised law , the Straus Building and the Pittsfield Building took the palazzo design and added somewhat stunted towers on top in the early 1920s , producing profitable buildings .
One of the period 's most famous buildings , the Tribune Tower , emerged from a competition held by the Tribune Company in 1922 to celebrate its 75th anniversary . The newspaper was one of the largest in the world and used the competition , in which members of the public were invited to influence the design of the skyscraper , to build a loyal following amongst its readership and generate free publicity . The final design was determined by a competition panel largely made up of the company 's appointees , who chose John Howells and Raymond Hood 's tower design . The resulting tower was a conservative , Gothic design and controversy about the decision broke out almost immediately : Louis Sullivan and many others criticized Howells and Hood 's design as being derivative of the Woolworth Tower . Regardless of its critics , the Tribune received as many as 20 @,@ 000 visitors to its observation gallery when it opened in 1925 . The unbuilt second @-@ place entry in the competition , a more simplified stepped @-@ back design by Eliel Saarinen , also proved highly influential .
The popularity of the older style then began to wane in favor of a greater emphasis on towers . One common way of building these within Chicago 's laws was to build a square main block with a central service core , and then simply place a tower on the top ; the more massive the main block , the taller the tower could be . The Trustees System Service Building and the Foreman State National Bank Building form good examples of this approach . Alternatively , the front of the main block could be recessed , as at the Chicago Civic Opera Building or the LaSalle @-@ Wacker Building , sacrificing volume but producing the visual effect of two high wings flanking a very tall tower . The distinctive New York " setback " style was not adopted in Chicago , the only example of the style being the Palmolive Building on North Michigan Avenue .
= = = Great Depression = = =
The boom in skyscraper construction began to falter following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , with fast economic growth giving way to the slump years of the Great Depression : building of all sorts slowed considerably . The real estate market that lay behind new skyscraper builds collapsed and the value of many properties dropped dramatically : the American Insurance Union tower cost $ 8 million ( $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in 2010 terms ) to build in 1927 , but was valued at only $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( $ 900 million ) by 1933 ; the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building defaulted on its debts in 1935 and was put on sale for just $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( $ 240 m ) . The major bond house of S. W. Straus , behind many successful developments , defaulted on the $ 214 million ( $ 47 billion ) in bonds held by 60 @,@ 000 investors ; the Van Swerigan developer brothers went bankrupt . Vacancy rates began to increase as the recession bit , increasing from only one percent in central New York in early 1920 to 17 percent in 1931 and 25 percent by 1934 .
In the face of the recession , some skyscrapers projects were canceled or scaled back . Plans by the Metropolitan Life company to build a 100 @-@ story skyscraper alongside their existing tower had been put forward in 1929 , but were shelved in the face of the recession and public criticism of such expenditure in the economic climate . Instead the first phase of the project , known as the North Building ended up only 32 stories high in 1932 and the building , even at this height , was only fully completed in 1950 . In many other cases , projects which had already been commissioned continued through to completion . This resulted in 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new office space being added to New York between 1931 – 34 even after the start of the recession , adding to the problem of underoccupancy . Some of these buildings , however , became iconic structures , pushing the limits of skyscraper height sharply upwards .
The Chrysler Building was completed in 1930 , just after the Depression began to affect the industry . Architect William Van Alen competed with the designers of the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building to produce the tallest building in the world , and famously erected the Chrysler spire in a last @-@ minute , secret move in order to acquire the title for his own 69 story , 1 @,@ 046 @-@ foot ( 319 m ) tall building . The exterior was built of white and grey brick , but metal was used extensively to ornament it further , including gargoyles , nickel @-@ chrome eagles ' heads , and a winged helmet of Mercury . The entrance used black granite to contrast with the nickel @-@ chrome windows , and the foyer gave way to red marble and a mural ceiling . The design of each part of the building was individualist and distinct , with even each elevator different in design . A Chrysler showroom was placed on the first floor of the building , and an observation deck and the exclusive " Cloud Club " on the upper levels .
The Empire State Building originated from a 1928 project to redevelop the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel into a 50 @-@ story mixed @-@ use development ; the purchase of the site for $ 14 million ( $ 2 @.@ 1 billion ) set a record in New York for the year . John Raskob and Pierre du Pont entered into the project as financial backers , and concluded that the project would be more profitable if the site was used to build an extremely tall 80 @-@ story skyscraper instead . Although revised financial estimates suggested that the height should be cut back , the caché of having the world 's tallest building was considerable and instead an additional five stories were added to ensure the building , at 1 @,@ 050 feet ( 320 m ) , would be just taller than the Chrysler . An observation deck was built to attract tourists , which proved to be a valuable source of revenue . The limestone , granite , and aluminium skyscraper was specially designed to be easily erected , with standardized paneling and structural fittings , and was completed in only 18 months , opening in 1931 . Due to the recession , however , it was only 25 percent occupied throughout the 1930s and ran at a loss ; critics dubbed it the " Empty State Building " .
The Rockefeller Center had originally been intended by John D. Rockefeller , Jr. to be a new location for the Metropolitan Opera House but the Stock Market Crash brought an end to the scheme . Rockefeller decided to develop a large office center instead , taking advantage of the low construction costs during the recession . At the center of the development was the RCA Building , heavily influenced by architect Raymond Hood . The long , slab @-@ like RCA had two distinct axes – from one side , it appeared to be a narrow tower , from the other it rose like a sheer wall . Not only was the structure highly distinctive , but it was also economically very effective . The design maximized the available light to the offices and eliminated any darker internal rooms , as the core of the building was entirely taken up with elevators and other engineering services . Due to the recession , however , it took until 1940 before all of the building had been filled by tenants .
In Chicago , the final pre @-@ war skyscraper was built in 1934 . The Field Building was commissioned during the final boom years of the inter @-@ war economy , and the Home Insurance Building – the first skyscraper , built in 1884 – was demolished to make way for the " wing and tower " -style development .
= = = Skyscraper mania and social commentary = = =
Public interest in skyscrapers increased during the 1920s , particularly after the Tribune competition . The competition drawings were circulated on display , 25 @,@ 000 coming to see them in Chicago in just one month . In the aftermath , images of skyscrapers flourished across American culture , commencing what historian Merrill Schleier has dubbed a " skyscraper mania " . The " Titan City " exhibition in 1925 celebrated existing skyscraper and featured futuristic murals by Harvey Corbett and Hugh Ferriss , depicting the skyscraper at the heart of the " City of the Future " . Charles Sheeler and Paul Strand 's 1921 short film Manhatta explored the form , ending with a sunset shot from the top of a skyscraper . Authors such as Janet Flanner , John Dos Passos and Mary Borden wrote novels with skyscrapers as important motifs or settings . John Carpenter produced a ballet on the theme . Paul Frankl designed a range of popular " skyscraper furniture " .
Much of this commentary was positive , reflecting an optimism about technology and the direction of urban life in general . Skyscrapers were seen as an expression of rational engineering , the perfect buildings for mankind to live in , as celebrated in artist Louis Lozowick 's lithographs . Some other proponents of skyscrapers likened them to medieval cathedrals , symbols of the modern age . Poems depicted skyscrapers as objects of sublime , rational beauty , Ferris describing them as " buildings like crystals , walls of translucent glass , sheer glass blocks sheathing a steel grill " . At Chicago 's Century of Progress exposition in 1933 , skyscrapers and technology were portrayed as a solution for America 's current and future problems . The French @-@ Swiss architect Le Corbusier acclaimed New York in 1935 as being " overwhelming , amazing , exciting , violently alive " , but went on to complain that there were still too few skyscrapers , and those that had been built were not yet tall enough . Lewis Hine , employed to record the building of the Empire State Building , portrayed the skyscraper construction teams as courageous heroes , creating a genre of photography that continued up until 1941 .
Their critics expressed concerns about the effect of modern technology and urban living on the human condition , arguing that skyscrapers generated pollution , noise , and imposed a regimented and dehumanising lifestyle on the people that worked in them . The social commentator Lewis Mumford reflected the concerns of many in his critiques entitled Is the Skyscraper Tolerable ? and The Intolerable City . The political theorist Stefan Hirsch condemned the buildings as " bandages covering the sky , stifling our breath " . Inventor Thomas Edison expressed fears that an uncontrolled expansion of skyscrapers would result in overcrowding and disaster . Artist Howard Cook 's engravings critiqued the oppressive character of the new skyscrapers as they loomed over the traditional city . Berenice Abbott 's photographic studies of New York in the 1930s explored the complex theme of urban change and the effect of skyscrapers on the older ways of life in the city , echoing Steigler 's work in the first decade of the century .
Hollywood used skyscrapers extensively in popular films . The Skyscrapers of New York in 1906 became the first of many , and in the 1920s Harold Lloyd produced his five " skyscraper films " , most prominently Safety Last ! , in which the hero dangles from a clock on the side of a Los Angeles building . In these early silent movies , skyscrapers were closely associated with masculine identity ; Lloyd 's climbing of skyscrapers closely associated with his characters ' transformation from young men into mature adults , and the winning of the heroine . The 1933 film King Kong included another iconic use of the early skyscraper in its final scenes , as the giant ape scaled the Empire State Building shortly before his death ; the scene can be interpreted as contrasting natural instinct with the insensitive rationality of the modern building and wider New York .
= = Legacy = =
Skyscraper development paused during the years of the Second World War . Once development began again in the 1950s and 1960s , the skyscraper entered a different phase of development , usually called the international or modern period . Some experimental designs in this style had been built in the US using European architectural concepts in the early 1930s , most notably the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society and McGraw @-@ Hill Buildings . Post @-@ war , their modernist themes were used in a new generation of skyscrapers . These stood alone on individual plots in the fashion of the Rockefeller Centre 's RCA building , rather than as part of a row of buildings , forming huge slabs and towers featuring huge glass façades , breaking with earlier skyscraper traditions . Inside , new technologies such as fluorescent lighting and widespread air @-@ conditioning meant that many older architectural features such as light courts and operable windows were unnecessary .
The trend had substantial implications for many early skyscrapers . Some were redesigned to fit new tastes . Much of the ornate detail was removed from the Metropolitan Life Tower in the 1960s , for example , to fit contemporary , plainer fashions . Many older skyscrapers could not be adapted , however , as they lacked the physical depth to build larger modern offices or the space for new service facilities . Some were demolished to make way for new , larger structures . Amongst these was the Singer Tower , demolished in 1968 and replaced by the international style United States Steel Building . In the 21st century , buildings such as 90 West Street have been renovated as upmarket housing , partially because of their extensive windows and access to sunlight .
Critical discussion of early skyscrapers began from the 1880s onwards in the architectural community and continued across a growing cultural and academic community in the inter @-@ war period . In the 1930 the terms the Chicago " school " and " movement " began to be used for the first time , popularised by the 1940s academics Sigfried Giedion and Carl Condit as a label for the early Chicago architects . They regarded skyscrapers as the early forerunners of modernism and as marking a clear break with earlier architectural forms in the US . This interpretation of Chicago 's skyscrapers was later challenged by Robert Bruegmann and Daniel Bluestone , who argued that it underplayed the links of the movement to pre @-@ existing Chicago culture . During the 1980s and 1990s analysis of the early skyscrapers increasingly shifted away from the architects and architecture of the individual buildings to considerations of skyscrapers ' roles in the wider urban context . Histories stressing the social , economic and cultural dimension of skyscrapers began to be produced , with New York 's skyscrapers receiving greater attention than before . The Skyscraper Museum – the first to address the theme – was founded in New York in 1997 by historian Carol Willis to preserve the history of the skyscraper .
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= Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruiser =
The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruiser was a class of two armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . They were the first British armoured cruisers designed to work with the battlefleet rather than protect merchant shipping . After commissioning , they were assigned to the Atlantic , Channel and Home Fleets until 1913 when they were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . After the start of World War I in August 1914 , the sister ships participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . After the German ships reached their refuge in Ottoman Turkey , the ships were ordered to the Red Sea for convoy escort duties . They captured three German merchant ships before they returned to home at the end of the year .
The sisters participated in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 where Black Prince was sunk with all hands . Duke of Edinburgh spent the next year on blockade duties in the North Sea before she was transferred to the Atlantic Ocean on convoy escort duties for the rest of the war . She was sold for scrap in 1920 .
= = Design and description = =
After the preceding Devonshire class , the Royal Navy rethought how it planned to use its armoured cruisers . It decided that they were going to form a fast wing of the battlefleet which meant that they required heavier armour and armament to fight their counterparts in opposing fleets and thus larger and more expensive . Two armoured cruisers were planned for the 1902 – 1903 Naval Programme and the newly appointed Director of Naval Construction , Philip Watts designed what naval historian Oscar Parkes called : " cruiser editions of the King Edward VII @-@ class battleships " . In these , his first design , he perpetuated the worst feature of the designs by his predecessor , Sir William White , by placing the secondary armament of six @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns in embrasures a deck below the main armament which meant that the guns were inoperable in anything more than a dead calm sea . A solution for this problem was offered after construction began when Watts learned that the ships would be lighter than expected and that weight would be available to replace the six @-@ inch guns with 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 190 mm ) guns raised to the same deck as the main armament . The change would cost a total of £ 398 @,@ 000 for the two ships , far too expensive for the Board of Admiralty , so it was rejected on 30 March 1904 .
The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class ships were designed to displace 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) , but they proved to be significantly lighter as built , displacing 12 @,@ 590 long tons ( 12 @,@ 790 t ) at normal load and 13 @,@ 965 long tons ( 14 @,@ 189 t ) fully loaded . The ships had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches ( 154 @.@ 1 m ) and a length between perpendiculars of 480 ft ( 146 @.@ 3 m ) . They had a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 1 m ) forward and 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) aft . The class was over 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) longer overall than the Devonshires and displaced over 2 @,@ 500 long tons ( 2 @,@ 540 t ) more .
The ships ' complement was 769 officers and enlisted men . They rolled quickly with a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load and their six @-@ inch guns were as wet as predicted .
The cruisers were powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 150 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 20 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 long tons ( 2 @,@ 180 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , they could steam for 8 @,@ 130 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 060 km ; 9 @,@ 360 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Duke of Edinburgh 's main armament consisted of six 45 @-@ calibre BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single @-@ gun turrets , a much more powerful gun than used in the Devonshires . The guns were distributed in two centreline turrets , one each fore and one aft of the superstructure , and four wing turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . The centreline turrets could traverse a total of 285 ° while the wing turrets were limited to about 120 ° on the broadside due to muzzle blast . The gun had an elevation range of − 5 ° to + 15 ° . The 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) shell weighed 380 pounds ( 172 @.@ 4 kg ) and was fired at a maximum muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 778 ft / s ( 847 m / s ) . This gave it a range of 15 @,@ 500 yards ( 14 @,@ 200 m ) at maximum elevation . The gun 's rate of fire was about three rounds per minute and the ships carried 100 rounds for each gun .
Their secondary armament of ten 50 @-@ calibre BL 6 @-@ inch Mk XI guns was arranged in single embrasures . They were mounted amidships on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . The guns could only traverse about 120 ° on the broadside . They initially had a maximum elevation of + 13 ° , but this was later increased to + 20 ° . This gave them a range of 14 @,@ 310 yards ( 13 @,@ 090 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 @.@ 4 kg ) shell . Each gun was provided with 150 rounds .
Twenty Vickers quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 3 @-@ pounder guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats , six on turret roofs and fourteen in the superstructure , all on pivot mounts . These guns were too small to be useful against the torpedo boats before they got within torpedo range . They fired a 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) shell that weighed 3 @.@ 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) and was fired at a maximum muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 587 ft / s ( 789 m / s ) . This gave it a range of 7 @,@ 550 yards ( 6 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 20 ° . 250 rounds were carried for each gun .
The ships also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . They carried a total of eighteen torpedoes in addition to the six 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedoes that could be used by the two 45 @-@ foot ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) steam pinnaces .
= = = Armour = = =
The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class ships had a 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) waterline armour belt of Krupp cemented armour that covered 260 feet ( 79 @.@ 2 m ) of the hull amidships . It covered the side of the ship up to the upper deck , a height of 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 42 m ) above the waterline and reached 4 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 47 m ) below it . Between the central citadel and the bow , the belt armour was 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thick and it extended to the stern with a thickness of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . Transverse bulkheads six inches thick protected the citadel from raking fire .
The faces of the gun turrets were 7 @.@ 5 inches thick with 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) sides and a 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) roof . The barbettes were protected by six inches of armour as were the ammunition hoists , although the armour for those thinned to three inches between the armour belt . Two @-@ inch armour screens separated each of the six @-@ inch guns . The thickness of the lower deck was only .75 inches ( 19 mm ) except for a patch of 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) armour over the steering gear and another 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick over the engine cylinders . The sides of the conning tower were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick .
= = Modifications = =
The funnels proved to be too short in service and they were raised about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) four years after completion to keep the superstructure free of smoke in a following wind . In March 1916 , both ships had all their six @-@ inch guns removed , the embrasures plated over , and six of the guns were remounted on the upper deck . In May 1917 , two more were added to Duke of Edinburgh on the forecastle . The ship 's foremast was converted to a tripod mast to support the weight of the fire @-@ control director probably added in 1917 .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince served in the Channel , Atlantic and Home Fleets before World War I. They were stationed in the Mediterranean when World War I began and participated in the pursuit of the Goeben and Breslau as part of the 1st Cruiser Squadron , but was ordered not to engage . After the German ships reached Ottoman waters , the ships were sent to the Red Sea in mid @-@ August to protect troop convoys arriving from India . While on escort duty they captured three German merchantmen .
The two sisters rejoined the 1st Cruiser Squadron in December 1914 , which had transferred to the Grand Fleet and participated in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 . Black Prince became separated from the fleet when darkness fell and was sunk with all hands by German battleships later that night . Duke of Edinburgh was not damaged during the battle and was the only ship of her squadron to survive . After Jutland Duke of Edinburgh was ordered to reinforce the patrols north of the Shetland Islands against German blockade runners and commerce raiders . She was eventually transferred to the Atlantic in August 1917 for convoy escort duties . The ship was sold for scrap in 1920 .
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= John Baldwin ( educator ) =
John Baldwin ( October 13 , 1799 – December 28 , 1884 ) was an American educator , and the founder of Baldwin Institute ( later Baldwin University ) in Berea , Ohio , which would eventually merge into Baldwin – Wallace College . He was also the founder of Baker University and Baldwin City , Kansas , and contributed money to start schools in Bangalore , India that are today called Baldwin Boys High School , Baldwin Girls High School and Baldwin Co @-@ Education Extension High School .
Born in Connecticut , Baldwin originally was a teacher in Maryland and Connecticut before moving to Ohio in the late 1820s . He became part of the lyceum movement , and situated himself in Berea , Ohio . He opened up Baldwin Institute in 1846 upon seeing the dissolution of the Norwalk Seminary . Nine years later , the Institute became Baldwin University . He moved to Kansas around 1857 , laying the foundation for Baldwin City , Kansas , as well as Baker University . In his later life , he purchased a Louisiana plantation , and made contributions to education in India late in his life .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
John Baldwin was born in Branford , Connecticut on 13 October 1799 to Joseph Baldwin and Rosanna Malley . His mother was a well @-@ educated woman , as well as intensely religious . She attempted to become a student at Yale University , but was not allowed because she was a woman . Due to this , John resolved to make no distinction between races or sexes should he ever found a school . His father enlisted in the Continental Army during the American Revolution as a private and left as a captain . When John turned eighteen , he joined the Methodist Church . As a student at a private school , he paid his way by chopping firewood , ringing the bell , and building fires . Afterwards , he became a teacher in Fishkill , New York , Maryland , and Litchfield , Connecticut . As a teacher in Maryland , his stance on slavery , as well as black people as a whole , was revealed . A mulatto boy was sent to his school daily as a servant for his master 's son . Baldwin began to teach them in common . When the student 's father found out about this , he demanded Baldwin not teach him any more , to which he replied , " I do not charge anything for teaching him " and continued to teach him .
= = = Founding Berea = = =
After marrying Mary Chappel on January 31 , 1828 , they moved to Middleburg Township in Cuyahoga County , Ohio in April of that year . It was there that Baldwin joined forces with James Gilbrith , a disciple of Josiah Holbrook who wanted to found a lyceum village . In the village , which was founded in 1837 and situated just north of his farm , Baldwin ran the Lyceum Village School for five years until June 1842 , when it went bankrupt . However , one day while walking home , he had an impulse to take a new route across the river on his farm . He noticed a grouping of exposed rocks , which would make superior grindstones . This was the beginning of the Berea grindstone industry . Baldwin shipped his grindstones to Cleveland by ox carts . After the Big Four Railroad was built from Cleveland to Cincinnati , Baldwin built a railroad which would connect his quarries to the Big Four Depot . It was then that Baldwin and the others of the Lyceum Village tried to think of a name for their new town . After Gilbrith proposed Tabor , John Baldwin suggested Berea , citing Acts 17 : 10 – 11 . After a coin flip , Berea was chosen .
= = = Baldwin Institute = = =
In 1843 , Baldwin noticed that the Norwalk Seminary , located in Norwalk , Ohio , was dissolving due to lack of funds . He approached Thomas Thompson , who was the elder of the Norwalk District ( which included Cleveland and Berea ) , and asked him to visit Berea . At Baldwin 's Old Red House , an agreement was made where Baldwin would create a campus on his farm similar to the Norwalk Seminary . Baldwin Institute officially opened on April 9 , 1846 . It was meant to open in 1845 , but the process was delayed until the completion of a building on Baldwin 's farm , which was erected by Baldwin himself , made of stone quarried on his farm and brick made of clay . The institute was open to people of all races , male or female , as Baldwin wanted . It became Baldwin University and was given a charter in 1855 . The university later became Baldwin – Wallace College in 1913 .
= = = Life in Kansas = = =
At age fifty @-@ eight , Baldwin desired to satisfy his nature of being a pioneer again by moving to Kansas , which was at that time a territory . He arrived as the brunt of the fighting in the territory was ending . Upon his arrival , he founded Baldwin City and built the first college building in the territory , which became the foundation for Baker University . He was in Kansas only for a short time when tragedy struck . On August 30 , 1858 , John 's son Milton died unexpectedly after having been sick for only three days . Within a couple years , he laid out a town , built a grist mill and a saw mill , and he turned over the town and college to the Methodist Conference and returned to Berea , although he continued to finance it .
= = = Later years & family legacy = = =
In 1867 , Baldwin purchased the Darby plantation in Louisiana , a plantation of about 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 km2 ) . At the age of eighty , Baldwin learned of the situation in India ; there were large numbers of Europeans in India who could not get a proper education . The Baldwin High School for Boys and the Baldwin High School for Girls were then built in 1880 . John Baldwin died at his home in Baldwin , Louisiana on Sunday , December 28 , 1884 , at 10 A.M. Baldwin 's family even left their legacy on the campus long after Baldwin 's death . A person of historical significance to the university 's history is Philura Gould Baldwin . Philura Gould Baldwin graduated in 1886 and was the granddaughter of John Baldwin . Philura started the school 's first library by collecting and cataloging books . Beyond this , Philura suggested the traditional colors of brown and gold for the school colors . These were also the school colors for Baldwin University , which still stand today . Philura died from consumption at age 26 ( b . November 28 , 1865 ; d . March 3 , 1892 ) . The Baldwin family donated funds for a library that was dedicated in her memory in June 1894 . The Philura Gould Baldwin Library was eventually made part of the Malicky Center in the 1900s .
= = Personal views = =
John Baldwin was a person whose views seemed to run counter to the conventional customs of the time . Despite his accomplishments , he never wrote a book , held public office , or even kept books . Although he was not an abolitionist by definition , he had no problem teaching blacks and whites as equals , as evident by his opening Baldwin Institute without regard to race or gender . His parents taught him to fear God , and he consequently devoted himself to living humbly and righteously , to being kind to the poor , and to joining the Methodist Church .
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= Steve Nash =
Stephen John Nash , OC , OBC ( born February 7 , 1974 ) , is a Canadian retired professional basketball player who played in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was an eight @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star and a seven @-@ time All @-@ NBA selection . Twice , Nash was named the NBA Most Valuable Player while playing for the Phoenix Suns . He currently serves as general manager of the Canadian national team and as a player development consultant for the Golden State Warriors .
After a successful high school basketball career in British Columbia , Nash earned a scholarship to Santa Clara University in California . In his four seasons with the Broncos , the team made three NCAA Tournament appearances , and he was twice named the West Coast Conference ( WCC ) Player of the Year . Nash graduated from Santa Clara as the team 's all @-@ time leader in assists and was taken as the 15th pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns . He made minimal impact and was traded to the Dallas Mavericks in 1998 . By his third season with the Mavericks , he was voted to his first NBA All @-@ Star Game and had earned his first All @-@ NBA selection . Together with Dirk Nowitzki and Michael Finley , Nash led the Mavericks to the Western Conference Finals the following season . He became a free agent after the 2003 – 04 season and returned to the Phoenix Suns .
In the 2004 – 05 season , Nash led the Suns to the Western Conference Finals and was named the league 's MVP . He was named MVP again in the 2005 – 06 season and was runner @-@ up for a third consecutive MVP to Nowitzki in 2006 – 07 . Named by ESPN in 2006 as the ninth greatest point guard of all time , Nash led the league in assists and free @-@ throw percentage at various points in his career . He is also ranked as one of the top players in NBA league history in three @-@ point shooting , free @-@ throw shooting , total assists , and assists per game .
Nash has been honoured for his contributions to various philanthropic causes . In 2006 , he was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . He was appointed to the Order of Canada in 2007 and invested to the order in 2016 , and was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Victoria in 2008 .
Nash has been a co @-@ owner of the Vancouver Whitecaps FC of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) since the team entered the league in 2011 . In 2012 , he was named general manager of the Canadian men 's national basketball team , for whom he played from 1991 to 2003 .
= = Early life = =
Nash was born in Johannesburg , South Africa , to a Welsh mother , Jean , and English father , John , on 7 February 1974 . His family moved to Regina , Saskatchewan when he was 18 months old , before settling in Victoria , British Columbia . He therefore holds British as well as Canadian citizenship . Before the family settled in Canada , his father played professional soccer in various parts of the world . Nash often played soccer and ice hockey with his younger brother Martin , and did not start playing basketball until he was 12 or 13 years old . In grade eight , however , he told his mother that one day he would play in the NBA and would become a star . He was neighbour to future NHL stars Russ and Geoff Courtnall , who used to babysit him and played soccer coached by Nash 's father .
= = High school career = =
Nash originally attended Mount Douglas Secondary School in Saanich , British Columbia , but after his grades began to drop , his parents decided to enroll him at St. Michaels University School , a private boarding school in Victoria . There , he starred in basketball , soccer , and rugby union . While playing basketball during his senior season , Nash averaged 21 @.@ 3 points , 11 @.@ 2 assists , and 9 @.@ 1 rebounds per game . In the 1991 – 92 season , he led his team in his final year to the British Columbia AAA provincial championship title , and was named the province 's Player of the Year .
= = College career = =
Although Nash 's high school coach , Ian Hyde @-@ Lay , sent letters of inquiry and highlight reels on Nash 's behalf to over 30 American universities , Nash was not recruited by any university , until Santa Clara coach Dick Davey requested video footage of the young guard . After watching Nash in person , Davey said he " was nervous as hell just hoping that no one else would see him . It didn 't take a Nobel Prize winner to figure out this guy 's pretty good . It was just a case of hoping that none of the big names came around . " However , Davey also told Nash that he was " the worst defensive player " he had ever seen .
Nash was awarded a scholarship by Santa Clara for the 1992 – 93 season . At that time , it had been five years since the Broncos appeared in the NCAA tournament . That changed when Nash led the Broncos to a WCC Tournament title and an upset win over the No. 2 seeded Arizona in the first round of the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . In that game , Nash scored six straight free throws in the last 30 seconds of the contest . Although Santa Clara was defeated by Temple in the next round , the 1992 – 93 campaign was considered a successful one . However , the Broncos failed to sustain the momentum the following season , and only managed a 5 – 7 record in the conference . The team rebounded in the 1994 – 95 season , with Nash being named Conference Player of the Year and the Broncos topping the WCC . Featuring the league leader for scoring and assists in Nash , the Broncos returned to the NCAA tournament , but they were defeated by Mississippi State . After the season , Nash contemplated turning professional , and decided against it when he learned that he would probably not be considered as a first @-@ round pick in the 1995 NBA Draft .
In the 1995 – 96 season , Nash began attracting the attention of the national media and professional scouts . He had spent the summer before that honing his skills , playing with the Canadian national team and working out with the likes of established NBA players Jason Kidd and Gary Payton . Santa Clara again captured the WCC title , and for the second consecutive year , Nash was named Conference Player of the Year , the first Bronco to do so since Kurt Rambis . He scored 28 points in leading the No. 10 seed Broncos to a first round upset win over No. 7 seed Maryland , but then the Broncos were eliminated by Kansas . Nash 's performances ensured that he earned an honourable mention All @-@ America as a senior by The Associated Press and the USBWA . He also finished his career as Santa Clara 's all @-@ time leader in career assists ( 510 ) , free @-@ throw percentage ( .862 ) , and made and attempted three @-@ pointers ( 263 – 656 ) . He remains third on the school 's all @-@ time scoring list ( 1 @,@ 689 ) , and holds Santa Clara 's single @-@ season free @-@ throw percentage record ( .894 ) . In September 2006 , Nash had his jersey ( # 11 ) retired , becoming the first Santa Clara student @-@ athlete to receive that honour .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = Phoenix Suns ( 1996 – 98 ) = = =
After graduating with a degree in sociology , Nash was selected 15th overall by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 1996 NBA draft . Upon hearing the draft announcement , Suns fans booed in disapproval of the relatively unknown player . This was because despite his impressive college accomplishments , Nash had not played in one of the major college conferences . A major influence in Phoenix 's choice was assistant coach Donnie Nelson , who met Nash back in high school as he was coached by Nelson 's friend Ken Shields , and would eventually befriend the player as he played in Santa Clara . During his first two seasons in the NBA , Nash played a supporting role behind NBA star point guards Kevin Johnson , Sam Cassell , and later , Jason Kidd . Both Johnson and Cassell had NBA Finals experience , while Kidd was the second overall pick in the 1994 NBA Draft and already an All @-@ Star when he arrived at Phoenix .
In his rookie season , Nash only managed 10 @.@ 5 minutes a game , but in his second season , his playing time increased significantly and he was even ranked 13th in the league for three @-@ point field @-@ goal percentage . Nevertheless , the Canadian 's tenure with the Suns did not last . Nelson had just taken a job as assistant general manager of the Dallas Mavericks under his father , Don Nelson , and convinced him to acquire the under @-@ utilised Nash . Following the 1998 NBA Draft , Nash was traded from the Suns to the Mavericks in exchange for Martin Müürsepp , Bubba Wells , the draft rights to Pat Garrity and a first @-@ round draft pick ( who later turned out to be future Phoenix team @-@ mate Shawn Marion ) .
= = = Dallas Mavericks ( 1998 – 2004 ) = = =
It was in Dallas that Nash established himself as a formidable point guard , beginning a decade as one of the game 's top players . During his first year as a Maverick ( the lockout @-@ shortened 1998 – 99 season ) he started in all 40 games he played in , and averaged 7 @.@ 9 points , 2 @.@ 9 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists per game . The 19 – 31 Mavericks failed to make the playoffs but in the 1999 – 2000 season , the team 's prospects improved considerably . Nash missed 25 mid @-@ season games due to an ankle injury , but came back to record six double @-@ doubles in the last month of play . He finished the season with averages of 8 @.@ 6 points and 4 @.@ 9 assists per game . More importantly for the team , second @-@ year teammate and friend Dirk Nowitzki was blossoming quickly into a top player , veteran Michael Finley was having an All @-@ Star @-@ calibre year , and the team 's new owner , billionaire Mark Cuban , was bringing new energy and excitement to the franchise . Nash now had a supportive environment in which he could thrive .
In the 2000 – 01 season , Nash averaged 15 @.@ 6 points and 7 @.@ 3 assists per game in a breakout season . With Nash directing the team 's offense , Nowitzki and Finley playing at their best , and the acquisition of All @-@ Star Juwan Howard complementing the high @-@ scoring trio , the Mavericks earned a playoff berth for the first time in more than a decade . Dallas lost in the Western Conference Semifinals four games to one to the San Antonio Spurs , but it marked the beginning of a memorable run for Nash and the Mavericks . In the 2001 – 02 season , Nash posted career @-@ highs of 17 @.@ 9 points and 7 @.@ 7 assists per game and earned a spot in the NBA All @-@ Star Game and on the All @-@ NBA Third Team . He was now an All @-@ Star , increasingly appearing in television commercials and , with Finley and Nowitzki , a part of the Dallas Mavericks " Big Three . " Dallas earned another trip to the playoffs but lost again in the Semifinals to the Sacramento Kings four games to one .
Nash closely replicated his previous season 's performance in the 2002 – 03 season , averaging 17 @.@ 7 points and 7 @.@ 3 assists per game , again earning All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA Third Team honours . Nowitzki and Nash led the Mavericks from a 14 @-@ game winning streak to open the season all the way to the Western Conference Finals , where they lost to the eventual NBA champions , the San Antonio Spurs four games to two . It was only the second Conference Finals appearance in the franchise 's history . The 2003 – 04 season saw an offensively boosted Mavericks roster ( with the acquisitions of Antoine Walker and Antawn Jamison ) but a dip in Nash 's scoring contributions . As a result , he was not selected for the All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA team rosters even though he achieved new career highs in assists per game ( 8 @.@ 8 ) and free @-@ throw accuracy ( 91 @.@ 6 % ) . In the playoffs , the fifth @-@ seeded Dallas failed to make progress yet again as the Sacramento Kings saw them off four games to one .
After the 2003 – 04 season , Nash became a free agent . He attempted to negotiate a long @-@ term contract with Cuban , who was paying Walker , Finley , Nowitzki and Jamison nearly $ 50 million in combined salaries that season . Cuban wanted to build his franchise around the younger Nowitzki and did not want to risk signing the 30 @-@ year @-@ old Nash to a long @-@ term deal , and offered Nash a four @-@ year deal worth about $ 9 million annually , with a fifth year partially guaranteed . The Phoenix Suns on the other hand offered the point guard a six @-@ year , $ 63 million contract . Nash was reluctant to leave Dallas and returned to Cuban to see if he would match the deal ; Cuban did not , and Nash signed with the Suns for the 2004 – 05 season . The Canadian would go on to win two League MVP awards with Phoenix , and on a 14 June 2006 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , Cuban wondered out loud , " ... you know Steve 's a great guy and I love him to death , but why couldn 't he play like an MVP for us ? "
= = = Return to Phoenix ( 2004 – 2012 ) = = =
Nash joined a Suns team which had emerging young players in Shawn Marion , Joe Johnson and Amar 'e Stoudemire . In the season before Nash arrived , the Suns had recorded a 29 – 53 win – loss record , and they were projected to have another poor season . Head coach Mike D 'Antoni favoured an up @-@ tempo style of basketball ; this required smaller and more athletic players with the capability to outrun and outshoot their opponents . Nash 's familiarity with this style combined with the athleticism of his teammates produced an NBA @-@ best 62 – 20 record and a points @-@ per @-@ game average of 110 @.@ 4 , the highest in a decade . The catalyst of this turnaround , Nash averaged 11 @.@ 5 assists per game while making 50 @.@ 2 % of his field goals and 43 @.@ 1 % of his three @-@ pointers in the regular season . He edged Shaquille O 'Neal to win the 2004 – 05 NBA MVP award , becoming the first Canadian to earn the honour , as well as the third point guard ever to be named MVP , along with Magic Johnson and Bob Cousy . In the playoffs , Phoenix swept the Memphis Grizzlies in four games before meeting the Dallas Mavericks in the second round . Nash led the Suns to a 4 – 2 series win , and the Suns reached the Western Conference finals for the first time since 1993 , but lost to the eventual NBA Champions and arch @-@ rival , the San Antonio Spurs , in five games .
The next season , Stoudemire suffered a serious knee injury , and Johnson and Quentin Richardson were traded away . The Suns were not expected to repeat their successful 2005 season , but with Nash directing the same high @-@ tempo offence , the team compiled a respectable 54 – 28 record and won the division title . The Suns were again the highest @-@ scoring team in the league with seven players averaging double figures in points per game , and Nash was voted for the first time to start for the 2006 Western All @-@ Star team . Having recorded career highs in points ( 18 @.@ 8 ) , rebounds ( 4 @.@ 2 ) , field goal percentage ( .512 ) and free @-@ throw percentage ( a league @-@ leading .921 ) , and leading the league with 10 @.@ 5 assists per game , Nash was named the league MVP for the second year in a row . In the first round of the playoffs , Phoenix overcame a 3 – 1 deficit against the Los Angeles Lakers and won the series 4 – 3 . The Los Angeles Clippers were their Conference Semifinals opponents , and the Suns again needed seven games to clinch the series . For the second year in a row however , the Suns bowed out in the Conference Finals , this time to Nash 's former team , Dallas .
In the 2006 – 07 season , Nash had another stellar campaign , averaging 18 @.@ 6 points and a career @-@ high 11 @.@ 6 assists per game while becoming the first person since Magic Johnson in 1990 – 91 to average 18 points and 11 assists per game during the regular season . Nash received the most votes for first @-@ team All @-@ NBA and was joined by teammate Stoudemire ; the two were the first teammates to make the first team since Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O 'Neal in 2003 – 04 . Nash received 129 first @-@ place votes and 645 total points from the panel of 129 media members . He narrowly missed being MVP a third consecutive time , coming in second with 44 first place votes to 83 for Dirk Nowitzki . In the playoffs , the Suns eliminated the Lakers in five games before losing 4 – 2 to the Spurs in the Conference Semifinals .
Nash played in 81 regular @-@ season games during the 2007 – 08 season ; in this campaign , the Western Conference was especially competitive and he led the Suns to 55 wins and the sixth seed for the 2008 NBA Playoffs . Although there was a dip in his regular @-@ season output , Nash 's shooting remained sharp ; the accuracy of his shooting was on par with his 2005 – 06 MVP campaign ( shooting at least 50 % from the field , 40 % from the three @-@ point arc , and 90 % from the free throw line ) . On 31 January 2008 , he collected his All @-@ Star stripes for the sixth time in his career . However , Nash continued to experience agony in the playoffs . Despite a mid @-@ season trade that sent Shawn Marion to the Miami Heat and brought four @-@ time NBA champion Shaquille O 'Neal to the team , the Suns were defeated in the first round of the playoffs by the San Antonio Spurs for the third time in four years . In the deciding Game 5 , Nash was perceived to have suffered from " elimination @-@ game jitters " , and turned over the ball twice in the final two minutes of what was a tight contest . Nevertheless , Nash was later named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team for the 2007 – 08 season .
Before the 2008 – 09 season began , coach D 'Antoni was replaced by Terry Porter , who preferred a more defensive @-@ oriented style of basketball . The Suns had difficulties adapting to this new system , and even a December trade involving sending stalwarts Raja Bell and Boris Diaw to the Charlotte Bobcats for athletic swingman Jason Richardson saw the team continue to struggle . Porter was then replaced by Alvin Gentry in February after a 28 – 23 record , but the Suns were unable to secure the final seed for the playoffs , resulting in Nash missing the playoffs for the first time since he returned to Phoenix for his second stint .
Nash and the Suns opened the 2009 – 10 season with a series of strong performances , going 8 – 1 in their first nine games ( a franchise @-@ best since 1980 – 81 ) , with Nash producing two 20 @-@ assists games . On 21 January 2010 , Nash was named as the starting point guard for the West for the 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Game . With him operating at the point , the Suns were the highest @-@ scoring team in the league for the fifth season in a row , and were seeded third in the conference for the playoffs with 54 wins . Behind solid performances by Richardson and veteran Grant Hill , the Suns defeated the Portland Trail Blazers 4 – 2 in the first round of the playoffs , and swept the Spurs 4 – 0 in the second round . The Suns met the defending champions , Los Angeles Lakers , in the Conference Finals . After losing the first two games , Phoenix won the next two to tie the series . A Ron Artest buzzer @-@ beater in Game 5 pushed the Lakers one game closer to the Finals , and Kobe Bryant 's 37 points in Game 6 completed the defeat of the Suns .
The Suns underwent two major roster changes in the 2010 – 11 season . During the pre @-@ season , Stoudemire left for New York , while longtime teammate Leandro Barbosa was traded for Hedo Türkoğlu . Josh Childress and Hakim Warrick were also recruited to join the Suns . Not long after the season began , Türkoğlu , Richardson , and Earl Clark were traded to Orlando for Vince Carter , Marcin Gortat , and Mickaël Piétrus , while rising star Goran Dragic was traded to the Houston Rockets for Aaron Brooks . The Suns had difficulty being even a .500 team , and for the second time since Nash returned to Phoenix , the Suns failed to make the playoffs .
In February 2012 , Nash was named to his eighth All @-@ Star Game . At the time , he was leading the NBA in assists per game . On 21 April 2012 , Nash passed Oscar Robertson for career assists versus the Denver Nuggets . Despite his stellar play the Suns missed the playoffs for the second consecutive time . He finished the season averaging 12 @.@ 5 points and 10 @.@ 7 assists per game on 53 @.@ 2 % shooting from the field ( tying his career high ) .
= = = Los Angeles Lakers ( 2012 – 2015 ) = = =
On July 11 , 2012 , the Los Angeles Lakers acquired Nash in a sign @-@ and @-@ trade deal with Phoenix . Nash also considered signing with New York or Toronto , but he decided that Los Angeles was the best fit for him and his family . Nash switched his jersey number , as his customary No. 13 was retired by Los Angeles in honour of Wilt Chamberlain . Nash , an avid soccer fan , chose No. 10 to pay homage to Glenn Hoddle , Zinedine Zidane and other soccer playmakers who wore the number . Entering his 17th NBA season , Nash came to the Lakers with concerns over his defense and the health of his back .
In the second game of the 2012 – 13 season , Nash suffered a non @-@ displaced fracture in his left leg after a collision with Damian Lillard of the Portland Trail Blazers . He was expected to miss at least one week , but was out of the lineup for close to seven weeks . He was reunited with D 'Antoni , who took over as Lakers coach after Mike Brown was fired after a 1 – 4 start . On 22 December , Nash returned against the Golden State Warriors , helping the Lakers win their first overtime game of the season , 118 – 115 , scoring 12 points with 9 assists in 41 minutes of play . The Lakers won three of the first four games after Nash returned . However , they lost their next four , including a 125 – 112 loss to Houston on 8 January 2013 , when Nash assisted on an Antawn Jamison jumper to become the fifth player in NBA history to reach 10 @,@ 000 career assists .
Kobe Bryant was moved to defend the opponent 's primary ball handler , freeing Nash from unfavourable matchups . Nash also struggled with Dwight Howard to run the pick and roll , a play that D 'Antoni had expected would be a staple for the Lakers . D 'Antoni moved Nash off the ball and made him more of a spot @-@ up shooter , while Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense . Nash missed the last eight games of the season with a right hip injury that also caused nerve damage in his right hamstring . The team qualified for the playoffs as the seventh seed , but were swept 4 – 0 by San Antonio in the first round . Nash missed the last two games of the series after recurring issues with his hip and hamstring . In what he called arguably " the most frustrating " season of his career , Nash missed a career @-@ high 32 games in the regular season , and averaged his fewest assists ( 6 @.@ 7 ) since 1999 – 2000 , when he was a part @-@ time starter with Dallas .
During 2013 – 14 season , Nash continued to suffer nerve problems stemming from his leg injury the prior season . In November , he was sidelined for an estimated minimum of two weeks due to nerve root irritation . Nash returned on February 4 , 2014 , shooting 3 @-@ for @-@ 6 for 7 points . On February 7 , 2014 , his 40th birthday , he scored a season @-@ high 19 points in a victory over the Philadelphia 76ers . On March 13 , Nash was ruled out for the remainder of the season by D 'Antoni . He was suffering from a recurrence of nerve problems stemming from an earlier collision to his left leg with Chicago 's Kirk Hinrich , and the Lakers wanted to give Kendall Marshall and Jordan Farmar more playing time . However , Nash returned on March 21 after a groin injury to Farmar that was expected to sideline him a minimum of two weeks .
In July 2014 , Nash announced that the 2014 – 15 season would be his last . During the preseason , he experienced back pain , and further aggravated his back while lifting luggage . On 23 October , less than a week before the start of what would have been the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Nash 's 19th year in the NBA , he was ruled out for the season due to a recurring back injury . Nash only played in three preseason games before he started to feel more pain in his back . Nash on injuring his back : " Being on the court this season has been my top priority , and it is disappointing to not be able to do that right now . I work very hard to stay healthy , and unfortunately my recent setback makes performing at full capacity difficult . I will continue to support my team during this period of rest and will focus on my long @-@ term health . "
= = Retirement and consulting duties = =
Nash announced his retirement from playing on March 21 , 2015 . Before the announcement , the Cleveland Cavaliers had said to Nash 's agent that they were interested in him as a backup for Kyrie Irving if Nash asked for a buyout . Nash refused it , due to both his health concerns and wanting to retire as a Laker in gratitude for the opportunity given by the club . Nash was later on approached by another former team of his , the Dallas Mavericks , to have one last season with them instead , but he declined due to his aforementioned health concerns .
On September 25 , 2015 , it was confirmed that Nash would take on part @-@ time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors .
= = International career = =
In the early 1990s , Nash was cut from the Canadian junior national team by head coach Ken Olynyk , father of future NBA player Kelly Olynyk . At age 17 , he was the youngest member of Team Canada at the 1991 World University Games , where the team won a silver medal .
In 1993 , while in college , he played for the senior national team at the Tournament of the Americas and competed in the Canada Games ( for the British Columbia team ) and World University Games . He won a bronze medal at the Canada Games and won a silver medal at the World University Games , losing to Team USA in a closely contested final , which included players such as Michael Finley and Damon Stoudamire .
At the 1999 Tournament of the Americas , Nash led Canada to the silver medal , qualifying the team for the Olympics for the first time in 12 years ; he was named tournament MVP . Nash captained Canada at the 2000 Sydney Olympics . He led Canada to win their round robin group with a victory over Spain and a stunning 83 – 75 win over favoured Yugoslavia when he scored 26 points with eight rebounds and eight assists . Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinals with a five @-@ point loss to France and Nash left the court in tears . Nash expressed disappointment with the result , saying " It hurts a lot . I feel like I let everybody down . We could have been in the championship game . We were good enough . " Nevertheless , he did see a possible silver lining , saying " Hopefully kids [ in Canada ] will be inspired to play — that 's what I really hope . " A victory in its final game of the tournament , a placement game against Russia , enabled Canada to salvage seventh place . Nash 's Olympic performance propelled him to stardom in Canada and he finished fifth in voting for the 2000 Lionel Conacher Award , which is handed out to the Canadian male athlete of the year .
Nash again led Team Canada during qualifying for the 2004 Summer Olympics at the FIBA Americas Olympic Qualifying Tournament in San Juan , Puerto Rico . He led the tournament in assists and was named tournament MVP , but Canada finished fourth , missing out on the three Olympic spots available . That was the last time Nash played for Canada ; he was reportedly upset about the firing of head coach Jay Triano in 2004 . In December 2007 , he said , " In my mind right now , I 'm not going to play for Canada any more . "
On May 8 , 2012 , Nash became General Manager of the Canadian senior national team . Three months later , he rehired Triano as head coach .
= = Player profile = =
Nash is most noted for his playmaking , ball @-@ handling skills and shooting . He led the league in assists for five years , averaging 11 @.@ 5 assists per game in 2004 – 05 , 10 @.@ 5 in 2005 – 06 , 11 @.@ 6 in 2006 – 07 , 11 @.@ 0 in 2009 – 10 and 11 @.@ 4 in 2010 – 11 and won the 2005 and 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Skills Contests . As of the end of 2012 – 13 season , he had a 90 @.@ 4 % career free @-@ throw shooting average ( best in NBA history ) and a 42 @.@ 8 % career three @-@ point shooting average ( eighth @-@ best in league history ) , and ranked as one of the top 10 players in league history in total assists , assists per game , and three @-@ point field goals made . In addition , he is ranked second ( starting from 1986 – 87 ) in regular season point @-@ assist double doubles . In the 2005 – 06 season , Nash became the fourth player in NBA history to shoot 50 % or better from the field , 40 % from three @-@ point range ( 43 @.@ 9 ) , and 90 % from the line , joining Larry Bird , Reggie Miller , and Mark Price in the 50 – 40 – 90 Club . Nash would repeat this feat three more times in the 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 campaigns . Nash ( four times ) and Larry Bird ( two times ) are the only players to have accomplished this feat more than once . A two @-@ time NBA MVP , Nash is only the second point guard ( along with Magic Johnson ) to win the MVP award multiple times and the third guard in NBA history to earn back @-@ to @-@ back MVPs ( joining Johnson and Michael Jordan ) . Only ten other NBA players have won back @-@ to @-@ back MVP awards : Johnson , Jordan , Bill Russell , Wilt Chamberlain , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Moses Malone , Larry Bird , Tim Duncan , LeBron James , and Stephen Curry . On 11 May 2006 , ESPN.com rated Nash as the 9th @-@ best point guard of all time , and in a survey by nba.com in 2007 , Nash received 85 % of the votes by the league 's general managers as best point guard in the league . In a similar survey in 2009 , Nash was rated as the best passer of the ball and the player possessing the best basketball IQ . Commenting on Nash losing out to former teammate Dirk Nowitzki for the 2007 NBA MVP , Boston Celtics centre and Hall of Famer Russell stated : " I think , on the world stage , he 's one of our great athletes in all sports ... I 'm a big fan . The two MVPs he got , he deserved . Part of the reason that he 's so good and so effective is that the guys like playing with him . He creates an atmosphere where they win games . "
In terms of specific skills , Nash was particularly effective playing the pick and roll , notably with Nowitzki when he was with the Mavericks and later with the Suns ' Amar 'e Stoudemire and Shawn Marion . When Nash returned to Phoenix in 2004 , he helped the Suns improve from a 29 – 53 record in 2003 – 04 to 62 – 20 in 2004 – 05 , reaching the Conference Finals for the first time in 11 years , earning him his first MVP award . The next season , he led the Suns into the Conference Finals , despite the injuries of all three big men ( Stoudemire , Kurt Thomas and Brian Grant ) ; further , Nash was responsible for seven of his teammates attaining career @-@ highs in season scoring . With Nash operating at the point , between the 2005 – 06 and 2009 – 10 seasons , the Suns led the league in field goal percentage .
= = = NBA career statistics = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = = NBA career highlights = = =
2 × NBA Most Valuable Player : 2005 , 2006
8 × NBA All @-@ Star : 2002 – 03 , 2005 – 08 , 2010 , 2012
7 × All @-@ NBA selection :
First team : 2005 – 07
Second team : 2008 , 2010
Third team : 2002 , 2003
2 × NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Skills Challenge winner : 2005 , 2010
5 × NBA regular season leader for assists per game : 2005 ( 11 @.@ 5 ) , 2006 ( 10 @.@ 5 ) , 2007 ( 11 @.@ 6 ) , 2010 ( 11 @.@ 0 ) , 2011 ( 11 @.@ 4 )
6 × NBA regular season leader for total assists : 2005 ( 861 ) , 2006 ( 826 ) , 2007 ( 884 ) , 2010 ( 892 ) , 2011 ( 855 ) , 2012 ( 664 )
2 × NBA regular season leader for free @-@ throw percentage : 2006 ( .921 ) , 2010 ( .938 )
7 × NBA regular season leader for assists per 48 minutes : 2004 ( 12 @.@ 6 ) , 2005 ( 16 @.@ 1 ) , 2006 ( 14 @.@ 2 ) , 2007 ( 15 @.@ 8 ) , 2008 ( 15 @.@ 5 ) , 2010 ( 16 @.@ 1 ) , 2011 ( 16 @.@ 4 )
4 × member of 50 – 40 – 90 Club : ( 2006 , 2008 – 10 )
Has more 50 – 40 – 90 seasons than any other player in NBA history
One of only seven players to have ever shot 50 – 40 – 90
One of only two players ( the other being Larry Bird ) to have shot 50 – 40 – 90 more than once
Lou Marsh Trophy ( Canadian athlete of the year ) : 2005
3 × Lionel Conacher Award ( Canadian male athlete of the year ) : 2002 , 2005 , 2006
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award ( NBA award for outstanding citizenship and community service ) : 2007
Highest career free throw percentage in NBA history ( minimum 1200 career attempts ) , 90 @.@ 42 percent
= = Off the court = =
= = = Personal life = = =
In 2001 , Nash met Alejandra Amarilla in Manhattan . They married in June 2005 and had twin daughters , Lola and Bella , born on 14 October 2004 , . and a son , Matteo , born 12 November 2010 . On the day of his son 's birth , Nash made a statement to Life & Style in which he announced the birth but called it a " bittersweet moment " , revealing that he and his wife had " lived separately for the past several months " and are " in the process of dissolving " their marriage .
Nash 's younger brother , Martin , played soccer for the Vancouver Whitecaps FC and made 30 appearances for the Canadian national soccer team . Their younger sister , Joann , was the captain of the University of Victoria Vikes women 's soccer team for three years and was named a Canada West Universities Athletic Association All @-@ Star . She is married to professional ice hockey player Manny Malhotra .
Nash has a medical condition called spondylolisthesis , which causes muscle tightness and back pain . Due to the condition , when he is not in the game he lies on his back rather than sitting on the bench to keep his muscles from stiffening .
= = = Charity = = =
In 2001 , Nash formed the Steve Nash Foundation . Through grants to public service and nonprofit entities , the foundation aims to foster health in kids by funding projects that provide services to children affected by poverty , illness , abuse , or neglect , and create opportunity for education , play , and empowerment . It focuses its resources on communities in Phoenix , Arizona , and British Columbia , Canada . It was given charitable status in 2004 . This foundation was awarded the Steve Patterson Award for Excellence in Sports Philanthropy in 2008 . Nash also founded the Jim Jennings Memorial Endowment Fund , established in honour of a volunteer staff member at Santa Clara University who served the basketball team for more than 20 years .
Elsewhere , Nash is the sponsor of the Steve Nash Youth Basketball League in British Columbia that has grown over 10 @,@ 000 participants . He has also become involved with GuluWalk , a Canadian @-@ operated charitable organization that raises awareness and funds for the war @-@ affected children of northern Uganda . In September 2007 , Nash and Yao Ming headlined a group of NBA players who travelled to China and played an exhibition game with the Chinese national basketball team . The charity event reportedly raised 2 @.@ 5 million dollars , earmarked for Chinese children in need .
In May 2006 , Nash was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . In the accompanying write @-@ up by Charles Barkley , Nash was lauded for his unselfishness on the basketball court , and being " just a nice guy " who had paid for a new pediatric cardiology ward in a Paraguayan hospital . On 28 December 2007 , it was announced that Nash would receive Canada 's highest civilian honour , the Order of Canada , and on 3 June 2008 , it was announced that Nash would receive a star on Canada 's Walk of Fame . On 18 September 2009 , he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by the University of Victoria , in recognition of his athletic achievements and his philanthropic work on behalf of young people through the Steve Nash Foundation .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Nash is selective in his endorsements , preferring companies he deems socially responsible . After winning his first MVP award , he was approached to serve as spokesperson for numerous products , including MDG Computers , Raymond Weil watches , Vitamin Water , and Clearly Canadian bottled water . He also has a longstanding relationship with Nike . Nash is represented by agent Bill Duffy .
= = = Soccer = = =
Nash grew up playing soccer — he stated in a 2005 interview that he could have played professionally if he had focused on it — and continues to hold an interest in the sport . When Dirk Nowitzki arrived in the NBA from Germany , he and Nash became close friends , in part because they enjoyed watching soccer together . Nash is friends with several professional soccer players , including Alessandro Del Piero , Thierry Henry , Owen Hargreaves , Massimo Ambrosini and Steve McManaman . During his off @-@ season , when he lives in New York City , he has trained with the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer , and once tried to arrange a pick @-@ up game in the city 's Central Park with the Red Bulls and one of his local teams .
Nash , whose father was born in the Tottenham district of London , is a lifelong Tottenham Hotspur supporter , and has expressed interest in owning a minority stake in the club . " I 'd like to be an owner . It 's something I could do for the rest of my life after my little window of popularity dies , " he said in an interview with The New York Times . Nash added , " I 've been a passionate supporter all my life . My parents are from north London and so it 's not like I 'm some Yank who wants to make a profit out of football . I don 't care about making money . I just want to see Spurs succeed and , if I can help , that 's great . " However , he said any participation in Spurs would come after his basketball career is over , and he has had only " casual contact " with chairman Daniel Levy and former director of football Damien Comolli . Nash is also a fan of Spain 's FC Barcelona , and Brazilian team Sport Club Corinthians Paulista , which his former Suns teammate Leandro Barbosa supports . When Barbosa visited Corinthians in 2007 , the club gave him a shirt with Nash 's name and jersey number .
Nash had also previously made statements about his intention to bring Major League Soccer to Vancouver as early as 2011 , which he has succeeded in doing . He joined the USL @-@ 1 Vancouver Whitecaps FC team 's ownership group in July 2008 and in March 2009 , Vancouver was officially named as a future MLS expansion city , set to join the league in 2011 . Nash occasionally attends practice for his co @-@ owned team , also called Vancouver Whitecaps FC .
Nash , along with former Yahoo ! president and fellow Victoria @-@ native Jeff Mallett , are investors in Women 's Professional Soccer , a soccer league that was launched in March 2009 . Nash cited his twin daughters and wanting to have role models for them to look up to as a reason for supporting the league . Nash also co @-@ hosted Showdown in Chinatown in 2008 , an 8 @-@ on @-@ 8 charity soccer game held at Sara D. Roosevelt Park . He scored two goals in his team 's 8 – 5 victory . Participants included Thierry Henry , Jason Kidd , Baron Davis , and Suns teammates Raja Bell and Leandro Barbosa .
In July 2013 , Nash participated in a training session with the Italian soccer club Inter Milan at the New York Red Bulls ' facilities in New Jersey . He also trained with the New York Cosmos B of the American fourth @-@ division National Premier Soccer League in 2015 .
On January 5 , 2016 , it was announced that Nash was part of a group that purchased a $ 21 million stake in Spanish Segunda División club RCD Mallorca . The group also included Phoenix Suns owner Robert Sarver and Suns vice chairman Andy Kohlberg .
= = = Other interests = = =
Nash and a Montreal @-@ based partner , Leonard Schlemm , opened the first Steve Nash Sports Club in the spring of 2007 in downtown Vancouver , a high @-@ end , $ 5 @-@ million , 38 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 580 m2 ) facility that will mirror Nash 's own fitness philosophy .
In 2007 , Nash wrote and produced an 81 @-@ second commercial for Nike titled " Training Day " , directed by Julian Schnabel 's daughter Lola , which gained popularity as a viral video on YouTube . Nash also started a film production company together with his cousin , filmmaker Ezra Holland , and intends to produce independent films . The first creative effort to come from Meathawk was a 91 @-@ second commercial , titled " The Sixty Million Dollar Man " , for Nike 's eco @-@ friendly Trash Talk shoe , the first high @-@ performance shoe to be made — at the behest of the environmentally conscious Nash — from recycled materials . Nash has worn the shoe since February 2008 but Nike produced only 5 @,@ 000 pairs for sale . The ad which broke virally on Earth Day 2008 , was written by Nash and the directors of the spot , Danny Vaia and Ezra Holland . It is a spoof remake of the title sequence of the American television series The Six Million Dollar Man and plays on Nash 's numerous on @-@ court collisions . Amar 'e Stoudemire and Raja Bell have cameo appearances . Nash and Holland also co @-@ directed the documentary Into the Wind , about iconic Canadian athlete and activist Terry Fox , as part of ESPN 's 30 for 30 series . In October 2013 , Nash appeared in the music video for " City of Angels " by Thirty Seconds to Mars .
For the 2010 Winter Olympics held in Vancouver , Nash became the first NBA player in Olympic history to carry the torch and light the Olympic cauldron .
Nash is also known for his outspoken political views . He was an early , public opponent of the 2003 Iraq War , wearing a custom @-@ made T @-@ shirt to the 2003 NBA All Star Game that stated " No war – Shoot for peace " . Although Nash did get positive support from teammate Nick Van Exel among others , he also drew criticism from David Robinson , a former Naval officer and fellow NBA player as well as commentators like Skip Bayless who criticized Nash as being uninformed and advised him to " just shut up and play " . Nash has also recently been critical of Arizona 's SB1070 , legislation which seeks to aggressively address illegal immigration , as he felt " the law obviously can target opportunities for racial profiling . "
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= U.S. Route 80 in California =
U.S. Route 80 ( US 80 ) was a U.S. highway in California that continued east across the country to Georgia . The western terminus was in San Diego , California , and US 80 continued east through the city on several different alignments through the years . The highway went through the Cuyamaca Mountains , encountering many switchbacks , before descending to El Centro . After passing through the sand dunes , the highway crossed the Colorado River into Yuma , Arizona .
The highway replaced a 1912 plank road across much of Imperial County . The winding two @-@ lane road through the Cuyamaca Mountains was one of the factors that led to a four @-@ hour journey from San Diego to El Centro . During the 1930s , the road was realigned through the mountains , but several curves remained . In the 1950s , work began on constructing what would become Interstate 8 ( I @-@ 8 ) to replace the old highway in San Diego to bypass the cities of San Diego , La Mesa , and El Cajon . This started with the construction of the Alvarado Canyon road as well as Mission Valley Road through the San Diego area , as well as construction a replacement for the old highway across the Viejas Grade . The construction continued across the rest of the route through the next two decades . US 80 was gradually decommissioned after 1964 as I @-@ 8 , through San Diego and Imperial counties , was completed . In 2006 , the highway was designated by the California State Legislature as Historic U.S. Route 80 .
= = Route description = =
There were multiple alignments through the downtown San Diego area . The route as of 1928 began at Broadway ( US 101 ) and ran along 4th Avenue north to University Avenue in the Hillcrest district , then went east on University Avenue . By 1933 , the routing had shifted to use Park Boulevard south of University Avenue into downtown , to end at Market Street ; the city council voted that July to use University Avenue west of Park Boulevard to connect to US 101 , to obtain federal funding for improving that road . The next year , the Point Loma highway was referred to as the western terminus of US 80 by E.E. Wallace , a district highway engineer . Nevertheless , the state @-@ produced highway maps from the next few years did not reflect the change , or this choice of the western terminus .
In the early days of World War II , some maps showed the western terminus of US 80 at the Cabrillo National Monument on Point Loma , running north on Catalina Boulevard , north then east on Cañon Street , northeast on Rosecrans Street , southeast on Lytton Street , east on Barnett Avenue , south on Pacific Highway ( US 101 ) and finally east on Market Street , before continuing north along Park Boulevard to El Cajon Boulevard . US 395 ran concurrently along the route from downtown San Diego to the intersection with Fairmount Avenue . By 1942 , the US 395 concurrency had been removed . With the completion of the Cabrillo Freeway , between 1946 and 1948 , US 80 shifted from Park Boulevard to 11th Avenue north onto the new freeway before continuing east onto El Cajon Boulevard towards La Mesa . The final San Diego alignment , with signs to be placed in 1954 , moved the western terminus to the intersection with US 101 where it traveled east on what was known as Camino del Rio and Alvarado Canyon Road , and then continuing on the Mission Valley road towards La Mesa . According to Caltrans district engineer Jacob Dekema , during the 1950s , the parts of Camino Del Rio and Rosecrans Street from Lytton Street and Rosecrans Street to Pacific Highway were considered a part of US 80 .
East of San Diego , US 80 followed the path of El Cajon Boulevard through La Mesa and then onto Main Street near downtown El Cajon before heading towards the Mountain Springs grade . The route was realigned from Arnold Way onto Alpine Boulevard as it passed through Alpine and the Viejas Indian Reservation , before entering the Laguna Mountains and the Cleveland National Forest on the alignment used by I @-@ 8 . At Laguna Junction , a cafe for travelers existed from 1916 until when the building was taken down to provide land for the interchange with I @-@ 8 . A section of old US 80 — with the first few miles signed as SR 79 — continues to serve as access to the communities of Descanso , Guatay and Pine Valley ; SR 79 intersected US 80 east of Descanso . At the time , the Ellis Wayside Rest provided a rest area for travelers ; later , the state recognized it as a historic site . Exiting the national forest , US 80 continued in a southeasterly direction towards Live Oak Springs and Boulevard , intersecting with the eastern terminus of SR 94 . US 80 then came close to the Mexican border as it curved around the Jacumba Mountains and into the hot spring town of Jacumba . East of there , US 80 passed by the Desert View Tower .
US 80 then descended rapidly into Imperial County along the In @-@ Ko @-@ Pah Gorge just west of Coyote Wells and Ocotillo before entering the city limits of El Centro . East of El Centro , US 80 again continued into Holtville . US 80 cut a southeasterly trajectory , running parallel and very close to the Mexican border , and traversing the Algodones Dunes and the Colorado Desert . It finally reached Winterhaven before crossing the Colorado River into Yuma , Arizona . Almost the entire length of the former US 80 within Imperial County has since been designated County Route S80 .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Route 12 was added to the state highway system in 1909 from San Diego to El Centro , and Route 27 was added from El Centro to Yuma in 1915 . Before a highway was constructed through the Imperial San Dunes , travelers had to pass to the north in order to reach Yuma . The first route through Imperial Valley was originally a plank road made of pieces of wood that were tied together . The road was completed by October 1912 , and portions were still visible into the 2010s . The Ocean @-@ to @-@ Ocean Bridge across the Colorado River was open in 1915 , and a new plank road was opened that year which became state @-@ maintained in 1917 , and used a foundation of wooden rails , with the planks bound together by steel , as opposed to simple planks that were fastened to rails . However , traffic congestion and dusty conditions made travel along the plank road difficult . The delay in constructing a road to San Diego caused increased development in Los Angeles and resulted in that city becoming the trade and population center of Southern California .
A stagecoach road existed into the 19th century that passed through the mountains east of San Diego . Construction was discussed as early as 1911 , with The San Diego Union and Daily Bee saying that it " will be one of the best in the system . " Well before the freeway was constructed , the automobile road through the mountains east of San Diego was narrow and wound through the mountains ; it was officially dedicated in 1912 . This trip was known to take up to four hours , and frequently resulted in the radiator boiling over , flat tires , or broken fan belts ; recent inclement weather would result in cars becoming mired in the mud . But meanwhile , Colonel Ed Fletcher declared the road a " success " , and indicated his belief that a concrete road from San Diego to Yuma would soon follow , responding to criticism that a road from Los Angeles to Brawley should have been built .
US 80 was designated on November 11 , 1926 , along with the rest of the U.S. Routes . The asphalt road was constructed through the valley as the main east – west route , and was open by 1927 . Another road was constructed in the early 1930s , to remove curves and widen the lanes . The result was a two @-@ lane road that still had many switchbacks , with one popularly known as " Dead Man 's Curve " . Planning for this new alignment was underway in 1932 , and much of the work was to be located at the Viejas Grade , and at the segment just west of Alpine . Paving continued on US 80 into 1934 , just west of the sand dunes .
Meanwhile , Imperial County businessmen hoped to promote the use of this road over the route from Phoenix to Los Angeles , to increase tourism . Eventually , US 80 did become the most used road into Southern California from the east , but by 1947 , the Highway 80 Associated was formed to increase the traffic on the road , since the war and advertising by other cities had caused it to fall again . Four years later , US 80 was reported to be the most used transcontinental highway , and there was a 40 percent increase in the out @-@ of @-@ state cars that traveled through the state inspection station at Yuma during the first three months of that year . But in 1954 , there were reports that traffic had decreased , because the road to Phoenix , Arizona from Lordsburg , New Mexico had improved .
= = = Early freeway development = = =
Starting in 1932 , county and state officials proposed rerouting US 80 away from what is now La Mesa Boulevard . Although the city raised concerns about the proposal , due to the shift in transportation design towards " free @-@ access highways " where vehicles could travel up to 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) , and the success of the Arroyo Seco Parkway in Los Angeles , the La Mesa Scout newspaper withdrew their objections to the construction . In the meantime , parts of El Cajon Boulevard through downtown El Cajon were widened in 1935 . Federal funds were allocated for rerouting US 80 in 1940 ; by then , La Mesa Boulevard had been designated as a U.S. 80 Business Route , and El Cajon Boulevard then carried the US 80 designation to San Diego . But in 1947 , the San Diego Highway Development Association criticized the proliferation of traffic signals and businesses on El Cajon Boulevard , during the discussion of how to resolve traffic issues on US 101 through Oceanside .
World War II stalled most freeway projects in the San Diego area . Plans were developed by 1946 for a freeway through Alvarado Canyon that would connect with the Cabrillo Freeway . Funding was obtained by 1949 for the 5 @.@ 4 miles ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) portion between 70th Street and Lake Murray Boulevard , and Fairmout Avenue . The first portion of the Alvarado Canyon Highway , the first freeway thorough La Mesa , was opened in early 1950 . Reports indicated that this decreased the time to travel from La Mesa to San Diego by a factor of two , with 7 @,@ 000 trips on the route each day . That same year , the San Diego city manager expressed concerns at the Highway Commission meeting about shifting US 80 away from El Cajon Boulevard to the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley Road route , due to the potential loss of commerce for businesses located near the current route .
In 1948 , the Highway 80 Chamber of Commerce president complained that funds were being prioritized for US 395 construction , instead of on US 80 . In September , the county supervisors approved the Mission Valley road as a limited access highway , but held off on processing the results from surveying . The next month , $ 1 million was allocated to the realignment of the Viejas grade , namely , increasing the radius of the curves from 300 feet ( 91 m ) to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , as well as limiting the grade to 4 percent . By 1949 , the project was under way , with prisoners contributing to the labor force , and was projected to include a tunnel as well as several crossings of the Sweetwater River . A longer 34 miles ( 55 km ) tunnel through the Cuyamaca Mountains was also proposed that year , which would have been the longest in the world . But by 1950 , work on the Viejas grade had stalled , due to the prison labor camp being shut down ; efforts were then made to start work again . More funds were allocated by the State Highway Commission a few months later , and the work was to be put out for bid to complete the project .
Meanwhile , construction continued on the western part of the US 80 freeway . On August 27 , 1951 , the final link in the new freeway between Point Loma and La Mesa was dedicated . The next year , planning continued for the possibility of a freeway bypass of El Cajon that would connect to the existing US 80 freeway . However , many El Cajon Boulevard motel owners raised objections over the reassigning of the US 80 designation to the new freeway , as it would potentially harm business . In response , the Highway Development Association proposed designating El Cajon Boulevard as a business route . But in order to obtain funding for the construction , the new route would have to be added to the state highway system by the California State Legislature , or be designated as US 80 . Later , a Freeway 80 Association was formed to encourage public support for the construction of the bypass of El Cajon , and the conversion of the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley roads into a freeway . Following the city of San Diego council and county approval , the California State Assembly transportation committee heard complaints from citizens claiming that they had not been adequately notified about the plans for US 80 or SR 94 , or given enough time to provide input .
In Imperial County , discussion regarding rerouting US 80 south of the city of Holtville began in August 1953 . The next year , the state director of public works announced that the route would be rebuilt to the south for 7 miles ( 11 km ) as a freeway . In February 1954 , the California Highway Commission declared that both the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley roads , as well as the new Holtville alignment , were to be part of US 80 ; an alignment was also chosen for the part of the highway that passed through El Cajon . A $ 934 @,@ 211 contract was given out to construct the Holtville portion in April . Contrary to the recommendation of the California Senate Interim Committee on Highways to study constructing the freeway to replace US 80 on a new alignment , San Diego County officials decided to pursue upgrading the existing road to become a freeway . Another route through the Lyons Valley was considered as an alternative . The Highway Development Association proposed adding grade @-@ separated interchanges on the routing of US 80 through San Diego , as well as reconstructing the interchange with the Cabrillo Freeway , as well as finishing the work on the Viejas Grade and through the mountains . That year , according to Caltrans , the interchange with US 395 was the busiest in the county .
= = = Interstate Highway System = = =
In April 1955 , a Caltrans official announced that US 80 would be built as a freeway for its entire length in California , as it was to be included in the Interstate Highway System . In the meantime , while plans moved further along on US 101 , the mayor of San Diego asked the California Highway Commission to keep the US 80 project on track . However , the construction was put on hold because of lower traffic levels on US 80 , compared to other local highways . State Assemblyman Hegland raised the issue in the Assembly Highway subcommittee in December , stating that the construction of the freeway would help the economy and the Port of San Diego . State Senator Collier went even further and blamed the delay on San Diego County officials , in addition to linking the delay to damaging the program to develop the port . The bridge over the Colorado River was replaced in 1956 , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million , and was in use until 1978 , when the I @-@ 8 bridge was built .
Finally , in May 1957 , bids opened for the part of US 80 between Grossmont Boulevard in La Mesa and Chase Avenue in El Cajon , that would connect to the new SR 67 freeway . Groundbreaking took place on June 10 , and the project was to cost $ 3 @.@ 6 million . The rebuilding of the Cabrillo Freeway interchange became a priority due to the availability of federal funding , and due to the traffic problems encountered with having ramps entering from both the left and the right . In July , the Highway Development Association decided to formally raise the issue of the incomplete highway survey through Imperial County at the next California Highway Commission meeting . In 1958 , federal funds were allocated to construct US 80 from Taylor Street to Fairmount Avenue as an eight @-@ lane freeway , and from there to 70th Street as a divided highway . In August , the state announced that there were four proposed routes for US 80 through the mountains , including one with a tunnel . A contract was later awarded to construct the freeway from Taylor Street to the Cabrillo Freeway at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million . In November , Caltrans announced that the Walker Canyon route had been chosen for US 80 , which would allow for the route to be constructed in stages , as well as being the least expensive alternative .
By the end of the year , plans were being made for construction of the freeway between Flume Drive east of El Cajon and Laguna Junction , and the portion of the freeway from Fairmount Avenue to Lake Murray Boulevard was contracted for $ 2 @.@ 6 million . In January 1960 , the Taylor Street to Cabrillo Freeway portions were under construction , including the interchange at the latter , and were scheduled to be complete by October , while the Cabrillo Freeway to Fairmout Avenue portion was up for bid ; the next month , the contract was awarded for $ 4 @.@ 6 million , with interchanges to be constructed at Texas Street and Ward Road to replace traffic signals . In July , the new I @-@ 8 designation for the road was announced , and plans to post signs were made . Another contract for the portion from Grossmont Summit near Chase Avenue to Ballantyne Avenue was awarded for $ 2 @.@ 7 million in November .
But in 1960 , Jacob Dekema , the district highway engineer , stated that due to lower traffic on US 80 , the completion of the freeway through the mountains would be delayed until at least 1971 . Construction of the section of US 80 from Magnolia Avenue to Third Street was contracted for $ 2 @.@ 7 million in April . That year , work continued on the freeway , and in August , only one traffic signal was left on the highway west of El Cajon , at Ward Road . In August , Dekema announced that bids for the portion between Lake Murray Boulevard and Third Street would be opened the following month ; once that was completed , the entire freeway west of El Cajon would be complete . Eastbound lanes between US 395 and Fairmount Avenue opened on November 23 .
The portion from the Grossmont summit to Magnolia Avenue and SR 67 was completed in April 1961 . By August , the entirety of the freeway west of El Cajon was complete , with the exception of the portions from near Lake Murray Boulevard to near La Mesa Boulevard for $ 3 @.@ 1 million , as well as between Magnolia Avenue and the El Cajon eastern city limits for $ 2 @.@ 7 million . In addition to this , the part of the freeway from near Grays Well to Ogilby Road in Imperial County was also being constructed for $ 2 @.@ 3 million . The 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) freeway portion east of Magnolia Avenue that connected with the undivided US 80 opened on September 6 . The final section in La Mesa was completed in April 1962 . Construction started on the Mountain Springs portion of US 80 in September 1962 . That year , US 80 west of the Cabrillo Freeway interchange was declared to be the busiest road in the City of San Diego , at 71 @,@ 000 daily vehicles .
US 80 was removed from the state highway system in the 1964 state highway renumbering when I @-@ 80 was designated ; I @-@ 8 assumed the routing from San Diego to El Centro and Yuma . However , US 80 signs were posted for several years afterward on the remaining portions of the original asphalt road that had not been bypassed by the freeway . The AASHO formally recognized California 's requested elimination of US 80 by 1969 . Gradually , the route was removed from Arizona , New Mexico and part of Texas between 1977 and 1991 . After the freeway was built , the population of Jacumba went from 400 to 200 , and many businesses closed or relocated . However , the population began to increase after a few years , and residents began commuting to jobs in El Centro and San Diego . Following a campaign from the local Old Highway 80 Committee and endorsement from the San Diego County Board of Supervisors , the California State Legislature passed a resolution allowing for the route to be designated and signed as a state historic route , Historic U.S. Route 80 , in 2006 .
= = Major intersections = =
This table refers to the route as it was in 1942 .
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= Harmy 's Despecialized Edition =
Harmy 's Despecialized Edition is a series of fan edits of the first three films in the George Lucas @-@ created Star Wars franchise : Star Wars , The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . The edits were created by a team of Star Wars fans led by Petr " Harmy " Harmáček , an English teacher from Plzeň , Czech Republic . The original Star Wars trilogy was released theatrically by 20th Century Fox for Lucasfilm between 1977 and 1983 . Subsequent releases on home media , such as the 1997 " Special Edition " releases , introduced significant changes to the films , including additional scenes and new computer @-@ generated imagery – these changes were met with a mixed response from critics . As of 2014 , the films are no longer widely available in their original theatrical releases .
Harmáček felt that altering the films in this way constituted " an act of cultural vandalism " , and in 2010 was inspired to create his own series of fan edits that restored the theatrical releases in high @-@ definition . With no experience in professional film editing , he taught himself as he went , using programs such as Avisynth and Adobe After Effects . Taking the 1993 LaserDisc releases as a guide and a majority of source material from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases , Harmáček and a team of eight other fans constructed the edits over many thousands of hours of work . In 2011 , one year after the project had begun , the first version of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was published online . Updated versions have been created in the years that followed .
As a fan edit , Harmy 's Despecialized Edition cannot be legally bought or sold , and is " to be shared among legal owners of the officially available releases only " . Consequently , the films are only available via various BitTorrent trackers . Reaction to the project has been positive : Nathan Barry of Wired praised the films as " an absolute joy to watch " , while Gizmodo described them as " very , very good " . Sean Hutchinson of Inverse placed Harmy 's Despecialized Edition at number one on his list of the best Star Wars fan edits and called them " the perfect pre @-@ 1997 way to experience the saga " .
= = Background = =
The original Star Wars trilogy was a Lucasfilm production released theatrically by 20th Century Fox between 1977 and 1983 , and was subsequently released on home media during the 1980s and 1990s . The films were distributed by CBS / Fox Video on several formats , such as VHS , Betamax and LaserDisc . In 1997 , to coincide with the 20th anniversary of Star Wars , Lucas rereleased new cuts of the trilogy to theaters , naming them the " Special Editions " . The Special Editions made a number of changes to the original releases , including additions such as enhanced digital effects , previously unreleased scenes , and entirely new CGI sequences .
Reaction to the new cuts was mixed , with commentators criticising unnecessary additions such as a computer @-@ generated Jabba the Hutt in the first film and a new musical number in Return of the Jedi ; an alteration involving the bounty hunter Greedo shooting at Han Solo drew significant ire . Further changes to the series were added to the 2004 DVD and the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases – these changes also drew criticism . The final release of the original cuts was in 2006 , when unrestored masters used for the 1993 LaserDisc were added as a bonus feature to a limited run of DVDs under the name George 's Original Unaltered Trilogy ( GOUT ) . In 2010 , Lucas stated that bringing the original cuts to Blu @-@ ray would be a " very , very expensive " process ; as of 2014 , the films are only widely available in their altered versions .
As a result of these changes , a group of fans met on various Internet forums to construct higher quality cuts as fan edits by using the available home media and blending the Special Edition DVDs with the LaserDisc transfers . One such edit for The Empire Strikes Back was created by Star Wars fan Adywan .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Petr Harmáček ( known online by the alias " Harmy " ) had watched a dubbed version of the original cut of Star Wars at the age of six , and had then seen the Special Editions of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi on their 1997 release . Although initially admiring them , he became disappointed when he learnt how much the films had been changed retroactively ; he argued that replacing the original effects with re @-@ composited digital effects was " an act of cultural vandalism " . A fan of the original trilogy , he had written his undergraduate thesis on their cultural impact . After seeing a trailer for Adywan 's cut of The Empire Strikes Back , Harmáček was inspired to create a version of the film that " undid " the post @-@ 1977 changes and restored the theatrical releases in high @-@ definition . He described his motivation as : " I wanted to be able to show people who haven 't seen Star Wars yet , like my little brother or my girlfriend , the original , Oscar @-@ winning version , but I didn 't want to have to show it to them in bad quality . " Harmáček 's edits were the first to recreate the theatrical releases in HD .
= = = Editing = = =
Harmáček began creating his new cuts in 2010 . At the time , he was working as an English teacher in Plzeň , Czech Republic , and had no professional experience with film editing . Instead , he taught himself as the project progressed , beginning with Photoshop skills that he had developed in college . To remove the post @-@ 1977 changes , Harmáček was required to go through the film frame @-@ by @-@ frame , correcting colors and rotoscoping . Undoing some shots took only an hour , while others took hundreds . Lightsabers were color @-@ corrected , shots of the Millennium Falcon cockpit were cropped , Boba Fett 's voice was changed , and CGI characters and backgrounds were removed . Most of the source material used for Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was taken from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray release , while other sequences were upscaled from GOUT . To create the cuts , source material was taken from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases , HDTV broadcasts of the 2004 DVDs , GOUT , digital broadcasts of the 1997 Special Edition , the 1993 LaserDiscs , digital transfers of a Spanish 35 mm Kodak LPP and 70 mm film cels , a 16 mm print and still images of the original matte paintings . Harmáček edited these sources together using programs such as Avisynth and Adobe After Effects .
To help , Harmáček was assisted by a group of similarly @-@ minded fans from the website OriginalTrilogy.com , whom he knew by their online aliases Dark Jedi , YouToo , Puggo , Team Negative 1 , Belbucus , Hairy _ Hen , CatBus and Laserschwert . In total , the project took thousands of hours of work between them . In 2011 , one year after the project had begun , the first version of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was published online ; new and updated versions have been created regularly in the five years that followed . As of August 2014 , the most recent version is v2.5. As a result of the project , Harmáček was able to quit his teaching job and in 2015 was hired by UltraFlix to prepare and restore a library of 4K @-@ encoded films for sale and rent .
= = = Legality = = =
The legal standing of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition is contentious . As fan edits , the cuts tread a line between Fair Use and copyright infringement . OriginalTrilogy.com states that the edits are " made for culturally historical and educational purposes " and that they are " to be shared among legal owners of the officially available releases only " . Consequently , the films are only available via various BitTorrent trackers . Harmáček himself remarked : " I 'm convinced that 99 % of people who download this already bought Star Wars 10 times over on DVD . " As of November 2015 , he has received no legal issues from Lucasfilm over the Despecialized Edition .
= = Reception = =
Reaction to Harmy 's Despecialized Edition has been positive . Writing for Inverse , Sean Hutchinson placed it at number one on his list of the best Star Wars fan edits , and described them as " the perfect pre @-@ 1997 way to experience the saga " . Whitson Gordon of Lifehacker called the edits " the best version of Star Wars you can watch " , and named them " the version of Star Wars we 've all been clamoring for the last 20 years " . Similarly , Nathan Barry of Wired praised the films as " an absolute joy to watch " , while Gizmodo described them as " very , very good " . In an article listing Ars Technica 's favorite Star Wars items , Sam Machkovech selected Harmy 's Despecialized Edition , calling them " a treat " .
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= Sense and Sensibility ( 2008 miniseries ) =
Sense and Sensibility is a 2008 British television drama adaptation of Jane Austen 's 1811 novel Sense and Sensibility . The screenplay was written by Andrew Davies , who revealed that the aim of the series was to make viewers forget Ang Lee 's 1995 film Sense and Sensibility . The series was " more overtly sexual " than previous Austen adaptations , and Davies included scenes featuring a seduction and a duel that were absent from the feature film . Sense and Sensibility was directed by John Alexander and produced by Anne Pivcevic . Hattie Morahan and Charity Wakefield star as Elinor and Marianne Dashwood , two sisters who go on " a voyage of burgeoning sexual and romantic discovery " .
The series was shot on location in the English counties of Berkshire , Surrey , Buckinghamshire and Devon for two months from April 2007 . Sense and Sensibility was co @-@ produced by the BBC and American studio WGBH Boston . It was aired in three parts from 1 January 2008 in the United Kingdom and attracted an average of 6 million viewers per episode . The first episode also became one of the top ten most streamed programmes on the BBC iPlayer . Sense and Sensibility garnered mostly positive reviews from television critics , while the cast and crew earned several award nominations for their work . It was released on a two @-@ disc DVD in the UK on 14 January 2008 .
= = Plot = =
When Henry Dashwood ( Simon Williams ) dies , he leaves his entire fortune and his home , Norland Park , to his son John ( Mark Gatiss ) . John promises that he will provide for his stepmother , Mrs. Dashwood ( Janet McTeer ) , and half @-@ sisters Elinor ( Hattie Morahan ) , Marianne ( Charity Wakefield ) , and Margaret ( Lucy Boynton ) . However , John 's wife , Fanny ( Claire Skinner ) , convinces him to give the family a smaller inheritance than he had intended . Fanny 's brother , Edward Ferrars ( Dan Stevens ) , comes to visit , and he quickly befriends Elinor . While Mrs. Dashwood hopes they will become engaged , Fanny informs her that his mother will not approve the match . Mrs. Dashwood receives a letter from her cousin , Sir John Middleton ( Mark Williams ) , offering her a small cottage house on his estate , Barton Park in Devonshire . She and her daughters decide to leave Norland immediately .
During a welcome dinner at Barton Park , Sir John introduces the Dashwoods to his wife , Lady Middleton ( Rosanna Lavelle ) ; her mother , Mrs. Jennings ( Linda Bassett ) ; and their family friend , Colonel Brandon ( David Morrissey ) . Brandon instantly falls in love with Marianne , but she believes he is too old for her . While out walking with Margaret , Marianne falls and twists her ankle . She is rescued by a young man , who carries her back to the cottage . He introduces himself as John Willoughby ( Dominic Cooper ) , and states that he will return to check on Marianne the following day . Brandon also comes to visit , but upon seeing Willoughby , he quickly departs . Willoughby and Marianne grow close through their mutual love of poetry , and he later takes a lock of her hair . Mrs. Dashwood and Elinor begin to speculate on whether they have become secretly engaged .
Brandon invites the Dashwoods and the Middletons to a party on his estate at Delaford , but before the trip can take place , he is called away on urgent business . Willoughby requests a private audience with both Mrs. Dashwood and Marianne , leading them both to expect that he will propose . However , Willoughby reveals that his aunt is sending him on business to London , and he may not be able to return to Devonshire for at least a year . Shortly after Willoughby 's departure , Edward comes to visit , and the Dashwoods notice that he appears to be unhappy and distant . Mrs. Jennings ' nieces , Lucy ( Anna Madeley ) and Anne Steele ( Daisy Haggard ) , come to Barton Park . When Lucy learns that the Dashwoods are acquainted with the Ferrars , Lucy confides in Elinor that she and Edward have been secretly engaged for four years , news that devastates Elinor . Mrs. Jennings invites Elinor and Marianne to spend some time with her in London , and Marianne hopes she will see Willoughby . However , he does not visit or reply to her letters .
During a party , Marianne finds Willoughby , but he barely acknowledges their acquaintance . Marianne later learns that he is engaged to the wealthy Miss Grey and becomes inconsolable . Brandon calls on the Dashwoods and explains to Elinor that Willoughby seduced then abandoned his young ward , Eliza Williams , who has given birth to his child . Mrs. Ferrars ( Jean Marsh ) learns of Edward 's engagement to Lucy and threatens to disinherit him unless he calls it off , but Edward refuses . Brandon later offers him a living on his estate at Delaford , which Edward gladly accepts . While staying with Mrs. Jennings ' daughter , Marianne goes walking in a storm and collapses . Brandon finds her and brings her home , where she falls seriously ill with a fever . During Marianne 's recovery , Willoughby comes to talk with Elinor . He insists that he loved Marianne and would have married her , but he had to marry a rich woman because his aunt disowned him after learning of his behaviour toward Eliza . After Marianne recovers , the sisters return home and Marianne begins spending time at Delaford , eventually falling in love with Brandon . Elinor learns that Lucy Steele has become Mrs. Ferrars , and assumes that Lucy and Edward have married . However , Edward arrives at the cottage and explains to the Dashwoods that Lucy has wed his brother Robert ( Leo Bill ) . Edward then declares his love to Elinor and proposes . They marry , as do Marianne and Brandon .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
On 5 October 2005 , a reporter for the BBC News revealed that writer Andrew Davies was planning to adapt Jane Austen 's Sense and Sensibility into a major television drama due to be broadcast on the BBC in two years . Davies commented , " When they are great stories , you keep on coming back to them and doing them in different ways with different people at different lengths . " Davies explained that his script was in the early stages and that no actors had yet been cast . The writer later expressed his delight at adapting the novel during an interview with Paul Carey from the Western Mail , calling Austen his " favourite novelist " . He also admitted that due to the acclaim he received for his adaptation of Pride and Prejudice , there was pressure on him to get Sense and Sensibility right . Davies later stated that the aim of the miniseries was to make viewers forget about Ang Lee 's 1995 film adaptation of the novel .
The opening episode of Sense and Sensibility features the moment Willoughby seduces Eliza , a young schoolgirl . Davies told Carey and Claire Hill from the Western Mail that he wanted " to do justice " to Willoughby 's back story , saying that it is " quite interesting and steamy stuff like a lot of underage sex that goes on and is just talked about . I want to put it on the screen . " Davies elaborated on this further in an interview with The Independent 's Peter Chapman , saying that the seduction and abandonment of a schoolgirl in the novel needed dramatising . He believed readers " hardly notice " the moment , which he felt was very important . The writer noted that the series was " more overtly sexual " than previous adaptations of Austen 's works and added , " The novel is as much about sex and money as social conventions . " Davies also included a duel between Colonel Brandon and Willoughby in his screenplay , an event that was absent from Lee 's film adaptation of the novel .
Davies believed that Lee 's film did not overcome " the problem of the guys who get the girls not seeming quite good enough " , and set out to try to find a way of making them into heroes in his script . He said that Austen should have made the reader feel that Edward was worthy of Elinor and explained how Marianne falls in love with Colonel Brandon , after having her heart broken by Willoughby . The writer increased the male roles , so they could be turned into stronger characters . Davies told Hill that the team " worked very hard " on the men . Brandon is seen rescuing people and doing a lot of fast horse riding , while Edward was given a wood @-@ chopping scene where he vents his frustrations about his engagement . Davies also made the Dashwood sisters younger and " more vulnerable " than how they were portrayed in Lee 's film . Hattie Morahan , who portrayed Elinor in the drama , stated , " We are trying to play the story as it was written . In the novel the girls are 19 and 17 , so these romantic relationships are real rites of passage for them . "
= = = Casting = = =
Davies commented that he would have liked to have been in charge of the casting . He revealed that he had initially objected to Hattie Morahan being cast in the role of the eldest Dashwood sister , Elinor . However , he was glad that his objections were ignored , because he fell in love with her performance . Morahan told The Daily Telegraph 's Jasper Rees that she deliberately chose not to watch the 1995 film adaptation of Sense and Sensibility or think about Emma Thompson 's portrayal of the character . She explained that she had not " [ b ] ecause you would go mad . It would distort your work . I thought , it 'll be original by virtue of the fact that it 's me doing it and there is only one me . "
Charity Wakefield successfully auditioned for the role of Marianne Dashwood . The actress revealed , " Marianne is the embodiment of youth and hope . I was so excited to be offered the part because I felt that it was a role which I could really attack . I understand her character and feel that we have lots in common . " Dan Stevens was chosen to play Edward Ferrars , Elinor 's love interest . The actor revealed to a BBC journalist that he had really wanted the part and was excited by the challenge of the character . Stevens became ill with tonsillitis during the shoot , and quipped that there are very few shots of him in full health still in the series .
David Morrissey portrayed Colonel Brandon . The actor was sent the script by his agent , and he initially questioned whether another Austen adaptation was needed . However , he then read the script and thought it was " just brilliant " , especially as Davies had added more scenes featuring the male characters . Dominic Cooper took on the role of John Willoughby , Brandon 's rival for Marianne 's affections . Describing his character , Cooper said " The way I tried to persuade myself he wasn 't too bad was that he 's a 25 @-@ year @-@ old young guy and he genuinely falls in love with Marianne – he 's not just doing it for one moment in time . " Cooper said that he had fun working on the project .
Janet McTeer and Lucy Boynton were cast as Mrs Dashwood and Margaret Dashwood respectively . Mark Gatiss portrayed John Dashwood ; his casting was revealed in June 2007 . Claire Skinner received the role of John 's wife , Fanny , while Mark Williams was cast as Sir John Middleton . Linda Bassett and Jean Marsh were given the roles of Mrs Jennings and Mrs Ferrars respectively . Robert Bianco from USA Today commented that both women were " wonderfully cast " . Actresses Anna Madeley and Daisy Haggard portrayed Lucy Steele and her sister Anne , a character who was omitted from the 1995 film .
= = = Filming = = =
Sense and Sensibility was shot entirely on location within England , mostly in the counties of Berkshire , Surrey , Buckinghamshire , and Devon . Filming began in April 2007 and lasted until early June . Blackpool Mill , a fifteenth @-@ century cottage in north Devon , was turned into Barton Cottage , the home of the Dashwood girls . The art director for the series , James Merifield , had walked past the cottage in 2006 and thought it would be an ideal setting for a film . He was later sent back to the cottage by the location manager for Sense and Sensibility , and he decided the place would be right for the production . The owners of Blackpool Mill , Sir Hugh and Lady Stucley , were contacted in February 2007 by the BBC who inquired about the possibility of filming there . Caroline Gammell from The Daily Telegraph reported that " camera crews , production assistants , directors and actors swarmed over Blackpool Mill , turning the rustic four @-@ bedroom home into the romantic hub of Jane Austen 's novel . Set designers took the cottage more firmly into the 19th century , adding a porch at the front as well as dormer windows , fake shutters and an extra chimney . " The interior of cottage was " a little scruffy " for Mrs Dashwood 's status , so scenes featuring the inside of the cottage were filmed in a studio . Filming took place at the cottage over eight days in May .
Wakefield revealed that it rained constantly during filming , often soaking the cast and crew . However , the bad weather led to Davies writing in a scene featuring Edward in a wet shirt chopping logs in the rain , which rivalled the famous lake scene in Pride and Prejudice . Cooper told The Birmingham Post 's Georgina Rodgers that the bad weather affected his first scene , in which Willoughby carries an injured Marianne home . He explained that the scene was shot on a vertical slope with a rain machine , as the natural rain does not show up on camera . His cloak also kept getting caught under his foot , which made picking up Wakefield even harder . Cooper added , " I couldn 't move and I just kept falling head over heels . " Wrotham Park served as the exterior to Norland , the Dashwood family 's home . Ham House in Richmond was used for Norland 's interior shots , while the grounds were used for exterior scenes . The National Trust was asked not to cut the grass for several weeks before filming began . Ham House also doubled for Cleveland . Loseley Park was chosen for the exterior shots of Sir John Middleton 's home , Barton Park . The library doubled for Colonel Brandon 's own , while the entrance was used for scenes featuring a gathering of guests for a day out . The Oak Room was also used for the scenes involving Marianne , after she falls sick . Other filming locations included Dorney Court , Hall Barn , Lincoln 's Inn and Clovelly Pier .
= = = Costumes and make @-@ up = = =
The costume designer for Sense and Sensibility was Michele Clapton . She and assistant costume designer Alex Fordham undertook a large amount of research looking for inspiration . They spent hours looking at paintings and books from the time period , while also visiting art galleries and the Victoria and Albert Museum . During an interview for the drama 's BBC Online website , Fordham revealed that they tried to find references from every area , including eighteenth @-@ century cartoons . Clapton stated that the team wanted to make a lot of the costumes , rather than re @-@ use what was already available from other productions . To get the sense of colour that they wanted , they had to dye and create a lot of the pieces . The wardrobe team worked closely with the make @-@ up department and the production designer . After their first meeting , they came up with a colour palette for the whole show . Clapton chose to give Elinor and Marianne contrasting wardrobes . The " flighty " and " artistic " Marianne wears strong colours compared to Elinor , who has a different personality and complexion . Fordham revealed that with Marianne being younger and a " wild child " , her wardrobe contains a lot of Buttercup yellows , which suited Wakefield 's complexion and her character 's freshness .
Willoughby 's wardrobe was designed to reflect his " poetic " and " fashionable " nature , while Fordham believed Edward was more suited to the eighteenth @-@ century rural colours . With Colonel Brandon being a stronger character , his costumes were half way between the two . His clothes were designed to be out of date and firm , using more heathers instead of the rural colours . The production had an emphasis on youth and passion , which Clapton incorporated into her work . The designer said , " Ten years ago , female characters in 19th @-@ century dramas would all have their hair done in very precise ringlets , all neat and perfect just like in the portraits . Now we 're trying to achieve a more believable , natural look , especially when the Dashwoods are at home . " She added that the director had wanted the characters to " feel more human . " Morrissey commented that the period costumes were " slightly uncomfortable " for modern life , but as soon as the cast were riding horses or walking across fields , they realised why they were made that way . He added , " When you 're dancing , they 're quite restrictive , but that 's quite good for posture – posture was different then , and that 's important . But they give you a feel for the character which is really an advantage to you as an actor . "
Karen Hartley @-@ Thomas was the hair and make @-@ up designer for the production . She began prepping a couple of months before filming began , and she met with the director and producer early on to discuss the whole look of the film . Like the costumers , she read books and went to art galleries during her research . The female characters in Sense and Sensibility wear a " no make @-@ up look " because in the time period in which the film is set , only the lower classes would have worn white and pink make @-@ up . The Dashwood sisters wore no mascara and only a little corrective and blush . Hartley @-@ Thomas also used very little make @-@ up on the men , as she does not like them looking made up . Discussing the hair , Hartley @-@ Thomas said " Elinor 's hair is always quite neat and done , where Marianne , being a freer character and more rebellious , she has lots of different looks and lots of wild looks with the hair loose . " She also explained that some of the male actors wore wigs because the men in those days would have had a lot more volume to their hair , whereas the modern styles tend to be shorter and clippered . John Dashwood and his son were given red hair , as Hartley @-@ Thomas wanted them to stand out amongst the more natural colours of the other male characters .
= = Broadcast = =
Sense and Sensibility was aired in three parts , with the first shown on 1 January 2008 . The other two episodes were broadcast on 6 and 13 January . The first episode of Sense and Sensibility became one of the top ten streamed programmes on the BBC iPlayer following its broadcast . In the United States , Sense and Sensibility was broadcast on PBS , as part of their Austen Masterpiece Theatre series . The drama was split into two episodes , which aired on 30 March and 6 April 2008 . Sense and Sensibility began airing from 26 June 2008 on the UKTV channel in Australia .
= = = Home media = = =
Sense and Sensibility was released on a two @-@ disc DVD in the UK on 14 January 2008 . All three episodes were given away free with a copy of the Daily Mail in 2009 . The offer was part of the newspaper 's British Classics collection . The Region 1 DVD was released a few days after its premiere on PBS . The two @-@ disc set also included the BBC 's Miss Austen Regrets , as well as commentary and interviews from the cast and crew .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The first episode of Sense and Sensibility attracted 5 @.@ 54 million viewers upon its first broadcast in the United Kingdom , giving it twenty per cent of the audience share for its broadcast time . The second episode posted a small increase of 5 @.@ 74 million viewers , while the concluding part attracted an audience of 6 @.@ 76 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
Sense and Sensibility received mostly positive reviews from critics . However , the Jane Austen Society criticised it for being " too raunchy " and accused Davies of " degrading fine English literature " , after he included a seduction scene in the opening episode . The chairman of the society , Patrick Stokes , stated , " Sexing this story up says more about the BBC than Jane Austen . It is lowering itself by degrading fine English literature in the battle for ratings . While it is good that it draws people 's attention to her works , there is not a lot you can do if someone makes a hash of it . " A BBC spokesman believed the drama was not overtly sexual and stated that they had received no complaints about it , though they did get several calls from viewers expressing their appreciation for the series .
Melinda Houston , writing for The Age , called Sense and Sensibility " a gorgeous adaptation of her most frivolous work " and added , " It 's all beautifully made , beautifully cast , and the script snaps and crackles . Maybe Eleanor isn 't quite as flawed as originally drawn but that 's unlikely to detract from your enjoyment . " Lenny Ann Low from The Sydney Morning Herald stated , " The locations , costumes and acting are excellent , with a particularly striking use of light – cold and grey skies foretelling doom through to rich candlelight signalling new passions . " The New York Times critic Ginia Bellafante said , " There 's nothing glaringly wrong with this new Sense and Sensibility , the last in Masterpiece 's winter @-@ long homage to Austen ; it is both lush and tidy . But it alters the emotional chemistry , and the result is an adaptation that feels more arid than Mr. Lee 's effort . "
Nancy Banks @-@ Smith from The Guardian called Sense and Sensibility " a charmingly domestic and spontaneous treatment of the story " , adding that it had become " a younger sister " of Lee 's 1995 film . Variety 's Brian Lowry commented , " this latest Sense & Sensibility has done a splendid job casting its various roles , despite an inevitable wattage deficit compared with the most recent theatrical version . Davies and director John Alexander have also taken some liberties by crafting scenes of the men together ( something Austen herself never did ) – having the steely Brandon , for example , pull Willoughby aside to question his intentions toward Marianne . Featuring a top @-@ drawer cast , the filmmakers create several delicate moments – from Willoughby 's elegant seduction of Marianne to the stoic Elinor 's pining for the elusive Edward who , as played by Stevens , adorably stammers in a Hugh Grant @-@ like way . "
Serena Davies from The Daily Telegraph praised the first episode , calling it " faithful to the spirit of the book " and stating that the series " deftly stepped out of the shadows of two formidable predecessors : Ang Lee 's gorgeous 1995 film version of the novel , and scriptwriter Andrew Davies 's own masterpiece , Pride and Prejudice . " Davies enjoyed Morahan 's " luminous " performance as Elinor , as well as Williams and Morrissey 's turns as Sir John and Colonel Brandon respectively , although she thought the opening scene was " misconceived " . Davies ' colleague , James Walton , proclaimed , " In the end , this Sense and Sensibility was perhaps brilliantly competent rather than surpassingly brilliant . Nevertheless , it still proved easily good enough to get the costume @-@ drama year off to a hugely enjoyable start . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The crew of Sense and Sensibility garnered several award nominations for their work on the drama . At the 14th Shanghai Television Festival , the series was nominated for Magnolia Award for Best Television Film or Miniseries , Alexander won the Best Television Film Director award , while Morahan won Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Film for her turn as Elinor Dashwood . Davies was nominated in the Writer 's Award category at the 35th Broadcasting Press Guild Awards for his screenplay , and Clapton received a nomination for Outstanding Costume Design for a Television Movie or Mini @-@ Series at the Costume Designers Guild Awards . For his work on the score , Phipps earned nominations for a BAFTA Television Craft Award for Best Original Television Music and a Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries , Movie or Special . Cinematographer Sean Bobbitt was also nominated for an Emmy Award in the Cinematography for a Miniseries , Movie or Special category .
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= Marble Madness =
Marble Madness is an arcade video game designed by Mark Cerny and published by Atari Games in 1984 . The player uses a trackball to guide an onscreen marble through six obstacle @-@ filled courses within a time limit . Marble Madness was Atari 's first game to use the Atari System 1 hardware and to be programmed in the C programming language . It was also one of the first games to use true stereo sound ; previous games used either monaural sound or simulated stereo .
Cerny drew inspiration from miniature golf , racing games , and artwork by M. C. Escher . He applied a minimalist approach in designing the appearance of the game 's courses and enemies .
Marble Madness was commercially successful . The game was ported to numerous platforms and inspired the development of other games . A sequel was developed and planned for release in 1991 , but canceled when location testing showed the game could not compete with other titles .
= = Gameplay = =
Marble Madness is an isometric platform game in which the player manipulates an onscreen marble from a third @-@ person perspective . The player controls the marble 's movements with a trackball , though most home versions use game controllers with directional pads . The aim of the game is for the player to complete six maze @-@ like , isometric race courses before a set amount of time expires . With the exception of the first race , any time left on the clock at the end of a race is carried over to the next one , and the player is granted a set amount of additional time as well . The game allows two players to compete against each other , awarding bonus points and extra time to the winner of each race ; both players have separate clocks .
As the game progresses , the courses become increasingly difficult and introduce more enemies and obstacles . Each course has a distinct visual theme . For example , the first race ( titled " Practice " ) is a simple course that is much shorter than the others , while the fifth race ( named " Silly " ) features polka @-@ dot patterns and is oriented in a direction opposite that of the other courses .
= = Development = =
Marble Madness was developed by Atari Games , with Mark Cerny as the lead designer and Bob Flanagan as the software engineer . Both Cerny and Flanagan handled programming the game . It uses the Atari System 1 hardware , an interchangeable system of circuit boards , control panels , and artwork . The game features pixel graphics on a 19 inch Electrohome G07 model CRT monitor , and uses a Motorola 68010 central processing unit ( CPU ) with a MOS Technology 6502 subsystem to control the audio and coin operations . Marble Madness was Atari 's first game to use an FM sound chip produced by Yamaha , which is similar to a Yamaha DX7 synthesizer and creates the music in real time so that it is in synchronization with the game 's on @-@ screen action . The game 's music was composed by Brad Fuller and Hal Canon who spent a few months becoming familiar with the capabilities of the sound chip .
Cerny and Flanagan first collaborated on a video game based on Michael Jackson 's Thriller . The project was canceled and the two began working on an idea of Cerny 's that eventually became Marble Madness . Development lasted 10 months . Following the North American video game crash of 1983 , video game development within Atari focused on providing a distinctive experience through the use of a unique control system and by emphasizing a simultaneous two @-@ player mode . Cerny designed Marble Madness in accordance with these company goals . He was first inspired by miniature golf and captivated by the idea that a play field 's contours influenced the ball 's path . Cerny began testing various ideas using Atari 's digital art system . After deciding to use an isometric grid , Cerny began developing the game 's concept . His initial idea involved hitting a ball in a way similar to miniature golf , but Atari was unenthusiastic . Cerny next thought of racing games and planned for races on long tracks against an opponent . Technology limitations at the time were unable to handle the in @-@ game physics necessary for the idea , and Cerny switched the game 's objective to a race against time .
The development toolkit for the Motorola CPU included a compiler for the C programming language , which the two programmers were familiar with . After Atari had conducted performance evaluations , it approved usage of the language . Cerny and Flanagan 's decision to program Marble Madness in the C language had positive and negative consequences . Atari games had previously been programmed in assembly language . The C language was easier to program , but was less efficient , so the game operates at the slower speed of 30 Hz instead of the normal 60 Hz frequency of arcade games at the time . Cerny decided to use a trackball system ( marketed by Atari as Trak @-@ Ball ) to give the game a unique control system , and he chose a motorized trackball for faster spinning and braking when the in @-@ game ball traveled downhill and uphill , respectively . As it was building the prototypes , Atari 's design department informed Cerny that the motorized trackball 's design had an inherent flaw — one of the four supports had poor contact with the ball — and the use of a regular trackball was more feasible . Additionally , Cerny had anticipated the use of powerful custom chips that would allow RAM @-@ based sprites to be animated by the CPU , but the available hardware was a less @-@ advanced system using ROM @-@ based , static sprites .
These technical limitations forced Cerny to simplify the overall designs . Inspired by M. C. Escher , he designed abstract landscapes for the courses . In retrospect , Cerny partly attributed the designs to his limited artistic skills . He was a fan of the 3D graphics used in Battlezone and I , Robot , but felt that the visuals lacked definition and wanted to create a game with " solid and clean " 3D graphics . Unlike most other arcade games of the time , the course images were not drawn on the pixel level . Instead , Cerny defined the elevation of every point in the course , and stored this information in a heightmap array . The course graphics were then created by a ray tracing program that traced the path of light rays , using the heightmap to determine the appearance of the course on screen . This format also allowed Cerny to create shadows and use spatial anti @-@ aliasing , a technique that provided the graphics with a smoother appearance . Cerny 's course generator allowed him more time to experiment with the level designs . When deciding what elements to include in a course , practicality was a big factor ; elements that would not work or would not appear as intended were omitted , such as an elastic barricade or a teeter @-@ totter scale . Other ideas dropped from the designs were breakable glass supports , black hole traps , and bumps and obstacles built into the course that chased the marble .
Cerny 's personal interests changed throughout the project , leading to the inclusion of new ideas absent from the original design documents . The game 's enemy characters were designed by Cerny and Sam Comstock , who also animated them . Enemies had to be small in size due to technical limitations . Cerny and Comstock purposely omitted faces to give them unique designs and create a minimalistic appearance similar to the courses . Atari 's management , however , suggested that the marble should have a smiley face to create an identified character , similar to Pac @-@ Man . As a compromise , the cabinet 's artwork depicts traces of a smiley face on the marbles . Flanagan programmed a three @-@ dimensional physics model to dictate the marble 's motions and an interpreted script for enemy behavior . As Marble Madness neared completion , the feedback from Atari 's in @-@ house focus testing was positive . In retrospect , Cerny wished he had included more courses to give the game greater longevity , but extra courses would have required more time and increased hardware costs . Atari was experiencing severe financial troubles at the time and could not extend the game 's development period as it would have left their production factory idle .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Marble Madness was commercially successful following its December 1984 release and was positively received by critics . Around 4 @,@ 000 cabinets were sold , and it soon became the highest @-@ earning game in arcades . However , the game consistently fell from this ranking during its seventh week in arcades that Atari tracked the game 's success . Cerny attributed the six @-@ week arcade life to Marble Madness 's short gameplay length . He believed that players lost interest after mastering it and moved on to other games . The arcade cabinets have since become fairly rare . Stan Szczepanski holds the official world record of 187 @,@ 880 points .
Bruce Webster of BYTE wrote that the graphics of the Amiga version of Marble Madness in December 1986 " are really amazing " . While criticizing the lack of a pause function or a top scores list , he stated that it " is definitely worth having if you own an Amiga " . Many reviewers felt that the high level of skill required to play the game was part of its appeal . In 2008 , Levi Buchanan of IGN listed Marble Madness as one of several titles in his " dream arcade " , citing the game 's difficulty and the fond memories he had playing it . Author John Sellers wrote that difficulty was a major reason that players were attracted . Other engaging factors included the graphics , visual design , and the soundtrack . Retro Gamer 's Craig Grannell , in referring to the game as one of the most distinctive arcade games ever made , praised its visuals as " pure and timeless " . In 2008 , Guinness World Records listed it as the number seventy @-@ nine arcade game in technical , creative , and cultural impact . Marble Madness was one of the first games to use true stereo sound and have a recognizable musical score . British composer Paul Weir commented that the music had character and helped give the game a unique identity . A common complaint about the arcade cabinet was that the track ball controls frequently broke from repeated use .
Marble Madness inspired other games that feature similar gameplay based on navigating a ball through progressively more difficult courses ; such games are often described in terms that relate them to Marble Madness . Melbourne House 's Gyroscope and Electric Dreams Software 's Spindizzy were the first such games ; both met with a good reception . In 1990 , Rare released Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll , which incorporated elements similar to Marble Madness . The Super Monkey Ball series uses similar gameplay based on rolling a ball , but adds other features such as minigames and monkey characters . Archer Maclean 's Mercury also contains many elements similar to Marble Madness , but with minor variations , including the ability to change color , added hazards , and that the player controls a blob of liquid mercury rather than a marble .
= = = Ports and unreleased sequel = = =
Beginning in 1986 , the game was ported to numerous platforms with different companies handling the conversions ; several home versions were published by Electronic Arts , Tiger Electronics released handheld and tabletop LCD versions of the game , and it was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System by Rare . Early versions featured simplified graphics , and the different ports were met with mixed reception . John Harris of Gamasutra thought the arcade 's popularity fueled the sales of the home versions , while Thomas Hanley of ScrewAttack commented that most versions were not as enjoyable without a track ball . Grannell echoed similar statements about the controls and added that many had poor visuals and collision detection . He listed the Amiga , Game Boy , and Sega Mega Drive ports as the better conversions , and the Sinclair ZX Spectrum , PC , and Game Boy Advance versions among the worst . Compute ! writers called the Amiga version 's graphics and gameplay " arcade @-@ quality " . Editors for Computer Gaming World stated that the Amiga version was superior to the arcade original , while the Commodore version had an extra level not present in other versions . Dragon 's three reviewers — Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser — praised the Apple IIGS port , calling it a " must have " title for arcade fans . MegaTech reviewers rated the Sega Mega Drive release a favorable 73 % . In 2003 , Marble Madness was included in the multi @-@ platform title Midway Arcade Treasures , a compilation of classic games developed by Williams Electronics , Midway Games , and Atari Games . Electronic Arts released a mobile phone port in 2010 that includes additional levels with different themes and new items that augment the gameplay . Marble Madness was also included in the 2012 multi @-@ platform compilation Midway Arcade Origins . A port of the game is also playable in Lego Dimensions via an Arcade Dock in the level " Prime Time " .
An arcade sequel titled Marble Man : Marble Madness II was planned for release in 1991 , though Cerny was uninvolved in the development . Development was led by Bob Flanagan who designed the game based on what he felt made Marble Madness a success in the home console market . Because the market 's demographic was a younger audience , Flanagan wanted to make the sequel more accessible and introduced , ball like a superhero ( a.k.a. Marble Man ) . Marble Man expanded on the gameplay of the original game by featuring new abilities for the marble such as Heli , Cloak , Knobby , and Crusher , included pinball minigames between sets of levels , and allowed up to three players to traverse isometric courses . Its final wave is called " King of the Mountain " . Flanagan intended to address the short length of the first game and , with the help of Mike Hally , developed seventeen courses .
Atari created prototypes for location testing , but the game did not fare well against more popular titles at the time such as Street Fighter II . Atari assumed the track balls accounted for the poor reception and commissioned a second model with joystick controls . Because the new models were met with the same poor reception , production was halted and the focus shifted to Guardians of the ' Hood , a beat ' em up game . The prototypes that were produced have since become collector items .
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= Adolf Eichmann =
Otto Adolf Eichmann ( pronounced [ ˈɔto ˈaːdɔlf ˈaɪ ̯ çman ] ; 19 March 1906 – 1 June 1962 ) was a German Nazi SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) and one of the major organisers of the Holocaust . Eichmann was tasked by SS @-@ Obergruppenführer ( general / lieutenant general ) Reinhard Heydrich with facilitating and managing the logistics of mass deportation of Jews to ghettos and extermination camps in German @-@ occupied Eastern Europe during World War II . In 1960 , he was captured in Argentina by Mossad , Israel 's intelligence service . Following a widely publicised trial in Israel , he was found guilty of war crimes and hanged in 1962 .
After an unremarkable school career , Eichmann briefly worked for his father 's mining company in Austria , where the family had moved in 1914 . He worked as a travelling oil salesman beginning in 1927 , and joined the Nazi Party and SS in 1932 . After returning to Germany in 1933 , he joined the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ; Security Service ) , where he was appointed head of the department responsible for Jewish affairs — especially emigration , which the Nazis encouraged through violence and economic pressure . After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Eichmann and his staff arranged for Jews to be concentrated into ghettos in major cities with the expectation they would be transported farther east or overseas . Eichmann drew up plans for a Jewish reservation , first at Nisko in south @-@ east Poland and later in Madagascar , but neither of these plans were ever carried out .
As the Nazis began the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 , their Jewish policy changed from emigration to extermination . To co @-@ ordinate planning for the genocide , Heydrich hosted the regime 's administrative leaders at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942 . Eichmann collected information for Heydrich , attended the conference , and prepared the minutes . Eichmann and his staff became responsible for Jewish deportations to extermination camps , where the victims were gassed . After Germany invaded Hungary in March 1944 , Eichmann oversaw the deportation of much of that country 's Jewish population . Most of the victims were sent to Auschwitz concentration camp , where 75 to 90 per cent were murdered upon arrival . By the time the transports were stopped in July 1944 , 437 @,@ 000 of Hungary 's 725 @,@ 000 Jews had been killed . Historian Richard J. Evans estimates that between 5 @.@ 5 and 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis . Eichmann said towards the end of the war that he would " leap laughing into the grave because the feeling that he had five million people on his conscience would be for him a source of extraordinary satisfaction . "
After Germany 's defeat in 1945 , Eichmann fled to Austria . He lived there until 1950 , when he moved to Argentina using false papers . Information collected by the Mossad , Israel 's intelligence agency , confirmed Eichmann 's location in 1960 . A team of Mossad and Shin Bet agents captured Eichmann and brought him to Israel to stand trial on 15 criminal charges , including war crimes , crimes against humanity and crimes against the Jewish people . Found guilty on many of these charges , he was sentenced to death by hanging and executed on 1 June 1962 . The trial was widely followed in the media and was later the subject of several books , including Hannah Arendt 's work Eichmann in Jerusalem , in which Arendt coined the phrase " the banality of evil " to describe Eichmann .
= = Early life and education = =
Otto Adolf Eichmann , the eldest of five children , was born in 1906 to a Calvinist Protestant family in Solingen , Germany . His parents were Adolf Karl Eichmann , a bookkeeper , and Maria ( née Schefferling ) , a housewife . The elder Adolf moved to Linz , Austria , in 1913 to take a position as commercial manager for the Linz Tramway and Electrical Company , and the rest of the family followed a year later . After the death of Maria in 1916 , Eichmann 's father married Maria Zawrzel , a devout Protestant with two sons .
Eichmann attended the Kaiser Franz Joseph Staatsoberrealschule ( state secondary school ) in Linz , the same high school Adolf Hitler had attended some 17 years before . He played the violin and participated in sports and clubs , including a Wandervogel woodcraft and scouting group that included some older boys who were members of various right @-@ wing militias . His poor school performance resulted in his father withdrawing him from the Realschule and enrolling him in the Höhere Bundeslehranstalt für Elektrotechnik , Maschinenbau und Hochbau vocational college . He left without attaining a degree and joined his father 's new enterprise , the Untersberg Mining Company , where he worked for several months . From 1925 to 1927 he worked as a sales clerk for the Oberösterreichische Elektrobau AG radio company . Next , between 1927 and early 1933 , Eichmann worked in Upper Austria and Salzburg as district agent for the Vacuum Oil Company AG .
During this time , he joined the Jungfrontkämpfervereinigung , the youth section of Hermann Hiltl 's right @-@ wing veterans movement , and began reading newspapers published by the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . The party platform included removal of the Weimar Republic in Germany , rejection of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , radical antisemitism , and anti @-@ Bolshevism . They promised a strong central government , increased Lebensraum ( living space ) for Germanic peoples , formation of a national community based on race , and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews , who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights .
= = Early career = =
On the advice of family friend and local Schutzstaffel ( SS ; protection squadron ) leader Ernst Kaltenbrunner , Eichmann joined the Austrian branch of the NSDAP , member number 889 @,@ 895 . He joined the Nazi Party on 1 April 1932 , and his membership in the SS was confirmed seven months later ( SS member number 45 @,@ 326 ) . His regiment was SS @-@ Standarte 37 , responsible for guarding the party headquarters in Linz and protecting party speakers at rallies , which would often become violent . Eichmann pursued party activities in Linz on weekends while continuing in his position at Vacuum Oil in Salzburg .
A few months after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany in January 1933 , Eichmann lost his job due to staffing cutbacks at Vacuum Oil . The Nazi Party was banned in Austria around the same time . These events were factors in Eichmann 's decision to return to Germany .
Like many other National Socialists fleeing Austria in the spring of 1933 , Eichmann left for Passau , where he joined Andreas Bolek at his headquarters . After he attended a training programme at the SS depot in Klosterlechfeld in August , Eichmann returned to the Passau border in September , where he was assigned to lead an eight @-@ man SS liaison team to guide Austrian National Socialists into Germany and smuggle propaganda material from there into Austria . In late December , when this unit was dissolved , Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Scharführer ( squad leader , equivalent to corporal ) . Eichmann 's battalion of the Deutschland Regiment was quartered at barracks next door to Dachau concentration camp .
By 1934 , Eichmann requested transfer to the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ; Security Service ) of the SS , to escape the " monotony " of military training and service at Dachau . Eichmann was accepted into the SD and assigned to the sub @-@ office on Freemasons , organising seized ritual objects for a proposed museum . After about six months , Eichmann was invited by Leopold von Mildenstein to join his Jewish Department , Section II / 112 of the SD , at its Berlin headquarters . Eichmann 's transfer was granted in November 1934 . He later came to consider this as his big break . He was assigned to study and prepare reports on the Zionist movement and various Jewish organisations . He even learned a smattering of Hebrew and Yiddish , gaining a reputation as a specialist in Zionist and Jewish matters . On 21 March 1935 Eichmann married Veronika ( Vera ) Liebl ( 1909 – 93 ) . The couple had four sons : Klaus ( b . 1936 in Berlin ) , Horst Adolf ( b . 1940 in Vienna ) , Dieter Helmut ( b . 1942 in Prague ) and Ricardo Francisco ( b . 1955 in Buenos Aires ) . Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Hauptscharführer ( head squad leader ) in 1936 and was commissioned as an SS @-@ Untersturmführer ( second lieutenant ) the following year .
Nazi Germany used violence and economic pressure to encourage Jews to leave Germany of their own volition ; around 250 @,@ 000 of the country 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated between 1933 and 1939 . Eichmann travelled to British Mandatory Palestine with his superior Herbert Hagen in 1937 to assess the possibility of Germany 's Jews voluntarily emigrating to that country , disembarking with forged press credentials at Haifa , whence they travelled to Cairo in Egypt . There they met Feival Polkes , an agent of the Haganah , with whom they were unable to strike a deal . Polkes suggested that more Jews should be allowed to leave under the terms of the Haavara Agreement , but Hagen refused , surmising that a strong Jewish presence in Palestine might lead to their founding an independent state , which would run contrary to Reich policy . Eichmann and Hagen attempted to return to Palestine a few days later , but were denied entry after the British authorities refused them the required visas . They prepared a report on their visit , which was published in 1982 .
In 1938 , Eichmann was posted to Vienna to help organise Jewish emigration from Austria , which had just been integrated into the Reich through the Anschluss . Jewish community organisations were placed under supervision of the SD and tasked with encouraging and facilitating Jewish emigration . Funding came from money seized from other Jewish people and organisations , as well as donations from overseas , which were placed under SD control . Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Obersturmführer ( first lieutenant ) in July 1938 , and appointed to the Central Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna , created in August . By the time he left Vienna in May 1939 , nearly 100 @,@ 000 Jews had left Austria legally , and many more had been smuggled out to Palestine and elsewhere .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Transition from emigration to deportation = = =
Within weeks of the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 , Nazi policy toward the Jews changed from voluntary emigration to forced deportation . After discussions with Hitler in the preceding weeks , on 21 September SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich , head of the SD , advised his staff that Jews were to be collected into cities in Poland with good rail links to facilitate their expulsion from territories controlled by Germany , starting with areas that had been incorporated into the Reich . He announced plans to create a reservation in the General Government ( the portion of Poland not incorporated into the Reich ) , where Jews and others deemed undesirable would await further deportation . On 27 September 1939 the SD and Sicherheitspolizei ( comprising the Gestapo and Kripo police agencies ) were combined into the new SS @-@ Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( RSHA ; Reich Main Security Office ) , which was placed under Heydrich 's control .
After a posting in Prague to assist in setting up an emigration office there , Eichmann was transferred to Berlin in October 1939 to command the Central Office for Jewish Emigration for the entire Reich under Heinrich Müller , head of the Gestapo . He was immediately assigned to organise the deportation of 70 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Jews from Ostrava district in Moravia and Katowice district in the recently annexed portion of Poland . On his own initiative , Eichmann also laid plans to deport Jews from Vienna . Under the Nisko Plan , Eichmann chose Nisko as the location for a new transit camp where Jews would be temporarily housed before being deported elsewhere . In the last week of October 1939 , 4 @,@ 700 Jews were sent to the area by train and were essentially left to fend for themselves in an open meadow with no water and little food . Barracks were planned but never completed . Many of the deportees were driven by the SS into Soviet @-@ occupied territory and others were eventually placed in a nearby labour camp . The operation soon was called off , partly because Hitler decided the required trains were better used for military purposes for the time being . Meanwhile , as part of Hitler 's long @-@ range resettlement plans , hundreds of thousands of ethnic Germans were being transported into the annexed territories , and ethnic Poles and Jews were being moved further east , particularly into the General Government .
On 19 December 1939 , Eichmann was assigned to head RSHA Referat IV B4 ( RSHA Sub @-@ Department IV @-@ B4 ) , tasked with overseeing Jewish affairs and evacuation . Heydrich announced Eichmann to be his " special expert " , in charge of arranging for all deportations into occupied Poland . The job entailed co @-@ ordinating with police agencies for the physical removal of the Jews , dealing with their confiscated property , and arranging financing and transport . Within a few days of his appointment , Eichmann formulated a plan to deport 600 @,@ 000 Jews into the General Government . The plan was stymied by Hans Frank , governor @-@ general of the occupied territories , who was disinclined to accept the deportees as to do so would have a negative impact on economic development and his ultimate goal of Germanisation of the region . In his role as minister responsible for the Four Year Plan , on 24 March 1940 Hermann Göring forbade any further transports into the General Government unless cleared first by himself or Frank . Transports continued , but at a much slower pace than originally envisioned . From the start of the war until April 1941 , around 63 @,@ 000 Jews were transported into the General Government . On many of the trains in this period , up to a third of the deportees died in transit . While Eichmann claimed at his trial to be upset by the appalling conditions on the trains and in the transit camps , his correspondence and documents of the period show that his primary concern was to achieve the deportations economically and with minimal disruption to Germany 's ongoing military operations .
Jews were concentrated into ghettos in major cities with the expectation that at some point they would be transported further east or even overseas . Horrendous conditions in the ghettos — severe overcrowding , poor sanitation , and a lack of food — resulted in a high death rate . On 15 August 1940 , Eichmann released a memorandum titled Reichssicherheitshauptamt : Madagaskar Projekt ( Reich Main Security Office : Madagascar Project ) , calling for the resettlement to Madagascar of a million Jews per year for four years . When Germany failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain , the invasion of Britain was postponed indefinitely . As Britain still controlled the Atlantic and her merchant fleet would not be at Germany 's disposal for use in evacuations , planning for the Madagascar proposal stalled . Hitler continued to mention the Plan until February 1942 , when the idea was permanently shelved .
= = = Wannsee Conference = = =
From the start of the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Einsatzgruppen ( task forces ) followed the army into conquered areas and rounded up and killed Jews , Comintern officials , and ranking members of the Communist Party . Eichmann was one of the officials who received regular detailed reports of their activities . On 31 July , Göring gave Heydrich written authorisation to prepare and submit a plan for a " total solution of the Jewish question " in all territories under German control and to co @-@ ordinate the participation of all involved government organisations . The Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia , for use as slave labour or to be murdered .
Eichmann stated at his later interrogations that Heydrich told him in mid @-@ September that Hitler had ordered that all Jews in German @-@ controlled Europe were to be killed . The initial plan was to implement Generalplan Ost after the conquest of the Soviet Union . However , with the entry of the United States into the war in December and the German failure in the Battle of Moscow , Hitler decided that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately rather than after the war , which now had no end in sight . Around this time , Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) , the highest rank he achieved .
To co @-@ ordinate planning for the proposed genocide , Heydrich hosted the Wannsee Conference , which brought together administrative leaders of the Nazi regime on 20 January 1942 . In preparation for the conference , Eichmann drafted for Heydrich a list of the numbers of Jews in various European countries and prepared statistics on emigration . Eichmann attended the conference , oversaw the stenographer who took the minutes , and prepared the official distributed record of the meeting . In his covering letter , Heydrich specified that Eichmann would act as his liaison with the departments involved . Under Eichmann 's supervision , large @-@ scale deportations began almost immediately to extermination camps at Bełżec , Sobibor , Treblinka and elsewhere . The genocide was code @-@ named Operation Reinhard in honour of Heydrich , who died in Prague in early June from wounds suffered in an assassination attempt . Kaltenbrunner succeeded him as head of the RSHA .
Eichmann did not make policy , but acted in an operational capacity . Specific deportation orders came from Himmler . Eichmann 's office was responsible for collecting information on the Jews in each area , organising the seizure of their property , and arranging for and scheduling trains . His department was in constant contact with the Foreign Office , as Jews of conquered nations such as France could not as easily be stripped of their possessions and deported to their deaths . Eichmann held regular meetings in his Berlin offices with his department members working in the field and travelled extensively to visit concentration camps and ghettos . His wife , who disliked Berlin , resided in Prague with the children . Eichmann initially visited them weekly , but as time went on his visits tapered off to once a month .
= = = Hungary = = =
Germany invaded Hungary on 19 March 1944 . Eichmann arrived the same day , and was soon joined by top members of his staff and five or six hundred members of the SD , SS , and Sicherheitspolizei ( SiPo ; security police ) . Hitler 's appointment of a Hungarian government more amenable to the Nazis meant that the Hungarian Jews , who had remained essentially unharmed until that point , would now be deported to Auschwitz to serve as forced labour or be gassed . Eichmann toured northeastern Hungary in the last week of April and visited Auschwitz in May to assess the preparations . Round @-@ ups began on 16 April , and from 14 May , four trains of 3 @,@ 000 Jews per day left Hungary and travelled to the camp at Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau , arriving along a newly built spur line that terminated a few hundred metres away from the gas chambers . Only between 10 and 25 per cent of the people on each train were chosen as forced labourers ; the rest were killed within hours of arrival . Under international pressure , the Hungarian government halted deportations on 6 July 1944 , by which time over 437 @,@ 000 of Hungary 's 725 @,@ 000 Jews had died . In spite of the orders to stop , Eichmann personally made arrangements for additional trains of victims to be sent to Auschwitz on 17 and 19 July .
In a series of meetings beginning on 25 April , Eichmann met with Joel Brand , a Hungarian Jew and member of the Relief and Rescue Committee ( RRC ) . Eichmann later testified that Berlin had authorised him to allow emigration of a million Jews in exchange for 10 @,@ 000 trucks equipped to handle the wintry conditions on the Eastern Front . Nothing came of the proposal , as the Western Allies refused to consider the offer . In June 1944 Eichmann was involved in negotiations with Rudolf Kasztner that resulted in the rescue of 1 @,@ 684 people , who were sent by train to safety in Switzerland in exchange for three suitcases full of diamonds , gold , cash , and securities .
Eichmann , resentful that Kurt Becher and others were becoming involved in Jewish emigration matters , and angered by Himmler 's suspension of deportations to the death camps , requested reassignment in July . At the end of August he was assigned to head a commando squad to assist in the evacuation of 10 @,@ 000 ethnic Germans trapped on the Hungarian border with Romania in the path of the advancing Red Army . The people they were sent to rescue refused to leave , so instead the soldiers helped evacuate members of a German field hospital trapped close to the front . For this Eichmann was awarded the Iron Cross , Second Class . Throughout October and November , Eichmann arranged for tens of thousands of Jewish victims to travel by forced marches in appalling conditions from Budapest to Vienna , a distance of 210 kilometres ( 130 mi ) .
On 24 December 1944 , Eichmann fled Budapest just before the Soviets completed their encirclement of the capital . He returned to Berlin , where he arranged for the incriminating records of Department IV @-@ B4 to be burned . Along with many other SS officers who fled in the closing months of the war , Eichmann and his family were living in relative safety in Austria when the war in Europe ended on 8 May 1945 . Historian Richard J. Evans estimates that 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews , representing two @-@ thirds of the Jewish population of Europe , were exterminated by the Nazi regime .
= = After the Second World War = =
At the end of the Second World War , Eichmann was captured by the Americans and spent time in several camps for SS officers using forged papers that identified him as " Otto Eckmann " . He escaped from a work detail at Cham when he realised that his actual identity had been discovered . He obtained new identity papers with the name of " Otto Heninger " and relocated frequently over the next several months . Moving to the Lüneburg Heath , he initially got work in the forestry industry and later leased a small plot of land in Altensalzkoth , where he lived until 1950 . Meanwhile , at the Nuremberg trials of major war criminals starting in 1946 , damning evidence about Eichmann 's activities was given by former commandant of Auschwitz Rudolf Höss and others .
In 1948 Eichmann obtained a landing permit for Argentina and false identification under the name of " Ricardo Klement " through an organisation directed by Bishop Alois Hudal , an Austrian cleric then residing in Italy with known Nazi sympathies . These documents enabled him in 1950 to obtain an International Committee of the Red Cross humanitarian passport and the remaining entry permits that would allow emigration to Argentina . He travelled across Europe , staying in a series of monasteries that had been set up as safe houses . Departing via ship from Genoa on 17 June 1950 , he arrived in Buenos Aires on 14 July .
Eichmann initially lived in Tucumán Province , where he worked for a government contractor . He sent for his family in 1952 , and they moved to Buenos Aires . Eichmann held a series of low @-@ paying jobs until finding employment at Mercedes @-@ Benz , where he rose to department head . The family built a house at 14 Garibaldi Street ( now 6061 Garibaldi Street ) and moved in during 1960 .
For four months beginning in late 1956 , Eichmann was extensively interviewed by Nazi expatriate journalist Willem Sassen with the intention of producing a biography . Tapes , transcripts , and handwritten notes by Eichmann were produced . The memoirs were later used as the basis for a series of articles that appeared in Life and Der Stern magazines in late 1960 .
= = Capture in Argentina = =
Several Jews and other survivors of the Holocaust dedicated themselves to finding Eichmann and other Nazis . Among them was the Jewish Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal . Wiesenthal learned from a letter shown to him in 1953 that Eichmann had been seen in Buenos Aires , and he passed along that information to the Israeli consulate in Vienna in 1954 . When Eichmann 's father died in 1960 , Wiesenthal made arrangements for private detectives to surreptitiously photograph members of the family , as Eichmann 's brother Otto was said to bear a strong family resemblance and there were no current photos of the fugitive . He provided these photographs to Mossad agents on 18 February .
Also instrumental in exposing Eichmann 's identity was Lothar Hermann , a German half @-@ Jew who had emigrated to Argentina in 1938 . When in 1956 Hermann 's daughter Sylvia began dating a man named Klaus Eichmann who boasted about his father 's Nazi exploits , Hermann alerted Fritz Bauer , prosecutor @-@ general of the state of Hesse in West Germany . Sylvia , sent on a fact @-@ finding mission , was met at the door by Eichmann himself , who said he was Klaus 's uncle . Informed that Klaus was not home , she sat down to wait . When Klaus returned , he addressed Eichmann as ' Father ' . In 1957 Bauer passed along the information in person to Mossad director Isser Harel , who assigned operatives to undertake surveillance , but no concrete evidence was initially found . On 1 March 1960 Harel dispatched to Buenos Aires the Shin Bet chief interrogator Zvi Aharoni , who over the course of weeks of investigation was able to confirm the identity of the fugitive . As Argentina had a history of turning down extradition requests for Nazi criminals , Israeli Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion made the decision that Eichmann should be captured rather than extradited , and brought to Israel for trial . Harel himself arrived in person in May 1960 to oversee the capture . Mossad operative Rafi Eitan was named leader of the eight @-@ man team , most of whom were Shin Bet agents .
The team captured Eichmann near his home on Garibaldi Street in San Fernando , Buenos Aires , an industrial community 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of the centre of Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 . The agents had arrived in Buenos Aires in April 1960 after Eichmann 's identity was confirmed . After observing the suspect 's routine for many days , they determined that he arrived home by bus from work at around the same time every evening . They planned to seize him when he was walking beside an open field from the bus stop to his house . The plan was almost abandoned on the designated day when Eichmann was not present on the bus he usually took home . Finally , almost half an hour late , Eichmann got off a bus . Mossad agent Peter Malkin engaged him , asking him in Spanish if he had a moment . Frightened , Eichmann attempted to leave , but two more Mossad men came to Malkin 's aid ; the three wrestled Eichmann to the ground and , after a struggle , conducted him to a car where they hid him on the floor under a blanket .
Eichmann was taken to one of several Mossad safe houses that had been set up by the team . He was held there for nine days , during which time his identity was double @-@ checked and confirmed . During these days , Harel tried to locate Josef Mengele , the notorious Nazi doctor from Auschwitz concentration camp , as the Mossad had information that he was also living in Buenos Aires . He was hoping to bring Mengele back to Israel on the same flight . Mengele had already left his last known residence in the city , and Harel was unable to get any leads on where he had gone , so the plans for his capture had to be abandoned .
Near midnight on 20 May , Eichmann was sedated by an Israeli doctor on the Mossad team and dressed as a flight attendant . He was smuggled out of Argentina aboard the same El Al Bristol Britannia aircraft that had a few days earlier carried Israel 's delegation to the official 150th anniversary celebration of Argentina 's independence from Spain . After a tense delay at the airport getting the flight plan approved , the plane took off for Israel , stopping over in Dakar , Senegal , to refuel . They arrived in Israel on 22 May , and Ben @-@ Gurion announced Eichmann 's capture to the Knesset — Israel 's parliament — the following afternoon . In Argentina , the abduction was met with a violent wave of antisemitism carried out by far @-@ right sectors , including the Tacuara Nationalist Movement .
In June 1960 , after unsuccessful negotiations with Israel , Argentina requested an urgent meeting of the United Nations Security Council to protest , as they regarded the capture as a violation of their sovereign rights . In the ensuing debate , the Israeli representative Golda Meir claimed that the abductors were not Israeli agents but private individuals and so the incident was only an " isolated violation of Argentine law " . On 23 June the Council passed Resolution 138 , which agreed that Argentine sovereignty had been violated and requested that Israel should make reparations . After further negotiations , on 3 August , Israel and Argentina issued a joint statement admitting the violation of Argentinian sovereignty but agreeing to end the dispute . In Eichmann 's trial and subsequent appeal , the Israeli court determined that the circumstances of his capture had no bearing on the legality of his trial .
Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) documents declassified in 2006 show that the capture of Eichmann caused alarm at the CIA and West German Bundesnachrichtendienst ( BND ) . Both organizations had known for at least two years where Eichmann was hiding , but did not act , because it did not serve their interests in the Cold War to do so . Both were concerned about what Eichmann might say in his testimony about West German national security advisor Hans Globke , who had coauthored several antisemitic Nazi laws ( including the Nuremberg Laws ) . The documents also revealed that both agencies had used some of Eichmann 's former Nazi colleagues to spy on European communist countries .
= = Trial = =
Eichmann was taken to a fortified police station at Yagur in Israel , where he spent nine months . The Israelis were unwilling to take him to trial based solely on the evidence in documents and witness testimony , so the prisoner was subject to daily interrogations , the transcripts of which totalled over 3 @,@ 500 pages . The interrogator was Chief Inspector Avner Less of the national police . Using documents provided primarily by Yad Vashem and Nazi hunter Tuviah Friedman , Less was often able to determine when Eichmann was lying or being evasive . When additional information was brought forward that forced Eichmann into admitting what he had done , Eichmann would insist he had not had any authority in the Nazi hierarchy and had only been following orders . Inspector Less noted that Eichmann did not seem to realise the enormity of his crimes and showed no remorse . His pardon plea , released in 2016 , did not contradict this : " There is a need to draw a line between the leaders responsible and the people like me forced to serve as mere instruments in the hands of the leaders " , Eichmann wrote . " I was not a responsible leader , and as such do not feel myself guilty . "
Eichmann 's trial before the Jerusalem District Court began on 11 April 1961 . The legal basis of the charges against Eichmann was the 1950 Nazi and Nazi Collaborators ( Punishment ) Law , under which he was indicted on 15 criminal charges , including crimes against humanity , war crimes , crimes against the Jewish people , and membership in a criminal organisation . The trial was presided over by three judges : Moshe Landau , Benjamin Halevy and Yitzhak Raveh . The chief prosecutor was Israeli Attorney General Gideon Hausner , assisted by Gabriel Bach of the Department of Justice and Tel Aviv District Attorney Yaakov Bar @-@ Or . The defence team consisted of German lawyer Robert Servatius , legal assistant Dieter Wechtenbruch , and Eichmann himself .
The Israeli government arranged for the trial to have prominent media coverage . Capital Cities Broadcasting Corporation of the United States obtained exclusive rights to videotape the proceedings for television broadcast . Many major newspapers from all over the globe sent reporters and published front @-@ page coverage of the story . The trial was held at the Beit Ha 'am ( today known as the Gerard Behar Center ) , an auditorium in central Jerusalem . Eichmann sat inside a bulletproof glass booth to protect him from assassination attempts . The building was modified to allow journalists to watch the trial on closed @-@ circuit television , and 750 seats were available in the auditorium itself . Israelis had the opportunity to watch live television broadcasts of the proceedings , and videotape was flown daily to the United States for broadcast the following day .
The prosecution case was presented over the course of 56 days , involving hundreds of documents and 112 witnesses ( many of them Holocaust survivors ) . Hausner 's intention was to not only demonstrate Eichmann 's guilt but to present material about the entire Holocaust , thus producing a comprehensive record . Hausner 's opening address began , " It is not an individual that is in the dock at this historic trial and not the Nazi regime alone , but anti @-@ Semitism throughout history . " Defence attorney Servatius repeatedly tried to curb the presentation of material not directly related to Eichmann , and was mostly successful . In addition to wartime documents , material presented as evidence included tapes and transcripts from Eichmann 's interrogation and Sassen 's interviews in Argentina . In the case of the Sassen interviews , only Eichmann 's hand @-@ written notes were admitted into evidence .
Some of the evidence submitted by the prosecution took the form of depositions made by leading Nazis . The defence demanded that the men should be brought to Israel so that the defence 's right to cross @-@ examination would not be abrogated . But Hausner , in his role as Attorney General , declared that he would be obliged to arrest any war criminals who entered Israel . The prosecution proved that Eichmann had visited places where exterminations had taken place , including Chełmno extermination camp , Auschwitz , and Minsk ( where he witnessed a mass shooting of Jews ) , and therefore was aware that the deportees were being killed .
When the prosecution rested , the defence opened its case with a motion to dismiss based on the trial itself being illegal . Servatius challenged Eichmann 's kidnapping and the basis for the Israeli law under which he had been indicted . He argued that if the trial were to continue , it should transfer its jurisdiction to West Germany . The prosecution countered by stating that the United Nations had endorsed Israel 's actions , and that both West Germany and Argentina had agreed that the charges against him were legitimate . The defence motion was subsequently dismissed .
The defence next engaged in a lengthy direct examination of Eichmann . Observers such as Moshe Pearlman and Hannah Arendt have remarked on Eichmann 's ordinariness in appearance and flat affect . In his testimony throughout the trial , Eichmann insisted he had no choice but to follow orders , as he was bound by an oath of loyalty — the same superior orders defence used by some defendants in the 1945 – 1946 Nuremberg trials . Eichmann asserted that the decisions had been made not by him , but by Müller , Heydrich , Himmler , and ultimately Hitler . Servatius also proposed that decisions of the Nazi government were acts of state and therefore not subject to normal judicial proceedings . Regarding the Wannsee Conference , Eichmann stated that he felt a sense of satisfaction and relief at its conclusion . As a clear decision to exterminate had been made by his superiors , the matter was out of his hands ; he felt absolved of any guilt . On the last day of the examination , he stated that he was guilty of arranging the transports , but he did not feel guilty for the consequences .
Throughout his cross @-@ examination , prosecutor Hausner attempted to get Eichmann to admit he was personally guilty , but no such confession was forthcoming . Eichmann admitted to not liking the Jews and viewing them as adversaries , but stated that he never thought their annihilation was justified . When Hausner produced evidence that Eichmann had stated in 1945 that " I will leap into my grave laughing because the feeling that I have five million human beings on my conscience is for me a source of extraordinary satisfaction " , Eichmann said he meant " enemies of the Reich " such as the Soviets . During later examination by the judges , he admitted he meant the Jews , and said the remark was an accurate reflection of his opinion at the time .
The trial adjourned on 14 August , and the verdict was read on 12 December . The judges declared him not guilty of personally killing anyone and not guilty of overseeing and controlling the activities of the Einsatzgruppen . He was deemed responsible for the dreadful conditions on board the deportation trains and for obtaining Jews to fill those trains . He was found guilty of crimes against humanity , war crimes , and crimes against Poles , Slovenes and Gypsies . He was also found guilty of membership in three organisations that had been deemed criminal at the Nuremberg trials : the Gestapo , the SD , and the SS . When considering the sentence , the judges concluded that Eichmann had not merely been following orders , but believed in the Nazi cause wholeheartedly and had been a key perpetrator of the genocide . On 15 December 1961 , Eichmann was sentenced to death .
= = = Appeals and execution = = =
Servatius appealed the verdict , mostly relying on legal arguments about Israel 's jurisdiction and the legality of the laws under which Eichmann was charged . Appeal hearings took place between 22 and 29 March 1962 . Eichmann 's wife Vera flew to Israel and saw him for the last time at the end of April . On 29 May , the Israeli Supreme Court rejected the appeal and upheld the District Court 's judgement on all counts . Eichmann immediately petitioned Israeli President Yitzhak Ben @-@ Zvi for clemency . The content of his letter to the President pleading for pardon and other original court documents of the trial were made public on 27 January 2016 . Prominent people such as Hugo Bergmann , Pearl Buck , Martin Buber , and Ernst Simon spoke up on his behalf . Ben @-@ Gurion called a special cabinet meeting to resolve the issue . The cabinet decided not to recommend to President Ben @-@ Zvi to grant clemency to Eichmann . As a result , Ben @-@ Zvi rejected the appeal to commute Eichmann 's sentence . At 8 : 00 PM on 31 May , Eichmann was informed that his final appeal had been declined . His last meal was the usual prison fare of cheese , bread , olives , and tea , along with a half bottle of wine .
Eichmann was hanged at a prison in Ramla hours later — the hanging , scheduled for midnight at the end of 31 May , was slightly delayed and thus took place a few minutes into 1 June 1962 . The execution was attended by a small group of officials , four journalists and the Canadian clergyman William Lovell Hull , who had been his spiritual counselor while in prison . His last words were :
Long live Germany . Long live Argentina . Long live Austria . These are the three countries with which I have been most connected and which I will not forget . I greet my wife , my family and my friends . I am ready . We 'll meet again soon , as is the fate of all men . I die believing in God .
Within hours Eichmann 's body had been cremated , and his ashes scattered in the Mediterranean Sea , outside of Israeli territorial waters by an Israeli Navy patrol boat .
= = = Impact = = =
The trial and the surrounding media coverage sparked renewed interest in wartime events , and the resulting increase in publication of memoirs and scholarly works helped raise public awareness of the Holocaust . The trial received widespread coverage by the press in West Germany , and many schools added material studying the issues to their curriculum . In Israel , the testimony of witnesses at the trial led to a deeper understanding of the impact of the Holocaust on survivors , especially among younger citizens who had never suffered state @-@ sponsored oppression .
Political theorist Hannah Arendt , a Jew who fled Germany after Hitler 's rise to power , reported on Eichmann 's trial for The New Yorker . In Eichmann in Jerusalem , Arendt calls Eichmann the embodiment of the " banality of evil " , as he appeared to have an ordinary and normal personality , displaying neither guilt nor hatred . In his 1988 book Justice , Not Vengeance , Wiesenthal said : " The world now understands the concept of ' desk murderer ' . We know that one doesn 't need to be fanatical , sadistic , or mentally ill to murder millions ; that it is enough to be a loyal follower eager to do one 's duty . " In her 2011 book Eichmann Before Jerusalem , based largely on the Sassen interviews and Eichmann 's notes made while in exile , Bettina Stangneth posits that Eichmann was proud of his wartime accomplishments , remained a committed Nazi throughout his life , and intentionally built a persona as a faceless bureaucrat for presentation at the trial .
Eichmann 's youngest son Ricardo says he is not resentful toward Israel for executing his father . He does not agree that his father 's " following orders " argument excuses his actions and notes how his father 's lack of remorse caused " difficult emotions " for the Eichmann family . Ricardo is now a professor of archaeology at the German Archaeological Institute .
In 2015 the filming of the trial by producer Milton Fruchtman and blacklisted TV director Leo Hurwitz was the subject of the UK television film The Eichmann Show , featuring Martin Freeman and Anthony LaPaglia . The film intercuts dramatic scenes with historical footage from the trial .
= = Summary of SS career = =
SS number : 45 @,@ 326
Nazi Party number : 899 @,@ 895
Primary positions : Sub @-@ Department IV @-@ B4 ( Gestapo ) , RSHA
Waffen @-@ SS service : SS @-@ Untersturmführer der Reserve ( 9 November 1944 )
= = = Links related to the trial = = =
The Trial of Adolf Eichmann : Record of Proceedings
The Eichmann Trial on YouTube
" With Me Are Six Million Accusers " an online site marking the 50th anniversary of the Eichmann Trial
" The Eichmann Trial : 50 Years After " : selected documents from the Israel State Archives
" Eichmann Prosecutor Interview : A Conversation with Justice Gabriel Bach , Senior Prosecutor in the Adolf Eichmann Trial " by Frank Tuerkheimer , Professor at the University of Wisconsin Law School
" Adolf Eichmann in Israel : Portraits of a Nazi War Criminal " , life.time.com
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= Maryland Route 36 =
Maryland Route 36 ( also known as MD 36 or Route 36 ) is a 29 @.@ 43 @-@ mile ( 47 @.@ 36 km ) state highway located in Allegany County , Maryland , United States . MD 36 's southern terminus is at the WV 46 bridge in Westernport and its northern terminus at U.S. Route 40 Alternate near Cumberland . Between Westernport and Frostburg , it is known as Georges Creek Road , and from Frostburg to Cumberland it is known as Mount Savage Road . Like the majority of Maryland state highways , MD 36 is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) .
MD 36 serves as the main road through the Georges Creek Valley , a region which is historically known for coal mining , and has been designated by MDSHA as part of the Coal Heritage Scenic Byway . MD 36 is the main road connecting the towns of Westernport , Lonaconing , and Midland in southwestern Allegany County , as well as Frostburg , Mount Savage , and Corriganville in northwestern Allegany County .
= = Route description = =
MD 36 has two main sections : Georges Creek Road , which runs along the Georges Creek Valley , from Westernport to Frostburg in southwestern Allegany County , and Mount Savage Road , which runs eastward from Frostburg to Cumberland in northwestern Allegany County . MD 36 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from I @-@ 68 to US 40 Alternate in Frostburg and from MD 35 at Corriganville to US 40 Alternate in Cumberland .
= = = Georges Creek Road = = =
MD 36 begins at the West Virginia Route 46 ( WV 46 ) bridge in Westernport and runs northeast across western Allegany County as a two @-@ lane road named Georges Creek Road , named for Georges Creek , a Potomac River tributary which the road parallels . The speed limit for most of the length between Westernport and Lonaconing is 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . A short distance outside Westernport city limits , MD 36 intersects MD 937 , an old alignment of MD 36 . Near Barton , MD 36 intersects MD 935 , which is the old alignment of MD 36 through Barton . MD 36 bypasses Barton , climbing the hillside above the Georges Creek Valley before descending back into the valley as it approaches Lonaconing . MD 935 returns to MD 36 south of Lonaconing , with its northern terminus at MD 36 .
As the road enters Lonaconing , it narrows and the speed limit drops to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) , increasing to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) after it travels through Lonaconing . MD 36 passes through Lonaconing as Main Street , and it intersects MD 657 near the center of Lonaconing . Along Main Street in Lonaconing is the Lonaconing Iron Furnace , a historic blast furnace which operated in the early 19th century .
MD 36 then continues toward Midland . At Midland , there is a sharp curve in the road , and the speed limit drops to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) . Along this curve , MD 36 intersects Church Street , which connects to MD 936 , the old alignment of MD 36 between Midland and Frostburg . The new alignment of MD 36 proceeds northeast , passing near Vale Summit , where it intersects MD 55 .
North of the MD 55 intersection , MD 36 meets Interstate 68 at a diamond interchange at exit 34 . Near this interchange is God 's Ark of Safety , a church famous for its attempt to build a replica of Noah 's Ark . Between Midland and Frostburg , the speed limit is again 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and there is a short section near the Interstate 68 interchange where MD 36 expands to four lanes . Upon entering Frostburg , MD 36 joins U.S. Route 40 Alternate as Main Street . MD 36 follows Main Street westward through Frostburg , meeting the northern terminus of MD 936 at Grant Street . At Depot Street , near the center of Frostburg , MD 36 connects to the western depot of the Western Maryland Scenic Railroad . At the intersection with Water Street , MD 36 leaves U.S. Route 40 Alternate , and upon leaving Frostburg city limits its name changes to Mount Savage Road .
= = = Mount Savage Road = = =
After leaving Frostburg , MD 36 is known as Mount Savage Road , as it travels eastward , perpendicular to its signed direction , toward Mount Savage . North of Eckhart Mines , MD 36 meets MD 638 , which connects MD 36 to U.S. Route 40 Alternate in Eckhart Mines . The road between Frostburg and Mount Savage is particularly curvy , and includes several hairpin turns near Frostburg . The speed limit on this section of the road is 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) .
As the road enters Mount Savage , it passes by the Mount Savage Castle , a Scottish @-@ style castle built in 1840 , which currently operates as a bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast . In Mount Savage , the route narrows as it follows Main Street , and the road is frequently obstructed by parked cars , making it difficult for two cars to pass by each other . East of Mount Savage , the route widens and its speed limit gradually increases to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) .
In Barrelville , MD 36 intersects MD 47 , which connects it with PA 160 in Somerset County . From its intersection with MD 47 to its terminus at Cumberland , MD 36 follows newer alignments , with the old alignments being designated MD 831 . At Corriganville , MD 36 intersects MD 35 , which connects it with PA 96 in Bedford County . MD 36 ends at U.S. Route 40 Alternate at the Narrows near Cumberland .
= = History = =
MD 36 passes through the Georges Creek Valley , which has a long history of coal mining . In recognition of this , the MDSHA has designated MD 36 as part of the Coal Heritage Scenic Byway . Coal mining was a major industry in western Maryland in the 19th century , with railroads being the major route connecting the coal mines to markets outside the Georges Creek Valley . Deep mining , which was the primary mining method used in western Maryland , declined in use after World War II , replaced primarily by surface mining . Although Maryland coal production is now only a small fraction of total U.S. coal production , coal from the Georges Creek Valley is used to power the AES Warrior Run power plant in Cumberland .
MD 36 was assigned a route number before 1927 , earlier than most of the other Maryland state highways . The original alignment of MD 36 in southern Allegany County closely paralleled the Georges Creek Railroad . Later realignments have shifted MD 36 away from the railroad in several locations , but three crossings remain : one north of Lonaconing , one south of Lonaconing near the MD 935 intersection , and a third crossing near Westernport .
Over the years , multiple new alignments of MD 36 have been built for various reasons , such as to smooth out curves in the road . Several of the old alignments have been assigned route numbers of their own . The southernmost of these is MD 937 , which consists of the old alignment through Westernport . Prior to the construction of the bridge connecting MD 36 to WV 46 , MD 937 was the alignment of MD 36 through Westernport , ending at MD 135 . In Barton , MD 935 carries the old alignment of MD 36 . The longest of the old alignment sections is MD 936 , which runs from Midland to Frostburg , and was bypassed in the 1970s with a new alignment of MD 36 following part of MD 55 and connecting to Interstate 68 . Prior to this change , MD 55 ended in Midland ; it has since been truncated to its current terminus at Vale Summit .
North of Frostburg , several old alignments are designated as MD 831 , though these segments of road are not signed . Among these segments of road are Kriegbaum Road ( designated as MD 831C ) , and Old Mount Savage Road ( designated as MD 831A ) . Kriegbaum Road splits from MD 36 west of Corriganville and runs through Corriganville , returning to MD 36 east of the town . Old Mount Savage Road intersects MD 36 west of the Cumberland Narrows , and runs southward to intersect U.S. Route 40 Alternate near its current intersection with MD 36 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Allegany County .
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= Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ( U.S. game show ) =
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ( often informally called Millionaire ) is an American television game show based on the same @-@ titled British program and developed for the United States by Michael Davies . The show features a quiz competition in which contestants attempt to win a top prize of U.S. $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 by answering a series of multiple @-@ choice questions of increasing difficulty ( although , for a time , most of the questions were of random difficulty ) . The program has endured as one of the longest @-@ running and most successful international variants in the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? franchise .
The original U.S. version aired on ABC from August 16 , 1999 to June 27 , 2002 , and was hosted by Regis Philbin . The daily syndicated version of the show began airing on September 16 , 2002 , and was hosted for eleven seasons by Meredith Vieira until May 31 , 2013 . Later hosts included Cedric the Entertainer in the 2013 – 14 season , Terry Crews in the following season ( 2014 – 15 ) , and Chris Harrison , who began hosting on September 14 , 2015 .
As the first U.S. network game show to offer a million @-@ dollar top prize , the show made television history by becoming one of the highest @-@ rated game shows in the history of American television . The U.S. Millionaire has won seven Daytime Emmy Awards , and TV Guide ranked it # 6 in its 2013 list of the 60 greatest game shows of all time .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Core rules = = =
At its core , the game is a quiz competition in which the goal is to correctly answer a series of fourteen ( originally fifteen ) consecutive multiple @-@ choice questions . The questions are of increasing difficulty , except in the 2010 – 15 format overhaul , where the contestants were faced with fourteen questions of random difficulty , distributed into two rounds . Each question is worth a specified amount of money ; the amounts are cumulative in the first round , but not in the second . If the contestant gives a wrong answer to any question , their game is over and their winnings are reduced to $ 1 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ one questions , $ 5 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ two questions , and $ 50 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ three questions . However , the contestant has the option of " walking away " without giving an answer after being presented with a question , in which case the game ends and the contestant is guaranteed to walk away with all the money they have previously received . With the exception of the shuffle format , upon correctly answering questions five and ten , contestants are guaranteed at least the amount of prize money associated with that level . If the contestant gives an incorrect answer , their winnings drop down to the last milestone achieved . Since 2015 , if the contestant answers a question incorrectly before reaching question five , he or she leaves with $ 1 @,@ 000 . Prior to the shuffle format , a contestant left with nothing if he or she answered a question incorrectly before reaching the first milestone . In the shuffle format era , contestants who incorrectly answered a question had their winnings reduced to $ 1 @,@ 000 in round one and $ 25 @,@ 000 in round two .
= = = Format history = = =
On the ABC versions , ten contestants competed in a preliminary " Fastest Finger " round for the right to play the main game on each episode . The contestants were presented with a question and a list of four answers which needed to be put in a specific order . Using keys on their podiums , each of the contestants attempted to enter the correct order in the shortest amount of time , with a maximum time limit of 20 seconds . If the main game ended and there was still time available for another game , the remaining contestants played another Fastest Finger round for a chance to play the main game . In the event of a tie between two or more contestants , those contestants played an additional Fastest Finger question to break the tie . If all contestants answered the question incorrectly , the round was repeated with another question . Fastest Finger was eliminated from the gameplay when the syndicated version premiered in 2002 .
From 2008 to 2010 , time limits were used for each question . Contestants were given up to 15 seconds each for questions one through five , 30 seconds each for questions six through ten , and 45 seconds each for questions eleven through fourteen . Unused time was banked , and if the contestant reached question fifteen , he or she was given 45 seconds plus however much time that was previously banked . If the clock reached zero before a contestant could provide a final answer , the contestant was forced to walk away with the winnings they had at that point . During the clock format era , a " Millionaire Menu " was introduced , in which categories are revealed for each question at the beginning of the game , and are made visible to the contestant for their future reference . Some prize levels also changed at the start of season eight . Most of the episodes in season eight ( from the " Million Dollar Tournament of Ten " onward ) featured special " Celebrity Questions " that were mid @-@ level in monetary value , and were provided by notable individuals whose identities were not revealed until the contestant reached their special questions .
When the ninth syndicated season began on September 13 , 2010 , the format was overhauled . Ten questions were asked in round one , each assigned one of ten different money amounts which were randomized at the beginning of the game ; in this case , the difficulty of the questions was not tied to the dollar value . The dollar values for each question remained hidden until a contestant either provided a correct answer or chose to " jump " the question . The value of each question answered correctly was added to the contestant 's bank , for a maximum total of $ 68 @,@ 600 . A contestant who completed the round successfully could walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank , or could walk without completing the round with half that amount ( e.g. , a contestant who banked $ 30 @,@ 000 would leave with $ 15 @,@ 000 ) . After completing round one , the contestant moved on to a second round of gameplay ( the " Classic Millionaire " round ) , in which four non @-@ categorized questions were played for set non @-@ cumulative values and a correct answer augmented the contestant 's winnings to that point , as in the older formats . The shuffle format changes , including the randomization and double @-@ round distribution of questions , were reverted for the fourteenth syndicated season .
From 2011 to 2014 , certain weeks of the show were designated as " Double Your Money " weeks . In those , a certain question in round one was designated the " Double Money Question . " When a contestant answered such a question correctly , the monetary value behind the question was doubled and added to his or her bank , giving him or her the possibility of adding up to a maximum of $ 50 @,@ 000 to his or her bank on a single question ; under these special rules , it was possible for a contestant to finish round one with a maximum total of $ 93 @,@ 600 in their bank . However , when a contestant " jumped " the question , they forfeited the doubled money .
In the event that a contestant leaves and very little time remains , a randomly selected audience member is given one chance to win $ 1 @,@ 000 by answering the next question intended for the previous contestant ( or $ 2 @,@ 000 if the next question was on a Double Money episode ) . Regardless of the outcome , the audience member receives a special prize . In seasons nine and ten , the prize was a copy of the Millionaire video game ; as of season eleven , audience members now receive 20 free playings for a Facebook game based on the show 's format . In season thirteen , which gave this game the name " Thousandaire " , the question the audience player faced did not come from the previous player 's stack , but was instead a separate question . Season thirteen also introduced two additional audience games : " Team Millionaire " , where two audience members are both presented with a single question and lock in their individual answers separately for the chance to win $ 500 and a bonus question with which they can double their money ; and " Fastest Feet " , a variation of Fastest Finger which four audience members play for the chance to split $ 1 @,@ 000 .
= = = Payout structure = = =
For the first five years of the U.S. Millionaire 's existence , the payout structure was as follows : first going from $ 100 to $ 300 in increments of $ 100 , then from $ 500 to $ 64 @,@ 000 with the dollar value for each new question being double that of the one before it , and finally from $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with the dollar values doubling for each new question . At the start of the third syndicated season the values for questions ten through twelve were changed from $ 32 @,@ 000 , $ 64 @,@ 000 , and $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 25 @,@ 000 , $ 50 @,@ 000 , and $ 100 @,@ 000 respectively . The 2004 payout structure endured until the eighth syndicated season , when after the ninth contestant from the 2009 primetime revival played , a new payout structure was implemented in which the dollar values first went from $ 500 to $ 2 @,@ 000 with the dollar value of each new question being double that of the previous one , then to $ 3 @,@ 000 , then from $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 15 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 2 @,@ 500 ; the dollar values of questions ten through fifteen remained unchanged . In the shuffle format era , the ten questions in round one had random values which included $ 100 , $ 500 , $ 1 @,@ 000 , $ 2 @,@ 000 , $ 3 @,@ 000 , $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 7 @,@ 000 , $ 10 @,@ 000 , $ 15 @,@ 000 , and $ 25 @,@ 000 ; the final four questions , in round two , retained their 2004 values . For the 2015 – 16 season , the first five questions follow the payout structure used from 2009 to 2010 , while the dollar value of each new question for the next five questions is $ 7 @,@ 000 , $ 10 @,@ 000 , $ 20 @,@ 000 , $ 30 @,@ 000 and $ 50 @,@ 000 ; the money values for the last four questions remain unchanged . The second safe haven is $ 50 @,@ 000 at question 10 , with the first one still $ 5 @,@ 000 .
The $ 500 @,@ 000 and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 prizes were initially lump @-@ sum payments , but were changed to annuities in September 2002 when the series moved to syndication . Contestants winning either of these prizes receive $ 250 @,@ 000 thirty days after their show broadcasts and the remainder paid in equal annual payments . The $ 500 @,@ 000 prize consists of $ 25 @,@ 000 per year for 10 years , while the $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 prize consists of $ 37 @,@ 500 per year for 20 years .
= = = Lifelines = = =
Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions . They can use as many lifelines as desired per question , but each lifeline can only be used once per game . Three lifelines are available from the start of the game . Depending on the format of the show , additional lifelines may become available after the contestant correctly answers the fifth or tenth question . In the clock format , usage of lifelines temporarily paused the clock while the lifelines were played .
The show 's original three lifelines were " 50 : 50 " , in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers ; " Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend " , which allowed the contestant to make a 30 @-@ second call to one of a number of friends ( who provided their phone numbers in advance ) and read them the question and answer choices , after which the friend provided input ; and " Ask the Audience " , in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be , after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant . 50 : 50 was eliminated at the end of the show 's sixth syndicated season , only to be restored in season fourteen . Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend was removed on the episode aired January 11 , 2010 , after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using search engines and other Internet resources , unfairly privileging individuals who had computer access over those who did not , and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline where friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew . From 2004 to 2008 , there was a fourth lifeline called " Switch the Question " , earned upon answering question ten , in which the computer replaced , at the contestant 's request , one question with another of the same monetary value ; however , any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question . Switch the Question returned as " Cut the Question " on a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014 .
During the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , two new lifelines were introduced : " Double Dip " , which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question , but required them to play out the question , forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines ; and " Three Wise Men " , in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers , appearing via face @-@ to @-@ face audio and video feeds , which answer they believed was correct , within a time limit of 30 seconds . When the clock format was implemented , Double Dip replaced 50 : 50 , and the show introduced a new lifeline called " Ask the Expert " , which was like Three Wise Men but had one person ( usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant ) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people , lacked the time limit of its predecessor , and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question . Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question , but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend was removed .
The show 's lifelines sometimes used corporate sponsorship . The Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend lifeline was sponsored by the original AT & T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version , then by the current AT & T for the 2009 primetime episodes . From 2004 to 2006 , Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL , which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their buddy list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers , to which the users replied with their choices . In addition , the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds .
During the shuffle format era , the show introduced a new lifeline , " Jump the Question " , which was able to be used twice in a single game for seasons nine through twelve . At any point prior to selecting a final answer , a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one , thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer . However , if the contestant used Jump the Question , they did not gain any money from the question they chose to skip ( for example , a contestant would not gain the typical $ 100 @,@ 000 if they jumped to the $ 250 @,@ 000 question ) . This lifeline could not be used on the $ 1 million question , since it is the final question in the game . The " Plus One " lifeline , introduced in season thirteen , allows a contestant to bring a companion with him or her to the podium for help in answering a question . The introduction of this lifeline reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one . On occasional specially designated weeks , starting with a Halloween @-@ themed week that aired from October 29 to November 2 , 2012 , the shuffle format used a special lifeline called " Crystal Ball " , which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer . Jump the Question was removed at the end of the show 's thirteenth syndicated season . For the show 's fourteenth season , during a special week of college shows , players got another lifeline called " Extra Help " , played similarly to " Plus One " and allowing for another companion to help the player ; however , it could only be used after " Plus One " was used .
= = = Top prize winners = = =
The first contestant to correctly answer all 15 questions and win the top prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 was John Carpenter , on the episode aired November 19 , 1999 . In 2000 , the million dollar top prize was awarded five times : to Dan Blonsky on the episode aired January 18 , to Joe Trela on March 23 , to Bob House on June 13 , to Kim Hunt on July 6 , and to David Goodman on July 11 .
In January 2001 , when no contestant had won $ 1 million in any show that aired over a period of five months , the top prize was then changed from a flat $ 1 million to an accumulating jackpot that increased by $ 10 @,@ 000 for each episode where the top prize was not won . On April 10 , 2001 , Kevin Olmstead correctly answered the final question and won $ 2 @,@ 180 @,@ 000 , making him the biggest winner in television history at the time . The top prize for correctly answering the final question returned to $ 1 million following Olmstead 's win and has remained unchanged since ; just five days after Olmstead 's win , the standard $ 1 million prize was awarded to Bernie Cullen . The last top prize winner on the original network version was Ed Toutant , on the episode aired September 7 , 2001 ; he had previously appeared on the episode aired January 31 , 2001 , where he was ruled to have answered his $ 16 @,@ 000 question incorrectly , but when it was discovered that there was a mistake in that question , Toutant was invited back and won a $ 1 @.@ 86 million jackpot . On the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , Robert Essig won $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 after answering the twelfth question and then walked away , not reaching the final question for $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
On the syndicated version 's first season , two contestants correctly answered all 15 questions and won the top prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 : Kevin Smith on February 18 , 2003 , and Nancy Christy on May 8 of the same year . During the Million Dollar Tournament of Ten which aired in November 2009 , Sam Murray , who had previously supplied correct responses for eleven questions , risked his winnings on a special $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question ; he was the only contestant to answer his question correctly .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Hosts = = =
The original network version of the U.S. Millionaire and the subsequent primetime specials were hosted by Regis Philbin . When the syndicated version was being developed , the production team felt that it was not feasible for Philbin to continue hosting , as the show recorded four episodes in a single day , and that the team was looking for qualities in a new host : it had to be somebody who would love the contestants and be willing to root for them . Rosie O 'Donnell was initially offered a hosting position on this new edition , but declined the opportunity almost immediately . Eventually Meredith Vieira , who had previously competed in a celebrity charity event on the original network version , was named host of the new syndicated edition .
ABC originally offered Vieira hosting duties on the syndicated Millionaire to sweeten one of her re @-@ negotiations for the network 's daytime talk show The View , which she was moderating at the time . When the show was honored by GSN on its Gameshow Hall of Fame special , Vieira herself further explained her motivation for hosting the syndicated version as follows :
I did the show because I fell in love with the show , and really , first and foremost , as a parent , [ I feel that ] there aren 't that many shows on television that you can watch as a family . And when Michael Davies approached me and said , " Would you be interested in hosting the syndicated version ? " , I said , " Just point me toward the contract ! I am so there ! "
From 2007 to 2011 , when Vieira was concurrently working as a co @-@ host of Today , guest hosts appeared in the second half of each season of the syndicated version . Guest hosts who filled in for Vieira included Philbin , Al Roker , Tom Bergeron , Tim Vincent , Dave Price , Billy Bush , Leeza Gibbons , Cat Deeley , Samantha Harris , Shaun Robinson , Steve Harvey , John Henson , Sherri Shepherd , Tim Gunn , and D. L. Hughley .
On January 10 , 2013 , Vieira announced that after eleven seasons with the syndicated Millionaire , she would be leaving the show as part of an effort to focus on other projects in her career . She finalized taping of her last episodes with the show in November 2012 . Her successor as host of the syndicated Millionaire , Cedric the Entertainer , was introduced to the show when season twelve premiered on September 2 , 2013 . On April 30 , 2014 , Deadline announced that Cedric had decided to leave the show in order to lighten his workload , resulting in him being succeeded by Terry Crews for the 2014 – 2015 season . Crews was succeeded by Chris Harrison , host of The Bachelor and its spin @-@ offs , when season 14 premiered on September 14 , 2015 .
= = = Production staff = = =
The original executive producers of the U.S. Millionaire were British television producers Michael Davies and Paul Smith , the latter of whom undertook the responsibility of licensing Millionaire to American airwaves as part of his effort to transform the UK program into a global franchise . Smith served until 2007 and Davies until 2010 ; additionally , Leigh Hampton ( previously co @-@ executive producer in the later days of the network version and in the syndicated version 's first two seasons ) served as an executive producer from 2004 to 2010 . Rich Sirop , who was previously a supervising producer , became the executive producer in 2010 and held that position until 2014 , when he left Millionaire to hold the same position with Vieira 's newly launched syndicated talk show , and was replaced by James Rowley . Vincent Rubino , who had previously been the syndicated Millionaire 's supervising producer for its first two seasons , served as that version 's co @-@ executive producer for the 2004 – 05 season , after which he was succeeded by Vieira herself , who continued to hold the title until her departure in 2013 ( sharing her position with Sirop for the 2009 – 10 season ) .
Producers of the network version included Hampton , Rubino , Leslie Fuller , Nikki Webber , and Terrence McDonnell . For its first two seasons the syndicated version had Deirdre Cossman for its managing producer , then Dennis F. McMahon became producer for the next two seasons ( joined by Dominique Bruballa as his line producer ) , after which Jennifer Weeks produced the next four seasons of syndicated Millionaire shows , initially accompanied by Amanda Zucker as her line producer , but later joined for the 2008 – 09 season by Tommy Cody ( who became sole producer in the 2009 – 10 season ) . The first 65 shuffle format episodes were produced by McPaul Smith , and as of 2011 , the title of producer is held by Bryan Lasseter . The network version had Ann Miller and Tiffany Trigg for its supervising producers ; they were joined by Wendy Roth in the first two seasons , and by Michael Binkow in the third and final season . After Rubino 's promotion to co @-@ executive producer , the syndicated version 's later supervising producers included Sirop ( 2004 – 09 ) , Geena Gintzig ( 2009 – 10 ) , Brent Burnette ( 2010 – 12 ) , Geoff Rosen ( 2012 – 14 ) , and Liz Harris ( 2014 – 16 ) .
The original network version of Millionaire was directed by Mark Gentile , who later served as the syndicated version 's consulting producer for its first two seasons , and then as the director of Duel , which ran on ABC from December 2007 to July 2008 . The syndicated version was directed by Matthew Cohen from 2002 to 2010 , by Rob George from 2010 to 2013 , and by Brian McAloon in the 2013 – 14 season . Former Price Is Right director Rich DiPirro became Millionaire 's director in 2014 .
= = Production = =
The U.S. version of Millionaire is a co @-@ production of 2waytraffic , a division of Sony Pictures Entertainment , and Valleycrest Productions , a division of The Walt Disney Company . 2waytraffic purchased Millionaire 's original production company Celador in 2008 , while Valleycrest has produced the series since its beginning , and holds the copyright on all U.S. Millionaire episodes to date . The show is distributed by Valleycrest 's corporate sibling Disney – ABC Domestic Television ( previously known as Buena Vista Television ) .
The U.S. Millionaire was taped at ABC 's Television Center East studio on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York from 1999 to 2012 . Tapings were moved to NEP Broadcasting 's Metropolis Studios in East Harlem in 2013 , and production moved to studios located in Stamford , Connecticut the following year . Episodes of the syndicated version are produced from June to December . The show originally taped four episodes in a single day , but that number has since been changed to five .
= = = Origins = = =
When the U.S. version of Millionaire was first conceived in 1998 , Michael Davies was a young television producer who was serving as the head of ABC 's little @-@ noticed reality programming division ( at a time when reality television had not yet become a phenomenon in America ) . At that time , ABC was lingering in third place in the ratings indexes among U.S. broadcast networks , and was on the verge of losing its status as one of the " Big Three " networks . Meanwhile , the popularity of game shows was at an all @-@ time nadir , as with the exception of The Price Is Right , the genre was absent from networks ' daytime lineups at that point . Having earlier created Debt for Lifetime Television and participated with Al Burton and Donnie Brainard in the creation of Win Ben Stein 's Money for Comedy Central , Davies decided to create a primetime game show that would save the network from collapse and revive interest in game shows .
Davies originally considered reviving CBS 's long @-@ lost quiz show The $ 64 @,@ 000 Question for a new era , with a new home on ABC . However , this effort 's development was limited as when the producer heard that the British Millionaire was about to make its debut , he got his friends and family members in the UK to record the show , and subsequently ended up receiving about eight FedEx packages from different family members , each containing a copy of Millionaire 's first episode . Davies was so captivated by everything that he had seen and heard , from host Chris Tarrant 's intimate involvement with the contestant to the show 's lighting system and music tracks , that he chose to abandon his work on the $ 64 @,@ 000 Question revival in favor of introducing Millionaire to American airwaves , convinced that it would become extraordinarily popular .
When Davies presented his ideas for the U.S. Millionaire to ABC , the network 's executives initially rejected them , so he resigned his position there and became an independent producer . Determined to bring his idea for the show to fruition , Davies decided that he was betting his whole career on Millionaire 's production , and the first move that he made was planning to attach a celebrity host to the show . Along with Philbin , a number of other popular television personalities were considered for hosting positions on the U.S. Millionaire during its development , including Peter Jennings , Bob Costas , Phil Donahue , and Montel Williams , but among those considered , it was Philbin who wanted the job the most , and when he saw an episode of the British Millionaire and was blown away by his content , Davies and his team ultimately settled on having him host the American show . When Davies approached ABC again after having hired Philbin , the network finally agreed to accept the U.S. Millionaire . With production now ready to begin , the team had only five months to finish developing the show and get it launched , with Davies demanding perfection in every element of Millionaire 's production .
= = = Audition process = = =
With few exceptions , any legal resident of the United States who is 18 years of age or older has the potential of becoming a contestant through Millionaire 's audition process . Those ineligible include employees , immediate family or household members , and close acquaintances of SPE , Disney , or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries ; television stations that broadcast the syndicated version ; or any advertising agency or other firm or entity engaged in the production , administration , or judging of the show . Also ineligible are current candidates for political office and individuals who have appeared on a different game show outside of cable that has been broadcast within the past year , is intended to be broadcast within the next year , or played the main game on any of the U.S. versions of Millionaire itself .
Potential contestants of the original primetime version had to compete in a telephone contest which had them dial a toll @-@ free number and answer three questions by putting objects or events in order . Callers had ten seconds to enter the order on a keypad , with any incorrect answer ending the game / call . The 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 candidates who answered all three questions correctly were selected into a random drawing in which approximately 300 contestants competed for ten spots on the show using the same phone quiz method . Accommodations for contestants outside the New York City area included round trip airfare ( or other transportation ) and hotel accommodations .
The syndicated version 's potential contestants , depending on tryouts , are required to pass an electronically scored test comprising a set of thirty questions which must be answered within a 10 @-@ minute time limit . Contestants who fail the test are eliminated , while those who pass are interviewed for an audition by the production staff , and those who impress the staff the most are then notified by postal mail that they have been placed into a pool for possible selection as contestants . At the producers ' discretion , contestants from said pool are selected to appear on actual episodes of the syndicated program ; these contestants are given a phone call from staff and asked to confirm the information on their initial application form and verify that they meet all eligibility requirements . Afterwards , they are given a date to travel to the show 's taping facilities to participate in a scheduled episode of the show . Unlike its ABC counterpart , the syndicated version does not offer transportation or hotel accommodations to contestants at the production company 's expense ; that version 's contestants are instead required to provide transportation and accommodations of their own .
The syndicated Millionaire also conducts open casting calls in various locations across the United States to search for potential contestants . These are held in late spring or early summer , with all dates and locations posted on the show 's official website . The producers make no guarantee on how many applicants will be tested at each particular venue ; however , the show will not test any more than 2 @,@ 500 individuals per audition day .
In cases when the show features themed episodes with two people playing as a team , auditions for these episodes ' contestants are announced on the show 's website . Both members of the team must pass the written test and the audition interview successfully in order to be considered for selection . If only one member of the team passes , he or she is placed into the contestant pool alone and must continue the audition process as an individual in order to proceed .
= = = Music = = =
Originally , the U.S. Millionaire carried over the musical score from the British version , composed by father @-@ and @-@ son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan . Unlike older game show musical scores , Millionaire 's musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show . The Strachans ' main Millionaire theme song took some inspiration from the " Mars " movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets , and their question cues from the $ 2 @,@ 000 to the $ 32 @,@ 000 / $ 25 @,@ 000 level , and then from the $ 64 @,@ 000 / $ 50 @,@ 000 level onwards , took the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question , in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game . On GSN 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special , the narrator described the Strachan tracks as " mimicking the sound of a beating heart , " and stated that as the contestant worked their way up the money ladder , the music was " perfectly in tune with their ever @-@ increasing pulse . "
The original Millionaire musical score holds the distinction of being the only game show soundtrack to be acknowledged by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers , as the Strachans were honored with numerous ASCAP awards for their work , the earliest of them awarded in 2000 . The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the clock format in 2008 ; for example , the question cues were synced to the " ticking " sounds of the game clock . Even later , the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010 , in favor of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams , co @-@ founders of the Los Angeles @-@ based company Ah2 Music .
= = = Set = = =
The U.S. Millionaire 's basic set is a direct adaptation of the British version 's set design , which was conceived by Andy Walmsley . Paul Smith 's original licensing agreement for the U.S. Millionaire required that the show 's set design , along with all other elements of the show 's on @-@ air presentation ( musical score , lighting system , host 's wardrobe , etc . ) , adhere faithfully to the way in which they were presented in the British version ; this same licensing agreement applied to all other international versions of the show , making Walmsley 's Millionaire set design the most reproduced scenic design in television history . The original version of the U.S. Millionaire 's set cost $ 200 @,@ 000 to construct . The U.S. Millionaire 's production design is handled by George Allison , whose predecessors have included David Weller and Jim Fenhagen .
Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant ( s ) feel at ease , Millionaire 's set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable , so that the program feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show . The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper . Before the shuffle format was implemented in 2010 , the main game had the contestant and host sit in chairs in the center of the stage , known as " Hot Seats " ; these measured 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) high , were modeled after chairs typically found in hair salons , and each seat featured a computer monitor directly facing it to display questions and other pertinent information . Shortly after the shuffle format was introduced to Millionaire , Vieira stated in an interview with her Millionaire predecessor on his morning talk show that the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat , which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous , actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer .
The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game . There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question ; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights , oil is vaporized , creating a haze effect . Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson , a professor at Syracuse University , stated that the show 's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside of prison when an escape was in progress .
When the shuffle format was introduced , the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium , and as a result , the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage . Also , two video screens were installed – one that displays the current question in play , and another that displays the contestant 's cumulative total and progress during the game . In September 2012 , the redesigned set was improved with a modernized look and feel , in order to take into account the show 's transition to high @-@ definition broadcasting , which had just come about the previous year . The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones , having twice as many projectors as the previous screens had ; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one ; and light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colors and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel .
= = Broadcast history = =
= = = ABC = = =
The U.S. version of Millionaire was launched by ABC as a half @-@ hour primetime program on August 16 , 1999 . When it premiered , it became the first U.S. network game show to offer a million @-@ dollar top prize to contestants . After airing thirteen episodes and reaching an audience of 15 million viewers by the end of the show 's first week on the air , the program expanded to an hour @-@ long format when it returned in November . The series , of which episodes were originally shown only a day after their initial taping , was promoted to regular status on January 18 , 2000 and , at the height of its popularity , was airing on ABC five nights a week . The show was so popular during its original primetime run that rival networks created or re @-@ incarnated game shows of their own ( e.g. , Greed , Twenty One , etc . ) , as well as importing various game shows of British and Australian origin to America ( such as Winning Lines , Weakest Link , and It 's Your Chance of a Lifetime ) .
The nighttime version initially drew in up to 30 million viewers a day three times a week , an unheard @-@ of number in modern network television . In the 1999 – 2000 season , it averaged # 1 in the ratings against all other television shows , with 28 @,@ 848 @,@ 000 viewers . In the next season ( 2000 – 01 ) , three nights out of the five weekly episodes placed in the top 10 . However , the show 's ratings began to fall during the 2000 – 01 season , so that at the start of the 2001 – 02 season , the ratings were only a fraction of what they had been one year before , and by season 's end , the show was no longer even ranked among the top 20 . ABC 's reliance on the show 's popularity led the network to fall quickly from its former spot as the nation 's most watched network .
As ABC 's overexposure of the primetime Millionaire led the public to tire of the show , there was speculation that the show would not survive beyond the 2001 – 02 season . The staff planned on switching it to a format that would emphasize comedy more than the game and feature a host other than Philbin , but in the end , the primetime show was canceled , with its final episode airing on June 27 , 2002 .
= = = Syndication = = =
In 2001 , Millionaire producers began work on a half @-@ hour daily syndicated version of the show , with the idea being that it would serve as an accompaniment to the network series which was still in production . ABC 's cancellation of the network Millionaire ended that idea ; however , the syndicated Millionaire still had enough interest to be greenlit and BVT sold the series to local stations for the 2002 – 03 season . The syndicated series nearly met the same fate as its predecessor , however , due in part to worries that stemmed from a decision made by one of its affiliates .
In the New York media market , BVT sold the syndicated Millionaire to CBS 's flagship station , WCBS @-@ TV . In the season that had passed , WCBS ' mid @-@ afternoon schedule included the syndicated edition of NBC 's Weakest Link , which aired at 4 pm from its January 2002 premiere . Joining Millionaire as a new syndicated series was a spinoff of The Oprah Winfrey Show hosted by Dr. Phil McGraw . WCBS picked up both series for 2002 – 03 , with Dr. Phil serving as lead @-@ in for the syndicated Millionaire , which was plugged into the time slot that Weakest Link had been occupying .
At mid @-@ season , WCBS announced that for the 2003 – 04 season it had acquired the broadcast rights to The People 's Court after WNBC , which had been airing the revived series since its 1997 debut , dropped it from its lineup . WCBS announced plans to move The People 's Court into the time slot that was occupied by Millionaire and the still @-@ airing 4 : 30 pm local newscast once it joined the station 's lineup in September 2003 . This led to speculation that the syndicated Millionaire would not be returning for a second season , and BVT 's concerns over losing its New York affiliate were compounded by the fact that there were not many time slots available for the show in New York outside of the undesirable late @-@ night slots that syndicators try to avoid .
In June 2003 , a shakeup at one of BVT 's corporate siblings provided the series with an opening . ABC announced that it would be returning the 12 : 30 pm network time slot to its affiliates in October of that year following the cancellation of the soap opera Port Charles . ABC 's flagship , WABC @-@ TV , was thus in need of a program to fill the slot and BVT went to them asking if the station would pick up Millionaire . WABC agreed to do this and when the new season launched that fall , the station began airing Millionaire at 12 : 30 pm . Millionaire continued to air on WABC in the afternoon until the end of the 2014 – 15 season , when it acquired the broadcast rights to FABLife for the 2015 – 16 season . To make room for FABLife , the afternoon airing of Millionaire was moved to independent station WLNY @-@ TV .
According to e @-@ mails released in the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack , Millionaire narrowly avoided cancellation after the 2014 – 15 season . The show 's declining ratings prompted DADT to demand a dramatically reduced licensing fee for renewal , which SPE was hesitant to accept . The series was nonetheless renewed for the 2015 – 16 season , with various cuts to the show 's production budget and a return to the original format ( but with only 14 questions ) . Had the show not been renewed , SPE would have placed the show on extended hiatus for three years , reclaimed full rights to the show ( without the innovations and format added in the syndicated run , to which DADT owns intellectual property rights ) , and shopped the revived show to another network or syndicator .
= = = GSN = = =
GSN acquired the rerun rights to the U.S. Millionaire in August 2003 . The network initially aired only episodes from the three seasons of the original prime @-@ time run ; however , additional episodes were later added . These included the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , which aired on GSN from May 2005 to January 2007 , and the first two seasons of the syndicated version , which began airing on November 10 , 2008 .
= = Special editions = =
Various special editions and tournaments have been conducted which feature celebrities playing the game and donating winnings to charities of their choice . During celebrity editions on the original ABC version , contestants were allowed to receive help from their fellow contestants during the first ten questions . The most successful celebrity contestants throughout the show 's run have included Drew Carey , Rosie O 'Donnell , Norm MacDonald , and Chip Esten , all of whom won $ 500 @,@ 000 for their respective charities . The episode featuring O 'Donnell 's $ 500 @,@ 000 win averaged 36 @.@ 1 million viewers , the highest number for a single episode of the show .
There have also been special weeks featuring two or three family members or couples competing as a team , a " Champions Edition " where former big winners returned and split their winnings with their favorite charities , a " Zero Dollar Winner Edition " featuring contestants who previously missed one of the first @-@ tier questions and left with nothing , and a " Tax @-@ Free Edition " in which H & R Block calculated the taxes of winnings to allow contestants to earn stated winnings after taxes , and various theme weeks featuring college students , teachers , brides @-@ to @-@ be , etc. as contestants . Additionally , the syndicated version once featured an annual " Walk In & Win Week " with contestants who were randomly selected from the audience without having to take the audition test .
Special weeks have also included shows featuring questions concerning specific topics , such as professional football , celebrity gossip , movies , and pop culture . During a week of episodes in November 2007 , to celebrate the 1,000th episode of the syndicated Millionaire , all contestants that week started with $ 1 @,@ 000 so that they could not leave empty @-@ handed , and only had to answer ten questions to win $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . During that week , twenty home viewers per day also won $ 1 @,@ 000 each .
= = = Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire = = =
In 2004 , Philbin returned to host 12 episodes of a spin @-@ off program titled Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire in which contestants could potentially win $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . ABC aired five episodes of this spin @-@ off during the week of February 22 , 2004 , and an additional seven episodes later that year in May . As usual , the contestants were to answer a series of 15 multiple choice questions of increasing difficulty , but the dollar values were substantially increased . The payout structure of Super Millionaire was as follows : first going from $ 1 @,@ 000 to $ 5 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 1 @,@ 000 ; then from $ 10 @,@ 000 to $ 30 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 10 @,@ 000 ; then to $ 50 @,@ 000 , $ 100 @,@ 000 , $ 500 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ; and finally from $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with the dollar value doubling for each new question .
Contestants were given the standard three lifelines in place at the time ( 50 : 50 , Ask the Audience , and Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend ) at the beginning of the game . However , after correctly answering the $ 100 @,@ 000 question , the contestant earned two additional lifelines : Three Wise Men and Double Dip . The Three Wise Men lifeline involved a panel of three experts , one of whom was always a former Millionaire contestant and at least one of whom was female . When this lifeline was used , the contestant and panel had 30 seconds to discuss the question and choices before the audio and video feeds were dropped . If the contestant decides to use Double Dip , the contestant is then forbidden from walking away from the question and is given two chances to answer the given question and if both answers are wrong , the contestant drops to $ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = 10th Anniversary Celebration = = =
To celebrate the tenth anniversary of Millionaire 's U.S. debut , the show returned to ABC primetime for an eleven @-@ night event hosted by Philbin , which aired August 9 – 23 , 2009 . The Academy Award @-@ winning movie Slumdog Millionaire and the 2008 economic crisis helped boost interest of renewal of the game show .
The episodes featured game play based on the previous rule set of the syndicated version ( including the rule changes implemented in season seven ) but used the Fastest Finger round to select contestants . Various celebrities also made special guest appearances at the end of every episode ; each guest played one question for a chance at $ 50 @,@ 000 for a charity of their choice , being allowed to use any one of the four lifelines in place at the time ( Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend , Ask the Audience , Double Dip , and Ask the Expert ) , but still earned a minimum of $ 25 @,@ 000 for the charity if they answered the question incorrectly .
The finale of the tenth anniversary special , which aired on August 23 , 2009 , featured Ken Basin , an entertainment lawyer , Harvard Law graduate , and former Jeopardy ! contestant , who went on to become the first contestant to play a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question in the " clock format " era . With a time of 4 : 39 ( 45 seconds + 3 : 54 banked time ) , Basin was given a question involving President Lyndon Baines Johnson 's fondness for Fresca . Using his one remaining lifeline , Basin asked the audience , which supported his own hunch of Yoo @-@ hoo rather than the correct answer . He decided to answer the question and lost $ 475 @,@ 000 , becoming the first contestant in the U.S. version to answer a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question incorrectly . After Basin finished his run , Vieira appeared on @-@ camera and announced that all remaining Fastest Finger contestants would play with her on the first week of the syndicated version 's eighth season . After this , the million dollar question was not played again on a standard episode until September 25 , 2013 , when Josina Reaves became the second U.S. Millionaire contestant to incorrectly answer her $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question .
= = = Million Dollar Tournament of Ten = = =
Although the syndicated Millionaire had produced two millionaires in its first season , Nancy Christy 's May 2003 win was still standing as the most recent when the program began its eighth season in fall of 2009 . Deciding that six @-@ plus years had been too long since someone had won the top prize , producers conducted a tournament to find a third million dollar winner . For the first nine weeks of the 2009 – 10 season , each episode saw contestants attempt to qualify for what was referred to as the " Tournament of Ten " . Contestants were seeded based on how much money they had won , with the biggest winner ranked first and the lowest ranked tenth . Ties were broken based on how much time a contestant had banked when they had walked away from the game .
The tournament began on the episode aired November 9 , 2009 , and playing in order from the lowest to the highest seed , tournament contestants played one at a time at the end of that episode and the next nine . The rules were exactly the same as they were for a normal million dollar question under the clock format introduced the season before , except here , the contestants had no lifelines at their disposal . Each contestant received a base time of 45 seconds . For each question they had answered before walking away , the contestants received any unused seconds that were left when they gave their answers . The accumulated total of those unused seconds was then added to the base time to give the contestants their final question time limit .
Each contestant had the same decision facing them as before , which was whether to attempt to answer the question or walk away with their pre @-@ tournament total intact . Attempting the question and answering incorrectly incurred the same penalty as in regular play , with a reduction of their pre @-@ tournament winnings to $ 25 @,@ 000 . If the question was answered correctly , the player that did so became the tournament leader . If another player after him / her answered correctly , that player assumed the lead and the previous leader kept their pre @-@ tournament winnings . The highest remaining seed to have attempted and correctly answered their question at the end of the tournament on November 20 , 2009 would be declared the winner and become the syndicated series ' third millionaire .
The first contestant to attempt to answer the million dollar question was Sam Murray , the tournament 's eighth @-@ seeded qualifier . On November 11 , Murray was asked approximately how many people had lived on Earth in its history and correctly guessed 100 billion . Murray was still atop the leaderboard entering the November 20 finale as he remained the only contestant to even attempt to answer his or her question . The only person who could defeat him was top seed and $ 250 @,@ 000 winner Jehan Shamsid @-@ Deen , who was asked a question regarding the Blorenge , cited as " a rare example of a word that rhymes with orange " . Shamsid @-@ Deen considered taking the risk , believing ( correctly ) that the name belonged to a mountain in Wales . However , she decided that the potential of losing $ 225 @,@ 000 did not justify the risk and elected to walk away from the question , giving Murray the win and the million dollar prize .
= = Reception = =
Since its introduction to the United States , Who Wants to Be a Millionaire has been credited with not only single @-@ handedly reviving the game show genre , but also breaking new ground for it . The series revolutionized the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system , dramatic music cues , and futuristic set . The show also became one of the highest @-@ rated and most popular game shows in U.S. television history , and has been credited with paving the way for the rise of the reality TV phenomenon to prominence throughout the 2000s .
The U.S. Millionaire also made catchphrases out of various lines used on the show . In particular , " Is that your final answer ? " , asked by Millionaire 's hosts whenever a contestant 's answer needs to be verified , was popularized by Philbin during his tenure as host , and was also included on TV Land 's special " 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases " , which aired in 2006 . Meanwhile , during his tenure as host , Cedric signed off shows with a catchphrase of his own , " Watch yo ' wallet ! "
The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001 . Philbin was honored with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001 , while Vieira received one in 2005 , and another in 2009 . TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire # 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time , and later ranked it # 6 on its 2013 " 60 Greatest Game Shows " list . GSN ranked Millionaire # 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time , and later honored the show in January 2007 on its only Gameshow Hall of Fame special .
= = Other media = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
In 2000 , Pressman released two board game adaptions of Millionaire as well as a junior edition recommended for younger players . Several video games based on the varying gameplay formats of Millionaire have also been released throughout the course of the show 's U.S. history .
Between 1999 and 2001 , Jellyvision produced five video game adaptations based upon the original primetime series for personal computers and Sony 's PlayStation console , all of them featuring Philbin 's likeness and voice . The first of these adaptations was published by Disney Interactive , while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio . Of the five games , three featured general trivia questions , one was sports @-@ themed , and another was a " Kids Edition " featuring easier questions . In 2008 , Imagination Games released a DVD version of the show , based on the 2004 – 08 format and coming complete with Vieira 's likeness and voice , as well as a quiz book and a 2009 desktop calendar . Additionally , two Millionaire video games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011 ; the first of these was a game for Nintendo 's Wii console and DS handheld system based on the 2008 – 10 clock format , while the second , for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 , was based on the current shuffle format .
Ludia has also created a Facebook game based on Millionaire , which debuted on March 21 , 2011 . This game features an altered version of the shuffle format , condensing the number of questions to twelve — eight in round one , and four in round two . A contestant can compete against eight other Millionaire fans in round one , and play round two alone if they make it into the top three . There is no " final answer " rule ; the contestant 's responses are automatically locked in . Answering a question correctly earns a contestant the value of that question , multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly . Contestants are allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one , and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question .
= = = Disney Parks attraction = = =
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire – Play It ! was an attraction at the Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park ( when it was known as Disney @-@ MGM Studios ) at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando , Florida and at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim , California . Both the Florida and California Play It ! attractions opened in 2001 ; the California version closed in 2004 , and the Florida version closed in 2006 and was replaced by Toy Story Midway Mania !
The format in the Play It ! attraction was very similar to that of the television show that inspired it . When a show started , a " Fastest Finger " question was given , and the audience was asked to put the four answers in order ; the person with the fastest time was the first contestant in the Hot Seat for that show . However , the main game had some differences : for example , contestants competed for points rather than dollars , the questions were set to time limits , and the Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend lifeline became Phone a Complete Stranger which connected the contestant to a Disney cast member outside the attraction 's theater who would find a guest to help . After the contestant 's game was over , they were awarded anything from a collectible pin , to clothing , to a Millionaire CD game , to a 3 @-@ night Disney Cruise .
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= Sir Bevil Grenville 's Monument =
Sir Bevil Grenville 's Monument is a monument erected in 1720 on Lansdown , then called " Lansdowne Hill " , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of the city of Bath , in Somerset , England . It was designated a Grade II * listed building on 1 February 1956 , and a scheduled monument on 12 December 1950 .
The monument commemorates the heroism of the Civil War Royalist commander Sir Bevil Grenville ( 1596 @-@ 1643 ) of Stowe , Kilkhampton in Cornwall and Bideford in Devon , who on 5 July 1643 fell mortally wounded at the Battle of Lansdowne , leading his regiment of Cornish pikemen . It was erected by Grenville 's grandson and has been maintained by his descendants . This has included the repair of inscriptions carved on the base of the monument , eulogising Grenville and his forces .
= = Background = =
The Battle of Lansdowne took place on 5 July 1643 during the Civil War . The Royalists under Lord Hopton attacked the Parliamentarians led by Sir William Waller who occupied a commanding position on Lansdowne Hill . Under the leadership of Sir Bevil Grenville , Hopton 's Cornish pikemen stormed Waller 's breastworks , while Royalist musketeers outflanked Waller by passing through the woods on each side of his position . Grenville was mortally wounded in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat as Parliamentarian horse counter @-@ attacked and were driven off . He received a mortal blow to the head with a pollaxe and was taken to the rectory at nearby Cold Ashton where he died . His death was a set @-@ back from which the king 's cause in the Westcountry never recovered , for he alone knew how to handle the unruly Cornishmen .
= = History = =
The monument was erected in 1720 by George Granville , 1st Baron Lansdowne ( 1666 @-@ 1735 ) , grandson of Sir Bevil and heir male to William Granville , 3rd Earl of Bath ( d.1711 ) , great @-@ grandson of Sir Bevil and the last male in the senior line of the family . In 1714 Baron Lansdowne had erected a mural monument to Sir Bevil in the Grenville Chapel in the Church of St James the Great , Kilkhampton , Cornwall , in which parish was situated the Grenville seat of Stowe .
The monument has been repaired several times . Initially in 1777 and again in 1828 and then in 1879 , each time the repairs were funded by Granville 's descendants . Note that the original spelling was Bevil Granville but today Grenville or Greville are commonly used .
= = Description = =
The monument is of ashlar stone masonry , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high , in the English Baroque style . On the south side is a slate tablet inscribed with a quotation from the account by Lord Clarendon ( 1609 @-@ 1674 ) in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England of the Battle of Lansdowne ( 1643 ) . On the north side are two poems . On top is a griffin ( the crest and supporters of the Grenvilles ) holding an escutcheon displaying the Grenville coat of arms : Gules , three clarions or . On another side are shown the Royal Arms of King Charles II ( 1660 @-@ 1685 ) supported by the arms of Sir Bevil 's eldest son and heir John Granville , 1st Earl of Bath ( 1628 – 1701 ) and by the arms of the latter 's half first cousin General George Monck , 1st Duke of Albemarle , KG ( 1608 @-@ 1670 ) . Monck was the principal figure behind the Restoration of the Monarchy to King Charles II in 1660 , in effecting which he was much assisted by Sir John Grenville , for which services both were elevated to the peerage .
= = Inscription = =
The Elegy on Sir Bevil Grenville by William Cartwright , a fellow Royalist , who died shortly after Sir Bevil on 29 November 1643 , is inscribed on the monument :
This was not Nature ’ s courage nor that thing ,
We valour call which Time and Reason bring ,
But a diviner fury fierce and high ,
Valour transported into Ecstasy .
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= Baby Jesus theft =
Baby Jesus theft is the theft of plastic or ceramic figurines of the infant Jesus from outdoor public and private nativity displays during the Christmas season . It is an " enduring ( and illegal ) practice " according to New York Times journalist Katie Rogers , " believed to be part of a yearly tradition , often carried out by bored teenagers looking for an easy prank . " The prevalence of such thefts has caused the owners of outdoor manger scenes to protect their property with GPS devices , surveillance cameras , or by other means .
= = Incidents = =
Dozens of communities across America have suffered thefts of Baby Jesus figurines , and , in some instances , entire nativity scenes , Washington DC journalist Daniel Nasaw reports for Britain 's The Guardian . He observes that it is unclear whether such theft is on the rise , as it is not tracked by federal law enforcement .
In 2008 , a Baby Jesus was stolen from First United Methodist Church in Kittanning , Pennsylvania and replaced with a pumpkin , and , in Eureka Springs , Arkansas , a thief not only stole the Baby Jesus from a public display but absconded with the concrete block and chain that was supposed to act as a deterrent . Some communities suffer repeat Baby Jesus thefts . A Baby Jesus was stolen in December 2008 from a Stony Point town display . A town official remarked , " If someone did it as a prank , I don 't find it funny . " The nativity had been vandalized the year before , and a menorah next to it had been toppled and broken .
During some Christmases of the first decade of the 21st century , the Baby Jesus statue was often stolen from the outdoor nativity scene in Jönköping in Sweden , once thrown into the nearby lake of Vättern . This has led to the nativity scene , resembling a wooden stable , being closed by nights .
Some figurines have been defaced with profanity or Satanic symbols . In December 2008 , for example , a fiberglass Baby Jesus valued at US $ 375 was stolen from a Eureka Springs , Arkansas park and later recovered , but had been defaced by racial slurs , a swastika , and a Hitler mustache . The eyes were also blacked out and pieces had been broken off , rendering it damaged beyond repair .
In his autobiography , The Long Hard Road Out Of Hell , Marilyn Manson admitted playing a prank in which he and a few friends stole figurines of Jesus then replaced them with hams . They sent a communique to a newspaper posing as a black radical group saying that it was a protest against " the plasticisation of the black man 's wisdom with the so @-@ called ' White Christmas ' . "
= = Security measures = =
Some nativity display owners have taken measures to secure their property against would @-@ be thieves . Others are reluctant to exercise such vigilance . One Indiana man who suffered the loss of his Baby Jesus figurine rebuffed suggestions to secure the figurines on his porch because , " that would be like putting Jesus in jail " . Traditional security measures are not always foolproof . The Baby Jesus fastened to the National Christmas Creche at Independence Hall disappeared within days .
Some communities , churches , and citizens are employing electronic technology to protect their property . A Texas family , for example , positioned surveillance cameras in their yard and discovered a teenage girl stealing their Baby Jesus figurine , valued at nearly US $ 500 . In 2008 , a security device distributor offered its surveillance cameras and GPS devices to 200 non @-@ profit religious institutions for a month 's use gratis . GPS protection has met with some success . In one case , after a life @-@ size ceramic nativity figurine disappeared from the lawn of a community center in Wellington , Florida , sheriff 's deputies tracked it to an apartment where it was found lying face @-@ down on a carpet . An 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman was arrested .
= = Perspectives = =
While Baby Jesus thefts are largely regarded as pranks , they are set apart by the involvement of a religious icon . " They think it 's a prank , but it isn 't a prank to some of these people , " Pennsylvania state police Corporal Paul Romanic told The Morning Call newspaper , in regards to an incident in which ten nativity scene figures were found in a yard after being stolen from across Bucks County , Pennsylvania . " Plus , it 's just wrong to steal the baby Jesus . "
Some have wondered if an anti @-@ Christian sentiment lurks behind the thefts . Attorney Mike Johnson of the Alliance Defending Freedom ( formerly the Alliance Defense Fund ) , a Christian legal group , stated , " I suspect most of it is childish pranks . Clearly , there are adults with an agenda to remove Christ from Christmas . But they tend to occupy themselves with the courts and courtroom of public opinion . " Stephen Nissenbaum , the author of The Battle for Christmas and a retired professor , views Baby Jesus theft as neither innocent vandalism nor religious hate crimes . Nissenbaum writes that , " What it means is that it 's OK to go around violating even pretty important norms , as long as real human harm isn 't being done . It 's not exactly devaluing Christianity , but it is sort of a ritualized challenge to it . It could be Christian kids doing it — and on January 2 they become good Christians again . "
Historian Daniel Silliman has argued that , whatever the thieves ' intention , the act puts the culture of Christmas in a different light . " Baby Jesus thieves literally take the Christ out of Christmas , " Silliman writes . " When they do , it becomes apparent that the sacred object is also a piece of property , protected by the law that protects property and this whole apparatus that defends Christmas : fences and lights , tracking devices and private security companies , patrolling police and the courts . The commercialization of Christmas is visible here in a way it might not be , otherwise . That ’ s the power of the joke . "
= = In drama = =
In " The Big Little Jesus , " the December 24 , 1953 episode of the television series Dragnet , Sgts . Friday and Smith are called upon to investigate the theft of a Baby Jesus from a church nativity display on Christmas Eve . Unable to solve the crime , the officers tell the priest that Mass must be celebrated without the Baby Jesus . The figurine is restored when a boy arrives with it in a wagon . He tells the officers that he had vowed that if he got a wagon for Christmas , Baby Jesus would have the first ride . This episode was remade when Dragnet went to color ; it is not only the only episode made twice , but the only story not based on an actual police case . The episode was originally broadcast on radio on December 22 , 1953 , making it the only episode to appear on all three Jack Webb versions of the series .
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= Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. =
Stocksbridge Park Steels Football Club is an English association football club based in Stocksbridge , South Yorkshire . They play in Division One South of the Northern Premier League at level eight of the English football league system . The club was formed in 1986 after a merger between two other clubs , and sports a yellow and blue home kit . They play at the Bracken Moor ground .
They initially played in the Northern Counties East League and progressed through the NCEL 's divisions before winning promotion to Division One of the Northern Premier League ( NPL ) in 1996 . They reached the Premier Division of the NPL in 2009 , but were relegated back to Division One South in 2014 .
Steels have participated in the FA Cup every year since 1992 , reaching the 4th qualifying round in 2003 , and first entered the FA Trophy in 1996 after previously participating in the FA Vase .
= = History = =
Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. was formed in 1986 as the result of the merger of Stocksbridge Works , the works team of the local British Steel Corporation plant , with another local club , Oxley Park Sports . The new club was immediately admitted to the Northern Counties East League Division Two , the works club having previously played in Division Three of the same league .
The Steels spent five seasons in Division Two before being placed in Division One when the lower division was discontinued upon league re @-@ organisation in 1991 . In the same year Mick Horne was appointed as the club 's manager , and he led the team to the championship of Division One in the 1991 – 92 season .
In Stocksbridge 's first season in the Premier Division the team finished near the bottom of the table , but in the 1993 – 94 season the Steels became Northern Counties East League champions . The club failed to gain promotion to the Northern Premier League , however , as their stadium did not meet the required standard . The club finished second in the division two seasons later , losing the championship on goal difference to Hatfield Main , and on this occasion were admitted to the Northern Premier League Division One .
Stocksbridge finished in the top half of the table in the club 's first five seasons at the higher level , with a best finish of fourth place in the 2000 – 01 season , but the following season the Steels finished only two places from the bottom of the league . Shortly before the end of this season , manager Mick Horne tendered his resignation after 11 years in charge and was replaced by his assistant , former Norwich City player Wayne Biggins .
Under Biggins ' management , the Steels had their best ever runs in both the FA Cup and FA Trophy and set a club record with a 17 – 1 defeat of Oldham Town in the FA Cup preliminary round in August 2002 , but remained near the bottom of the league table . After the Steels were defeated 6 – 0 by Shildon in the final qualifying round of the 2003 – 04 FA Cup , Biggins attempted to resign but the board of directors persuaded him to continue in his job . However , he left in November 2003 , with the club again fighting a battle against relegation .
Former assistant manager of local rivals Worksop Town Peter Rinkcavage was appointed as Stocksbridge 's new manager , and in the 2005 – 06 season he led the team to a sixth @-@ place finish , sufficient to qualify for the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Northern Premier League Premier Division . After holding Kendal Town to a 1 – 1 draw in the semi @-@ final , the Steels lost a penalty shoot @-@ out , ending their hopes of promotion .
The following season Stocksbridge again finished in sixth place , although with only two teams promoted , it was not high enough to qualify for the play @-@ offs . Stocksbridge did , however , defeat Worksop Town to win the Sheffield and Hallamshire Senior Cup . Following this win manager Rinkcavage resigned in order to return to his former club , Worksop , as manager , with Gary Marrow replacing him for the 2007 – 08 season , for which the club was placed in the Southern section of the now @-@ regionalised Division One . Stocksbridge again qualified for the play @-@ offs , but lost to Sheffield . In the 2008 – 09 season , the Steels again qualified for the play @-@ offs and defeated Belper Town in the final to gain promotion to the Northern Premier League Premier Division for the first time . During the following season , Marrow resigned as manager and was replaced by Simon Collins . The Steels spent five years in the Premier Division , never finishing out of the bottom half of the table , and were relegated at the end of the 2013 – 14 season .
= = = Season by season record = = =
= = Colours and crest = =
The Steels have generally worn a kit of yellow shirts with varying amounts of blue trim , blue shorts , and yellow stockings during their short history . The club badge is predominantly yellow and blue to reflect this , and features a representation of a clock tower located on Nanny Hill , near the club 's stadium . Two footballs displaying the year of the club 's formation were added on the occasion of the club 's twentieth anniversary in 2006 . The club is unusual in having an alternate crest for its away shirts with the colours reversed . The team 's nickname is " Steels " or " The Steels " .
= = Stadium = =
The Steels have always played their games at Bracken Moor , the former home of Stocksbridge Works . In 2006 it was announced that the stadium was to be sponsored by local newspaper Look Local for a term of five years , resulting in its official name being changed to the Look Local Stadium , a deal which was later extended to 2013 . The stadium has a maximum capacity of 3 @,@ 500 , with 450 seats .
The ground was a cricket pitch until shortly after the Second World War , when it was purchased by a local steelmaking company and converted into a football stadium . Stone @-@ built changing rooms were erected in the mid @-@ 1960s , replacing a small hut , as was a seated stand and terracing . The main stand has a distinctive angled awning which extends from the fascia and seats which came from Sheffield Wednesday 's Hillsborough Stadium . Floodlights were installed at the stadium in 1990 and the terracing partially covered four years later .
As one side of the ground directly adjoins a cricket pitch , the club was required to erect a dividing fence in order to gain entry to the Northern Premier League . The fence is temporary in nature and is removed during the cricket season . It was partially funded by money raised from friendlies against Sheffield Wednesday and Sheffield United .
= = Supporters = =
The average attendance at the Look Local Stadium was 180 in the 2008 – 09 season , the ninth highest of twenty teams in the Northern Premier League Division One South , with the largest attendance being 451 for the visit of Sheffield . The average figure was a decrease of 3 compared to the previous season . The highest attendance in the club 's history was 2 @,@ 000 , for a friendly match against Sheffield Wednesday to mark the inauguration of the ground 's floodlights in October 1991 .
The club has a Supporters ' Club which was set up in the mid @-@ 1990s . The Supporters ' Club organises events to raise funds for the football club , and operates the club shop at the Look Local Stadium .
= = = Rivalries = = =
Frickley Athletic and Worksop Town are considered to be local rivals to the Steels . Stocksbridge 's highest ever league attendance against their rivals is 610 for a match against Worksop .
= = Players = =
= = = Notable former players = = =
For details of players who have played in the Football League either before or after playing for Stocksbridge Park Steels , see Category : Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. players .
= = Managers = =
= = Honours = =
= = Records = =
Stocksbridge 's best league finish was a fourth @-@ place finish in the Northern Premier League Division One , which at the time sat at the seventh level in the overall English football league system , in the 2000 – 01 season . The largest number of points the team has registered in a season was 76 in the 2006 – 07 season , but that was only enough to secure a sixth @-@ place finish .
The club 's best performance in the FA Cup was an appearance in the fourth and final qualifying round in the 2003 – 04 season . After winning four matches to progress from the preliminary round , the Steels lost 6 – 0 away to Shildon . In the same season the club achieved its best performance in the FA Trophy , reaching the second round proper only to lose 4 – 2 away to Blyth Spartans .
The club 's record victory was a 17 – 1 win over Oldham Town in the FA Cup in 2002 . Striker Paul Jackson scored ten of the goals , equalling the 55 @-@ year @-@ old record for the most goals scored by a single player in an FA Cup match . Ted McDougall 's nine goals for AFC Bournemouth against Margate in 1971 remains the record in the FA Cup proper , whereas Jackson 's ten is the record for the qualifying rounds . The Steels ' record defeat was a 7 – 2 loss to Witton Albion in the 2001 – 02 season .
The record for the most appearances for the club is held by Gary Hurlestone with 254 . The club 's all @-@ time record goalscorer is Trevor Jones , who scored 145 times for the Steels . The largest transfer fee paid for a Stocksbridge player is £ 15 @,@ 000 , paid by Wolverhampton Wanderers for Lee Mills in December 1992 .
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= Happy Working Song =
" Happy Working Song " is a song written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz for Walt Disney Pictures ' musical film Enchanted ( 2007 ) . Recorded by American actress Amy Adams in her starring role as Giselle , the uptempo pop song both parodies and pays homage to a variety of songs from several Disney animated feature films , particularly " Whistle While You Work " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) . Produced by Menken , Schwartz and Danny Troob , the song appears on the film 's soundtrack Enchanted : Original Soundtrack .
" Happy Working Song " takes place in Robert 's untidy apartment in Manhattan , New York , in which Giselle spends her first night in the city after having been magically transported there from the fictional Andalasia . The next morning , Giselle awakens to find the apartment in a state of neglect and decides to clean it , summoning several animals to her aid . Additionally , the musical number references similar scenes from Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella ( 1950 ) . Based on 1950s music , " Happy Working Song " ' s bridge deliberately references the song " Belle " from Disney 's Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) .
Musically , " Happy Working Song " shares similarities with the songs " Heigh @-@ Ho " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , " The Work Song " from Cinderella and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast . The song has garnered vastly positive reviews , with both film and music critics praising its humorous , witty lyrics , allusions and references to previous Disney films and songs , as well as Adams ' performance . " Happy Working Song " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 alongside Enchanted 's own " That 's How You Know " and " So Close " , making the film one of only four to achieve this feat . Ultimately , the song lost to " Falling Slowly " from Once ( 2007 ) , while the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences subsequently decided to limit the total number of Best Original Song nominations to only two per film .
= = Background , writing and references = =
Veteran Disney composer Alan Menken became actively creatively involved with Enchanted in 2006 , subsequently inviting his longtime collaborator , lyricist Stephen Schwartz , with whom Menken had previously worked on Disney 's Pocahontas ( 1995 ) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , to co @-@ write the songs and musical numbers for Enchanted alongside him . Menken said of the general songwriting process , " the first challenge for us was finding that musical palette and lyrical palette and performance palette that really spoke to everybody and said that we are in the world of early Walt and to have that place to start . "
When it came to writing " Happy Working Song " , Menken and Schwartz were directly influenced by the song " Whistle While You Work " from Disney 's first full @-@ length animated feature film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) , with Schwartz describing " Happy Working Song " as a " spoof " and " one of the funniest sequences of the film " . According to Schwartz , " Happy Working Song " was written rather quickly , having come " [ to the songwriters ] really fast " . Schwartz elaborated , " ' Happy Working Song ' is ... pretty much out of Snow White and ' Whistle While You Work ' and that little thing where they do the dishes and Dopey with the soap bubbles and everything . " In addition to this , " Happy Working Song " features references to both the musical number " The Work Song " and " the busy little mice " from Disney 's Cinderella ( 1950 ) , but to a significantly lesser extent . Lyrically , Schwartz decided to approach the song comically as demonstrated by its phrase " Even though you are vermin . "
Conceptually , Menken explained that " As the characters become sort of three dimensional , songs become more contemporary . " Ultimately , Menken believes that , melodically , " Happy Working Song " is very much similar to the songs " Belle " and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast . Additionally , orchestrator and arranger Danny Troob revealed the bridge of " Happy Working Song " is directly based on the bridge of " Belle " , particularly serving as " a deliberate reference on [ the songwriters ' ] part . " Addressing the musical similarities between " Happy Working Song " and " Something There " , Troob explained that the former occupies a different " drive " and " attitude " , additionally sounding " a little bit more brisk ... because [ Giselle is ] working . " Troob elaborated , " Beauty and the Beast was , for its time , very forward @-@ looking , and ' Happy Working Song ' is deliberately retro . " Troob decided to alter and deliberately steer the song away from Menken and Schwartz 's original 1970s @-@ inspired musical arrangement in an attempt to " make it feel like the 1950s " by " manipulating instruments [ sic ] textures . "
American actress Amy Adams , who portrays Giselle , had previously " worked in musical theater before [ she ] moved to Los Angeles " in order to pursue a career as a film actress , and was therefore " very comfortable with the idea of singing " . Citing both actress and singer Julie Andrews and several Disney Princesses as musical inspiration , Adams decided to perform the film 's first song , " True Love 's Kiss " , in the style of an operetta before eventually replacing this with a more Broadway musical @-@ style voice for " Happy Working Song " .
= = Context , scene and analysis = =
Having just recently arrived in New York City after having been magically transported there from her fantastical world of Andalasia , a lost and hopelessly confused Giselle is discovered wandering around by Robert , a single father and divorce attorney , and his daughter Morgan . Robert decides to offer his assistance to Giselle by inviting her to spend a night 's shelter in the safety of their apartment . The following morning , Giselle awakens to find Robert 's apartment in a complete state of disarray . During the " Happy Working Song " musical sequence , described as one of the film 's " large scale production numbers " , Giselle , who is very much appalled by the untidy state of Robert 's Manhattan apartment , decides to " repay ... the favour " by taking the liberty of confronting and cleaning up the apartment 's mess herself . By performing a brief aria and " utilizing her animal @-@ charming abilities " , Giselle musically " summons the city 's animals " in order " to help her tidy it up " . This gesture and scene serves as a reference to similar scenes and musical sequences from preceding Disney animated fairy tale films such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) and Cinderella ( 1950 ) .
Demonstrating and suggesting " that Giselle really does have some magical power , even in [ the real world ] " , – according to Sean Axmaker of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , " When she breaks into song ... sewer rats and cockroaches arrive to help with the housework " – the aria is immediately responded to by several animals , creatures and " vermin " typically associated with New York City , including rats , pigeons , roaches , and flies – visually meant to represent " makeshift ' forest friends ' " – " as opposed to the woodland critters of the movie 's opening animated segment . " According to film critic Brent Simon of Shared Darkness , the comedic gag serves as one of the film 's " amusing ways to contrast the two worlds " of Giselle 's fictional Andalasia and the real @-@ life New York City .
Several professional film critics have allotted a variety of different terms and nicknames to the animals who appear during the " Happy Working Song " sequence . Neil Smith of BBC Online described the animals who appear during the scene as " a grotesque menagerie of CG vermin " , while the Orlando Sentinel 's Roger Moore jokingly referred to them as New York 's own " woodland creatures " , writing , " the rats and pigeons are merely the cuddlier ones " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times coined the creatures " urban critters . "
= = Composition and inspiration = =
" Happy Working Song " is a " vibrant " , uptempo pop song . Reminiscent of and influenced by a variety of " archetypal Disney " and " classical @-@ sounding " musical numbers , the musical theater @-@ inspired song runs a total length of two minutes and nine seconds . Incorporating into its lyrical structure a variety of " clever " words including " toilet " , " hairball " and " vermin " , while rhyming humorous terms such as " hum " and " scum " with " dum dum dum " and " vacu @-@ um " , " Happy Working Song " ' s use of " comical " , " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrics " , according to Filmtracks.com , both describe and add narration to Giselle 's " attempts to conjure an ultra happy tune while scrubbing floors and toilets in the real world " upon deciding " to clean her new home with the help of ... cockroaches and flies " . Its musical instrumentation is heavily reliant on the use of the harpsichord , with Filmtracks.com additionally describing " Happy Working Song " as a " harpsichord @-@ laced " song . Troob purposefully included the harpsichord in the song 's instrumentation and orchestration in order to provide it with a more accurate " period setting " .
According to Common Sense Media , " Happy Working Song " shares similarities with and is also inspired by " Heigh @-@ Ho " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , in addition to " Whistle While You Work " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and " The Work Song " from Cinderella . Additionally , the song is reminiscent of " Belle " and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast , specifically when it comes to its bridge and " staccato quality " . Written in the key of D major in alla breve cut common time , " Happy Working Song " is structured around a " lilting " , Broadway musical @-@ inspired melody . According to the song 's official sheet music , published at Musicnotes.com by Walt Disney Music Publishing , " Happy Working Song " follows an upbeat , " perky and live " tempo of 88 beats per minute . In portrayal of Giselle , Adams performs the song using an " earnest " , " tart ... soprano voice " . Her high soprano vocal range spans approximately two octaves , from the low note of G # 3 to the high note of D5 . The song 's lyrics begin , " Come , my little friends , as we all sing a happy little working song , merry little voices clear and strong . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
" Happy Working Song " has garnered widespread critical acclaim . Filmtracks.com hailed " Happy Working Song " as Ashman and Schwartz 's " best work together in Enchanted " Describing " Happy Working Song " as a " loving , well @-@ crafted homage ... to Disney classics " , Elisabeth Vincentelli of Amazon.com wrote , " tellingly , the lovely ' Happy Working Song ' ... sounds like it could have been lifted from any number of Disney movies — and that 's meant as a compliment . " Drawing similarities between the song and " Heigh @-@ Ho " , Jacqueline Rupp of Common Sense Media commented , " the ' Hi @-@ Ho ' [ sic ] -inspired ' Happy Working Song ' will have kids giggling and dancing . " Jeff Swindoll of Monsters and Critics wrote that " Happy Working Song " successfully " ap [ es ] ' Whistle While You Work ' most amusingly . " The New York Times ' Manohla Dargis called " Happy Working Song " " brilliantly surrealistic " .
Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly described " Happy Working Song " as a " hilarious ... production number " that successfully " encapsulates the joys of Enchanted " . The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern enthusiastically praised both the song and the sequence , hailing the latter as " magical " while describing " Happy Working Song " as a " gleeful variation on theme of ' Whistle While You Work ' " . Similarly , Todd McCarthy of Variety called " Happy Working Song " " a hilarious variation on ' Whistle While You Work ' " . Sun Media 's Kevin Williamson hailed the musical number as one of the film 's " stand @-@ outs " , elaborating , " [ ' ] Happy Working Song [ ' is ] a crowd @-@ pleaser . " The Mountain Xpress ' Ken Hanke allotted particular praise to Adams ' , writing that when the actress is " singing her ' Happy Working Song ' with her makeshift ' forest friends ' ... she is the perfect cartoon heroine made flesh " . Kerry Lengel of The Arizona Republic jokingly lauded " Happy Working Song " as " the funniest - and grossest - set piece in the film . " Calling the sequence the " film 's highlight " , Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer commented , " The song , like the movie , is cheerfully gross enough to get boys - and their fathers - into theater seats for a story every tween and her mother will love . "
Interestingly , film critics who generally disliked Enchanted tended to have mostly positive things to report about " Happy Working Song " . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian , who assigned the film a negative score of two out of five stars , in contrast gave " Happy Working Song " a positive review , describing it as " a funny opening song " . Additionally , Bradshaw drew similarities between the musical number and scenes from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Disney 's Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) .
One of the song 's few negative reviews was written by Mary F. Pols of the Contra Costa Times , who opined , " a cleaning crew of vermin and cockroaches is just real enough to be crass rather than funny " .
Empire ranked " Happy Working Song " third on its list of the " 10 Great Musical Numbers " of the decade , writing that although " Shrek set the benchmark for Disney song parodies at Everest levels ... it 's Amy Adams calling on New York 's creatures of the forest to tidy up Patrick Dempsey 's apartment that pulls it off to perfection . "
= = = Academy Award nomination and aftermath = = =
" Happy Working Song " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 alongside Enchanted songs " That 's How You Know " and " So Close " , ultimately dominating the category . However , the song was generally not favored to win by the media in spite of the fact that it was vastly a critical success . According to a poll conducted by Billboard in anticipation of the ceremony , when the magazine asked 155 of its readers " Who gets your vote for best original song in a motion picture at the Academy Awards ? " ; only 5 % of them voted in favor of " Happy Working Song " winning the award while 10 % voted for " So Close " and 24 % voted for " That 's How You Know " . In addition to this , 6 % of readers voted for August Rush 's " Raise It Up " and 22 % voted for Glen Hansard and Marketa Irglova 's " Falling Slowly " from Once ( 2007 ) . Ultimately , " Happy Working Song " lost to " Falling Slowly " . Menken believes that his compositions did not win the Best Original Song award because of the fact that three of them had been nominated at once .
Famously , Enchanted became the fourth out of only four films in the history of the Academy Awards to receive three separate Academy Award nominations in the Best Original Song category , having been preceded by Disney 's own Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King ( 1994 ) at the 64th and 67th Academy Awards in 1992 and 1995 , respectively , and Dreamgirls ( 2006 ) at the 79th Academy Awards in 2007 . In anticipation of the 81st Academy Awards occurring the following year in 2009 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ultimately decided to prohibit and prevent this rare feat from reoccurring at upcoming ceremonies by limiting the maximum number of Best Original Song nominations from any one film to a total of only two per film .
= = Live performance and Kristin Chenoweth controversy = =
Adams ' first live performance of " Happy Working Song " was at the 80th Academy Awards ceremony in 2008 . Performing at approximately 6 : 01 pm local time , Adams was reportedly very nervous during and after her performance , revealing to The Huffington Post , " I don 't know how I did that . It 's the thing that was the most terrifying that I 've ever done , and the thing I 'm most proud of in my career . " Subsequently , Adams told Vulture.com that she would likely perform at the Academy Awards again " As long as [ she ] wasn 't doing it by [ her ] self " .
Adams ' live rendition of " Happy Working Song " was generally well @-@ received by critics . George Lang of The Oklahoman described it as a " perky " performance , additionally commenting , " [ Adams is ] great ... and she should have already racked up her first Oscar for acting by now . " The Boston Globe 's Wesley Morris wrote , " Watching Amy Adams sing ... makes you appreciated [ sic ] the magic of the movies . " However , the performance generated some mild controversy revolving around the fact that while Adams was selected to perform " Happy Working Song " , Broadway actress and singer Kristin Chenoweth was hired to sing " That 's How You Know " live at the ceremony . When questioned about this , Disney executives told the Los Angeles Times that " it 's best [ Adams ] sing ' Happy Working Song ' because it has so many parallels to Julie Andrews in Mary Poppins " .
However , some critics and journalists have argued that the decision stemmed from Disney and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ' belief that Adams , predominantly a film actress , would ultimately not be able to perform " That 's How You Know " as adequately as the more experienced Chenoweth . Additionally , critics noted that while Chenoweth 's Academy Award performance was staged and choreographed as a large , extravagant number featuring " dozens of colorfully costumed dancers " , Adams performed by herself on a mostly barren stage highlighted by a " single spotlight " . Vulture.com commented about the performance , " Adams didn 't do terribly , but she 's no Broadway star , and we felt kind of awful for her . " During an interview , Adams told the New York Post that she was not upset by the Academy 's decision , instead feeling that " That 's How You Know " was the " perfect " for Chenoweth to perform .
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= John McCain =
John Sidney McCain III ( born August 29 , 1936 ) is the senior United States Senator from Arizona . He was the Republican presidential nominee in the 2008 United States presidential election .
McCain followed his father and grandfather , both four @-@ star admirals , into the United States Navy , graduating from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1958 . He became a naval aviator , flying ground @-@ attack aircraft from aircraft carriers . During the Vietnam War , he was almost killed in the 1967 USS Forrestal fire . In October 1967 , while on a bombing mission over Hanoi , he was shot down , seriously injured , and captured by the North Vietnamese . He was a prisoner of war until 1973 . McCain experienced episodes of torture , and refused an out @-@ of @-@ sequence early repatriation offer . His war wounds left him with lifelong physical limitations .
He retired from the Navy as a captain in 1981 and moved to Arizona , where he entered politics . Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1982 , he served two terms , and was then elected to the U.S. Senate in 1986 , winning re @-@ election easily four times , most recently in 2010 . While generally adhering to conservative principles , McCain at times has had a media reputation as a " maverick " for his willingness to disagree with his party on certain issues . After being investigated and largely exonerated in a political influence scandal of the 1980s as a member of the Keating Five , he made campaign finance reform one of his signature concerns , which eventually led to the passage of the McCain @-@ Feingold Act in 2002 . He is also known for his work towards restoring diplomatic relations with Vietnam in the 1990s , and for his belief that the Iraq War should be fought to a successful conclusion . McCain has chaired the Senate Commerce Committee , opposed spending that he considered to be pork barrel , and played a key role in alleviating a crisis over judicial nominations with the bi @-@ partisan group known as the Gang of 14 .
McCain ran for the Republican presidential nomination in 2000 but lost a heated primary season contest to George W. Bush . He secured the nomination in 2008 after coming back from early reversals , but fell to Democratic candidate Barack Obama in the general election , losing by a 365 – 173 electoral college margin and by 53 – 46 percent in the popular vote . He subsequently adopted more orthodox conservative stances and attitudes and largely opposed actions of the Obama administration , especially in regard to foreign policy matters . By 2013 , however , he had become a key figure in the Senate for negotiating deals on certain issues in an otherwise partisan environment . In 2015 , McCain became chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee .
= = Early life and military career , 1936 – 1981 = =
= = = Formative years and education = = =
John McCain was born on August 29 , 1936 , at Coco Solo Naval Air Station in the Panama Canal Zone , to naval officer John S. McCain Jr . ( 1911 – 1981 ) and Roberta ( Wright ) McCain ( born 1912 ) . He has a younger brother named Joe and an elder sister named Sandy . At that time , the Panama Canal was under U.S. control .
McCain 's family tree includes Scots @-@ Irish and English ancestors . His father and his paternal grandfather , John S. McCain Sr. , both became four @-@ star United States Navy admirals . The McCain family followed his father to various naval postings in the United States and the Pacific . Altogether , he attended about 20 schools . In 1951 , the family settled in Northern Virginia , and McCain attended Episcopal High School , a private preparatory boarding school in Alexandria . He excelled at wrestling and graduated in 1954 .
Following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather , McCain entered the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . There , he was a friend and informal leader for many of his classmates , and sometimes stood up for targets of bullying . He also became a lightweight boxer . McCain did well in academic subjects that interested him , such as literature and history , but studied only enough to pass subjects he struggled with , such as mathematics . He came into conflict with higher @-@ ranking personnel and did not always obey the rules , which contributed to a low class rank ( 894 of 899 ) , despite a high IQ . McCain graduated in 1958 .
= = = Naval training , first marriage , and Vietnam assignment = = =
McCain 's early military career began when he was commissioned an ensign and started two and a half years of training at Pensacola to become a naval aviator . While there , he earned a reputation as a partying man . He completed flight school in 1960 , and became a naval pilot of ground @-@ attack aircraft , assigned to A @-@ 1 Skyraider squadrons aboard the aircraft carriers USS Intrepid and USS Enterprise in the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas . McCain began as a sub @-@ par flier who was at times careless and reckless ; during the early to mid @-@ 1960s , the planes he was flying crashed twice and once collided with power lines , but he received no major injuries . His aviation skills improved over time , and he was seen as a good pilot , albeit one who tended to " push the envelope " in his flying .
On July 3 , 1965 , McCain married Carol Shepp , a model originally from Philadelphia . McCain adopted her two young children Douglas and Andrew . He and Carol then had a daughter named Sidney .
McCain requested a combat assignment , and was assigned to the aircraft carrier USS Forrestal flying A @-@ 4 Skyhawks . His combat duty began when he was 30 years old , in mid @-@ 1967 , when Forrestal was assigned to a bombing campaign , Operation Rolling Thunder , during the Vietnam War . Stationed in the Gulf of Tonkin , McCain and his fellow pilots became frustrated by micromanagement from Washington , and he would later write that " In all candor , we thought our civilian commanders were complete idiots who didn 't have the least notion of what it took to win the war . "
On July 29 , 1967 , McCain , by then a lieutenant commander , was near the epicenter of the USS Forrestal fire . He escaped from his burning jet and was trying to help another pilot escape when a bomb exploded ; McCain was struck in the legs and chest by fragments . The ensuing fire killed 134 sailors and took 24 hours to control . With the Forrestal out of commission , McCain volunteered for assignment with the USS Oriskany , another aircraft carrier employed in Operation Rolling Thunder . Once there , he would be awarded the Navy Commendation Medal and the Bronze Star for missions flown over North Vietnam .
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
McCain 's capture and subsequent imprisonment began on October 26 , 1967 . He was flying his 23rd bombing mission over North Vietnam when his A @-@ 4E Skyhawk was shot down by a missile over Hanoi . McCain fractured both arms and a leg ejecting from the aircraft , and nearly drowned when he parachuted into Trúc Bạch Lake . Some North Vietnamese pulled him ashore , then others crushed his shoulder with a rifle butt and bayoneted him . McCain was then transported to Hanoi 's main Hỏa Lò Prison , nicknamed the " Hanoi Hilton " .
Although McCain was badly wounded , his captors refused to treat his injuries , beating and interrogating him to get information ; he was given medical care only when the North Vietnamese discovered that his father was a high @-@ ranking admiral . His status as a prisoner of war ( POW ) made the front pages of major newspapers .
McCain spent six weeks in the hospital while receiving marginal care . By then having lost 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) , in a chest cast , and with his gray hair turned white as snow , McCain was sent to a different camp on the outskirts of Hanoi in December 1967 , into a cell with two other Americans who did not expect him to live a week . In March 1968 , McCain was put into solitary confinement , where he would remain for two years .
In mid @-@ 1968 , John S. McCain Jr. was named commander of all U.S. forces in the Vietnam theater , and the North Vietnamese offered McCain early release because they wanted to appear merciful for propaganda purposes , and also to show other POWs that elite prisoners were willing to be treated preferentially . McCain turned down the offer ; he would only accept repatriation if every man taken in before him was released as well . Such early release was prohibited by the POW 's interpretation of the military Code of Conduct : To prevent the enemy from using prisoners for propaganda , officers were to agree to be released in the order in which they were captured .
In August 1968 , a program of severe torture began on McCain . He was subjected to rope bindings and repeated beatings every two hours , at the same time as he was suffering from dysentery . Further injuries led to the beginning of a suicide attempt , stopped by guards . Eventually , McCain made an anti @-@ American propaganda " confession " . He has always felt that his statement was dishonorable , but as he later wrote , " I had learned what we all learned over there : Every man has his breaking point . I had reached mine . " Many American POWs were tortured and maltreated in order to extract " confessions " and propaganda statements ; virtually all of them eventually yielded something to their captors . McCain subsequently received two to three beatings weekly because of his continued refusal to sign additional statements .
McCain refused to meet with various anti @-@ war groups seeking peace in Hanoi , wanting to give neither them nor the North Vietnamese a propaganda victory . From late 1969 onward , treatment of McCain and many of the other POWs became more tolerable , while McCain continued actively to resist the camp authorities . McCain and other prisoners cheered the U.S. " Christmas Bombing " campaign of December 1972 , viewing it as a forceful measure to push North Vietnam to terms .
Altogether , McCain was a prisoner of war in North Vietnam for five and a half years . He was released on March 14 , 1973 . His wartime injuries left him permanently incapable of raising his arms above his head .
= = = Commanding officer , liaison to Senate , and second marriage = = =
McCain 's return to the United States reunited him with his family . His wife Carol had suffered her own crippling ordeal due to an automobile accident in December 1969 . McCain became a celebrity of sorts , as a returned POW .
McCain underwent treatment for his injuries , including months of grueling physical therapy , and attended the National War College at Fort McNair in Washington , D.C. during 1973 – 1974 . Having been rehabilitated , by late 1974 , McCain had his flight status reinstated , and in 1976 he became commanding officer of a training squadron stationed in Florida . He improved the unit 's flight readiness and safety records , and won the squadron its first @-@ ever Meritorious Unit Commendation . During this period in Florida , McCain had extramarital affairs , and the McCains ' marriage began to falter , for which he later would accept blame .
McCain served as the Navy 's liaison to the U.S. Senate beginning in 1977 . In retrospect , he has said that this represented his " real entry into the world of politics and the beginning of my second career as a public servant . " His key behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role gained congressional financing for a new supercarrier against the wishes of the Carter administration .
In April 1979 , McCain met Cindy Lou Hensley , a teacher from Phoenix , Arizona , whose father had founded a large beer distributorship . They began dating , and he urged his wife Carol to grant him a divorce , which she did in February 1980 , with the uncontested divorce taking effect in April 1980 . The settlement included two houses , and financial support for her ongoing medical treatments due to her 1969 car accident ; they would remain on good terms . McCain and Hensley were married on May 17 , 1980 , with Senators William Cohen and Gary Hart attending as groomsmen . McCain 's children did not attend , and several years would pass before they reconciled . John and Cindy McCain entered into a prenuptial agreement that kept most of her family 's assets under her name ; they would always keep their finances apart and file separate income tax returns .
McCain decided to leave the Navy . It was doubtful whether he would ever be promoted to the rank of full admiral , as he had poor annual physicals and had been given no major sea command . His chances of being promoted to rear admiral were better , but McCain declined that prospect , as he had already made plans to run for Congress and said he could " do more good there . " McCain retired from the Navy on April 1 , 1981 , as a captain . He was designated as disabled and awarded a disability pension . Upon leaving the military , he moved to Arizona . His 17 military awards and decorations include the Silver Star , Legion of Merit , Distinguished Flying Cross , Bronze Star and Navy Commendation Medal , for actions before , during , and after his time as a POW .
= = House and Senate elections and career , 1982 – 2000 = =
= = = U.S. Congressman = = =
McCain set his sights on becoming a congressman because he was interested in current events , was ready for a new challenge , and had developed political ambitions during his time as Senate liaison . Living in Phoenix , he went to work for Hensley & Co . , his new father @-@ in @-@ law Jim Hensley 's large Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributorship . As vice president of public relations at the distributorship , he gained political support among the local business community , meeting powerful figures such as banker Charles Keating Jr . , real estate developer Fife Symington III and newspaper publisher Darrow " Duke " Tully . In 1982 , McCain ran as a Republican for an open seat in Arizona 's 1st congressional district , which was being vacated by 30 @-@ year incumbent Republican John Jacob Rhodes . A newcomer to the state , McCain was hit with charges of being a carpetbagger . McCain responded to a voter making that charge with what a Phoenix Gazette columnist would later describe as " the most devastating response to a potentially troublesome political issue I 've ever heard " :
Listen , pal . I spent 22 years in the Navy . My father was in the Navy . My grandfather was in the Navy . We in the military service tend to move a lot . We have to live in all parts of the country , all parts of the world . I wish I could have had the luxury , like you , of growing up and living and spending my entire life in a nice place like the First District of Arizona , but I was doing other things . As a matter of fact , when I think about it now , the place I lived longest in my life was Hanoi .
With the assistance of local political endorsements , his Washington connections , as well as money that his wife lent to his campaign , McCain won a highly contested primary election . He then easily won the general election in the heavily Republican district .
In 1983 , McCain was elected to lead the incoming group of Republican representatives , and was assigned to the House Committee on Interior Affairs . Also that year , he opposed creation of a federal Martin Luther King Jr . Day , but admitted in 2008 : " I was wrong and eventually realized that , in time to give full support [ in 1990 ] for a state holiday in Arizona . "
McCain 's politics at this point were mainly in line with President Ronald Reagan , including support for Reaganomics , and he was active on Indian Affairs bills . He supported most aspects of the foreign policy of the Reagan administration , including its hardline stance against the Soviet Union and policy towards Central American conflicts , such as backing the Contras in Nicaragua . McCain opposed keeping U.S. Marines deployed in Lebanon citing unattainable objectives , and subsequently criticized President Reagan for pulling out the troops too late ; in the interim , the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing killed hundreds . McCain won re @-@ election to the House easily in 1984 , and gained a spot on the House Foreign Affairs Committee . In 1985 , he made his first return trip to Vietnam , and also traveled to Chile where he met with its military junta ruler , General Augusto Pinochet .
= = = Growing family = = =
In 1984 , McCain and Cindy had their first child together , daughter Meghan , followed two years later by son John Sidney ( Jack ) IV , and in 1988 by son James ( Jimmy ) . In 1991 , Cindy McCain brought an abandoned three @-@ month @-@ old girl needing medical treatment to the U.S. from a Bangladeshi orphanage run by Mother Teresa . The McCains decided to adopt her and named her Bridget .
= = = First two terms in U.S. Senate = = =
McCain 's Senate career began in January 1987 , after he defeated his Democratic opponent , former state legislator Richard Kimball , by 20 percentage points in the 1986 election . McCain succeeded longtime American conservative icon and Arizona fixture Barry Goldwater upon the latter 's retirement as U.S. senator from Arizona .
Senator McCain became a member of the Armed Services Committee , with which he had formerly done his Navy liaison work ; he also joined the Commerce Committee and the Indian Affairs Committee . He continued to support the Native American agenda . As first a House member and then a senator – and as a lifelong gambler with close ties to the gambling industry – McCain was one of the main authors of the 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act , which codified rules regarding Native American gambling enterprises . McCain was also a strong supporter of the Gramm @-@ Rudman legislation that enforced automatic spending cuts in the case of budget deficits .
McCain soon gained national visibility . He delivered a well @-@ received speech at the 1988 Republican National Convention , was mentioned by the press as a short list vice @-@ presidential running mate for Republican nominee George H. W. Bush , and was named chairman of Veterans for Bush .
McCain became embroiled in a scandal during the 1980s , as one of five United States senators comprising the so @-@ called Keating Five . Between 1982 and 1987 , McCain had received $ 112 @,@ 000 in lawful political contributions from Charles Keating Jr. and his associates at Lincoln Savings and Loan Association , along with trips on Keating 's jets that McCain belatedly repaid , in 1989 . In 1987 , McCain was one of the five senators whom Keating contacted in order to prevent the government 's seizure of Lincoln , and McCain met twice with federal regulators to discuss the government 's investigation of Lincoln . In 1999 , McCain said : " The appearance of it was wrong . It 's a wrong appearance when a group of senators appear in a meeting with a group of regulators , because it conveys the impression of undue and improper influence . And it was the wrong thing to do . " In the end , McCain was cleared by the Senate Ethics Committee of acting improperly or violating any law or Senate rule , but was mildly rebuked for exercising " poor judgment " . In his 1992 re @-@ election bid , the Keating Five affair was not a major issue , and he won handily , gaining 56 percent of the vote to defeat Democratic community and civil rights activist Claire Sargent and independent former governor , Evan Mecham .
McCain developed a reputation for independence during the 1990s . He took pride in challenging party leadership and establishment forces , becoming difficult to categorize politically .
As a member of the 1991 – 1993 Senate Select Committee on POW / MIA Affairs , chaired by fellow Vietnam War veteran and Democrat , John Kerry , McCain investigated the Vietnam War POW / MIA issue , to determine the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action during the Vietnam War . The committee 's unanimous report stated there was " no compelling evidence that proves that any American remains alive in captivity in Southeast Asia . " Helped by McCain 's efforts , in 1995 the U.S. normalized diplomatic relations with Vietnam . McCain was vilified by some POW / MIA activists who , unlike the Arizona senator , believed large numbers of Americans were still held against their will in Southeast Asia . Since January 1993 , McCain has been Chairman of the International Republican Institute , an organization partly funded by the U.S. Government that supports the emergence of political democracy worldwide .
In 1993 and 1994 , McCain voted to confirm President Clinton 's nominees Stephen Breyer and Ruth Bader Ginsburg whom he considered to be qualified for the U.S. Supreme Court . He would later explain that " under our Constitution , it is the president 's call to make . " McCain had also voted to confirm nominees of Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush , including Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas .
McCain attacked what he saw as the corrupting influence of large political contributions – from corporations , labor unions , other organizations , and wealthy individuals – and he made this his signature issue . Starting in 1994 , he worked with Democratic Wisconsin Senator Russ Feingold on campaign finance reform ; their McCain @-@ Feingold bill attempted to put limits on " soft money " . The efforts of McCain and Feingold were opposed by some of the moneyed interests targeted , by incumbents in both parties , by those who felt spending limits impinged on free political speech and might be unconstitutional as well , and by those who wanted to counterbalance the power of what they saw as media bias . Despite sympathetic coverage in the media , initial versions of the McCain @-@ Feingold Act were filibustered and never came to a vote .
The term " maverick Republican " became a label frequently applied to McCain , and he has also used it himself . In 1993 , McCain opposed military operations in Somalia . Another target of his was pork barrel spending by Congress , and he actively supported the Line Item Veto Act of 1996 , which gave the president power to veto individual spending items but was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1998 .
In the 1996 presidential election , McCain was again on the short list of possible vice @-@ presidential picks , this time for Republican nominee Bob Dole . The following year , Time magazine named McCain as one of the " 25 Most Influential People in America " .
In 1997 , McCain became chairman of the powerful Senate Commerce Committee ; he was criticized for accepting funds from corporations and businesses under the committee 's purview , but in response said the small contributions he received were not part of the big @-@ money nature of the campaign finance problem . McCain took on the tobacco industry in 1998 , proposing legislation that would increase cigarette taxes in order to fund anti @-@ smoking campaigns , discourage teenage smokers , increase money for health research studies , and help states pay for smoking @-@ related health care costs . Supported by the Clinton administration but opposed by the industry and most Republicans , the bill failed to gain cloture .
= = = Start of third term in the U.S. Senate = = =
McCain won re @-@ election to a third senate term in November 1998 , prevailing in a landslide over his Democratic opponent , environmental lawyer Ed Ranger . In the February 1999 Senate trial following the impeachment of Bill Clinton , McCain voted to convict the president on both the perjury and obstruction of justice counts , saying Clinton had violated his sworn oath of office . In March 1999 , McCain voted to approve the NATO bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , saying that the ongoing genocide of the Kosovo War must be stopped and criticizing past Clinton administration inaction . Later in 1999 , McCain shared the Profile in Courage Award with Feingold for their work in trying to enact their campaign finance reform , although the bill was still failing repeated attempts to gain cloture .
In August 1999 , McCain 's memoir Faith of My Fathers , co @-@ authored with Mark Salter , was published ; a reviewer observed that its appearance " seems to have been timed to the unfolding Presidential campaign . " The most successful of his writings , it received positive reviews , became a bestseller , and was later made into a TV film . The book traces McCain 's family background and childhood , covers his time at Annapolis and his service before and during the Vietnam War , concluding with his release from captivity in 1973 . According to one reviewer , it describes " the kind of challenges that most of us can barely imagine . It 's a fascinating history of a remarkable military family . "
= = 2000 presidential campaign = =
McCain announced his candidacy for president on September 27 , 1999 , in Nashua , New Hampshire , saying he was staging " a fight to take our government back from the power brokers and special interests , and return it to the people and the noble cause of freedom it was created to serve " . The leader for the Republican nomination was Texas Governor George W. Bush , who had the political and financial support of most of the party establishment .
McCain focused on the New Hampshire primary , where his message appealed to independents . He traveled on a campaign bus called the Straight Talk Express . He held many town hall meetings , answering every question voters asked , in a successful example of " retail politics " , and he used free media to compensate for his lack of funds . One reporter later recounted that , " McCain talked all day long with reporters on his Straight Talk Express bus ; he talked so much that sometimes he said things that he shouldn 't have , and that 's why the media loved him . " On February 1 , 2000 , he won New Hampshire 's primary with 49 percent of the vote to Bush 's 30 percent . The Bush campaign and the Republican establishment feared that a McCain victory in the crucial South Carolina primary might give his campaign unstoppable momentum .
The Arizona Republic would write that the McCain – Bush primary contest in South Carolina " has entered national political lore as a low @-@ water mark in presidential campaigns " , while The New York Times called it " a painful symbol of the brutality of American politics " . A variety of interest groups that McCain had challenged in the past ran negative ads . Bush borrowed McCain 's earlier language of reform , and declined to dissociate himself from a veterans activist who accused McCain ( in Bush 's presence ) of having " abandoned the veterans " on POW / MIA and Agent Orange issues .
Incensed , McCain ran ads accusing Bush of lying and comparing the governor to Bill Clinton , which Bush said was " about as low a blow as you can give in a Republican primary " . An anonymous smear campaign began against McCain , delivered by push polls , faxes , e @-@ mails , flyers , and audience plants . The smears claimed that McCain had fathered a black child out of wedlock ( the McCains ' dark @-@ skinned daughter was adopted from Bangladesh ) , that his wife Cindy was a drug addict , that he was a homosexual , and that he was a " Manchurian Candidate " who was either a traitor or mentally unstable from his North Vietnam POW days . The Bush campaign strongly denied any involvement with the attacks .
McCain lost South Carolina on February 19 , with 42 percent of the vote to Bush 's 53 percent , in part because Bush mobilized the state 's evangelical voters and outspent McCain . The win allowed Bush to regain lost momentum . McCain would say of the rumor spreaders , " I believe that there is a special place in hell for people like those . " According to one report , the South Carolina experience left McCain in a " very dark place " .
McCain 's campaign never completely recovered from his South Carolina defeat , although he did rebound partially by winning in Arizona and Michigan a few days later . He made a speech in Virginia Beach that criticized Christian leaders , including Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell , as divisive conservatives , declaring " ... we embrace the fine members of the religious conservative community . But that does not mean that we will pander to their self @-@ appointed leaders . " McCain lost the Virginia primary on February 29 , and on March 7 lost nine of the thirteen primaries on Super Tuesday to Bush . With little hope of overcoming Bush 's delegate lead , McCain withdrew from the race on March 9 , 2000 . He endorsed Bush two months later , and made occasional appearances with the Texas governor during the general election campaign .
= = Senate career , 2000 – 2008 = =
= = = Remainder of third Senate term = = =
McCain began 2001 by breaking with the new George W. Bush administration on a number of matters , including HMO reform , climate change , and gun legislation ; McCain @-@ Feingold was opposed by Bush as well . In May 2001 , McCain was one of only two Senate Republicans to vote against the Bush tax cuts . Besides the differences with Bush on ideological grounds , there was considerable antagonism between the two remaining from the previous year 's campaign . Later , when a Republican senator , Jim Jeffords , became an Independent , thereby throwing control of the Senate to the Democrats , McCain defended Jeffords against " self @-@ appointed enforcers of party loyalty " . Indeed , there was speculation at the time , and in years since , about McCain himself leaving the Republican Party , but McCain has always adamantly denied that he ever considered doing so . Beginning in 2001 , McCain used political capital gained from his presidential run , as well as improved legislative skills and relationships with other members , to become one of the Senate 's most influential members .
After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , McCain supported Bush and the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan . He and Democratic senator Joe Lieberman wrote the legislation that created the 9 / 11 Commission , while he and Democratic senator Fritz Hollings co @-@ sponsored the Aviation and Transportation Security Act that federalized airport security .
In March 2002 , McCain @-@ Feingold passed in both Houses of Congress and was signed into law by President Bush . Seven years in the making , it was McCain 's greatest legislative achievement .
Meanwhile , in discussions over proposed U.S. action against Iraq , McCain was a strong supporter of the Bush administration 's position . He stated that Iraq was " a clear and present danger to the United States of America " , and voted accordingly for the Iraq War Resolution in October 2002 . He predicted that U.S. forces would be treated as liberators by a large number of the Iraqi people . In May 2003 , McCain voted against the second round of Bush tax cuts , saying it was unwise at a time of war . By November 2003 , after a trip to Iraq , he was publicly questioning Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld , saying that more U.S. troops were needed ; the following year , McCain announced that he had lost confidence in Rumsfeld .
In October 2003 , McCain and Lieberman co @-@ sponsored the Climate Stewardship Act that would have introduced a cap and trade system aimed at returning greenhouse gas emissions to 2000 levels ; the bill was defeated with 55 votes to 43 in the Senate . They reintroduced modified versions of the Act two additional times , most recently in January 2007 with the co @-@ sponsorship of Barack Obama , among others .
In the 2004 U.S. presidential election campaign , McCain was once again frequently mentioned for the vice @-@ presidential slot , only this time as part of the Democratic ticket under nominee John Kerry . McCain said that Kerry had never formally offered him the position and that he would not have accepted it if he had . At the 2004 Republican National Convention , McCain supported Bush for re @-@ election , praising Bush 's management of the War on Terror since the September 11 attacks . At the same time , he defended Kerry 's Vietnam war record . By August 2004 , McCain had the best favorable @-@ to @-@ unfavorable rating ( 55 percent to 19 percent ) of any national politician ; he campaigned for Bush much more than he had four years previously , though the two remained situational allies rather than friends .
McCain was also up for re @-@ election as senator , in 2004 . He defeated little @-@ known Democratic schoolteacher Stuart Starky with his biggest margin of victory , garnering 77 percent of the vote .
= = = Start of fourth Senate term = = =
In May 2005 , McCain led the so @-@ called Gang of 14 in the Senate , which established a compromise that preserved the ability of senators to filibuster judicial nominees , but only in " extraordinary circumstances " . The compromise took the steam out of the filibuster movement , but some Republicans remained disappointed that the compromise did not eliminate filibusters of judicial nominees in all circumstances . McCain subsequently cast Supreme Court confirmation votes in favor of John Roberts and Samuel Alito , calling them " two of the finest justices ever appointed to the United States Supreme Court . "
Breaking from his 2001 and 2003 votes , McCain supported the Bush tax cut extension in May 2006 , saying not to do so would amount to a tax increase . Working with Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy , McCain was a strong proponent of comprehensive immigration reform , which would involve legalization , guest worker programs , and border enforcement components . The Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act was never voted on in 2005 , while the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 passed the Senate in May 2006 but failed in the House . In June 2007 , President Bush , McCain , and others made the strongest push yet for such a bill , the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , but it aroused intense grassroots opposition among talk radio listeners and others , some of whom furiously characterized the proposal as an " amnesty " program , and the bill twice failed to gain cloture in the Senate .
By the middle of the 2000s ( decade ) , the increased Indian gaming that McCain had helped bring about was a $ 23 billion industry . He was twice chairman of the Senate Indian Affairs Committee , in 1995 – 1997 and 2005 – 2007 , and his Committee helped expose the Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal . By 2005 and 2006 , McCain was pushing for amendments to the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act that would limit creation of off @-@ reservation casinos , as well as limiting the movement of tribes across state lines to build casinos .
Owing to his time as a POW , McCain has been recognized for his sensitivity to the detention and interrogation of detainees in the War on Terror . In October 2005 , McCain introduced the McCain Detainee Amendment to the Defense Appropriations bill for 2005 , and the Senate voted 90 – 9 to support the amendment . It prohibits inhumane treatment of prisoners , including prisoners at Guantanamo Bay , by confining military interrogations to the techniques in the U.S. Army Field Manual on Interrogation . Although Bush had threatened to veto the bill if McCain 's amendment was included , the President announced in December 2005 that he accepted McCain 's terms and would " make it clear to the world that this government does not torture and that we adhere to the international convention of torture , whether it be here at home or abroad " . This stance , among others , led to McCain being named by Time magazine in 2006 as one of America 's 10 Best Senators . McCain voted in February 2008 against a bill containing a ban on waterboarding , which provision was later narrowly passed and vetoed by Bush . However , the bill in question contained other provisions to which McCain objected , and his spokesman stated : " This wasn 't a vote on waterboarding . This was a vote on applying the standards of the [ Army ] field manual to CIA personnel . "
Meanwhile , McCain continued questioning the progress of the war in Iraq . In September 2005 , he remarked upon Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Richard Myers ' optimistic outlook on the war 's progress : " Things have not gone as well as we had planned or expected , nor as we were told by you , General Myers . " In August 2006 , he criticized the administration for continually understating the effectiveness of the insurgency : " We [ have ] not told the American people how tough and difficult this could be . " From the beginning , McCain strongly supported the Iraq troop surge of 2007 . The strategy 's opponents labeled it " McCain 's plan " and University of Virginia political science professor Larry Sabato said , " McCain owns Iraq just as much as Bush does now . " The surge and the war were unpopular during most of the year , even within the Republican Party , as McCain 's presidential campaign was underway ; faced with the consequences , McCain frequently responded , " I would much rather lose a campaign than a war . " In March 2008 , McCain credited the surge strategy with reducing violence in Iraq , as he made his eighth trip to that country since the war began .
= = 2008 presidential campaign = =
McCain formally announced his intention to run for President of the United States on April 25 , 2007 in Portsmouth , New Hampshire . He stated that : " I 'm not running for president to be somebody , but to do something ; to do the hard but necessary things not the easy and needless things . "
McCain 's oft @-@ cited strengths as a presidential candidate for 2008 included national name recognition , sponsorship of major lobbying and campaign finance reform initiatives , his ability to reach across the aisle , his well @-@ known military service and experience as a POW , his experience from the 2000 presidential campaign , and an expectation that he would capture Bush 's top fundraisers . During the 2006 election cycle , McCain had attended 346 events and helped raise more than $ 10 @.@ 5 million on behalf of Republican candidates . McCain also became more willing to ask business and industry for campaign contributions , while maintaining that such contributions would not affect any official decisions he would make . Despite being considered the front @-@ runner for the nomination by pundits as 2007 began , McCain was in second place behind former Mayor of New York City Rudy Giuliani in national Republican polls as the year progressed .
McCain had fundraising problems in the first half of 2007 , due in part to his support for the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , which was unpopular among the Republican base electorate . Large @-@ scale campaign staff downsizing took place in early July , but McCain said that he was not considering dropping out of the race . Later that month , the candidate 's campaign manager and campaign chief strategist both departed . McCain slumped badly in national polls , often running third or fourth with 15 percent or less support .
The Arizona senator subsequently resumed his familiar position as a political underdog , riding the Straight Talk Express and taking advantage of free media such as debates and sponsored events . By December 2007 , the Republican race was unsettled , with none of the top @-@ tier candidates dominating the race and all of them possessing major vulnerabilities with different elements of the Republican base electorate . McCain was showing a resurgence , in particular with renewed strength in New Hampshire – the scene of his 2000 triumph – and was bolstered further by the endorsements of The Boston Globe , the New Hampshire Union Leader , and almost two dozen other state newspapers , as well as from Senator Lieberman ( now an Independent Democrat ) . McCain decided not to campaign significantly in the January 3 , 2008 , Iowa caucuses , which saw a win by former Governor of Arkansas Mike Huckabee .
McCain 's comeback plan paid off when he won the New Hampshire primary on January 8 , defeating former Governor of Massachusetts Mitt Romney in a close contest , to once again become one of the front @-@ runners in the race . In mid @-@ January , McCain placed first in the South Carolina primary , narrowly defeating Mike Huckabee . Pundits credited the third @-@ place finisher , Tennessee 's former U.S. Senator Fred Thompson , with drawing votes from Huckabee in South Carolina , thereby giving a narrow win to McCain . A week later , McCain won the Florida primary , beating Romney again in a close contest ; Giuliani then dropped out and endorsed McCain .
On February 5 , McCain won both the majority of states and delegates in the Super Tuesday Republican primaries , giving him a commanding lead toward the Republican nomination . Romney departed from the race on February 7 . McCain 's wins in the March 4 primaries clinched a majority of the delegates , and he became the presumptive Republican nominee .
McCain , having been born in the Panama Canal Zone , if elected would have become the first president who was born outside the current 50 states . This raised a potential legal issue , since the United States Constitution requires the president to be a natural @-@ born citizen of the United States . A bipartisan legal review , and a unanimous but non @-@ binding Senate resolution , both concluded that he is a natural @-@ born citizen . Also , if inaugurated in 2009 at age 72 years and 144 days , he would have been the oldest U.S. president upon ascension to the presidency , and the second @-@ oldest president to be inaugurated .
McCain addressed concerns about his age and past health concerns , stating in 2005 that his health was " excellent " . He had been treated for a type of skin cancer called melanoma , and an operation in 2000 for that condition left a noticeable mark on the left side of his face . McCain 's prognosis appeared favorable , according to independent experts , especially because he had already survived without a recurrence for more than seven years . In May 2008 , McCain 's campaign briefly let the press review his medical records , and he was described as appearing cancer @-@ free , having a strong heart , and in general being in good health .
Upon clinching enough delegates for the nomination , McCain 's focus shifted toward the general election , while Barack Obama and Hillary Rodham Clinton fought a prolonged battle for the Democratic nomination . McCain introduced various policy proposals , and sought to improve his fundraising . Cindy McCain , who accounts for most of the couple 's wealth with an estimated net worth of $ 100 million , made part of her tax returns public in May . After facing criticism about lobbyists on staff , the McCain campaign issued new rules in May 2008 to avoid conflicts of interest , causing five top aides to leave .
When Obama became the Democrats ' presumptive nominee in early June , McCain proposed joint town hall meetings , but Obama instead requested more traditional debates for the fall . In July , a staff shake @-@ up put Steve Schmidt in full operational control of the McCain campaign . Throughout these summer months , Obama typically led McCain in national polls by single @-@ digit margins , and also led in several key swing states . McCain reprised his familiar underdog role , which was due at least in part to the overall challenges Republicans faced in the election year . McCain accepted public financing for the general election campaign , and the restrictions that go with it , while criticizing his Democratic opponent for becoming the first major party candidate to opt out of such financing for the general election since the system was implemented in 1976 . The Republican 's broad campaign theme focused on his experience and ability to lead , compared to Obama 's .
Alaska Governor Sarah Palin was revealed as McCain 's surprise choice for running mate on August 29 , 2008 . McCain was only the second U.S. major @-@ party presidential nominee to select a woman for running mate and the first Republican to do so ; Palin would have become the first female Vice President of the United States if she had been elected . On September 3 , 2008 , McCain and Palin became the Republican Party 's presidential and vice presidential nominees , respectively , at the 2008 Republican National Convention in Saint Paul , Minnesota . McCain surged ahead of Obama in national polls following the convention , as the Palin pick energized core Republican voters who had previously been wary of him . However , by the campaign 's own later admission , the rollout of Palin to the national media went poorly , and voter reactions to Palin grew increasingly negative , especially among independents and other voters concerned about her qualifications .
On September 24 , McCain said he was suspending his campaign , called on Obama to join him , and proposed delaying the first of the general election debates with Obama , in order to work on the proposed U.S. financial system bailout before Congress , which was targeted at addressing the subprime mortgage crisis and liquidity crisis . McCain 's intervention helped to give dissatisfied House Republicans an opportunity to propose changes to the plan that was otherwise close to agreement . After Obama declined McCain 's suspension suggestion , McCain went ahead with the debate on September 26 . On October 1 , McCain voted in favor of a revised $ 700 billion rescue plan . Another debate was held on October 7 ; like the first one , polls afterward suggested that Obama had won it . A final presidential debate occurred on October 15 .
During and after the final debate , McCain compared Obama 's proposed policies to socialism and often invoked " Joe the Plumber " as a symbol of American small business dreams that would be thwarted by an Obama presidency . McCain barred using the Jeremiah Wright controversy in ads against Obama , but the campaign did frequently criticize Obama regarding his purported relationship with Bill Ayers . McCain 's rallies became increasingly vitriolic , with attendees denigrating Obama and displaying a growing anti @-@ Muslim and anti @-@ African @-@ American sentiment . After one female McCain supporter said she did not trust Obama because " he 's an Arab " , McCain pointedly replied to the woman , " No ma 'am . He 's a decent family man , citizen , that I just happen to have disagreements with on fundamental issues . " McCain 's response was considered one of the finer moments of the campaign and was still being viewed several years later as a marker for civility in American politics . Down the stretch , McCain was outspent by Obama by a four @-@ to @-@ one margin .
The election took place on November 4 , and Barack Obama was projected the winner at about 11 : 00 pm Eastern Standard Time ; McCain delivered his concession speech in Phoenix , Arizona about twenty minutes later . In it , he noted the historic and special significance of Obama becoming the nation 's first African American president . In the end , McCain won 173 electoral college votes to Obama 's 365 ; McCain failed to win most of the battleground states and lost some traditionally Republican ones . McCain gained 46 percent of the nationwide popular vote , compared to Obama 's 53 percent .
= = Senate career after 2008 = =
= = = Remainder of fourth Senate term = = =
Following his defeat , McCain returned to the Senate amid varying views about what role he might play there . In mid @-@ November 2008 he met with President @-@ elect Obama , and the two discussed issues they had commonality on . Around the same time , McCain indicated that he intended to run for re @-@ election to his Senate seat in 2010 . As the inauguration neared , Obama consulted with McCain on a variety of matters , to an extent rarely seen between a president @-@ elect and his defeated rival , and President Obama 's inauguration speech contained an allusion to McCain 's theme of finding a purpose greater than oneself .
Nevertheless , McCain emerged as a leader of the Republican opposition to the Obama economic stimulus package of 2009 , saying it had too much spending for too little stimulative effect . McCain also voted against Obama 's Supreme Court nomination of Sonia Sotomayor – saying that while undeniably qualified , " I do not believe that she shares my belief in judicial restraint " – and by August 2009 was siding more often with his Republican Party on closely divided votes than ever before in his senatorial career . McCain reasserted that the Afghanistan War was winnable and criticized Obama for a slow process in deciding whether to send additional U.S. troops there .
McCain also harshly criticized Obama for scrapping construction of the U.S. missile defense complex in Poland , declined to enter negotiations over climate change legislation similar to what he had proposed in the past , and strongly opposed the Obama health care plan . McCain led a successful filibuster of a measure that would allow repeal of the military 's " Don 't ask , don 't tell " policy towards gays . Factors involved in McCain 's new direction included Senate staffers leaving , a renewed concern over national debt levels and the scope of federal government , a possible Republican primary challenge from conservatives in 2010 , and McCain 's campaign edge being slow to wear off . As one longtime McCain advisor said , " A lot of people , including me , thought he might be the Republican building bridges to the Obama Administration . But he 's been more like the guy blowing up the bridges . "
In early 2010 , a primary challenge from radio talk show host and former U.S. Congressman J. D. Hayworth materialized in the 2010 U.S. Senate election in Arizona and drew support from some but not all elements of the Tea Party movement . With Hayworth using the campaign slogan " The Consistent Conservative " , McCain said – despite his own past use of the term on a number of occasions – " I never considered myself a maverick . I consider myself a person who serves the people of Arizona to the best of his abilities . " The primary challenge coincided with McCain reversing or muting his stance on some issues such as the bank bailouts , closing of the Guantánamo Bay detention facility , campaign finance restrictions , and gays in the military .
When the health care plan , now called the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , passed Congress and became law in March 2010 , McCain strongly opposed the landmark legislation not only on its merits but also on the way it had been handled in Congress . As a consequence , he warned that congressional Republicans would not be working with Democrats on anything else : " There will be no cooperation for the rest of the year . They have poisoned the well in what they 've done and how they 've done it . " McCain became a vocal defender of Arizona SB 1070 , the April 2010 tough anti @-@ illegal immigration state law that aroused national controversy , saying that the state had been forced to take action given the federal government 's inability to control the border . In the August 24 primary , McCain beat Hayworth by a 56 to 32 percent margin . McCain proceeded to easily defeat Democratic city councilman Rodney Glassman in the general election .
In the lame duck session of the 111th Congress , McCain voted for the compromise Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 , but against the DREAM Act ( which he had once sponsored ) and the New START Treaty . Most prominently , he continued to lead the eventually losing fight against " Don 't ask , don 't tell " repeal . In his opposition , he sometimes fell into anger or hostility on the Senate floor , and called its passage " a very sad day " that would compromise the battle effectiveness of the military .
= = = Fifth Senate term = = =
While control of the House of Representatives went over to the Republicans in the 112th Congress , the Senate stayed Democratic and McCain continued to be the ranking member of the Senate Armed Services Committee . As the Arab Spring took center stage , McCain urged that the embattled Egyptian president , Hosni Mubarak , step down and thought the U.S. should push for democratic reforms in the region despite the associated risks of religious extremists gaining power . McCain was an especially vocal supporter of the 2011 military intervention in Libya . In April of that year he visited the Anti @-@ Gaddafi forces and National Transitional Council in Benghazi , the highest @-@ ranking American to do so , and said that the rebel forces were " my heroes " . In June , he joined with Senator Kerry in offering a resolution that would have authorized the military intervention , and said : " The administration 's disregard for the elected representatives of the American people on this matter has been troubling and counterproductive . " In August , McCain voted for the Budget Control Act of 2011 that resolved the U.S. debt ceiling crisis . In November , McCain and Senator Carl Levin were leaders in efforts to codify in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 that terrorism suspects , no matter where captured , could be detained by the U.S. military and its tribunal system ; following objections by civil libertarians , some Democrats , and the White House , McCain and Levin agreed to language making it clear that the bill would not pertain to U.S. citizens .
In the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries , McCain endorsed former 2008 rival Mitt Romney and campaigned for him , but compared the contest to a Greek tragedy due to its drawn @-@ out nature with massive Super PAC @-@ funded attack ads damaging all the contenders . He labelled the Supreme Court 's 2010 Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission decision as " uninformed , arrogant , naïve , " and , decrying its effects and the future scandals he thought it would bring , said it would become considered the court 's " worst decision ... in the 21st century " . McCain took the lead in opposing the defense spending sequestrations brought on by the Budget Control Act of 2011 and gained attention for defending State Department aide Huma Abedin against charges brought by a few House Republicans that she had ties to the Muslim Brotherhood .
McCain continued to be one of the most frequently appearing guests on the Sunday morning news talk shows . He became one of the most vocal critics of the Obama administration 's handling of the September 11 , 2012 , attack on the U.S. diplomatic mission in Benghazi , saying it was a " debacle " that featured either " a massive cover @-@ up or incompetence that is not acceptable " and that it was worse than the Watergate scandal . As part of this , he and a few other senators were successful in blocking the planned nomination of Ambassador to the UN Susan Rice to succeed Hillary Rodham Clinton as U.S. Secretary of State ; McCain 's friend and colleague John Kerry was nominated instead .
Regarding the Syrian civil war that had begun in 2011 , McCain repeatedly argued for the U.S. intervening militarily in the conflict on the side of the anti @-@ government forces . He staged a visit to rebel forces inside Syria in May 2013 , the first senator to do so , and called for arming the Free Syrian Army with heavy weapons and for the establishment of a no @-@ fly zone over the country . Following reports that two of the people he posed for pictures with had been responsible for the kidnapping of eleven Lebanese Shiite pilgrims the year before , McCain disputed one of the identifications and said he had not met directly with the other . Following the 2013 Ghouta chemical weapons attack , McCain argued again for strong American military action against the government of the Syrian president , Bashar al @-@ Assad , and in September 2013 cast a Foreign Relations committee vote in favor of Obama 's request to Congress that it authorize a military response . McCain took the lead in criticizing a growing non @-@ interventionist movement within the Republican Party , exemplified by his March 2013 comment that Senators Rand Paul and Ted Cruz and Representative Justin Amash were " wacko birds " .
During 2013 , McCain was a member of a bi @-@ partisan group of senators , the " Gang of Eight " , which announced principles for another try at comprehensive immigration reform . The resulting Border Security , Economic Opportunity , and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013 passed the Senate by a 68 – 32 margin , but faced an uncertain future in the House . In July 2013 , McCain was at the forefront of an agreement among senators to drop filibusters against Obama administration executive nominees without Democrats resorting to the " nuclear option " that would disallow such filibusters altogether . However , the option would be imposed later in the year anyway , much to the senator 's displeasure . These developments and some other negotiations showed that McCain now had improved relations with the Obama administration , including the president himself , as well as with Democratic Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid , and that he had become the leader of a power center in the Senate for cutting deals in an otherwise bitterly partisan environment . They also led some observers to conclude that the " maverick " McCain had returned .
McCain was publicly skeptical about the Republican strategy that precipitated the U.S. federal government shutdown of 2013 and U.S. debt @-@ ceiling crisis of 2013 in order to defund or delay the Affordable Care Act ; in October 2013 he voted in favor of the Continuing Appropriations Act , 2014 , which resolved them and said , " Republicans have to understand we have lost this battle , as I predicted weeks ago , that we would not be able to win because we were demanding something that was not achievable . " Similarly , he was one of nine Republican senators who voted for the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 at the end of the year . By early 2014 , McCain 's apostasies were enough that the Arizona Republican Party formally censured him for having what they saw as a liberal record that had been " disastrous and harmful " . McCain remained stridently opposed to many aspects of Obama 's foreign policy , however , and in June 2014 , following major gains by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant in the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive , decried what he saw as a U.S. failure to protect its past gains in Iraq and called on the president 's entire national security team to resign . McCain said , " Could all this have been avoided ? ... The answer is absolutely yes . If I sound angry it 's because I am angry . "
McCain was a supporter of the Euromaidan protests against Ukraine leader Viktor Yanukovych and his government , and appeared in Independence Square in Kiev in December 2013 . Following the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine , McCain became a vocal supporter of providing arms to Ukrainian military forces , saying the sanctions imposed against Russia were not enough . In 2014 , McCain led the opposition to the appointments of Colleen Bell , Noah Mamet , and George Tsunis to the ambassadorships in Hungary , Argentina , and Norway , respectively , arguing they were unqualified appointees being rewarded for their political fundraising . Unlike many Republicans , McCain supported the release and contents of the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture in December 2014 , saying " The truth is sometimes a hard pill to swallow . It sometimes causes us difficulties at home and abroad . It is sometimes used by our enemies in attempts to hurt us . But the American people are entitled to it , nonetheless . " He added that the CIA 's practices following the September 11 attacks had " stained our national honor " while doing " much harm and little practical good " and that " Our enemies act without conscience . We must not . " He opposed the Obama administration 's December 2014 decision to normalize relations with Cuba .
As the 114th United States Congress assembled in January 2015 with Republicans in control of the Senate , McCain became chair of the Armed Services Committee , a longtime goal of his . In this position , he led the writing of proposed Senate legislation that sought to modify parts of the Goldwater @-@ Nichols Act of 1986 in order to return responsibility for major weapons systems acquisition back to the individual armed services and their secretaries and away from the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition , Technology and Logistics . As chair , McCain has tried to maintain a bipartisan approach and has forged a good relationship with ranking member Jack Reed . In April 2015 , McCain announced that he would run for a sixth term in Arizona 's 2016 Senate election . While there was still conservative and Tea Party anger at him , it was unclear if they would mount an effective primary challenge against him . During 2015 , McCain strongly opposed the proposed comprehensive agreement on the Iranian nuclear program , saying that Secretary of State Kerry was " delusional " and " giv [ ing ] away the store " in negotiations with Iran . McCain supported the 2015 Saudi Arabian @-@ led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh .
In the Republican Party presidential primaries , 2016 , McCain said he would support the Republican nominee even if it was Donald Trump , but following Mitt Romney 's March 3 speech , McCain endorsed the sentiments expressed in that speech , saying he had serious concerns about Trump 's " uninformed and indeed dangerous statements on national security issues " . Relations between the two had been fraught since early in the Donald Trump presidential campaign , 2016 , when the real estate mogul had said of McCain , saying " He 's not a war hero . He was a war hero because he was captured ? I like people who weren 't captured . " Following Trump becoming the presumptive nominee of the party on May 3 , McCain said that Republican voters had spoken and he would support Trump . McCain was expected to face a potentially strong challenge from Democratic Congresswoman Ann Kirkpatrick in the general election and privately expressed worry over the effect that Trump 's unpopularity among Hispanic voters might have on his own chances .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Committee on Armed Services ( Chair )
as chair of the full committee may serve as an ex @-@ officio member of any subcommittee
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations
Subcommittee on Financial and Contracting Oversight
Committee on Indian Affairs
Committee on Intelligence ( ex @-@ officio )
= = = Caucus memberships = = =
International Conservation Caucus
Senate Diabetes Caucus
Senate National Security Caucus ( Co @-@ Chair )
Sportsmen 's Caucus
Senate Wilderness and Public Lands Caucus
Senate Ukraine Caucus
= = Political positions = =
Various advocacy groups have given Senator McCain scores or grades as to how well his votes align with the positions of each group . The American Conservative Union has awarded McCain a lifetime rating of 82 percent through 2014 , while McCain has an average lifetime 12 percent " Liberal Quotient " from Americans for Democratic Action through 2014 .
The non @-@ partisan National Journal rates a Senator 's votes by what percentage of the Senate voted more liberally than he or she , and what percentage more conservatively , in three policy areas : economic , social , and foreign . For 2005 – 2006 ( as reported in the 2008 Almanac of American Politics ) , McCain 's average ratings were as follows : economic policy : 59 percent conservative and 41 percent liberal ; social policy : 54 percent conservative and 38 percent liberal ; and foreign policy : 56 percent conservative and 43 percent liberal .
Columnists such as Robert Robb and Matthew Continetti have used a formulation devised by William F. Buckley Jr. to describe McCain as " conservative " but not " a conservative " , meaning that while McCain usually tends towards conservative positions , he is not " anchored by the philosophical tenets of modern American conservatism . " Following his 2008 presidential election loss , McCain began adopting more orthodox conservative views ; the magazine National Journal rated McCain along with seven of his colleagues as the " most conservative " Senators for 2010 and he achieved his first 100 percent rating from the American Conservative Union for that year .
From the late 1990s until 2008 , McCain was a board member of Project Vote Smart which was set up by Richard Kimball , his 1986 Senate opponent . The project provides non @-@ partisan information about the political positions of McCain and other candidates for political office . Additionally , McCain uses his Senate website to describe his political positions .
= = Cultural and political image = =
McCain 's personal character has been a dominant feature of his public image . This image includes the military service of both himself and his family , the circumstances and tensions surrounding the end of his first marriage and beginning of second , his maverick political persona , his temper , his admitted problem of occasional ill @-@ considered remarks , and his close ties to his children from both his marriages .
McCain 's political appeal has been more nonpartisan and less ideological compared to many other national politicians . His stature and reputation stem partly from his service in the Vietnam War . He also carries physical vestiges of his war wounds , as well as his melanoma surgery . When campaigning , he quips : " I am older than dirt and have more scars than Frankenstein . "
Writers often extolled McCain for his courage not just in war but in politics , and wrote sympathetically about him . McCain 's shift of political stances and attitudes during and especially after the 2008 presidential campaign , including his self @-@ repudiation of the maverick label , left many writers expressing sadness and wondering what had happened to the McCain they thought they had known . By 2013 , some aspects of the older McCain had returned , and his image became that of a kaleidoscope of contradictory tendencies , including , as one writer listed , " the maverick , the former maverick , the curmudgeon , the bridge builder , the war hero bent on transcending the call of self @-@ interest to serve a cause greater than himself , the sore loser , old bull , last lion , loose cannon , happy warrior , elder statesman , lion in winter .... "
In his own estimation , the Arizona senator is straightforward and direct , but impatient . Other traits include a penchant for lucky charms , a fondness for hiking , and a sense of humor that has sometimes backfired spectacularly , as when he made a joke in 1998 about the Clintons widely deemed not fit to print in newspapers : " Do you know why Chelsea Clinton is so ugly ? – Because Janet Reno is her father . " McCain subsequently apologized profusely , and the Clinton White House accepted his apology . McCain has not shied away from addressing his shortcomings , and apologizing for them . He is known for sometimes being prickly and hot @-@ tempered with Senate colleagues , but his relations with his own Senate staff have been more cordial , and have inspired loyalty towards him . He formed a strong bond with two senators , Joe Lieberman and Lindsey Graham , over hawkish foreign policy and overseas travel , and they became dubbed the " Three Amigos " .
McCain acknowledges having said intemperate things in years past , though he also says that many stories have been exaggerated . One psychoanalytic comparison suggests that McCain was not the first presidential candidate to have a temper , and cultural critic Julia Keller argues that voters want leaders who are passionate , engaged , fiery , and feisty . McCain has employed both profanity and shouting on occasion , although such incidents have become less frequent over the years . Senator Lieberman has made this observation : " It is not the kind of anger that is a loss of control . He is a very controlled person . " Senator Thad Cochran , who has known McCain for decades and has battled him over earmarks , expressed concern about a McCain presidency : " He is erratic . He is hotheaded . He loses his temper and he worries me . " Ultimately Cochran decided to support McCain for president , after it was clear he would win the nomination .
All of McCain 's family members are on good terms with him , and he has defended them against some of the negative consequences of his high @-@ profile political lifestyle . His family 's military tradition extends to the latest generation : son John Sidney IV ( " Jack " ) graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 2009 , becoming the fourth generation John S. McCain to do so , and is a helicopter pilot ; son James served two tours with the marines in the Iraq War ; and son Doug flew jets in the navy . His daughter Meghan became a blogging and Twittering presence in the debate about the future of the Republican Party following the 2008 elections , and showed some of his maverick tendencies .
= = Electoral history = =
= = Writings by McCain = =
= = Awards and honors = =
In addition to his military honors and decorations , McCain has been granted a number of civilian awards and honors .
In 1997 , Time magazine named McCain as one of the " 25 Most Influential People in America " . In 1999 , McCain shared the Profile in Courage Award with Senator Russ Feingold for their work towards campaign finance reform . The following year , the same pair shared the Paul H. Douglas Award for Ethics in Government . In 2005 , The Eisenhower Institute awarded McCain the Eisenhower Leadership Prize . The prize recognizes individuals whose lifetime accomplishments reflect Dwight D. Eisenhower 's legacy of integrity and leadership . In 2006 , the Bruce F. Vento Public Service Award was bestowed upon McCain by the National Park Trust . The same year , McCain was awarded the Henry M. Jackson Distinguished Service Award by the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs , in honor of Senator Henry M. " Scoop " Jackson . In 2007 , the World Leadership Forum presented McCain with the Policymaker of the Year Award ; it is given internationally to someone who has " created , inspired or strongly influenced important policy or legislation " . In 2010 , President Mikheil Saakashvili of Georgia awarded McCain the Order of National Hero , an award never previously given to a non @-@ Georgian . In 2015 , the Kiev Patriarchate awarded McCain its own version of the Order of St. Vladimir . In 2016 , Allegheny College awarded McCain , along with Vice President Joe Biden , its Prize for Civility in Public Life .
McCain has received honorary degrees from colleges and universities in the United States and internationally . These include ones from Colgate University ( 2000 ) , The Citadel ( 2002 ) , Wake Forest University ( 2002 ) , the University of Southern California ( 2004 ) , Northwestern University ( 2005 ) , Liberty University ( 2006 ) , The New School 2006 ) , and the Royal Military College of Canada ( 2013 ) . He was also made an Honorary Patron of the University Philosophical Society at Trinity College Dublin in 2005 .
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= Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building =
The Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building was a chemistry laboratory and classroom building on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . The 42 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) postmodern building stood on the north end of a cluster of other science buildings on the site of the school 's first chemistry laboratory . It was completed in 1984 at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 2 million after the college received money from a fund bequeathed to it in the will of California cardiologist and professor Seeley G. Mudd . The structure replaced Sanders Hall of Chemistry and included elements designed to be energy efficient , notably a large wall of glass blocks that designers hoped would passively heat the building . Reviews of the structure were positive when it opened with critics praising the way its form complemented nearby older buildings . By 2015 , many aspects of the building had been evaluated as being in Fair or Poor condition and the building was demolished in spring 2016 Science Center project , to be replaced by an open green space .
= = History = =
Vassar Brothers Laboratory was the first chemistry building on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , built in 1880 , around 500 feet ( 150 m ) from the college 's Main Building . The Laboratory , which was the first free @-@ standing chemistry structure at a women 's college , stood until 1938 , 29 years after the construction of its replacement , the Ewing & Chapelle @-@ designed Sanders Hall of Chemistry .
In 1981 , the Seeley G. Mudd Fund granted Vassar $ 1 @.@ 3 million for the construction of a new chemistry building . Mudd was a California @-@ based cardiologist , professor , and trustee with the University of Southern California 's School of Medicine as well as with a number of other West Coast schools . Over his lifetime , Mudd donated more than $ 10 million to higher education institutions and upon his death in 1968 , his will established a further $ 44 million for building construction at universities and colleges , with the stipulation that institutions requesting a grant provide at least half the funds for their projects and that his name be prominently displayed on any buildings receiving the funding . While the cost of the building was originally reported to be $ 4 @.@ 5 million , this estimate grew to $ 6 @.@ 5 million by 1984 and would ultimately come to $ 7 @.@ 2 million once the project was completed . The College planned to cover the costs not paid for by the Mudd Fund with a $ 100 million development fundraising program that spanned the entirety of the 1980s .
Ground was broken on the new building on October 8 , 1982 , in a ceremony presided over by Vassar president Virginia B. Smith . Smith had previously selected engineer Fred Dubin to aid the school in constructing a more environmentally friendly chemistry building . As design progressed , she identified the need to hire architects to design the building alongside Dubin , so Perry Dean Rogers Architects of Boston were selected . Named the Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building after its benefactor , the building was constructed on the site where Vassar Brothers Laboratory once stood . Dubin initially tried to have it placed on the south side of Sanders Physics Building , but that site was deemed unworkable in part because of its proximity to the school 's Shakespeare Gardens . The building was instead placed southwest of Sanders Hall of Chemistry , which would be renamed Sanders Classrooms , and completed a quadrangle consisting of both Sanders buildings and the New England Building . Though built across from Sanders Physics , Mudd was actually 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) out of alignment with it . Zaldastani Associates served as the project 's structural engineers and W. J. Barney Corporation served as its general contractor .
In 2007 , despite being Vassar 's youngest completed academic building , a report by Platt Byard Dovell White Architects report found that many components of Mudd 's structure were in either Fair or Poor condition . The structure was slated for demolition in spring 2016 as part of the college 's Science Center project , which also included the construction of the new Bridge for Laboratory Sciences building and the renovations of the New England Building , Sanders Physics , and Olmsted Hall . The chemistry department began its move to the Bridge for Laboratory Sciences in summer 2015 and Mudd 's demolition followed . Exterior facade elements , windows , and indoor walls were cut away before the building 's frame was dismantled , concluding on April 22 , 2016 . Once cleared , the former site of Mudd will be an open green space .
= = Features = =
The Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building was designed in the postmodern style . The structure 's exterior walls were constructed from limestone and brick that surround regular glass blocks , each about 4 inches ( 10 cm ) thick with side lengths ranging from 8 to 12 inches ( 20 to 30 cm ) . The brick and limestone walls faced the west , north , and east , while the southern face was primarily glass , a feature designed for efficient energy use ; when sunlight hit the wall , air rose into the building and was heated , then pumped throughout where it aided in the operation of the structure 's 46 fume hoods . The north wall , meanwhile , wass designed to be resistant to cold air . The building was well insulated and its plain outer walls were as uninterrupted in material as possible to keep as much warm air inside the structure as possible in winters .
Containing 42 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) , the Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building stood three stories tall . The second and first floors ( the latter of which lies partially below ground ) contained laboratory space while the third floor consisted of communal and teaching spaces like classrooms and offices . Other offices on the first floor were lit via skylights . The stairwells in Mudd were designed with the purpose of discouraging students from passing through lab spaces to get from one side of the building to the other . In spite of this , Michael J. Crosbie reported in Architecture in 1986 that students had taken to passing through the building as a shortcut instead of going around it . Furnishings and carpeting in the building were deep blue and rust @-@ colored .
The 2007 report by Platt Byard Dovell White Architects evaluating the condition and context for many of Vassar 's buildings found Mudd to be " by far Vassar 's most interesting and most important post @-@ Modern building . " A contemporary review in Architecture commented that Mudd " responds on a variety of levels to its context , but it does so without sacrificing its own unique and powerful identity . " Margaret Gaskie also praised the building 's placement and contextualization among its fellow structures in a 1986 issue of Architectural Record : " the scale of the structure beneath its outcroppings is sympathetic to the existing buildings in the quad , and its mass , though larger , [ is ] appropriate to its role as a gateway between them and the central campus " . She went on to positively comment on the building 's aesthetics , saying , " the eye can feast on the mingled sparkle and luminosity drawn from minimal outdoor exposures used to maximum effect . In more public areas , where crisp glass @-@ block and lucent glass ignite clear deep @-@ timbered tones and pretty pastels , the feast becomes a banquet . " Crosbie in Architecture noted " some instances of shoddy drywall work and sloppy painting " but otherwise praised the building 's " bare @-@ bones " and " nuts and bolts " interior as functional and environmentally friendly . The Platt Byard Dovell White report found that Mudd 's glass walls " seem to function particularly poorly " as a passive heat control system but otherwise noted that the structure 's expressive postmodernist ambitions marked it as " a strong , compact if busy building [ that ] makes it more than a bit of a tour de force . " Mudd was awarded first place in a 1988 competition run by Pittsburgh Corning for its design .
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= Korketrekkeren =
Korketrekkeren ( direct translation : " The Corkscrew " ) is a tobogganing track and former bobsleigh and luge track in Oslo , Norway . The tobogganing track runs between Frognerseteren and Midtstuen and is operated as a public venue by the municipality . Return transport to the top of the hill is undertaken by riding the Oslo Metro 's Holmenkollen Line . Tobogganing in the area started in the 1880s , with several roads being used during winter evenings . Auto racing took place in the hill in 1921 and the following year it saw its first luge tournament . The first major tournament was the FIL European Luge Championships 1937 . Tobagganing also took place in the nearby Heftyebakken , but from 1950 Korketrekkeren became the sole tobogganing hill and Heftyebakken was used for cross @-@ country skiing .
The bobsleigh track was built for the 1952 Winter Olympics , where it hosted two bobsleigh events . Contrary to popular belief , this was not built at Korketrekkeren but as a separate run nearby also starting at Frognerseteren . It was built as a temporary , artificial track with the curves being constructed in snow and then frozen hard to ice . Trial runs were undertaken in 1951 and the bobsleigh course was not used after 1952 . Both Olympic events were won by Germany , with Andreas Ostler and Lorenz Nieberl participating in both winning teams . The tobogganing hill hosted the inaugural FIL World Luge Championships 1955 , with Norway 's Anton Salvesen winning the men 's single — the only time in history Norway has won a World Luge Championships medal .
= = History = =
Korketrekkeren was originally part of Frognerseterveien , a road which ran up to Frognerseteren . It was completed in 1867 to the orders of landlord Thomas Johannessen Heftye , who had been purchasing forest properties in the area . The section between Svendstuen and Frognerseteren gradually became known as Korktrekkeren . Holmen- og Voksenkollselskapet was established in 1888 and undertook a series of public infrastructure investments in the area , including the construction of roads , skiing trails , natural tobagganing tracks and a chapel . The property was given to Kristiania Municipality ( today Oslo Municipality ) in 1894 . Tobagganing became a popular sport from the 1880s and Holmen- og Voksenkollselskapet rented out sleds which were permitted to be used on roads and designated tracks after 19 : 00 on evenings with moonlight .
Norsk Vinterturistforening was founded in 1899 to work towards encouraging English tourists to visit Oslo , specifically by building tobogganing tracks . A committee was established in 1904 to look into building a new tobogganing track in the Holmenkollen area . It proposed that two new tracks be built , one from Voksenkollveien to Peisestuen , and one from Peisestuen to Midtstuen , and that Korketrekkeren be upgraded to allow for safer tobogganing . The investments cost 7 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) and the annual operating costs estimated at NOK 2 @,@ 000 . The investments were financed with NOK 2 @,@ 000 by Christiania Brænnevinssamlag and NOK 5 @,@ 000 by Akeforeningen . The latter was established in 1905 and was also responsible to operating the track .
In 1898 , the Holmenkollen Line was opened to Besserud . One of the line 's main revenue sources was transporting city @-@ dwellers to the recreational area of Nordmarka where they would go skiing . An alternative activity was tobogganing down the hill back to Majorstuen . The operator Holmenkolbanen immediately started plans to extend the line . There were two proposals : a continuation of the line past Holmenkollen and a branch from Midtstuen up Korketrekkeren to Frogneseteren . However , the latter required the use of a rack railway , as it would give a 1 : 8 gradient . The former route was selected and the line was extended to Frogneseteren in 1916 . Holmenkolbanen started renting out sleds at Frogneseteren , which could be returned at most stations . To save the return ticket , many chose to continue the tobogganing ride to Majorstuen .
The use of Korketrekkeren for tobogganing created a conflict with the local residents — especially at the guest house in Sverdrupstuen , which was often blocked on Sundays . There was also a conflict between cross @-@ country skiing and tobogganing , as both groups wanted priority on the road . Akeforeningen proposed holding a tournament in 1921 , but this was rejected by the municipal council . However , an auto race was held on the track that year . Permission for the sleighing race was given the following season , resulting in regular tournaments . Construction of Heftyebakken took place in 1930 . The track was constructed between Frogerseteren to Svendstuen , including a concrete curve which allowed it to connect to Korketrekkeren . Heftyebakken had a poor profile as it was not steep enough in the lower areas . In 1950 , Heftyebakken was converted to a skiing trail and Korketrekkeren became a pure tobogganing trail .
Unusually for winter sports , bobsleigh has never been popular in Norway . The country had not sent an Olympic team until the 1948 Winter Olympics and there were no previous bobsleigh tracks in Norway when Oslo was awarded the 1952 Winter Olympics . Two Swiss civil engineers , Heinz Cattani and Emil Ingold , were the main technical consultants for the development of the venue . The steep terrain made construction excessively expensive , resulting in the organizing committee deciding to build a temporary track , without permanent concrete and stone curves . Instead , a new track was constructed each year using snow : the overhangs were built by hand , the tracks were leveled and the structure sprayed with ice until it was hard .
The track route was built under supervision of Sigurd Lund and Carl Venderboe in 1949 and 1950 and subsequently corrected by Cattani . The only fixed installation was a water main which ran along the track , using Øvresetertjern as its water source . Engineer Luigi Angelini from Switzerland was hired to supervise the construction of the curves , which cost NOK 615 @,@ 000 . The track was first constructed for training in 1951 and then for the Olympics in 1952 .
There have been occasional proposals that Norway should build a permanent bobsleigh track , where Korketrekkeren was the leading location . The debate died out in the 1990s with the selection of Lillehammer as the host of the 1994 Winter Olympics and the subsequent construction of Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track . Also the Oslo bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics proposed using the Lillehammer track . In 2007 , there were two serious accidents in the hill and it was subsequently closed by the police . The municipality then renovated the hill , removing poles and polstering dangerous edges .
= = Olympic track = =
The Olympic track ran from Frogneseteren , with the start line located at 429 @.@ 2 meters ( 1 @,@ 408 ft ) above mean sea level . The course falls 124 @.@ 35 meters ( 408 @.@ 0 ft ) , with the finish line located at 304 @.@ 85 meters ( 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 2 ft ) elevation . The track had an average 8 @.@ 6 percent gradient , which varied between 3 @.@ 67 and 13 @.@ 86 percent . The track was 1 @,@ 507 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @,@ 946 ft ) long and had 13 curves , varying with radii between 14 and 50 meters ( 46 and 164 ft ) . Beyond the finish @-@ line the track ran steeply uphill . The track had three boxes for time @-@ keepers , one at the start , one mid @-@ way and one at the finish . In addition there was a bob garage at the top of the hill . Bobs were transport up using a four @-@ wheel @-@ drive car up Heftyebakken . The track had 50 telephone linesto keep up with the competition and track conditions during the event .
The following is a list of the turns with their names and curve radii .
= = Tobogganing = =
Korketrekkeren is a public hill owned by the municipality and can be used free of charge . Toboggans can be rented from Skiservice and Akerforeningen . The start of the hill is located next to Frognerseteren Station on the Oslo Metro 's Holmenkollen Line and the end of the course is located at Midtstuen Station . Tobogganists can take their sleds on the train using ordinary tickets . There is also a smaller beginners track at Skistua at Frognerseteren . Korketrekkeren is widely regarded as Oslo 's prime tobogganing course .
= = Events = =
= = = 1937 European championships = = =
The FIL European Luge Championships 1937 were the sixth to be contested and the only to have been held in Norway . Six nations competed — Martin Tietze from Germany won both the men 's singles and along with Kurt Weidner the men 's doubles . Norway took all the medals in the women 's singles with Titti Maartmann winning .
= = = 1952 Winter Olympics = = =
Two events in bobsleigh were held at the 1952 Winter Olympics — two @-@ man and four @-@ man . Both were contested over four heats over two days . Two @-@ man was contested on 14 and 15 February , while four @-@ man was contested on 21 and 22 February . The same teams won both events , with Germans Andreas Ostler and Lorenz Nieberl winning gold in both events and Friedrich Kuhn and Franz Kemser winning gold in the four @-@ man . The events attracted up to 15 @,@ 000 spectators .
= = = 1955 World championships = = =
FIL World Luge Championships 1955 was the inaugural world championship in luge and the only to have been held in Norway . Eight countries participated , with the top results being dominated by Austria . The men 's singles was won by Anton Salvesen , which remains the only medal ever won by Norway in the World Luge Championships . The women 's singles saw double Austrian victory with Karla Kienzl winning ahead of Maria Isser . In the doubles , Hans Krausner and Josef Thaler won ahead of their Austrian countrymen Josef Isser and Maria Isser .
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= Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleship =
The Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class was a pair of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Italian Navy ( Italian : Regia Marina ) during the 1890s . The class comprised two ships : Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the lead ship , and Emanuele Filiberto . They were armed with a main battery of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 @-@ millimetre ) guns and were capable of a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Smaller and less powerfully @-@ armed than most contemporary battleships , they marked a brief departure from Italian battleship design , which had previous emphasized large ships equipped with large guns .
Both ships served in the active duty squadron early in their careers , and participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . They took part in the Italian offensives in North Africa and the island of Rhodes , but did not see combat with the Ottoman fleet . They were reduced to harbor defense ships by the outbreak of World War I , and they spent the war in Venice . The ships were discarded shortly after the end of the war , both having been stricken in 1920 .
= = Design = =
The previous Italian capital ships , the Re Umberto and the Ruggiero di Lauria classes of ironclad battleships , marked a period of experimentation on the part of Benedetto Brin , Admiral Simone di Pacoret Saint Bon , and the strategists of the Italian navy . Since the planners had not determined what type of battleship would best suit their strategic needs , the government stepped in and mandated a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) design smaller than the earlier classes . Following the death of di Saint Bon , Brin took over the design process and proposed a small battleship armed with 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , a weaker main battery than those of contemporary foreign designs .
The ships , much smaller than their contemporaries , and slower than cruisers , were not particularly useful warships . The mistake of building a battleship of only 10 @,@ 000 tons was not repeated in the subsequent , and much more successful , Regina Margherita class .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class were 105 meters ( 344 ft ) long at the waterline and 111 @.@ 8 m ( 367 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 21 @.@ 12 m ( 69 @.@ 3 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 69 m ( 25 @.@ 2 ft ) . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon displaced 10 @,@ 082 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 923 long tons ; 11 @,@ 114 short tons ) at standard loading and 10 @,@ 531 t ( 10 @,@ 365 long tons ; 11 @,@ 608 short tons ) at full combat load , while Emanuele Filiberto displaced 9 @,@ 645 t ( 9 @,@ 493 long tons ; 10 @,@ 632 short tons ) and 9 @,@ 940 t ( 9 @,@ 780 long tons ; 10 @,@ 960 short tons ) , respectively . The ships had a low freeboard of only 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon had a crew of 557 officers and enlisted men , while Emanuele Filiberto had a slightly larger complement of 565 .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two triple expansion engines ; Ammiraglio di Saint Bon 's were rated at 14 @,@ 296 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 661 kW ) , while Emanuele Filiberto 's engines only reached 13 @,@ 552 ihp ( 10 @,@ 106 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twelve coal @-@ fired cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . The ships ' propulsion system provided a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with four 10 in ( 254 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth . The guns were placed in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The ships were also equipped with eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in individual casemates amidships . These guns were export derivatives of the British QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 gun . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was also equipped with eight 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in shielded pivot mounts directly above the casemate battery and eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Emanuele Filiberto carried six 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns and eight 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns instead . Both ships also carried four 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck @-@ mounted launchers .
The ships were protected with Harvey steel . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick , and the deck was 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 9 @.@ 8 in of armor plating . The main battery guns had 9 @.@ 8 in thick plating , and the casemates were 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) thick .
= = Ships of the class = =
= = Service = =
Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was built by the Venice Naval Shipyard . She was laid down on 18 July 1893 , launched on 29 April 1897 , and completed on 24 May 1901 , although she had been commissioned on 1 February 1901 . Emanuele Filiberto was named after Prince Emanuele Filiberto , Duke of Aosta . She was built by the Castellammare Naval Shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia , Naples . She was laid down on 5 October 1893 , launched on 29 September 1897 , and completed on 16 April 1902 , although she had been commissioned on 6 September 1901 . The ships spend the first several years in the active duty squadron until they were replaced by the new Regina Elena @-@ class battleships , which entered service by 1908 .
Both ships took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 1912 in the 3rd Division with the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships . Emanuele Filiberto took part in the attack on Tripoli in October 1911 , though Ammiraglio di Saint Bon did not see action in the first months of the war . Both ships participated in the seizure of the island of Rhodes , where Ammiraglio di Saint Bon provided gunfire support to the soldiers ashore .
The two ships were slated to be scrapped in 1914 – 15 due to their age , but the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 prevented their disposal . Italy initially remained neutral during the war , but by 1915 , had been convinced by the Triple Entente to enter the war against Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary . Both Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and Emanuele Filiberto were used as harbor defense ships in Venice for the duration of the war , and did not see action there . Neither ship remained in service long after the end of the war . Emanuele Filiberto was stricken from the naval register on 29 March 1920 and Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was stricken on 18 June . Both ships were subsequently discarded .
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= Jon Challinor =
Jon Challinor ( born 2 December 1980 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a defender or a midfielder for Northern Premier League Premier Division club Stamford .
Challinor started his career with Rushden & Diamonds , and after being released in 2000 had spells with Stamford , Cambridge City , the Kalamazoo Kingdom and St Albans City . He reached the 2004 Football Conference play @-@ off Final with Aldershot Town , and after another unsuccessful play @-@ off campaign in the 2004 – 05 season signed for Exeter City in 2005 . He played in the 2007 Conference National play @-@ off Final defeat before returning to Rushden in 2007 . He left for Cambridge United a year later , playing for them in the 2009 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final . After spells with Forest Green Rovers , Mansfield Town , Brackley Town , Newport County and Kettering Town , Challinor signed for York City in 2011 . Here , he won promotion to League Two in his fourth appearance in a Conference play @-@ off final , following victory in the 2012 Final , also winning in the 2012 FA Trophy Final . He was released by the club a year later .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Northampton , Northamptonshire , Challinor began his career in the youth system at Rushden & Diamonds . He made his first team debut for the Football Conference club as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old in a Conference League Cup game against Farnborough Town on 22 December 1998 . He signed a contract at the end of his scholarship , but after failing to break into the first team squad was released in May 2000 . Challinor dropped two divisions to join Southern League Division One East side Stamford in search of first team football . He impressed with Stamford , moving to Southern League Premier Division side Cambridge City in February 2001 , scoring two goals in 11 league appearances before the end of the 2000 – 01 season . He made 46 appearances , scoring three goals , in the 2001 – 02 season before spending the close season with the Kalamazoo Kingdom in the American USL Premier Development League .
Challinor returned to England after joining Isthmian League Premier Division side St Albans City on a two @-@ year contract in August 2002 . His debut came in St Albans ' 4 – 0 victory away at Ware in the Herts Charity Cup first round on 3 August 2002 , before scoring his first goal in a 2 – 0 home win against Heybridge Swifts on 26 August . Challinor played in St Albans ' 4 – 1 FA Cup first round defeat to Second Division team Stockport County on 16 November 2002 . He scored six goals in 57 games in the 2002 – 03 season , before spending a second close season with the Kalamazoo Kingdom , making 17 appearances and scoring two goals in the USL Premier Development League .
= = = Aldershot Town = = =
After being released by St Albans , Challinor signed for Football Conference side Aldershot Town on 8 August 2003 , having appeared for them in pre @-@ season . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 home win over Accrington Stanley on 10 August 2003 , before scoring his first goal in a 5 – 2 win away to Telford United on 16 August . Having made an impressive start for Aldershot , scoring five goals in 12 games , Challinor signed a contract lasting until the end of the 2004 – 05 season on 14 October 2003 . After being sent off in a 2 – 0 home defeat to Margate on 20 December 2003 he was given a three @-@ match suspension , making his return in a 4 – 0 defeat away to Farnborough on 24 January 2004 . He played in the 2004 Football Conference play @-@ off Final against Shrewsbury Town at the Britannia Stadium , which Aldershot lost 3 – 0 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after a 1 – 1 draw following extra time . His 2003 – 04 season with Aldershot finished having scored 13 goals in 48 appearances .
Aldershot qualified for the play @-@ offs again in the 2004 – 05 season , and Challinor played in both semi @-@ final games against Carlisle United , which ended in a 2 – 2 draw on aggregate . Challinor missed his penalty kick in the penalty shoot @-@ out , before Danny Livesey scored the penalty that secured Carlisle 's place in the play @-@ off final . Having finished the season with nine goals in 44 appearances , Challinor was released by Aldershot on 18 May 2005 , despite being rated as one of the best attacking midfielders in the Conference National .
= = = Exeter City = = =
On 20 May 2005 , Challinor joined Conference National side Exeter City on a two @-@ year contract . Manager Alex Inglethorpe described him by saying " He 's 24 years of age and he fits the bill of the type of player that will help us next season . I liken him to Tim Cahill of Everton . He likes to get forward and score goals , and has a good grounding in both League and non @-@ League football . " Challinor made his debut in a 2 – 0 win away at Gravesend & Northfleet on 13 August 2005 , before scoring his first goal on 3 September in a 2 – 2 away to Dagenham & Redbridge . He scored in a 4 – 0 win over former club Aldershot on 26 December 2005 , during which he was targeted by opposition fans , after his former manager Terry Brown claimed he left Aldershot for financial reasons . After the match , Challinor said " I got one over on the manager and proved him wrong , he didn 't think I was good enough . Their fans were at me throughout the game but it only made me focus more . " He finished the 2005 – 06 season with 13 goals in 48 appearances for Exeter .
Challinor was targeted by fellow Conference National side Grays Athletic in December 2006 , but after remaining at Exeter he was offered a new contract at the club in February 2007 , which he did not sign . He played for Exeter in the 2007 Conference National play @-@ off Final on 20 May 2007 , the first Conference play @-@ off final to be played at the new Wembley Stadium . He assisted Lee Phillips ' ninth minute opening goal for Exeter , although the side went on to lose 2 – 1 to Morecambe . Challinor made 48 appearances and scored 10 goals for Exeter in the 2006 – 07 season .
= = = Return to Rushden & Diamonds = = =
Challinor returned to Conference Premier club Rushden & Diamonds after signing a two @-@ year contract on 28 May 2007 . He made his debut in a 1 – 1 draw away at Woking on 11 August 2007 , before scoring his first goal with Rushden 's only strike in a 1 – 1 draw away at Salisbury City on 8 September . He started the season playing in midfield , but after being played as a striker in late February 2008 he went on a run of scoring six goals in five consecutive games .
He appeared for Rushden in the 2008 Conference League Cup Final against Aldershot at the Recreation Ground on 3 April 2008 . The match finished a 3 – 3 draw after extra time , but Aldershot won 4 – 3 in a penalty shoot @-@ out . Challinor made 57 appearances and scored 10 goals for Rushden in the 2007 – 08 season , only missing out on ever @-@ present status after missing the last game of the season against Grays Athletic through injury .
= = = Cambridge United and Mansfield Town = = =
He joined Conference Premier rivals Cambridge United on a two @-@ year contract for a £ 15 @,@ 000 fee on 6 August 2008 . His debut came in a 1 – 0 win away to Northwich Victoria on 9 August 2008 , and scored his first goal with a stoppage time winner in a 1 – 0 home win over Lewes on 7 October 2008 . Soon after he was told by manager Gary Brabin to provide more support for the team 's strikers , with Challinor agreeing , saying " It will put the added responsibility on me to start shooting and take some pressure off the forwards . If the midfield can get some goals as well , then that will help the team " . He immediately followed this up with the winning goal against Weymouth in a 1 – 0 home win on 11 October 2008 , coming from a low right @-@ footed shot into the corner from 25 yards .
Challinor 's first sending off for Cambridge came after receiving a second yellow card during a 5 – 0 home defeat to Crawley Town in the FA Trophy second round on 14 January 2009 . He made his return from suspension in a 1 – 1 home draw with Oxford United on 29 January 2009 . Challinor came on as a 79th minute substitute for Paul Carden in the 2009 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley , in which Torquay United won 2 – 0 . Having struggled to make an impact for Cambridge in the 2008 – 09 season , which he finished with two goals in 39 games , he was transfer @-@ listed .
He was sent out on loan for the start of the 2009 – 10 season to divisional rivals Forest Green Rovers for one month on 7 August 2009 . Challinor made his debut the following day in a 2 – 1 home defeat against Kettering Town , going on to make seven appearances at Forest Green . Forest Green had been interested in taking Challinor on another loan , until appointing a new manager . He left Cambridge on loan again after joining Conference Premier rivals Mansfield Town on a two @-@ month loan on 20 November 2009 . Challinor made a scoring debut for Mansfield with the equalising goal from close range in a 1 – 1 draw at home to Eastbourne Borough on 21 November 2009 . After making six appearances and scoring one goal in his loan spell , Challinor signed permanently for Mansfield for the rest of the season on 6 January 2010 . He was released by Mansfield at the end of the season , having made 15 appearances and scored two goals after signing permanently .
= = = Brackley Town and Newport County = = =
Challinor signed with Southern League Premier Division side Brackley Town in July 2010 , after he had been set to sign for Corby Town of the Conference North , with whom he had been on trial . He then signed for Conference Premier club Newport County on a short @-@ term contract on 30 October 2010 , making his debut later that day as a 28th @-@ minute substitute for Martin John in a 2 – 1 home defeat to Kettering Town , but was himself substituted in the 73rd minute for Robbie Matthews . Challinor scored on his next appearance for Newport , with the winning goal after netting Sam Deering 's cross in the 29th minute of extra time in a 1 – 0 victory away at Wealdstone in an FA Trophy first round replay on 13 December 2010 . He was released by Newport on 30 December 2010 , having made four appearances and scored one goal for the club .
= = = Kettering Town = = =
He joined Conference Premier side Kettering Town on a contract until the end of the 2010 – 11 season on 18 January 2011 . Kettering were fighting against relegation , and Challinor was quoted as saying " We have to stay positive . We know it 's a transitional period for the club and there is a lot going on " . He made his debut later that day as a half @-@ time substitute for Callum Wilson in Kettering 's 2 – 1 loss away to Grimsby Town . His first goal for Kettering came in stoppage time against Southport in a 3 – 1 home victory on 30 April 2011 , having entered the match in the 89th minute . Challinor finished the season with 14 appearances and one goal for Kettering . He agreed to stay at Kettering ahead of the 2011 – 12 season on non @-@ contract terms , in the belief that a permanent contract would later be agreed , and started the season playing in defensive midfield .
= = = York City = = =
On 25 August 2011 , Challinor signed for Conference Premier rivals York City on a contract until January 2012 , having impressed manager Gary Mills when playing against York for Kettering two days earlier . He made his debut a day later , coming on as a 56th @-@ minute substitute for Patrick McLaughlin in a 0 – 0 draw away to Fleetwood Town . Challinor was soon converted into a right @-@ back at York , a position in which he displayed composure and an ability to start attacking moves . His first goal for York came in a 4 – 2 win away at Hayes & Yeading United on 22 October 2011 with a drilled shot into the bottom right corner of the goal from the edge of the penalty box .
He signed a new contract with York until the end of the season in January 2012 . He featured in the York side that won 2 – 0 in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley against his former club Newport on 12 May 2012 . Eight days later he again played at Wembley to win promotion to League Two through the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final with a 2 – 1 victory over Luton Town . Thus , Challinor was successful in achieving promotion to the Football League in his fourth appearance in a Conference play @-@ off final . Having made 51 appearances and scored three goals for York in the 2011 – 12 season , he signed a new one @-@ year contract with the club in July 2012 .
Ahead of Challinor 's first season as a Football League player he was quoted as saying " It 's been a long time coming so I ’ m going to embrace it and enjoy every minute . I think almost every team I have played for has gone on to reach the League so to finally achieve it is a dream come true but it doesn 't end there " . He made his first appearance as a League player in a League Cup first round game away at Doncaster Rovers on 11 August 2012 as an 87th @-@ minute substitute for McLaughlin . York lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after a 1 – 1 extra time draw , although Challinor was successful in converting his penalty . He finished the 2012 – 13 season with 22 appearances before being released by York on 30 April 2013 .
= = = Return to Stamford and FC Halifax Town = = =
Challinor re @-@ signed for Stamford in August 2013 , after playing for the Northern Premier League Premier Division club during pre @-@ season . After impressive performances throughout December 2013 , which culminated in him being named Stamford 's player of the month , Challinor signed a dual registration deal with Conference Premier team FC Halifax Town on 7 January 2014 . He made his debut in a 0 – 0 draw away to Wrexham on 11 January 2014 . Challinor made five appearances for FC Halifax before resuming playing for Stamford in February 2014 . He played in the final of the Lincolnshire Senior Cup as Stamford beat Brigg Town 5 – 4 in a penalty shoot @-@ out following a 3 – 3 draw after extra time on 29 April 2014 . Challinor took over as caretaker manager of Stamford on 5 November 2015 , following the sacking of Andrew Wilson . He remained in charge until the appointment of Graham Drury as manager on 12 November 2015 .
= = International career = =
Challinor was capped twice by the England National Game XI , the team that represents England at non @-@ League level , making his debut against Belgium on 4 November 2003 before making his second appearance against Italy on 11 February 2004 .
= = Personal life = =
Challinor married his wife Lara during the summer of 2007 . As he is a fan of the Star Wars films , The Imperial March was played as part of the ceremony .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 23 April 2016 .
= = Managerial statistics = =
As of 12 November 2015 .
= = Honours = =
York City
Conference Premier play @-@ offs : 2011 – 12
FA Trophy : 2011 – 12
Stamford
Lincolnshire Senior Cup : 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15
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= HMS Glorious =
HMS Glorious was the second of the Courageous @-@ class battlecruisers built for the Royal Navy during the First World War . Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by the First Sea Lord , Lord Fisher , they were very lightly armoured and armed with only a few heavy guns . Glorious was completed in late 1916 and spent the war patrolling the North Sea . She participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 and was present when the German High Seas Fleet surrendered a year later .
Glorious was paid off after the end of the war , but was rebuilt as an aircraft carrier during the late 1920s . She could carry 30 % more aircraft than her half @-@ sister Furious which had approximately the same tonnage . After recommissioning she spent most of her career operating in the Mediterranean Sea . After the start of the Second World War , Glorious spent the rest of 1939 unsuccessfully hunting for the German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean before returning to the Mediterranean . She was recalled in April 1940 to support British operations in Norway . While evacuating British aircraft from Norway in June , the ship was sunk by the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in the North Sea with the loss of over 1 @,@ 200 lives .
= = Design and description = =
During the First World War , Admiral Fisher was prevented from ordering an improved version of the preceding Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by a wartime restriction that banned construction of ships larger than light cruisers . To obtain ships suitable for traditional battlecruiser roles , such as scouting for fleets and hunting enemy raiders , he settled on a design with the minimal armour of a light cruiser and the armament of a battlecruiser . He justified their existence by claiming he needed fast , shallow @-@ draught ships for his Baltic Project , a plan to invade Germany via its Baltic coast .
Glorious had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 81 feet ( 24 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 25 feet 10 inches ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . She displaced 19 @,@ 180 long tons ( 19 @,@ 490 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 560 long tons ( 22 @,@ 922 t ) at deep load . Glorious and her sisters were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . To save time the installation used in the light cruiser Champion , the first cruiser in the Royal Navy with geared turbines , was simply doubled . The Parsons turbines were powered by eighteen Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers . They were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 @,@ 113 kW ) at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . During the ship 's abbreviated sea trials she reached 31 @.@ 42 knots ( 58 @.@ 19 km / h ; 36 @.@ 16 mph ) .
The ship was designed to normally carry 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of fuel oil , but could carry a maximum of 3 @,@ 160 long tons ( 3 @,@ 210 t ) . At full capacity , she could steam for an estimated 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 110 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Glorious carried four BL 15 @-@ inch Mark I guns in two twin hydraulically powered Mark I * turrets , one each fore ( ' A ' ) and aft ( ' Y ' ) . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mark IX guns mounted in six manually powered triple T.I. Mark I mounts . These mounts had the three breeches too close together and the 23 loaders tended to interfere with one another . This rather negated the mount 's intended purpose to provide a high rate of fire against torpedo boats and other smaller craft . A pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns were fitted abreast the mainmast on Glorious . She mounted two submerged tubes for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes and 10 torpedoes were carried .
= = World War I = =
Her keel was laid down on 1 May 1915 by Harland and Wolff at their Belfast shipyard . Glorious was launched on 20 April 1916 and completed on 14 October 1916 . During her sea trials in November 1916 , Courageous sustained structural damage while running at full speed in a rough head sea and had the damaged areas stiffened shortly afterwards to prevent a recurrence . Glorious did not suffer any similar damage and did not receive her stiffening until 1918 . Upon commissioning , Courageous served with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet . After most of the 1st Cruiser Squadron was sunk at the Battle of Jutland , the squadron was re @-@ formed with Courageous as flagship along with her sister ship Glorious . She cost £ 1 @,@ 967 @,@ 223 to build ( costs to 23 Nov 1916 ) . Glorious received a half a dozen torpedo mounts , each with two tubes in mid @-@ 1917 : one mount on each side of the mainmast on the upper deck and two mounts on each side of the rear turret on the quarterdeck .
On 16 October 1917 the Admiralty received word of German ship movements , possibly indicating some sort of raid . Admiral Beatty , the commander of the Grand Fleet , ordered most of his light cruisers and destroyers to sea in an effort to locate the enemy ships . Courageous and Glorious were not initially ordered to sea , but were sent to reinforce the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron patrolling the central part of the North Sea later that day . Two German Brummer @-@ class light cruisers managed to slip through the gaps in the British patrols and destroyed a convoy bound for Norway during the morning of 17 October , but no word was received of the engagement until that afternoon . The 1st Cruiser Squadron were ordered to intercept , but were unsuccessful as the German cruisers were faster than expected .
= = = Second Battle of Heligoland Bight = = =
Throughout 1917 the Admiralty was becoming more concerned about German efforts to sweep paths through the British @-@ laid minefields intended to restrict the actions of the High Seas Fleet and German submarines . A preliminary raid on German minesweeping forces on 31 October by light forces destroyed ten small ships and the Admiralty decided on a larger operation to destroy the minesweepers and their light cruiser escorts . Based on intelligence reports , the Admiralty allocated the 1st Cruiser Squadron on 17 November 1917 , with cover provided by the reinforced 1st Battlecruiser Squadron and distant cover by the battleships of the 1st Battle Squadron .
The German ships , four light cruisers of II Scouting Force , eight destroyers , three divisions of minesweepers , eight sperrbrecher ( cork @-@ filled trawlers ) and two trawlers to mark the swept route , were spotted at 7 : 30 am , silhouetted by the rising sun . Courageous and the light cruiser Cardiff opened fire with their forward guns seven minutes later . The Germans responded by laying a smoke screen and this made spotting targets very difficult . The British continued in pursuit , but lost track of most of the smaller ships in the smoke and concentrated fire on the light cruisers as opportunity permitted . One 15 @-@ inch hit was made on a gun shield of SMS Pillau , but it did not affect her speed . At 8 : 33 the left @-@ hand gun in Glorious 's forward turret was wrecked when a shell detonated inside the gun barrel . At 9 : 30 the 1st Cruiser Squadron broke off their pursuit so they would not enter a minefield marked on their maps ; the ships turned south , playing no further role in the battle .
Glorious required five days of repairs to right the damage caused from the premature detonation and from her own muzzle blast . She fired 57 15 @-@ inch and 213 4 @-@ inch shells during the engagement . The ship received flying @-@ off platforms on top of her turrets in 1918 . A Sopwith Camel was carried on the rear turret and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter on the forward turret . She was present at the surrender of the German fleet on 21 November 1918 . Glorious was reduced to reserve at Rosyth on 1 February 1919 and served as a turret drill ship , being also flagship of the Rear @-@ Admiral Commanding the Devonport Reserve between 1921 and 1922 .
= = Conversion = =
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 severely limited the amount of capital ship tonnage and the Royal Navy was forced to scrap many of its older battleships and battlecruisers . However up to 66 @,@ 000 long tons ( 67 @,@ 059 t ) of existing ships could be converted into aircraft carriers , for which the Courageous @-@ class ships ' combination of a large hull and high speed made them an ideal candidate for conversion . Glorious began her conversion at Rosyth in 1924 , but was towed to Devonport for completion , and she was re @-@ commissioned on 24 February 1930 . During the ship 's post @-@ conversion sea trials she reached 29 @.@ 47 knots ( 54 @.@ 58 km / h ; 33 @.@ 91 mph ) . Her fifteen @-@ inch turrets were placed into storage and later reused during World War II for HMS Vanguard , the Royal Navy 's last battleship .
Her new design improved on her half @-@ sister HMS Furious which lacked an island and a conventional funnel . All superstructure , guns , torpedo tubes , and fittings down to the main deck were removed . A two @-@ storey hangar , each level 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high and 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long , was built on top of the remaining hull ; the upper hangar level opened on to a short flying @-@ off deck , below and forward of the main flight deck . The flying @-@ off deck improved launch and recovery cycle flexibility until new fighters requiring longer takeoff rolls made the lower deck obsolete in the 1930s . Two 46 @-@ by @-@ 48 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 0 m × 14 @.@ 6 m ) lifts were installed fore and aft in the flight deck . An island with the bridge , flying control station , and funnel was added on the starboard side as islands had been found not to contribute significantly to turbulence . By 1939 the ship could carry 34 @,@ 500 imperial gallons ( 157 @,@ 000 l ; 41 @,@ 400 US gal ) of petrol for her aircraft .
Glorious received a dual @-@ purpose armament of sixteen QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark VIII guns in single High @-@ Angle Mark XII mounts . One mount was on each side of the lower flight deck and a pair was on the quarterdeck . The remaining twelve mounts were distributed along the sides of the ship . During her 1935 refit , Glorious received three octuple 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ pom Mark VI mounts , one on each side of the flying @-@ off deck , forward of the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , and one behind the island on the flight deck . She also received four water @-@ cooled .50 @-@ calibre Mark III machine guns in a single quadruple mounting .
Glorious recommissioned on 24 February 1930 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet , but was attached to the Home Fleet from March to June 1930 . She relieved Courageous in the Mediterranean Fleet in June 1930 and remained there until October 1939 . In a fog on 1 April 1931 Glorious rammed the French ocean liner Florida amidships while steaming at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The impact crumpled 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) of the flying @-@ off deck and killed 1 seaman aboard Glorious and 24 passengers and crew aboard Florida . Glorious was forced to put into Gibraltar to temporary repairs . She had to sail to Malta for permanent repairs which lasted until September 1931 . Sometime in the early 1930s , traverse arresting gear was installed . She was refitted at Devonport from July 1934 to July 1935 where she received two hydraulic accelerators ( catapults ) on her upper flight deck , which was also extended to the rear , her quarterdeck was raised one deck and she received her multiple pom @-@ pom mounts . Glorious participated in the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI before returning to the Mediterranean .
= = = Air group = = =
Glorious could carry up to 48 aircraft ; when first recommissioned , she carried Fairey Flycatcher fighters , Blackburn Dart and Blackburn Ripon torpedo bombers , and Fairey IIIF reconnaissance planes of the Fleet Air Arm . From 1933 until Glorious returned to the United Kingdom in April 1940 , aside from a period when refitting in the mid @-@ 1930s , she carried 802 Squadron which flew a mixture of nine Hawker Nimrod and three Hawker Osprey fighters , until re @-@ equipping with a dozen Gloster Sea Gladiators in May 1939 . 812 and 823 Squadrons were embarked for reconnaissance and anti @-@ ship attack missions . They flew the Blackburn Ripon , the Blackburn Baffin and the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers and as well as Fairey IIIF and Fairey Seal reconnaissance aircraft . When Glorious recommissioned after her refit in 1935 825 Squadron was embarked , initially with Fairey IIIFs , but the squadron converted to Fairey Swordfish in May 1936 .
= = World War II = =
Glorious served briefly with the Mediterranean Fleet for a time after World War II broke out . In October 1939 , she moved through the Suez Canal to the Indian Ocean where she became part of Force J which was organized to hunt for the Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean . It was not successful and Glorious remained in the Indian Ocean until December when she returned to the Mediterranean .
= = = Norwegian Campaign = = =
She was recalled to the Home Fleet in April 1940 to provide air cover for British forces landing in Norway . Eighteen Gloster Gladiators of No. 263 Squadron RAF were flown aboard to be transferred to Norwegian airbases . Eleven Blackburn Skuas of 803 Squadron , plus eighteen Sea Gladiators from 802 and 804 Squadrons were also embarked . Glorious and Ark Royal arrived off central Norway on 24 April where 263 Squadron was flown off and their own aircraft attacked targets in and south of Trondheim before Glorious had to return to Scapa Flow late on 27 April to refuel and embark new aircraft . Glorious 's Sea Gladiators provided air cover for the two carriers . They damaged one Heinkel He 111 bomber on a reconnaissance mission . Before departing she transferred four serviceable Skuas to Ark Royal . She returned on 1 May , but had been unable to load many new aircraft because of poor weather . Only a dozen Swordfish of 823 Squadron , three Skuas and one Blackburn Roc managed to be flown aboard . The task force was under heavy air attack by the Luftwaffe all day and was withdrawn that evening . One Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber was shot down after it dropped its bomb by the Sea Gladiators on patrol .
Glorious returned on 18 May with six Supermarine Walrus amphibious flying boats of 701 Squadron and 18 Hawker Hurricanes of No. 46 Squadron RAF . The latter aircraft had been loaded aboard by crane . The Walruses were quickly flown off to Harstad , but the airfield at Skånland was not yet ready for the Hurricanes and they were still aboard when Glorious returned to Scapa on 21 May . Glorious came back to the Narvik area on 26 May and the Hurricanes were quickly flown off .
However , even this success proved to be ephemeral and British forces were ordered withdrawn a few days later . The evacuation ( Operation Alphabet ) began in the north on the night of 3 / 4 June and Glorious arrived off the coast on 2 June to provide support although she only carried nine Sea Gladiators of 802 and six Swordfish from 823 Squadrons for self @-@ defence as it was hoped to evacuate the RAF fighters if at all possible . Ten Gladiators of 263 Squadron were flown aboard during the afternoon of 7 June and the Hurricanes of 46 Squadron were also flown aboard without any significant problems in the early evening despite having a much higher landing speed than the biplanes . These had been flown off from land bases to keep them from being destroyed in the evacuation after the pilots discovered that a 7 @-@ kilogram ( 15 lb ) sandbag carried in the rear of the Hurricane allowed full brakes to be applied immediately on landing . This was the first time that high performance monoplanes without tailhooks had been landed on an aircraft carrier .
= = = The sinking = = =
The commanding officer of Glorious , Captain Guy D 'Oyly @-@ Hughes , was a former submariner who had been executive officer of Courageous for ten months . He was granted permission to proceed independently to Scapa Flow in the early hours of 8 June to hold a court @-@ martial of his Commander ( Air ) , J. B. Heath , who had refused an order to carry out an attack on shore targets on the grounds that the targets were at best ill @-@ defined and his aircraft were unsuited to the task , and who had been left behind in Scapa to await trial . On the way through the Norwegian Sea the funnel smoke from Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , Acasta and Ardent , was spotted by the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau at about 3 : 46 pm . The German ships were not spotted until shortly after 4 : 00 and Ardent was dispatched to investigate . Glorious did not alter course or increase speed . Five Swordfish were ordered to the flight deck but Action Stations was not ordered until 4 : 20 . No combat air patrol was being flown , no aircraft were ready on the deck for quick take @-@ off and there was no lookout in Glorious 's crow 's nest . Scharnhorst opened fire on Ardent at 4 : 27 at a range of about 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) , causing the destroyer to withdraw , firing torpedoes and making a smoke screen . Ardent scored one hit with her 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) guns on Scharnhorst but was hit several times by the German ships ' secondary armament and sank at about 5 : 25 .
Scharnhorst switched her fire to Glorious at 4 : 32 and scored her first hit six minutes later on her third salvo , at an approximate range of 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) , when one 28 @.@ 3 @-@ centimetre ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) hit the forward flight deck and burst in the upper hangar , starting a large fire . This hit destroyed two Swordfish being prepared for flight and the hole in the flight deck prevented any other aircraft from taking off . Splinters penetrated a boiler casing and caused a temporary drop in steam pressure . At 4 : 58 a second shell hit the homing beacon above the bridge and killed or wounded the captain and most of the personnel stationed there . The smokescreen became effective enough to impair the visibility of the Germans from about 4 : 58 to 5 : 20 so they ceased fire on Glorious .
Glorious was hit again in the centre engine room at around 5 : 20 and this caused her to lose speed and commence a slow circle to port . She also developed a list to starboard . The German ships closed to within 16 @,@ 000 yards and continued to fire at her until about 5 : 40 . Glorious sank at about 6 : 10 , approximately at 68 ° 38 ′ N 03 ° 50 ′ E , with only 43 survivors .
As the German ships approached Glorious , the destroyer Acasta , which had been trying to maintain the smokescreen , broke through her own smoke and fired two volleys of torpedoes at Scharnhorst . One of these hit the battleship at 5 : 34 abreast her rear turret and badly damaged her . Acasta also managed one hit from her 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns on Scharnhorst , but was riddled by German gunfire and sank at around 6 : 20 .
According to Winton , survivors ' estimates were that about 900 men abandoned Glorious . The German ships did not try to save survivors . The Royal Navy knew nothing of the sinking until it was announced on German radio . The Norwegian ship Borgund , on passage to the Faroe Islands , arrived late on June 10 and picked up survivors , eventually delivering 37 alive to Thorshavn of whom two died . Another Norwegian ship , Svalbard II , also making for the Faeroes , picked up five survivors but was sighted by a German aircraft and forced to return to Norway , where the four still alive became prisoners of war for the next five years . It is also believed that one more survivor from Glorious was rescued by a German seaplane . Therefore , the total of survivors was 40 , including one each from Acasta and Ardent . The total killed or missing was 1 @,@ 207 from Glorious , 160 from Acasta and 152 from Ardent , a total of 1 @,@ 519 .
The disaster and the failure to mount an effective rescue was clearly an embarrassment for the Royal Navy . All ships encountering the enemy should routinely broadcast a sighting report , and so the lack of a sighting report from Glorious was eventually raised in the House of Commons . It later became known that the heavy cruiser HMS Devonshire had passed within 30 – 50 miles of the battle , flying the flag of Vice Admiral John Cunningham , who was carrying out orders to evacuate the Norwegian Royal Family to the UK and maintain radio silence . Some surviving eyewitnesses from Glorious and HMS Devonshire later testified that the sighting report had been correctly sent , and received by HMS Devonshire , but that it had been suppressed by Cunningham , who departed at high speed in accordance with his orders . It has also been alleged by Howland that there was some confusion over the use of wireless telegraphy frequencies on board Glorious which could have contributed to the failure of any other ship or shore @-@ station to receive a sighting report . Howland also cites the absence of normal airborne patrols over Glorious and its attendant destroyers , in conditions of maximum visibility , as a contributory factor to the sinking of Glorious and her escorts .
= = = Memorials = = =
For many years the only memorial to the seamen lost in the three ships was a stained @-@ glass window in the church of St Peter Martindale in Cumbria , on the east side of Ullswater . On 8 June 2010 , 70 years after the loss of Glorious , Acasta and Ardent , a memorial plaque inscribed in English and Norwegian was unveiled near the Trondenes Historical Centre in Harstad , Norway , the two destroyers ' last port of call .
= = Acclaimed model = =
A model of HMS Glorious by renowned marine model maker Norman A. Ough , built for the Royal United Services Museum , is now on display in the Fleet Air Arm Museum at RNAS Yeovilton .
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= Morgan dollar =
The Morgan dollar was a United States dollar coin minted from 1878 to 1904 , and then again in 1921 . It was the first standard silver dollar minted since production of the previous design , the Seated Liberty dollar , ceased due to the passage of the Coinage Act of 1873 , which also ended the free coining of silver . The coin is named after its designer , United States Mint Assistant Engraver George T. Morgan . The obverse depicts a profile portrait representing Liberty , while the reverse depicts an eagle with wings outstretched .
The dollar was authorized by the Bland – Allison Act . Following the passage of the 1873 act , mining interests lobbied to restore free silver , which would require the Mint to accept all silver presented to it and return it , struck into coin . Instead , the Bland – Allison Act was passed , which required the Treasury to purchase between two and four million dollars ' worth of silver at market value to be coined into dollars each month . In 1890 , the Bland – Allison Act was repealed by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , which required the Treasury to purchase 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 troy ounces ( 140 @,@ 000 kg ) of silver each month , but only required further silver dollar production for one year . This act , once again , was repealed in 1893 .
In 1898 , Congress approved a bill that required all remaining bullion purchased under the Sherman Silver Purchase Act to be coined into silver dollars . When those silver reserves were depleted in 1904 , the Mint ceased to strike the Morgan dollar . The Pittman Act , passed in 1918 , authorized the melting and recoining of millions of silver dollars . Pursuant to the act , Morgan dollars resumed mintage for one year in 1921 . The design was replaced by the Peace dollar later the same year .
In the early 1960s , a large quantity of unissued Morgan dollars was found to be available from Treasury vaults , including issues once thought rare . Individuals began purchasing large quantities of the pieces at face value , and eventually the Treasury ceased exchanging silver certificates for silver coin . Beginning in the 1970s , the Treasury conducted a sale of silver dollars minted at the Carson City Mint through the General Services Administration . In 2006 , Morgan 's reverse design was used on a silver dollar issued to commemorate the old San Francisco Mint building .
= = Background = =
In 1873 , Congress enacted the Fourth Coinage Act , which effectively ended the bimetallic standard in the United States by demonetizing silver bullion . Prior to enactment of the Coinage Act , silver could be brought to the mints and coined into legal tender for a small fee . With such a system in place , bullion producers could have silver coined into dollars when the intrinsic value of a silver dollar was lower than the face value , thus making a profit , flooding the money supply and causing inflation . The act ended production of the standard silver dollar ( then the Seated Liberty dollar , as designed by Christian Gobrecht ) and provided for mintage of a silver trade dollar , which was intended to compete with Mexican dollars for use in the Orient . Under the act , bullion producers were allowed to bring bullion to the mints in order to be cast into bars or coined into the newly authorized trade dollars for a small fee . Trade dollars initially held legal tender status , but it was revoked in 1876 to prevent bullion producers from making a profit by coining silver into trade dollars when the value of the metal was low . The restrictions on free coinage laid out in the Coinage Act initially met little resistance from mining interests until the price of silver declined rapidly due to increased mining in the Western United States . Protests also came from bankers , manufacturers and farmers , who felt an increased money supply would have a positive impact . Groups were formed that demanded the free coinage of silver ( or " free silver " ) in order to inflate the dollar following the Panic of 1873 .
Beginning in 1876 , several bills were introduced in the House of Representatives in an effort to resume the free coinage of silver . One such bill introduced into the House by Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri was passed in the fall of 1876 . Republican senator William B. Allison of Iowa added important amendments to the bill in the Senate . The House bill allowed Free Silver ; one of Allison 's amendments struck that provision . This same amendment allowed for the issuance of silver certificates for the first time in United States history . The bill was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes . The president 's veto was overridden on February 28 , 1878 . What came to be known as the Bland – Allison Act required that the Treasury purchase between two and four million dollars ' worth of silver per month , to be coined into silver dollars at the former gold / silver value ratio of 16 : 1 , meaning that one ounce of gold would be valued the same as sixteen ounces of silver .
= = Design history = =
In 1876 , Director of the Mint Henry Linderman began efforts to redesign the nation 's silver coins . Linderman contacted C.W. Fremantle , Deputy Master of the Royal Mint in London , requesting him to " find a first class die @-@ sinker who would be willing to take the position of Assistant Engraver at the Mint at Philadelphia . " In response to Linderman 's request , Fremantle wrote " My inquiries as to an Assistant Engraver lead me very strongly to recommend for the post Mr. George Morgan , age 30 , who has made himself a considerable name , but for whom there is not much opening at present in this country . " An agreement was reached between Linderman and Morgan for the engraver to work at the Philadelphia Mint under Chief Engraver William Barber on a six @-@ month trial basis .
Morgan arrived in Philadelphia on October 9 , 1876 . His earliest pattern coins designed during his tenure at the Philadelphia Mint were intended for the half dollar . In 1876 , Morgan enrolled as a student at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts to prepare to create a new Liberty head design . Morgan also obtained studies from nature of the bald eagle for preparation of the reverse design . For the representation of Liberty , Morgan sought to depict an American woman rather than the usual Greek – style figures . Morgan 's friend , artist Thomas Eakins , suggested he use Anna Willess Williams of Philadelphia as a model . In total , Morgan had five sittings with Williams ; he declared her profile to be the most perfect he had seen .
On October 18 , 1877 , Linderman requested Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint James Pollock to " instruct Mr. Morgan to prepare without delay , dies for a silver dollar , the designs , inscriptions , and arrangement thereof to be the same as the enclosed impression for the Half Dollar and numbered ' 2' substituting the words ' one dollar ' in place of ' half dollar ' " . Linderman also ordered Pollock to " instruct Mr. Barber to prepare a reverse die for a dollar with a representation of an eagle as well as the inscriptions required by law . He will select whichever of his Heads of Liberty he prefers for the obverse of the same . " Linderman evidently preferred the designs of Morgan over those of the Chief Engraver ; he wrote Pollock on February 21 , 1878 , " I have now to state for your information , that it is my intention , in the event of the silver bill now pending in Congress , becoming law , to request the approval by the Secretary of the Treasury , of the dies prepared by Mr. Morgan . "
= = Production = =
Production of the coins did not commence until March 11 , more than a week after the passage of the Bland – Allison Act . The first acceptable strike , after adjustments to the press , was coined at 3 : 17 p.m. at the Philadelphia Mint . This piece was given to President Hayes ; the second and third were given to Secretary of the Treasury John Sherman and to Mint Director Henry Linderman .
Linderman desired to involve the western mints of San Francisco and Carson City in production in order to help reach the monthly quota necessary under the Bland – Allison Act . Pressure was so great at the Philadelphia Mint that it halted production of all other coins and began operating overtime . Use of the western mints was delayed , however , as all dies were prepared at the Philadelphia Mint , and it was believed that the Western mints did not have the proper equipment to prepare the dies for use . During the second week of production , Linderman pointed out what he called a " slight imperfection " in the dies for the dollar . The reason for the changes was to reduce the relief of the designs and to change the number of tail feathers on the eagle from eight to seven ; this was done because all prior United States coinage depicted the bald eagle as having an odd number of tail feathers . The high relief had caused the dies to have a shorter life . Dies were eventually sent to the Western mints , arriving in both San Francisco and Carson City on April 16 , 1878 . The New Orleans Mint began striking the new silver dollars in 1879 .
The Denver Mint , established in 1906 , struck the coins for only one year , in 1921 . The mint marks appearing on the coins are none , representing Philadelphia , " CC " for Carson City , " S " for San Francisco , " O " for New Orleans and " D " for Denver . In order to conform to the Coinage Act of 1837 , the Morgan dollar contained ninety percent silver and ten percent copper , measured 38 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 50 in ) in diameter and weighed 412 @.@ 5 grains ( 26 @.@ 73 g ) .
= = Sherman Silver Purchase Act , Panic of 1893 = =
Mintage of the Morgan dollar remained relatively steady until the passage of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act on July 14 , 1890 . The act , authored by Ohio senator and former Treasury secretary John Sherman , forced the Treasury to increase the amount of silver purchased to 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 troy ounces ( 140 @,@ 000 kg ) each month . Supporters of the act believed that an increase in the amount of silver purchased would result in inflation , helping to relieve the nation 's farmers . The act also received support from mining interests because such large purchases would cause the price of silver to rise and increase their profits . Despite the Act 's requiring large purchases of silver indefinitely , it provided that the Mint must coin 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver dollars each month only until 1891 . Since the Treasury already had a surplus of silver dollars , minting of dollars dropped sharply beginning in 1892 . The silver that remained after mintage of the dollars was used to mint dimes , quarters and half dollars .
Beginning early in 1893 , a number of industrial firms , including the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad and the National Cordage Company went bankrupt . The resulting bank runs and failures became known as the Panic of 1893 . In June of that year , President Grover Cleveland , who believed that the Panic was caused by the inflation generated by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , called a special session of Congress in order to repeal it . The act was repealed on November 1 , 1893 . On June 13 , 1898 , Congress ordered the coining of all the remaining bullion purchased under the Sherman Silver Purchase Act into silver dollars . Silver dollar production rose again , until the bullion was exhausted in 1904 , when it ceased .
= = Pittman Act = =
The German government began a propaganda campaign during World War I to discredit the United Kingdom 's currency in India . The Germans convinced Indian citizens that British banknotes in that country could not be redeemed for silver . This led to a run on the British supply of silver . In response , United States Democratic senator Key Pittman of Nevada introduced legislation in 1918 that was intended to offer financial relief to the British government . The bill , passed on April 22 , 1918 , stated that " sales of silver bullion under authority of this act may be made for the purpose of conserving the existing stock of gold in the United States , of providing silver for subsidiary coinage and for commercial use , and of assisting foreign governments at war with the enemies of the United States " . The Pittman Act authorized the U.S. to melt up to 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver dollars , and this commenced immediately after the Act 's passage . The U.S. eventually melted a total of 270 @,@ 232 @,@ 722 silver dollars . Of that amount , 259 @,@ 121 @,@ 554 were sold to the United Kingdom at the cost of one dollar per troy ounce .
The U.S. only minted the Morgan dollar again during 1921 , the only year in which Morgan dollars were struck at the Denver mint . Since the Treasury had destroyed the obsolete Morgan dollar dies in 1910 , Morgan had to create an entirely new master die . Another provision of the Pittman Act authorized the U.S. to mint a replacement coin for every silver dollar melted . During the same year , the Peace dollar was first issued to commemorate the end of World War I. The Peace dollar was supposedly minted to replace the Morgan dollar under the terms of the Pittman Act but without congressional authorization , despite the fact that the Act did not describe the coin design . The change in design was actually authorized under an 1890 act of Congress , which stated :
But no change in the design or die of any coin shall be made oftener than once in twenty @-@ five years from and including the year of the first adoption of the design , model , die , or hub for the same coin :
Provided , That no change be made in the diameter of any coin :
And provided further , That nothing in this section shall prevent the adoption of new designs or models for devices or emblems already authorized for the standard silver dollar and the five @-@ cent nickel piece as soon as practicable after the passage of this act .
= = Carson City Mint Morgan dollars = =
Until 1964 , U.S. citizens could redeem paper money known as silver certificates for silver dollars at a U.S. Treasury mint on demand . In 1962 , an individual redeemed a silver certificate and received a rare and valuable Morgan dollar in exchange . The coin was from a bag of silver dollars in the vault of the Philadelphia Mint . This incident triggered huge interest , and between November 1962 and March 1964 , millions of Morgan and Peace dollars were sold to the general public . The demand to exchange silver certificates for silver dollars was so great that lines formed outside of the Treasury Building in Washington , D.C. Some people in line were pushing wheelbarrows . The U.S. Treasury discovered previously unknown mint bags of Carson City dollars in its vaults containing slightly more than 2 @.@ 8 million Carson City silver dollars in the Treasury vaults . Treasury officials decided to hold them back because the total number of coins minted at the Carson City mint were generally lower than others .
On May 12 , 1969 , the Joint Commission on Coinage held a meeting in order to determine the best way to sell the Carson City @-@ minted dollars earlier held back by Treasury officials . They recommended a mail bid sale . Legislation was passed on December 31 , 1970 directing the Treasury to transfer the silver dollars to the Administrator of General Services who was given the responsibility for marketing and selling the coins . The legislation also stated that all proceeds from the sale were to be " covered into the Treasury as miscellaneous receipts . " Congress supplied the General Services Administration with $ 10 million to market the dollar coins . Advertising consisted of posters and brochures distributed to post offices , banks and various financial institutions , as well as television documentaries . The coins were sorted and mounted in small plastic display cases . The GSA conducted a total of seven mail bid sales between 1972 and 1980 . In total , the sales generated $ 107 million in revenue .
= = San Francisco commemorative dollar = =
On June 15 , 2006 , legislation was approved that provided for the minting of a silver dollar and a five dollar gold coin in " commemoration of the Old Mint at San Francisco , " with surcharges to be given to the San Francisco Museum and Historical Society in an effort to rehabilitate the Old Mint . In total , 100 @,@ 000 gold and 500 @,@ 000 silver commemorative coins were authorized . Authorization came at the behest of several hobby publications , who enlisted readers to contact their local congressmen and persuade them to pass necessary legislation . The designs approved for the silver dollar bear a left @-@ frontal view of the Old Mint building and a copy of Morgan 's eagle design on the obverse and reverse , respectively . Mint artist Joseph Menna made a new model for the reverse , employing a 1904 San Francisco @-@ minted dollar as his model .
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= Keswick , Cumbria =
Keswick ( / ˈkɛzᵻk / ) is an English market town and civil parish , historically in Cumberland , and since 1974 in the Borough of Allerdale in Cumbria . The town , in the Lake District National Park , just north of Derwentwater , and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Bassenthwaite , had a population of 4 @,@ 821 at the time of the 2011 census .
There is considerable evidence of prehistoric occupation of the Keswick area , but the first recorded mention of the town dates from the 13th century , when Edward I of England granted a charter for Keswick 's market , which has maintained a continuous 700 @-@ year existence . In Tudor times the town was an important mining area , and from the 18th century onwards it has increasingly been known as a holiday centre ; tourism has been its principal industry for more than 150 years . Its features include the Moot Hall ; a modern theatre , the Theatre by the Lake ; one of Britain 's oldest surviving cinemas , the Alhambra ; and the Keswick Museum and Art Gallery in the town 's largest open space , Fitz Park . Among the town 's annual events is the Keswick Convention , an Evangelical gathering attracting visitors from many countries .
Keswick became widely known for its association with the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey . Together with their fellow Lake Poet William Wordsworth , based at Grasmere , 12 miles ( 19 km ) away , they made the scenic beauty of the area widely known to readers in Britain and beyond . In the late 19th century and into the 20th , Keswick was the focus of several important initiatives by the growing conservation movement , often led by Hardwicke Rawnsley , vicar of the nearby Crosthwaite parish and co @-@ founder of the National Trust , which has built up extensive holdings in the area .
= = Name = =
The town is first recorded in Edward I 's charter of the 13th century , as " Kesewik " . Scholars have generally considered the name to be from the Old English , meaning " farm where cheese is made " , the word deriving from " cēse " ( cheese ) with a Scandinavian initial " k " and " wīc " ( special place or dwelling ) , although not all academics agree . George Flom of the University of Illinois ( 1919 ) rejected that derivation on the grounds that a town in the heart of Viking @-@ settled areas , as Keswick was , would not have been given a Saxon name ; he proposed instead that the word is of Danish or Norse origin , and means " Kell 's place at the bend of the river " . Among the later scholars supporting the " cheese farm " toponymy are Eilert Ekwall ( 1960 ) and A D Mills ( 2011 ) ( both Oxford University Press ) , and Diana Whaley ( 2006 ) , for the English Place @-@ Name Society .
= = Prehistory = =
Evidence of prehistoric occupation in the area includes the Castlerigg stone circle on the eastern fringe of the town , which has been dated to between 3000 and 2500 BC . Neolithic @-@ era stone tools were unearthed inside the circle and in the centre of Keswick during the 19th century . The antiquary W G Collingwood , commenting in 1925 about finds in the area , wrote that they showed " Stone Age man was fairly at home in the Lake District " . There is little evidence of sustained settlement in the area during the Bronze Age , but from excavations of hill forts it is clear that there was some Iron Age occupation , circa 500 BC , although scholars are not agreed about how permanent it was .
In Roman Britain Cumbria was the territory of the Carvetii . As the site of the western part of Hadrian 's Wall , it was of strategic importance . The north of the county is rich in archaeological evidence from the period , but nothing is known that suggests any Roman habitation in the Keswick area , other than finds that point to the existence of one or more Roman highways passing the vicinity of the present @-@ day town . Such nearby settlements as can be traced from the era of the Romans and the years after their departure seem to have been predominantly Celtic . Many local place names from the period , including that of the River Derwent , are Celtic , some closely related to Welsh equivalents .
Several Christian saints preached the Gospel in the north of England in the late 6th and early 7th centuries AD ; in Keswick and the surrounding area the most important figures were St Herbert of Derwentwater and his contemporary St Kentigern . The former , the pupil and friend of St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne , lived as a hermit on an island in Derwentwater , now named after him . Kentigern , who lived and preached in the area before moving to Wales , is traditionally held to have founded Crosthwaite Church , which was the parish church of Keswick until the 19th century .
= = History = =
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Keswick 's recorded history starts in the Middle Ages . The area was conquered by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria in the seventh century , but Northumbria was destroyed by the Vikings in the late ninth . In the early tenth century the British Kingdom of Strathclyde seized the area , and it remained part of Strathclyde until about 1050 , when Siward , Earl of Northumbria , conquered Cumbria . In 1092 William II of England , son of William the Conqueror , marched north and established the great baronies of Allerdale @-@ below @-@ Derwent , Allerdale @-@ above @-@ Derwent , and Greystoke , the borders of which met at Keswick . In 1181 Jocelyn of Furness wrote of a new church at Crosthwaite , Keswick , founded by Alice de Romilly , the Lady of Allerdale , a direct descendant of William II 's original barons . In 1189 , Richard I granted the rectory of Crosthwaite to the Cistercian order of Fountains Abbey .
During the 13th century , agricultural land around the town was acquired by Fountains and Furness Abbeys . The latter , already prosperous from the wool trade , wished to expand its sheep farming , and in 1208 bought large tracts of land from Alice de Romilly . She also negotiated with Fountains Abbey , to which she sold Derwent Island in Derwentwater , land at Watendlath , the mill at Crosthwaite and other land in Borrowdale . Keswick was at the hub of the monastic farms in the area , and Fountains based a steward in the town , where tenants paid their rents . Furness also enjoyed profitable rights to the extraction of iron ore .
Keswick was granted a charter for a market in 1276 by Edward I. This market has an uninterrupted history lasting for more than 700 years . The pattern of buildings around the market square remained broadly the same from this period until at least the late 18th century , with houses – originally timber @-@ framed – fronting the square , and sturdily enclosed gardens or yards at the back . According to local tradition these stout walls and the narrow entrances to the yards were for defence against marauding Scots . In the event it appears that the town escaped such attacks , Scottish raiders finding richer and more accessible targets at Carlisle and the fertile Eden Valley , well to the north of Keswick .
= = = 16th and 17th centuries : agriculture and industry = = =
With the Dissolution of the Monasteries , between 1536 and 1541 , Furness and Fountains Abbeys were supplanted by new secular landlords for the farmers of Keswick and its neighbourhood . The buying and selling of sheep and wool were no longer centred on the great Abbeys , being handled locally by the new landowners and tenants . This enhanced Keswick 's importance as a market centre , though at first the town remained only modestly prosperous : in the 1530s John Leland wrote of it as " a lytle poore market town " . By the second half of the century copper mining had made Keswick richer : in 1586 William Camden wrote of " these copper works not only being sufficient for all England , but great quantities of the copper exported every year " with , at the centre , " Keswicke , a small market town , many years famous for the copper works as appears from a charter of king Edward IV , and at present inhabited by miners . "
Earlier copper mining had been small in scale , but Elizabeth I , concerned for the defence of her kingdom , required large quantities of copper for the manufacture of weapons and the strengthening of warships . There was the additional advantage for her that the Crown was entitled to royalties on metals extracted from English land . The experts in copper mining were German , and Elizabeth secured the services of Daniel Hechstetter of Augsburg , to whom she granted a licence to " search , dig , try , roast and melt all manner of mines and ores of gold , silver , copper and quicksilver " in the Keswick area and elsewhere .
As well as copper , a new substance was found , extracted and exploited : this was variously called wad , black lead , plumbago or black cauke , and is now known as graphite . Many uses were quickly discovered for the mineral : it reduced friction in machinery , made a heat @-@ resistant glaze for crucibles , and when used to line moulds for cannonballs , resulted in rounder , smoother balls that could be fired further by English naval cannon . Later , from the second half of the 18th century , it was used to make pencils , for which Keswick became famous .
The copper mines prospered for about seventy years , but by the early 17th century the industry was in decline . Demand for copper fell and the cost of extracting it was high . Graphite mining continued , and quarrying for slate began to grow in importance . Other small @-@ scale industries grew up , such as tannery and weaving . Although the boom of the mid @-@ 16th century had finished , the town 's economy did not slide into ruin , and the population remained generally constant at a little under 1 @,@ 000 .
= = = 18th and 19th centuries : beginnings of tourism = = =
The historian George Bott regards John Dalton ( 1709 – 63 ) and John Brown ( 1715 – 66 ) as the pioneers of tourism in the Lake District . Both wrote works praising the majesty of the scenery , and their enthusiasm prompted others to visit the area . The poet Thomas Gray published an account of a five @-@ day stay in Keswick in 1769 , in which he described the view of the town as " the vale of Elysium in all its verdure " , and was lyrical about the beauties of the fells and the lake . His journal was widely read , and was , in Bott 's phrase , " an effective public relations job for Keswick . " Painters such as Thomas Smith of Derby and William Bellers also contributed to the influx of visitors ; engravings of their paintings of Cumberland scenery sold in large numbers , further enhancing the fame of the area . In 1800 the Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote , " It is no small advantage that for two @-@ thirds of the year we are in complete retirement – the other third is alive & swarms with Tourists of all shapes & sizes . " Coleridge had moved to Keswick in that year , and together with his fellow Lake Poets ( see below ) was possibly the strongest influence on the public esteem of Keswick and the Lake District .
During the 18th century and into the 19th , turnpike trusts were established and major roads in Cumberland were greatly improved . With the Lake District now accessible by coach the area attracted well @-@ off visitors , particularly at times of war in mainland Europe , which made the aristocratic Grand Tour impossible there . Regular public coach services were established in the 1760s , but they were expensive . The ten @-@ hour journey from Whitehaven to Penrith via Keswick cost 12 shillings ( equivalent to 60 pence ) , at a time when country labourers typically earned £ 24 a year or less , and the annual income of even the most prosperous tenant farmers was rarely more than £ 200 . Nonetheless , by the 19th century the number of tourists visiting Keswick during each season was estimated at between 12 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 . Some of the Keswick inns that catered for affluent visitors remain as hotels , including the Queen 's , where Gray stayed .
The construction of the railways in the mid @-@ 19th century made the Lake District , and Keswick in particular , more accessible to visitors of modest means . The original impetus for building the Cockermouth , Keswick and Penrith Railway ( CKP ) line came from heavy industry : the new Bessemer process of steelmaking brought a great demand for the rich iron ore from west Cumberland and the coking coal from Durham on the east side of the country . The CKP was built to enable ore and coal to be brought together at steel foundries in both counties . The line opened for goods traffic in 1864 , and the following year it began to carry passengers . Fares varied , but holidaymakers could buy excursion tickets at discounted prices , such as six shillings for the 170 @-@ mile return journey from Preston to Keswick .
In addition to its growing importance as a tourist centre , Keswick developed a reputation for its manufacture of pencils during the 19th century . It had begun on a modest scale in or about 1792 , as a cottage industry , using graphite mined locally . This developed on more industrial lines in factories purpose @-@ built by several companies . Pencil making was the town 's most important manufacturing industry by the mid @-@ 19th century , textiles and leather goods having declined .
The Moot Hall was rebuilt in 1813 , and the lower floor was used as a market house on Saturdays . Coal gas was supplied by a gas works from 1846 ; the Keswick library opened in 1849 ; a water works began operation in 1856 ; and Keswick police station opened in 1857 . The local weekly newspaper , The Keswick Reminder was founded in 1896 , and in 2014 continues to be published every Friday . In an article in The Observer in 1978 , Christopher Brasher wrote that as long as the Reminder flourishes , " there will be one corner of these islands that is forever England . "
In 1883 Hardwicke Rawnsley was appointed vicar of Crosthwaite . In a study of Lake District towns in 1974 , H A L Rice commented that to write about Keswick without mentioning Rawnsley would be the equivalent of writing about Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon without mentioning Shakespeare , so great was Rawnsley 's impact on the town . He and his wife set up classes to teach metalwork and wood carving ; these grew into the Keswick School of Industrial Art , which trained local craftsmen and -women from 1894 until it closed in 1986 . He revived the ancient May Day festival in the town , and was a leading figure in the establishment of Keswick School , Blencathra Sanatorium and the County Farm School . As co @-@ founder of the National Trust , Rawnsley contributed to Keswick 's continued growth as a tourist centre , with the acquisition by the Trust of many acres of popular scenic land around Derwentwater , beginning with Brandelhow Wood in 1902 .
= = = 20th century and beyond = = =
Keswick 's history throughout the 20th century was one of increasing reliance on tourism , the pencil industry being the second largest source of employment . The Cumberland Pencil Company , formed at the turn of the century , occupied a large factory near the River Greta on the road leading out of Keswick towards Cockermouth . The conservation movement continued to develop ; Rawnsley led successful campaigns to save the medieval Greta and Portinscale bridges from replacement with ferro @-@ concrete structures ; and the National Trust continued to acquire land locally . In the First World War Keswick lost many of its young men : the war memorial near Fitz Park commemorates 117 names , from a population at the time of less than 4 @,@ 500 . By the 1930s Keswick was firmly established as the main centre of tourism in Cumberland and Westmorland . An article in The Manchester Guardian in 1934 called it " the capital of the Lake District " , and continued :
Keswick 's chief industry is to promote the contentment and happiness of its visitors . Its pleasant position provides at the outset a tonic atmosphere ... it is set in the most delightful part of a delightful district , described by Wordsworth as " the loveliest spot that ever man has found . " There are numerous places of interest and fine shops , and good accommodation is offered to visitors at reasonable prices . Keswick is the best centre from which to visit Lakeland .
During the Second World War students from St Katharine 's College , Liverpool and Roedean School , Sussex , were evacuated to Keswick when their own buildings were requisitioned for use as a hospital and a navy base respectively . Students were also brought to the safety of Keswick from Central Newcastle High School , Hunmanby Hall School , Yorkshire , and the Liverpool Orphanage .
The creation of the Lake District National Park in 1951 , with strict control over new development , prevented any expansion of the town beyond its pre @-@ war borders . Keswick 's population has remained stable at a little below 5 @,@ 000 residents . The town 's reliance on tourism increased in 2006 when Cumberland Pencils moved production from Keswick to Lillyhall , Workington , only the Cumberland Pencil Museum remaining at the old site . At the beginning of the 21st century , more than 60 per cent of the population were employed in hotels , restaurants and distribution . A survey of retail premises in 2000 found that more than ten per cent were outdoor clothes shops , a similar proportion were cafés or restaurants , and more than eight per cent were gift shops . The age profile of the Keswick population is significantly higher than the English average . In 2011 children under 10 made up 7 @.@ 6 per cent of the town 's population , compared with 11 @.@ 9 per cent for England as a whole . Between ages 10 and 20 the comparable figures are 10 @.@ 2 and 12 @.@ 1 ; and from ages 20 to 44 , 25 @.@ 9 as against 34 @.@ 3 . The percentage of Keswick 's population aged 45 and upwards is above the national average , the largest difference being within the 75- to 84 @-@ year @-@ old bracket , which contains 9 @.@ 6 per cent of Keswick 's population compared with a national average of 5 @.@ 5 . Figures from the same census show that Keswick has fewer than average " large employers and higher managerial occupations " and more small employers and self @-@ employed people . Long @-@ term unemployment is considerably below the average for England .
= = = Ownership and governance = = =
In medieval times the township was within the manor of Castlerigg and Derwentwater . The earliest surviving official record of the town is the market charter of 1276 granted to the lord of the manor , Thomas de Derwentwater . The manor was granted by Alice de Romilly to Adam de Derwentwater before 1216 , and subsequently passed to the Radclyffe family through marriage . The Derwentwater estate was forfeit to the Crown after the execution of James Radclyffe , third Earl of Derwentwater , in 1716 for his part in the Jacobite rebellion the previous year . In 1735 the Crown granted the income from the estates to support the Greenwich Hospital , London . Land to the south and west were part of Greenwich Hospital 's forestry and farming estates until the 19th century . In 1925 the then owner , Sir John Randles , gave the National Trust 90 acres of land in this estate , including the foreshore woodland .
Keswick became a Local Government District in 1853 and an urban district with three wards in 1894 , reflecting its growth in the latter part of the 19th century . The new urban district 's northern boundary was extended from the Greta to the railway , taking in Great Crosthwaite and part of Underskiddaw in 1899 . In 1974 the urban district was abolished and since then the town has been administered by Keswick Town Council and Allerdale Borough Council . Since 2010 Keswick has been in the Copeland parliamentary constituency , having previously been part of Workington and before that Penrith and The Border . The electoral ward of Keswick stretches beyond the confines of the parish boundary and at the 2011 Census had a total population of 5 @,@ 243 .
= = Geography = =
Keswick lies in north @-@ western England , in the heart of the northern Lake District . The town is 31 @.@ 4 miles ( 50 @.@ 5 km ) south @-@ west of Carlisle , 22 @.@ 1 miles ( 35 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of Windermere and 14 @.@ 2 miles ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) south @-@ east of Cockermouth . Derwentwater , the lake to the south @-@ west of the town , is approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long by 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide and is some 72 feet ( 22 m ) deep . It contains several islands , including Derwent Isle , Lord 's Island , Rampsholme Island and St Herbert 's Island , the largest . Derwent Isle is the only island on the lake that is inhabited ; it is run by the National Trust and open to visitors five days a year . The land between Keswick and the lake consists mainly of fields and areas of woodland , including Isthmus Wood , Cockshot Wood , Castlehead Wood and Horseclose and Great Wood , further to the south . The River Derwent flows from Derwentwater to Bassenthwaite , the most northerly of the major Cumbrian lakes . The Derwent and its tributary the Greta , which flows through Keswick , meet to the east of Portinscale . The source of the Greta is near Threlkeld , at the confluence of the River Glenderamackin and St John 's Beck .
Keswick is in the lee of the Skiddaw group , the oldest group of rocks in the Lake District . These fells were formed during the Ordovician period , 488 to 443 million years ago ; they form a triangle sheltering the town , reaching a maximum height of 931m on Skiddaw itself . To the west of Portinscale , to the south @-@ west of the village of Thornthwaite , is Whinlatter Forest Park and Grisedale Pike . To the east , beyond Castlerigg stone circle , is St John 's in the Vale , at the foot of the Helvellyn range , which is popular with ramblers starting from Keswick . In 2010 , Electricity North West , United Utilities , the Lake District National Park Authority and the conservation charity Friends of the Lake District invested £ 100 @,@ 000 to remove power lines and replace them with underground cables , to improve the quality of scenery in the vicinity .
Climatically , Keswick is in the North West sector of the UK , which is characterised by cool summers , mild winters , and high monthly rainfalls throughout the year . The wettest months fall at the end of the year , the peak average of 189 @.@ 3 mm falling in October . Rain , sunshine and temperature figures are shown below .
= = Demography = =
The registers of Crosthwaite Church stated that there were 238 interments in 1623 , believed to have been something between a twelfth and a tenth of the whole population of the parish at that time . In the 1640s there was a sharp fall in population , brought on by the plague epidemic which affected Keswick , Carlisle , Cockermouth and Crosthwaite and other areas in 1645 – 47 .
In the 1801 census , the township of Keswick , including the town and surrounding hamlets , had a reported population of 1 @,@ 350 people . The population grew at a steady rate , increasing to 1 @,@ 683 in 1811 , 1 @,@ 901 in 1821 , 2 @,@ 159 in 1831 , 2 @,@ 442 in 1841 , and 2 @,@ 618 in 1851 . In 1871 the township had a population of 2 @,@ 777 people . The population grew at a faster rate towards the late 19th century and by 1901 it stood at 4 @,@ 451 people . There has been little fluctuation in population since , and in the 1991 census the town had a population of 4 @,@ 836 . In the 2001 census , 4 @,@ 984 people were recorded , and 4 @,@ 821 in 2011 . At the 2011 census , 57 @.@ 9 per cent of the population identified as Christian , 31 @.@ 5 per cent as non @-@ religious , 1 @.@ 2 per cent as Muslim and 8 @.@ 3 per cent did not specify .
= = Landmarks = =
Keswick is the home of the Theatre by the Lake , opened in 1999 . The theatre serves a dual purpose as the permanent home of a professional repertory company and a venue for visiting performers and festivals . It replaced the Century Theatre or " Blue Box " , which had spent 25 years in semi @-@ retirement on a permanent lakeside site in Keswick , after a career of similar length as a mobile theatre . The Alhambra cinema in St John Street , opened in 1913 , is one of the oldest continuously functioning cinemas in the country ; it is equipped with digital technology and satellite receiving equipment to allow the live screening of plays , operas and ballet from the National Theatre , Royal Opera House and other venues .
The town is the site of the Cumberland Pencil Museum . One of the exhibits is what is claimed to be the world 's largest coloured pencil . Fitz Park , on the bank of the River Greta , is home to the Keswick Museum and Art Gallery , a Victorian museum which features the Musical Stones of Skiddaw , Southey manuscripts , and a collection of sculptures and paintings of regional and wider importance , including works by Epstein , John Opie , Richard Westall and others . After extensive restoration and enlargement the museum reopened in 2014 . In 2001 the cricket ground in Fitz Park was named the most beautiful in England by Wisden Cricket Monthly .
Greta Hall ( see Lake Poets , below ) , is a Grade I listed building . The home of Coleridge in 1800 – 04 and Southey from 1803 until 1843 , it later became part of Keswick School and is now in private ownership , partly divided into holiday flats . The three @-@ storey house dates to the late 18th century and features a flush @-@ panelled central double door with Gothic top panels and Venetian windows . A carved oak fireplace inside is dated to 1684 . The Moot Hall is a prominent Grade II * listed building situated at the southern end of Main Street . It was built in 1571 and rebuilt in 1695 , and the current building dates to 1813 . It is built of lime @-@ washed stone and slate walling , and has a square tower on the north end with a round @-@ arched doorway and a double flight of exterior steps . At the top of the tower is what the Keswick Tourist Information Board describes as an " unusual one @-@ handed clock " . Formerly an assembly building , The Moot Hall contains a tourist information centre on the ground floor , with an art gallery on the floor above .
The prominent social thinker and art critic John Ruskin , who had many associations with Keswick , once said that the town was a place almost too beautiful to live in . In October 1900 , mainly through the efforts of Rawnsley , a simple memorial of Borrowdale slate was erected to Ruskin at Friars Crag . The monument is a now a Grade II listed structure .
= = = Churches = = =
Until 1838 Keswick had no Anglican church within the town boundaries and was part of the widespread parish of Crosthwaite . The present parish church , St John 's , was designed by Anthony Salvin and consecrated in 1838 . It is geometrical in style , with pink castle @-@ head ashlar sandstone and a slate roof . The church was extended in 1862 , 1882 and 1889 by the parish 's benefactors the Marshall family ; the chancel windows , designed by Henry Holiday , installed in 1879 , were taken down and reinstalled when the chancel was extended in 1889 . St John 's became a Grade II * listed building in 1951 . Keswick 's former parish church , St Kentigern 's , at Crosthwaite , just outside the town , is also Grade II * listed . Dated to at least the 14th century , it is built mainly in the Tudor @-@ Gothic style and was expanded in 1523 and later restored in 1844 by George Gilbert Scott .
The Quakers had an early meeting house in the town , replaced in 1715 by one at Underskiddaw . Protestant dissenters met at a private house from 1705 or before , moving to a chapel in Lake Road in the latter part of the 18th century . A Congregational chapel was built in 1858 – 59 . The first Wesleyan chapel was built in 1814 in a small yard off Main Street at a cost of £ 331 10s ; the present Methodist church is in Southey Street . Since 1928 Roman Catholics in Keswick have been served by Our Lady of the Lakes and St Charles in High Hill . A new Quaker meeting house opened in the town in 1994 . An Eastern Orthodox church was inaugurated in 2007 , holding services in Keswick and the nearby village of Braithwaite .
As at 2014 no other religions maintain dedicated buildings in Keswick ; Muslim worship is accommodated on Fridays in a room at the local council building in Main Street .
= = = Public houses and hotels = = =
Keswick 's old inns and their successors include many listed buildings , mainly Grade II in designation . The George Hotel , stated to be the oldest inn in the town , dates to the 16th century , with the alterations made during the Georgian period still evident . The King 's Arms Hotel , in the main market square , dates from the early 19th century ; it is built from stuccoed stone , with Victorian shop windows on the ground floor . The Queen 's Hotel in Main Street , a pebbledashed stone building dating from the late 18th century , was renamed " The Inn on the Square " in 2015 . The Bank Tavern in Main Street and The Dog and Gun public house in Lake Road are both Grade II listed 18th @-@ century buildings .
= = Education and health = =
The Crosthwaite Free Grammar School , adjoining Crosthwaite churchyard , was an ancient institution , its date of foundation uncertain . In 1819 the parish of Crosthwaite had five or six schools in the town and the outlying areas , with a total of 332 children . By 1833 Keswick had twelve daily schools , including a new National School at High Hill . The new parish church of Keswick , St John 's , started educational work in 1840 with a Sunday school which also educated infant boys , and later girls , on weekdays . A full @-@ time boys ' school opened in 1853 . For older pupils , Keswick School , the free co @-@ educational grammar school , successor to the Crosthwaite Free Grammar School , opened at a site diagonally opposite Greta Bridge in 1898 . In 1951 a new secondary modern school was built at Lairthwaite in Underskiddaw .
Junior education is provided by St Herbert 's School , which had a roll of 263 in 2013 . At senior level , Keswick and Lairthwaite schools merged in 1980 as a single comprehensive secondary school , with the name Keswick School . It was included in The Daily Telegraph 's list of the top thirty comprehensives in England , Wales and Northern Ireland in 2014 . The Local Education Authority for Keswick is Cumbria .
The Mary Hewetson Cottage Hospital , founded in 1892 , has fifteen beds and a minor injuries unit . It underwent a major rebuilding and upgrade in 2013 .
= = Sport = =
Keswick is home to Keswick Football Club . The principal team plays in the Westmorland League Division One , and it also has a reserve team which plays in Westmorland League Division Two , a female team which plays in the Cumbria League , juniors who compete in the under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 14 , under @-@ 12 and under @-@ 10 categories in the Penrith Junior Football League ; there is a veteran team , which competes in the Cumbria League . Keswick Rugby Union Football Club , established in 1879 , plays at Davidson Park , and has teams that play in the Cumbrian League and the Cumbria Rugby Union Raging Bull Competition . The rugby club is involved in the organisation of the Keswick Half Marathon , usually held in the first week of May .
Keswick Tennis Club has grass courts in upper Fitz Park , and also runs hard courts on Keswick 's Community Sports Area in the lower park area . Keswick Cricket Club was established in the 1880s . Its principal team competes in the North Lancashire and Cumbria Cricket League , Premier Division . The second team plays in the Eden Valley Cricket League , 3rd Division , and the club also has junior under @-@ 11 , under @-@ 13 , and under @-@ 15 teams and a women 's cricket team . Keswick Fitz Park Bowls Club was founded in 1882 .
In cycling , Keswick hosted the Keswick Bikes Borrowdale Cross of the North West League , second round , in September 2010 for junior riders , an event that was supported by the British Cycling Federation . The same month , the town hosted an activity weekend for children , involving the juniors of the Brooke Steelers Wheelchair Basketball Team , whose senior players who were competing in a 135 miles ( 217 km ) race from Keswick to Penrith to raise money for children 's cancer . Keswick is also home to Keswick Croquet Club , Keswick Archers , and Greta ( Keswick ) Junior Badminton Club , for children from eight to 16 years of age . The town leisure centre , Keswick Leisure Pool and Fitness Centre , is operated and managed by Carlisle Leisure Limited ( CLL ) , and has a pool and fitness facilities , and offers lessons in canoeing .
= = Transport = =
Keswick is on the A66 road linking Workington and Penrith , as well as the A591 , linking the town to Windermere , Kendal and Carlisle ( via the A595 ) .
There are no rail links to Keswick ; the line built in the 1860s for the Cockermouth , Keswick and Penrith Railway closed in 1972 . Since the 1990s a plan to rebuild it has been under discussion . Some 90 percent of the earthworks of the railway still exist , but according to 2000 estimates , a reopening would cost £ 25 million . In 2014 the only public transport serving the towns and villages on the old railway route is a bus service operating at mostly hourly intervals . The bus journey from the main line station at Penrith to Keswick takes a scheduled 47 minutes .
The town is served by other bus routes providing direct connections with Carlisle , Cockermouth , Kendal , Lancaster , Penrith , Windermere , Workington , and other towns and villages in the north west . The flow of traffic from Penrith to Cockermouth and beyond was eased after the A66 was diverted to a new bypass in 1974 , a development that caused controversy because of a prominent new viaduct carrying the road across the Greta Gorge to the north of the town .
The majority of visitors arrive by car and are catered for by three town centre car parks , another large one next to the Theatre by the Lake , and smaller ones elsewhere in the town .
= = Culture = =
= = = Regular events = = =
Annual events in the town 's calendar include the Keswick Film Festival ( February – March ) . It features screenings of old and new films , interviews with directors , and the festival 's Osprey Awards for short films by local filmmakers . The ten @-@ day Words by the Water literary festival is held in March every year , based at the Theatre by the Lake . The festival began in 1995 , and events have been presented by Melvyn Bragg , Louis de Bernières , Germaine Greer , Steve Jones , Penelope Lively , Princess Michael of Kent , Michael Rosen and Joanna Trollope .
In May each year , Keswick is host to three contrasting events . The Keswick Half Marathon , in the early part of the month takes participants around Derwentwater with an additional loop into Newlands Valley . In the second week of May there is the four @-@ day Keswick Jazz Festival , with more than 100 jazz events at a dozen local venues . Participants include British and international exponents of mainstream and traditional jazz . After the Jazz Festival is the four @-@ day Keswick Mountain Festival in mid @-@ May . In the words of the organisers , the festival " celebrates everything we all love about the outdoors " . It includes ghyll scrambling , mountain biking , guided walks , map reading , canoeing , climbing , a triathlon and other events .
The main event of the town 's calendar in June is the Keswick Beer Festival , a two @-@ day event that attracts more than 5 @,@ 000 participants each year . July is marked by the opening of the annual Keswick Convention , an international gathering of Evangelical Christians , described in 1925 as " the last stronghold of British Puritanism " , promoting biblical teaching and pious lifestyles . Among those associated with the Convention have been Frank Buchman and Billy Graham . The event has grown from a single week to three weeks , straddling the latter part of July and early August .
In August , Keswick features the Derwentwater Regatta . It was inaugurated by the eccentric local landowner Joseph Pocklington in 1792 , and after a lapse of more than two centuries was revived in 2013 . Its organisers describe it as " A weekend of mayhem and madness afloat , with the chance to climb aboard in a variety of races on Derwentwater " . The Keswick Agricultural Show , founded in 1860 , has traditionally been held on August Bank Holiday Monday at the western edge of the town on the Crossing Fields section of the open land known as the Howrahs . The show features both commercial and charity stands , and attracts large numbers of competitors , exhibitors and spectators . From 2014 the venue has changed to Pump Field , a few hundred yards further from the town centre towards Braithwaite .
Classical music is presented throughout the year , both in conjunction with the Lake District Summer Music Festival and independently through the Keswick Choral Society and the Keswick Music Society , which was founded in 1947 . Performers in Keswick have included the Chilingirian Quartet , the Royal Northern Sinfonia , Tasmin Little , the City of London Sinfonia , Red Priest and Nicolai Demidenko .
= = = Lake Poets and other Keswick notables = = =
Coleridge and William Wordsworth were close friends and collaborators ; when Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy took up residence in the Lake District in late 1799 it was , in Bott 's word , inevitable that Coleridge would follow suit . Six months after the Wordsworths moved into Dove Cottage at Grasmere , Coleridge leased Greta Hall in Keswick , 12 miles ( 19 km ) away . In 1803 Robert Southey , Coleridge 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , agreed to share the house with Coleridge and his family . Southey remained at Greta Hall after Coleridge left in 1804 , and it remained Southey 's family home until his death in 1843 . Many famous literary figures stayed at Greta Hall in these years , including the Wordsworths , Charles and Mary Lamb , Thomas de Quincey , William Hazlitt , Percy Bysshe Shelley , and Sir Walter Scott . Lamb , a Londoner devoted to his native city , remained doubtful of the attractions of the Lake District , but most of the visitors to Greta Hall wrote eloquently of the beauty of the scenery , and further enhanced the public regard for , and desire to visit , the area . Southey was well regarded locally , but played little part in the life of the town . He is buried in Crosthwaite churchyard and there is a memorial to him inside the church , with an inscription written by Wordsworth .
Among Keswick notables before the Lake Poets was Sir John Bankes , a leading Royalist during the English Civil War . He was Charles I 's Attorney General and Chief Justice . Bankes was born at Castlerigg near Keswick in 1589 . A bust in his memory is in upper Fitz Park close to the museum . In 2014 he was further commemorated by the conversion of the former Keswick courthouse into a bar named in his honour with his full title , " The Chief Justice of the Common Pleas " .
Later residents of the area have included the classical scholar , essayist , poet and founder of the Society for Psychical Research , Frederic Myers , who was born in Keswick , and the campaigner for animal welfare Donald Watson , founder of the Vegan Society , who lived in Keswick after retiring from teaching . The pioneer mountaineers and photographers George and Ashley Abraham lived and worked in Keswick . Their photographic shop in Lake Road , built in 1887 , was later taken over by the local mountaineer and outfitter George Fisher ; the shop still contains memorabilia , including photographs , from the Abrahams ' era .
Of literary figures after the Lake Poets among those most closely associated with Keswick was the novelist Hugh Walpole . In 1924 he moved into Brackenburn , a house between Keswick and Grange at the opposite end of Derwentwater . Like the Lake Poets in the previous century , he wrote enthusiastically about the Lake District , and its scenery and atmosphere often found their way into his fiction . He wrote in 1939 , " That I love Cumberland with all my heart and soul is another reason for my pleasure in writing these Herries books . That I wasn 't born a Cumbrian isn 't my fault : that Cumbrians , in spite of my ' foreignness ' , have been so kind to me , is my good fortune . "
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= Drishyam =
Drishyam ( English : Visual ) is a 2013 Indian Malayalam @-@ language drama thriller film written and directed by Jeethu Joseph . It stars Mohanlal and Meena in the lead roles and features Ansiba Hassan , Esther Anil , Kalabhavan Shajon , Asha Sarath , Siddique , Roshan Basheer and Neeraj Madhav in supporting roles . The film was produced by Antony Perumbavoor for Aashirvad Cinemas . The story follows the struggle of Georgekutty and his family , who come under suspicion when Varun Prabhakar , the son of the Inspector @-@ general of police , goes missing after an attempt to physically harass Georgekutty 's daughter .
The film 's principal photography commenced in the first week of October 2013 at Thodupuzha in Kerala and was completed in 44 days . The cinematography was done by Sujith Vaassudev and was edited by Ayoob Khan . The soundtrack of the film was composed by Anil Johnson and Vinu Thomas .
Released on 19 December 2013 in Kerala , Drishyam received positive reviews with critics praising the screenplay , the performances and direction . The film grossed over ₹ 750 million worldwide and is the highest @-@ grossing Malayalam film of all time . It ran for more than 150 days in theatres and became the first Malayalam film to collect ₹ 500 million from its theatrical box office collections , remake rights , satellite and television rights . It won numerous accolades including the Kerala State Film Award for Best Popular Film and the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Malayalam and screened at the 45th International Film Festival of India and the 8th Asian Film Festival . The film was remade into four other Indian languages including Telugu , Tamil , Kannada and Hindi .
= = Plot = =
Georgekutty ( Mohanlal ) is an orphan who had dropped out of school after his 4th grade . Now he is a businessman running a cable TV service in a rural area . He is married to Rani ( Meena ) and they have two daughters , Anju ( Ansiba Hassan ) and Anu ( Esther Anil ) . His only interest apart from his family is watching films . He spends most of his time in front of the TV in his small office .
During a nature camp , Anju gets photographed in the bathroom by a hidden cell phone . The culprit , Varun ( Roshan Basheer ) , is the son of police inspector general Geetha Prabhakar ( Asha Sarath ) . Varun is accidentally killed by Rani and her daughter when he comes to blackmail them . They hide his body in a compost pit , which is witnessed by Anu . Rani tells Georgekutty about the incident and he devises a way to save his family from the law . He removes the broken cell phone and disposes of Varun 's car , which is seen by Constable Sahadevan ( Kalabhavan Shajon ) , who has a grudge against Georgekutty . Georgekutty takes them out on a trip to Thodupuzha to pray in a church , watch a movie and eat at a restaurant . Geetha , seeing that her son has gone missing , starts an investigation .
After a preliminary investigation , Geetha calls Georgekutty and family for questioning . Georgekutty , who had predicted that this would happen , had already taught his family how to change their alibi at the time of murder . When questioned individually , they give the same replies . Georgekutty also presents the bill of the restaurant , the movie ticket and the bus tickets as proof of their alibi . Geetha questions the owners of the establishments they have been to and their statements prove Georgekutty 's alibi . However , Geetha realizes later that Georgekutty had faked the evidence and established his alibi on the owners by going on a trip with his family to the same establishments later .
Geetha arrests Georgekutty and family and Sahadevan uses brute force to beat the truth out of them . Eventually , Anu gives in and reveals the place where the body is buried . After digging the compost pit , they find the carcass of a calf , indicating that Georgekutty had moved the body . Anu reports to the media and complains against Sahadevan . The constable is suspended and Geetha resigns from her post .
Later , Geetha and Prabhakar ( Siddique ) meet Georgekutty to ask forgiveness for their rude and violent behavior . Prabhakar asks Georgekutty if he can tell them about their son . Georgekutty then reveals indirectly that his family has committed a crime . Now in remand , Georgekutty signs a register at the newly constructed local police station . As he leaves , a flashback shows him leaving the incomplete police station with a shovel in hand , indicating that he has hidden Varun 's body in the foundations of the police station itself .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In July 2013 , it was reported that Jeethu Joseph will be directing a film titled My Family with Mohanlal in the lead . In August 2013 , Jeethu clarified that the film was titled Drishyam . A thread similar to that of Drishyam has been with the director since the early 1990s . He was inspired by a conversation he had overheard about the plight of two families involved in a legal battle . Jeethu had penned the story of Drishyam even before Memories ( 2013 ) . He says , " I started working on the subject some two years back . But I wanted to stick to the planned order and hence postponed the project till I finished Memories " . The script was initially planned to be filmed by another director but since that director could not find a producer , Jeethu took back the script and decided to direct it himself . Drishyam contrasts from the director 's previous films . He says , " Different films require different treatment . I toiled hard while filming Memories as the film was full of twists and turns and the handling of the subject mattered a lot . But Drishyam is a complete script @-@ oriented film that does not require any special effort . We shot the film sticking completely to the script , and the shooting was completed effortlessly . "
= = = Casting = = =
Jeethu had initially approached Mammootty to play the lead , but he was unable to commit and asked Jeethu to proceed with the film with another actor . According to the director , Mammootty was instrumental in casting actress Meena for the film . The director , in an interview with The New Indian Express , stated that he wrote the screenplay with Mohanlal in mind and that the character was tailor @-@ made for Mohanlal . He later added that no changes were made in the script when Mohanlal agreed .
Kalabhavan Shajon , who previously worked in the industry as a comedian and the sidekick of the lead actors , was chosen for the main antagonistic role . The director stated , " I had two @-@ three actors in mind , but at last decided to pick Shajon . I was very clear that I did not want anyone who has played negative characters so far to do the role . Shajon was a total revelation . " Roshan Basheer , who debuted through Plus Two ( 2010 ) , was chosen after conducting a screen test . Prithviraj was rumored to play a cameo role , though this was denied by Jeethu . Asha Sarath was later signed for the role of a police officer . Child actors Ansiba Hassan and Esther Anil , along with Siddique , Irshad , Kunchan and Koottickal Jayachandran were also cast to play major supporting roles .
= = = Filming = = =
Drishyam commenced principal photography in the first week of October 2013 . Mohanlal joined the sets only from 10 October as he was down with chickenpox . The film was shot at Thodupuzha in Kerala . The road @-@ side house shown in the film , which was a major location , is situated at Vazhithala , near Thodupuzha . The shooting had to be halted for a while as Meena fainted on the location . Drishyam was initially planned to be filmed in 52 days , though it was completed in 44 days .
= = Themes = =
A reviewer from The Hindu noted , " The film takes off as a typical family drama . The first half of the film is intentionally slow @-@ paced and shows to the audience the lighter moments in the family of Georgekutty . This half combines the elements of drama and comedy genres . The audience gets completely absorbed in the twist of events that begin to unfold from the end of the first half . The second half is more like a thriller and is about how the family , despite the vengeful villainy of a corrupt cop , stands its ground even as the law takes its course . " When asked whether this change in narrative style post @-@ interval was intentional , Jeethu replied : " I really don 't understand when people say the first half lacked pace . A story or a film has its own way of progression and it does travel in a zig @-@ zag away , capturing all the ups and downs of our lives . Right from the start if you accelerate the pace , sooner or later , the story @-@ telling will lose its steam . "
When asked whether he had kicked off a new genre in Malayalam — family thriller , a genre which combines the elements of a family drama and thriller , Jeethu replied , " I still believe it belongs to the genre ' drama ' , not a thriller . " He also stated in another interview , " We usually brand a film as a thriller , simply because there is some mystery in the narrative or the story unfolds through an investigation . But I don 't subscribe to this . Although there are some twists in the tale and some suspense as well , Drishyam is essentially the story of a family . "
The film has also been said to be inspired by The Devotion of Suspect X , a Japanese novel written by Keigo Higashino . Ekta Kapoor , who had purchased the Hindi movie rights of the novel , sent a legal notice to the makers of the film . However , the director clarified , " After Ekta 's legal team sent us the letter , I watched the Japanese film , Suspect X , which is an adaptation of the Japanese novel . There could be similarities between my film and that Japanese film , but my film is neither an adaptation nor a copy . The Japanese film is also about a murder cover @-@ up and hence the allegation . Similarities are quite common in the works of creators and that shouldn 't be made into an issue . " Rashomon ( 1950 ) was also cited as an inspiration for the film .
The film was criticised for the use of some " sexist dialogues " in the first half which were playing to a certain " new generation " audience . Sowmya Rajendran of Sify criticised the same and stated about one of such scenes in the film , " it is such banter , which we often dismiss with a laugh , that helps perpetuate rape culture . " When asked about this , the director replied , " I firmly believe such conversations are part of our lives . I don 't want to elaborate , but it also throws an insight into each character featured in the sequences . Yes , frankly , I was a bit worried how the family audience would react to those scenes . But then I read out that part of the script to a select group of women and they nodded their heads in approval . "
There were also allegations that Drishyam might provoke murder . Additional Director General of Police ( ADGP ) Senkumar claimed that two people accused of murdering a woman from Nilambur in February 2014 admitted that their methods for disposing of the victim 's body and mobile phone SIM card were influenced by the film . The murder of a young girl in Irinjalakkuda by her father and his mistress was also said to be influenced by Drishyam .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film features a soundtrack composed by Anil Johnson and Vinu Thomas , with lyrics penned by Santhosh Varma . The background score was composed by Anil Johnson . The songs were released on 20 June 2014 by Muzik 247 .
Veeyen of NowRunning noted in his review of the film that the songs " have a refreshingly delightful tenor to them that deserve an applause for certain . " The reviewer of IndiaGlitz called the score " refreshing " and stated that it " builds the tempo " for the film .
= = Release = =
Drishyam released on 19 December 2013 in India . It also received a theatrical release in the United States , United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates on 3 January 2014 . The film was passed with an ' U ' ( Universal ) certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification . The film was selected to be screened in the Indian Panorama at the 45th International Film Festival of India . It also screened at the 8th Asian Film Festival held in Jeddah in 2015 , representing India .
= = = Home media = = =
Drishyam was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc , DVD and VCD on 9 May 2014 . The film created a new record in the DVD and VCD sales on the first day of release itself . The film 's satellite rights were reported to be bought by Asianet for a record amount of ₹ 6 @.@ 5 crore ( US $ 970 @,@ 000 ) . The record was previously held by Kadal Kadannu Oru Maathukutty ( 2013 ) which was bought for ₹ 5 @.@ 75 crore ( US $ 850 @,@ 000 ) by the same channel . It had its global television premiere on 7 September 2014 at 6 pm . IST .
= = = Plagiarism allegations = = =
In August 2014 , film director Sathish Paul filed a copyright infringement suit against the makers , saying that it had similarities to his script titled Oru Mazhakkalathu , written in 2013 . The court passed an order saying that the movie had prima facie similarities to Sathish ' script , but allowed the making of the Tamil version Papanasam to proceed , on the condition that the makers of Drishyam produce a ₹ 10 lakh bank guarantee before the court to ensure the compensation . The case was dismissed in March 2015 as it was proved that Jeethu had written the script in 2011 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Sify 's reviewer rated the film as " Excellent " and stated , " It is not often that you sit in a theatre with bated breath , never wanting to miss a moment of the film on screen . Writer director Jeethu Joseph 's Drishyam is one such film , a gripping tale that leaves you spellbound with its skillful craft . " Veeyen of NowRunning rated the film 3 / 5 and commented , " In Drishyam Jeethu attempts a stunning mix of the real with the imaginary , and the result is an unpredictable cinematic artichoke that takes you by surprise at every turn . " Rating the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 , Paresh C Palicha of Rediff said , " Drishyam can be credited for bringing Mohanlal back to form and pushing director Jeethu Joseph into the big league as he has made a cracker of a thriller . " Jabir Mushthari of The Hindu wrote : " It takes craft , intelligence , and the superior acumen of a genuine storyteller to pull off a film in such an engaging manner . " He also noted that the film 's " thread and treatment are new to Malayalam cinema in many ways " and its " principles go against the set rules film goers here are familiar with " .
Shibu B S of The New Indian Express wrote , " For his latest outing Drishyam , Jeethu attempts a splendid mix of emotions , relationships , suspense and thrill . End result : a spectacular cinematic experience . " Dalton L of Deccan Chronicle gave the film a 3 @-@ star rating , writing , " The limelight belongs entirely to Mohanlal . Like the versatile greats of Hollywood , this actor possesses such a vast repertoire that he isn 't required to always attempt the radically new to stamp his towering persona . " Mythily Ramachandran wrote in her review for Gulf News : " Drishyam is an unforgettable picture , shorn of irrational fight sequences and mindless dance numbers . " Aswin J Kumar of The Times of India said , " Drishyam is an elegantly crafted piece of film which Lal and Joseph can proudly hold close to their hearts . "
Unni R. Nair noted in his review for Kerala9.com , " The care with which the script is done , the finesse with which the direction part is executed and the characterization and performance plus the thoughtful placing of the songs makes Drishyam worth real appreciation . That the film has almost zero- ' filmy ' humour is also worth noting . It 's the logical manner in which the story unfolds and the very convincing manner in which the characters behave makes it impressive . " The critic rated the film three in a scale of five . IndiaGlitz 's reviewer rated the film 8 / 10 and stated , " Drishyam is undoubtedly cladded with exceptional story telling combined with bravura performances . An undoubtedly exceptional film as far the content is concerned , the movie is a must watch for all the audiences of family and thriller movies . " In contrast , Gautaman Bhaskaran of Hindustan Times wrote , " Scripted more or less in a convincing manner and mounted with finesse , writer @-@ director Joseph fleshes out his characters . However , Drishyam often seems like a radio play , long dialogues mar its cinematic qualities , and like many other helmers , Joseph too does not know where to end his film . Cinema need not be so explanatory ; certainly this is not how contemporary movies are made .
= = = Box office = = =
According to Sify , the film " started on a low key " but " swept the box @-@ office " from its second day of release . The film grossed ₹ 60 million in its first eight days . In less than one month following its release , Drishyam became the highest @-@ grossing Malayalam film of all time , beating the record of Twenty : 20 ( 2008 ) . The film ran for more than 150 days in Kerala , with collections of around ₹ 401 million .
The film also grossed around ₹ 100 million from rest of India . It showed for 100 days in Tamil Nadu . It also had a 100 @-@ day theatrical run in multiplexes in Mumbai , Bengaluru , Ahmedabad and Hyderabad . The collection from the overseas markets was more than ₹ 40 million , with around ₹ 10 million from England alone . Drishyam became the second film to complete 100 days in the UAE after Titanic ( 1997 ) . The film completed 100 days in 60 theaters in Kerala and rest of India .
Drishyam was the first Malayalam film to collect ₹ 500 million from its theatrical box office collections , remake rights , satellite and television rights . The film collected more than ₹ 600 million in its theatrical run worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Remakes = =
Drishyam was remade into several Indian languages . The remake rights of the film were sold for ₹ 155 million . It was first remade in Kannada as Drishya ( 2014 ) by P. Vasu and starring V. Ravichandran and Navya Nair . The Telugu version titled Drushyam ( 2014 ) directed by Sripriya featured Daggubati Venkatesh , along with Meena reprising her role . Jeethu himself directed the Tamil remake Papanasam ( 2015 ) which stars Kamal Haasan and Gautami . A Hindi remake was also made with the same name in 2015 , directed by Nishikant Kamat and starring Ajay Devgn and Shriya Saran in the lead roles . All these versions were commercially successful .
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= Waylon Jennings =
Waylon Arnold Jennings ( pronounced / ˈweɪlən ˈdʒɛnɪŋz / ; June 15 , 1937 – February 13 , 2002 ) was an American singer , songwriter , musician , and actor . Jennings began playing guitar at eight and began performing at 12 on KVOW radio . His first band was The Texas Longhorns . Jennings worked as a DJ on KVOW , KDAV , KYTI , and KLLL . In 1958 , Buddy Holly arranged Jennings 's first recording session , of " Jole Blon " and " When Sin Stops ( Love Begins ) " . Holly hired him to play bass . In Clear Lake , Iowa , Jennings gave up his seat on the ill @-@ fated flight that crashed and killed Holly , J. P. Richardson , Ritchie Valens , and pilot Roger Peterson .
Jennings then worked as a DJ in Coolidge , Arizona , and Phoenix . He formed a rockabilly club band , The Waylors . He recorded for independent label Trend Records and A & M Records before succeeding with RCA Victor after achieving creative control .
During the 1970s , Jennings joined the Outlaw Country movement . He released critically acclaimed albums Lonesome , On 'ry and Mean and Honky Tonk Heroes followed by hit albums Dreaming My Dreams and Are You Ready for the Country . In 1976 , he released the album Wanted ! The Outlaws with Willie Nelson , Tompall Glaser , and Jessi Colter , the first platinum country music album . That success was followed by Ol ' Waylon and the hit song " Luckenbach , Texas . " Jennings was featured in the 1978 album White Mansions performed by various artists documenting the lives of white people in the Confederacy during the Civil War . The songs on the album were written by Paul Kennerley . By the early 1980s , Jennings was struggling with a cocaine addiction , which he quit in 1984 . Later , he joined the country supergroup The Highwaymen with Nelson , Kris Kristofferson , and Johnny Cash , which released three albums between 1985 and 1995 . During that period , Jennings released the successful album Will the Wolf Survive . He toured less after 1997 to spend more time with his family . Between 1999 and 2001 , his appearances were limited by health problems . On February 13 , 2002 , Jennings died from complications of diabetes .
Jennings also appeared in movies and television series . He was the balladeer for The Dukes of Hazzard , composing and singing the show 's theme song . In 2001 , he was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame , which he chose not to attend . In 2007 , he was posthumously awarded the Cliffie Stone Pioneer Award by the Academy of Country Music .
= = Early life = =
Waylon Arnold Jennings was born on June 15 , 1937 , on the J.W. Bittner farm , near Littlefield , Texas . He was the son of Lorene Beatrice ( née Shipley ) and William Albert Jennings . The Jennings family line descended from Irish and Black @-@ Dutch . Meanwhile , the Shipley family moved from Tennessee and settled in Texas . The Shipley line descended from Cherokee and Comanche families .
The name on his birth certificate was Wayland , meaning land by the highway . His name was changed after a Baptist preacher visited Jennings 's parents and congratulated his mother for naming him after the Wayland Baptist University in Plainview , Texas . Lorene Jennings , who had been unaware of the college , changed the spelling to Waylon . Jennings later expressed in his autobiography , " I didn 't like Waylon . It sounded corny and hillbilly , but it 's been good to me , and I 'm pretty well at peace with it right now . "
After working as a laborer on the Bittner farm , Jennings 's father moved the family to Littlefield and established a retail creamery . When Jennings was eight , his mother taught him to play guitar with the tune " Thirty Pieces of Silver " . Jennings used to practice with his relatives ' guitars , until his mother bought him a used Stella , and later ordered a Harmony Patrician . Early influences were Bob Wills , Floyd Tillman , Ernest Tubb , Hank Williams , Carl Smith , and Elvis Presley .
Beginning at family gatherings , Jennings advanced to perform at the Youth Center with Anthony Bonanno , followed by appearances at the local Jaycees and Lions Clubs . He won a talent show at Channel 13 , in Lubbock , singing " Hey Joe " . He later made frequent performances at the Palace Theater in Littlefield , during local talent night .
= = Music career = =
= = = Beginnings in music = = =
The 12 @-@ year @-@ old Jennings auditioned for a spot on KVOW in Littlefield , Texas . Owner J.B. McShan , along with Emil Macha , recorded Jennings 's performance . McShan liked his style and hired him for a weekly 30 @-@ minute program . Following this successful introduction , Jennings formed his own band . He asked Macha to play bass for him , and gathered other friends and acquaintances to form The Texas Longhorns . The style of the band , a mixture of Country and Western and Bluegrass music , was often not well received .
At age 16 , after several disciplinary infractions , tenth @-@ grader Jennings was convinced to drop out of high school by the superintendent . Upon leaving school , he worked for his father in the produce store , also taking temporary jobs . Jennings felt that music , his favorite activity , would turn into his career . The next year , Jennings and The Texas Longhorns recorded a demo of the songs " Stranger in My Home " and " There 'll Be a New Day " at KFYO radio in Lubbock . Meanwhile , he drove a truck for the Thomas Land Lumber Company , and a concrete truck for the Roberts Lumber Company . Tired of the owner , and after a minor driving accident , Jennings quit . Other local musicians and he often performed at Country radio station KDAV ; during this , he met Buddy Holly at a Lubbock restaurant . Holly and he became friends , often meeting during local shows . Jennings also attended Holly 's performances on KDAV 's Sunday Party .
In addition to performing on air for KVOW , Jennings started to work as a DJ in 1956 , and moved to Lubbock . His program ran for six hours , from 4 : 00 in the afternoon to 10 : 00 in the evening . Jennings played two hours of Country classics , two of current Country , and two of mixed recordings . During those final two hours , Jennings played artists such as Chuck Berry and Little Richard . The owner reprimanded him each time he aired the recordings , and when he then played two Richard records in a row , the owner fired him .
During his time at KVOW , Jennings was visited by DJ Sky Corbin , who worked at KLVT in Levelland . Corbin was impressed with his voice , and decided to visit Jennings at the station after hearing him sing a jingle to the tune of Hank Snow 's " I 'm Moving On " . Jennings expressed his economic struggle to live on a US $ 50 @-@ a @-@ week salary . Corbin invited Jennings to visit KLVT , where he eventually took Corbin 's then @-@ vacated position . The Corbin family later purchased KLLL , in Lubbock . They changed the format of the station to Country , becoming the main competition of KDAV . The Corbins hired Jennings as the station 's first DJ .
Jennings produced commercials and created jingles with the rest of the DJs . As their popularity increased , the DJs made public appearances . Jennings 's events included live performances . During one performance , Buddy 's father , L.O. Holley , approached them with his son 's latest record , and requested them to play it at the station . L.O. mentioned his son 's intention to start producing artists himself , and Corbin recommended Jennings . After returning from his England tour , Buddy Holly visited KLLL .
Holly took Jennings as his first artist . He outfitted him with new clothes , and worked with him to improve his image . He arranged a session for Jennings at Norman Petty 's recording studios in Clovis , New Mexico . On September 10 , Jennings recorded the songs " Jole Blon " and " When Sin Stops ( Love Begins ) " with Holly and Tommy Allsup on guitars with saxophonist King Curtis . Holly then hired Jennings to play electric bass for him during his " Winter Dance Party Tour " .
= = = Winter Dance Party Tour = = =
Before the tour , Holly vacationed with his wife in Lubbock , and visited Jennings ' radio station in December 1958 . Jennings and Sky Corbin performed the hand claps to Holly 's tune " You 're the One " . Jennings and Holly soon left for New York City , arriving on January 15 , 1959 . Jennings stayed at Holly 's apartment by Washington Square Park , on the days prior to a meeting scheduled on the headquarters of the General Artists Corporation , that organized the tour . They later took a train to Chicago to join the band .
The Winter Dance Party tour began in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on January 23 , 1959 . The amount of travel created logistical problems , as the distance between venues had not been considered when scheduling each performance . Adding to the problem , the unheated tour buses twice broke down in freezing weather , with dire consequences . Holly 's drummer Carl Bunch suffered frostbite to his toes ( while aboard the bus ) and was hospitalized , so Buddy Holly made the decision to find another means of transportation . Before their performance at the Surf Ballroom in Clear Lake , Iowa , Holly chartered a four @-@ seat Beechcraft Bonanza airplane at Dwyer Flying Service in Mason City , Iowa , for himself , Jennings , and Allsup , to avoid the long bus trip to their next venue in Moorhead , Minnesota . Following the Clear Lake show ( which ended around midnight ) , Tommy Allsup lost a coin toss and gave up his seat on the charter plane to Ritchie Valens , while Waylon Jennings voluntarily gave up his seat to J. P. Richardson , who was suffering from the flu and complaining about how cold and uncomfortable the tour bus was for a man of his size . When Holly learned that his band mates had given up their seats on the plane and had chosen to take the bus rather than fly , a friendly banter between Holly and Jennings ensued , and it would come back to haunt Jennings for decades to follow : Holly jokingly told Jennings , " Well , I hope your ol ' bus freezes up ! " Jennings jokingly replied , " Well , I hope your ol ' plane crashes ! " Less than an hour and a half later , shortly after 1 : 00 AM on February 3 , 1959 ( later known as The Day the Music Died ) , Holly 's charter plane crashed at full throttle into a cornfield outside Mason City , Iowa , instantly killing all on board .
Later that morning , Jennings ' family heard on the radio that " Buddy Holly and his band had been killed . " After calling his family , Jennings called Sky Corbin at KLLL from Fargo to say that he was alive . The General Artists Corporation promised to pay a first @-@ class ticket for Jennings and the band to assist Holly 's funeral in Lubbock , in exchange for them playing that night in Moorhead . After the first show , they were initially denied their payment by the venue , but after Jennings 's persistence , they were paid . The flights were never paid , and Jennings and Allsup continued the tour for two more weeks , featuring Jennings as the lead singer . They were paid less than half of the original agreed salary , and upon returning to New York , Jennings put Holly 's guitar and amplifier in a locker in Grand Central Terminal and mailed the keys to Maria Elena Holly . Then , he returned to Lubbock .
For decades afterward , Jennings repeatedly admitted that he felt responsible for the crash that killed Buddy Holly . This sense of guilt precipitated bouts of substance abuse through much of Jennings ' career . The day of the flight was later known as the Day the Music Died . Jennings sang The Stage , which is a touching tribute to the Day the Music Died . He recreates the concert performers on February 2 , 1959 , in order at the Surf Ballroom , starting with Eddie Cochran , then Ritchie Valens , the Big Bopper and , finally , Buddy Holly . This was the concert that preceded the infamous plane crash . The Stage can be found on the Surf Ballroom Winter Dance Party CD .
" Jole Blon " was released on Brunswick in March 1959 with limited success . Now unemployed , he returned to KLLL . Deeply affected by the death of Buddy Holly , Jennings ' performance at the station worsened . He left the station after he was denied a raise , and later worked briefly for the competition , KDAV .
= = = Phoenix and the Nashville Sound = = =
Due to Maxine 's father 's illness , Jennings had to shuttle between Arizona and Texas . While his family lived back in Littlefield , Jennings found a job briefly at KOYL in Odessa , Texas . He moved with his family to Coolidge , Arizona , where his wife 's sister lived . He found a job performing at the Galloping Goose bar , where he was heard by Earl Perrin , who offered him a spot on KCKY . Jennings also played during the intermission at drive @-@ in theaters and in bars . After a successful performance at the Cross Keys Club in Phoenix , Arizona , he was approached by contractors who were building a club for Jimmy D. Musiel , called JD 's . Musiel employed Jennings as his main artist and designed the club around his act .
He formed his backing band , The Waylors , with bassist Paul Foster , guitarist Jerry Gropp , and drummer Richie Albright . Jennings and his band performed at the newly opened nightspot in Scottsdale , where they soon earned a strong local fanbase . At JD 's , Jennings developed his " rock tempered " style of country music that defined him on his later career .
In 1961 , Jennings signed a recording contract with Trend Records , and experienced moderate success with his single , " Another Blue Day " . His friend , Don Bowman , took demos of Jennings to Jerry Moss , who at the time was starting A & M Records with associate Herb Alpert . On July 9 , 1963 , Jennings signed a contract with A & M that granted him 5 % of record sales . At A & M , he recorded " Love Denied " backed with " Rave On " , and " Four Strong Winds " backed with " Just to Satisfy You " . He followed up by recording demos of " The Twelfth of Never " , " Kisses Sweeter than Wine " , and " Don 't Think Twice , It 's All Right " , and also produced the single " Sing the Girls a Song , Bill " , backed with " The Race Is On " . The singles were released between April and October 1964 .
His records had little success , because A & M 's main releases were folk music rather than Country . He had a few hits on local radio in Phoenix , with " Four Strong Winds " and " Just To Satisfy You " ( co @-@ written with Bowman ) . Meanwhile , he recorded an album on BAT records , called JD 's . After 500 copies were sold at the club , another 500 copies were pressed by the Sounds label . He also played lead guitar for Patsy Montana on a 1964 album .
Singer Bobby Bare heard Jennings 's " Just to Satisfy You " on his car radio while passing through Phoenix , eventually recording it and " Four Strong Winds " . After stopping in Phoenix to attend to a Jennings performance at JD 's , while driving to Las Vegas , Bare stopped and called Chet Atkins in Nashville , suggesting that he needed to sign Jennings .
When he was made aware of the new deal , Waylon was not sure if he should quit his gig at JD 's . He then went to get the advice of his friend , RCA artist Willie Nelson , who had gone to see one of Waylon 's shows . When Willie and Waylon met , after talking about the possibilities and considering Waylon 's profits at the club , Nelson suggested that Waylon should stay in Phoenix and not to move to Nashville .
Nonetheless , Jennings decided to accept the offer , and asked Herb Alpert to release him from his contract with A & M. Alpert agreed , though later A & M would compile all of Jennings 's singles and unreleased material the label had and release it as Don 't Think Twice . Atkins formally signed Jennings to RCA Victor in 1965 . On August 21 , Jennings made his first appearance on the Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart with " That 's the Chance I 'll Have to Take " .
In 1966 , Jennings released his debut album for RCA Folk @-@ Country , followed by Leavin ' Town and Nashville Rebel . Leavin ' Town resulted in significant chart success as the first two singles " Anita , You 're Dreaming " and " Time to Burn Again " both peaked at no . 17 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart . The album 's third single , a cover of Gordon Lightfoot 's " ( That 's What You Get ) For Lovin ' Me " , became Jennings 's first top 10 single , peaking at no . 9 . Nashville Rebel was the soundtrack to an independent film of the same name , starring Jennings . The single " Green River " charted on Billboard country singles at # 11 . In 1967 , Jennings released a hit single , " Just to Satisfy You " . During an interview , Jennings remarked that the song was a " pretty good example " of the influence of his work with Buddy Holly and rockabilly music . Jennings produced midchart albums that sold well , including Just to Satisfy You , that included the same @-@ named hit single of 1967 . Jennings 's singles enjoyed success . " The Chokin ' Kind " peaked at number eight on Billboard 's Hot Country Singles in 1967 , while " Only Daddy That 'll Walk the Line " hit number two the following year . In 1969 , his collaboration with The Kimberlys on the single " MacArthur Park " earned a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group . His single " Brown Eyed Handsome Man " reached number three at the Hot Country Singles chart by the end of the year .
During this time , Jennings rented an apartment in Nashville with singer Johnny Cash . Jennings and Cash were both managed by " Lucky " Moeller 's booking agency Moeller Talent , Inc . The tours organized by the agency were unproductive , with the artists being booked to venues located far from each other in close dates . After paying for the accommodation and travel expenditures , Jennings 's profits were reduced , with him frequently requesting advances from the agency or RCA Records to play the next venue . While playing 300 days on the road , Jennings 's debt increased along with his consumption of amphetamines , as he believed himself to be trapped on the circuit .
In 1972 , Jennings released Ladies Love Outlaws . The single that headlined the album became a hit for Jennings , and was his first approach to Outlaw Country . Jennings was accustomed to performing and recording with his own band , The Waylors , a practice that was not encouraged by powerful Nashville producers . Over time , however , Jennings felt limited by the Nashville sound 's lack of artistic freedom . The music style publicized as " Countrypolitan " was characterized by orchestral arrangements , and the absence of traditional Country music instruments . The producers did not let Jennings play his own guitar or select material to record .
= = = Outlaw Country = = =
In an interview , Jennings recalled the restrictions of the Nashville establishment : " They wouldn 't let you do anything . You had to dress a certain way : you had to do everything a certain way .... They kept trying to destroy me .... I just went about my business and did things my way .... You start messing with my music , I get mean . " By 1972 , after the release of Ladies Love Outlaws , his recording contract was nearing an end . Sick with hepatitis , Jennings was hospitalized . Afflicted by disease , and the music industry , he was considering retirement . Albright visited him and convinced him to continue . Albright talked to him about making Neil Reshen his new manager . Meanwhile , Jennings requested a US $ 25 @,@ 000 royalty advance from RCA Records to cover his living expenses during his recovery . The same day he met Rashen , RCA sent Jerry Bradley to offer Jennings US $ 5 @,@ 000 as a bonus for signing a new 5 % royalty deal with RCA , the same terms he had accepted in 1965 . After reviewing with Reshen , he rejected the offer and hired Reshen .
Reshen started to renegotiate Jennings 's recording and touring contracts . At a meeting in a Nashville airport , Jennings introduced Reshen to Willie Nelson . By the end of the meeting , Reshen had become Nelson 's manager , as well . Jennings 's new deal gained him a $ 75 @,@ 000 advance and artistic control . Reshen advised Jennings to keep the beard that he had grown in the hospital , to match the image of Outlaw Country .
By 1973 , Nelson had returned to music , finding success with Atlantic Records . Now based in Austin , Texas , he had made inroads into the rock and roll press by attracting rock audiences . Atlantic Records was now attempting to sign Jennings , but Nelson 's rise to popularity persuaded RCA to renegotiate with Jennings before losing another potential star .
In 1973 , Jennings released Lonesome , On 'ry and Mean and Honky Tonk Heroes , the first albums recorded and released under his creative control . The release of these albums heralded a major turning point for Jennings , kicking off his most critically and commercially successful years . More hit albums followed with This Time and The Ramblin ' Man , both released in 1974 . The title tracks of both albums topped the Billboard Country singles chart , with the self @-@ penned " This Time " becoming Jennings 's first no . 1 single . Dreaming My Dreams , released in 1975 , included the no . 1 single " Are You Sure Hank Done It This Way " and was his first album to be certified gold by the RIAA ; it was also the first of his next six consecutive , solo studio albums to be certified gold or higher . In 1976 , Jennings released Are You Ready for the Country , Jennings wanted the record to be produced by Los Angeles producer Ken Mansfield . Although RCA denied the request , Jennings and The Waylors went to Los Angeles and recorded with Mansfield at his expense . After a month , Jennings presented the master tape to Chet Atkins , who decided to release it . The album hit number one on Billboard 's country albums three times the same year , topping the charts for 10 weeks . It was named Country album of the year in 1976 by Record World magazine and it was certified gold by the RIAA .
In 1976 , Jennings released the album Wanted ! The Outlaws , recorded with Willie Nelson , Tompall Glaser , and Jessi Colter for RCA . The album was the first Country music album certified platinum . The following year , RCA issued Ol ' Waylon , an album that produced a hit duet with Nelson , " Luckenbach , Texas " . The album Waylon and Willie followed in 1978 , producing the hit single " Mammas Don 't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys " . Jennings released I 've Always Been Crazy , also in 1978 . The same year , at the peak of his success , Jennings began to feel limited by the outlaw movement . Jennings referred to the overexploitation of the image in the song " Don 't You Think This Outlaw Bit Has Done Got Out of Hand ? " , claiming that the movement had become a " self @-@ fulfilling prophecy " . In 1979 , he released Greatest Hits , which was certified gold the same year , and quintuple platinum in 2002 .
Also in 1979 , Jennings joined the cast of the CBS series The Dukes of Hazzard as the Balladeer , the narrator . The only episode to feature him in person was " Welcome , Waylon Jennings " , during the seventh season . Jennings played himself , presented as an old friend of the Duke family . For the show , he also wrote and sang the theme song " Good Ol ' Boys " , which became the biggest hit of his career . Released as a single in promotion with the show , it became Jennings 's 12th single to reach number one on the Billboard Country Singles chart . It was also a crossover hit , peaking at no . 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = = Later years = = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Johnny Cash , Kris Kristofferson , Nelson , and Jennings formed a successful group called The Highwaymen . Aside from his work with The Highwaymen , Jennings released a gold album WWII ( 1982 ) with Willie Nelson .
In 1985 , Jennings joined with USA for Africa to record " We Are the World " , but he left the studio because of a dispute over the song 's lyrics that were to be sung in Swahili . Ironically , after Jennings left the session , the idea was dropped at the prompting of Stevie Wonder , who pointed out that Ethiopians did not speak Swahili . By this time , his sales had decreased . After the release of Sweet Mother Texas , Jennings signed with Music Corporation of America . The debut release with the label Will the Wolf Survive ( 1985 ) peaked at number one in Billboard 's Country albums in 1986 . Jennings 's initial success tailed off , and in 1990 , he signed with Epic Records . His first release , The Eagle , became his final top 10 album . During the late ' 80s @-@ early ' 90s , Jennings and his contemporaries such as Faron Young , Merle Haggard , and George Jones , were gradually evicted from the airwaves in favor of a younger generation of pop @-@ influenced country artists such as Alan Jackson and Reba McEntire .
Also in 1985 , he made a cameo appearance in the live @-@ action children 's film Sesame Street Presents : Follow That Bird . In the movie , he plays a turkey farm truck driver who gives Big Bird a lift . He also sings one of the film 's songs , entitled " Ain 't No Road Too Long " .
In 1993 , in collaboration with Rincom Children 's Entertainment , Jennings recorded an album of children 's songs , Cowboys , Sisters , Rascals & Dirt , which included " Shooter 's Theme " , a tribute to his 14 @-@ year @-@ old with the theme of " a friend of mine " .
Although his record sales and radio play dwindled during the ' 90s , Jennings continued to draw large crowds at his live performances . In 1997 , after the Lollapalooza tour , he decreased his tour schedule and became centered on his family .
In 1998 , Jennings teamed up with Bare , Jerry Reed , and Mel Tillis to form the Old Dogs . The group recorded a double album of songs by Shel Silverstein . In mid @-@ 1999 , Jennings assembled what he referred to as his " hand @-@ picked dream team " and formed Waylon & The Waymore Blues Band . Consisting primarily of former Waylors , the 13 @-@ member group performed concerts from 1999 to 2001 . In January 2000 , Jennings recorded what became his final album at Nashville 's historic Ryman Auditorium , Never Say Die : Live .
= = Music style and image = =
Jennings 's music was characterized by his " powerful " singing voice , noted by his " rough @-@ edged quality , " as well as his phrasing and texture . He was also recognized for his " spanky @-@ twang " guitar style . To create his sound , he used a pronounced ' phaser ' effect ( see ' Modulation Effects ' : below ) plus a mixture of thumb and fingers during the rhythmic parts , while using picks for the lead runs . He combined hammer @-@ on and pull @-@ off riffs , with eventual upper @-@ fret double stops and modulation effects . Jennings played a 1953 Fender Telecaster , a used guitar that was a gift from The Waylors . Jennings 's bandmates adorned his guitar with a distinctive leather cover that featured a black background with a white floral work . Jennings further customized it by filing down the frets to lower the strings on the neck to obtain the slapping sound . Among his other guitars , Jennings used a 1950 Fender Broadcaster from the mid @-@ 1970s , until he gave it to guitarist Reggie Young in 1993 . The leather covers of his guitars were carved by leather artist Terry Lankford .
His signature image was characterized by his long hair and beard , as well as his black hat and the black leather vest he wore during his appearances .
= = Personal life = =
Jennings was married four times , and had six children . He was first married to Maxine Caroll Lawrence in 1956 at age 18 , with whom he had four children : Terry Vance Jennings ( born January 21 , 1957 ) , Julie Rae Jennings ( born August 12 , 1958 ) , Buddy Dean Jennings ( born March 21 , 1960 ) , and Deana Jennings . Jennings married again on December 10 , 1962 to Lynne Jones , adopting a child , Tomi Lynne . They divorced in 1967 . He next married Barbara Rood . He composed the song " This Time " about the trials and tribulations of his marriages and divorces . He married for the fourth and final time in Phoenix , Arizona , on October 26 , 1969 to Jessi Colter . Colter and Jennings had one son , Waylon Albright " Shooter " Jennings ( born May 19 , 1979 ) . Colter had one daughter , Jennifer , from her previous marriage to Duane Eddy . In the early 1980s , Colter and Jennings nearly divorced due to his addiction to drugs and other forms of substance abuse . However , they remained together until Jennings 's death in 2002 .
In 1997 , he gave up touring to be closer to his family . To set an example about the importance of education to his son Waylon Albright , Jennings earned a GED at age 52 .
= = = Addiction and recovery = = =
Jennings started to consume amphetamines while he lived with Johnny Cash during the mid @-@ 1960s . Jennings later stated , " Pills were the artificial energy on which Nashville ran around the clock . " In 1977 , Jennings was arrested by federal agents for conspiracy and possession of cocaine with intent to distribute . A private courier warned the Drug Enforcement Administration about the package sent to Jennings by a New York colleague that contained 27 grams of cocaine . The DEA and the police searched Jennings 's recording studio . They found no evidence , because while they were waiting for a search warrant , Jennings disposed of the cocaine . The charges were later dropped and Jennings was released . The episode was recounted in Jennings 's song " Don 't You Think This Outlaw Bit 's Done Got Outta Hand ? "
During the early 1980s , his cocaine addiction intensified . Jennings claimed to have spent $ 1 @,@ 500 a day on his habit , draining his personal finances and leaving him bankrupt with debt up to $ 2 @.@ 5 million . Though he insisted on repaying the debt and did additional tours to earn the funds , his work became less focused and his tours deteriorated . Jennings decided to quit his addictions , leased a home in the Phoenix area , and spent a month detoxing himself , intending to start using cocaine again in a more controlled fashion afterward . In 1984 , he quit cocaine . Jennings claimed that his son Shooter was his main inspiration to quit permanently .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Jennings 's health had been deteriorating for years before his death . After quitting cocaine , he ended his habit of smoking six packs of cigarettes daily in 1988 . In December 1988 , he underwent triple heart bypass surgery after suffering chest pains while on his tour bus . By 2000 , his diabetes worsened , and the pain reduced his mobility , forcing Jennings to end most touring . Later the same year , he underwent surgery to improve his leg circulation . In December 2001 , his left foot was amputated at a hospital in Phoenix . On February 13 , 2002 , Jennings died in his sleep of diabetic complications in Chandler , Arizona . He was buried in the Mesa City Cemetery , in Mesa , Arizona . At the funeral ceremony , on February 15 , Jessi Colter sang " Storms Never Last " for the attendees , who included Jennings 's close friends and fellow musicians .
= = Recognition = =
Between 1966 and 1995 , 54 Jennings albums charted , with 11 reaching number one . Meanwhile , between 1965 and 1991 , 96 singles charted , with 16 number ones . In October 2001 , Jennings was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame . In one final act of defiance , he did not attend the ceremony and opted instead to send son Buddy Dean Jennings .
On July 6 , 2006 , Jennings was inducted to Hollywood 's Rock Wall in Hollywood , California . On June 20 , 2007 , Jennings was posthumously awarded the Cliffie Stone Pioneer Award by the Academy of Country Music .
= = Legacy = =
Jennings 's music had a major influence on several neotraditionalist and alternative country artists , including Hank Williams , Jr . , The Marshall Tucker Band , Travis Tritt , Steve Earle , Jamey Johnson , John Anderson , his son , Shooter Jennings , and Hank Williams III .
In 2008 , his first posthumous album , Waylon Forever , was released . The album consisted of songs recorded with his son Shooter when he was 16 . In 2012 , Waylon : The Music Inside a three @-@ volume project , consisting of covers of Jennings 's songs by different artists , was released . The same year , it was announced for September the release of Goin ' Down Rockin ' : The Last Recordings , a set of 12 songs recorded by Jennings and bassist Robby Turner before his death in 2002 . Jennings 's family was reluctant to release any new material because they did not feel comfortable at the time . The songs only featured Jennings and Turner on the bass , while further accompaniment would be added later . Ten years after , Turner completed the recordings with the help of former Waylors . The Jennings family approved the release despite the launch of a new business focused on his estate . Shooter Jennings arranged deals for a clothing line , while also launching a renewed website , and started talks with different producers about the making of a biographical film .
= = Discography = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Journals = = =
Denberg , Jody ( January 1988 ) . " Chantilly Lace and Jolly Face " . Texas Monthly 16 ( 1 ) . ISSN 0148 @-@ 7736 .
Henderson , Richard ( May 12 , 2001 ) . " The RCA 100 : Ambitious Reissue Program Represents A Century of Diverse Music " . Billboard 113 ( 19 ) . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .
Jessen , Wade ; Evans Price , Deborah ; Stark , Phyllis ( February 23 , 2002 ) . " Waylon Jennings Remembered as Country Music Legend " . Billboard 114 ( 8 ) . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .
Weatherby , Gregg ( 1988 ) . " Still Waylon " . Spin ( SPIN Media LLC ) 3 ( 8 ) . ISSN 0886 @-@ 3032 .
Billboard 112 ( 12 ) . March 18 , 2000 . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .
" Patsy Montana Early Country Favorites " . Bluegrass Unlimited ( Bluegrass Unlimited ) 18 ( 1 @-@ 6 ) . 1983 . ISSN 0006 @-@ 5137 .
Country song roundup staff ( 1967 ) . " Country song roundup " ( 102 ) . Country Song Roundup : 15 .
The Journal of country music ( The Country Music Foundation ) 6 ( 3 ) . Fall 1975 .
The Southern Quarterly ( University of Southern Mississippi ) 22 . 1983 . ISSN 0038 @-@ 4496 .
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= Treehouse of Horror X =
" Treehouse of Horror X " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' eleventh season , and the tenth annual Treehouse of Horror episode , consisting of three self @-@ contained segments . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on Halloween 1999 . In " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " , the Simpsons cover up a murder and are haunted by an unseen witness . In " Desperately Xeeking Xena " , Bart and Lisa gain superpowers and must rescue Xena star Lucy Lawless from the Comic Book Guy 's alter ego The Collector , and in " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " , Homer causes worldwide destruction thanks to the Y2K bug .
" Treehouse of Horror X " was directed by Pete Michels and written by Ron Hauge , Donick Cary and Tim Long . The episode contains numerous parodies and references to horror and science fiction works , including Doctor Who , I Know What You Did Last Summer and Battlestar Galactica . It also features actress Lucy Lawless and actors Tom Arnold and Dick Clark as themselves . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewers , finishing in 34th place in the ratings the week it aired . Since its airing , the episode received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
In the opening scene , the two aliens Kang and Kodos introduce a variety show , with a live audience consisting of aliens . While they tell jokes , canned laughter is played , but the audience appears unamused . The Simpson family sits on the couch , with Homer appearing as the jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ box from " Treehouse of Horror II " , Marge as the witch from " Treehouse of Horror VIII " , Bart as the half @-@ fly mutant from " Treehouse of Horror VIII " . Maggie is the alien / human mutant from " Treehouse of Horror IX " and Lisa is the victim of an axe murder . Lisa then asks what aliens have to do with Halloween , and Maggie , in Kang 's voice , says , " Silence ! " , and disintegrates her with a ray gun .
= = = I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did = = =
In a parody of I Know What You Did Last Summer , on a foggy evening with a full moon , the Simpsons are driving down a coastal road when Marge accidentally smashes into Ned Flanders , killing him . Homer manipulates the body in several escapades , which convinces Maude that Ned died of an accident and that he does not want an autopsy . Shortly after Ned 's funeral , the family finds the phrase " I Know What You Did ! " written in blood everywhere they go . They are terrorized by a cloaked figure , which drives them out of their house . Again , in the wild , they find Ned . It turns out he lived because he was bitten by a werewolf moments before the accident . Clouds uncover the full moon , Ned changes into a wolf and Marge , Bart , Maggie and Lisa run away . Ned mauls Homer to death while Homer mocks him .
= = = Desperately Xeeking Xena = = =
An X @-@ ray machine scanning Halloween candy malfunctions and gives Bart the ability to stretch his body like rubber and Lisa super strength . They become a superhero duo , calling themselves " Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl " . Later , Lucy Lawless ( dressed as Xena ) addresses fans at a science fiction convention . Comic Book Guy , who has styled himself as a villain called " The Collector " , kidnaps her using a magnet to attract her metal breast plate . Lawless tries to remove the breastplate but stops after she notices that her horny nerd fans have cameras ready . The Collector takes her to his lair , where he puts her in an aluminized PET film bag for " safekeeping " and imprisons her in a room of other similarly @-@ captured celebrities . Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl then enter the fray in an attempt to free Xena , but they are soon captured as well . The Collector suspends the duo over a vat of " Lucite " . After feigning interest in the villain , Lawless starts clobbering him . The Collector grabs his limited edition double edged lightsaber from Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace ( which was released a few months before the episode ) and ignites the blades , but when Lawless reminds him that he has removed it from its original packaging , he panics and ends up falling into the Lucite . Lawless then flies the children home ( Lisa points out that Xena cannot fly , but Lawless reminds her she 's not Xena , she 's Lucy Lawless ) .
= = = Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die = = =
On December 31 , 1999 , Dick Clark is celebrating New Year 's Rockin ' Eve in Springfield . Homer , the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's Y2K compliance officer , declares that he fixed all the possible Y2K problems at the plant , including the computers . Unfortunately , Homer forgot to fix his own computer , and in the process sends a virus across the world . Chaos ensues , and widespread looting begins . Krusty 's malfunctioning pacemaker apparently kills him in front of the family . Bart tearfully mourns his hero , but he perks up , after finding a note . The letter in Krusty 's pocket states that a rocket ( codenamed Exodus ) is being populated with humanity 's " best and brightest " , and will be launched in order to preserve human civilization on Mars . When they reach the shuttle , Homer fails to bluff his way on board by claiming to be the famous pianist from the film Shine but the armed guard recognizes Lisa as the ship 's designated proofreader . Lisa is only able to take one parent with her , and quickly chooses Marge . Homer and Bart find a second , unguarded rocket and board just before it launches . They quickly notice that the spaceliner is filled with such notoriously obnoxious and mediocre celebrities as radio psychologist Dr. Laura , film director Spike Lee , skating champion Tonya Harding , grunge rock singer Courtney Love , politician Ross Perot , actor Tom Arnold , MTV VJ Paulie Shore , and actress / talk show host Rosie O 'Donnell . Although the craft is headed directly for the sun , Homer and Bart eject themselves from the spacecraft and die of explosive decompression .
= = Production = =
" Treehouse of Horror X " was directed by Pete Michels and written by Donick Cary , Tim Long and Ron Hauge . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on Halloween , 1999 . " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " was conceived and written by former staff writer Cary . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Cary said that he came up with the segment after watching the 1997 horror film I Know What You Did Last Summer . " I had just seen the movie and I was like , ' Hey , there you go . ' " he said . While Flanders serves as the segment 's antagonist , the role would originally go to Grampa , who would chase Homer inside a roller disco . While Grampa does not appear in the segment , the Springfield Roller Disco is seen during the Simpsons escape from Flanders . Despite serving as writer for the segment , Cary left the series after finishing the first draft in order to work on the animated Austin Powers series , which never came to fruition . In his absence , the writing staff rewrote the last quarter of the segment and added the revelation that Flanders is a werewolf . In order to dispose of Ned Flanders ' corpse , Homer throws his body into Flanders ' house . After he is finished , he says " That 's the end of that chapter " , a phrase that Cary often uses in his everyday life . " That 's just something that comes up a lot in my life is when no matter if it 's a good or a bad thing , just move on " he said .
" Desperately Xeeking Xena " was written by staff writer Long . At the beginning of the segment , Milhouse is seen wearing a plastic smock with a picture of Radioactive Man on it . The scene was based on an experience in Long 's childhood ; " I asked my mom for a Batman costume . And I got a smock that had Batman on it and said ' Batman ' . It was very dispiriting " he said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " Stretch Dude & Clobber Girl " ' s theme song was written by Long and composed by Alf Clausen . During the sequence , Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl are seen assaulting Saddam Hussein , the fifth President of Iraq . According to Long , the writing staff had a " passionate " discussion about whether the duo would be attacking Hussein or Iranian religious leader and politician Ruhollah Khomeini during the sequence . Scully quipped that Hussein was chosen because " he was always asking to be on the show . " The segment features New Zealand actress Lucy Lawless as herself . According to Long , Lawless was very happy with the segment 's script . She was especially fond of the speech she gives to The Collector , in which she mentions that she was very tall as an adolescent . Lawless was directed by Scully , who commented that she was " terrific " . In an interview with the Hungarian online newspaper Origo , Lawless said that her part in the episode was the best experience she had guest @-@ starring for a show . " It was really funny when the Comic Book Guy kidnapped me " , she said .
" Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " was written and conceived by Hauge . In DVD commentary for the episode , Hauge stated that , when writing the segment , he knew it would not age well . " I was aware of it at the time , that it wouldn 't last forever " he said , " But I wanted to capture that moment . " According to director Michels , the rocket which transported the " best and brightest " of the population was drawn to resemble a popsicle . The Simpsons ' staff had a lot of trouble finding a guest star for the second rocket , and the only person who agreed to participate was American actor Tom Arnold . In the episode , Arnold is depicted as an annoying , " not @-@ so @-@ great " celebrity . Although he was mostly in on the joke , Arnold did " bust [ the staff 's ] chops " a little bit when recording his lines . " He would say a line and then they 'd yell cut and he 'd look over at me and take a shot at me " Hauge said . Still , Hauge found Arnold 's performance " fantastic " and Scully said that he was a " good sport " . The segment also features television personality Dick Clark as himself . A few months after the episode aired , Hauge discussed the segment with Clark in a Fox studio . According to Hauge , Clark said that the episode gave the " biggest response " he had ever gotten from anything he had ever done . " After the career that he had in television for so long , just to give him a highlight was a highlight for me " Hauge said in the episode 's DVD commentary .
= = Cultural references = =
The opening segment , which shows Kang and Kodos attempting to entertain an audience of aliens , was " born out of [ The Simpsons ' staff 's ] love " of comedy teams like Martin and Lewis and the Smothers Brothers . The plot of " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " is based on the 1997 horror film I Know What You Did Last Summer . At the beginning of the segment , the Simpsons are seen escaping from a group of vampires . Holding a package of Super Sugar Crisp cereal , Homer starts singing a jingle about the cereal . Super Sugar Crisp is a reference to the breakfast cereal Golden Crisp , while the jingle Homer sings references " Can 't get enough of that Golden Crisp " , a jingle sung by Golden Crisp 's mascot Sugar Bear during advertisements for the cereal . According to Scully , the series ' staff had a lot of trouble clearing the song for the episode . " Apparently , they didn 't want the tune [ ... ] used in this context " he said in the episode 's DVD commentary .
Although there is a fictional Marvel Comics character called Collector , Long did not base The Collector on him . While carrying Lawless with an electromagnet , The Collector says " Care for a Rolo , sweet Xena ? " The reference was included because the writing staff were given free Rolos at the time . In The Collector 's lair , several celebrities are seen stored in aluminized PET film bags . Some of these include The Simpsons ' creator Matt Groening and Tom Baker , who portrayed the fourth incarnation of the doctor in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . " There are several Doctor Who actors but Tom Baker is the one we always go with " Hauge explained in the episode 's DVD commentary . Other captives include actress Yasmine Bleeth , Gilligan from the series Gilligan 's Island and Spock and Seven of Nine from Star Trek . The segment also features the series ' first reference to Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , when The Collector uses a mint @-@ condition of Darth Maul 's double @-@ bladed lightsaber . Because the episode was written before the film 's release , the writers did not know " how bad it was gonna be " , in their view , and therefore did not include any " obligatory shot " at the film . As he dies , The Collector poses as Lorne Greene 's character Commander Adama in the science fiction series Battlestar Galactica . Coincidentally , Lawless would go on have a recurring role on the re @-@ imagined Battlestar Galactica .
Hauge based " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " on the hysteria involving Y2K , a digital problem that occurred the night into January 1 , 2000 . Humans escaping an unsavable Earth in rockets is a reference to the 1951 film When Worlds Collide . In a scene in the segment , several celebrities , including actor Mel Gibson and former Major League Baseball player Mark McGwire , can be seen waiting in line for the first rocket . They both guest starred as themselves in two earlier episodes from the season . Others in the line include businessman Bill Gates , director Ron Howard , former President Jimmy Carter , scientist Stephen Hawking , rock musician Paul McCartney , basketball player Michael Jordan and ice skater Michelle Kwan . Those on the doomed ship include actors Pauly Shore and Tom Arnold , politicians Ross Perot and Dan Quayle , singer Courtney Love , TV presenters Rosie O 'Donnell and Laura Schlessinger , film director Spike Lee , reverend Al Sharpton and figure skater Tonya Harding .
= = Release and reception = =
In its original American broadcast on October 31 , 1999 , " Treehouse of Horror X " received an 8 @.@ 6 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode finished in 34th place in the ratings for the week of October 25 @-@ 31 , 1999 . Following the episode was a rerun of " Treehouse of Horror IX " , which was originally broadcast the previous year . In 2000 , " Treehouse of Horror X " was nominated for a CINE Golden Eagle Award , which it ultimately won . It was also nominated for a Golden Reel Award in the category of " Best Sound Editing - Television Animation " , which it lost to the SpongeBob SquarePants episode " Mermaid Man & Barnacle Boy " . On October 7 , 2008 , " Treehouse of Horror X " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Eleventh Season DVD set . Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge , Donick Cary , Tim Long , Matt Selman and Pete Michels participated in the audio commentary of the episode .
Following its broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror X " received positive reviews from critics . In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Eleventh Season , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote " Even in the series ’ crummier seasons , the staff always seems to come up with a good Halloween episode " , and that " Treehouse of Horror X " " continues that trend " . Of the three segments , Jacobson found " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " to be the weakest . He wrote " [ ... ] other than a good ending , it simply doesn ’ t have a lot going for it " and added that it is the most dated of the three . He continued , " ' Diddily ' offers a fun horror spoof , and ' Xena ' is a terrific superhero bit with plenty of cleverness . " DVD Talk 's Ian Jane gave the episode a positive review as well . Considering it to be one of the season 's best episodes , Jane wrote " This one , like so many that have come before and since , is a great blend of horror movie parody and Halloween themed fun in Springfield . " In 2007 , Seb Patrick of Noise to Signal included " Desperately Xeeking Xena " in a list called " The Ten Best Treehouse of Horror Vignettes " . Although he disliked Bart and Lisa 's part in the segment , Patrick wrote that it " earns its stripes by being perhaps Comic Book Guy 's finest hour " . He also praised the segment 's references , as well as Lawless ' line " A wizard did it " , a phrase used to explain continuity errors . In 2009 , The Collector 's marriage proposal to Lawless was included in " Line @-@ O @-@ Rama : Comic Book Guy " , a compilation of what IGN considers to be The Comic Book Guy 's best lines .
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= Medal of Honor =
The Medal of Honor is the United States of America 's highest military honor , awarded for personal acts of valor above and beyond the call of duty . The medal is awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U.S. Congress to U.S. military personnel only . There are three versions of the medal , one for the Army , one for the Navy , and one for the Air Force . Personnel of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard receive the Navy version .
The Medal of Honor was created as a Navy version in 1861 named the " Medal of Valor " , and an Army version of the medal named the " Medal of Honor " was established in 1862 to give recognition to men who distinguished themselves " conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity " in combat with an enemy of the United States . Because the medal is presented " in the name of Congress " , it is often referred to as the " Congressional Medal of Honor " . However , the official name is the " Medal of Honor " , which began with the U.S. Army 's version . Within United States Code the medal is referred to as the " Medal of Honor " , and less frequently as " Congressional Medal of Honor " .
The Medal of Honor is usually presented by the President in a formal ceremony at the White House , intended to represent the gratitude of the American people , with posthumous presentations made to the primary next of kin . According to the Medal of Honor Historical Society of the United States , there have been 3 @,@ 515 Medals of Honor awarded to the nation 's soldiers , sailors , airmen , Marines , and Coast Guardsmen since the decoration 's creation , with just less than half of them awarded for actions during the four years of the American Civil War .
In 1990 , Congress designated March 25 annually as " National Medal of Honor Day " . Due to its prestige and status , the Medal of Honor is afforded special protection under U.S. law against any unauthorized adornment , sale , or manufacture , which includes any associated ribbon or badge .
= = History = =
1780 : The Fidelity Medallion was a small medal worn on a chain around the neck , similar to a religious medal , that was awarded only to three militiamen from New York state , for the capture of John André , a British officer and spy connected directly to General Benedict Arnold ( American and British general @-@ 1780 ) during the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) . The capture saved the fort of West Point from the British Army .
1782 : Badge of Military Merit : The first formal system for rewarding acts of individual gallantry by American soldiers was established by George Washington when he issued a field order on August 7 , 1782 , for a Badge of Military Merit to recognize those members of the Continental Army who performed " any singular meritorious action " . This decoration is America 's first combat decoration and was preceded only by the Fidelity Medallion , the Congressional medal for Henry Lee awarded in September 1779 in recognition of his attack on the British at Paulus Hook , the Congressional medal for General Horatio Gates awarded in November 1777 in recognition of his victory over the British at Saratoga , and the Congressional medal for George Washington awarded in March 1776 . Although the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse after the American Revolutionary War , the concept of a military award for individual gallantry by members of the U.S. Armed Forces had been established .
1847 : Certificate of Merit : After the outbreak of the Mexican @-@ American War ( 1846 – 1848 ) a Certificate of Merit ( Meritorious Service Citation Certificate ) was established by Act of Congress on March 3 , 1847 " to any private soldier who had distinguished himself by gallantry performed in the presence of the enemy " . 539 Certificates were approved for this period . The certificate was discontinued and reintroduced in 1876 effective from June 22 , 1874 to February 10 , 1892 when it was awarded for extraordinary gallantry by private soldiers in the presence of the enemy . From February 11 , 1892 through July 9 , 1918 ( Certificate of Merit disestablished ) it could be awarded to members of the Army for distinguished service in combat or noncombat ; from January 11 , 1905 through July 9 , 1918 the certificate was granted medal status as the Certificate of Merit Medal ( first awarded to a soldier who was awarded the Certificate of Merit for combat action on August 13 , 1898 ) . This medal was later replaced by the Army Distinguished Service Medal which was established on January 2 , 1918 ( the Navy Distinguished Service Medal was established in 1919 ) . Those Army members who held the Distinguished Service Medal in place of the Certificate of Merit could apply for the Army Distinguished Service Cross ( established 1918 ) effective March 5 , 1934 .
= = = Medal of Valor = = =
There were no military awards or medals at the beginning of the Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) except for the Certificate of Merit which was awarded for the Mexican @-@ American War . In the fall of 1861 , a proposal for a battlefield decoration for valor was submitted to Winfield Scott , the general @-@ in @-@ chief of the army , by Lt. Colonel Edward D. Townsend , an assistant adjutant at the War Department and Scott 's chief of staff . Scott however , was strictly against medals being awarded which was the European tradition . After Scott retired in October 1861 , the Secretary of the Navy , Gideon Welles , adopted the idea of a decoration to recognize and honor distinguished naval service . On December 9 , U.S. Senator ( Iowa ) James W. Grimes , Chairman on the Committee on Naval Affairs , proposed Public Resolution Number 82 ( Bill 82 : 37th Congress , Second Session , 12 Stat . 329 ) " to promote the efficiency of the Navy " which included a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor which was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on December 21 , 1861 ( Medal of Honor had been established for the Navy ) , " to be bestowed upon such petty officers , seamen , landsmen , and marines as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry and other seamen @-@ like qualities during the present war . " Secretary Wells directed the Philadelphia Mint to design the new military decoration . On May 15 , 1862 , the United States Navy Department ordered 175 medals ( $ 1 @.@ 85 each ) with the words " Personal Valor " on the back from the U.S. Mint in Philadelphia .
= = = Medal of Honor = = =
Senator Henry Wilson , the chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs , introduced a resolution on February 15 , 1862 for an Army Medal of Honor . The resolution ( 37th Congress , Second Session , 12 Stat . 623 ) was approved by Congress and signed into law on July 12 , 1862 ( " Medals of Honor " were established for enlisted men of the Army ) . This measure provided for awarding a medal of honor " to such non @-@ commissioned officers and privates as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry in action and other soldier @-@ like qualities during the present insurrection . " During the war , Townsend would have some medals delivered to some recipients with a letter requesting acknowledgement of the " Medal of Honor " . The letter written and signed by Townsend on behalf of the Secretary of War , stated that the resolution was " to provide for the presentation of medals of honor to the enlisted men of the army and volunteer forces who have distinguished or may distinguish themselves in battle during the present rebellion . " By mid @-@ November the War Department contracted with Philadelphia silversmith William Wilson and Son , who had been responsible for the Navy design , to prepare 2 @,@ 000 Army medals ( $ 2 @.@ 00 each ) to be cast at the mint . The Army version had " The Congress to " written on the back of the medal . Both versions were made of copper and coated with bronze , which " gave them a reddish tint " .
1863 : Congress made the Medal of Honor a permanent decoration . On March 3 , Medals of Honor were authorized for officers of the Army ( 37th Congress , Third Session , 12 Stat . 751 ) . The Secretary of War first presented the Medal of Honor to six Union Army volunteers on March 25 , 1863 in his office .
1890 : On April 23 , the Medal of Honor Legion is established in Washington , D.C.
1896 : The ribbon of the Army version Medal of Honor was redesigned with all stripes being vertical .
1904 : The planchet of the Army version of the Medal of Honor was redesigned by General George Lewis Gillespie . The purpose of the redesign was to help distinguish the Medal of Honor from other medals , including a medal issued by the Grand Army of the Republic .
1915 : On March 3 , Navy , Marine Corps , and Coast Guard officers became eligible for the Medal of Honor .
1963 : A separate Coast Guard medal was authorized in 1963 , but not yet designed or awarded .
1965 : A separate design for a version of the medal for the U.S. Air Force was created in 1956 , authorized in 1960 , and officially adopted on April 14 , 1965 . Previously , members of the U.S. Army Air Corps , U.S. Army Air Forces , and the U.S. Air Force received the Army version of the medal .
= = Appearance = =
There are three versions of the Medal of Honor , one for each of the military departments of the Department of Defense : Army , Navy , and Air Force . Members of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard are eligible to receive the Navy version . Each is constructed differently and the components are made from gilding metals and red brass alloys with some gold plating , enamel , and bronze pieces . The United States Congress considered a bill in 2004 which would require the Medal of Honor to be made with 90 % gold , the same composition as the lesser @-@ known Congressional Gold Medal , but the measure was dropped .
= = = Army Medal of Honor = = =
The Army version is described by the Institute of Heraldry as " a gold five pointed star , each point tipped with trefoils , 1 1 ⁄ 2 inches [ 3 @.@ 8 cm ] wide , surrounded by a green laurel wreath and suspended from a gold bar inscribed VALOR , surmounted by an eagle . In the center of the star , Minerva 's head surrounded by the words UNITED STATES OF AMERICA . On each ray of the star is a green oak leaf . On the reverse is a bar engraved THE CONGRESS TO with a space for engraving the name of the recipient . " The pendant and suspension bar are made of gilding metal , with the eye , jump rings , and suspension ring made of red brass . The finish on the pendant and suspension bar is hard enameled , gold plated , and rose gold plated , with polished highlights .
= = = Navy , Marine , and Coast Guard Medal of Honor = = =
The Navy version is described as " a five @-@ pointed bronze star , tipped with trefoils containing a crown of laurel and oak . In the center is Minerva , personifying the United States , standing with left hand resting on fasces and right hand holding a shield blazoned with the shield from the coat of arms of the United States . She repulses Discord , represented by snakes . The medal is suspended from the flukes of an anchor . " It is made of solid red brass , oxidized and buffed .
= = = Air Force Medal of Honor = = =
The Air Force version is described as " within a wreath of green laurel , a gold five @-@ pointed star , one point down , tipped with trefoils and each point containing a crown of laurel and oak on a green background . Centered on the star , an annulet of 34 stars is a representation of the head of the Statue of Liberty . The star is suspended from a bar inscribed with the word VALOR above an adaptation of the thunderbolt from the Air Force Coat of Arms . " The pendant is made of gilding metal . The connecting bar , hinge , and pin are made of bronze . The finish on the pendant and suspension bar is hard enameled , gold plated , and rose gold plated , with buffed relief .
= = = Neck ribbon , service ribbon , lapel button , and " V " device = = =
Since 1944 , the Medal of Honor has been attached to a light blue colored moiré silk Neck ribbon that is 1 3 ⁄ 16 in ( 30 mm ) in width and 21 3 ⁄ 4 in ( 550 mm ) in length . The center of the ribbon displays thirteen white stars in the form of three chevron . Both the top and middle chevrons are made up of 5 stars , with the bottom chevron made of 3 stars . The Medal of Honor is one of only two United States military awards suspended from a neck ribbon . The other , the Commander 's Degree of the Legion of Merit , and is usually awarded to individuals serving foreign governments .
On May 2 , 1896 , Congress authorized a " ribbon to be worn with the medal and [ a ] rosette or knot to be worn in lieu of the medal . " The service ribbon is light blue with five white stars in the form of an " M " . It is placed first in the top position in the order of precedence and is worn for situations other than full @-@ dress military uniform . The lapel button is a 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) , six @-@ sided light blue bowknot rosette with thirteen white stars and may be worn on appropriate civilian clothing on the left lapel .
In 2011 , Department of Defense instructions were amended to read " for each succeeding act that would otherwise justify award of the Medal of Honor , the individual receiving the subsequent award is authorized to wear an additional Medal of Honor ribbon and / or a ' V ' device on the Medal of Honor suspension ribbon " ( the " V " device is a 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) high bronze miniature letter " V " with serifs that denotes valor ) . The Medal of Honor was the only decoration authorized the use of the " V " device to designate subsequent awards in such fashion . Nineteen individuals , all now deceased , were double Medal of Honor recipients . This was discontinued in July 2014 , and changed to read " A separate MOH is presented to an individual for each succeeding act that justified award . " As of 2014 , no devices are authorized for the Medal of Honor .
= = = Historical versions = = =
The Medal of Honor has evolved in appearance over time . The upside @-@ down star design of the Navy version 's pendant adopted in early 1862 has not changed since its inception . The Army 1862 version followed and was identical to the Navy version except an eagle perched atop cannons was used instead of an anchor to connect the pendant to the suspension ribbon . In 1896 , the Army version changed the ribbon 's design and colors due to misuse and imitation by nonmilitary organizations . In 1904 , the Army " Gillespie " version introduced a smaller redesigned star and the ribbon was changed to the light blue pattern with white stars seen today . In 1913 , the Navy version adopted the same ribbon pattern .
After World War I , the Navy decided to separate the Medal of Honor into two versions , one for combat and one for non @-@ combat . The original upside @-@ down star was designated as the non @-@ combat version and a new pattern of the medal pendant , in cross form , was designed by the Tiffany Company in 1919 . It was to be presented to a sailor or Marine who " in action involving actual conflict with the enemy , distinguish [ es ] himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " Despite the " actual conflict " guidelines — the Tiffany Cross was awarded to Navy CDR ( later RADM ) Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett for arctic exploration . The Tiffany Cross itself was not popular . In 1942 , the Navy returned to using only the original 1862 inverted 5 @-@ point star design , and ceased issuing the award for non @-@ combat action .
In 1944 , the suspension ribbons for both the Army and Navy version were replaced with the now familiar neck ribbon . When the Air Force version was designed in 1956 , it incorporated similar elements and design from the Army version . It used a larger star with the Statue of Liberty image in place of Minerva on the medal and changed the connecting device from an eagle to an heraldic thunderbolt flanked with wings as found on the service seal .
= = = Flag = = =
On October 23 , 2002 , Pub.L. 107 – 248 was enacted , modifying 36 U.S.C. § 903 , authorizing a Medal of Honor flag to be presented to recipients of the decoration .
The flag was based on a concept by retired Army Special Forces First Sergeant Bill Kendall of Jefferson , Iowa , who designed a flag to honor Medal of Honor recipient Captain Darrell Lindsey , a B @-@ 26 pilot from Jefferson who was killed in World War II . Kendall 's design of a light blue field emblazoned with 13 white five @-@ pointed stars was nearly identical to that of Sarah LeClerc 's of the Institute of Heraldry . LeClerc 's design , ultimately accepted as the official flag , does not include the words " Medal of Honor " and is fringed in gold . The color of the field and the 13 white stars , arranged in the form of a three bar chevron , consisting of two chevrons of five stars and one chevron of three stars , emulate the suspension ribbon of the Medal of Honor . The flag has no set proportions .
The first Medal of Honor recipient to receive the official Medal of Honor flag was Sergeant First Class Paul R. Smith . The Medal of Honor with the flag was presented by President George W. Bush to his family during a ceremony at the White House on April 4 , 2005 .
A special Medal of Honor Flag presentation ceremony was held for over 60 living Medal of Honor recipients on board the USS Constitution on September 30 , 2006 .
= = Presenting = =
There are two distinct protocols for awarding the Medal of Honor . The first and most common is nomination and approval through the chain of command of the service member . The second method is nomination by a member of the U.S. Congress , generally at the request of a constituent . In both cases , if the proposal is outside the time limits for the recommendation , approval to waive the time limit requires a special Act of Congress . The Medal of Honor is presented by the President on behalf of , and in the name of , the Congress . Since 1980 , nearly all Medal of Honor recipients or in the case of posthumous awards , the next of kin have been personally decorated by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . Since 1941 , more than half of the Medals of Honor have been awarded posthumously .
= = = Evolution of criteria = = =
1800s : Several months after President Abraham Lincoln signed Public Resolution 82 into law on December 21 , 1861 for a Navy medal of honor , a similar resolution was passed in July 1862 for an Army version of the medal . Six Union Army soldiers who hijacked a Confederate locomotive named The General in 1862 , were the first Medal of Honor recipients ; James J. Andrews , a civilian , led the raid . He was caught and hanged as a Union spy , but was a civilian and not eligible to receive the medal . Many Medals of Honor awarded in the 19th century were associated with " saving the flag " ( and country ) , not just for patriotic reasons , but because the U.S. flag was a primary means of battlefield communication at the time . Because no other military decoration was authorized during the Civil War , some seemingly less exceptional and notable actions were recognized by a Medal of Honor during that conflict .
1900s : Early in the twentieth century , the Navy awarded many Medals of Honor for peacetime bravery . For instance , in 1901 , John Henry Helms aboard the USS Chicago ( CA @-@ 14 ) was awarded the medal for saving the ship 's cook from drowning . Seven sailors aboard the USS Iowa ( BB @-@ 4 ) were awarded the medal after the ship 's boiler exploded on January 25 , 1904 . Richard Byrd and Floyd Bennett were awarded the medal — combat ( " Tiffany " ) version despite the existence then of a non @-@ combat form of the Navy medal — for the 1926 flight they claim reached the North Pole . And Admiral Thomas J. Ryan was awarded the medal for saving a woman from the burning Grand Hotel in Yokohama , Japan , following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake . Between 1919 and 1942 , the Navy issued two separate versions of the Medal of Honor , one for acts related to combat and one for non @-@ combat bravery . The criteria for the award tightened during World War I for the Army version of the Medal of Honor , while the Navy version retained a non @-@ combat provision until 1963 . In an Act of Congress of July 9 , 1918 , the War Department version of the medal required that the recipient " distinguish himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " , and also required that the act of valor be performed " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " . This was in reaction to the results of the Army Medal of Honor Review Board , which struck 911 medals from the Medal of Honor Roll in February 1917 for lack of basic prerequisites . These included the members of the 27th Maine erroneously awarded the medal for reenlisting to guard the capital during the Civil War , 29 members of Abraham Lincoln 's funeral detail , and six civilians , including Buffalo Bill Cody and Mary Edwards Walker ( though the latter 's was restored posthumously in 1977 ) .
World War II : Starting in 1942 , the Medal would only be awarded for action in combat , although the Navy version of the Medal of Honor technically allowed non @-@ combat awards until 1963 . Official accounts vary , but generally , the Medal of Honor for combat was known as the " Tiffany Cross " , after the company that designed the medal . The Tiffany Cross was first awarded in 1919 , but was unpopular partly because of its design . The Tiffany Cross Medal of Honor was awarded at least three times for non @-@ combat . By a special authorized Act of Congress , the medal was presented to Byrd and Bennett ( see above ) . In 1942 , the United States Navy reverted to a single Medal of Honor , although the statute still contained a loophole allowing the award for both " action involving actual conflict with the enemy " or " in the line of his profession " . Arising from these criteria , approximately 60 percent of the medals earned during and after World War II have been awarded posthumously .
Public Law 88 @-@ 77 , July 25 , 1963 : The requirements for the Medal of Honor were standardized among all the services , requiring that a recipient had " distinguished himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty . " Thus , the act removed the loophole allowing non @-@ combat awards to Navy personnel . The act also clarified that the act of valor must occur during one of three circumstances :
While engaged in action against an enemy of the United States
While engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force .
While serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party .
Congress drew the three permutations of combat from President Kennedy 's executive order of April 25 , 1962 , which previously added the same criteria to the Purple Heart . On August 24 , Kennedy added similar criteria for the Bronze Star Medal . The amendment was necessary because Cold War armed conflicts did not qualify for consideration under previous statutes such as the 1918 Army Medal of Honor Statute that required valor " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " , since the United States has not formally declared war since World War II as a result of the provisions of the United Nations Charter . According to congressional testimony by the Army 's Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel , the services were seeking authority to award the Medal of Honor and other valor awards retroactive to July 1 , 1958 , in areas such as Berlin , Lebanon , Quemoy and Matsu Islands , Taiwan Straits , Congo , Laos , Vietnam , and Cuba .
= = Authority and privileges = =
The four specific authorizing statutes amended July 25 , 1963 :
Army : 10 U.S.C. § 3741
Navy and Marine Corps : 10 U.S.C. § 6241
Air Force : 10 U.S.C. § 8741
Coast Guard : 14 U.S.C. § 491 A version is authorized but it has never been awarded .
The President may award , and present in the name of Congress , a medal of honor of appropriate design , with ribbons and appurtenances , to a person who while a member of the Army ( naval service ; Navy and Marine Corps ) ( Air Force ) ( Coast Guard ) , distinguished himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty .
= = = Privileges and courtesies = = =
The Medal of Honor confers special privileges on its recipients . By law , recipients have several benefits :
Each Medal of Honor recipient may have his or her name entered on the Medal of Honor Roll ( 38 U.S.C. § 1560 ) .
Each person whose name is placed on the Medal of Honor Roll is certified to the United States Department of Veterans Affairs as being entitled to receive a monthly pension above and beyond any military pensions or other benefits for which they may be eligible . The pension is subject to cost @-@ of @-@ living increases ; as of December 1 , 2012 , it is $ 1 @,@ 259 a month .
Enlisted recipients of the Medal of Honor are entitled to a supplemental uniform allowance .
Recipients receive special entitlements to air transportation under the provisions of DOD Regulation 4515 @.@ 13 @-@ R. This benefit allows the recipient to travel as he or she deems fit across geographical locations , and allows the recipient 's dependents to travel either Overseas @-@ Overseas , Overseas @-@ Continental US , or Continental US @-@ Overseas when accompanied by the recipient .
Special identification cards and commissary and exchange privileges are provided for Medal of Honor recipients and their eligible dependents .
Recipients are granted eligibility for interment at Arlington National Cemetery , if not otherwise eligible .
Fully qualified children of recipients are eligible for admission to the United States military academies without regard to the nomination and quota requirements .
Recipients receive a 10 percent increase in retired pay .
Those awarded the medal after October 23 , 2002 , receive a Medal of Honor Flag . The law specified that all 103 living prior recipients as of that date would receive a flag .
Recipients receive an invitation to all future presidential inaugurations and inaugural balls .
As with all medals , retired personnel may wear the Medal of Honor on " appropriate " civilian clothing . Regulations specify that recipients of the Medal of Honor are allowed to wear the uniform " at their pleasure " with standard restrictions on political , commercial , or extremist purposes ( other former members of the armed forces may do so only at certain ceremonial occasions ) .
Most states ( 40 ) offer a special license plate for certain types of vehicles to recipients at little or no cost to the recipient . The states that do not offer Medal of Honor specific license plate offer special license plates for veterans for which recipients may be eligible .
= = = Saluting = = =
Although not required by law or military regulation , members of the uniformed services are encouraged to render salutes to recipients of the Medal of Honor as a matter of respect and courtesy regardless of rank or status , whether or not they are in uniform . This is one of the few instances where a living member of the military will receive salutes from members of a higher rank .
= = Legal protection = =
1904 : The Army redesigned its Medal of Honor . To prevent the making of copies of the medal , Brigadier General George Gillespie , Jr . , a Medal of Honor recipient from the Civil War , applied for and obtained a patent for the new design . General Gillespie received the patent on November 22 , 1904 , and he transferred it the following month to the Secretary of War at the time , William Howard Taft .
1923 : Congress enacted a statute ( the year before the 20 @-@ year term of the patent would expire ) — which would later be codified at 18 U.S.C. § 704 — prohibiting the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of military medals or decorations . In 1994 , Congress amended the statute to permit an enhanced penalty if the offense involved the Medal of Honor .
2005 : Congress enacted the Stolen Valor Act of 2005 . ( Section 1 of the Act provided that the law could be cited as the " Stolen Valor Act of 2005 " , but the bill received final passage and was signed into law in 2006 . ) The law amended 18 U.S.C. § 704 to make it a federal criminal offense for a person to deliberately state falsely that he or she had been awarded a military decoration , service medal , or badge . The law also permitted an enhanced penalty for someone who falsely claimed to have been awarded the Medal of Honor .
June 28 , 2012 : In the case of United States v. Alvarez , the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Stolen Valor Act of 2005 's criminalization of the making of false claims of having been awarded a military medal , decoration , or badge was an unconstitutional violation of the First Amendment 's guarantee of free speech . The case involved an elected official in California , Xavier Alvarez , who had falsely stated at a public meeting that he had been awarded the Medal of Honor , even though he had never served in any branch of the armed forces .
The Supreme Court 's decision did not specifically address the constitutionality of the older portion of the statute which prohibits the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of military medals or decorations . Under the law , the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of the Medal of Honor is punishable by a fine of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 and imprisonment of up to one year .
June 3 , 2013 : President Barack Obama signs into law a revised version of the Stolen Valor Act , making it a federal offense for someone to pass themselves off as awardees of medals for valor in order to receive benefits or other privileges ( such as grants , educational benefits , housing , etc . ) that are set aside for veterans and other service members .
A number of veteran support organizations and private companies devote themselves to exposing those who falsely claim to have received the Medal of Honor .
= = = Enforcement = = =
1996 : HLI Lordship Industries Inc . , a former Medal of Honor contractor , was fined for selling 300 medals for US $ 75 each .
1996 : Fort Lauderdale , Florida , resident Jackie Stern was convicted of wearing a Medal of Honor to which he was not entitled . A federal judge sentenced him to serve one year of probation and to write a letter of apology to each of the then @-@ living 171 recipients of the medal . His letter was published in the local newspaper .
2003 : Edward Fedora and Gisela Fedora were charged with violating 18 U.S.C. § 704 ( b ) , Unlawful Sale of a Medal of Honor , for selling medals awarded to U.S. Navy Sailor Robert Blume ( for action in the Spanish – American War ) and to U.S. Army First Sergeant George Washington Roosevelt ( for action in the Civil War ) to an FBI agent . Edward Fedora pleaded guilty and was sentenced to prison .
= = Duplicate medals = =
Medal of Honor recipients may apply in writing to the headquarters of the service branch of the medal awarded for a replacement or display Medal of Honor , ribbon , and appurtenance ( Medal of Honor flag ) without charge . Primary next of kin may also do the same and have any questions answered in regard to the Medal of Honor that was awarded .
= = Recipients = =
The Medal of Honor has been awarded to 3 @,@ 496 different persons . Of the 19 men have been awarded the Medal of Honor twice , 14 received two separate medals for two separate actions , while five received both the Navy and Army Medals of Honor for the same action . As of June 2011 , since the beginning of World War II , 851 Medals of Honor have been awarded , 523 ( 61 @.@ 45 % ) posthumously . One has been awarded to a woman : Mary Edwards Walker .
The first Medals of Honor ( Army ) were awarded by and presented to six " Andrews Raiders " on March 25 , 1863 , by Secretary of War Edwin Stanton , in his office in the War Department . Private Jacob Parrott , a Union Army volunteer from Ohio , became the first recipient of the medal , awarded for his volunteering for and participation in a raid on a Confederate train in Big Shanty , Georgia on April 12 , 1862 during the American Civil War . The six decorated raiders met privately afterward with President Lincoln in his office , in the White House .
The first Medal of Honor ( Navy ) was awarded by Secretary of War Stanton to 41 sailors on April 4 , 1863 ( 17 for action during the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip ) .
The first Marine awarded the Medal of Honor ( Navy ) was John F. Mackie on July 10 , 1863 , for his rifle action aboard the USS Galena on May 15 , 1862 .
The only Coast Guardsman to be awarded the Medal of Honor ( Navy , posthumous ) was Signalman First Class Douglas Munro on May 27 , 1943 , for evacuating 500 Marines under fire on September 27 , 1942 during the Battle of Guadalcanal . Munro was a Canadian @-@ born , naturalized U.S. citizen .
The only woman awarded the Medal of Honor ( Army ) is Mary Edwards Walker , who was a civilian Union Army surgeon during the American Civil War . She received the award in 1865 for the First Battle of Bull Run ( July 21 , 1861 ) and a series of battles to the Battle of Atlanta in Sept . 1864 ... " for usual medal of honor meritorious services . "
The 1917 Medal of Honor Board deleted 911 awards , but only 910 names from the Army Medal of Honor Roll , including awards to Dr. Mary Edwards Walker , William F. " Buffalo Bill " Cody and the first of two awards issued February 10 , 1887 , to George W. Midil , who retained his award issued October 25 , 1893 . None of the 910 " deleted " recipients were ordered to return their medals , although on the question of whether the recipients could continue to wear their medals , the Judge Advocate General advised the Medal of Honor Board the Army was not obligated to police the matter . Walker continued to wear her medal until her death . President Jimmy Carter formally restored her medal posthumously in 1977 .
61 Canadians who served in the United States Armed Forces , mostly during the American Civil War . Since 1900 , four Canadians have received the medal . The only Canadian @-@ born , naturalized U.S. citizen to receive the medal for heroism during the Vietnam War was Peter C. Lemon .
While the governing statute for the Army Medal of Honor ( 10 U.S.C. § 6241 ) , beginning in 1918 , explicitly stated that a recipient must be " an officer or enlisted man of the Army " , " distinguish himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " , and perform an act of valor " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " , exceptions have been made :
Charles Lindbergh , 1927 , civilian pilot , and U.S. Army Air Corps reserve officer . Lindbergh 's medal was authorized by a special act of Congress that directly contradicted the July 1918 act of Congress that required that all Army recipients be " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " . The award was based on the previous acts authorizing the Navy medal to Byrd and Bennett ( see above ) . Some congressmen objected to Lindbergh 's award because it contradicted the 1918 statute , but Representative Snell reportedly quelled this dissent by explaining that " it was and it wasn 't the Congressional Medal of Honor which Lindbergh would receive under his bill ; that the Lindbergh medal would be entirely distinct from the valor award for war service . "
Major General ( Retired ) Adolphus Greely was awarded the medal in 1935 , on his 91st birthday , " for his life of splendid public service " . The result of a special act of Congress similar to Lindbergh 's , Greely 's medal citation did not reference any acts of valor .
Foreign unknown recipients include the British Unknown Warrior , the French Unknown Soldier , the Romanian Unknown Soldier , the Italian Unknown Soldier , and the Belgian Unknown Soldier .
U.S. unknown recipients include the Unknowns of World War I , World War II , Korea , and Vietnam . The Vietnam Unknown was later identified as Air Force 1st Lt. Michael J. Blassie through the use of DNA identification . Blassie 's family asked for his Medal of Honor , but the Department of Defense denied the request in 1998 . According to Undersecretary of Defense Rudy de Leon , the medal was awarded symbolically to all Vietnam unknowns , not to Blassie specifically .
= = = Double recipients = = =
Nineteen men have been awarded the Medal of Honor twice . The first two @-@ time Medal of Honor recipient was Thomas Custer ( brother of George Armstrong Custer ) for two separate actions that took place several days apart during the American Civil War .
Five " double recipients " were awarded both the Army and Navy Medal of Honor for the same action ; all five of these occurrences took place during World War I. Since February 1919 , no single individual can be awarded more than one Medal of Honor for the same action , although a member of one branch of the armed forces can receive the Medal of Honor from another branch if the actions for which it was awarded occurred under the authority of the second branch .
To date , the maximum number of Medals of Honor earned by any service member has been two . The last individual to be awarded two Medals of Honor was John J. Kelly in 1918 ; the last individual to receive two Medals of Honor for two different actions was Smedley Butler , in 1914 and 1915 .
§ Rank refers to rank held at time of Medal of Honor action .
= = = Related recipients = = =
Arthur MacArthur , Jr. and Douglas MacArthur are the first father and son to be awarded the Medal of Honor . The only other such pairing is Theodore Roosevelt ( awarded in 2001 ) and Theodore Roosevelt , Jr .
Five pairs of brothers have received the Medal of Honor :
John and William Black , in the American Civil War . The Blacks are the first brothers to be so honored .
Charles and Henry Capehart , in the American Civil War , the latter for saving a drowning man while under fire .
Antoine and Julien Gaujot . The Gaujots also have the unique distinction of receiving their medals for actions in separate conflicts , Antoine in the Philippine – American War and Julien when he crossed the border to rescue Mexicans and Americans in a Mexican Revolution skirmish .
Harry and Willard Miller , during the same naval action in the Spanish – American War .
Allen and James Thompson , in the same American Civil War action .
Another notable pair of related recipients are Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher ( rear admiral at the time of award ) and his nephew , Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher ( lieutenant at the time of award ) , both awarded for actions during the United States occupation of Veracruz .
= = = Belated recognition = = =
Since 1979 , 85 belated Medal of Honor decorations were presented to recognize actions from the Civil War to the Vietnam War . In addition , five recipients who names were not included on the Army Medal of Honor Roll in 1917 had their awards restored .
A 1993 study commissioned by the U.S. Army investigated " racial disparity " in the awarding of medals . At the time , no Medals of Honor had been awarded to American soldiers of African descent who served in World War II . After an exhaustive review , the study recommended that ten Distinguished Service Cross recipients be awarded the Medal of Honor . On January 13 , 1997 , President Bill Clinton presented the Medal of Honor to seven of these World War II veterans , six of them posthumously and one to former Second Lieutenant Vernon Baker .
In 1998 , a similar study of Asian Americans resulted in President Bill Clinton presenting 22 Medals of Honor in 2000 . Twenty of these medals went to American soldiers of Japanese descent of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team ( 442nd RCT ) that served in the European Theater of Operations during World War II . One of these Medal of Honor recipients was Senator Daniel Inouye , a former U.S. Army officer in the 442nd RCT .
In 2005 , President George W. Bush presented the Medal of Honor to Tibor Rubin , a Hungarian @-@ born American Jew who was a Holocaust survivor of World War II and enlisted U.S. infantryman and prisoner of war in the Korean War , whom many believed to have been overlooked because of his religion .
On April 11 , 2013 , President Obama presented the Medal of Honor posthumously to Army chaplain Captain Emil Kapaun for his actions as a prisoner of war during the Korean war . This follows other awards to Army Sergeant Leslie H. Sabo , Jr. for conspicuous gallantry in action on May 10 , 1970 , near Se San , Cambodia , during the Vietnam War and to Army Private First Class Henry Svehla and Army Private First Class Anthony T. Kahoʻohanohano for their heroic actions during the Korean War .
As a result of a Congressionally mandated review to ensure brave acts were not overlooked due to prejudice or discrimination , on March 18 , 2014 President Obama upgraded Distinguished Service Crosses to Medals of Honor for 24 Hispanic , Jewish , and African American individuals — the " Valor 24 " — for their actions in World War II , the Korean War and the Vietnam War . Three were still living at the time of the ceremony .
= = 27th Maine and other revoked awardings = =
During the Civil War , Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton promised a Medal of Honor to every man in the 27th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment who extended his enlistment beyond the agreed @-@ upon date . The Battle of Gettysburg was imminent , and 311 men of the regiment volunteered to serve until the battle was resolved . The remaining men returned to Maine , but with the Union victory at Gettysburg the 311 volunteers soon followed . The volunteers arrived back in Maine in time to be discharged with the men who had earlier returned . Since there seemed to be no official list of the 311 volunteers , the War Department exacerbated the situation by forwarding 864 medals to the commanding officer of the regiment . The commanding officer only issued the medals to the volunteers who stayed behind and retained the others on the grounds that , if he returned the remainder to the War Department , the War Department would try to reissue the medals .
In 1916 , a board of five Army generals on the retired list convened under act of law to review every Army Medal of Honor awarded . The board was to report on any Medals of Honor awarded or issued for any cause other than distinguished service . The commission , led by Nelson A. Miles , identified 911 awards for causes other than distinguished service . This included the 864 medals awarded to members of the 27th Maine regiment ; 29 servicemen who served as Abraham Lincoln 's funeral guard ; six civilians , including Mary Edwards Walker and Buffalo Bill Cody ; and 12 others . Walker 's medal was restored by President Jimmy Carter in 1977 . Cody and four other civilian scouts who rendered distinguished service in action , and who were therefore considered by the board to have fully earned their medals , had theirs restored in 1989 . The report was endorsed by the Judge Advocate General , who also advised that the War Department should not seek the return of the revoked medals from the recipients identified by the board . In the case of recipients who continued to wear the medal , the War Department was advised to take no action to enforce the statute .
= = Nomination under current consideration = =
David Dunnels White 's nomination is under consideration for the capture of Confederate Major General G. W. Custis Lee , eldest son of General Robert E. Lee , at the Battle of Sailors Creek , Virginia , on April 6 , 1865 .
= = Similar American decorations = =
The following decorations , in one degree or another , bear similar names to the Medal of Honor , but are entirely separate awards with different criteria for issuance :
Cardenas Medal of Honor : decoration of the United States Revenue Cutter Service , which was later merged into the United States Coast Guard
Chaplain 's Medal for Heroism : awarded posthumously for a single action to four recipients
Congressional Gold Medal : the highest civilian honor bestowed by the United States ( along with the Presidential Medal of Freedom )
Congressional Space Medal of Honor : intended for issuance to astronauts , but despite its name , it is not equal to the Medal of Honor
Presidential Medal of Freedom : the highest civilian honor bestowed by the United States ( along with the Congressional Gold Medal )
Several United States law enforcement decorations bear the name " Medal of Honor " . The Public Safety Officer Medal of Valor , established by Congress in 2001 and stated to be " the highest National award for valor by a public safety officer " , is also awarded by the President of the United States .
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= Bacteria =
Bacteria ( / bækˈtɪəriə / ; singular : bacterium ) constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms . Typically a few micrometres in length , bacteria have a number of shapes , ranging from spheres to rods and spirals . Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth , and are present in most of its habitats . Bacteria inhabit soil , water , acidic hot springs , radioactive waste , and the deep portions of Earth 's crust . Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals .
There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water . There are approximately 5 × 1030 bacteria on Earth , forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals . Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients , with many of the stages in nutrient cycles dependent on these organisms , such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and putrefaction . In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps , bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds , such as hydrogen sulphide and methane , to energy . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested bacterial life forms thrive in the Mariana Trench , which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest part of the Earth 's oceans . Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2 @.@ 6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States . According to one of the researchers , " You can find microbes everywhere — they 're extremely adaptable to conditions , and survive wherever they are . "
Most bacteria have not been characterized , and only about half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory . The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology , a branch of microbiology .
There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells in the human flora as there are human cells in the body , with the largest number of the human flora being in the gut flora , and a large number on the skin . The vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system , and some are beneficial . However , several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases , including cholera , syphilis , anthrax , leprosy , and bubonic plague . The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections , with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year , mostly in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . In developed countries , antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are also used in farming , making antibiotic resistance a growing problem . In industry , bacteria are important in sewage treatment and the breakdown of oil spills , the production of cheese and yogurt through fermentation , and the recovery of gold , palladium , copper and other metals in the mining sector , as well as in biotechnology , and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals .
Once regarded as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes , bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes . Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes , bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane @-@ bound organelles . Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes , the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor . These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea .
= = Etymology = =
The word bacteria is the plural of the New Latin bacterium , which is the latinisation of the Greek βακτήριον ( bakterion ) , the diminutive of βακτηρία ( bakteria ) , meaning " staff , cane " , because the first ones to be discovered were rod @-@ shaped .
= = Origin and early evolution = =
The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth , about 4 billion years ago . For about 3 billion years , most organisms were microscopic , and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life . In 2008 , fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota . Although bacterial fossils exist , such as stromatolites , their lack of distinctive morphology prevents them from being used to examine the history of bacterial evolution , or to date the time of origin of a particular bacterial species . However , gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny , and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal / eukaryotic lineage . Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence , that of the archaea and eukaryotes . Here , eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells , which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea . This involved the engulfment by proto @-@ eukaryotic cells of alphaproteobacterial symbionts to form either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes , which are still found in all known Eukarya ( sometimes in highly reduced form , e.g. in ancient " amitochondrial " protozoa ) . Later on , some eukaryotes that already contained mitochondria also engulfed cyanobacterial @-@ like organisms . This led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants . There are also some algae that originated from even later endosymbiotic events . Here , eukaryotes engulfed a eukaryotic algae that developed into a " second @-@ generation " plastid . This is known as secondary endosymbiosis .
= = Morphology = =
Bacteria display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes , called morphologies . Bacterial cells are about one @-@ tenth the size of eukaryotic cells and are typically 0 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 0 micrometres in length . However , a few species are visible to the unaided eye — for example , Thiomargarita namibiensis is up to half a millimetre long and Epulopiscium fishelsoni reaches 0 @.@ 7 mm . Among the smallest bacteria are members of the genus Mycoplasma , which measure only 0 @.@ 3 micrometres , as small as the largest viruses . Some bacteria may be even smaller , but these ultramicrobacteria are not well @-@ studied .
Most bacterial species are either spherical , called cocci ( sing. coccus , from Greek kókkos , grain , seed ) , or rod @-@ shaped , called bacilli ( sing. bacillus , from Latin baculus , stick ) . Elongation is associated with swimming . Some bacteria , called vibrio , are shaped like slightly curved rods or comma @-@ shaped ; others can be spiral @-@ shaped , called spirilla , or tightly coiled , called spirochaetes . A small number of species even have tetrahedral or cuboidal shapes . More recently , some bacteria were discovered deep under Earth 's crust that grow as branching filamentous types with a star @-@ shaped cross @-@ section . The large surface area to volume ratio of this morphology may give these bacteria an advantage in nutrient @-@ poor environments . This wide variety of shapes is determined by the bacterial cell wall and cytoskeleton , and is important because it can influence the ability of bacteria to acquire nutrients , attach to surfaces , swim through liquids and escape predators .
Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells , others associate in characteristic patterns : Neisseria form diploids ( pairs ) , Streptococcus form chains , and Staphylococcus group together in " bunch of grapes " clusters . Bacteria can also be elongated to form filaments , for example the Actinobacteria . Filamentous bacteria are often surrounded by a sheath that contains many individual cells . Certain types , such as species of the genus Nocardia , even form complex , branched filaments , similar in appearance to fungal mycelia .
Bacteria often attach to surfaces and form dense aggregations called biofilms or bacterial mats . These films can range from a few micrometers in thickness to up to half a meter in depth , and may contain multiple species of bacteria , protists and archaea . Bacteria living in biofilms display a complex arrangement of cells and extracellular components , forming secondary structures , such as microcolonies , through which there are networks of channels to enable better diffusion of nutrients . In natural environments , such as soil or the surfaces of plants , the majority of bacteria are bound to surfaces in biofilms . Biofilms are also important in medicine , as these structures are often present during chronic bacterial infections or in infections of implanted medical devices , and bacteria protected within biofilms are much harder to kill than individual isolated bacteria .
Even more complex morphological changes are sometimes possible . For example , when starved of amino acids , Myxobacteria detect surrounding cells in a process known as quorum sensing , migrate toward each other , and aggregate to form fruiting bodies up to 500 micrometres long and containing approximately 100 @,@ 000 bacterial cells . In these fruiting bodies , the bacteria perform separate tasks ; this type of cooperation is a simple type of multicellular organisation . For example , about one in 10 cells migrate to the top of these fruiting bodies and differentiate into a specialised dormant state called myxospores , which are more resistant to drying and other adverse environmental conditions than are ordinary cells .
= = Cellular structure = =
= = = Intracellular structures = = =
The bacterial cell is surrounded by a cell membrane ( also known as a lipid , cytoplasmic or plasma membrane ) . This membrane encloses the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients , proteins and other essential components of the cytoplasm within the cell . As they are prokaryotes , bacteria do not usually have membrane @-@ bound organelles in their cytoplasm , and thus contain few large intracellular structures . They lack a true nucleus , mitochondria , chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells . Bacteria were once seen as simple bags of cytoplasm , but structures such as the prokaryotic cytoskeleton and the localization of proteins to specific locations within the cytoplasm that give bacteria some complexity have been discovered . These subcellular levels of organization have been called " bacterial hyperstructures " .
Bacterial microcompartments , such as carboxysomes , provide a further level of organization ; they are compartments within bacteria that are surrounded by polyhedral protein shells , rather than by lipid membranes . These " polyhedral organelles " localize and compartmentalize bacterial metabolism , a function performed by the membrane @-@ bound organelles in eukaryotes .
Many important biochemical reactions , such as energy generation , use concentration gradients across membranes . The general lack of internal membranes in bacteria means reactions such as electron transport occur across the cell membrane between the cytoplasm and the periplasmic space . However , in many photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane is highly folded and fills most of the cell with layers of light @-@ gathering membrane . These light @-@ gathering complexes may even form lipid @-@ enclosed structures called chlorosomes in green sulfur bacteria . Other proteins import nutrients across the cell membrane , or expel undesired molecules from the cytoplasm .
Bacteria do not have a membrane @-@ bound nucleus , and their genetic material is typically a single circular DNA chromosome located in the cytoplasm in an irregularly shaped body called the nucleoid . The nucleoid contains the chromosome with its associated proteins and RNA . The phylum Planctomycetes and candidate phylum Poribacteria may be exceptions to the general absence of internal membranes in bacteria , because they appear to have a double membrane around their nucleoids and contain other membrane @-@ bound cellular structures . Like all living organisms , bacteria contain ribosomes , often grouped in chains called polyribosomes , for the production of proteins , but the structure of the bacterial ribosome is different from that of eukaryotes and Archaea . Bacterial ribosomes have a sedimentation rate of 70S ( measured in Svedberg units ) : their subunits have rates of 30S and 50S . Some antibiotics bind specifically to 70S ribosomes and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis . Those antibiotics kill bacteria without affecting the larger 80S ribosomes of eukaryotic cells and without harming the host .
Some bacteria produce intracellular nutrient storage granules for later use , such as glycogen , polyphosphate , sulfur or polyhydroxyalkanoates . Certain bacterial species , such as the photosynthetic Cyanobacteria , produce internal gas vesicles , which they use to regulate their buoyancy – allowing them to move up or down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels . Intracellular membranes called chromatophores are also found in membranes of phototrophic bacteria . Used primarily for photosynthesis , they contain bacteriochlorophyll pigments and carotenoids . An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes , but these were later shown to be artifacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy . Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes . The most common inclusions are glycogen , lipid droplets , crystals , and pigments . Volutin granules are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate . These granules are called metachromatic granules due to their displaying the metachromatic effect ; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue . Gas vacuoles , which are freely permeable to gas , are membrane @-@ bound vesicles present in some species of Cyanobacteria . They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy . Microcompartments are widespread , membrane @-@ bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes . Carboxysomes are bacterial microcompartments that contain enzymes involved in carbon fixation . Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments , present in magnetotactic bacteria , that contain magnetic crystals .
= = = Extracellular structures = = =
In most bacteria , a cell wall is present on the outside of the cell membrane . The cell membrane and cell wall comprise the cell envelope . A common bacterial cell wall material is peptidoglycan ( called " murein " in older sources ) , which is made from polysaccharide chains cross @-@ linked by peptides containing D @-@ amino acids . Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi , which are made of cellulose and chitin , respectively . The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea , which do not contain peptidoglycan . The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria , and the antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by inhibiting a step in the synthesis of peptidoglycan .
There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria , a thick one in the gram @-@ positives and a thinner one in the gram @-@ negatives . The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain , a test long @-@ employed for the classification of bacterial species .
Gram @-@ positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids . In contrast , gram @-@ negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins . Lipopolysaccharides , also called endotoxins , are composed of polysaccharides and lipid A that is responsible for much of the toxicity of gram @-@ negative bacteria . Most bacteria have the gram @-@ negative cell wall , and only the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria have the alternative gram @-@ positive arrangement . These two groups were previously known as the low G + C and high G + C gram @-@ positive bacteria , respectively . These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility ; for instance , vancomycin can kill only gram @-@ positive bacteria and is ineffective against gram @-@ negative pathogens , such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa . If the bacterial cell wall is entirely removed , it is called a protoplast , whereas if it is partially removed , it is called a spheroplast. β @-@ Lactam antibiotics , such as penicillin , inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross @-@ links in the bacterial cell wall . The enzyme lysozyme , found in human tears , also digests the cell wall of bacteria and is the body 's main defense against eye infections .
Acid @-@ fast bacteria , such as Mycobacteria , are resistant to decolorization by acids during staining procedures . The high mycolic acid content of Mycobacteria , is responsible for the staining pattern of poor absorption followed by high retention . The most common staining technique used to identify acid @-@ fast bacteria is the Ziehl @-@ Neelsen stain or acid @-@ fast stain , in which the acid @-@ fast bacilli are stained bright @-@ red and stand out clearly against a blue background . L @-@ form bacteria are strains of bacteria that lack cell walls . The main pathogenic bacteria in this class is Mycoplasma ( not to be confused with Mycobacteria ) .
In many bacteria , an S @-@ layer of rigidly arrayed protein molecules covers the outside of the cell . This layer provides chemical and physical protection for the cell surface and can act as a macromolecular diffusion barrier . S @-@ layers have diverse but mostly poorly understood functions , but are known to act as virulence factors in Campylobacter and contain surface enzymes in Bacillus stearothermophilus .
Flagella are rigid protein structures , about 20 nanometres in diameter and up to 20 micrometres in length , that are used for motility . Flagella are driven by the energy released by the transfer of ions down an electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane .
Fimbriae ( sometimes called " attachment pili " ) are fine filaments of protein , usually 2 – 10 nanometres in diameter and up to several micrometers in length . They are distributed over the surface of the cell , and resemble fine hairs when seen under the electron microscope . Fimbriae are believed to be involved in attachment to solid surfaces or to other cells , and are essential for the virulence of some bacterial pathogens . Pili ( sing. pilus ) are cellular appendages , slightly larger than fimbriae , that can transfer genetic material between bacterial cells in a process called conjugation where they are called conjugation pili or " sex pili " ( see bacterial genetics , below ) . They can also generate movement where they are called type IV pili ( see movement , below ) .
Glycocalyx are produced by many bacteria to surround their cells , and vary in structural complexity : ranging from a disorganised slime layer of extra @-@ cellular polymer to a highly structured capsule . These structures can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells such as macrophages ( part of the human immune system ) . They can also act as antigens and be involved in cell recognition , as well as aiding attachment to surfaces and the formation of biofilms .
The assembly of these extracellular structures is dependent on bacterial secretion systems . These transfer proteins from the cytoplasm into the periplasm or into the environment around the cell . Many types of secretion systems are known and these structures are often essential for the virulence of pathogens , so are intensively studied .
= = = Endospores = = =
Certain genera of gram @-@ positive bacteria , such as Bacillus , Clostridium , Sporohalobacter , Anaerobacter , and Heliobacterium , can form highly resistant , dormant structures called endospores . In almost all cases , one endospore is formed and this is not a reproductive process , although Anaerobacter can make up to seven endospores in a single cell . Endospores have a central core of cytoplasm containing DNA and ribosomes surrounded by a cortex layer and protected by an impermeable and rigid coat . Dipicolinic acid is a chemical compound that composes 5 % to 15 % of the dry weight of bacterial spores . It is implicated as responsible for the heat resistance of the endospore .
Endospores show no detectable metabolism and can survive extreme physical and chemical stresses , such as high levels of UV light , gamma radiation , detergents , disinfectants , heat , freezing , pressure , and desiccation . In this dormant state , these organisms may remain viable for millions of years , and endospores even allow bacteria to survive exposure to the vacuum and radiation in space . According to scientist Dr. Steinn Sigurdsson , " There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth — and we know they 're very hardened to radiation . " Endospore @-@ forming bacteria can also cause disease : for example , anthrax can be contracted by the inhalation of Bacillus anthracis endospores , and contamination of deep puncture wounds with Clostridium tetani endospores causes tetanus .
= = Metabolism = =
Bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of metabolic types . The distribution of metabolic traits within a group of bacteria has traditionally been used to define their taxonomy , but these traits often do not correspond with modern genetic classifications . Bacterial metabolism is classified into nutritional groups on the basis of three major criteria : the kind of energy used for growth , the source of carbon , and the electron donors used for growth . An additional criterion of respiratory microorganisms are the electron acceptors used for aerobic or anaerobic respiration .
Carbon metabolism in bacteria is either heterotrophic , where organic carbon compounds are used as carbon sources , or autotrophic , meaning that cellular carbon is obtained by fixing carbon dioxide . Heterotrophic bacteria include parasitic types . Typical autotrophic bacteria are phototrophic cyanobacteria , green sulfur @-@ bacteria and some purple bacteria , but also many chemolithotrophic species , such as nitrifying or sulfur @-@ oxidising bacteria . Energy metabolism of bacteria is either based on phototrophy , the use of light through photosynthesis , or based on chemotrophy , the use of chemical substances for energy , which are mostly oxidised at the expense of oxygen or alternative electron acceptors ( aerobic / anaerobic respiration ) .
Bacteria are further divided into lithotrophs that use inorganic electron donors and organotrophs that use organic compounds as electron donors . Chemotrophic organisms use the respective electron donors for energy conservation ( by aerobic / anaerobic respiration or fermentation ) and biosynthetic reactions ( e.g. , carbon dioxide fixation ) , whereas phototrophic organisms use them only for biosynthetic purposes . Respiratory organisms use chemical compounds as a source of energy by taking electrons from the reduced substrate and transferring them to a terminal electron acceptor in a redox reaction . This reaction releases energy that can be used to synthesise ATP and drive metabolism . In aerobic organisms , oxygen is used as the electron acceptor . In anaerobic organisms other inorganic compounds , such as nitrate , sulfate or carbon dioxide are used as electron acceptors . This leads to the ecologically important processes of denitrification , sulfate reduction , and acetogenesis , respectively .
Another way of life of chemotrophs in the absence of possible electron acceptors is fermentation , wherein the electrons taken from the reduced substrates are transferred to oxidised intermediates to generate reduced fermentation products ( e.g. , lactate , ethanol , hydrogen , butyric acid ) . Fermentation is possible , because the energy content of the substrates is higher than that of the products , which allows the organisms to synthesise ATP and drive their metabolism .
These processes are also important in biological responses to pollution ; for example , sulfate @-@ reducing bacteria are largely responsible for the production of the highly toxic forms of mercury ( methyl- and dimethylmercury ) in the environment . Non @-@ respiratory anaerobes use fermentation to generate energy and reducing power , secreting metabolic by @-@ products ( such as ethanol in brewing ) as waste . Facultative anaerobes can switch between fermentation and different terminal electron acceptors depending on the environmental conditions in which they find themselves .
Lithotrophic bacteria can use inorganic compounds as a source of energy . Common inorganic electron donors are hydrogen , carbon monoxide , ammonia ( leading to nitrification ) , ferrous iron and other reduced metal ions , and several reduced sulfur compounds . In unusual circumstances , the gas methane can be used by methanotrophic bacteria as both a source of electrons and a substrate for carbon anabolism . In both aerobic phototrophy and chemolithotrophy , oxygen is used as a terminal electron acceptor , whereas under anaerobic conditions inorganic compounds are used instead . Most lithotrophic organisms are autotrophic , whereas organotrophic organisms are heterotrophic .
In addition to fixing carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , some bacteria also fix nitrogen gas ( nitrogen fixation ) using the enzyme nitrogenase . This environmentally important trait can be found in bacteria of nearly all the metabolic types listed above , but is not universal .
Regardless of the type of metabolic process they employ , the majority of bacteria are able to take in raw materials only in the form of relatively small molecules , which enter the cell by diffusion or through molecular channels in cell membranes . The Planctomycetes are the exception ( as they are in possessing membranes around their nuclear material ) . It has recently been shown that Gemmata obscuriglobus is able to take in large molecules via a process that in some ways resembles endocytosis , the process used by eukaryotic cells to engulf external items .
= = Growth and reproduction = =
Unlike in multicellular organisms , increases in cell size ( cell growth ) and reproduction by cell division are tightly linked in unicellular organisms . Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce through binary fission , a form of asexual reproduction . Under optimal conditions , bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly , and bacterial populations can double as quickly as every 9 @.@ 8 minutes . In cell division , two identical clone daughter cells are produced . Some bacteria , while still reproducing asexually , form more complex reproductive structures that help disperse the newly formed daughter cells . Examples include fruiting body formation by Myxobacteria and aerial hyphae formation by Streptomyces , or budding . Budding involves a cell forming a protrusion that breaks away and produces a daughter cell .
In the laboratory , bacteria are usually grown using solid or liquid media . Solid growth media , such as agar plates , are used to isolate pure cultures of a bacterial strain . However , liquid growth media are used when measurement of growth or large volumes of cells are required . Growth in stirred liquid media occurs as an even cell suspension , making the cultures easy to divide and transfer , although isolating single bacteria from liquid media is difficult . The use of selective media ( media with specific nutrients added or deficient , or with antibiotics added ) can help identify specific organisms .
Most laboratory techniques for growing bacteria use high levels of nutrients to produce large amounts of cells cheaply and quickly . However , in natural environments , nutrients are limited , meaning that bacteria cannot continue to reproduce indefinitely . This nutrient limitation has led the evolution of different growth strategies ( see r / K selection theory ) . Some organisms can grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available , such as the formation of algal ( and cyanobacterial ) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer . Other organisms have adaptations to harsh environments , such as the production of multiple antibiotics by Streptomyces that inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms . In nature , many organisms live in communities ( e.g. , biofilms ) that may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection from environmental stresses . These relationships can be essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms ( syntrophy ) .
Bacterial growth follows four phases . When a population of bacteria first enter a high @-@ nutrient environment that allows growth , the cells need to adapt to their new environment . The first phase of growth is the lag phase , a period of slow growth when the cells are adapting to the high @-@ nutrient environment and preparing for fast growth . The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates , as proteins necessary for rapid growth are produced . The second phase of growth is the log phase , also known as the logarithmic or exponential phase . The log phase is marked by rapid exponential growth . The rate at which cells grow during this phase is known as the growth rate ( k ) , and the time it takes the cells to double is known as the generation time ( g ) . During log phase , nutrients are metabolised at maximum speed until one of the nutrients is depleted and starts limiting growth . The third phase of growth is the stationary phase and is caused by depleted nutrients . The cells reduce their metabolic activity and consume non @-@ essential cellular proteins . The stationary phase is a transition from rapid growth to a stress response state and there is increased expression of genes involved in DNA repair , antioxidant metabolism and nutrient transport . The final phase is the death phase where the bacteria run out of nutrients and die .
= = Genetics = =
Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome that can range in size from only 160 @,@ 000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus Carsonella ruddii , to 12 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 base pairs in the soil @-@ dwelling bacteria Sorangium cellulosum . Spirochaetes of the genus Borrelia are a notable exception to this arrangement , with bacteria such as Borrelia burgdorferi , the cause of Lyme disease , containing a single linear chromosome . The genes in bacterial genomes are usually a single continuous stretch of DNA and although several different types of introns do exist in bacteria , these are much rarer than in eukaryotes .
Bacteria may also contain plasmids , which are small extra @-@ chromosomal DNAs that may contain genes for antibiotic resistance or virulence factors . Plasmids replicate independently of chromosomes , so it is possible that plasmids could be lost in bacterial cell division . Against this possibility is the fact that a single bacterium can contain hundreds of copies of a single plasmid .
Bacteria , as asexual organisms , inherit identical copies of their parent 's genes ( i.e. , they are clonal ) . However , all bacteria can evolve by selection on changes to their genetic material DNA caused by genetic recombination or mutations . Mutations come from errors made during the replication of DNA or from exposure to mutagens . Mutation rates vary widely among different species of bacteria and even among different clones of a single species of bacteria . Genetic changes in bacterial genomes come from either random mutation during replication or " stress @-@ directed mutation " , where genes involved in a particular growth @-@ limiting process have an increased mutation rate .
= = = DNA transfer = = =
Some bacteria also transfer genetic material between cells . This can occur in three main ways . First , bacteria can take up exogenous DNA from their environment , in a process called transformation . Genes can also be transferred by the process of transduction , when the integration of a bacteriophage introduces foreign DNA into the chromosome . The third method of gene transfer is conjugation , whereby DNA is transferred through direct cell contact .
Transduction of bacterial genes by bacteriophage appears to be a consequence of infrequent errors during intracellular assembly of virus particles , rather than a bacterial adaptation . Conjugation , in the much @-@ studied E. coli system is determined by plasmid genes , and is an adaptation for transferring copies of the plasmid from one bacterial host to another . It is seldom that a conjugative plasmid integrates into the host bacterial chromosome , and subsequently transfers part of the host bacterial DNA to another bacterium . Plasmid @-@ mediated transfer of host bacterial DNA also appears to be an accidental process rather than a bacterial adaptation .
Transformation , unlike transduction or conjugation , depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this complex process , and thus transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer . In order for a bacterium to bind , take up and recombine donor DNA into its own chromosome , it must first enter a special physiological state termed competence ( see Natural competence ) . In Bacillus subtilis , about 40 genes are required for the development of competence . The length of DNA transferred during B. subtilis transformation can be between a third of a chromosome up to the whole chromosome . Transformation appears to be common among bacterial species , and thus far at least 60 species are known to have the natural ability to become competent for transformation . The development of competence in nature is usually associated with stressful environmental conditions , and seems to be an adaptation for facilitating repair of DNA damage in recipient cells .
In ordinary circumstances , transduction , conjugation , and transformation involve transfer of DNA between individual bacteria of the same species , but occasionally transfer may occur between individuals of different bacterial species and this may have significant consequences , such as the transfer of antibiotic resistance . In such cases , gene acquisition from other bacteria or the environment is called horizontal gene transfer and may be common under natural conditions . Gene transfer is particularly important in antibiotic resistance as it allows the rapid transfer of resistance genes between different pathogens .
= = = Bacteriophages = = =
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria . Many types of bacteriophage exist , some simply infect and lyse their host bacteria , while others insert into the bacterial chromosome . A bacteriophage can contain genes that contribute to its host 's phenotype : for example , in the evolution of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 and Clostridium botulinum , the toxin genes in an integrated phage converted a harmless ancestral bacterium into a lethal pathogen . Bacteria resist phage infection through restriction modification systems that degrade foreign DNA , and a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past , which allows them to block virus replication through a form of RNA interference . This CRISPR system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Secretion = = =
Bacteria frequently secrete chemicals into their environment in order to modify it favorably . The secretions are often proteins and may act as enzymes that digest some form of food in the environment .
= = = Bioluminescence = = =
A few bacteria have chemical systems that generate light . This bioluminescence often occurs in bacteria that live in association with fish , and the light probably serves to attract fish or other large animals .
= = = Multicellularity = = =
Bacteria often function as multicellular aggregates known as biofilms , exchanging a variety of molecular signals for inter @-@ cell communication , and engaging in coordinated multicellular behavior .
The communal benefits of multicellular cooperation include a cellular division of labor , accessing resources that cannot effectively be utilized by single cells , collectively defending against antagonists , and optimizing population survival by differentiating into distinct cell types . For example , bacteria in biofilms can have more than 500 times increased resistance to antibacterial agents than individual " planktonic " bacteria of the same species .
One type of inter @-@ cellular communication by a molecular signal is called quorum sensing , which serves the purpose of determining whether there is a local population density that is sufficiently high that it is productive to invest in processes that are only successful if large numbers of similar organisms behave similarly , as in excreting digestive enzymes or emitting light .
Quorum sensing allows bacteria to coordinate gene expression , and enables them to produce , release and detect autoinducers or pheromones which accumulate with the growth in cell population .
= = = Movement = = =
Many bacteria can move using a variety of mechanisms : flagella are used for swimming through fluids ; bacterial gliding and twitching motility move bacteria across surfaces ; and changes of buoyancy allow vertical motion .
Swimming bacteria frequently move near 10 body lengths per second and a few as fast as 100 . This makes them at least as fast as fish , on a relative scale .
In bacterial gliding and twitching motility , bacteria use their type IV pili as a grappling hook , repeatedly extending it , anchoring it and then retracting it with remarkable force ( > 80 pN ) .
" Our observations redefine twitching motility as a rapid , highly organized mechanism of bacterial translocation by which Pseudomonas aeruginosa can disperse itself over large areas to colonize new territories . It is also now clear , both morphologically and genetically , that twitching motility and social gliding motility , such as occurs in Myxococcus xanthus , are essentially the same process . "
Flagella are semi @-@ rigid cylindrical structures that are rotated and function much like the propeller on a ship . Objects as small as bacteria operate a low Reynolds number and cylindrical forms are more efficient than the flat , paddle @-@ like , forms appropriate at human @-@ size scale .
Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface ; some have a single flagellum ( monotrichous ) , a flagellum at each end ( amphitrichous ) , clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell ( lophotrichous ) , while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell ( peritrichous ) . The bacterial flagella is the best @-@ understood motility structure in any organism and is made of about 20 proteins , with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly . The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane for power . This motor drives the motion of the filament , which acts as a propeller .
Many bacteria ( such as E. coli ) have two distinct modes of movement : forward movement ( swimming ) and tumbling . The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three @-@ dimensional random walk . ( See external links below for link to videos . ) The flagella of a unique group of bacteria , the spirochaetes , are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space . They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves .
Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain stimuli in behaviors called taxes : these include chemotaxis , phototaxis , energy taxis , and magnetotaxis . In one peculiar group , the myxobacteria , individual bacteria move together to form waves of cells that then differentiate to form fruiting bodies containing spores . The myxobacteria move only when on solid surfaces , unlike E. coli , which is motile in liquid or solid media .
Several Listeria and Shigella species move inside host cells by usurping the cytoskeleton , which is normally used to move organelles inside the cell . By promoting actin polymerization at one pole of their cells , they can form a kind of tail that pushes them through the host cell 's cytoplasm .
= = Classification and identification = =
Classification seeks to describe the diversity of bacterial species by naming and grouping organisms based on similarities . Bacteria can be classified on the basis of cell structure , cellular metabolism or on differences in cell components , such as DNA , fatty acids , pigments , antigens and quinones . While these schemes allowed the identification and classification of bacterial strains , it was unclear whether these differences represented variation between distinct species or between strains of the same species . This uncertainty was due to the lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria , as well as lateral gene transfer between unrelated species . Due to lateral gene transfer , some closely related bacteria can have very different morphologies and metabolisms . To overcome this uncertainty , modern bacterial classification emphasizes molecular systematics , using genetic techniques such as guanine cytosine ratio determination , genome @-@ genome hybridization , as well as sequencing genes that have not undergone extensive lateral gene transfer , such as the rRNA gene . Classification of bacteria is determined by publication in the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology , and Bergey 's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology . The International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology ( ICSB ) maintains international rules for the naming of bacteria and taxonomic categories and for the ranking of them in the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria .
The term " bacteria " was traditionally applied to all microscopic , single @-@ cell prokaryotes . However , molecular systematics showed prokaryotic life to consist of two separate domains , originally called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria , but now called Bacteria and Archaea that evolved independently from an ancient common ancestor . The archaea and eukaryotes are more closely related to each other than either is to the bacteria . These two domains , along with Eukarya , are the basis of the three @-@ domain system , which is currently the most widely used classification system in microbiolology . However , due to the relatively recent introduction of molecular systematics and a rapid increase in the number of genome sequences that are available , bacterial classification remains a changing and expanding field . For example , a few biologists argue that the Archaea and Eukaryotes evolved from gram @-@ positive bacteria .
The identification of bacteria in the laboratory is particularly relevant in medicine , where the correct treatment is determined by the bacterial species causing an infection . Consequently , the need to identify human pathogens was a major impetus for the development of techniques to identify bacteria .
The Gram stain , developed in 1884 by Hans Christian Gram , characterises bacteria based on the structural characteristics of their cell walls . The thick layers of peptidoglycan in the " gram @-@ positive " cell wall stain purple , while the thin " gram @-@ negative " cell wall appears pink . By combining morphology and Gram @-@ staining , most bacteria can be classified as belonging to one of four groups ( gram @-@ positive cocci , gram @-@ positive bacilli , gram @-@ negative cocci and gram @-@ negative bacilli ) . Some organisms are best identified by stains other than the Gram stain , particularly mycobacteria or Nocardia , which show acid @-@ fastness on Ziehl – Neelsen or similar stains . Other organisms may need to be identified by their growth in special media , or by other techniques , such as serology .
Culture techniques are designed to promote the growth and identify particular bacteria , while restricting the growth of the other bacteria in the sample . Often these techniques are designed for specific specimens ; for example , a sputum sample will be treated to identify organisms that cause pneumonia , while stool specimens are cultured on selective media to identify organisms that cause diarrhoea , while preventing growth of non @-@ pathogenic bacteria . Specimens that are normally sterile , such as blood , urine or spinal fluid , are cultured under conditions designed to grow all possible organisms . Once a pathogenic organism has been isolated , it can be further characterised by its morphology , growth patterns ( such as aerobic or anaerobic growth ) , patterns of hemolysis , and staining .
As with bacterial classification , identification of bacteria is increasingly using molecular methods . Diagnostics using DNA @-@ based tools , such as polymerase chain reaction , are increasingly popular due to their specificity and speed , compared to culture @-@ based methods . These methods also allow the detection and identification of " viable but nonculturable " cells that are metabolically active but non @-@ dividing . However , even using these improved methods , the total number of bacterial species is not known and cannot even be estimated with any certainty . Following present classification , there are a little less than 9 @,@ 300 known species of prokaryotes , which includes bacteria and archaea ; but attempts to estimate the true number of bacterial diversity have ranged from 107 to 109 total species – and even these diverse estimates may be off by many orders of magnitude .
= = Interactions with other organisms = =
Despite their apparent simplicity , bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms . These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism , mutualism and commensalism . Due to their small size , commensal bacteria are ubiquitous and grow on animals and plants exactly as they will grow on any other surface . However , their growth can be increased by warmth and sweat , and large populations of these organisms in humans are the cause of body odor .
= = = Predators = = =
Some species of bacteria kill and then consume other microorganisms , these species are called predatory bacteria . These include organisms such as Myxococcus xanthus , which forms swarms of cells that kill and digest any bacteria they encounter . Other bacterial predators either attach to their prey in order to digest them and absorb nutrients , such as Vampirovibrio chlorellavorus , or invade another cell and multiply inside the cytosol , such as Daptobacter . These predatory bacteria are thought to have evolved from saprophages that consumed dead microorganisms , through adaptations that allowed them to entrap and kill other organisms .
= = = Mutualists = = =
Certain bacteria form close spatial associations that are essential for their survival . One such mutualistic association , called interspecies hydrogen transfer , occurs between clusters of anaerobic bacteria that consume organic acids , such as butyric acid or propionic acid , and produce hydrogen , and methanogenic Archaea that consume hydrogen . The bacteria in this association are unable to consume the organic acids as this reaction produces hydrogen that accumulates in their surroundings . Only the intimate association with the hydrogen @-@ consuming Archaea keeps the hydrogen concentration low enough to allow the bacteria to grow .
In soil , microorganisms that reside in the rhizosphere ( a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking ) carry out nitrogen fixation , converting nitrogen gas to nitrogenous compounds . This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants , which cannot fix nitrogen themselves . Many other bacteria are found as symbionts in humans and other organisms . For example , the presence of over 1 @,@ 000 bacterial species in the normal human gut flora of the intestines can contribute to gut immunity , synthesise vitamins , such as folic acid , vitamin K and biotin , convert sugars to lactic acid ( see Lactobacillus ) , as well as fermenting complex undigestible carbohydrates . The presence of this gut flora also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria ( usually through competitive exclusion ) and these beneficial bacteria are consequently sold as probiotic dietary supplements .
= = = Pathogens = = =
If bacteria form a parasitic association with other organisms , they are classed as pathogens . Pathogenic bacteria are a major cause of human death and disease and cause infections such as tetanus , typhoid fever , diphtheria , syphilis , cholera , foodborne illness , leprosy and tuberculosis . A pathogenic cause for a known medical disease may only be discovered many years after , as was the case with Helicobacter pylori and peptic ulcer disease . Bacterial diseases are also important in agriculture , with bacteria causing leaf spot , fire blight and wilts in plants , as well as Johne 's disease , mastitis , salmonella and anthrax in farm animals .
Each species of pathogen has a characteristic spectrum of interactions with its human hosts . Some organisms , such as Staphylococcus or Streptococcus , can cause skin infections , pneumonia , meningitis and even overwhelming sepsis , a systemic inflammatory response producing shock , massive vasodilation and death . Yet these organisms are also part of the normal human flora and usually exist on the skin or in the nose without causing any disease at all . Other organisms invariably cause disease in humans , such as the Rickettsia , which are obligate intracellular parasites able to grow and reproduce only within the cells of other organisms . One species of Rickettsia causes typhus , while another causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever . Chlamydia , another phylum of obligate intracellular parasites , contains species that can cause pneumonia , or urinary tract infection and may be involved in coronary heart disease . Finally , some species , such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Burkholderia cenocepacia , and Mycobacterium avium , are opportunistic pathogens and cause disease mainly in people suffering from immunosuppression or cystic fibrosis .
Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics , which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria , or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth . There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host . An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are chloramphenicol and puromycin , which inhibit the bacterial ribosome , but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome . Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth , where they may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations . Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilizing the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe , and by proper care of indwelling catheters . Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilized to prevent contamination by bacteria . Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection .
= = Significance in technology and industry = =
Bacteria , often lactic acid bacteria , such as Lactobacillus and Lactococcus , in combination with yeasts and molds , have been used for thousands of years in the preparation of fermented foods , such as cheese , pickles , soy sauce , sauerkraut , vinegar , wine and yogurt .
The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation . Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills . Fertilizer was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill . These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil . Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes . In the chemical industry , bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals .
Bacteria can also be used in the place of pesticides in the biological pest control . This commonly involves Bacillus thuringiensis ( also called BT ) , a gram @-@ positive , soil dwelling bacterium . Subspecies of this bacteria are used as a Lepidopteran @-@ specific insecticides under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide . Because of their specificity , these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly , with little or no effect on humans , wildlife , pollinators and most other beneficial insects .
Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated , bacteria are the workhorses for the fields of molecular biology , genetics and biochemistry . By making mutations in bacterial DNA and examining the resulting phenotypes , scientists can determine the function of genes , enzymes and metabolic pathways in bacteria , then apply this knowledge to more complex organisms . This aim of understanding the biochemistry of a cell reaches its most complex expression in the synthesis of huge amounts of enzyme kinetic and gene expression data into mathematical models of entire organisms . This is achievable in some well @-@ studied bacteria , with models of Escherichia coli metabolism now being produced and tested . This understanding of bacterial metabolism and genetics allows the use of biotechnology to bioengineer bacteria for the production of therapeutic proteins , such as insulin , growth factors , or antibodies .
Because of their importance for research in general , samples of bacterial strains are isolated and preserved in Biological Resource Centers . This ensures the availability of the strain to scientists worldwide .
= = History of bacteriology = =
Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 , using a single @-@ lens microscope of his own design . He then published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society of London . Bacteria were Leeuwenhoek 's most remarkable microscopic discovery . They were just at the limit of what his simple lenses could make out and , in one of the most striking hiatuses in the history of science , no one else would see them again for over a century . Only then were his by @-@ then @-@ largely @-@ forgotten observations of bacteria — as opposed to his famous " animalcules " ( spermatozoa ) — taken seriously .
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg introduced the word " bacterium " in 1828 . In fact , his Bacterium was a genus that contained non @-@ spore @-@ forming rod @-@ shaped bacteria , as opposed to Bacillus , a genus of spore @-@ forming rod @-@ shaped bacteria defined by Ehrenberg in 1835 .
Louis Pasteur demonstrated in 1859 that the growth of microorganisms causes the fermentation process , and that this growth is not due to spontaneous generation . ( Yeasts and molds , commonly associated with fermentation , are not bacteria , but rather fungi . ) Along with his contemporary Robert Koch , Pasteur was an early advocate of the germ theory of disease .
Robert Koch , a pioneer in medical microbiology , worked on cholera , anthrax and tuberculosis . In his research into tuberculosis Koch finally proved the germ theory , for which he received a Nobel Prize in 1905 . In Koch 's postulates , he set out criteria to test if an organism is the cause of a disease , and these postulates are still used today .
Though it was known in the nineteenth century that bacteria are the cause of many diseases , no effective antibacterial treatments were available . In 1910 , Paul Ehrlich developed the first antibiotic , by changing dyes that selectively stained Treponema pallidum — the spirochaete that causes syphilis — into compounds that selectively killed the pathogen . Ehrlich had been awarded a 1908 Nobel Prize for his work on immunology , and pioneered the use of stains to detect and identify bacteria , with his work being the basis of the Gram stain and the Ziehl – Neelsen stain .
A major step forward in the study of bacteria came in 1977 when Carl Woese recognized that archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent from bacteria . This new phylogenetic taxonomy depended on the sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA , and divided prokaryotes into two evolutionary domains , as part of the three @-@ domain system .
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= Janet Jackson ( album ) =
Janet Jackson is the self @-@ titled debut album by American recording artist Janet Jackson . It was released on September 21 , 1982 , by A & M Records . Jackson 's career as a recording artist was established by her father and manager Joseph Jackson , who arranged her recording contract with her recording company . Prior to her rise to fame , the singer had no interest in pursuing a musical career . Despite this , she was motivated to pursue a career in entertainment , and considered the idea after recording herself in the studio . After acting in the variety show The Jacksons , she began starring in several TV series and commenced recording her debut album . Its artwork depicts Jackson submerged in a swimming pool .
Janet Jackson is described as a post @-@ disco and R & B record . Songwriters Angela Winbush and René Moore contributed to much of the album 's lyrics . Moore and Winbush share production credits with Foster Sylvers , Jerry Weaver , and Bobby Watson . Janet Jackson received mixed reviews from music critics who found its content bland , although highlighted some tracks . It also managed to chart on the Billboard 200 and in New Zealand . Three singles from the album had little impact on Billboard charts , among them " Young Love " , " Come Give Your Love to Me " and " Say You Do " . In order to promote Janet Jackson , she performed the song on American TV shows American Bandstand and Soul Train in 1982 .
= = Background and artwork = =
Jackson had initially desired to become a horse racing jockey or entertainment lawyer , with plans to support herself through acting . Despite this , she was anticipated to pursue a career in entertainment , and considered the idea after recording herself in the studio . At age seven , Jackson performed at the Las Vegas Strip at the MGM Casino and began acting in the variety show The Jacksons in 1976 . The year after , she was selected to have a starring role as Penny Gordon Woods in the sitcom Good Times . She later starred in A New Kind of Family before joining the cast of Diff 'rent Strokes , portraying Charlene Duprey for two years . Jackson also played the recurring role of Cleo Hewitt during the fourth season of Fame , but expressed indifference towards the series . When Jackson was sixteen , she was arranged a contract with A & M Records and began recording her debut album with the assistance of her father , working with a number of songwriters and producers such as René Moore , Angela Winbush and Bobby Watson .
The album 's artwork was photographed by Harry Langdon in the swimming pool of the Jackson family 's home . Jackson described Langdon as " the sweetest man imaginable " . She took inspiration from a photograph of actress Elizabeth Taylor submerged in a swimming pool which was taken early in her career . In the photograph , nothing could be seen apart from Taylor 's face above the water ; her body was hidden beneath the surface . Jackson thought the pose was dramatic and loved the fact that she could do the same thing , and not to have to reveal anything except for her face . With the photographer , his assistant and other people around the pool , she was still reluctant to take off her robe , and stand there in her bathing suit . She waited until everybody got distracted to slip into the pool . After they took the photos , she waited until everybody was gone to get out of the pool .
= = Promotion = =
Five singles were released from the album . " Young Love " was the first . It received little notoriety on the principal singles chart , the Billboard Hot 100 ; it was able to reach a peak of number 64 . However , on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , the single managed to reach number six . In New Zealand , " Young Love " reached a peak of number 16 . The second single from Janet Jackson was " Come Give Your Love to Me " and peaked at number 58 on the Hot 100 . It became her last single to appear on that chart until 1986 , when she released Control . The follow @-@ up single , " Say You Do " , only managed to appear on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and the Hot Dance Club Songs charts , peaking at numbers 15 and 11 , respectively . The last singles from the album , " Love and My Best Friend " and " Don 't Mess Up A Good Thing " did not appear on any chart worldwide . In order to further promote Janet Jackson , she performed " Young Love " and " Say You Do " on American TV shows American Bandstand and Soul Train in 1982 .
= = Reception = =
Janet Jackson received mixed reviews from music critics . The Baltimore Afro @-@ American gave it a favorable review , commenting that " the eight songs simply feature the poised voice of a dynamic individual . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave it two out of five stars , providing a mixed review saying " On her eponymous debut album , Janet Jackson demonstrates no distinctive musical personality of her own . If her producers had concocted a sharper set of songs and more interesting beats , Janet Jackson might have been a pleasant set of sunny dance @-@ pop " , highlighting " Young Love " as the only song which " stands out among the undistinguished , sub @-@ disco thumpers and drippy ballads " . Bil Carpenter from the same website called Janet Jackson a " debut album of youth @-@ oriented pop " .
Similarly , Wilson & Alroy 's Record Reviews commented that " Listening to Jackson 's childlike , personality @-@ challenged voice on this disc , you 'd never dream what a commercial juggernaut she would become " . On its first side , they deemed " You 'll Never Find ( A Love Like Mine ) " and " Young Love " as the standouts , but criticized the ballad " Love And My Best Friend " , saying it is nearly unendurable . He considered the second side 's sound " up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ minute " , but said " Unfortunately , [ the producer 's ] taste in tunes is abysmal " . The The Rolling Stone Album Guide book stated that the album and its follow @-@ up Dream Street ( 1984 ) sound like bland dance @-@ music ready @-@ mades .
On the US Billboard 200 , Janet Jackson had its peak at number 63 . In New Zealand , the album peaked at number 44 on the New Zealand Albums Chart , during its only @-@ week chart on April 17 , 1983 . As of 2003 , Janet Jackson sold 82 @,@ 000 copies through BMG Music Club in the United States . And sold additional 62 @,@ 000 copies according to Soundscan . Worldwide , the album has sold 300 @,@ 000 copies , considered a failure at the time .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
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= Fanny Bullock Workman =
Fanny Bullock Workman ( January 8 , 1859 – January 22 , 1925 ) was an American geographer , cartographer , explorer , travel writer , and mountaineer , notably in the Himalayas . She was one of the first female professional mountaineers ; she not only explored but also wrote about her adventures . She set several women 's altitude records , published eight travel books with her husband , and championed women 's rights and women 's suffrage .
Born to a wealthy family , Workman was educated in the finest schools available to women and traveled in Europe . Her marriage to William Hunter Workman cemented these advantages , and , after being introduced to climbing in New Hampshire , Fanny Workman traveled the world with him . They were able to capitalize on their wealth and connections to voyage around Europe , North Africa , and Asia . The couple had two children , but Fanny Workman was not a motherly type ; they left their children in schools and with nurses , and Workman saw herself as a New Woman who could equal any man . The Workmans began their travels with bicycle tours of Switzerland , France , Italy , Spain , Algeria and India . They cycled thousands of miles , sleeping wherever they could find shelter . They wrote books about each trip and Fanny frequently commented on the state of the lives of women that she saw . Their early bicycle tour narratives were better received than their mountaineering books .
At the end of their cycling trip through India , the couple escaped to the Western Himalaya and the Karakoram for the summer months , where they were introduced to high @-@ altitude climbing . They returned to this then @-@ unexplored region eight times over the next 14 years . Despite not having modern climbing equipment , the Workmans explored several glaciers and reached the summit of several mountains , eventually reaching 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) on Pinnacle Peak , a women 's altitude record at the time . They organized multiyear expeditions but struggled to remain on good terms with the local labor force . Coming from a position of American privilege and wealth , they failed to understand the position of the native workers and had difficulty finding and negotiating for reliable porters .
After their trips to the Himalaya , the Workmans gave lectures about their travels . They were invited to learned societies ; Fanny Workman became the first American woman to lecture at the Sorbonne and the second to speak at the Royal Geographical Society . She received many medals of honor from European climbing and geographical societies and was recognized as one of the foremost climbers of her day . She demonstrated that a woman could climb in high altitudes just as well as a man and helped break down the gender barrier in mountaineering .
= = Early life = =
Workman was born January 8 , 1859 , in Worcester , Massachusetts , to a wealthy and elite family descended from the Pilgrims ; she was the youngest of three children . Her mother was Elvira Hazard , and her father was Alexander H. Bullock , businessman and Republican Massachusetts governor . Fanny was educated by governesses before attending Miss Graham 's Finishing School in New York City , after which she spent time in Paris and then Dresden . Thomas Pauly writes in his short biography of Workman that " early on Fanny chafed at the constraints of her privilege " . A small number of her stories from this time survive , describing her interest in adventure . In one , " A Vacation Episode " , she describes a beautiful and aristocratic English girl who is contemptuous of society . She runs away to Grindelwald , becoming an excellent alpinist and marrying an American . The story encapsulates much of Fanny 's own life : wanderlust , a love of the mountains , and a commitment to women 's rights . In 1886 , she published a short story , set during the First Indian War , in New York Magazine about " the capture and rescue of a white girl " ; a reviewer of the story stated that it was " told in a very pleasant and infatuating style " .
In 1879 , Fanny returned to the United States and on June 16 , 1882 married William Hunter Workman , a man 12 years her senior . He was also from a wealthy and educated family , having attended Yale and having received his medical training at Harvard . In 1884 they had a daughter , Rachel .
William introduced Fanny to climbing after their marriage , and together they spent many summers in the White Mountains in New Hampshire ; here she summited Mount Washington ( 6 @,@ 293 feet or 1 @,@ 918 metres ) several times . Climbing in the Northeastern United States allowed Fanny to develop her abilities together with other women . Unlike European clubs , American climbing clubs in the White Mountains allowed women to be members and encouraged women to climb . They promoted a new vision of the American woman , one who was both domestic and athletic , and Workman took to this image with enthusiasm . By 1886 , women sometimes outnumbered men on hiking expeditions in New England . In her paper on the gender dynamics of climbing in the region , Jenny Ernie @-@ Steighner states that this formative experience shaped Workman 's commitment to women 's rights , pointing out that " no other well @-@ known international mountaineers of the time , male or female , spoke as openly and fervently about women 's rights " . However , both of the Workmans disliked the provincial nature of life in Worcester , where they resided , and yearned to live in Europe . After both Fanny 's and William 's fathers died , leaving them enormous estates , the couple embarked on their first major European trip , a tour of Scandinavia and Germany .
= = Move to Europe and cycling tours = =
In 1889 the Workman family relocated to Germany citing William 's health , although Pauly speculates that this may have been merely a pretext , for he recovered surprisingly quickly . The couple 's second child , Siegfried , was born shortly after they arrived in Dresden . Although Fanny and William now had two children , Fanny refused to conform to the socially accepted role of a wife and mother , and instead became an author and adventurer . She lived a vigorous life that diverged from idealized femininity in the 1800s . As a feminist , Fanny considered herself an example of the idea that women could equal and excel over men in the arduous life , and embodied the New Woman ethos of the day . Moreover , as Miller points out in her book about women explorers , since the ideal family of the time was a large one and information about birth control was not easily available , William 's medical knowledge must have been invaluable . The Workmans left their children with nurses while they took long trips . In 1893 , Siegfried died from a combination of influenza and pneumonia . After his death , according to Pauly , Workman , through her bicycle tours , " aggressively pursued an alternative identity , one that liberated her from the conventional responsibilities of wife and mother and allowed for her interests and ambitions " . They missed their daughter 's wedding to Sir Alexander MacRobert in 1911 while exploring in the Karakoram .
Together , the Workmans explored the world and co @-@ wrote eight travel books , which describe the people , art , and architecture of the areas in which they journeyed . The Workmans were aware of their contribution to the genre of travel writing as they commented on other writers in their own works . Their mountaineering narratives said little about the culture of those remote and sparsely inhabited regions ; they included both lyrical descriptions of the sunset , for example , for their popular audience and detailed explanations of geographical features , such as glaciers , for their scientific readership . Fanny and William added scientific elements to their writings to appeal to authoritative organizations such as the Royal Geographical Society ; Fanny also believed the science would make her more legitimate in the eyes of the climbing community , but it cost her readers . In general , their bicycling tour narratives were better received than those about their mountaineering exploits . Fanny wrote the majority of these travel books herself , and in them she commented extensively on the plight of women wherever she traveled .
Stephanie Tingley writes , in her encyclopedia entry on Workman 's travel writing , that there is an implied feminist criticism of the hardships women experienced and the inferior status of the women in the societies she encountered . As a strong @-@ willed , outspoken supporter of women 's rights , Workman used their travels to demonstrate her own abilities and to highlight the inequities other women lived under . However , their travel books are written in the first @-@ person plural or third @-@ person singular , so it is difficult to decisively attribute views or voices to either William or Fanny . The Workmans ' works are colonialist in that they describe the people they meet and observe as " exotic or unusual , at worst as primitive or even subhuman " . However , at times they make it clear that the people they encounter see them in a similar light , demonstrating that they were sometimes aware of their own biases .
Between 1888 and 1893 , the Workmans took bicycling tours of Switzerland , France , and Italy . In 1891 , Fanny became one of the first women to climb Mont Blanc . She also was one of the first women to climb the Jungfrau and the Matterhorn ; her guide was Peter Taugwalder , who had made the first ascent with Edward Whymper . In 1893 , the couple decided to explore areas beyond Europe and headed for Algeria , Indochina , and India . These longer trips were Fanny 's idea . The couple 's first extended tour was a 2 @,@ 800 @-@ mile ( 4 @,@ 500 km ) bicycle trip across Spain in 1895 ; each of them carried 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of luggage and they averaged 45 miles ( 72 km ) a day , sometimes riding up to 80 miles ( 130 km ) . Afterwards , they co @-@ wrote Sketches Awheel in Modern Iberia about their trip . In it , they described Spain as " rustic , quaint , and charming " , a common travel writing motif that did not make their book fresh or original . In Algerian Memories Fanny focused on the beauty and romance of the countryside , avoiding any commentary on the appalling urban conditions . However , she did highlight the abuse and neglect of women in Algerian society .
= = India = =
The Workmans ' trip to India , Burma , Ceylon , and Java lasted two and a half years , beginning in November 1897 , and covered 14 @,@ 000 miles ( 23 @,@ 000 km ) . At the time , Fanny was 38 and William 50 . They bicycled about 4 @,@ 000 miles ( 6 @,@ 400 km ) from the southernmost tip of India to the Himalaya in the north . In order to ensure that they had access to supplies , they rode along major thoroughfares near railways , and were sometimes forced to sleep in railway waiting rooms if no other accommodation was available . They carried minimal supplies , including tea , sugar , biscuits , cheese , tinned meats , water , pillows , a blanket for each of them , writing materials , and medical and repair kits . They dispensed with their bicycles at the northern end of their trip and hiked over passes between 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) and 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . The trip was grueling . They often had little food or water , dealt with swarms of mosquitoes , fixed as many as 40 bicycle tire punctures per day , and slept in rat @-@ infested quarters . Fanny Workman 's book , written after the trip , highlighted the ancient architecture that they had seen rather than the contemporary local cultures . Mrs Workmans mentions in " My Asiatic Wanderings " about India " I have wheeled through much enchanting scenery , in the palm and banyan grooves of Orissa , Over the green and scarlet slopes of the Terai ... But I have never cycled 1200 miles in a country so continuously beautiful . " The Workmans possessed an unusual amount of historical knowledge about India for Westerners of the time and had read the Jakata , Mahabharata , and Ramayana before their trip . They were eager to learn about the culture that had produced these epics and spent more time learning about ancient history than interacting with living people .
= = = Labor issues = = =
During the summer of 1898 , the couple decided to escape the heat and explore the western Himalaya and Karakoram . After that , they intended to explore the area around Kanchenjunga in Sikkim , and then finally travel to the mountains bordering Bhutan on the east . Bureaucratic difficulties and weather problems abounded and impeded their plans . The most serious problems concerned labor . They hired 45 porters , outfitted them for basic mountain travel , and bought provisions , but costs skyrocketed as news of wealthy Americans circulated in the villages . They could not leave until October 3 and by then cold weather was approaching . The Workmans complain in their writings about the porters they hired , who were difficult to work with and refused to trek more than five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) per day . Three days into their journey the Workmans reached snow and the porters rebelled ; they refused to work in such cold conditions and forced the entire party to return to Darjeeling .
The Workmans struggled with labor problems continually , needing local porters to carry gear for them because they could not carry a sufficient amount for themselves for a multi @-@ month expedition . They had to transport Mummery tents , eider sleeping bags , camera equipment , scientific instruments , and a large supply of food . The porters were skeptical of the entire venture . The locals rarely climbed mountains and were not used to taking orders from a woman , which made Fanny 's position difficult . The Workmans tried to solve these problems with condescension and high @-@ handedness . Kenneth Mason maintains in his history of Himalayan mountaineering , written in 1955 , that " The Workmans were , on their journeys , the victims of their own faults . They were too impatient and rarely tried to understand the mentality of the porters and so did not get the best out of them . " Labor problems beset all of their expeditions because , as Miller puts it , " Almost alone of Victorian travellers , the Workmans had absolutely no sympathy or even common @-@ sense understanding of the local people , into whose poor and remote villages they burst with trains of followers demanding service and supplies . " In her chapter on Workman , Miller argues that the couple , being American , did not have the same sense of caste or class that British explorers had : " the Workmans , like most of their countrymen , plunged in their enterprises headlong , expecting their enormous energy to overcome all obstacles . They were justifiably criticized by the British for their callous , incompetent behavior toward the Indians . "
= = Mountaineering in the Himalayas = =
After travelling to the Himalaya the first time , the Workmans became entranced with climbing and mountaineering . Over a span of 14 years , they traveled eight times to the area , which at the time was almost completely unexplored and unmapped . Their trips were made without the benefit of modern lightweight equipment , freeze @-@ dried foods , sunblock , or radios . On each expedition , they explored , surveyed , and photographed , ultimately reporting on their findings and creating maps . The couple shared and alternated responsibilities ; one year Fanny would organize the logistics of their journey and William would work on the scientific projects and the next year they would reverse roles .
After their first trip to the Himalaya and subsequent labor problems , the Workmans hired Matthias Zurbriggen , the best and most experienced mountain climbing guide of the time . Thus , in 1899 , with 50 local porters and Zurbriggen , the Workmans began to explore the Biafo Glacier in the Karakoram , but dangerous crevasses and poor weather forced them instead to shift to the Skoro La Glacier and the unclimbed peaks around it . They reached Siegfriedhorn , an 18 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) summit that she named after her son , giving Fanny an altitude record for women at the time . They next camped at 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) and climbed a higher peak of 19 @,@ 450 feet ( 5 @,@ 930 m ) , naming it Mount Bullock Workman . Admiring the view of a far @-@ off mountain , they commented on the grand view : they were looking at K2 , the second @-@ highest mountain in the world . Fanny Workman may have been the first woman recorded to have seen it . Finally , they climbed Koser Gunge ( 20 @,@ 997 feet or 6 @,@ 400 metres ) , giving Fanny her third successive altitude record . It was very challenging : they had to hire new porters , establish a new base camp , and remain overnight at around 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . In the morning , they climbed a wall that measured 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) , and were buffeted by winds . During the summit push , Fanny 's fingers were so numb that she could no longer hold her ice ax and one of the porters abandoned them . Pauly writes , " propelled to the summit by adrenalin and desperation , the foursome lingered only long enough for their instruments to assess that the temperature was ten degrees Fahrenheit [ − 12 ° C ] and their elevation was 21 @,@ 000 feet . " Fanny was a " slow , relentless , and intrepid " climber ; " bearlike , she solidly planted one foot and then groped for another secure grip with the other " . Climbing at the beginning of the 20th century , she did not have specialized equipment like pitons or carabiners . She was able to climb to such heights , Pauly argues , because of " her dauntless persistence and her immunity to altitude sickness " .
As soon as she was able , Fanny Workman published accounts of her feats , such as an article in the Scottish Geographical Magazine . Writing about this trip at length in In the Ice World of the Himalayas , Fanny made efforts to include scientific information and experiments , touting her own modified barometer as superior , but scholarly critics were unimpressed and pointed out her lack of scientific knowledge . Popular reviewers , on the other hand , enjoyed the book , with one concluding , " We have no hesitation in saying that Dr. and Mrs. Workman have written one of the most remarkable books of travel of recent years . "
In 1902 , the Workmans returned to the Himalaya and became the first Westerners to explore the Chogo Lungma Glacier , starting in Arandu . They hired 80 porters and took four tons of supplies , but their explorations were limited by near @-@ constant snow and a 60 @-@ hour storm . In 1903 , they trekked to the Hoh Lumba Glacier with guide Cyprien Savoye . They also attempted to climb the nearby mountain they called Pyramid Peak ( later renamed Spantik , as part of the Spantik @-@ Sosbun Mountains ) . They camped the first night at 16 @,@ 200 feet ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) and the second at 18 @,@ 600 feet ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) . An ailing porter forced them to camp the third night at 19 @,@ 355 feet ( 5 @,@ 899 m ) rather than 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) and they eventually left him behind . They ascended a 22 @,@ 567 @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 878 m ) peak , giving Fanny a new altitude record . William and a porter climbed toward the needle @-@ like spire that was the expedition 's goal . However , he abandoned the summit attempt a few hundred feet from the top because he realized they could not have descended to a safe altitude before altitude sickness set in .
After returning from their travels , the Workmans lectured all over Europe . Fanny lectured in English , German , or French , as the occasion required . At one talk in Lyon , France , 1000 people crowded into the auditorium and 700 were turned away . In 1905 Fanny became the second woman to address the Royal Geographical Society . ( Isabella Bird Bishop had been the first in May 1897 . ) Her talk was mentioned in The Times .
The Workmans returned to Kashmir in 1906 , and were the first Westerners to explore the Nun Kun massif . For this trip , the couple hired six Italian porters from the Alps , 200 local porters , and Savoye returned as guide . As Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar explain in their history of Himalayan mountaineering , the Workmans despised the local porters but were forced to recruit them ; " their otherwise invaluable books read like one long , anguished harangue against the lazy , lying , thieving , mutinous cheats on whom they unhappily depended for local support " . They planned a sequence of four camps from 17 @,@ 657 feet ( 5 @,@ 382 m ) to 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) . Despite labor problems , the Workmans spent the night higher than any previous mountaineers — 20 @,@ 278 feet ( 6 @,@ 181 m ) on top of Z1 on Nun Kun — at what they called " Camp America " . William wrote of Fanny :
She concentrated her attention on the end in view , often disregarding the difficulties and even the dangers that might lie in the way of accomplishment . She went forward with a determination to succeed and a courage that won success where a less determined effort would have failed . She believed in taking advantage of every opportunity . She was no quitter , and was never the first to suggest turning back in the face of discouraging circumstances .
The map the Workmans made during this trip was of low quality . According to Mason , the couple did not have a good sense of topographical direction , which meant that their measurements were inaccurate and unusable by the Survey of India .
= = = Pinnacle Peak and altitude record = = =
From 20 @,@ 278 feet ( 6 @,@ 181 m ) , at the age of 47 in 1906 , Workman climbed up to Pinnacle Peak ( 22 @,@ 735 feet or 6 @,@ 930 metres ) ( which she believed to be 23 @,@ 263 feet or 7 @,@ 091 metres ) , a subsidiary peak in the Nun Kun massif of the western Himalaya . It was her greatest mountaineering achievement . As Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar point out , the fact that she " climbed the mountain at all , without benefit of modern equipment and encumbered by her voluminous skirts , speaks to both her ability and resolve " . She set an altitude record for women that would stand until Hetti Dhyrenfurth 's 1934 ascent of Sia Kangri C ( 23 @,@ 861 feet or 7 @,@ 273 metres ) . Believing that they had both climbed above the 23 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) mark , Fanny and William now considered themselves the leading experts on climbing at altitude .
Workman vigorously defended her Pinnacle Peak altitude record against all other claimants , especially Annie Smith Peck . In 1908 , Peck claimed a new record with her climb of Peru 's Huascarán , which she believed to be 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) . However , she was misinformed as to the peak 's height and exaggerated distances she could not measure . Workman was so competitive that she paid a team of French surveyors from the Service Géographique de l 'Armée US $ 13 @,@ 000 to measure the elevation of the mountain , which was actually 22 @,@ 205 feet ( 6 @,@ 768 m ) , confirming her record . Pauly explains , " Ironically , her determination to prove herself the equal of any man at lofty elevations culminated with a withering attack on an American woman who tried to surpass her " . Determined to be the best woman , Workman was also a meticulous record @-@ keeper so that she could prove her accomplishments . Pauly concludes , " If Fanny Workman ever receives the recognition she deserves for her feminist determination to excel at this then @-@ male sport , she will surely be remembered as much for her insistence upon accurate record @-@ keeping as for the elevations she achieved . "
= = = Hispar and Siachen Glaciers = = =
In 1908 , the Workmans returned to the Karakoram and explored the 38 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 61 km ) Hispar Glacier in the Hunza Nagar region ; they went from Gilgit to Nagir over the Hispar pass ( 17 @,@ 500 feet or 5 @,@ 300 metres ) and onto the 37 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 60 km ) Biafo Glacier to Askole . Their total traverse of the glaciers was another record , and Fanny became the first woman to travel across any Himalayan glacier of this size . They were the first to explore its many side glaciers and the maps created by their Italian porters helped map the region for the first time . They recorded the physiological effects of high altitude , studied glaciers and ice pinnacles , and took meteorological measurements , including altitude data recorded with both aneroid barometers and boiling point thermometers .
The Workmans ' exploration of the Rose Glacier and the 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 72 km ) Siachen Glacier in Baltistan around Masherbrum in 1911 and 1912 was the most important achievement of their careers because it was the widest and longest subpolar glacier in the world and at the time , the least explored and accessible glacier as well . For two months , the Workmans explored the 45 @-@ mile glacier , climbed several mountains , and mapped the area . They spent the entire time over 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , the high point being Indira Col which they summitted and named . On this expedition , one of their Italian guides fell into a crevasse and died ; Fanny was lucky to escape . The others were badly shaken but decided to carry on . Fanny led them across the Sia La pass ( 18 @,@ 700 feet or 5 @,@ 700 metres ) near the head of the Siachen Glacier and through a previously unexplored region to the Kaberi Glacier . This exploration and the resulting book were among her greatest accomplishments . As she wrote in her book about the trip , Two Summers in the Ice @-@ Wilds of Eastern Karakoram , she organized and led this expedition : " Dr. Hunter Workman accompanied me , this time , in charge with me of commissariat and as photographer and glacialist , but I was the responsible leader of this expedition , and on my efforts , in a large measure , must depend the success or failure of it " . At one 21 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) plateau , Fanny unfurled a " Votes for Women " newspaper and her husband snapped an iconic picture . They took trained Alpine guides and surveyors including Grant Peterkin and Surjan Singh , whose contributions ensured that , unlike numerous other maps the Workmans helped create , their map of the Siachen Glacier remained unchallenged for many years .
= = Later life and death = =
After their 1908 – 12 trip , the couple stopped exploring and turned to writing and lecturing , primarily because of the onset of World War I in 1914 . Fanny Workman became the first American woman to lecture at the Sorbonne in Paris . She was also one of the first women to be admitted as a member of the Royal Geographical Society , a distinction she earned because her publications included scientific reflections on glaciation and other phenomena . She also earned medals of honor from 10 European geographical societies and was eventually elected a member of the American Alpine Club , Royal Asiatic Society , Club Alpino Italiano , Deutscher und Österreichischer Alpenverein , and Club alpin français . She was very proud of these achievements , listing them on the title pages of her books .
Fanny Workman fell ill in 1917 and died after a long illness in 1925 in Cannes , France . Her ashes were buried in Massachusetts , and are now reinterred along with her husband 's , under a monument in Worcester Massachusetts ' Rural Cemetery that reads " Pioneer Himalayan Explorers " . In her will , she left $ 125 @,@ 000 to four colleges , Radcliffe , Wellesley , Smith , and Bryn Mawr ; the bequests were demonstrative of her long @-@ lasting interest in the advancement of women 's rights , and her belief that women were the equals of men .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Women in climbing = = =
Along with Annie Smith Peck , Workman was recognized during the early 20th century as one of the most famous female climbers in the world . Their rivalry demonstrated that women could climb the most remote and difficult terrain on the planet , and achieve the same accomplishments as male mountaineers . It was not until Peck and Workman 's feats that women had been involved in mountaineering , though they had climbed regularly in the Alps since the 1850s . In the Himalaya , in particular , mountaineering had been dominated by wealthy Englishmen . No other women , however , climbed in the Himalaya until well after World War I , by which time improvements in equipment and organization had reduced the risk and the difficulty of the expeditions .
Workman , herself an ardent feminist and a supporter of women 's suffrage , wanted her readers to understand how her contributions and achievements reflected all women 's potential . In her writings , Workman described herself as " questioning or violating the norms of Victorian female propriety " . She demonstrated that women were strong enough to thrive outside the home by showing how easy it was for her to endure strenuous physical activities like bicycling long distances in hot , humid places or mountaineering in cold temperatures and high altitudes . Workman challenged a masculine realm ; her obituary in the Alpine Journal alluded to the challenges she faced , saying that she " felt that she suffered from ' sex antagonism ' " . The author of the piece added : " it is possible that some unconscious feeling let us say of the novelty of a woman 's intrusion into the domain of exploration so long reserved to man , may in some quarters have existed ... there tended to arise ... an atmosphere shall we say of aloofness ? " However , in her study of Victorian mountaineering , Ann Colley suggests that gender discrimination was more overt at lower elevations and in regular life than at higher elevations , such as in the Himalaya . Colley states , " Away from such petty opinion emanating from society pressures , up high , above the snow line or in distant regions , women climbers could more fully experience equality and power ... If they chose , they could be just as sportsmanlike or competitive as the men . " In her entry about Workman in the Dictionary of Literary Biography , Tingley sums Workman up as " an aggressive , determined , and uncompromising turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century American woman traveler " and " one of the first women to work as a professional mountaineer and surveyor and to write about the expeditions she and her husband took to the most remote reaches of the Himalaya . She was an outspoken advocate of woman 's suffrage and made it clear that she considered herself to be a role model for other women travelers and mountaineers . "
As a result of the money Workman left in her will , Wellesley College offers a $ 16 @,@ 000 fellowship named after Fanny Workman for graduate study in any discipline to a Wellesley graduate each year . Bryn Mawr established a Fanny Bullock Workman Traveling Fellowship , which is awarded to Ph.D candidates in Archaeology or Art History when funds permit .
= = = Exploration of the Himalaya = = =
The many books and articles produced by the Workmans are " still useful " according to Mason , especially for their photographs and illustrations , but their maps are " deceptive and not always reliable " . One assessment states that although the Workmans excelled at describing meteorological conditions , glaciology , and how high altitudes affected human health and fitness , they were poor topographers . The Workmans were some of the first mountaineers to grasp that the Himalaya were the place for the ultimate climbing challenge and their explorations helped evolve mountaineering from strenuous recreation into a serious , regulated competitive sport . According to Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar , " that the Workmans were intrepid explorers and climbers none could possibly doubt , but they were also aggressive self @-@ promoters who in their eagerness for recognition and honors sometimes exaggerated the originality and significance of what they had done . " In their final assessment , Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar say " they had logged more miles and climbed more peaks than anyone to date ; they had produced five sumptuously illustrated and widely read expedition volumes ; and by simple virtue of her sex Fanny of course had set an invaluable Himalayan precedent . But the Workmans were not great mountaineers . At their best they were vigorous and competent patrons who followed capably in the hard @-@ won steps of their Italian guides . " However , in his chapter on Workman , Pauly writes that " the few recent accounts of Fanny Workman have tended to slight or belittle her achievements , but contemporaries , unaware of the far greater accomplishments to come , held the Workmans in high regard . " They were the first Americans to explore the Himalaya in depth and break the British monopoly over Himalayan mountaineering .
= = = Books = = =
Algerian memories : a bicycle tour over the Atlas to the Sahara . London : T.F. Unwin . 1895 @.@ p . 216 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Sketches awheel in modern Iberia . London : Unwin . 1897 @.@ p . 280 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
In the ice world of Himálaya , among the peaks and passes of Ladakh , Nubra , Suru , and Baltistan . New York : Cassell & Company , Limited . 1900 @.@ p . 204 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Ice @-@ Bound Heights of the Mustagh : An Account of Two seasons of Pioneer Exploration and High Climbing in the Baltistan Himalaya . London : A. Constable & Co . 1908 @.@ p . 444 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Peaks and Glaciers of Nun Kun : A Record of Pioneer @-@ Exploration and Mountaineering in the Punjab Himalaya . London : Constable and Company Ltd . 1909 @.@ p . 411 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
The Call of the Snowy Hispar : A Narrative of Exploration and Mountaineering on the Northern Frontier of India . New York : Scribner . 1911 @.@ p . 520 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Two Summers in the Ice @-@ Wilds of Eastern Karakoram : The Exploration of Nineteen Hundred Square Miles of Mountain and Glacier . New York : E. P. Dutton & Company . 1916 @.@ p . 578 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
= = = Articles = = =
" Among the Great Himalayan Glaciers . " National Geographic 13 ( Nov. 1920 ) : 405 – 406 .
" First Ascents of the Hoh Lumba and the Sosbon Glaciers in the Northwest Himalayas . " Independent 55 ( December 31 , 1903 ) : 3108 – 12 .
Through Town and Jungle : Fourteen Thousand Miles A @-@ Wheel Among the Temples and People of the Indian Plain . London : Unwin , 1904 .
" Miss Peck and Mrs. Workman . " Scientific American 102 ( Feb 12 and April 16 , 1910 ) ; 143 , 319 .
" Recent First Ascents in the Himalaya . " Independent 68 ( June 2 , 1910 ) : 1202 – 10 .
" Conquering the Great Rose . " Harper 129 ( June 1914 ) : 44 – 45 .
" Exploring the Rose . " Independent 85 ( January 10 , 1916 ) : 54 – 56 .
" Four Miles High . " Independent 86 ( June 5 , 1916 ) : 377 – 378 .
= = = Cited sources = = =
Colley , Ann C. ( 2010 ) . Victorians in the Mountains : Sinking the Sublime . Farnham : Ashgate . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4094 @-@ 0634 @-@ 1 .
Ellis , Reuben ( 2001 ) . Vertical Margins : Mountaineering and the Landscapes of Neoimperialism . Madison : University of Wisconsin Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 17000 @-@ 4 .
Ernie @-@ Steighner , Jenny ( 2009 ) . " Delightful Escapes : U.S. Female Mountaineers Travel Abroad , 1890 – 1915 " . Thinking Gender Papers ( Los Angeles : UCLA Center for the Study of Women ) . Retrieved 22 October 2013 .
Isserman , Maurice ; Weaver , Stewart ; Molenaar , Dee ( 2008 ) . Fallen Giants : A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes . New Haven : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 11501 @-@ 7 .
Jordan , Jennifer ( 2009 ) . Savage Summit : The Life and Death of the First Women of K2 . New York : HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 175352 @-@ 7 .
Kraig , Beth ( 1999 ) . " Fanny Bullock Workman " . In Garraty , John A. ; Carnes , Mark C. American National Biography 23 . New York and Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 877 – 879 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 512802 @-@ 8 .
Mason , Kenneth ( 1955 ) . Abode of Snow : A History of Himalayan Exploration and Mountaineering . New York : E.P. Dutton & Co . , Inc .
Middleton , Dorothy ( 1965 ) . Victorian Lady Travellers . New York : E.P. Dutton & Co . , Inc .
Miller , Luree ( 1976 ) . On Top of the World : Five Women Explorers in Tibet . Frome : Padding Press Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 8467 @-@ 0138 @-@ 3 .
Pauly , Thomas H. ( 2012 ) . Game Faces : Five Early American Champions and the Sports They Changed . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 3817 @-@ 6 .
Plint , Michael ( 1992 – 1993 ) . " The Workmans : Travellers Extraordinary " ( PDF ) . Alpine Journal 97 : 231 – 237 . Retrieved 15 October 2013 .
Tingley , Stephanie A. ( 1998 ) . " Fanny Bullock Workman " . In Ross , Donald ; Schramer , James J. Dictionary of Literary Biography : American Travel Writers , 1850 – 1915 189 . Detroit : Gale. pp. 360 – 365 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7876 @-@ 1844 @-@ 6 .
Tinling , Marion ( 1989 ) . Women into the Unknown : A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers . New York : Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 25328 @-@ 5 .
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= Grammy Award for Video of the Year =
The Grammy Award for Video of the Year was an honor presented to recording artists at the 24th Grammy Awards in 1982 and the 25th Grammy Awards in 1983 for music videos . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
First presented in 1982 to Michael Nesmith for Elephant Parts , the award was reserved for quality " video cassettes or discs in any format created specifically for the home video market " . In 1983 , Olivia Newton @-@ John was presented the award for Olivia Physical . Beginning with the 1984 Grammy Awards , the Video of the Year award category was replaced with the categories Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album ( now known as Best Music Video and Best Music Film , respectively ) .
= = Recipients = =
Nominees for the 24th Grammy Awards ( 1982 ) , Video of the Year included : Eubie Blake for One Night Stand : A Keyboard Event , the band Blondie for Eat to the Beat , Bruce Seth Green for the participative video collection of puzzles and games known as The First National Kidisc , and Michael Nesmith , former member of The Monkees , for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts ) . One Night Stand was a recording of a jazz program billed as " an evening of all @-@ stars " at Carnegie Hall , with appearances by Kenny Barron , Arthur Blythe , George Duke , Herbie Hancock , Roland Hanna , Bobby Hutcherson and ten other musicians . Blondie 's video cassette Eat to the Beat accompanied their 1979 album of the same title . The First National Kidisc , one of the first interactive and educational videodiscs , contained activities designed for children . Without " fancy digital effects " , Green 's Kidisc provided five to ten hours of interactive capability within a 30 @-@ minute video through the use of dual audio tracks , freeze framing , slow motion , and other techniques . Features included plane flying , jokes , paper plane construction , music performance , and other games .
The award went to Nesmith , who is known for creating one of the first companies to distribute television programs and films on home video , and for establishing the television music video format that eventually became MTV . In 1976 , Nesmith produced a video for his song " Rio " , and later incorporated it into the " montage of music and gags " called Elephant Parts after starting the company Pacific Arts Video Records . In 1985 , Elephant Parts was adapted into a seven @-@ episode summer series on NBC titled Michael Nesmith in Television Parts .
Nominees for the 25th Grammy Awards included : Elton John for Visions : Elton John , Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical , the rock band The Tubes for The Tubes Video , a recording of Jacques Offenbach 's opera The Tales of Hoffman by the Royal Opera conducted by Georges Prêtre with Plácido Domingo , and the interactive disc for children Fun and Games by various artists ( produced by Margaret Murphy ) . Both Visions and The Tubes Video were directed by Russell Mulcahy . Visions consisted of " artistic " videos for all of the songs on John 's 1981 album The Fox . According to The Tubes ' official site , the now out of print video collection contained music videos primarily for tracks that appeared on their 1981 album The Completion Backward Principle . The award was presented to Newton @-@ John ( then her fourth Grammy Award ) in February 1983 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . Released a few years following her role in the 1978 film Grease , the aerobics video contained songs from her 1981 album Physical as well as enough sexual innuendo and provocation to generate controversy .
= = Category retirement = =
The Video of the Year category was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 , whose top award is also presented for Video of the Year . The Academy replaced the category with awards for Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album beginning with the 26th Grammy Awards . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and honors were presented for the categories Best Concept Music Video and Best Performance Music Video . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the two categories were renamed Best Long Form Music Video ( changed to Best Music Film in 2014 ) and Best Short Form Music Video ( shortened to Best Music Video in 2014 ) respectively .
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= All of Creation ( song ) =
" All of Creation " is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . The song , written by MercyMe , Brown Bannister , and Dan Muckala , lyrically revolves around the themes of love , life , and belief , as well as the foundation of Christian faith . The song was intended to refer to the birth , death , and resurrection of Jesus in each verse and has been described as ' pop ' and ' worship ' .
Released to radio on January 29 , 2010 as the lead single from MercyMe 's 2010 album The Generous Mr. Lovewell , " All of Creation " attained considerable success on Christian radio . The single spent ten weeks atop Billboard magazine 's Hot Christian Songs chart and eleven weeks atop the Christian AC Monitored chart , and peaked at No. 1 on the Soft AC / Inspo chart . The song also peaked inside the top ten on the Christian CHR chart , No. 2 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , and at No. 14 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . The song was ranked at the top spot on Billboard magazine 's 2010 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , as well as at No. 16 on the year @-@ end Christian Digital Songs chart and No. 23 on the year @-@ end Christian CHR chart . " All of Creation " was nominated for " Song of the Year " and " Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year " at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards , and was nominated for " Christian Song of the Year " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Kevin Davis of New Release Tuesday , lead singer Bart Millard said the idea behind the song was related to the theme of the album The Generous Mr. Lovewell . Millard stated , " The entire album deals with three main aspects of love . The theme of the record is to ' love well ' as Jesus commands us in the greatest commandment . There are songs about inward love such as in our song ' Beautiful . ' There are songs based on ' we love because He first loved us , ' which is the basis of this first single , ' All of Creation ' . " Millard also said , " I set out to write a song that was confessional and refers to the birth , death and resurrection of Jesus in each verse . It was my intent to mention every stage of Christ ’ s condescension and atoning sacrifice throughout the song . "
= = Composition = =
" All of Creation " is a Christian rock song with a length of 3 minutes and 56 seconds . It is set in common time and the key of B ♭ major with a steady rock tempo of 104 beats per minute . The song has also been described as ' pop ' and ' worship ' .
Lyrical themes in the song include love , life , and belief . Lead singer Bart Millard intended the song to refer to the birth , death , and resurrection of Jesus in each verse . Guitarist Mike Scheuchzer said the song is " a picture of the change we want to see in our own lives . Without love like this , everything we do , everything we are , is in vain . "
Millard also noted , " Not a lot of songs mention the foundation of what we believe in . The whole idea that Christ was born of a virgin , he died on the cross , he rose again . Just the basic principles of Christianity " . He also commented that " the song kind of takes us there , I say ' kind of ' because the first line used to be talking about until a child was born , but it was instantly a Christmas song ... but it does , the first verse goes through talking about how we were completely separated until the cross , basically . " Regarding the chorus of the song , Millard said " the whole idea of the chorus and the sense that it brings in , with the tons of voices singing , is the fact that there 's a day thats going to come when we are going to worship and be as one . "
= = Release and promotion = =
" All of Creation " was officially released to radio on January 29 , 2010 and as a digital single on March 2 , 2010 . The song also had a limited CD single release at select Walmart locations .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reception to " All of Creation " was mixed to positive . While Kevin Davis of Christianmusicreview called the song " ( a ) worship chorus written for the church in the style of ' You Reign ' or ' God With Us ' " and Kevin McNeese of New Release Tuesday called the song " amazing " , Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout , while noting that " it 's not a bad song by any means " , stated that " ( it ) sounds precisely like the successful singles that have made MercyMe famous ... there 's nothing new that 's offered that hasn 't been heard before from the band " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" All of Creation " debuted at No. 31 for the chart week of February 13 , 2010 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart . It advanced to No. 21 in its second chart week , and to No. 10 in its third week . The song advanced to No. 3 in its seventh chart week , and to No. 2 in its ninth chart week . In its tenth chart week , " All of Creation " advanced to No. 1 , a position it held for ten consecutive weeks . The song dropped to No. 2 in its nineteenth chart week , and held that spot for an additional week before dropping to No. 3 . " All of Creation " held the No. 3 spot for seven consecutive weeks before dropping to No. 6 and spent an additional ten weeks on the chart before dropping out . " All of Creation " spent a total of thirty @-@ eight weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart . On the Heatseekers Songs chart , " All of Creation " debuted at No. 16 for the chart week of March 20 , 2010 . The song dropped to No. 22 the following week but advanced to No. 15 in its fourth chart week . It reached its peak of No. 14 for the chart week of April 24 , 2010 , and spent another nine weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , the song spent fifteen weeks on the Heatseekers Songs chart . " All of Creation " spent eleven weeks atop the Billboard Christian AC Monitored chart , the longest run MercyMe has spent at No. 1 in their career . The song also topped the Hot Christian AC and Soft AC / Inspo charts and peaked inside the top 10 on the Christian CHR chart , as well as at No. 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .
" All of Creation " was listed on several year @-@ end charts in 2010 . It ranked at No. 1 on the Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , No. 16 on the Christian Digital Songs chart , and No. 23 on the Christian CHR chart .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
" All of Creation " was nominated for two awards at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards : " Song of the Year " and " Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year " . It was also nominated for " Christian Song of the Year " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" All of Creation " – 3 : 56
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
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= Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy =
The assassination of Robert Francis " Bobby " Kennedy , a United States Senator and brother of assassinated President John Fitzgerald " Jack " Kennedy , took place shortly after midnight on June 5 , 1968 , in Los Angeles , California , during the campaign season for the 1968 presidential election .
After winning the California and South Dakota primary elections for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States , Kennedy was fatally shot as he walked through the kitchen of the Ambassador Hotel and died in the Good Samaritan Hospital twenty @-@ six hours later . Sirhan Sirhan , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old Palestinian / Jordanian immigrant , was convicted of Kennedy 's murder and is serving a life sentence for the crime . The shooting was recorded on audio tape by a freelance newspaper reporter , and the aftermath was captured on film .
Kennedy 's body lay in repose at St. Patrick 's Cathedral in New York for two days before a funeral Mass was held on June 8 . His body was interred near his brother John at Arlington National Cemetery . His death prompted the protection of presidential candidates by the United States Secret Service . Hubert Humphrey later went on to win the Democratic nomination for the presidency , but ultimately lost the election to Republican Richard Nixon .
As with his brother John 's death , Kennedy 's assassination and the circumstances surrounding it have spawned a variety of conspiracy theories . Kennedy remains one of only two sitting United States Senators to be assassinated , the other being Huey Long .
= = Background = =
Kennedy visited the British Mandate of Palestine in 1948 and wrote dispatches at the time for the Boston Post about his trip and the effect it had on him when he was twenty @-@ two years old . During his stay , he wrote that he grew to admire the Jewish inhabitants of the area . As a Senator , he later became a strong supporter and advocate for Israel .
Kennedy was United States Attorney General from January 1961 until September 3 , 1964 , when he resigned to run for election to the United States Senate . He took office as Senator from New York on January 3 , 1965 .
The run up to the 1968 presidential election saw the incumbent president , Lyndon B. Johnson , serving during a period of social unrest . There were riots in the major cities despite Johnson 's attempts to introduce anti @-@ poverty and anti @-@ discrimination legislation , and there was significant opposition to the ongoing military action in Vietnam .
The assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr. on April 4 , 1968 led to further riots across the US . Kennedy entered the race for the Democratic Party 's nomination for president on March 16 , 1968 — four days after Senator Eugene McCarthy received a large percentage of the vote in the New Hampshire primary against the incumbent President ( 42 % to Johnson 's 49 % ) . Two weeks later , a demoralized Johnson announced he was no longer seeking re @-@ election . One month later , Vice President Hubert Humphrey announced he would seek the presidency . Humphrey did not participate in any primaries but he did obtain the support of many Democratic Party delegates . Following the California primary , Kennedy was in second place with 393 delegates compared to Humphrey 's 561 and McCarthy ’ s 258 .
= = Assassination = =
The 1968 presidential primary elections in California were held on Tuesday , June 4 . The statewide results gave Kennedy 46 % and McCarthy 42 % . Four hours after the polls closed in California , Kennedy claimed victory in the state 's Democratic presidential primary . He spoke by phone with South Dakota Senator George McGovern . At approximately 12 : 10 a.m. PDT on June 5 , he addressed his campaign supporters in the Ambassador Hotel 's Embassy Room ballroom , in the Mid @-@ Wilshire district of Los Angeles . At the time , the government provided Secret Service protection for incumbent presidents but not for presidential candidates . Kennedy 's only security was provided by former FBI agent William Barry and two unofficial bodyguards , former professional athletes . During the campaign , Kennedy had welcomed contact with the public , and people had often tried to touch him in their excitement .
Kennedy had planned to walk through the ballroom when he had finished speaking , on his way to another gathering of supporters elsewhere in the hotel . However , with deadlines fast approaching , reporters wanted a press conference . Campaign aide Fred Dutton decided that Kennedy would forgo the second gathering and instead go through the hotel 's kitchen and pantry area behind the ballroom to the press area . Kennedy finished speaking and started to exit when William Barry stopped him and said , " No , it 's been changed . We 're going this way . " Barry and Dutton began clearing a way for Kennedy to go left through swinging doors to the kitchen corridor , but Kennedy , hemmed in by the crowd , followed maître d 'hôtel Karl Uecker through a back exit .
Uecker led Kennedy through the kitchen area , holding Kennedy 's right wrist but frequently releasing it as Kennedy shook hands with those he encountered . Uecker and Kennedy started down a passageway narrowed by an ice machine against the right wall and a steam table to the left . Kennedy turned to his left and shook hands with busboy Juan Romero just as Sirhan Sirhan stepped down from a low tray @-@ stacker beside the ice machine , rushed past Uecker , and repeatedly fired what was later identified as a .22 caliber Iver @-@ Johnson Cadet revolver .
After Kennedy had fallen to the floor , Agent Barry saw Sirhan holding a gun and hit him twice in the face while others , including maîtres d ' Uecker and Edward Minasian , writer George Plimpton , Olympic gold medal decathlete Rafer Johnson and former professional football player Rosey Grier of the Los Angeles Rams , forced Sirhan against the steam table and disarmed him as he continued firing his gun in random directions . Five other people were also wounded : William Weisel of ABC News , Paul Schrade of the United Auto Workers union , Democratic Party activist Elizabeth Evans , Ira Goldstein of the Continental News Service and Kennedy campaign volunteer Irwin Stroll .
After a minute , Sirhan wrestled free and grabbed the revolver again , but he had already fired all the bullets and was subdued . Barry went to Kennedy and laid his jacket under the candidate 's head , later recalling : " I knew immediately it was a .22 , a small caliber , so I hoped it wouldn 't be so bad , but then I saw the hole in the Senator 's head , and I knew " . Reporters and photographers rushed into the area from both directions , contributing to the confusion and chaos . As Kennedy lay wounded , Juan Romero cradled the senator 's head and placed a rosary in his hand . Kennedy asked Romero , " Is everybody OK ? " and Romero responded , " Yes , everybody 's OK . " Kennedy then turned away from Romero and said , " Everything 's going to be OK . " Captured by Life photographer Bill Eppridge and Boris Yaro of the Los Angeles Times , this moment became the iconic image of the assassination . There was some initial confusion in who was shot , one witness believing that the primary victim was Kennedy 's campaign manager , Stephen Edward Smith . This was quickly realized to be untrue .
Kennedy 's wife Ethel stood outside the crush of people at the scene , seeking help . She was soon led to her husband and knelt beside him . He turned his head and seemed to recognize her . Smith promptly appeared on television and calmly asked for a doctor . After several minutes , medical attendants arrived and lifted Kennedy onto a stretcher , prompting him to whisper , " Don 't lift me ... " which were to become his last words . He lost consciousness shortly thereafter . Kennedy was taken a mile away to Central Receiving Hospital , where he arrived near death . One doctor slapped his face , calling , " Bob , Bob " , while another doctor manually massaged Kennedy 's heart . After obtaining a good heartbeat , doctors handed a stethoscope to Ethel so she could hear her husband 's heart beating , much to her relief .
After about 30 minutes , Kennedy was transferred several blocks to the Hospital of the Good Samaritan for surgery . A gymnasium near the hospital was set up as temporary headquarters for the press and news media to receive updates on the senator 's condition . Surgery began at 3 : 12 a.m. PDT and lasted three hours and 40 minutes . Ten and a half hours later , at 5 : 30 p.m. PDT on Wednesday , spokesman Frank Mankiewicz announced that Kennedy 's doctors were " concerned over his continuing failure to show improvement " ; his condition remained " extremely critical as to life " .
Kennedy had been shot three times . One bullet , fired at a range of about 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) , entered behind his right ear , dispersing fragments throughout his brain . The other two entered at the rear of his right armpit ; one exited from his chest and the other lodged in the back of his neck . Despite extensive neurosurgery at the Good Samaritan Hospital to remove the bullet and bone fragments from his brain , Kennedy died at 1 : 44 A.M. PDT on June 6 , nearly 26 hours after the shooting .
After receiving word of Senator Kennedy 's death , his spokesman Frank Mankiewicz left the hospital and walked to the gymnasium where the press and news media were set up for continuous updates on the situation . At 2 : 00 AM PDT on June 6 , Mankiewicz approached the podium , took a few moments to compose himself and made the official announcement :
I have , uh , a short ..... I have a short announcement to read , which I will read , uh ..... at this time . Senator Robert Francis Kennedy died at 1 : 44 AM today , June 6 , 1968 . With Senator Kennedy at the time of his death were his wife Ethel , his sisters Mrs. Stephen Smith , Mrs. Patricia Lawford , his brother @-@ in @-@ law Mr. Stephen Smith , and his sister @-@ in @-@ law Mrs. John F. Kennedy . He was 42 years old . Thank you .
= = Perpetrator = =
Sirhan Sirhan was a Palestinian Arab with Jordanian citizenship , born in Jerusalem , who held strongly anti @-@ Zionist beliefs . A diary found during a search of Sirhan 's home stated for the entry on May 19 : " My determination to eliminate RFK is becoming more and more of an unshakable obsession . RFK must die . RFK must be killed . Robert F. Kennedy must be assassinated ..... Robert F. Kennedy must be assassinated before 5 June 68 . " It has been suggested that the date of the assassination is significant , because it was the first anniversary of the start of the Six Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbors . When Sirhan was booked by police , they found in his pocket a newspaper article that discussed Kennedy 's support for Israel , and at his trial , Sirhan testified that he began to hate Kennedy after learning of this support . In 1989 , he told David Frost : " My only connection with Robert Kennedy was his sole support of Israel and his deliberate attempt to send those 50 bombers to Israel to obviously do harm to the Palestinians " . Some scholars believe the assassination was one of the first major incidents of political violence in the United States stemming from the Arab – Israeli conflict in the Middle East .
The interpretation that he was mostly motivated by Middle Eastern politics has been criticized as an oversimplification that ignores Sirhan 's deeper psychological problems . During his trial , Sirhan 's lawyers attempted to use a defense of diminished responsibility , while their client tried to confess to the crime and change his plea to guilty on several occasions . Sirhan testified that he had killed Kennedy " with 20 years of malice aforethought " . The judge did not accept this confession and it was later withdrawn .
Sirhan pleaded guilty on April 17 , 1969 , and six days later , he was sentenced to death . The sentence was commuted to life in prison in 1972 after the California Supreme Court , in its decision in California v. Anderson , invalidated all pending death sentences imposed in California prior to 1972 . Since that time , Sirhan has been denied parole fifteen times and is currently confined at the Richard J. Donovan Correctional Facility in southern San Diego County . Sirhan 's lawyers have claimed that he was framed , and Sirhan claims to have no memory of his crime .
= = Media coverage = =
As the shooting took place , ABC News was signing off from its electoral broadcast , while the CBS broadcast was already over . It was not until 21 minutes after the shots that CBS 's coverage of the shooting would begin . The reporters who had been present to report on Kennedy 's win in the primary ended up crowding into the kitchen where he had been shot and the immediate aftermath was captured only by audio recording and cameras that had no live transmission capability . ABC was able to show scant live footage from the kitchen after Kennedy had been transported but unlike CBS and NBC , all of ABC 's coverage from the Ambassador was in black and white . CBS and NBC shot footage in the kitchen of the shooting 's aftermath on color film , which could not be broadcast until it was developed two hours after the incident .
Reporter Andrew West of KRKD , a Mutual Broadcasting System radio affiliate in Los Angeles , captured on audio tape the sounds of the immediate aftermath of the shooting but not the actual shooting itself . Using his reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape recorder and attached microphone , West had just recorded the senator 's victory speech . With the audio still rolling , West asked the Senator the following question :
Andrew West : " Senator , how are you going to counter Mr. Humphrey and his backgrounding you as far as the delegate votes go ? "
Senator Kennedy : " It just goes back to the struggle for it . "
After this brief exchange , West turned off his tape recorder and followed Kennedy and his entourage to the kitchen pantry . Just a few minutes later , seconds after Kennedy was shot , West turned his recorder on again and started reporting the sudden developments .....
Andrew West : " Senator Kennedy has been shot ! Senator Kennedy has been shot ; is that possible ? Is that possible ? It 's ..... is it possible , ladies and gentlemen ? It is possible , he has ..... not only Senator Kennedy , oh my God . Senator Kennedy has been shot , and another man , a Kennedy campaign manager , and possibly shot in the head . "
Several seconds later , West gave an on @-@ the @-@ spot account of the struggle with Sirhan in the hotel kitchen pantry , shouting at Rafer Johnson to " Get the gun , Rafer , get the gun ! " and telling others to " get a hold of [ Sirhan 's ] thumb and break it , if you have to ! Get his thumb ! Hold him , hold him ! We don 't want another Oswald ! "
Over the following week , NBC devoted 55 hours to the shooting and aftermath , ABC 43 , and CBS 42 , with all three networks preempting their regular coverage and advertisements to cover the story .
= = Conspiracy theories = =
As with the 1963 assassination of his brother , President John F. Kennedy , Robert Kennedy 's death has been the subject of widespread analysis . Some individuals involved in the original investigation and some researchers have suggested alternative scenarios for the crime , or have argued that there are serious problems with the official case .
= = = CIA involvement theory = = =
In November 2006 , the BBC 's Newsnight program presented research by filmmaker Shane O 'Sullivan alleging that several CIA officers were present on the night of the assassination . Three men who appear in films and photographs from the night of the assassination were positively identified by former colleagues and associates as former senior CIA officers who had worked together in 1963 at JMWAVE , the CIA 's main anti @-@ Castro station based in Miami . They were JMWAVE Chief of Operations David Morales , Chief of Maritime Operations Gordon Campbell and Chief of Psychological Warfare Operations George Joannides .
The program featured an interview with Morales 's former attorney Robert Walton , who quoted him as having said , " I was in Dallas when we got the son of a bitch and I was in Los Angeles when we got the little bastard . " O 'Sullivan reported that the CIA declined to comment on the officers in question . It was also alleged that Morales was known for his deep anger toward the Kennedys for what he saw as their betrayal during the Bay of Pigs Invasion .
= = = Second gunman theory = = =
The location of Kennedy 's wounds suggested that his assailant had stood behind him , but some witnesses said that Sirhan faced west as Kennedy moved through the pantry facing east . This has led to the suggestion that a second gunman actually fired the fatal shot , a possibility supported by coroner Thomas Noguchi who stated that the fatal shot was behind Kennedy 's right ear and had been fired at a distance of approximately one inch . Other witnesses , though , said that as Sirhan approached , Kennedy was turning to his left shaking hands , facing north and so exposing his right side . During a re @-@ examination of the case in 1975 , the Los Angeles Superior Court ordered expert examination of the possibility of a second gun having been used , and the conclusion of the experts was that there was little or no evidence to support this theory . As recently as 2008 , eyewitness John Pilger asserted his belief that there must have been a second gunman .
In 2007 , analysis of an audio tape recording of the shooting made by freelance reporter Stanislaw Pruszynski appeared to indicate , according to forensic expert Philip Van Praag , that thirteen shots were fired , even though Sirhan 's gun held only eight rounds . Van Praag states that the recording also reveals at least two cases where the timing between shots was shorter than physically possible . The presence of more than eight shots on the tape was corroborated by forensic audio specialists Wes Dooley and Paul Pegas of Audio Engineering Associates in Pasadena , California , forensic audio and ballistics expert Eddy B. Brixen in Copenhagen , Denmark , and audio specialist Phil Spencer Whitehead of the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta , Georgia . Some other acoustic experts , however , have stated that no more than eight shots were recorded on the audio tape .
On February 22 , 2012 , Sirhan 's lawyers , William Pepper and Laurie Dusek , filed a court brief in U.S. District Court in Los Angeles claiming that a second gunman fired the shots that killed Kennedy . It was the fourth and final in a series of federal briefs filed under the writ of habeas corpus by Pepper and Dusek beginning in October 2010 . A ruling is now pending in the Sirhan federal case .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
= = = Memorial = = =
Following the autopsy on June 6 , Kennedy 's body was returned to New York City , where he lay in repose at St. Patrick 's Cathedral , viewed by thousands , until a funeral mass on the morning of June 8 .
Kennedy 's younger brother , Edward Moore " Ted " Kennedy , eulogized him with the words :
My brother need not be idealized , or enlarged in death beyond what he was in life ; to be remembered simply as a good and decent man , who saw wrong and tried to right it , saw suffering and tried to heal it , saw war and tried to stop it . Those of us who loved him and who take him to his rest today , pray that what he was to us and what he wished for others will some day come to pass for all the world . As he said many times , in many parts of this nation , to those he touched and who sought to touch him : " Some men see things as they are and say why . I dream things that never were and say why not . "
Immediately following the mass , Kennedy 's body was transported by a slow @-@ moving train to Washington , D.C. , and thousands of mourners lined the tracks and stations , paying their respects as the train passed by .
On the way to the cemetery , the funeral procession passed through Resurrection City , a shantytown protest set up as part of the Poor People 's Campaign . The procession stopped in front of the Lincoln Memorial , where residents of Resurrection City joined the group and sang " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " .
Kennedy was buried near his older brother John , in Arlington National Cemetery , in the first burial ever to take place there at night ; the second was the burial of his younger brother Ted .
After Kennedy 's assassination , Congress altered the Secret Service 's mandate to include protection for presidential candidates . The remaining candidates were immediately protected under an executive order issued by Lyndon Johnson , putting a strain on the poorly resourced Secret Service .
= = = 1968 election = = =
At the time of his death , Kennedy was substantially behind Humphrey in convention delegate support , but many believe that Kennedy would have ultimately secured the nomination following his victory in the California primary . Only thirteen states held primaries that year , meaning that most delegates at the Democratic convention could choose a candidate based on their personal preference . Historian Arthur M. Schlesinger , Jr . , and others have argued that Kennedy 's broad appeal and charisma would have been sufficiently convincing at the 1968 Democratic National Convention to give him the nomination . Historian Michael Beschloss believed , however , that Kennedy would not have secured the nomination . Humphrey , after a National Convention in Chicago marred by violence in the streets , was far behind in opinion polls but gained ground . He ultimately lost the general election to Republican Richard Nixon by the narrow popular vote margin of 43 @.@ 4 % to 42 @.@ 7 % . Nixon won by a more decisive 301 @-@ 191 margin in the electoral vote .
= = = Cultural and societal impact = = =
Kennedy 's assassination was a blow to the optimism for a brighter future that his campaign brought for many Americans who lived through the turbulent 1960s . Juan Romero , the busboy who shook hands with Kennedy right before he was shot , later said , " It made me realize that no matter how much hope you have it can be taken away in a second . "
Jack Newfield , a reporter that had been traveling with the campaign , expressed his feelings on the effect of the assassination , closing his memoir on Kennedy with :
Now I realized what makes our generation unique , what defines us apart from those who came before the hopeful winter of 1961 , and those who came after the murderous spring of 1968 . We are the first generation that learned from experience , in our innocent twenties , that things were not really getting better , that we shall not overcome . We felt , by the time we reached thirty , that we had already glimpsed the most compassionate leaders our nation could produce , and they had all been assassinated . And from this time forward , things would get worse : our best political leaders were part of memory now , not hope .
The stone was at the bottom of the hill and we were all alone .
= = Artifacts , museums and locations today = =
After the failed campaign of preservationists to preserve the Ambassador Hotel where Kennedy was shot , the hotel was demolished in 2005 – 2006 , with the last section of the Ambassador falling in January 2006 , leaving only the annex that housed the hotel entrance , a shopping arcade , the coffee shop , and the historic Cocoanut Grove , all of which were promised to be preserved in some manner . From 2006 to 2010 , six new schools were built on the site and named the Robert F. Kennedy Community Schools . Plans to re @-@ create the pantry in the area of the school complex and create a museum , dedicated to Kennedy 's assassination , fell through after commission chairman Cruz Reynoso , a former state Supreme Court justice , said in court , " We didn 't want to celebrate the death . We wanted to celebrate his life , particularly his ideals . "
The handcuffs that were used by now @-@ retired police officer Arturo Placecia to arrest Sirhan Sirhan are now part of the collection of the upcoming National Law Enforcement Museum in Washington , D.C ..
The blood @-@ stained suit coat , shorts , shirt , belt , tie and socks which Kennedy wore when he was shot are now in the possession of the Los Angeles County District Attorney . Controversy arose in 2010 when Kennedy 's clothing was transported to the California Homicide Investigators Association conference in Las Vegas , where they were included in a temporary public display of never @-@ before @-@ seen artifacts from famous crime scenes , related to prolific serial killers and infamous murders , such as the Black Dahlia murder and the murder of Hollywood actress Sharon Tate . The items and Kennedy 's clothing were subsequently removed from the exhibit and returned to the LAPD vault , with the LAPD apologizing to the Kennedy family .
Until 1987 , the LAPD retained the original files , reports , transcripts , fragments of the bullets that struck Kennedy and the four other bystanders in the kitchen pantry , the .22 caliber Iver @-@ Johnson handgun used by Sirhan , Kennedy 's blood @-@ stained clothes , and numerous other artifacts related to the assassination . In 1987 , the LAPD donated the entire evidence collection ( except for Kennedy 's clothes which remain in possession of the LAPD ) to the California State Archives in Sacramento for permanent preservation . The collection remains in the California State Archives .
The Robert F. Kennedy Assassination Archives at Southeastern Massachusetts University also contain a large collection of materials on the Robert Kennedy assassination . Included among these records are files donated by several writers and researchers and materials purchased from the National Archives and Records Administration @-@ Pacific Southwest Region , the Los Angeles County District Attorney 's office , and the FBI . Another source of information on the case is the Assassination Archives and Research Center . The Center maintains an extensive collection of government documents , interviews , unpublished manuscripts , photographs , audio tapes , and secondary works .
Some items - such as the bullet @-@ pocked ceiling tiles - were removed long ago and intentionally destroyed by the LAPD and not used in Sirhan 's trial . A large number of the photographs of the pantry area and the tapes of the recorded interviews with individuals who were present during the assassination suffered a similar fate . Conspiracy theorists today believe that the destroyed evidence was vital as it proved that Sirhan Sirhan may have had an accomplice and there has been a cover @-@ up , similar to the assassination of John Kennedy , Robert Kennedy 's brother . Furnishings from the defunct Ambassador Hotel , ranging from bedroom furniture to silver champagne buckets , were auctioned off over the years until the hotel 's demolition .
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= Watchmen =
Watchmen is an American comic @-@ book limited series published by DC Comics in 1986 and 1987 , and collected in 1987 . The series was created by a British collaboration consisting of writer Alan Moore , artist Dave Gibbons , and colorist John Higgins . Watchmen originated from a story proposal Moore submitted to DC featuring superhero characters that the company had acquired from Charlton Comics . As Moore 's proposed story would have left many of the characters unusable for future stories , managing editor Dick Giordano convinced Moore to create original characters instead .
Moore used the story as a means to reflect contemporary anxieties and to deconstruct and parody the superhero concept . Watchmen depicts an alternate history where superheroes emerged in the 1940s and 1960s , helping the United States to win the Vietnam War . In 1985 , the country is edging toward nuclear war with the Soviet Union , freelance costumed vigilantes have been outlawed and most former superheroes are in retirement or working for the government . The story focuses on the personal development and moral struggles of the protagonists as an investigation into the murder of a government sponsored superhero pulls them out of retirement .
Creatively , the focus of Watchmen is on its structure . Gibbons used a nine @-@ panel grid layout throughout the series and added recurring symbols such as a blood @-@ stained smiley face . All but the last issue feature supplemental fictional documents that add to the series ' backstory , and the narrative is intertwined with that of another story , an in @-@ story pirate comic titled Tales of the Black Freighter , which one of the characters reads . Structured , at times , as a nonlinear narrative , the story skips through space , time and plot . In the same manner , entire scenes and dialogue have parallels with others through synchronicity , coincidence and repeated imagery .
A commercial success , Watchmen has received critical acclaim both in the comics and mainstream press , and is considered by several critics and reviewers to be one of the most significant works of 20th @-@ century literature . Watchmen was recognized in Time 's List of the 100 Best Novels as one of the best English language novels published since 1923 , and placed # 91 on The Comics Journal 's list of the top 100 comics of the 20th century .
After a number of attempts to adapt the series into a feature film , director Zack Snyder 's Watchmen was released in 2009 . A video game series , Watchmen : The End Is Nigh , was released in the same year to coincide with the film 's release . In 2012 , DC Comics published Before Watchmen , a comic @-@ book series acting as a prequel to the original Watchmen series , without Moore and Gibbons ' involvement .
= = Publication history = =
Watchmen , created by writer Alan Moore and artist Dave Gibbons , was first published as a 12 @-@ issue miniseries from DC Comics , cover @-@ dated September 1986 to October 1987 . It was subsequently collected in 1987 as a DC Comics trade paperback that has had at least 22 printings as of September 2008 ; as well , a trade paperback was published by Warner Books , a DC sister company , in 1987 .
In February 1988 , DC published a limited @-@ edition , slipcased hardcover volume , produced by Graphitti Design , that contained 48 pages of bonus material , including the original proposal and concept art . In 2005 , DC released Absolute Watchmen , an oversized slipcased hardcover edition of the series in DC 's Absolute Edition format . Assembled under the supervision of Dave Gibbons , Absolute Watchmen included the Graphitti materials , as well as restored and recolored art by John Higgins . That December DC published a new printing of Watchmen issue # 1 at the original 1986 cover price of $ 1 @.@ 50 as part of its " Millennium Edition " line .
In 2012 , DC launched a prequel line , with various creative teams producing the characters ' early adventures before the events of the graphic novel .
In 2016 DC Universe : Rebirth one @-@ shot , numerous symbols of Watchmen , such as the blood @-@ splattered smiley face , and the dialogue between Doctor Manhattan and Ozymandias in the last issue of Watchmen is shown . Further Watchmen imagery was added in the DC Universe : Rebirth Special # 1 second printing , which featured an update to Gary Frank 's cover , better revealing the outstretched hand of Doctor Manhattan in the top right corner .
= = Background and creation = =
In 1985 , DC Comics acquired a line of characters from Charlton Comics . During that period , writer Alan Moore contemplated writing a story that featured an unused line of superheroes that he could revamp , as he had done in his Miracleman series in the early 1980s . Moore reasoned that MLJ Comics ' Mighty Crusaders might be available for such a project , so he devised a murder mystery plot which would begin with the discovery of the body of the Shield in a harbour . The writer felt it did not matter which set of characters he ultimately used , as long as readers recognized them " so it would have the shock and surprise value when you saw what the reality of these characters was " . Moore used this premise and crafted a proposal featuring the Charlton characters titled Who Killed the Peacemaker , and submitted the unsolicited proposal to DC managing editor Dick Giordano . Giordano was receptive to the proposal , but opposed the idea of using the Charlton characters for the story . Moore said , " DC realized their expensive characters would end up either dead or dysfunctional . " Instead , Giordano persuaded Moore to continue with new characters . Moore had initially believed that original characters would not provide emotional resonance for the readers , but later changed his mind . He said , " Eventually , I realized that if I wrote the substitute characters well enough , so that they seemed familiar in certain ways , certain aspects of them brought back a kind of generic super @-@ hero resonance or familiarity to the reader , then it might work . "
Artist Dave Gibbons , who had collaborated with Moore on previous projects , recalled he " must have heard on the grapevine that he was doing a treatment for a new miniseries . I rang Alan up , saying I ’ d like to be involved with what he was doing . " and Moore sent him the story outline . Gibbons told Giordano he wanted to draw the series Moore proposed and Moore approved . Gibbons brought colorist John Higgins onto the project because he liked his " unusual " style ; Higgins lived near the artist , which allowed the two to " discuss [ the art ] and have some kind of human contact rather than just sending it across the ocean " . Len Wein joined the project as its editor , while Giordano stayed on to oversee it . Both Wein and Giordano stood back and " got out of their way " ; Giordano remarked later , " Who copy @-@ edits Alan Moore , for God 's sake ? "
After receiving the go @-@ ahead to work on the project , Moore and Gibbons spent a day at the latter 's house creating characters , crafting details for the story 's milieu and discussing influences . The pair was particularly influenced by a Mad parody of Superman named " Superduperman " ; Moore said , " We wanted to take Superduperman 180 degrees — dramatic , instead of comedic " . Moore and Gibbons conceived of a story that would take " familiar old @-@ fashioned superheroes into a completely new realm " ; the writer said his intention was to create " a superhero Moby Dick ; something that had that sort of weight , that sort of density " . The writer came up with the character names and descriptions , but left the specifics of how they looked to Gibbons . Gibbons did not sit down and design the characters deliberately , but rather " did it at odd times ... spend [ ing ] maybe two or three weeks just doing sketches . " Gibbons designed his characters to make them easy to draw ; Rorschach was his favorite to draw because " you just have to draw a hat . If you can draw a hat , then you 've drawn Rorschach , you just draw kind of a shape for his face and put some black blobs on it and you 're done . "
Moore began writing the series very early on , hoping to avoid publication delays such as those faced by the DC limited series Camelot 3000 . When writing the script for the first issue , Moore said he realized , " I only had enough plot for six issues . We were contracted for 12 ! " His solution was to alternate issues that dealt with the overall plot of the series with origin issues for the characters . Moore wrote very detailed scripts for Gibbons to work from . Gibbons recalled that " [ t ] he script for the first issue of Watchmen was , I think , 101 pages of typescript — single @-@ spaced — with no gaps between the individual panel descriptions or , indeed , even between the pages . " Upon receiving the scripts , the artist had to number each page " in case I drop them on the floor , because it would take me two days to put them back in the right order " , and used a highlighter pen to single out lettering and shot descriptions ; he remarked , " It takes quite a bit of organizing before you can actually put pen to paper . " Despite Moore 's detailed scripts , his panel descriptions would often end with the note " If that doesn 't work for you , do what works best " ; Gibbons nevertheless worked to Moore 's instructions . In fact , Gibbons only suggested a single change to the script : a compression of Ozymandias ' narration while he was preventing a sneak attack by Rorschach , as he felt that the dialog was too long to fit with the amount of action expressed ; Moore agreed and re @-@ wrote the scene . Gibbons had a great deal of autonomy in developing the visual look of Watchmen , and frequently inserted background details that Moore admitted he did not notice until later . Moore occasionally contacted fellow comics writer Neil Gaiman for answers to research questions and for quotes to include in issues .
Despite his intentions , Moore admitted in November 1986 that there were likely to be delays , stating that he was , with issue five on the stands , still writing issue nine . Gibbons mentioned that a major factor in the delays was the " piecemeal way " in which he received Moore 's scripts . Gibbons said the team 's pace slowed around the fourth issue ; from that point onward the two undertook their work " just several pages at a time . I 'll get three pages of script from Alan and draw it and then toward the end , call him up and say , ' Feed me ! ' And he 'll send another two or three pages or maybe one page or sometimes six pages . " As the creators began to hit deadlines , Moore would hire a taxi driver to drive 50 miles and deliver scripts to Gibbons . On later issues the artist even had his wife and son draw panel grids on pages to help save time .
Near the end of the project , Moore realized that the story bore some similarity to " The Architects of Fear " , an episode of The Outer Limits television series . The writer and Wein argued over changing the ending , and when Moore refused to give in , Wein quit the book . Wein explained , " I kept telling him , ' Be more original , Alan , you 've got the capability , do something different , not something that 's already been done ! ' And he didn 't seem to care enough to do that . " Moore acknowledged the Outer Limits episode by referencing it in the series ' last issue .
= = Story = =
Watchmen is set in an alternate reality that closely mirrors the contemporary world of the 1980s . The primary difference is the presence of superheroes . The point of divergence occurs in the year 1938 . Their existence in this version of America is shown to have dramatically affected and altered the outcomes of real @-@ world events such as the Vietnam War and the presidency of Richard Nixon . In keeping with the realism of the series , although the costumed crimefighters of Watchmen are commonly called " superheroes " , only one ( Doctor Manhattan ) possesses any superhuman powers . The war in Vietnam ends with a U.S. victory in 1971 and Nixon is still president as of October 1985 . The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan occurs approximately six years later than in real life . When the story begins , the existence of Doctor Manhattan has given the U.S. a strategic advantage over the Soviet Union , which has increased tensions between the two nations . Eventually , superheroes grow unpopular among the police and the public , leading to the passage of legislation ( the Keene Act ) in 1977 to outlaw them . While many of the heroes retired , Doctor Manhattan and a veteran superhero known as The Comedian operate as government @-@ sanctioned agents . Another , Rorschach , continues to operate outside the law .
= = = Plot = = =
In October 1985 , New York City police are investigating the murder of Edward Blake . With the police having no leads , costumed vigilante Rorschach decides to probe further . Discovering Blake to be the face behind The Comedian , a costumed hero employed by the United States government , Rorschach believes he has discovered a plot to terminate costumed adventurers and sets about warning four of his retired comrades : Dan Dreiberg ( formerly the second Nite Owl ) , the superpowered and emotionally detached Doctor Manhattan and his lover Laurie Juspeczyk ( the second Silk Spectre ) , and Adrian Veidt ( once the hero Ozymandias , and now a successful businessman ) .
After Blake 's funeral , Manhattan is accused on national television of being the cause of cancer in friends and former colleagues . When the U.S. government takes the accusations seriously , Manhattan exiles himself to Mars . As Manhattan is one of the United States ' greatest military powers , his departure throws humanity into political turmoil , with the Soviet Union invading Afghanistan to capitalize on the perceived American weakness . Rorschach 's concerns appear vindicated when Adrian Veidt narrowly survives an assassination attempt , and Rorschach himself is framed for murdering Moloch , a former supervillain .
Neglected in her relationship with the once @-@ human Manhattan , whose now @-@ godlike powers and transformation have removed him completely from the everyday concerns of living beings and no longer kept on retainer by the government , Juspeczyk stays with Dreiberg ; they begin a romance , don their costumes , and resume vigilante work as they grow closer together . With Dreiberg starting to believe some aspects of Rorschach 's conspiracy theory , the pair take it upon themselves to break him out of prison . Manhattan , after looking back on his own personal history , places the fate of his involvement with human affairs in Juspeczyk 's hands . He teleports her to Mars to make the case for emotional investment . During the course of the argument , Juspeczyk is forced to come to terms with the fact that Blake , who once attempted to rape her mother , was in fact her biological father following a second , consensual relationship . This discovery , reflecting the complexity of human emotions and relationships , re @-@ sparks Manhattan 's interest in humanity .
On Earth , Nite Owl and Rorschach continue to uncover the conspiracy surrounding the death of The Comedian and the accusations that drove Manhattan into exile . They discover evidence that Veidt may be behind the plan . Rorschach writes his suspicions about Veidt in his journal , in which he has been recording his entire investigation , and mails it to New Frontiersman , a local right @-@ wing newspaper . The pair then leave New York and confront Veidt at his Antarctic retreat . Veidt explains his underlying plan is to save humanity from impending nuclear war between the United States and Soviet Union by faking an alien invasion in New York City , which will annihilate half the city 's population . He hopes this will unite the nations against a perceived common enemy . He also reveals that he had murdered The Comedian , arranged for Dr. Manhattan 's past associates to contract cancer , staged the attempt on his own life in order to place himself above suspicion , and killed Moloch in order to frame Rorschach . This was all done in an attempt to prevent his plan from being exposed . Nite Owl and Rorschach find Veidt 's logic callous and abhorrent , but Veidt has already enacted his plan .
When Manhattan and Juspeczyk arrive back on Earth , they are confronted by mass destruction and wide scale death in New York City , with a gigantic Cthulhu @-@ like creature , created by Veidt 's laboratories , dead in the middle of the city . Manhattan notices his abilities are limited by tachyons emanating from the Antarctic , and the pair teleport there . They discover Veidt 's involvement and confront him . Veidt shows everyone news broadcasts confirming the cessation of global hostilities and cooperation against a new threat ; this leads almost all present to agree that concealing Veidt 's truth from the public is in the best interests of the world to keep it united . Rorschach refuses to compromise and leaves , intent on revealing the truth . As he is making his way back , he is confronted by Manhattan . Rorschach tells Manhattan that he will have to kill him to stop him from exposing Veidt and his actions , and Manhattan responds by vaporizing him . Manhattan then wanders through the base and finds Veidt , who asks him if he did the right thing in the end . In response , Manhattan states that " Nothing ever ends " before leaving the Earth to create life elsewhere . Dreiberg and Juspeczyk go into hiding under new identities and continue their romance . Back in New York , the editor at New Frontiersman complains about having to pull a two @-@ page column about Russia due to the new political climate . He asks his assistant to find some filler material from the " crank file " , a collection of rejected submissions to the paper , many of which have not been reviewed yet . The series ends with the young man reaching toward the pile of discarded submissions , near the top of which is Rorschach 's journal .
= = Characters = =
With Watchmen , Alan Moore 's intention was to create four or five " radically opposing ways " to perceive the world and to give readers of the story the privilege of determining which one was most morally comprehensible . Moore did not believe in the notion of " [ cramming ] regurgitated morals " down the readers ' throats and instead sought to show heroes in an ambivalent light . Moore said , " What we wanted to do was show all of these people , warts and all . Show that even the worst of them had something going for them , and even the best of them had their flaws . "
Walter Joseph Kovacs / Rorschach
A vigilante who wears a white mask that contains a symmetrical but constantly shifting ink blot pattern , he continues to fight crime in spite of his outlaw status . Moore said he was trying to " come up with this quintessential Steve Ditko character — someone who 's got a funny name , whose surname begins with a ' K , ' who 's got an oddly designed mask " . Moore based Rorschach on Ditko 's creation Mr. A ; Ditko 's Charlton character The Question also served as a template for creating Rorschach . Comics historian Bradford W. Wright described the character 's world view " a set of black @-@ and @-@ white values that take many shapes but never mix into shades of gray , similar to the ink blot tests of his namesake " . Rorschach sees existence as random and , according to Wright , this viewpoint leaves the character " free to ' scrawl [ his ] own design ' on a ' morally blank world ' " . Moore said he did not foresee the death of Rorschach until the fourth issue when he realized that his refusal to compromise would result in him not surviving the story .
Edward Blake / The Comedian
One of two government @-@ sanctioned heroes ( along with Doctor Manhattan ) who remain active after the Keene Act is passed in 1977 to ban superheroes . His murder , which occurs shortly before the first chapter begins , sets the plot of Watchmen in motion . The character appears throughout the story in flashbacks and aspects of his personality are revealed by other characters . The Comedian was based on the Charlton Comics character Peacemaker , with elements of the Marvel Comics spy character Nick Fury added . Moore and Gibbons saw The Comedian as " a kind of Gordon Liddy character , only a much bigger , tougher guy " . Richard Reynolds described The Comedian as " ruthless , cynical , and nihilistic , and yet capable of deeper insights than the others into the role of the costumed hero . " He attempts to rape the first Silk Spectre in the 1940s . Issue nine reveals that years later he fathered her daughter Laurie as part of a consensual sexual relationship .
Dr. Jon Osterman / Doctor Manhattan
A superpowered being who is contracted by the United States government . Scientist Jon Osterman gained power over matter when he was caught in an " Intrinsic Field Subtractor " in 1959 . Doctor Manhattan was based upon Charlton 's Captain Atom , who in Moore 's original proposal was surrounded by the shadow of nuclear threat . However , the writer found he could do more with Manhattan as a " kind of a quantum super @-@ hero " than he could have with Captain Atom . In contrast to other superheroes who lacked scientific exploration of their origins , Moore sought to delve into nuclear physics and quantum physics in constructing the character of Dr. Manhattan . The writer believed that a character living in a quantum universe would not perceive time with a linear perspective , which would influence the character 's perception of human affairs . Moore also wanted to avoid creating an emotionless character like Spock from Star Trek , so he sought for Dr. Manhattan to retain " human habits " and to grow away from them and humanity in general . Gibbons had created the blue character Rogue Trooper , and explained he reused the blue skin motif for Doctor Manhattan as it resembles white skin tonally , but has a different hue . Moore incorporated the color into the story , and Gibbons noted the rest of the comic 's color scheme made Manhattan unique . Moore recalled that he was unsure if DC would allow the creators to depict the character as fully nude , which partially influenced how they portrayed the character . Gibbons wanted to be tasteful in depicting Manhattan 's nudity , selecting carefully when full frontal shots would occur and giving him " understated " genitals — like a classical sculpture — so the reader would not initially notice it .
Daniel Dreiberg / Nite Owl
A retired superhero who utilizes owl @-@ themed gadgets . Nite Owl was based on the Ted Kord version of the Blue Beetle . Paralleling the way Ted Kord had a predecessor , Moore also incorporated an earlier adventurer who used the name " Nite Owl " , the retired crime fighter Hollis Mason , into Watchmen . While Moore devised character notes for Gibbons to work from , the artist provided a name and a costume design for Hollis Mason he had created when he was twelve . Richard Reynolds noted in Super Heroes : A Modern Mythology that despite the character 's Charlton roots , Nite Owl 's modus operandi has more in common with the DC Comics character Batman . According to Klock , his civilian form " visually suggests an impotent , middle @-@ aged Clark Kent . "
Adrian Veidt / Ozymandias
Drawing inspiration from Alexander the Great , Veidt was once the superhero Ozymandias , but has since retired to devote his attention to the running of his own enterprises . Veidt is believed to be the smartest man on the planet . Ozymandias was based on Peter Cannon , Thunderbolt ; Moore liked the idea of a character who " us [ ed ] the full 100 % of his brain " and " [ had ] complete physical and mental control " . Richard Reynolds noted that by taking initiative to " help the world " , Veidt displays a trait normally attributed to villains in superhero stories , and in a sense he is the " villain " of the series . Gibbons noted , " One of the worst of his sins [ is ] kind of looking down on the rest of humanity , scorning the rest of humanity . "
Laurie Juspeczyk / Silk Spectre
The daughter of Sally Jupiter ( the first Silk Spectre , with whom she has a strained relationship ) and The Comedian . Of Polish heritage , she had been the lover of Doctor Manhattan for years . While Silk Spectre was based partially on the Charlton character Nightshade , Moore was not impressed by the character and drew more from heroines such as Black Canary and Phantom Lady .
= = Art and composition = =
Moore and Gibbons designed Watchmen to showcase the unique qualities of the comics medium and to highlight its particular strengths . In a 1986 interview , Moore said , " What I 'd like to explore is the areas that comics succeed in where no other media is capable of operating " , and emphasized this by stressing the differences between comics and film . Moore said that Watchmen was designed to be read " four or five times " , with some links and allusions only becoming apparent to the reader after several readings . Dave Gibbons notes that , " [ a ] s it progressed , Watchmen became much more about the telling than the tale itself . The main thrust of the story essentially hinges on what is called a macguffin , a gimmick ... So really the plot itself is of no great consequence ... it just really isn 't the most interesting thing about Watchmen . As we actually came to tell the tale , that 's where the real creativity came in . "
Gibbons said he deliberately constructed the visual look of Watchmen so that each page would be identifiable as part of that particular series and " not some other comic book " . He made a concerted effort to draw the characters in a manner different than that commonly seen in comics . The artist tried to draw the series with " a particular weight of line , using a hard , stiff pen that didn 't have much modulation in terms of thick and thin " which he hoped " would differentiate it from the usual lush , fluid kind of comic book line " . In a 2009 interview , Moore recalled that he took advantage of Gibbons ' training as a former surveyor for " including incredible amounts of detail in every tiny panel , so we could choreograph every little thing " . Gibbons described the series as " a comic about comics " . Gibbons felt that " Alan is more concerned with the social implications of [ the presence of super @-@ heroes ] and I 've gotten involved in the technical implications . " The story 's alternate world setting allowed Gibbons to change details of the American landscape , such as adding electric cars , slightly different buildings , and spark hydrants instead of fire hydrants , which Moore said , " perhaps gives the American readership a chance in some ways to see their own culture as an outsider would " . Gibbons noted that the setting was liberating for him because he did not have to rely primarily on reference books .
Colorist John Higgins used a template that was " moodier " and favored secondary colors . Moore stated that he had also " always loved John 's coloring , but always associated him with being an airbrush colorist " , which Moore was not fond of ; Higgins subsequently decided to color Watchmen in European @-@ style flat color . Moore noted that the artist paid particular attention to lighting and subtle color changes ; in issue six , Higgins began with " warm and cheerful " colors and throughout the issue gradually made it darker to give the story a dark and bleak feeling .
= = = Structure = = =
Structurally , certain aspects of Watchmen deviated from the norm in comic books at the time , particularly the panel layout and the coloring . Instead of panels of various sizes , the creators divided each page into a nine @-@ panel grid . Gibbons favored the nine @-@ panel grid system due to its " authority " . Moore accepted the use of the nine @-@ panel grid format , which " gave him a level of control over the storytelling he hadn 't had previously " , according to Gibbons . " There was this element of the pacing and visual impact that he could now predict and use to dramatic effect . " Bhob Stewart of The Comics Journal mentioned to Gibbons in 1987 , that the page layouts recalled those of EC Comics , in addition to the art itself , which Stewart felt particularly echoed that of John Severin . Gibbons agreed that the echoing of the EC @-@ style layouts " was a very deliberate thing " , although his inspiration was rather Harvey Kurtzman , but it was altered enough to give the series a unique look . The artist also cited Steve Ditko 's work on early issues of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man as an influence , as well as Doctor Strange , where " even at his most psychedelic [ he ] would still keep a pretty straight page layout " .
The cover of each issue serves as the first panel to the story . Gibbons said , " The cover of the Watchmen is in the real world and looks quite real , but it 's starting to turn into a comic book , a portal to another dimension . " The covers were designed as close @-@ ups that focused on a single detail with no human elements present . The creators on occasion experimented with the layout of the issue contents . Gibbons drew issue five , titled " Fearful Symmetry " , so the first page mirrors the last ( in terms of frame disposition ) , with the following pages mirroring each other before the center @-@ spread is ( broadly ) symmetrical in layout .
The end of each issue , with the exception of issue twelve , contains supplemental prose pieces written by Moore . Among the contents are fictional book chapters , letters , reports , and articles written by various Watchmen characters . DC had trouble selling ad space in issues of Watchmen , which left an extra eight to nine pages per issue . DC planned to insert house ads and a longer letters column to fill the space , but editor Len Wein felt this would be unfair to anyone who wrote in during the last four issues of the series . He decided to use the extra pages to fill out the series ' backstory . Moore said , " By the time we got around to issue # 3 , # 4 , and so on , we thought that the book looked nice without a letters page . It looks less like a comic book , so we stuck with it . "
= = = Tales of the Black Freighter = = =
Watchmen features a story within a story in the form of Tales of the Black Freighter , a fictional comic book from which scenes appear in issues three , five , eight , ten , and eleven . The fictional comic 's story , " Marooned " , is read by a youth in New York City . Moore and Gibbons conceived a pirate comic because they reasoned that since the characters of Watchmen experience superheroes in real life , " they probably wouldn 't be at all interested in superhero comics . " Gibbons suggested a pirate theme , and Moore agreed in part because he is " a big Bertolt Brecht fan " : the Black Freighter alludes to the song " Seeräuberjenny " ( " Pirate Jenny " ) from Brecht 's Threepenny Opera . Moore theorized that since superheroes existed , and existed as " objects of fear , loathing , and scorn , the main superheroes quickly fell out of popularity in comic books , as we suggest . Mainly , genres like horror , science fiction , and piracy , particularly piracy , became prominent — with EC riding the crest of the wave . " Moore felt " the imagery of the whole pirate genre is so rich and dark that it provided a perfect counterpoint to the contemporary world of Watchmen " . The writer expanded upon the premise so that its presentation in the story would add subtext and allegory . The supplemental article detailing the fictional history of Tales of the Black Freighter at the end of issue five credits real @-@ life artist Joe Orlando as a major contributor to the series . Moore chose Orlando because he felt that if pirate stories were popular in the Watchmen universe that DC editor Julius Schwartz might have tried to lure the artist over to the company to draw a pirate comic book . Orlando contributed a drawing designed as if it were a page from the fake title to the supplemental piece .
In " Marooned " , a young mariner ( called " The Sea Captain " ) journeys to warn his home town of the coming of the Black Freighter , after he survives the destruction of his own ship . He uses the bodies of his dead shipmates as a makeshift raft . When he finally returns home , believing it to be already under the occupation of the Black Freighter 's crew , he kills an innocent couple and then attacks his own wife in their darkened home , mistaking her for a pirate . After realizing what he has done , he returns to the sea shore , where he finds that the Black Freighter has not come to claim the town ; it has come to claim him . He swims out to sea and climbs aboard the ship . According to Richard Reynold , the mariner is " forced by the urgency of his mission to shed one inhibition after another . " Just like Adrian Veidt , he " hopes to stave off disaster by using the dead bodies of his former comrades as a means of reaching his goal " . Moore stated that the story of The Black Freighter ends up specifically describing " the story of Adrian Veidt " and that it can also be used as a counterpoint to other parts of the story , such as Rorschach 's capture and Dr. Manhattan 's self @-@ exile on Mars .
= = = Symbols and imagery = = =
Moore named William S. Burroughs as one of his main influences during the conception of Watchmen . He admired Burroughs ' use of " repeated symbols that would become laden with meaning " in Burroughs ' only comic strip , " The Unspeakable Mr. Hart " , which appeared in the British underground magazine Cyclops . Not every intertextual link in the series was planned by Moore , who remarked that " there 's stuff in there Dave had put in that even I only noticed on the sixth or seventh read " , while other " things ... turned up in there by accident . "
A stained smiley face is a recurring image in the story , appearing in many forms . In The System of Comics , Thierry Groensteen described the symbol as a recurring motif that produces " rhyme and remarkable configurations " by appearing in key segments of Watchmen , notably the first and last pages of the series - spattered with blood on the first , and sauce from a hamburger on the last . Groensteen cites it as one form of the circle shape that appears throughout the story , as a " recurrent geometric motif " and due to its symbolic connotations . Gibbons created a smiley face badge as an element of The Comedian 's costume in order to " lighten " the overall design , later adding a splash of blood to the badge to imply his murder . Gibbons said the creators came to regard the blood @-@ stained smiley face as " a symbol for the whole series " , noting its resemblance to the Doomsday Clock ticking up to midnight . Moore drew inspiration from psychological tests of behaviorism , explaining that the tests had presented the face as " a symbol of complete innocence " . With the addition of a blood splash over the eye , the face 's meaning was altered to become simultaneously radical and simple enough for the first issue 's cover to avoid human detail . Although most evocations of the central image were created on purpose , others were coincidental . Moore mentioned in particular that " the little plugs on the spark hydrants , if you turn them upside down , you discover a little smiley face " .
Other symbols , images and allusion that appeared throughout the series often emerged unexpectedly . Moore mentioned that " [ t ] he whole thing with Watchmen has just been loads of these little bits of synchronicity popping up all over the place " . Gibbons noted an unintended theme was contrasting the mundane and the romantic , citing the separate sex scenes between Nite Owl and Silk Spectre on his couch and then high in the sky on Nite Owl 's airship . In a book of the craters and boulders of Mars , Gibbons discovered a photograph of the Galle crater , which resembles a happy face , which they worked into an issue . Moore said , " We found a lot of these things started to generate themselves as if by magic " , in particular citing an occasion where they decided to name a lock company the " Gordian Knot Lock Company " .
= = Themes = =
The initial premise for the series was to examine what superheroes would be like " in a credible , real world " . As the story became more complex , Moore said Watchmen became about " power and about the idea of the superman manifest within society . " The title of the series refers to the question " Who watches the watchmen ? " , famously posed by the Roman satirist Juvenal ( as " Quis custodiet ipsos custodes ? " ) , although Moore was not aware of the phrase 's classical origins until Harlan Ellison informed him about them . Moore commented in 1987 , " In the context of Watchmen , that fits . ' They 're watching out for us , who 's watching out for them ? ' " The writer stated in the introduction to the Graphitti hardcover of Watchmen that while writing the series he was able to purge himself of his nostalgia for superheroes , and instead he found an interest in real human beings .
Bradford Wright described Watchmen as " Moore 's obituary for the concept of heroes in general and superheroes in particular . " Putting the story in a contemporary sociological context , Wright wrote that the characters of Watchmen were Moore 's " admonition to those who trusted in ' heroes ' and leaders to guard the world 's fate . " He added that to place faith in such icons was to give up personal responsibility to " the Reagans , Thatchers , and other ' Watchmen ' of the world who supposed to ' rescue ' us and perhaps lay waste to the planet in the process " . Moore specifically stated in 1986 that he was writing Watchmen to be " not anti @-@ Americanism , [ but ] anti @-@ Reaganism " , specifically believing that " at the moment a certain part of Reagan 's America isn 't scared . They think they 're invulnerable . " Before the series premiered , Gibbons stated " There 's no overt political message at all . It 's a fantasy extrapolation of what might happen and if people can see things in it that apply to the real America , then they 're reading it into the comic .... " While Moore wanted to write about " power politics " and the " worrying " times he lived in , he stated the reason that the story was set in an alternate reality was because he was worried that readers would " switch off " if he attacked a leader they admired . Moore stated in 1986 that he " was consciously trying to do something that would make people feel uneasy . "
Citing Watchmen as the point where the comic book medium " came of age " , Iain Thomson wrote in his essay " Deconstructing the Hero " that the story accomplished this by " developing its heroes precisely in order to deconstruct the very idea of the hero and so encouraging us to reflect upon its significance from the many different angles of the shards left lying on the ground " . Thomson stated that the heroes in Watchmen almost all share a nihilistic outlook , and that Moore presents this outlook " as the simple , unvarnished truth " to " deconstruct the would @-@ be hero 's ultimate motivation , namely , to provide a secular salvation and so attain a mortal immortality " . He wrote that the story " develops its heroes precisely in order to ask us if we would not in fact be better off without heroes " . Thomson added that the story 's deconstruction of the hero concept " suggests that perhaps the time for heroes has passed " , which he feels distinguishes " this postmodern work " from the deconstructions of the hero in the existentialism movement . Richard Reynolds states that without any supervillains in the story , the superheroes of Watchmen are forced to confront " more intangible social and moral concerns " , adding that this removes the superhero concept from the normal narrative expectations of the genre . Reynolds concludes that the series ' ironic self @-@ awareness of the genre " all mark out Watchmen either as the last key superhero text , or the first in a new maturity of the genre " .
Geoff Klock eschewed the term " deconstruction " in favor of describing Watchmen as a " revisionary superhero narrative . " He considers Watchmen and Frank Miller 's Batman : The Dark Knight Returns to be " the first instances ... of [ a ] new kind of comic book ... a first phase of development , the transition of the superhero from fantasy to literature . " He elaborates by noting that " Alan Moore 's realism ... performs a kenosis towards comic book history ... [ which ] does not ennoble and empower his characters ... Rather , it sends a wave of disruption back through superhero history ... devalue [ ing ] one of the basic superhero conventions by placing his masked crime fighters in a realistic world " . First and foremost , " Moore 's exploration of the [ often sexual ] motives for costumed crimefighting sheds a disturbing light on past superhero stories , and forces the reader to reevaluate — to revision — every superhero in terms of Moore 's kenosis — his emptying out of the tradition . " Klock relates the title to the quote by Juvenal to highlight the problem of controlling those who hold power and quoted repeatedly within the work itself . The deconstructive nature of Watchmen is , Klock notes , played out on the page also as , " [ l ] ike Alan Moore 's kenosis , [ Veidt ] must destroy , then reconstruct , in order to build ' a unity which would survive him . ' "
Moore has expressed dismay that " [ t ] he gritty , deconstructivist postmodern superhero comic , as exemplified by Watchmen ... became a genre " . He said in 2003 that " to some degree there has been , in the 15 years since Watchmen , an awful lot of the comics field devoted to these grim , pessimistic , nasty , violent stories which kind of use Watchmen to validate what are , in effect , often just some very nasty stories that don 't have a lot to recommend them . " Gibbons said that while readers " were left with the idea that it was a grim and gritty kind of thing " , he said in his view the series was " a wonderful celebration of superheroes as much as anything else . "
= = Publication and reception = =
Watchmen was first mentioned publicly in the 1985 Amazing Heroes Preview . When Moore and Gibbons turned in the first issue of their series to DC , Gibbons recalled , " What really clinched it ... was [ writer / artist ] Howard Chaykin , who doesn 't give praise lightly , and who came up and said , ' Dave what you 've done on Watchmen is fuckin ' A. ' " Speaking in 1986 , Moore said , " DC backed us all the way ... and have been really supportive about even the most graphic excesses . " To promote the series , DC Comics released a limited @-@ edition badge ( " button " ) display card set , featuring characters and images from the series . Ten thousand sets of the four badges , including a replica of the blood @-@ stained smiley face badge worn by the Comedian in the story , were released and sold . Mayfair Games introduced a Watchmen module for its DC Heroes Role @-@ playing Game series that was released before the series concluded . The module , which was endorsed by Moore , adds details to the series ' backstory by portraying events that occurred in 1966 .
Watchmen was published in single @-@ issue form over the course of 1986 and 1987 . The limited series was a commercial success , and its sales helped DC Comics briefly overtake its competitor Marvel Comics in the comic book direct market . The series ' publishing schedule ran into delays because it was scheduled with three issues completed instead of the six editor Len Wein believed were necessary . Further delays were caused when later issues each took more than a month to complete . One contemporaneous report noted that although DC solicited issue # 12 for publication in April 1987 , it became apparent " it won 't debut until July or August " .
After the series concluded , the individual issues were collected and sold in trade paperback form . Along with Frank Miller 's 1986 Batman : The Dark Knight Returns miniseries , Watchmen was marketed as a " graphic novel " , a term that allowed DC and other publishers to sell similar comic book collections in a way that associated them with novels and dissociated them from comics . As a result of the publicity given to the books like the Watchmen trade in 1987 , bookstore and public libraries began to devote special shelves to them . Subsequently , new comics series were commissioned on the basis of reprinting them in a collected form for these markets .
Watchmen received critical praise , both inside and outside of the comics industry . Time magazine , which noted that the series was " by common assent the best of breed " of the new wave of comics published at the time , praised Watchmen as " a superlative feat of imagination , combining sci @-@ fi , political satire , knowing evocations of comics past and bold reworkings of current graphic formats into a dysutopian [ sic ] mystery story . " In 1988 , Watchmen received a Hugo Award in the Other Forms category .
= = = Ownership disputes = = =
Disagreements about the ownership of the story ultimately led Moore to sever ties with DC Comics . Not wanting to work under a work for hire arrangement , Moore and Gibbons had a reversion clause in their contract for Watchmen . Speaking at the 1985 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , Moore said , " The way it works , if I understand it , is that DC owns it for the time they 're publishing it , and then it reverts to Dave and me , so we can make all the money from the Slurpee cups . " For Watchmen , Moore and Gibbons received eight percent of the series ' earnings . Moore explained in 1986 that his understanding was that when " DC have not used the characters for a year , they 're ours . " Both Moore and Gibbons said DC paid them " a substantial amount of money " to retain the rights . Moore added , " So basically they 're not ours , but if DC is working with the characters in our interests then they might as well be . On the other hand , if the characters have outlived their natural life span and DC doesn 't want to do anything with them , then after a year we 've got them and we can do what we want with them , which I 'm perfectly happy with . "
Moore said he left DC in 1989 due to the language in his contracts for Watchmen and his V for Vendetta series with artist David Lloyd . Moore felt the reversion clauses were ultimately meaningless , because DC did not intend to let the publications go out of print . He told The New York Times in 2006 , " I said , ' Fair enough , ' [ ... ] ' You have managed to successfully swindle me , and so I will never work for you again . ' " In 2000 , Moore publicly distanced himself from DC 's plans for a 15th anniversary Watchmen hardcover release as well as a proposed line of action figures from DC Direct . While DC wanted to mend its relationship with the writer , Moore felt the company was not treating him fairly in regards to his America 's Best Comics imprint ( launched under the WildStorm comic imprint , which was bought by DC in 1998 ; Moore was promised no direct interference by DC as part of the arrangement ) . Moore added , " As far as I 'm concerned , the 15th anniversary of Watchmen is purely a 15th Anniversary of when DC managed to take the Watchmen property from me and Dave [ Gibbons ] . " Soon afterward , DC Direct cancelled the Watchmen action @-@ figure line , despite the company having displayed prototypes at the 2000 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
= = Prequel projects = =
Moore stated in 1985 that if the limited series was well @-@ received , he and Gibbons would possibly create a 12 @-@ issue prequel series called Minutemen featuring the 1940s superhero group from the story . DC offered Moore and Gibbons chances to publish prequels to the series , such as Rorschach 's Journal or The Comedian 's Vietnam War Diary , as well as hinting at the possibility of other authors using the same universe . Tales of the Comedian 's Vietnam War experiences were floated because The ' Nam was popular at the time , while another suggestion was , according to Gibbons , for a " Nite Owl / Rorschach team " ( in the manner of Randall and Hopkirk ( Deceased ) ) . Neither man felt the stories would have gone anywhere , with Moore particularly adamant that DC not go forward with stories by other individuals . Gibbons was more attracted to the idea of a Minutemen series , because it would have " [ paid ] homage to the simplicity and unsophisticated nature of Golden Age comic books — with the added dramatic interest that it would be a story whose conclusion is already known . It would be , perhaps , interesting to see how we got to the conclusion . "
In 2010 , Moore told Wired that DC offered him the rights to Watchmen back , if he would agree to prequel and sequel projects . Moore said that " if they said that 10 years ago , when I asked them for that , then yeah it might have worked ... But these days I don 't want Watchmen back . Certainly , I don 't want it back under those kinds of terms . " DC Comics co @-@ publishers Dan DiDio and Jim Lee responded , " DC Comics would only revisit these iconic characters if the creative vision of any proposed new stories matched the quality set by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons nearly 25 years ago , and our first discussion on any of this would naturally be with the creators themselves . " Following months of rumors about a potential Watchmen follow @-@ up project , in February 2012 DC announced it was publishing seven prequel series under the " Before Watchmen " banner . Among the creators involved are writers J. Michael Straczynski , Brian Azzarello , Darwyn Cooke , and Len Wein , and artists Lee Bermejo , J. G. Jones , Adam Hughes , Andy Kubert , Joe Kubert , and Amanda Conner . Though Moore has no involvement , Gibbons gave the project his blessing .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film adaptation = = =
There have been numerous attempts to make a film version of Watchmen since 1986 , when producers Lawrence Gordon and Joel Silver acquired film rights to the series for 20th Century Fox . Fox asked Alan Moore to write a screenplay based on his story , but he declined , so the studio enlisted screenwriter Sam Hamm . Hamm took the liberty of re @-@ writing Watchmen 's complicated ending into a " more manageable " conclusion involving an assassination and a time paradox . Fox put the project into turnaround in 1991 , and the project was moved to Warner Bros. , where Terry Gilliam was attached to direct and Charles McKeown to rewrite it . They used the character Rorschach 's diary as a voice @-@ over and restored scenes from the comic book that Hamm had removed . Gilliam and Silver were only able to raise $ 25 million for the film ( a quarter of the necessary budget ) because their previous films had gone over budget . Gilliam abandoned the project because he decided that Watchmen would have been unfilmable . " Reducing [ the story ] to a two or two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour film [ ... ] seemed to me to take away the essence of what Watchmen is about . " he said . After Warner Bros. dropped the project , Gordon invited Gilliam back to helm the film independently . The director again declined , believing that the comic book would be better directed as a five @-@ hour miniseries .
In October 2001 , Gordon partnered with Lloyd Levin and Universal Studios , hiring David Hayter to write and direct . Hayter and the producers left Universal due to creative differences , and Gordon and Levin expressed interest in setting up Watchmen at Revolution Studios . The project did not hold together at Revolution Studios and subsequently fell apart . In July 2004 , it was announced Paramount Pictures would produce Watchmen , and they attached Darren Aronofsky to direct Hayter 's script . Producers Gordon and Levin remained attached , collaborating with Aronofsky 's producing partner , Eric Watson . Aronofsky left to focus on The Fountain and was replaced by Paul Greengrass . Ultimately , Paramount placed Watchmen in turnaround .
In October 2005 , Gordon and Levin met with Warner Bros. to develop the film there again . Impressed with Zack Snyder 's work on 300 , Warner Bros. approached him to direct an adaptation of Watchmen . Screenwriter Alex Tse drew from his favorite elements of Hayter 's script , but also returned it to the original Cold War setting of the Watchmen comic . Similar to his approach to 300 , Snyder used the comic book panel @-@ grid as a storyboard and opted to shoot the entire film using live @-@ action sets instead of green screens . He extended the fight scenes , and added a subplot about energy resources to make the film more topical . Although he intended to stay faithful to the look of the characters in the comic , Snyder intended Nite Owl to look scarier , and made Ozymandias ' armor into a parody of the rubber muscle suits from the 1997 superhero film Batman & Robin . After the trailer to the film premiered in July 2008 , DC Comics president Paul Levitz said that the company had to print more than 900 @,@ 000 copies of Watchmen trade collection to meet the additional demand for the book that the advertising campaign had generated , with the total annual print run expected to be over one million copies . While 20th Century Fox filed a lawsuit to block the film 's release , the studios eventually settled , with Warner agreeing to give Fox 8 @.@ 5 percent of the film 's worldwide gross , including from sequels and spin @-@ offs in return . The film was released to theaters in March 2009 .
The Tales of the Black Freighter segments was adapted as a direct @-@ to @-@ video animated feature to be released that same month . Gerard Butler , who starred in 300 , voices the Captain in the film . The film itself was released on DVD four months after Tales of the Black Freighter , and in November 2009 , a four @-@ disc set was released as the " Ultimate Cut " with the animated film edited back into the main picture . Len Wein , the comic 's editor , wrote a video game prequel entitled Watchmen : The End Is Nigh .
Dave Gibbons became an adviser on Snyder 's film , but Moore has refused to have his name attached to any film adaptations of his work . Moore has stated he has no interest in seeing Snyder 's adaptation ; he told Entertainment Weekly in 2008 , " There are things that we did with Watchmen that could only work in a comic , and were indeed designed to show off things that other media can 't " . While Moore believes that David Hayter 's screenplay was " as close as I could imagine anyone getting to Watchmen " , he asserted he did not intend to see the film if it were made .
= = = Motion comic = = =
In 2008 , Warner Bros. Entertainment released Watchmen Motion Comics , a series of narrated animations of the original comic book . The first chapter was released for purchase in the summer of 2008 on digital video stores , such as iTunes Store . A DVD compiling the full motion comic series was released in March 2009 .
= = = TV series = = =
According to Collider.com , HBO is meeting with Snyder to discuss a potential Watchmen TV series .
= = Legacy = =
A critical and commercial success , Watchmen is highly regarded in the comics industry and is frequently considered by several critics and reviewers as comics ' greatest series and graphic novel . In time , the series has also become one of the best @-@ selling graphic novels ever published . Watchmen was the only graphic novel to appear on Time 's 2005 " All @-@ Time 100 Greatest Novels " list , where Time critic Lev Grossman described the story as " a heart @-@ pounding , heartbreaking read and a watershed in the evolution of a young medium . " It later appeared on Time 's 2009 " Top 10 Graphic Novels " list , where Grossman further praised Watchmen , proclaiming " It ’ s way beyond cliché at this point to call Watchmen the greatest superhero comic ever written @-@ slash @-@ drawn . But it ’ s true . " In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly placed Watchmen at number 13 on its list of the best 50 novels printed in the last 25 years , describing it as " The greatest superhero story ever told and proof that comics are capable of smart , emotionally resonant narratives worthy of the label ' literature ' . " The Comics Journal , however , ranked Watchmen at number 91 on its list of the Top 100 English @-@ language comics of the 20th century .
In Art of the Comic Book : An Aesthetic History , Robert Harvey wrote that , with Watchmen , Moore and Gibbons " had demonstrated as never before the capacity of the [ comic book ] medium to tell a sophisticated story that could be engineered only in comics " . In his review of the Absolute Edition of the collection , Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times wrote that the dark legacy of Watchmen , " one that Moore almost certainly never intended , whose DNA is encoded in the increasingly black inks and bleak storylines that have become the essential elements of the contemporary superhero comic book , " is " a domain he has largely ceded to writers and artists who share his fascination with brutality but not his interest in its consequences , his eagerness to tear down old boundaries but not his drive to find new ones . " Alan Moore himself said his intentions with works like Marvelman and Watchmen were to liberate comics and open them up to new and fresh ideas , thus creating more diversity in the comics world by showing the industry what could be done with already existing concepts . Instead it had the opposite effect , causing the superhero comic to end up stuck in a " depressive ghetto of grimness and psychosis " . In 2009 , Lydia Millet of The Wall Street Journal contested that Watchmen was worthy of such acclaim , and wrote that while the series ' " vividly drawn panels , moody colors and lush imagery make its popularity well @-@ deserved , if disproportionate " , that " it 's simply bizarre to assert that , as an illustrated literary narrative , it rivals in artistic merit , say , masterpieces like Chris Ware 's ' Acme Novelty Library ' or almost any part of the witty and brilliant work of Edward Gorey " .
Watchmen was one of the two comic books , alongside Batman : The Dark Knight Returns , that inspired designer Vincent Connare when he created the Comic Sans font .
In 2009 , Brain Scan Studios released the parody Watchmensch , a comic in which writer Rich Johnston chronicled " the debate surrounding Watchmen , the original contracts , the current legal suits over the Fox contract " .
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= Ro Laren =
Ro Laren is a fictional character who appears on a recurring basis in the fifth , sixth and seventh series of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . Portrayed by Michelle Forbes , she is a member of the Bajoran race who joins the crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ D at the invitation of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) . The character was intended to both be at odds with the series regulars , as well as to replace Wesley Crusher at the conn officer post on the bridge . Forbes was cast to portray Ro , after previously appearing in the series as Dara in the episode " Half a Life " .
The character first appears in the fifth season episode " Ensign Ro " , which reveals elements of Ro 's backstory . She continued to appear throughout that season , and made a further appearance in each of the sixth and seventh seasons . Starfleet sought her aid to help the Cardassians apprehend a Bajoran terrorist . After joining the Enterprise crew , she wants to abandon the engineering section of the vessel following a series of power failures in " Disaster " . Alongside Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) , she is affected by a Romulan experiment in " The Next Phase " and must help prevent the aliens from destroying the Enterprise . In " Rascals " , she is one of the crew who are transformed into children and helps prevent a Ferengi plot . When making her final appearance in " Preemptive Strike " , she is tasked by Starfleet to infiltrate the Maquis , eventually defecting and joining them permanently .
Ro was also planned to be a main character in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . However , Forbes turned down the role , so Kira Nerys was created to replace her . In the non @-@ canonical novels , Ro eventually joins the Bajoran militia and is posted onto Deep Space Nine . She re @-@ joins Starfleet when Bajor joins the Federation , and eventually becomes captain of the station . Reviewers discussed the religious views of Ro , comparing her views to those of Kira . Ro has been received positively by both critics and fans alike . Critics have praised the performances of Forbes , and the interaction of Ro with the existing characters . She has been placed in several polls listing the most popular characters , with Jordan Hoffman calling her the second strongest female character in the franchise .
= = Concept and development = =
During the course of planning out the fifth season of Star Trek : The Next Generation , the producers were looking to add a recurring character who could conflict with the regular cast at times as well as a new conn officer to replace Wesley Crusher . With that in mind , the episode " Ensign Ro " was written by Michael Piller , from a story idea created in conjunction with Rick Berman , to specifically introduce the character of Ensign Ro Laren . The episode was designed to show a backstory for the character , who would be at odds with series creator Gene Roddenberry 's ideal that Starfleet officers should all work together seamlessly . One of her major character traits was that she would be a member of an oppressed people , whose homeworld had been conquered by another . Supervising producer Jeri Taylor explained that they had sought to add some " fresh life " using a darker character .
Michelle Forbes was asked to return to the series , after impressing the producers with her performance as Dara in the episode " Half a Life " . The character was the daughter of Timicin , played by David Ogden Stiers , and supported the tradition that her father should commit ritual suicide upon reaching a certain age . The Bajoran make @-@ up was created on her , with Michael Westmore seeking to make her look different from the rest of the crew but in a way that would not detract from her appearance . Westmore created an appliance over Forbes ' nose , before adding a row of ridges while it was on her face . It was designed to be as thin and weightless as possible , as he wanted the piece to move with Forbes ' facial expressions . Her version of the make @-@ up had seven ridges , while other actors in " Ensign Ro " had different numbers , between five and nine , with the male actors wearing larger pieces .
Piller described the addition of Ro to the cast as one of that season 's biggest accomplishments , and was pleased that it was well received . He added that in " Ensign Ro " , they made a deliberate decision to have Ro embraced by Guinan in order to ensure that the fans warmed to the new addition . Piller felt that when Guinan took Ro to meet Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard in that episode , the character was effectively presenting Ro to the fans of the series and endorsing her . During the writing process , he felt that once he came across the friendship between Guinan and Ro that he believed " we had really done something magnificent " . Forbes , meanwhile , praised the writing and the cast of the series , saying that she had " become very attached to Star Trek " .
Piller was disappointed with the following Ro episode , " Disaster " , as it put her in the position of disbelieving Councillor Deanna Troi without having had the weight of " victories " in the past to convince the viewer of the power of her convictions . But he enjoyed her sudden relationship with Commander William Riker in " Conundrum " . Forbes shared the view of that episode , later saying " When you have amnesia , you wonder if that brings out a side of you that 's always wanted to come out . Would you really be comfortable with that ? It 's an interesting thing . I had a really good time with that episode . " Later in the season , " The Next Phase " was written with the idea of being a vehicle for Geordi La Forge and Troi , but it was decided to include Ro instead as one of the lead characters . Ro had been included as one of three lead characters in Morgan Gendel 's original pitch for the episode " The Inner Light " . This would have seen her in a love triangle with Picard and Riker . Instead , the concept was redeveloped to focus solely on Picard .
Forbes made a single appearance in the sixth season , in the episode " Rascals " . In the plot of the episode , a transporter accidentally turns Ro , among others , in a child . There was some consideration after the episode about whether or not to keep Ro as a child , as her return to adulthood was never shown on screen . Taylor said that the change would have been " too drastic for us " , and the idea was abandoned . Her final appearance , in the penultimate episode of the series , " Preemptive Strike " , had been considered a long shot by the producers . After the failure to agree her appearances on Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , Forbes ' agent had warned them to stay away from her . A week prior to filming , there was no story created for the episode other than the idea it would follow on from the Deep Space Nine episode " The Maquis " , and no agreement had been reached with Forbes to appear . Her agent indicated that Forbes wanted to talk directly to the producers , so she made the phone call , making up a story for the episode as the conversation went on . Forbes agreed , making her final appearance in the franchise . The character was promoted to Lieutenant , and Forbes wore updated Bajoran makeup developed by Westmore for Deep Space Nine .
= = = Star Trek : Deep Space Nine = = =
" Ensign Ro " proved influential on the creation of Deep Space Nine , with the Bajorans and Cardassians taken directly from the episode . The character was included in the original series description , stationed on the Bajor @-@ based Starfleet station and the producers had planned for her to be promoted to Lieutenant in an episode of The Next Generation prior to the start of Deep Space Nine . Taylor had expected Ro to be written out of The Next Generation , and so had taken some steps to see that the character was replaced . She said that " We all just love Michelle Forbes " , but the plans to replace Ro would not seek to add someone with the type of fire shown by the character in such episodes as " The Next Phase " . She also said that if Ro to remain on The Next Generation , then the character would have naturally evolved away from that conflicted position anyway .
The intention was that Ro would be one of a handful of The Next Generation characters moving over to the new series , alongside Miles and Keiko O 'Brien . At this stage , the other characters were only described as a wheelchair @-@ bound science officer , a brash doctor , a civilian law enforcer , a bar owner and the station commander and his son . Ro 's position on the station would have been to act as the liaison between the station and the Bajoran government . As described in the series bible , the producers had planned for Ro to be a point of conflict with " by @-@ the @-@ book Starfleet officers " . Regarding the other main characters , she was planned to have a friendship with Odo and be mentored by Jadzia Dax .
Both Berman and Piller sought to have Forbes sign on to portray Ro as a main character in the series , but she turned them down . She liked making occasional appearances on The Next Generation , but did not want to tie herself down to a five to six year main cast contract at that point in her career . She was also apprehensive about the types of demands fan appearances made on the stars of that series , and did not want to undertake the level of appearances that would be expected of a main cast member in Deep Space Nine . The producers of Deep Space Nine decided create a new character to fit a similar mould , which resulted in the creation of Kira Nerys , who was played by Nana Visitor . This was designed to require as minimal a change as possible in the premise of the pilot at that time , which was already under production . During the course of the series , Forbes told interviewers that she was interested in making one @-@ off appearances in the series if she liked the story and role .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Background = = =
In accordance with Bajoran tradition , her family name precedes her personal name . When she first joins the crew of the Enterprise @-@ D during the course of " Ensign Ro " , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) addresses her as " Ensign Laren " . She corrects him , saying that Laren is her given name and Ro is her family name . She is then referred to as " Ensign Ro " . Over the course of her several appearances in The Next Generation , information is revealed about her backstory . Bajor had been under the occupation of the Cardassians during her early life , and at the age of seven she watched as one of the occupiers tortured her father to death . This led to a life @-@ long hatred of Cardassians .
Ro joined Starfleet , and after being posted to the USS Wellington , she formed part of an away team . During that mission , she disobeyed orders , resulting in the death of eight crewmen . She was subsequently court @-@ martialled , and was imprisoned on Jaros II . Admiral Kennelly ( Cliff Potts ) later gave her a pardon and allowed her to return to Starfleet service , in return for convincing the Bajoran terrorist Orta ( Jeffrey Hayenga ) to call off his attacks after a raid on a Federation colony . He brings her to the USS Enterprise for the purpose of completing this mission .
= = = Star Trek : The Next Generation = = =
As shown in " Ensign Ro " , during an away team mission to capture Orta , Ro manages to get the team taken hostage . As a result , Picard confines her to her quarters . But Picard discovers that the Bajorans were not responsible for the attack on the Federation colony , and Guinan ( Whoopi Goldberg ) convinces Ro to tell Picard of Kennelly 's plan . Ro was under orders to offer arms to Orta , to trick him to revealing his presence so the Cardassians can destroy his vessel . At that point , Kennelly would intervene and order Picard not to intervene to keep the peace treaty with the Cardassians . Picard allows the plan to proceed , but the Cardassians destroy an empty ship before revealing that the Cardassians had staged the attack in order to enlist aid against the Bajorans . At the conclusion of the episode , Picard offers Ro a position on the crew of the Enterprise , which she accepts .
In " Disaster " , Ro is one of the crew trapped on the bridge of the Enterprise when it undergoes a series of power failures . The ship is placed at risk of destruction because of the potential failure of the containment fields on the antimatter pods . Ro argues that they need to separate the saucer section to save those on @-@ board it as they have no way knowing if anyone is still alive on the engineering part of the vessel . When the crew undergo group amnesia in " Conundrum " , Ro and Riker act on a mutual attraction until their memories are restored . In " The Next Phase " , Ro and La Forge apparently die after a transporter accident after returning from a Romulan Warbird . But they have suffered the side effects of a Romulan cloaking experiment . Ro initial questions whether or not she has died and is now in the afterlife . But together with La Forge they discover a Romulan plot and defeating a similarly cloaked Romulan operative , Ro and La Forge alert the crew and return to normal , warning Picard and averting disaster .
In the episode " Rascals " , Ro , Picard , Guinan and Keiko O 'Brien ( Rosalind Chao ) are transformed into adolescent versions of themselves while retaining their adult intelligence . As children , they foil a Ferengi plot to steal the Enterprise and sell the crew as slave labor . In her final episode , " Preemptive Strike " , Ro returns to the Enterprise as a Lieutenant after spending a year at Starfleet Advanced Tactical Training . During the course of the training , her commanding officer , Lieutenant Commander Chakotay , resigned from Starfleet to join the Marquis when his father is killed by the Cardassians . She is asked by Starfleet to infiltrate the rebel Maquis , who are undermining the Federation treaty with Cardassia . During the mission , she finds her loyalties in conflict with her duties as she becomes increasingly sympathetic to the plight of the Maquis . Despite Picard 's effort to force her to do her duty , she joins the rebel group . Riker says she seemed pretty sure she was doing the right thing , though she regretted disappointing Picard .
= = = Non @-@ canonical appearances = = =
Ro makes a series of appearances in the non @-@ canonical novel series based on The Next Generation . These include an expansion on her background and early life in the book Night of the Wolves by S. D. Perry and Britta Dennison . The events of the away mission while she was serving on the USS Wellington were shown in the second special issue of DC Comics ' The Next Generation series . Ro 's career with the Maquis is also chronicled in the novels . In Rogue Saucer , she is responsible for planning out the attack on the Enterprise in which the Maquis steal a prototype saucer section . Ro appears in the novel Tunnel Through the Stars , set during the events of the Dominion War , Ro and the remaining Maquis join forces with Picard and the USS Enterprise @-@ E to defeat the Dominion forces that are attempting to build an artificial wormhole to bypass the one near Deep Space Nine .
She began to appear in the Deep Space Nine relaunch novels beginning with the two @-@ part Avatar by Perry . The relaunch novels show the events that occur after the final episode of the television series . In Avatar , Ro enlists in the Bajoran Militia with the rank of Lieutenant , and is assigned to Deep Space Nine as the new Security Chief under the command of Colonel Kira . This move for Ro is also chronicled in the background to the massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game Star Trek Online .
In Twilight by David R. George III , the first part of the Mission : Gamma mini @-@ series , Quark and Ro start to develop romantic feelings for each other . In Perry 's Unity , Ro re @-@ joins Starfleet after Bajor joins the Federation and it 's military forces are merged . She is initially apprehensive about the prospect , but is convinced to accept a pardon for her time with the Maquis by Picard . Over time , Ro was promoted to Captain and as of the Star Trek : The Fall series of books , is in command of the new Deep Space Nine following the destruction of the original at the hands of a rogue element of the Typhon Pact . Ro was also one of the characters included at launch in the strategy video game Star Trek Timelines by Disruptor Beam .
= = Themes = =
The Bajorans have been described as analogues for a variety of displaced peoples , with Star Trek novelist Keith DeCandido comparing them to " Palestinians , Jews , Kurds , Haitians ; the sad reality is that you can pretty much pick and choose . History is full of people who have had their homes taken from them , forced to become refugees . " The Cardassian occupation of Bajor ( the Bajoran homeworld ) has been compared to the Holocaust , with Ro singled out as a Holocaust survivor . In his chapter " Speakers for the Dead : Star Trek , the Holocaust , and the Representation of Atrocity " within the book Star Trek as Myth , writer Matthew Wilheim Kapell compared the experiences and reactions of Ro Laren and Kira Nerys following the Cardassian occupation of Bajor . He said that the impact on Ro represented the " non @-@ american view of the holocaust " in that she does not fully recover from the trauma and continues to affect in , for example preventing her from connecting with her religious beliefs in " The Next Phase " . He explains that Kira is a far more " Americanize [ d ] " character , acting as a " resister and even liberator " during the occupation . As a result , unlike Ro , Kira retains her religious beliefs and does not typically show any ongoing emotional trauma . Further commentary of Ro 's relationship to religion have been made . In The Literary Galaxy of Star Trek , James F. Broderick compared the situation in which Ro and La Forge are trapped out of phase in " The Next Phase " to that of the purgatory dweller in Dante Alighieri 's Inferno .
= = Reception = =
When reviewing " Ensign Ro " for Tor.com , DeCandido described Michelle Forbes as " stellar " and called Ro " one of TNG 's best recurring characters " . He also added the the character was " a bit of piss and vinegar to add to the syrupy mix of homogeneity that the TNG cast tends to be " . In his review of " Preemptive Strike " , he said that the Ro character arc " comes full circle : once again making a decision that puts her on the outs with Starfleet . " He praised Forbes again , saying that she " inhabits the character so completely , from her awkwardness at the reception in her honor to her playing the role of rebel , to her pain at thinking about her father ... to her decision to betray Starfleet and the Enterprise . " He did criticise the episode for not wrapping up the Riker @-@ Ro relationship in the same way that closure had been given to her friendship with Picard . Zack Handlen reviewed " Ensign Ro " for The A.V. Club , and described Ro as " terrific " and said that the role represented " one of the rare times that TNG has managed to have a frustrated character who doesn 't immediately seem overly hateful or falsely confrontational " . But he criticized the manner in which her opinion changed to be more favourable of Picard and the Enterprise , as he felt that Guinan 's intervention was detrimental to the plot .
Ro Laren has placed in several polls featuring the characters of the franchise over the course of several years . In a list of the strongest female characters on the official Star Trek website by Jordan Hoffman in 2012 , Ro Laren was placed second behind Edith Keeler from the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " . He said that Ro was one of the " richest figures in Trek " , and wished to be able to see an alternative timeline where Forbes had accepted the main cast position on Deep Space Nine . A poll at the Creation Entertainment official Star Trek convention in 2013 , conducted by Hoffman , placed Ro Laren as the fifth most popular recurring character among fans , behind Elim Garak , Q , Gul Dukat and General Martok . Hoffman expressed a view that he had expected her to place higher in the rankings , due to the number of her vocal supporters , however she also had many booing her . On a poll run on the official Star Trek website in 2014 regarding the fans ' favourite supporting character , Ro came eighth out of ten . In 2015 , she was included in a list of the 21 " most interesting " supporting characters in the franchise by Lisa Granshaw at Blastr . Granshaw called Ro " a complicated , strong character " , and said her " different layers and motivations made her a great character to watch interact with the loyal crew of the Enterprise . "
= = Annotations = =
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= Rock Steady Live =
Rock Steady Live is a video album by American ska punk band No Doubt , released on DVD on November 25 , 2003 under the Interscope records label . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller . It is a recording of two of No Doubt 's concerts during their Rock Steady Tour in 2002 to promote their fifth studio album , Rock Steady , which was released in December 2001 . The material was recorded in November 2002 in Long Beach Arena , California . The concert features performances of seventeen songs from the band 's previous three albums : Tragic Kingdom , Return of Saturn and Rock Steady ; extras include performances of four extra songs , interviews with each band member and backstage footage of the tour .
Rock Steady Live was released alongside The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , a greatest hits album , and Boom Box , a box set containing two CDs and two DVDs . No Doubt then went into hiatus , allowing singer Gwen Stefani to pursue solo projects . The DVD received mixed reviews , with critics praising the band 's variety of musical styles . The DVD was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers .
= = Background = =
After spending January to August 2001 writing and recording , No Doubt released their fifth studio album Rock Steady on December 11 , 2001 . They released four singles from it between October 2001 and July 2003 : " Hey Baby " , " Hella Good " , " Underneath It All " and " Running " . The album sold over three million copies . It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , indicating sales of over two million units , gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of over 35 @,@ 000 units , platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of over 100 @,@ 000 units , and silver by the British Phonographic Industry , indicating sales of over 60 @,@ 000 units .
In 2002 , No Doubt embarked on their Rock Steady Tour , beginning with two dates outside the mainland United States on March 14 and 16 in Puerto Rico and Venezuela , before starting their main tour in Sacramento , California on March 18 , travelling across the U.S. and ending in Anaheim , California in November . Some performances featured burlesque group , the Pussycat Dolls . The concerts received positive reviews , with reviewers complimenting the variety of musical styles , elaborate stage and costume design and crowd interaction .
In April 2003 , No Doubt went into hiatus , before coming together in September 2003 to compile various retrospective works and record a new single : " It 's My Life " . Singer Gwen Stefani went on to record two solo albums : Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , released in November 2004 , and The Sweet Escape , released in December 2006 .
= = Content and release = =
Rock Steady Live was released on DVD on the Interscope Records label on November 23 , 2003 . On the same day , both The Singles 1992 – 2003 and Boom Box were also released by the band . The Singles 1992 – 2003 is a greatest hits album , featuring thirteen of No Doubt 's previous singles , " Trapped in a Box " from their first album No Doubt and new single , " It 's My Life " . Boom Box is a box set , containing Live in the Tragic Kingdom , a recording of a concert as part of the band 's Tragic Kingdom Tour , The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , The Videos 1992 @-@ 2003 , compilation of the band 's music videos , and Everything in Time , a collection of B @-@ sides and rare songs . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller , who also produced the band 's previous video release , Live in the Tragic Kingdom .
The DVD contains a recording the two concerts performed in Long Beach Arena , California during No Doubt 's Rock Steady Tour . The concert features performances of 17 songs : " Just a Girl " , " Spiderwebs " , " Don 't Speak " and " Sunday Morning " from No Doubt 's third album Tragic Kingdom ; " New " , Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , " Simple Kind of Life " , " Bathwater " and " Magic 's in the Makeup " from their fourth album Return of Saturn ; and " Hey Baby " , " Underneath It All " , " Hella Good " , " Running " , " Don 't Let Me Down " , " In My Head " , " Platinum Blonde Life " and " Rock Steady " from their fifth album Rock Steady .
The DVD also includes over an hour and a half of extra features . There are live performances of an extra four songs : " Excuse Me Mr. " and " Different People " from Tragic Kingdom , " Trapped in a Box " from their first album No Doubt and " Total Hate " from their second album , The Beacon Street Collection . Also included are an interview with Liam Lynch , a friend of the band ; documentary pieces featuring interviews with each band member : Tom Dumont , Tony Kanal , Gwen Stefani , Adrian Young and two touring members Stephen Bradley and Gabrial McNair ; backstage footage of the tour ; and footage of the band receiving the " Key to the City " of Anaheim , California from Mayor Tom Daly on November 22 , 2002 on KROQ @-@ FM radio .
= = Reception = =
= = = Certifications = = =
" Rock Steady Live " was certified platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers in 2004 , indicating sales of over 40 @,@ 000 units . The DVD was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in December 2004 , indicating sales of over 50 @,@ 000 units .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The video received mixed reviews from critics . Allmovie reviewer Michael Hastings commented that the band " has managed to stay fresh and inventive after more than a decade together " , praising their " skills as a touring act " . He stated that the DVD encompassed a " virtual career retrospective of the band and its hits " , from its " ska @-@ punk roots into the pop realm " . In particular , he complimented the performances of " Don 't Speak " , " Hey Baby " and " Just a Girl " , giving the DVD 3 out of 5 stars . Allmusic reviewer Hal Horowitz , however , described the music as so " radically doctored " that " it is nothing like what the crowd at the venue heard " . He criticised the DVD for being " heavily edited " , the vocals for being " heavily and consistently overdubbed " and the editing for being " breathlessly nervous " . However , he complimented the band 's " high @-@ energy " performance , calling Gwen Stefani " a whirlwind of activity , strutting , preening , pouting , and prancing " . He gave the DVD 2 stars out of 5 . The Age reviewer Andrew Murfett gave a positive review , calling the sound quality " excellent " and praising the " glossy close @-@ ups to grainy back shots " of the camerawork . He described No Doubt as " endurable " and commented that the set list " stands out [ as the band 's greatest hits ] " .
MusicOMH reviewer Mark Fielding gave the DVD a positive review , calling the DVD a " very desirable package " and " must for any No Doubt fan out there " . He described the band as " one of the most versatile bands on the planet " , performing a " mish @-@ mash of rock , ska , reggae [ and ] punk " and calling Stefani 's performance " her gorgeous hyperactive best " . He complimented the camera work as providing " superb " pictures and sound , stating that they " [ captured ] the concert in all its fast and furious glory " . In particular , he praised the performances of " Hella Good " , " Hey Baby " , " Don 't Speak " , " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and " Spiderwebs " and the inclusion of so many extra features . Rockfeedback.com reviewer Samantha Hall gave the DVD a positive review , calling the music " fun " and the DVD more representative of No Doubt 's greatest hits album , The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , than their fifth studio album Rock Steady . She complimented the focus of the footage covering all four band members plus two touring members , instead of just singer Stefani , and the dancing : " the wind n ' grind dancehall moments " , " the No Doubt signature @-@ stamp " and " a seemingly inexhaustible torrent of jumps and high kicks " . Hall singled out the performance of " Magic 's In The Make @-@ up " , an album track from Return of Saturn , as the highlight of the DVD . She praised the live footage as " resplendent in near @-@ perfection " , describing the " wide range of dishy , fancy close @-@ ups and pausing effects " and calling the sound " precision @-@ balanced , distinct and clear " . She gave the DVD 4 stars out of 5 .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Concert = = =
Bonus tracks
= = = Extra Features = = =
Liam Lynch interview
Merkley Footage : Individual documentary pieces for each band member
Backstage Footage
Anaheim Key to the City
Hidden Footage
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= Kellen Dunham =
Kellen Dunham ( born June 18 , 1993 ) is an American basketball player who recently completed his college career for the Butler Bulldogs . He is currently playing his senior season on the 2015 – 16 team . At Pendleton Heights High School in Pendleton , Indiana , Dunham led the state of Indiana in scoring as a senior with 29 @.@ 5 points per game and was named Herald Bulletin Player of the Year . Dunham committed to Butler on July 7 , 2010 and was highly regarded by recruiting services . As a freshman , he was a 2012 – 13 Atlantic 10 All @-@ Rookie Team selection . He scored 16 @.@ 4 points per game as a sophomore and was named to the 2013 – 14 All @-@ Big East Second @-@ team . He was a 2014 – 15 All @-@ Big East First @-@ team selection as a junior .
= = Early life = =
Dunham was born on June 18 , 1993 , the son of Christy and Jim Dunham . He has three younger brothers : Kenton , Cole , and Jamison . Both his parents are basketball fans and raised their sons in a Christian household . Young Kellen learned to shoot on a " Little Tikes " hoop in the Dunham living room . He improved his game through constant practice in elementary school and middle school , to the consternation of some of his friends . When he was in eight grade , he worked on his jump shot with shooting coach Mark Baker , where Dunham learned how to shoot over his head .
Dunham attended Pendleton Heights High School , where he measured 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) as a freshman . Pendleton Heights head coach Brian Hahn described him as " gangly , skinny , and slow . " In practices , he would shoot for 45 minutes after his teammates were finished . He shot up to 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) as a sophomore and averaged 17 @.@ 0 points per game . He improved those numbers to 23 @.@ 5 points per game as a junior , leading Pendleton Heights to a 20 – 6 record . As a junior , he scored 41 points against Fort Wayne Northrop High School .
In his senior season , Dunham averaged 29 @.@ 5 points per game and shot 92 @.@ 1 % from the free throw line , leading the state of Indiana in both categories . He scored 45 points against Alexandria High School . Dunham was named Madison County Player of the Year as a senior after leading Pendleton Heights to a 23 – 3 record . His season came to an end after a 46 – 43 overtime loss against Terre Haute North High School in the Indiana High School Athletic Association Class 4A Regional at Hinkle Fieldhouse . Dunham was twice named All @-@ State . Dunham finished third in Indiana Mr. Basketball voting , behind Gary Harris and Yogi Ferrell . He was named Herald Bulletin Player of the Year as a senior . He holds the record for the all @-@ time leading scorer at Pendleton Heights with 1 @,@ 899 points and led the Arabians to back @-@ to @-@ back sectional titles .
He signed a letter of intent with Butler on July 7 , 2010 . Rivals.com ranked him the 21st best shooting guard and 93rd best overall player . ESPN included Butler 's 2012 recruiting class among its top recruiting classes from teams in non @-@ BCS conferences , noting Dunham was listed as an ESPN Top 100 recruit and is " a sniper to run off screens and create movement in the halfcourt sets for the next four years . " In ESPN 's scouting report , Dunham was listed as the 78th best overall player , due in large part to the fact that what he " does really well is shoot the basketball . How he goes about his business is akin to a master craftsman applying his trade . Dunham is in constant motion , working to get himself in position to score and he 's typically shot @-@ ready . " Rivals listed him as the best shooter among all recruits of non @-@ BCS teams . Butler head coach Brad Stevens said , " the thing he brings is an incredible ability to put the ball through the net . "
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Coming into his freshman year on the 2012 – 13 team , Dunham was named to the Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 Rookie Team . Dunham began practicing basketball drills late at night thanks to senior Rotnei Clarke , and the two became fast friends . In his first college basketball game , a win against Elon , Dunham came off the bench to score 18 points . He was named Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week on November 12 , 2012 . During the 2012 Maui Invitational Tournament in 2012 , Dunham had one his best games as a freshman as Butler routed the then # 9 team in the country , North Carolina , shooting 56 % ( 5 of 9 ) from 3 @-@ point range and scoring 17 points . Dunham earned Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week honors on December 10 . On December 31 , he again was named Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week . In a game against # 8 Gonzaga on January 19 , 2013 that was featured on ESPN 's College GameDay , he was the second leading scorer , shooting 4 of 8 from three @-@ point range , behind 20 points and a buzzer @-@ beating floater from Roosevelt Jones . Dunham earned his fourth Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week honors on January 28 . Butler went 27 – 9 on the season and reached the NCAA Tournament as a six seed . He finished the season averaging 9 @.@ 5 points per game , fifth best on the team . Following the season , Dunham was named to the Atlantic 10 All @-@ Rookie Team .
= = = Sophomore = = =
" Most guys are relaxed , but I look up and I see Kellen , and he 's ... going 110 miles an hour , " said 2013 – 14 Butler Bulldogs first year head coach Brandon Miller during an August overseas basketball tour . " Sprinting up and down the court . Shooting pull @-@ ups . Going as hard and as fast as he possible can . He goes at a pace , whether its shootaround in Australia , 17 minutes into practice or two hours into practice , that never changes . "
Dunham scored a career @-@ high 32 points against Washington State in the Old Spice Classic , a tournament record . As a result , Dunham was named to the Old Spice Classic All @-@ Tournament Team . Through the first nine games , Dunham averaged 18 @.@ 7 points per game and shot 46 percent from 3 @-@ point range . He was named Big East Player of the Week on December 16 after contributing 25 points to lead Butler past the Purdue Boilermakers , 76 – 70 in the Crossroads Classic . Dunham had 30 points in a 99 – 94 double overtime loss to DePaul on January 9 and tied his career @-@ best with six three @-@ pointers , all of which came in the second half .
At the conclusion of the 2013 – 14 Big East season , Dunham was named to the All @-@ Big East Second Team . Despite his improvements , Butler had a lackluster season , finishing with a 14 – 17 overall record and bowing out to Seton Hall in the Big East Tournament . Dunham finished the season seventh in the Big East in scoring with a 16 @.@ 4 points per game average to go along with 4 rebounds per game . Dunham shot 39 percent from the field and 35 @.@ 5 from 3 @-@ point range . He hit a 3 @-@ pointer in 29 of the team 's 31 games . After the season , he teamed up with several college players to participate in Athletes in Action 's summer trip to the Philippines . Athletes in Action is a Christian group that helps athletes use sports for spiritual growth .
= = = Junior = = =
Coming into his junior year on the 2014 – 15 team , Dunham was named to the Preseason All @-@ Big East First Team . Dunham stopped drinking Mountain Dew prior to the season to improve his conditioning . Coach Brandon Miller took a medical leave of absence before the season and did not return ; he was replaced by Chris Holtmann . Dunham was on the Battle 4 Atlantis All @-@ tournament Team . Dunham scored a season @-@ high 28 points on January 3 , 2015 in a 73 – 69 win over St. John 's . Dunham received Big East Player of the Week honors for the week of February 9 , after scoring 21 points and pulling down seven rebounds in an 85 – 62 victory versus St. John 's and recording 24 points in an 83 – 73 win over DePaul .
Dunham averaged 16 @.@ 5 points per game , third best in the Big East , to go along with 2 @.@ 6 rebounds per game . He led Butler to a 23 – 11 record and six seed in the NCAA Tournament . In the Round of 64 of the NCAA Tournament , Dunham scored 20 points , including an important 3 @-@ pointer with 1 : 18 remaining , to propel Butler to a 56 – 48 victory over the Texas Longhorns . The Bulldogs fell to Notre Dame in the Round of 32 , 67 – 64 . At the conclusion of the season , Dunham was selected to the All @-@ Big East First Team . Dunham was a 2014 – 15 Men 's All @-@ District V Team selection by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association . He was named to the Second Team All @-@ District V by the National Association of Basketball Coaches .
= = = Senior = = =
Coming into his senior year on the 2015 – 16 team at Butler , Dunham was named to the Preseason First Team All @-@ Big East . He was listed on the Oscar Robertson Award preseason watchlist . Dunham earned Big East player of the week honors for the week of December 7 , 2015 after contributing 24 points in a 78 @-@ 76 road victory over Cincinnati and 19 points in an 85 @-@ 71 win over Indiana State . He suffered a shooting slump in December , shooting 2 @-@ for @-@ 32 on three @-@ point shots and missing 21 three @-@ pointers in a row . His two point shooting fell from 58 @.@ 7 percent in the first eight games of the season to 26 @.@ 2 percent in the next five .
At the conclusion of the regular season , he was an Honorable Mention All @-@ Big East selection .
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= Pumpkin bomb =
Pumpkin bombs were conventional aerial bombs developed by the Manhattan Project and used by the United States Army Air Forces against Japan during World War II . The pumpkin bomb was a close replication of the Fat Man plutonium bomb with the same ballistic and handling characteristics , but used non @-@ nuclear conventional high @-@ explosive . It was mainly used for testing and training purposes , which included combat missions flown with pumpkin bombs by the 509th Composite Group . The name " pumpkin bomb " resulted from the large , fat ellipsoidal shape of the munition instead of the more usual cylindrical shape of other bombs and was the actual reference term used in official documents .
= = Development = =
Pumpkin bombs were a means of providing realistic training for the 509th Composite Group 's Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress crews assigned to drop the atomic bomb . The pumpkin bomb was a close , but non @-@ nuclear replication of the Fat Man plutonium bomb with the same ballistic and handling characteristics . Specifications for the bomb required that it be carried in the forward bomb bay of a Silverplate B @-@ 29 bomber and be fuzed to be effective against actual targets .
Pumpkin bombs were produced in both inert and high explosive variants . The inert versions were filled with a cement @-@ plaster @-@ sand mixture that was combined with water to 1 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 68 grams per cubic centimetre ( 0 @.@ 060 to 0 @.@ 061 lb / cu in ) , the density of the Composition B high explosive versions . The filler of both variants had the same weight and weight distribution as the inner sphere of the plutonium bomb . The concept for the high explosive pumpkin bomb was originated in December 1944 by U.S. Navy Captain William S. Parsons , the head of the Ordnance Division at Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , and United States Army Air Forces Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , commander of the 509th Composite Group . Prior testing was carried out with an inert version .
The name " pumpkin bomb " was given to the training bombs by Parsons and Dr. Charles C. Lauritsen of the California Institute of Technology , who managed the development team . The name was used in official meetings and documents , and probably referred to its large ellipsoidal shape . Although anecdotal sources attribute the naming of the bombs to painting them a pumpkin color , the bombs were actually painted olive drab or khaki . Photographs indicate that the units delivered to Tinian were painted in the same zinc chromate primer color ( i.e. , yellow ) worn by Fat Man .
While many Manhattan scientists expected that the development of the means of delivery of the atomic bomb would be straightforward , Parsons , with his experience of the proximity fuze program , expected that it would involve considerable effort . The test program was initiated on 13 August 1943 at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia , where a scale model of the Fat Man plutonium bomb was developed . On 3 March 1944 , testing moved to Muroc Army Air Field , California . The initial tests demonstrated that the Fat Man assembly was unstable in flight , and that its fuzes did not work properly .
= = Production = =
The shells of the pumpkin bomb were manufactured by two Los Angeles firms , Consolidated Steel Corporation and Western Pipe and Steel Company , while the tail assembly was produced by Centerline Company of Detroit . After initial development , management of the program was turned over to the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in May 1945 . A total of 486 live and inert training bombs were eventually delivered , at a cost of between $ 1 @,@ 000 and $ 2 @,@ 000 apiece .
All of the inert versions went from the manufacturers directly to Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , by rail , where they were used by the 216th Base Unit in flight testing of the bomb . Some test drop missions were flown by the 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron as training exercises . The bombs intended as live ordnance were shipped to the Naval Ammunition Depot , McAlester , Oklahoma , for filling with explosives . The Composition B was poured as a slurry , solidified in a drying facility for 36 hours , sealed , and shipped by railroad to the Port Chicago Naval Magazine , California , for shipment by sea to Tinian .
= = Description = =
The pumpkin bombs were externally similar to the Fat Man bomb in size and shape , and both had the same 52 @-@ inch ( 130 cm ) California Parachute square tail assembly and single @-@ point attachment lug . The pumpkin bomb had three contact fuzes arranged in an equilateral triangle around the nose of the bomb while the atomic bomb had four fuse housings . The atomic bomb had its shell sections bolted together , but most if not all of the pumpkin bombs were welded with a 4 inches ( 100 mm ) hole used for filling the shell . The Fat Man also had four external mounting points for radar antennae which the pumpkin bombs did not have .
The pumpkin bombs were 10 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 25 m ) in length and 60 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) in maximum diameter . They weighed 5 @.@ 26 long tons ( 5 @,@ 340 kg ) , consisting of 3 @,@ 800 pounds ( 1 @,@ 700 kg ) for the shell , 425 pounds ( 193 kg ) for the tail assembly , and 6 @,@ 300 pounds ( 2 @,@ 900 kg ) of Composition B filler . The shells were made of .375 @-@ inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) steel plate and the tail assemblies from .200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 mm ) aluminum plate .
= = Combat missions = =
Combat missions were flown by the 509th Composite Group on 20 , 23 , 26 and 29 July and 8 and 14 August 1945 , using the bombs against individual targets in Japanese cities . A total of 49 bombs were dropped on 14 targets , one bomb was jettisoned into the ocean , and two were aboard aircraft that aborted their missions .
Mission parameters and protocols were similar to those of the actual atomic bomb missions , and all targets were located in the vicinity of the cities designated for atomic attack . The bombs were released at an altitude of 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) and the aircraft then went into the sharp turn required on a nuclear mission . After the war , the Strategic Bombing Survey concluded that the pumpkin bombs were " a reasonably effective weapon against Japanese plants when direct hits were scored on vital areas , or when the near miss was sufficiently close to important buildings to cause severe structural damage . "
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= Barton Aqueduct =
The Barton Aqueduct , opened on 17 July 1761 , carried the Bridgewater Canal over the River Irwell at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell in Greater Manchester , England . Designed largely by James Brindley under the direction of John Gilbert , it was the first navigable aqueduct to be built in England , " one of the seven wonders of the canal age " according to industrial archaeologist Mike Nevell .
Construction proceeded quickly , but disaster almost struck when the aqueduct was first filled with water and one of its three arches began to buckle under the weight . Remedial work took several months , but the aqueduct was still opened to traffic only 15 months after the enabling Act of Parliament had been passed , on 17 July 1761 . It remained in use for more than 100 years , until the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal necessitated its demolition in 1893 , replaced by the Barton Swing Aqueduct .
= = Background = =
The original intention was for the Bridgewater Canal to reach Salford from the Duke of Bridgewater 's coal mines in Worsley , by remaining on the north bank of the Irwell . Work began in 1759 , but it was quickly decided to alter the route by building a masonry aqueduct to carry the waterway over the Irwell at Barton , and terminate instead in Manchester , to the south of the river . A Bill to authorise the new route was presented to parliament on 13 November 1759 , and in January the following year Brindley travelled to London to give evidence before a parliamentary committee in support of the proposal .
Although a gifted engineer Brindley had no formal education and rarely , if ever , committed his designs to paper . When questioned by the parliamentary committee about the composition of the puddle he frequently referred to in his evidence , he had a mass of clay brought into the committee room . He then formed the clay into a trough and showed how it would only form a watertight seal if it had been worked with water to form puddle . " Thus it is " said Brindley " that I form a watertight @-@ trunk to carry water over rivers and valleys wherever they cross the path of the canal . " Later , when asked to produce a drawing of the bridge or aqueduct he proposed to build , he replied that he had no representation of it on paper but would demonstrate his intention by use of a model . He then went out and bought a large round of Cheshire cheese , which he divided into two equal halves saying " Here is my model " . Then , to the amusement of the committee , he used the two halves of cheese to represent the semicircular arches and laid a long , rectangular object over the top to demonstrate the position of the river flowing under the aqueduct and the canal flowing over it .
Although the duke had seen navigable aqueducts in use on canals when travelling abroad on his Grand Tour , the idea of an such a structure carrying a canal over a river was new to England and was ridiculed by contemporary engineers . One brought in to review the plans , at Brindley 's request , commented in a report to the Duke of Bridgewater that " I have often heard of castles in the air , but never before saw where one was to be erected . " The necessary Act of Parliament was passed in March 1760 , and was quite specific about the form the aqueduct had to take , to protect the viability of the Mersey & Irwell Navigation below . There was already a three @-@ arch road bridge , Barton Bridge , passing over the Irwell , and the aqueduct was required not to restrict traffic on the river any more than the road bridge already did . It had to have the same number of arches , the foundations for which had to be fixed in the river bed , and the arches had to be at least as wide and high as those of the road bridge .
= = Construction = =
At about 200 yards ( 180 m ) long , 12 yards ( 11 m ) wide and 39 feet ( 12 m ) above the river at its highest point , the aqueduct was , for its time , an enormous construction . Early illustrations show the aqueduct 's piers to have been flat @-@ faced , but an engraving of 1864 shows them to have pointed cutwaters extending beyond the spring of the arch ; it is likely that the piers were refaced in the early 1820s . The arches were composed of several rings of brickwork , with masonry used for decorative keystones . All the masonry used in the structure was coursed ashlar .
On the day it was first tested the water was allowed to flow in , but one of the arches began to buckle under the weight . Brindley , overcome with anxiety , retired to his bed at the Bishop Blaize tavern in nearby Stretford . Gilbert , realising that Brindley had placed too much weight on the sides of the arch , removed the clay and laid layers of straw and freshly puddled clay ; when the water was allowed to flow in again the masonry held firm . According to a statement by Francis Egerton , 8th Earl of Bridgewater printed in 1820 , his uncle , the duke , had told him that there was a distortion of one of the arches , and that Gilbert had addressed the problem by placing more weight on the crown of the arch and less on the haunches . The arch was then covered with straw and allowed to stand until the following spring , when the mortar was set and the arch had become stable , but its curve remained irregular .
= = Operation and legacy = =
The aqueduct was opened to traffic on 17 July 1761 , only 15 months after the enabling Act had been passed , and it was soon being used by the duke 's barges to carry coal to Manchester from his mines at Worsley . The construction of the aqueduct excited great admiration , and writers of the day often remarked on the strange and novel sight afforded by the canal where it crossed the Irwell . The structure became one of the wonders of the age and crowds came from all over the country to view it , along with the drilling of the sough for the duke 's Worsley navigable levels . Those who saw it were often struck by the advantages of still @-@ water navigation when they saw ten or twelve men slowly hauling a single barge against the flow of the Irwell , while 40 feet ( 12 m ) above a horse , mule , or perhaps two men , could be seen hauling several linked barges across the still waters of the aqueduct .
Although the aqueduct was 12 yards ( 11 m ) wide overall , the waterway it carried was only half that width . The Bridgewater Canal had been built to accommodate the Mersey flat boats then in common use , which had a beam of about 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) , making two @-@ way traffic impossible . A signalling system was therefore installed to control access to the aqueduct . A pole 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high in the centre of the arch at the Stretford bank supported a semaphore system with two arms on each side , operated by levers at ground level .
Although Gilbert later had to resurface the aqueduct , the structure remained in use for more than 100 years . In the first volume of his Lives of the Engineers ( 1862 ) Scottish author Samuel Smiles said of the construction that " Humble though it now appears , it was parent of the magnificent aqueducts of Rennie and Telford , and the viaducts of Stephenson and Brunel " .
= = Replacement = =
Barton Aqueduct 's fate was sealed with the passage of the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885 , which allowed for the construction of a navigable waterway large enough to accommodate ocean @-@ going vessels from the estuary of the River Mersey the 36 miles ( 58 km ) into Manchester , partly along the Irwell . As the arches of the aqueduct were too small to allow large ships to pass through it was demolished in 1893 , and replaced by the Barton Swing Aqueduct still in use today . So solidly built was the old aqueduct that dynamite had to be used to expedite its demolition .
Some of the stonework of Brindley 's aqueduct has been preserved in the nearby Barton Memorial Arch , a monument to his " castle in the air " .
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= Worlebury Camp =
Worlebury Camp is the name of the place where an Iron Age hill fort once stood atop Worlebury Hill , which is north of the town of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in Somerset , England . This fort was designed for defence , as is evidenced the number of walls and ditches around the site . Archaeologists have found several large triangular platforms around the sides of the fort , lower down on the hillside . They have found nearly one hundred storage pits of various sizes cut into the bedrock , and many of these had human remains , coins , and other artefacts in them . However , in more recent times , the fort has suffered damage and been threatened with complete destruction on multiple occasions . This location has been designated an Scheduled Ancient Monument , and it falls within the Weston Woods Local Nature Reserve which was declared to Natural England by North Somerset Council in 2005 .
= = History = =
In The Ancient Entrenchments and Camps of Gloucestershire , Edward J. Burrow mentions that probably either the Goidel or Brython people initially built Worlebury Camp . The Belgae people subsequently overthrew the initial inhabitants and occupied the camp for a time , but they were finally destroyed at the hands of the Romans .
Worlebury Camp has been explored at various times over a period of 150 years . From 1851 to 1852 , Charles Dymond , Edwin Martin Atkins , and Francis Warre excavated and surveyed Worlebury Camp . Dymond returned in 1880 to continue the excavation , which lasted until 1881 . Another century passed before the Woodspring Museum from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare excavated more of Worlebury camp in 1987 to 1988 . Finally , in 1998 , the Avon Extensive Urban Study team performed the latest ( as of 2008 ) assessment of the site .
= = Hill fort = =
= = = Background = = =
Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age , roughly the start of the first millennium BC . The reason for their emergence in Britain , and their purpose , has been a subject of debate . It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe , sites built by invaders , or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture . The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain . Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze , and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status . Power passed into the hands of a new group of people . Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated " [ the forts ] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [ of an increasing population ] burst out into open warfare . But I wouldn 't see them as having been built because there was a state of war . They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed , but this was not the only , or even the most significant , factor in their construction " .
= = = Location = = =
The fort is located on the summit of Worlebury Hill , 109 metres ( 358 ft ) above sea level . It is in the present @-@ day North Somerset , above the seaside resort of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and close to the village of Worle .
Its occupants would have had a view of the countryside as well as any potential invaders . They would have been able to see out over to Sugar Loaf Mountain , the Black Mountains , the Mendip Hills , Dunkery Beacon , Sand Point , and Wales . This view is no longer as unobstructed as it once was because there are so many trees spread over the hill .
= = = Triangular stone platforms = = =
There are a number of triangular platforms on the slopes around the hill fort . The apexes of these triangles are flush with the hillside , with the base projecting in the downhill direction . However , the upper surface is approximately level . The front faces of these platforms are about 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) above the hillside , and they have ditches in front of them to improve their defence . In a letter to Warre , Atkins theorised that the structures were slingers ' platforms or archers ' stations . Several sling stones have been found around them , offering some credence to the theory that slingers stood upon these platforms . Dymond mentions the stones in his book :
Several of them were broken , as though they had been used in the attack [ on the fort ] , as , indeed , many of them probably were .
= = = Walls and ditches = = =
Worlebury Hill is bordered on its north and west sides by steep cliffs dropping down into the Bristol Channel between Weston Bay and Sand Bay . These would have rendered the fort nearly invulnerable to attack from those directions . Nevertheless , the fort still has one wall on its north side and one on its west side , both very near the edge of the cliffs . On the south side , a single rampart and a ditch guarded the fort . The level east side was protected by two stone ramparts and five ditches . Parts of these ramparts were over 11 metres ( 35 ft ) high measuring from the bottom of the ditch as of 1875 .
The walls themselves are around 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) thick . However , because they are dry @-@ laid stone , the removal of a few stones would be sufficient to bring the entire wall collapsing down . To prevent access to the walls themselves , the inhabitants of the fort raised large breastworks around the base of the walls by piling up rock rubble against the bases . These rubble barriers are over 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 4 @.@ 0 ft ) high , and in places they are over 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 4 @.@ 0 ft ) thick . Attackers would have had to clear away the rubble before being able to attack the wall , and all the while they would be under direct fire from defenders on the top of the wall .
= = Archaeological findings = =
= = = Storage pits = = =
The area inside the outer wall has a series of hut circles and 93 storage pits cut directly into the bedrock , which is only around 60 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) beneath the surface of the soil in most places . Eighteen of the Storage pits are in what Dymond calls the " keep " , one is in the transverse fosse ( a fosse is a ditch usually dug for protection ) , and seventy @-@ four of the pits are outside the " keep " but still enclosed within the exterior walls . The average size of the pits is around 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long by 2 metres wide and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) deep . The largest pit is roughly triangular , with sides measuring 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) , and 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The smallest pit is 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long by .7 metres ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) wide . The inhabitants used them to store grain , as is evidenced by the kernels of barley and wheat and the shards of pots that were found in the pits . Several of the pits contained the remnants of peas and the remains of burned woven baskets . In addition , researchers also found sling stones and spindle whorls dated to the 1st or 2nd century BC in them .
Eighteen of these pits were found to contain the remains of human skeletons , which are now stored in the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Museum in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Eighteen full skeletons were found , of which ten show evidence of a violent death ( including sword cuts in the skulls ) . It is possible that the Romans or the Belgic raiders attacked the fort and killed the inhabitants .
= = = Artefacts = = =
A cast copper alloy penannular collar of special interest to archaeologists has been found at the campsite . It may indicate that this hilltop site was used even before the Iron Age , since related artefacts tend to be found with Bronze Age items , and it was the first of its type found in Britain . In 2006 , a related copper penannular brooch dating to the 5th or 6th century AD was found in a spring between Brecon Beacons and the Black Mountains in Wales . A gold penannular bracelet was found in the Perry River .
Roman coins have been found at Worlebury Camp since the Romans had established a presence by the end of the 1st century AD . Many of the Roman coins bear the image of the Western Roman Emperor Honorius . This was inside the fort proper . Another coin was located by Trinity Path which leads towards the fort .
Other findings at the Worlebury campsite include animal remains , including the bones of pigs , oxen , horses , deer , goats , and even small birds . Limpet shells have also been found near the bones . Archaeologists found iron objects , adding further credibility to the idea that this fort is from the Iron Age . These objects include a chisel or borer , several spearheads and javelin heads , and an iron cone with charred wood inside and a rivet hole through the cone . Dymond assumes that this cone was once a plowshare . Stone artefacts , mainly slingstones and scrapers , have been discovered at the site . Just less than 36 flint chips have been found , of which some may be arrowheads . One good @-@ quality arrowhead has been found . In addition to these , Dymond recorded finding a lead lump about the size of a walnut that he decided was probably a sling bullet . Glastonbury type bead @-@ rim pottery was also found at this site . A socketed bronze axe from the late Bronze Age , which was found at Worlebury Hill in 1883 , is in the Ashmolean Museum .
= = Damage to the site = =
= = = 19th century = = =
Development of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare since the 19th century has resulted in three episodes of potentially irreversible damage to the site . A quarry started operation in the southern side of Worlebury Hill in 1815 to mine for galena , calamine , and stone . The Bristol and Exeter Railway arrived in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in 1841 , making it profitable to expand the village into a town . In 1842 , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare became a town with the granting of the Improvement and Market Act of May 1842 . This act also proposed developing houses right over the brow of the hill . This would have gone straight through Worlebury Camp ; however , the actual expansion never reached the site . By 1853 , some development had occurred according to the proposed expansion , but it had skirted the hillfort and continued to the east .
= = = 20th century = = =
In the early 20th century , the Worlebury fort itself was damaged by boys rolling stones , including some from the walls of the fort , down the hill on which it stands . The Axbridge District of the Somerset Archaeological Society was taking steps to prevent such damage from happening again .
Some of the trees planted in the early 19th century had become very large , and their roots were growing into the archaeological structures . In 2005 , the Forestry Commission gave permission for North Somerset Council to fell 300 trees to reduce the subsequent risks . A member of the North Somerset Council , Christopher Richards , said : " If we had a storm up here and these trees came down , then the entire hillfort could be destroyed . "
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= Daniel Day @-@ Lewis =
Sir Daniel Michael Blake Day @-@ Lewis ( born 29 April 1957 ) is an English actor . He holds both British and Irish citizenship . Born and raised in London , he excelled on stage at the National Youth Theatre , before being accepted at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , which he attended for three years . Despite his traditional actor training at the Bristol Old Vic , he is considered to be a method actor , known for his constant devotion to and research of his roles . He often remains completely in character for the duration of the shooting schedules of his films , even to the point of adversely affecting his health . He is one of the most selective actors in the film industry , having starred in only five films since 1998 , with as many as five years between roles . Protective of his private life , he rarely gives interviews and makes very few public appearances .
Day @-@ Lewis shifted between theatre and film for most of the early 1980s , joining the Royal Shakespeare Company and playing Romeo in Romeo and Juliet and Flute in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , before appearing in the 1984 film The Bounty . He starred in My Beautiful Laundrette ( 1985 ) , his first critically acclaimed role , and gained further public notice with A Room with a View ( 1985 ) . He then assumed leading man status with The Unbearable Lightness of Being ( 1988 ) .
One of the most acclaimed actors of his generation , Day @-@ Lewis has earned numerous awards , including three Academy Awards for Best Actor for his performances in My Left Foot ( 1989 ) , There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) and Lincoln ( 2012 ) , making him the only male actor in history to have three wins in the lead actor category and one of only three male actors to win three Oscars . He was also nominated in this category for In the Name of the Father ( 1993 ) and Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) . He has also won four BAFTA Awards for Best Actor , three Screen Actors Guild Awards and two Golden Globe Awards . In November 2012 , Time named Day @-@ Lewis the " World 's Greatest Actor . " In June 2014 , he received a knighthood at Buckingham Palace for services to drama .
= = Early life = =
Day @-@ Lewis was born in Kensington , London , the son of poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis and English actress Jill Balcon . His father , who was born in Ballintubbert , County Laois , Ireland , was of Protestant Anglo @-@ Irish and English background , lived in England from the age of two , and later became the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom . Daniel 's mother was Jewish , and his maternal grandparents ' families had emigrated to England from Latvia and Poland . His maternal grandfather , Michael Balcon , an important figure in the history of British cinema , was the head of Ealing Studios . Two years after his birth , the family moved to Croom 's Hill , Greenwich , south @-@ east London , where Day @-@ Lewis grew up along with his older sister , Tamasin , who became a documentary filmmaker and television chef .
Living in Greenwich , Day @-@ Lewis found himself among tough South London children , and , being partially Jewish and " posh " , he was often bullied . He mastered the local accent and mannerisms and credits that as being his first convincing performance . Later in life , he has been known to speak of himself as very much a disorderly character in his younger years , often in trouble for shoplifting and other petty crimes .
In 1968 , Day @-@ Lewis ' parents , finding his behaviour to be too wild , sent him to the independent Sevenoaks School in Kent as a boarder . At the school , he was introduced to his three most prominent interests : woodworking , acting , and fishing . His disdain for the school grew , and after two years at Sevenoaks , he was transferred to another independent school , Bedales in Petersfield , Hampshire , which his sister attended , and which had a more relaxed and creative ethos . The transfer led to his film debut at the age of 14 in Sunday Bloody Sunday in which he played a vandal in an uncredited role . He described the experience as " heaven " , for getting paid £ 2 to vandalise expensive cars parked outside his local church .
For a few weeks in 1972 , he and his parents and sister lived at Lemmons , the north London home of Kingsley Amis and Elizabeth Jane Howard . Cecil Day @-@ Lewis had cancer and Howard invited the family to Lemmons as a place they could use to rest and recuperate . Cecil died there in May that year .
Leaving Bedales in 1975 , Day @-@ Lewis 's unruly attitude had diminished and he needed to make a career choice . Although he had excelled on stage at the National Youth Theatre in London , he applied for a five @-@ year apprenticeship as a cabinet @-@ maker , but was rejected due to lack of experience . He was then accepted at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , which he attended for three years , eventually performing at the Bristol Old Vic itself . At one point he played understudy to Pete Postlethwaite , with whom he would later co @-@ star in the film In the Name of the Father . John Hartoch , Day @-@ Lewis 's acting teacher at Bristol Old Vic , recalls , " There was something about him even then . He was quiet and polite , but he was clearly focused on his acting – he had a burning quality . He seemed to have something burning beneath the surface . There was a lot going on beneath that quiet appearance . There was one performance in particular , when the students put on a play called Class Energy , when he really seemed to shine – and it became obvious to us , the staff , that we had someone rather special on our hands . "
= = Career = =
= = = 1980s = = =
During the early 1980s , Day @-@ Lewis worked in theatre and television including Frost in May ( where he played an impotent man @-@ child ) and How Many Miles to Babylon ? ( as a World War I officer torn between allegiances to Britain and Ireland ) for the BBC . Eleven years after his film debut , Day @-@ Lewis continued his film career with a small part in Gandhi ( 1982 ) as Colin , a South African street thug who racially bullies the title character , only to be immediately chastised by his high @-@ strung mother . In late 1982 he had his big theatre break when he took over the lead in Another Country . The following year , he had a supporting role as the conflicted , but ultimately loyal first mate in The Bounty , after which he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company , playing Romeo in Romeo and Juliet and Flute in A Midsummer Night 's Dream .
In 1985 , Day @-@ Lewis gave his first critically acclaimed performance playing a gay man in an interracial relationship in the film My Beautiful Laundrette , set in 1980s London during the period when Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister . Day @-@ Lewis gained further public notice with A Room with a View ( 1985 ) . Set in the Edwardian period of turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ twentieth @-@ century England , he portrayed an entirely different character : Cecil Vyse , the proper upper class fiancé of the main character . In 1987 , Day @-@ Lewis assumed leading man status by starring in Philip Kaufman 's adaptation of Milan Kundera 's The Unbearable Lightness of Being , where he portrayed a Czech surgeon whose hyperactive sex life is thrown into disarray when he allows himself to become emotionally involved with a woman . During the eight @-@ month shoot he learned Czech and first began to refuse to break character on or off the set for the entire shooting schedule . During this period , Day @-@ Lewis and other young British actors of the time such as Gary Oldman , Colin Firth , Tim Roth , and Bruce Payne , were dubbed the " Brit Pack " .
Day @-@ Lewis threw his personal version of method acting into full throttle in 1989 with his performance as Christy Brown in Jim Sheridan 's My Left Foot , which garnered him numerous awards , including the Academy Award for Best Actor and BAFTA Award for Best Actor . Brown , a writer and painter , was born with cerebral palsy and was only able to control his left foot . Day @-@ Lewis prepared for the role by making frequent visits to Sandymount School Clinic in Dublin , where he formed friendships with several people with disabilities , some of whom had no speech . During filming , he refused to break character . Playing a severely paralysed character on screen , off screen Day @-@ Lewis had to be moved around the set in his wheelchair , and crew members would curse at having to lift him over camera and lighting wires , all so that he might gain insight into all aspects of Brown 's life , including the embarrassments . Crew members were also required to spoon @-@ feed him . It was rumoured that he had broken two ribs during filming from assuming a hunched @-@ over position in his wheelchair for so many weeks , something he denied years later at the 2013 Santa Barbara International Film Festival .
Day @-@ Lewis returned to the stage in 1989 to work with Richard Eyre , in Hamlet at the National Theatre , London , but collapsed during the scene where the ghost of Hamlet 's father appears before him . He began sobbing uncontrollably and refused to go back on stage ; he was replaced by Jeremy Northam who finished the performance word @-@ and @-@ action @-@ perfect and received a standing ovation . Ian Charleson then formally replaced Day @-@ Lewis for the rest of the run , except that ill @-@ health forced Northam to stand in again many times . Although the incident was officially attributed to exhaustion , Day @-@ Lewis later claimed to have seen the ghost of his own father . He has not appeared on stage since . The media attention following his breakdown on @-@ stage contributed to his decision to eventually move from England to Ireland in the mid @-@ 1990s to regain a sense of privacy amidst his increasing fame .
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1992 , three years after his Oscar win , The Last of the Mohicans was released . Day @-@ Lewis 's character research for this film was well @-@ publicized ; he reportedly underwent rigorous weight training and learned to live off the land and forest where his character lived , camping , hunting and fishing . Day @-@ Lewis also added to his wood @-@ working skills and learned how to make canoes . He carried a long rifle at all times during filming to remain in character and learned how to skin animals .
He returned to work with Jim Sheridan on In the Name of the Father , in which he played Gerry Conlon , one of the Guildford Four who were wrongfully convicted of a bombing carried out by the Provisional IRA . He lost 30lbs for the part , kept his Northern Irish accent on and off the set for the entire shooting schedule , and spent stretches of time in a prison cell . He also insisted that crew members throw cold water at him and verbally abuse him . The film earned him his second Academy Award nomination , third BAFTA nomination , and second Golden Globe nomination .
Day @-@ Lewis returned in 1993 , playing Newland Archer in Martin Scorsese 's adaptation of the Edith Wharton novel The Age of Innocence . To prepare for the film , set in America 's Gilded Age , he wore 1870s @-@ period aristocratic clothing around New York City for two months , including top hat , cane and cape .
In 1996 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in The Crucible , a film version of the play by Arthur Miller . During the shoot he met his future wife , Rebecca Miller , the author 's daughter . He followed that with Jim Sheridan 's The Boxer as a former boxer and IRA member recently released from prison . His preparation included training with former boxing world champion Barry McGuigan , and attending professional boxing matches such as the Nigel Benn vs. Gerald McClellan world title fight at London Arena .
Following The Boxer , Day @-@ Lewis took a leave of absence from acting by going into " semi @-@ retirement " and returning to his old passion of woodworking . He moved to Florence , Italy , where he became intrigued by the craft of shoemaking , eventually apprenticing as a shoemaker with Stefano Bemer . For a time his exact whereabouts and actions were not made publicly known .
= = = 2000s = = =
After a five @-@ year absence from filming , Day @-@ Lewis returned to act in Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) , directed by Scorsese and produced by Harvey Weinstein . In his role as the villainous gang leader William " Bill the Butcher " Cutting , he starred alongside Leonardo DiCaprio , who played Bill 's young protégé . He began his lengthy , self @-@ disciplined process by taking lessons as an apprentice butcher , hiring a butcher from Peckham , south London to instruct him in carving up carcasses . He also hired circus performers to teach him to throw knives . While filming , he was never out of character between takes ( including keeping his character 's New York accent ) . At one point during filming , having been diagnosed with pneumonia , he refused to wear a warmer coat or to take treatment because it was not in keeping with the period ; however , he was eventually persuaded to seek medical treatment . His performance in Gangs of New York earned him his third Academy Award nomination and won him his second BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role .
After Gangs of New York , Day @-@ Lewis 's wife , director Rebecca Miller offered him the lead role in her film The Ballad of Jack and Rose , in which he played a dying man with regrets over how his life had evolved and over how he had brought up his teenage daughter . During filming he arranged to live separately from his wife to achieve the " isolation " needed to focus on his own character 's reality . The film received mixed reviews .
In 2007 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in director Paul Thomas Anderson 's loose adaptation of the Upton Sinclair novel Oil ! , titled There Will Be Blood . Day @-@ Lewis received the Academy Award for Best Actor , BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role , Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama , Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role ( which he dedicated to Heath Ledger , saying that he was inspired by Ledger 's acting and calling the actor 's performance in Brokeback Mountain " unique , perfect " ) , and a variety of film critics ' circle awards for the role . In winning the Best Actor Oscar , Day @-@ Lewis joined Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson as the only Best Actor winners awarded an Oscar in two non @-@ consecutive decades .
In 2009 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in Rob Marshall 's musical adaptation Nine as film director Guido Contini . Day @-@ Lewis was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his role , as well as sharing nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Cast and the Satellite Award for Best Cast – Motion Picture with the rest of the cast members .
= = = 2010s = = =
Day @-@ Lewis played Abraham Lincoln in Steven Spielberg 's film Lincoln ( 2012 ) . Based on the book Team of Rivals : The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln , the film began shooting in Richmond , Virginia in October 2011 . Day @-@ Lewis spent a year in preparation for the role , a time he had requested from Spielberg . He read over 100 books on Lincoln , and long worked with the makeup artist to achieve a physical likeness to Lincoln . Lincoln received widespread critical acclaim , much of it directed to Day @-@ Lewis ' performance . It also became a commercial success , grossing over $ 275 million worldwide . In November 2012 , Day @-@ Lewis received the BAFTA Britannia Award for Excellence in Film .
At the 70th Golden Globe Awards on 14 January 2013 , Day @-@ Lewis won his second Golden Globe Award for Best Actor , and at the 66th British Academy Film Awards on 10 February , he won his fourth BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role . At the 85th Academy Awards , Day @-@ Lewis became the first three @-@ time recipient of the Best Actor Oscar for his role in Lincoln .
John Hartoch , Day @-@ Lewis 's acting teacher at Bristol Old Vic theatre school , lauded his achievement , " Although we have quite an impressive alumni – everyone from Jeremy Irons to Patrick Stewart – I suppose he is now probably the best known , and we 're very proud of all he 's achieved . I certainly hold him up to current students of an example , particularly as an example of how to manage your career with great integrity . He 's never courted fame , and as a result he 's never had his private life impeached upon by the press . He 's clearly not interested in celebrity as such – he 's just interested in his acting . He is still a great craftsman . " Shortly after winning the Oscar for Lincoln , Day @-@ Lewis announced he would be taking a break from acting , retreating back to his Georgian farmhouse in County Wicklow for the next five years , before making another movie .
= = Personal life = =
Day @-@ Lewis rarely discusses his personal life . He had a relationship with French actress Isabelle Adjani , which lasted six years and eventually ended after a split and reconciliation . Their son Gabriel @-@ Kane Day @-@ Lewis was born in 1995 in New York City , several months after the relationship ended .
In 1996 , while working on the film version of the stage play The Crucible , he visited the home of playwright Arthur Miller where he was introduced to the writer 's daughter , Rebecca Miller . They married later that year . The couple have two sons , Ronan Cal Day @-@ Lewis ( born 1998 ) and Cashel Blake Day @-@ Lewis ( born 2002 ) and divide their time between their homes in New York City and Ireland .
Day @-@ Lewis became an Irish citizen in 1993 and currently holds British and Irish dual citizenship . He has lived in Annamoe , County Wicklow since 1997 . He stated " I do have dual citizenship , but I think of England as my country . I miss London very much but I couldn 't live there because there came a time when I needed to be private and was forced to be public by the press . I couldn 't deal with it " . He is a supporter of South @-@ East London football club Millwall .
On 15 July 2010 , Day @-@ Lewis received an honorary doctorate in letters from the University of Bristol , in part because of his attendance of the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School in his youth . Day @-@ Lewis has stated that he had " no real religious education " and that he " suppose [ s ] " he is " a die @-@ hard agnostic " . In October 2012 , he donated to Oxford University papers belonging to his father , the poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , including early drafts of the poet 's work and letters from actor John Gielgud and literary figures such as W. H. Auden , Robert Graves , and Philip Larkin . In July 2015 , he became the Honorary President of the Poetry Archive . A registered UK charity , the Poetry Archive is a free website containing a growing collection of recordings of English @-@ language poets reading their work . Upon accepting , Day @-@ Lewis commented " I so admire what you ’ re doing with the Poetry Archive and I ’ m very happy that you ’ ve invited me to be involved with it . "
In June 2014 , Day @-@ Lewis was made a Knight Bachelor in the 2014 Birthday Honours for services to drama . When , in 2008 , he received the Academy Award for Best Actor from Helen Mirren ( who was on presenting duty having won the previous year 's Best Actress Oscar for playing Queen Elizabeth II in The Queen ) Day @-@ Lewis knelt before her and she tapped him on each shoulder with the Oscar statuette , to which he quipped ; " That 's the closest I 'll come to ever getting a knighthood " . In November 2014 , Day @-@ Lewis was formally knighted by Prince William , Duke of Cambridge at Buckingham Palace .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Music = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
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= LW11 =
LW11 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit skiing sport class , a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC for people with paralysis in the lower extremities and people with cerebral palsy that affects the lower half of the body . Outside of skiing , the competitor in this class is unable to walk . For international competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . For sub @-@ international competitions , classification is done by a national federation such as Alpine Canada .
In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , while para @-@ Nordic skiers use a two ski sit @-@ ski . Skiers in this class use outriggers , and are required to wear special helmets for some para @-@ Alpine disciplines . In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring for LW11 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 785 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8508 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8324 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8333 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic season was 94 % and for LWXI.5 was 98 % . This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions including the Paralympics , IPC Alpine World Championships and the IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships . Skiers in this class include Austrian Robert Frohle .
= = Definition = =
This is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ skiing classification , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . This classification is for people with paralysis in the lower extremities and includes people with cerebral palsy that affects the lower half of the body . Outside of skiing , the competitor in this class is unable to walk , the skier " may have loss of buttock sensibility S1 @-@ 25 " . For the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the classification was described as " Disability of lower limbs with a fair sitting balance @-@ paraplegia and standing classes with impairment in the lower limbs together with functional impairment of trunk / hip . " Adapted Physical Education and Sport described this class as " Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs and fair sitting balance ( e.g. , para classes lower 3 and 4 ) , standing I. classes with impairment of the lower limbs together with significant functional impairment of the trunk and hips , any function in the lower limbs may not be used outside of the equipment at any time during the race ; point score 9 to 15 points . " This classification is comparable to para classes lower 3 and 4 .
Generally to be eligible for a sit @-@ skiing classification , a skier needs to meet a minimum of one of several conditions including a single below knee but above ankle amputation , monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation , legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) difference , combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71 .
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " a . Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs and a fair sitting balance b . CP with disabilities in lower extremities " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as a sit skiing classification for " athletes with disabilities in their lower limbs and fair sitting balance . " The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " those with impairments in the lower limbs and trunk . The athlete retains the use of abdominal muscles and trunk extensor muscles , especially those muscle attaching to the pelvis . " Cross Country Canada described this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairment in the lower limbs and trunk with fair upper abdominal and trunk muscle activity with some functional sitting balance . Athlete is unable to stand . "
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing . During the assessment process , a testing board is used for this classification with six different tests being conducted that look for balance on different planes and to test for upper body strength and levels of mobility . The guideline scores for people to be assessed in this classification are 9 - 15 .
= = = LW11.5 = = =
The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " with impairments in the lower limb ( s ) and the trunk . Athletes have near normal trunk muscles activation . " Cross Country Canada defined this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairement in the lower limbs and trunk . With good upper abdominal and trunk muscle activity and good sitting balance . Athlete may be able to stand " in 2012 . Skiers in this class may be able to " stand or walk with or without aid of orthosis " . They may also have Grade 2 or less hip extension .
= = Equipment = =
In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , which are required to have breaks on both sides of the ski . The chair can detach from a ski . Helmets are required for this class in para @-@ Alpine competition , with slalom helmets required for slalom and crash helmets required for the giant slalom . The para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ ski configuration has two skis . Skiers in this classification can use a sit @-@ ski and outriggers , which are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up . The skier then works with the instructor on learning to ski on flat terrain , with the purpose of this exercise being to learn how to use the outriggers . The skier next learns how to get into and out of a chairlift . After this , the skier learns how to make basic turns , edging , medium radius turns and advance skiing techniques .
Skiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves . Outriggers are also used for turning , with the skier using the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , outriggers or ski poles are used top propel the skier forward . If a skier falls , they may require assistance in righting themselves to get back to the fall line . Doing this on their own , the skier needs to position their mono @-@ ski facing uphill relative to the fall line .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . During the 1997 / 1998 ski season , the percentage for this para @-@ Nordic classification was 93 % . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for was 93 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 94 % and 98 % for LW11.5. The factoring for LW11 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 785 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8508 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8324 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8333 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic season was 94 % and for LWXI.5 was 98 % .
In para @-@ Alpine events , this classification is grouped with sitting classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and before standing classes . A skier is allowed one push from the starting position at the start of a para @-@ Alpine race : no one is allowed to run while pushing them . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other sitting classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's sit @-@ ski group first , and the women 's sit @-@ ski group section , with the visually impaired and standing skiers following . If the competitor skis off the course during a para @-@ Nordic race , they may be assisted back onto the course where they left it by a race official . Skiers cannot use their legs to break or steer during the race .
Skiers in this class may injure themselves while skiing . Between 1994 and 2006 , the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team had three skiers in the LW11 class that had injuries while skiing . It occurred at the 1998 Winter Paralympics when the fell and extended their arm in abduction , which resulted in an Acromio @-@ clavicular separation type Rockwood II . Another 1998 Paralympic skier had a Clavicula @-@ Fracture . In 2003 , a skier dislocated their shoulder . This class has a higher rate of " plexus brachialis distorsion and a higher rate of shoulder injuries " compared to able bodied skiers .
= = Events = =
This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , this classification was not grouped with others for the men 's downhill , Giant Slalom , slalom and Super @-@ G events while the women were grouped with LW10 and LW12 for their events with the exception of the Giant Slalom where they were only grouped with LW10 . At the 2004 Alpine World Championships , LW10 , LW11 and LW12 women competed against each other in a competition with factored results during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other sit @-@ skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race , with women eligible to compete in the 2 @.@ 5 km , 5 km and 10 km individual races . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with sit @-@ ski classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 IPC Alpine World Championships , there were no women and thirteen men from this class the sitting downhill event .
= = Competitors = =
Skiers in this class include Austrian Robert Frohle .
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= Bates method =
The Bates method is an alternative therapy aimed at improving eyesight . Eye @-@ care physician William Horatio Bates , M.D. ( 1860 – 1931 ) attributed nearly all sight problems to habitual strain of the eyes , and felt that glasses were harmful and never necessary . Bates self @-@ published a book , Perfect Sight Without Glasses , as well as a magazine , Better Eyesight Magazine , ( and earlier collaborated with Bernarr MacFadden on a correspondence course ) detailing his approach to helping people relax such " strain " , and thus , he claimed , improve their sight . His techniques centered on visualization and movement . He placed particular emphasis on imagining black letters and marks , and the movement of such . He also felt that exposing the eyes to sunlight would help alleviate the " strain " .
Despite continued anecdotal reports of successful results , including well @-@ publicised support by Aldous Huxley , Bates ' techniques have not been objectively shown to improve eyesight . His main physiological proposition — that the eyeball changes shape to maintain focus — has consistently been contradicted by observation . In 1952 , optometry professor Elwin Marg wrote of Bates , " Most of his claims and almost all of his theories have been considered false by practically all visual scientists . " Marg concluded that the Bates method owed its popularity largely to " flashes of clear vision " experienced by many who followed it . Such occurrences have since been explained as a contact lens @-@ like effect of moisture on the eye , or a flattening of the lens by the ciliary muscles .
The Bates method has been criticized not only because there is no good evidence it works , but also because it can have negative consequences for those who attempt to follow it : they might damage their eyes through overexposure of their eyes to sunlight , put themselves and others at risk by not wearing their corrective lenses while driving , or neglect conventional eye care , possibly allowing serious conditions to develop .
= = Underlying concepts = =
= = = Accommodation = = =
Accommodation is the process by which the eye increases optical power to maintain focus on the retina while shifting its gaze to a closer point . The long @-@ standing medical consensus is that this is accomplished by action of the ciliary muscle , a muscle within the eye , which adjusts the curvature of the eye 's crystalline lens . This explanation is based in the observed effect of atropine temporarily preventing accommodation when applied to the ciliary muscle , as well as images reflected on the crystalline lens becoming smaller as the eye shifts focus to a closer point , indicating a change in the lens ' shape . Bates rejected this explanation , and in his 1920 book presented photographs that he said showed that the image remained the same size even as the eye shifted focus , concluding from this that the lens was not a factor in accommodation . However , optometrist Philip Pollack in a 1956 work characterized these photographs as " so blurred that it is impossible to tell whether one image is larger than the other " , in contrast to later photographs that clearly showed a change in the size of the reflected images , just as had been observed since the late nineteenth century .
Bates adhered to a different explanation of accommodation that had already been generally disregarded by the medical community of his time . Bates ' model had the muscles surrounding the eyeball controlling its focus . In addition to their known function of turning the eye , Bates maintained , they also affect its shape , elongating the eyeball to focus at the near @-@ point or shortening it to focus at a distance . Commenting on this hypothesis in an interview with WebMD , ophthalmologist Richard E. Bensinger stated " When we put drops in the eye to dilate the pupil , they paralyze the focusing muscles . The evidence of the anatomical fallacy is that you can 't focus , but your eye can move up and down , left and right . The notion that external muscles affect focusing is totally wrong . " Science author John Grant writes that many animals , such as fishes , accommodate by elongation of the eyeball , " it 's just that humans aren 't one of those animals . "
Laboratory tests have shown that the human eyeball is far too rigid to spontaneously change shape to a degree that would be necessary to accomplish what Bates described . Exceedingly small changes in axial length of the eyeball ( 18 @.@ 6 – 19 @.@ 2 micrometres ) are caused by the action of the ciliary muscle during accommodation . However , these changes are far too small to account for the necessary changes in focus , producing changes of only − 0 @.@ 036 dioptres .
= = = Causes of sight problems = = =
Medical professionals characterize refractive errors such as nearsightedness , farsightedness , astigmatism , and presbyopia ( the age @-@ related blurring of near @-@ point vision ) as consequences of the eye 's shape and other basic anatomy , which there is no evidence that any exercise can alter . Bates , however , believed that these conditions are caused by tension of the muscles surrounding the eyeball , which he believed prevents the eyeball from sufficiently changing shape ( per his explanation of accommodation ) when gaze is shifted nearer or farther . Bates characterized this supposed muscular tension as the consequence of a " mental strain " to see , the relief of which he claimed would instantly improve sight . He also linked disturbances in the circulation of blood , which he said is " very largely influenced by thought " , not only to refractive errors but also to double vision , crossed @-@ eye , lazy eye , and to more serious eye conditions such as cataracts and glaucoma . His therapies were based on these assumptions .
Bates felt that corrective lenses , which he characterized as " eye crutches " , are an impediment to curing poor vision . In his view , " strain " would increase as the eyes adjust to the correction in front of them . He thus recommended that glasses be discarded by anyone applying his method .
= = Treatments = =
In his writings , Bates discussed several techniques that he claimed helped patients to improve their sight . He wrote " The ways in which people strain to see are infinite , and the methods used to relieve the strain must be almost equally varied , " emphasizing that no single approach would work for everyone . His techniques were all designed to help disassociate this " strain " from seeing and thereby achieve " central fixation " , or seeing what is in the central point of vision without staring . He asserted that " all errors of refraction and all functional disturbances of the eye disappear when it sees by central fixation " and that other conditions were often relieved as well .
= = = Palming = = =
Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation . He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by " palming " , or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands , without putting pressure on the eyeballs . If the covered eyes did not strain , he said , they would see " a field so black that it is impossible to remember , imagine , or see anything blacker " , since light was excluded by the palms . However , he reported that some of his patients experienced " illusions of lights and colors " sometimes amounting to " kaleidoscopic appearances " as they " palmed " , occurrences he attributed to his ubiquitous " strain " and that he claimed disappeared when one truly relaxed . This phenomenon , however , was almost certainly caused by Eigengrau or " dark light " . In fact , even in conditions of perfect darkness , as inside a cave , neurons at every level of the visual system produce random background activity that is interpreted by the brain as patterns of light and color .
= = = Visualization = = =
Bates placed importance on mental images , as he felt relaxation was the key to clarity of imagination as well as of actual sight . He claimed that one 's poise could be gauged by the visual memory of black ; that the darker it appeared in the mind , and the smaller the area of black that could be imagined , the more relaxed one was at the moment . He recommended that patients think of the top letter from an eye chart and then visualize progressively smaller black letters , and eventually a period or comma . But he emphasized his view that the clear visual memory of black " cannot be attained by any sort of effort " , stating that " the memory is not the cause of the relaxation , but must be preceded by it , " and cautioned against " concentrating " on black , as he regarded an attempt to " think of one thing only " as a strain .
While Bates preferred to have patients imagine something black , he also reported that some found objects of other colors easiest to visualize , and thus were benefited most by remembering those , because , he asserted , " the memory can never be perfect unless it is easy . " Skeptics reason that the only benefit to eyesight gained from such techniques is itself imagined , and point out that familiar objects , including letters on an eye chart , can be recognized even when they appear less than clear .
= = = Movement = = =
He thought that the manner of eye movement affected the sight . He suggested " shifting " , or moving the eyes back and forth to get an illusion of objects " swinging " in the opposite direction . He believed that the smaller the area over which the " swing " was experienced , the greater was the benefit to sight . He also indicated that it was usually helpful to close the eyes and imagine something " swinging " . By alternating actual and mental shifting over an image , Bates wrote , many patients were quickly able to shorten the " shift " to a point where they could " conceive and swing a letter the size of a period in a newspaper " . One who mastered this would attain the " universal swing " , Bates believed .
Perhaps finding Bates ' concepts of " shifting " and " swinging " too complicated , some proponents of vision improvement , such as Bernarr Macfadden , suggested simply moving the eyes up and down , from side to side , and shifting one 's gaze between a near @-@ point and a far @-@ point .
= = = Sunning = = =
Bates believed that the eyes were benefited by exposure to sunlight . He stated that " persons with normal sight can look directly at the sun , or at the strongest artificial light , without injury or discomfort , " and gave several examples of patients ' vision purportedly improving after sungazing – this is at variance with the well @-@ known risk of eye damage that can result from direct sunlight observation .
Bates cautioned that , just as one should not attempt to run a marathon without training , one should not immediately look directly at the sun , but he suggested that it could be worked up to . He acknowledged that looking at the sun could have ill effects , but characterized them as being " always temporary " and in fact the effects of strain in response to sunlight . He wrote that he had cured people who believed that the sun had caused them permanent eye damage . In his magazine , Bates later suggested exposing only the white part of the eyeball to direct sunlight , and only for seconds at a time , after allowing the sun to shine on closed eyelids for a longer period .
Posthumous publications of Bates ' book omitted mention of the supposed benefits from direct sunlight shining on open eyes .
= = Results and criticism = =
Bates ' techniques have never been scientifically established to improve eyesight . Several of Bates ' techniques , including " sunning " , " swinging " , and " palming " , were combined with healthy changes to diet and exercise in a 1983 randomized controlled trial of myopic children in India . After 6 months , the experimental groups " did not show any statistically significant difference in refractive status " , though the children in the treatment group " subjectively … felt relieved of eye strain and other symptoms " .
In 1967 the British Medical Journal observed that " Bates [ … ] advocated prolonged sun @-@ gazing as the treatment of myopia , with disastrous results . "
The philosopher Frank J. Leavitt has argued that the method Bates described would be difficult to test scientifically due to his emphasis on relaxation and visualization . Leavitt asked " How can we tell whether someone has relaxed or imagined something , or just thinks that he or she has imagined it ? " In regards to the possibility of a placebo trial , Leavitt commented " I cannot conceive of how we could put someone in a situation where he thinks he has imagined something while we know that he has not . "
= = After Bates = =
After Bates died in 1931 , his methods of treatment were continued by his widow Emily and other associates , some of whom incorporated exercises and dietary recommendations . Most subsequent proponents did not stand by Bates ' explanation of how the eye focuses mechanically , but nonetheless maintained that relieving a habitual " strain " was the key to improving sight .
= = = Margaret Darst Corbett = = =
Margaret Darst Corbett first met Bates when she consulted him about her husband 's eyesight . She became his pupil , and eventually taught his method at her School of Eye Education in Los Angeles . She was of the stated belief that " the optic nerve is really part of the brain , and vision is nine @-@ tenths mental and one @-@ tenth only physical . "
In late 1940 , Corbett and her assistant were charged with violations of the Medical Practice Act of California for treating eyes without a licence . At the trial , many of her students testified on her behalf , describing in detail how she had enabled them to discard their glasses . One witness testified that he had been almost blind from cataracts , but that , after working with Corbett , his vision had improved to such an extent that for the first time he could read for eight hours at a stretch without glasses . Corbett explained in court that she was practicing neither optometry nor ophthalmology and represented herself not as a doctor but only as an " instructor of eye training " . Describing her method she said " We turn vision on by teaching the eyes to shift . We want the sense of motion to relieve staring , to end the fixed look . We use light to relax the eyes and to accustom them to the sun . "
The trial attracted widespread interest , as did the " not guilty " verdict . The case spurred a bill in the Californian State Legislature that would have then made such vision education illegal without an optometric or medical licence . After a lively campaign in the media , the bill was rejected .
= = = Aldous Huxley = = =
Perhaps the most famous proponent of the Bates method was the British writer Aldous Huxley . At the age of sixteen Huxley had an attack of keratitis , which , after an 18 @-@ month period of near @-@ blindness , left him with one eye just capable of light perception and the other with an unaided Snellen fraction of 10 / 200 . This was mainly due to opacities in both corneas , complicated by hyperopia and astigmatism . He was able to read only if he wore thick glasses and dilated his better pupil with atropine , to allow that eye to see around an opacity in the center of the cornea .
In 1939 , at the age of 45 and with eyesight that continued to deteriorate , he happened to hear of the Bates method and sought the help of Margaret Corbett , who gave him regular lessons . Three years later he wrote The Art of Seeing , in which he related : " Within a couple of months I was reading without spectacles and , what was better still , without strain and fatigue .... At the present time , my vision , though very far from normal , is about twice as good as it used to be when I wore spectacles . " Describing the process , Huxley wrote that " Vision is not won by making an effort to get it : it comes to those who have learned to put their minds and eyes into a state of alert passivity , of dynamic relaxation . " He expressed indifference regarding the veracity of Bates ' explanation of how the eye focuses , stating that " my concern is not with the anatomical mechanism of accommodation , but with the art of seeing . "
His case generated wide publicity as well as scrutiny . Ophthalmologist Walter B. Lancaster , for example , suggested in 1944 that Huxley had " learned how to use what he has to better advantage " by training the " cerebral part of seeing " , rather than actually improving the quality of the image on the retina .
In 1952 , ten years after writing The Art of Seeing , Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet , wearing no glasses and , according to Bennett Cerf , apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty . In Cerf 's words :
Then suddenly he faltered — and the disturbing truth became obvious . He wasn 't reading his address at all . He had learned it by heart . To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes . When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn 't read it , and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him . It was an agonizing moment .
In response to this , Huxley wrote " I often do use magnifying glasses where conditions of light are bad , and have never claimed to be able to read except under very good conditions . " This underscored that he had not regained anything close to normal vision , and in fact never claimed that he had .
= = = Modern variants = = =
" Natural vision correction " or " natural vision improvement " continues to be marketed by practitioners offering individual instruction , many of who have no medical or optometric credentials . Most base their approach in the Bates method , though some also integrate vision therapy techniques . There are also many self @-@ help books and programs , which have not been subjected to randomized controlled trials , aimed at improving eyesight naturally . Purveyors of such approaches argue that they lack the funds to formally test them .
The heavily advertised " See Clearly Method " ( of which sales were halted by a court order in November 2006 , in response to what were found to be dishonest marketing practices ) included " palming " and " light therapy " , both adapted from Bates . The creators of the program , however , emphasized that they did not endorse Bates ' approach overall .
In his 1992 book The Bates Method , A Complete Guide to Improving Eyesight — Naturally , " Bates method teacher " Peter Mansfield was very critical of eye care professionals for prescribing corrective lenses , recommending most of Bates ' techniques to improve vision . The book included accounts of twelve " real cases " , but did not report any information about refractive error .
Czech native John Slavicek claims to have created an " eye cure " that improves eyesight in three days , borrowing from ancient yogic eye exercises , visualizations from the Seth Material , and the Bates method . Although he has testimonials from his neighbor and others , several of his students indicate that he has greatly exaggerated their cases . Slavicek 's self @-@ published manual , Yoga for the Eyes , was rejected by an ophthalmologist who evaluated it , and evinced no interest from the World Health Organization and St. Erik 's Eye Foundation in Sweden as he had not conducted double @-@ blind tests .
= = Anecdotal support = =
In support of the effectiveness of the Bates method , proponents point to the many accounts of people allegedly having improved their eyesight by applying it . While these anecdotes may be told and passed on in good faith , several potential explanations exist for the phenomena reported other than a genuine reversal of a refractive error due to the techniques practiced :
Some cases of nearsightedness are recognized as due to a transient spasm of the ciliary muscle , rather than a misshapen eyeball . These are classed as pseudomyopia , of which spontaneous reversal may account for some reports of improvement .
Research has confirmed that when nearsighted subjects remove their corrective lenses , over time there is a limited improvement ( termed " blur adaptation " ) in their unaided visual resolution , even though refraction indicates no corresponding change in refractive error . This is believed to occur due to adjustments made in the visual system . One who has been practicing Bates ' techniques and notices such improvement may not realize that simply leaving the glasses off would have had the same effect , which may be especially pronounced if the prescription was too strong to begin with .
Visual acuity is affected by the size of the pupil . When it constricts ( such as in response to an increase in light ) , the quality of focus will improve significantly , at the cost of a reduced ability to see in dim light . This is known as the " pinhole effect " . This concept is also used in photography when changing the aperture size .
Some eye defects may naturally change for the better with age or in cycles ( ophthalmologist Stewart Duke @-@ Elder suggested that this is what happened with Aldous Huxley ) . A cataract when first setting in sometimes results in much improved eyesight for a short time . One who happens to have been practicing the Bates method will likely credit it for any improvement experienced regardless of the actual cause .
Some studies have suggested that a learned ability to interpret blurred images may account for perceived improvements in eyesight . Ophthalmologist Walter B. Lancaster had this to say : " Since seeing is only partly a matter of the image on the retina and the sensation it produces , but is in still larger part a matter of the cerebral processes of synthesis , in which memories play a principal role , it follows that by repetition , by practice , by exercises , one builds up a substratum of memories useful for the interpretation of sensations and facilitates the syntheses which are the major part of seeing . " Lancaster faulted ophthalmologists in general for neglecting the role of the brain in the process of seeing , " leaving to irregular , half @-@ trained workers the cultivation of that field " .
A 1952 study involving 100 subjects claiming to experience " flashes " of clear vision , in which eyesight momentarily becomes much sharper , found only one subject who " demonstrated unusually good transient acuity ( a flash ) but she was unable to maintain it or repeat it for measurement of refraction " and concluded that " ' flashers ' ( those who can obtain remarkably large transient increases in visual acuity ) are uncommon " . A 2004 study proposed that such flashes may be caused by " negative accommodation " ( i.e. an active flattening of the lens by the ciliary muscles ) .
A 1982 study of subjects who underwent computer @-@ based visual training concluded that any perceived resulting improvement in visual acuity is best explained as a contact lens @-@ like effect of moisture on the eye , based on increased tear action exhibited by 15 out of 17 subjects who experienced such improvement .
A 2003 study of claims that " positive suggestion ( e.g. , using hypnosis ) can significantly improve visual acuity " found that " neither suggestion nor hypnotic phenomena are likely to significantly improve myopic vision " .
= = General research = =
In 2004 the American Academy of Ophthalmology ( AAO ) published a review of various research regarding " visual training " , which consisted of " eye exercises , muscle relaxation techniques , biofeedback , eye patches , or eye massages " , " alone or in combinations " . No evidence was found that such techniques could objectively benefit eyesight , though some studies noted changes , both positive and negative , in the visual acuity of nearsighted subjects as measured by a Snellen chart . In some cases noted improvements were maintained at subsequent follow @-@ ups . However , these results were not seen as actual reversals of nearsightedness , and were attributed instead to factors such as " improvements in interpreting blurred images , changes in mood or motivation , creation of an artificial contact lens by tear film changes , or a pinhole effect from miosis of the pupil . "
In 2005 the Ophthalmology Department of New Zealand 's Christchurch Hospital published a review of forty @-@ three studies regarding the use of eye exercises . They found that " As yet there is no clear scientific evidence published in the mainstream literature supporting the use of eye exercises " to improve visual acuity , and concluded that " their use therefore remains controversial . "
= = General criticisms = =
= = = Dead @-@ end = = =
A frequent criticism of the Bates method is that it has remained relatively obscure , which is seen as proof that it is not truly effective . Writer Alan M. MacRobert concluded in a 1979 article that the " most telling argument against the Bates system " and other alternative therapies was that they " bore no fruit " . In regards to the Bates method , he reasoned that " If palming , shifting , and swinging could really cure poor eyesight , glasses would be as obsolete by now as horse @-@ drawn carriages . "
= = = Corrective lenses and safety = = =
Discarding one 's corrective lenses , as Bates recommended , or wearing lenses weaker than one 's prescribed correction , as some Bates method advocates suggest , poses a potential safety hazard in certain situations , especially when one is operating a motor vehicle . James Randi related that his father , shortly after discarding glasses on the advice of Bates ' book , wrecked his car . Bates method teachers often caution that when driving , one should wear the correction legally required .
= = = Avoidance of conventional treatment = = =
One of the greatest potential dangers of faith in the Bates method is that a believer may be disinclined to seek medical advice regarding what could be a sight @-@ threatening condition requiring prompt treatment , such as glaucoma . Also , children with vision problems may require early attention by a professional in order to successfully prevent lazy eye . Such treatment may include exercises , but which are different from those associated with the Bates method , and parents who subscribe to Bates ' ideas may delay seeking conventional care until it is too late . It may further be necessary for a child at risk of developing lazy eye to wear the proper correction .
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= Maneater ( 2007 film ) =
Maneater is a 2007 American television natural horror film directed by Gary Yates and produced by RHI Entertainment , starring Gary Busey , Ty Wood , and Ian D. Clark . The film aired on various video on demand channels , before officially premiering in the United States on the Syfy Channel on September 8 , 2007 . This film lends its name to the film series to which it belongs and is the third film in the series . Filmed in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada , the film is produced under an agreement with Syfy . Based on Jack Warner 's novel Shikar , the film details the killing spree of an escaped Bengal tiger after it gets loose in a small town along the Appalachian Trail . Trying to stop it are Sheriff Barnes ( Busey ) and big game hunter Colonel Graham ( Clark ) , while a young boy named Roy ( Wood ) who has a strange connection to the tiger , tries to save it . It is the 4th film in the Maneater Series .
Maneater is one of the few films in the series to break the standard formula of Syfy natural horror films with its use of a normal , living tiger rather than a CG animal or excusing its behavior by having it be a mutant or genetically altered . Critics heavily panned the film citing substandard acting , heavy use of stereotypical characters , a hole @-@ filled plot , unused subplots , and the use of a live tiger resulting in almost all attacks being implied rather than seen .
= = Plot = =
Two people disappear along the Appalachian Trail : a young man jogging with his girlfriend and a hermit who rarely leaves his home . Sheriff Grady Barnes ( Gary Busey ) finds a trail in the woods which leads him to parts of the hermit 's body . That night , young Roy Satterly ( Ty Wood ) is reading by flashlight when a Bengal tiger briefly appears in front of his bedroom window . In the morning , his mother , Rose ( Marina Stephenson Kerr ) , finds him sleepwalking in the woods in front of their house . A cast taken at the next victim 's scene points to a tiger as the hermit 's killer , so Sheriff Barnes holds a press conference to warn the public . The Bengal Tiger visits Roy 's home again that night .
A tabloid paper offers a $ 10 @,@ 000 reward for the tiger causing the town to be inundated with hunters and reporters . The sheriff forbids anyone from going in the woods and hunting the tiger , but while out with Deputy Sharon Weinman ( Sarah Constible ) , he sees Roy in the woods . They give chase , but instead find a dead tabloid reporter . The National Guard is called in to help . The sheriff later sees Roy in the woods again and warns him to stay out before taking him home and giving Rose the same warning . After he leaves , she mistakenly believes Roy told the sheriff lies about there being a tiger and chastises him .
Six National Guardsmen arrive , led by Sergeant Winshiser ( Aleks Paunovic ) , as does Colonel James Livingston @-@ Graham ( Ian D. Clark ) , an experienced big game hunter and tracker from England who specializes in hunting man @-@ eating tigers . Sergeant Winshiser and his men arrogantly refuse to use the sheriff 's advice and help . Graham tells the sheriff the soldiers will fail due to their arrogance and that he will start his hunt for the tiger when they finish . When the guardsmen search for the tiger , it kills one silently . Graham appears and explains how the tiger did it and helps them find the body . Later , Deputy Weinman and Deputy Ezra Hundt ( Karl Thordarson ) , the mayor 's son , find one of the National Guard trucks sitting empty on the road . They investigate and Weinman tells Hundt to call their position in to headquarters . She finds that the two guardsmen were attacked by the tiger , one being killed and the other shot by his partner . Hearing Hundt blowing the patrol car horn , she runs back to the car , but the Tiger has already killed him . Meanwhile , Roy encounters Graham in the woods and they discuss the tiger . When Roy asks if Graham is going to kill the Tiger , Graham tells him that he must because it can 't chose not to hunt whatever is around it , including people . They shake hands and part ways with Graham continuing to the scene of the National Guard attack . When he arrives , he explains how the tiger attacked the guardsmen and deputy .
Later , at another press conference , a reporter reveals that Graham was exiled from India , his former home , after he failed to kill a tiger that slaughtered over 200 people . The sheriff visits Graham that night and he explains that the situation had been beyond his control . Later that night , Roy dreams the tiger killed Graham and runs to his tent to check on him . Graham offers to walk him home , but they end up going to the store where Rose works when Roy says she is working late .
When they arrive , the Tiger attacks and kills her . They run into the store , but are separated . Graham calls for Roy , but the Tiger gets into the building and attacks him , Graham barely failing to kill the tiger with both shots he fires . Sheriff Barnes arrives after being alerted about a break @-@ in alarm and is chased into the store by the tiger . He finds Graham 's hat and a blood trail and tries to find him before hearing Roy calling out from under a truck outside . The sheriff dives under the truck and shields the boy as the Tiger tries to attack . When the Tiger jumps into the bed of the truck , they run to the sheriff 's truck . The sheriff shoots at the tiger , but hits a gasoline tank causing it to explode and kill the Tiger . Graham appears beside the building , bloody but alive . Deciding his hunting days are over , Graham returns home . Sheriff Barnes and his wife adopt the orphaned Roy .
= = Cast = =
Gary Busey as Grady Barnes
Ian D. Clark as Colonel Graham
Ty Wood as Roy Satterly
Diana Reis as Mary Barnes
Jessica Burleson as Eleanor
Sarah Constible as Deputy Sharon Weinman
Marc Devigne as Lambert
Kristen Harris as Kathy Kurick
Aaron Hughes as Sergeant Howe
Adriana O 'Neil as Mayor 's mistress
Aleks Paunovic as Sergeant Winshiser
Brittany Scobie as Sarah
Dan Skene as Cpl. Timmons
Marina Stephenson Kerr as Rose Satterly
Blake Taylor as Mayor Earl Hunt
Ryland Thiessen as Georgie Willet
Will Woytowich as Guardsman Vance
Jon Ted Wynne as Wolf the Paparazzi
Arne MacPherson as Deer Hunter
Dave Mahr as Restaurant patron
Rick Skene as Tiger truck driver ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
In October 2006 , RHI Entertainment made a deal with the Sci Fi Channel to produce a series of ten made @-@ for @-@ television natural horror films to air on the network the following year . Though the film series was dubbed " Maneater " by RHI Entertainment , the actual Maneater film is the third in the series . Although the agreement called for the films to premiere on Sci Fi , the first six films in the series actually premiered on various video on demand channels months ahead of their Sci Fi airings .
Based on Jack Warner 's 2003 debut novel Shikar , Maneater was filmed in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . The film uses no CGI special effects at all , with the " killer tiger " portrayed by actual trained tigers . In scenes where the tiger is chasing various characters , the tiger is actually on a leash with his trainer behind him . The leash and trainer were edited out of the scenes during post @-@ production . While Gary Busey said the tigers were a " joy " to work with , Clark joked that he was hoping they would not think he was lunch , noting that it was his first time working with tigers .
= = Distribution = =
Maneater premiered in Canada on the subscription @-@ based video on demand channel Movie Central on Demand earlier in 2007 before it aired in the United States on the Sci Fi Channel on September 8 , 2007 as its Saturday night " Movie of the Week " premiere . On January 8 , 2008 , Genius Entertainment released the film on DVD . It included no extras , an anamorphic widescreen transfer , and a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 audio track . The film was re @-@ released on July 22 , 2008 as part of the first volume of the " Maneater Series Collection " sets . The volume also included Blood Monkey and In the Spider 's Web , the first and second films in the series , respectively .
= = Reception = =
As with many other films in the series , Maneater was heavily panned by critics . Felix Gonzalez , Jr. of DVDReview.com referred to the film as " another Z @-@ grade extravaganza of gore and mayhem " and felt that it was typical of most Sci Fi original movies in that it contained " horrendous writing and nonsensical characters . " He considered Busey 's being the headliner was the first sign of trouble , stating that " with his ill @-@ fitting suit and incomprehensible facial expressions , ( Busey ) is actually more frightening than the tiger . " Matt Paprocki from Blogcritics felt the original novel was superior to its film adaptation , and felt the movie was " an appallingly bad creature feature that barely qualifies as such " with multiple plot holes , unexplored subplots , and stereotypical characters plagued by bad acting .
Staci Layne Wilson of Horror.com also felt the film was full of stereotypes , including a " stupid circus trainer ; bible @-@ thumping naysayer ; the great white hunter ; small @-@ minded mayor ; pinheaded press ; wise Indian sage ; [ and ] military sorts " but felt they were depicted in such an extreme manner that they were simply boring . She found the films conclusion to be predictable and " corny " . She did praise the film 's cinematography and visual appeal despite the limited number of filming locations actually used . In reviewing the film for DVD Talk , film instructor and critic Justin Felix found the use of a real tiger one of the only original elements of the film , while feeling the plot , setting , and characters followed the set Sci Fi Channel movie of the week formula . At the same time , he notes that the use of a live tiger results in most attacks occurring off screen and the tiger being rarely seen at all , taking away the " usual " fun of laughing at badly done " CG terrors . " Monsters and Critics.com 's Jeff Swindoll felt the film was a poor attempt at replicating Jaws with the tiger taking on the role of a " land shark . " While he felt the character of Colonel Graham was contrived and seemed to come from another era , Swindoll did think Ian D. Clark did portray the character decently . Like other critics , Swindoll praised the use of a live tiger , but also notes that it was obvious the tiger was playing with the actors like a " sweet pussycat " and that the post @-@ production editing did a bad job of trying to make it look like the tiger was a vicious killer .
Several reviewers praised the film for being more subdued than most of Sci @-@ Fi 's gore @-@ filled creature films and for its use of a live tiger rather than poor CGI effects . However , David Johnson of DVD Verdict , heavily criticized the film for " its significant dearth of righteous tiger @-@ attack action " . He found the implied violence resulted in a boring film that will not satisfy more horror film buff : " the gore @-@ hounds that might be attracted to the promise of a big @-@ ass tiger sinking his teeth into some hapless rednecks will be almost certainly disappointed . The big bummer is that we don 't even get any tiger on human direct action until the very end , and that 's boilerplate Lassie stuff with a stuntman fending off a laid @-@ back stunt tiger " . Conversely , unlike other reviewers , he praised the characters , feeling they were interesting and ended up being ones he " somewhat cared about . "
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= SM U @-@ 41 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 41 or U @-@ XLI was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 41 , built by the Austrian firm of Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) at the Pola Navy Yard , was launched in November 1917 . When she was commissioned in February 1918 , she became the last boat of her class to enter service . She was also the last domestically constructed Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat to enter service .
She had a single hull just over 122 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced 280 metric tons ( 276 long tons ) when surfaced and over 325 metric tons ( 320 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
During a short service career marred by repeated engine breakdowns , U @-@ 41 sank one ship , the French steamer Amiral Charner of 4 @,@ 604 gross register tons ( GRT ) . U @-@ 41 was at Cattaro at war 's end , and was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . She was towed to Bizerta and broken up within a year .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
Once these steps had alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen , one of the two German shipyards building UB II submarines .
U @-@ 41 displaced 280 metric tons ( 276 long tons ) surfaced and 326 metric tons ( 321 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was planned to be 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 41 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 41 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
U @-@ 41 was ordered from Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) as a replacement for U @-@ 6 ( which had been sunk in May 1916 ) . She was laid down on 23 February 1917 at the Pola Navy Yard . During construction , U @-@ 41 was lengthened by nearly 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to accommodate diesel engines that had been ordered for U @-@ 6 before her loss . U @-@ 41 was launched on 11 November .
= = Service career = =
On 19 February 1918 , SM U @-@ 41 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Edgar Wolf . Previously in command of U @-@ 4 for a week in April 1915 , the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Wolf was a native of Fiume ( present @-@ day Rijeka , Croatia ) . When she entered service , U @-@ 41 was the last boat of her class to do so . She was also the last domestically constructed U @-@ boat completed and commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Wolf and U @-@ 41 departed Pola on 17 March for a patrol in the Mediterranean . On 30 March , Wolf attempted to torpedo a steamer off the coast of Africa , but missed his target . Three days later , the left diesel engine failed and Wolf steered his boat back to port , arriving at Cattaro on 5 April . U @-@ 41 sailed for Pola on 9 April and , completing the journey two days later , underwent repairs over the next six weeks . While conducting a diving trial out of Pola on 25 May , the boat sprang a leak at the depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . She returned to Pola and underwent more extensive repairs , remaining there until August .
After making way to the submarine base at Brioni , U @-@ 41 set out on another patrol into the Mediterranean on 29 August , but put into Sebenico the next day for engine repairs . Resuming her patrol after a day 's delay , U @-@ 41 reached her patrol area east of Malta . Wolf and U @-@ 41 scored their first success on 13 September , when they torpedoed and sank the steamer Amiral Charner west of Pantellaria . The 4 @,@ 604 @-@ ton French ship was carrying horses and a general cargo from Marseilles for Salonika when she was attacked . Six were killed in the attack on the French ship . On 26 September , U @-@ 41 attacked another steamer west of Kefalonia , but was apparently unsuccessful . U @-@ 41 ended her patrol at Cattaro on 28 September .
On October 6 , Wolf and U @-@ 41 set out from Cattaro to patrol off Durazzo and the Albanian coast . After nine days without success , the boat returned to Cattaro , and remained there through the end of the war . On 1 November , U @-@ 41 was taken over by a British commission , who controlled the vessel until she was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 41 and sister boats U @-@ 29 and U @-@ 31 were towed to Bizerta . U @-@ 29 foundered en route , but U @-@ 31 and U @-@ 41 reached their destination and were scrapped within the next year .
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= Hurricane Carla =
Hurricane Carla ranks as the most intense U.S. tropical cyclone landfall on the Hurricane Severity Index . The third named storm and first Category 5 hurricane of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season , Carla developed from an area of squally weather in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 3 . Initially a tropical depression , it strengthened slowly while heading northwestward , and by September 5 , the system was upgraded to Tropical Storm Carla . About 24 hours later , Carla was upgraded to a hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the storm curved northward while approaching the Yucatán Channel . Late on September 7 , Carla entered the Gulf of Mexico while passing just northeast of the Yucatán Peninsula . By early on the following day , the storm became a major hurricane after reaching Category 3 intensity . Resuming its northwestward course , Carla continued intensification and on September 11 , it was upgraded to a Category 5 hurricane . Later that day , Carla weakened slightly , but was still a large and intense hurricane when the storm made landfall near Port O 'Connor , Texas . It weakened quickly inland and was reduced to a tropical storm on September 12 . Heading generally northward , Carla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 13 , while centered over southern Oklahoma . Rapidly moving northeastward , Carla 's remnants reached the Labrador Sea , Canada and dissipated on September 17 , 1961 .
While crossing the Yucatán Channel , the outer bands of Carla brought gusty winds and severe local flooding in western Cuba and the Yucatán Peninsula , though no damage or fatalities were reported . Although initially considered a significant threat to Florida , the storm brought only light winds and small amounts of precipitation , reaching no more than 3 @.@ 15 in ( 80 mm ) . In Texas , wind gusts as high as 170 mph ( 280 km / h ) were observed in Port Lavaca . Additionally , several tornadoes spawned in the state caused notable impacts , with the most destructive twister resulting in 200 buildings severely damaged , of which at least 60 were destroyed , and 8 deaths and 55 injuries . Throughout the state , Carla destroyed 1 @,@ 915 homes , 568 farm buildings , and 415 other buildings . Additionally , 50 @,@ 723 homes , 5 @,@ 620 farm buildings , and 10 @,@ 487 other buildings suffered damage . There were 34 fatalities and at least $ 300 million ( 1961 USD ) in losses in Texas alone . Several tornadoes also touched down in Louisiana , causing the destruction of 140 homes and 11 farms and other buildings , and major damage to 231 additional homes and 11 farm and other buildings . Minor to moderate damage was also reported to 748 homes and 75 farm and other buildings . Six deaths and $ 25 million in losses in Louisiana were attributed to Carla . Heavy rainfall occurred in several other states , especially in Kansas , where flash flooding severely damaged crops and drowned 5 people . Overall , Carla resulted in $ 325 @.@ 74 million in losses and 43 fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
As early as September 1 , a tropical disturbance – an area of convective activity – was observed tracking westward across the Caribbean Sea within the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) . Around that time , an anticyclone was situated over the western Caribbean Sea at the upper @-@ tropospheric levels . Surface charts indicate that a low @-@ level circulation was developing early on September 3 . Thus , it is estimated that a tropical depression – a tropical cyclone with sustained winds with winds of less than 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) – developed about 175 miles ( 282 km ) northwest of Barranquilla , Colombia at 1200 UTC . Initially , the center of circulation remained difficult to locate on surface charts due to lack of data . At San Andrés , winds shifted west at about 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) , while barometric pressures dropped to 1 @,@ 007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The Weather Bureau Office in Miami , Florida issued its first bulletin at 1600 UTC on September 4 , while the depression was centered about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios , Nicaragua .
It is estimated that sustained winds reached 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) at 1200 UTC on September 5 , thus the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Carla , while located just northeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios . A reconnaissance aircraft flight reported that Carla was continuing to intensify , with surface winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Radars reported an unusually large tropical cyclone , with convective bands extending about 520 miles ( 840 km ) outward from the center . Around 0000 UTC on September 6 , Carla passed near Swan Island , which reported a barometric pressure of about 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) and wind gusts of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) from the southwest . Based on observations obtained by a reconnaissance aircraft at 1100 UTC on September 6 – namely a barometric pressure of 982 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) – a bulletin issued by the Weather Bureau an hour later indicated that the storm had " probably reached hurricane intensity " . According to post @-@ season analysis , Carla reached hurricane status at that time .
Shortly after becoming a hurricane on September 6 , Carla curved northward in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . At 1200 UTC on September 7 , the storm intensified into a Category 2 hurricane while located east @-@ northeast of Cozumel , Quintana Roo , Mexico ( actual use of the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale , which was developed in 1971 , was not in effect ) . Shortly thereafter , Carla crossed the Yucatán Channel and entered the Gulf of Mexico . A strong high pressure area forced Carla to resume its original northwesterly course . Early on September 8 , the storm strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane while located just north of the Yucatán Peninsula . Thus , Carla was the third major hurricane of the season . Carla was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane early on September 10 , while approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States . At 0000 UTC on September 11 , Carla strengthened into a Category 5 while located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico . Six hours later , the storm reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) .
Although it weakened back to a Category 4 hurricane late on September 11 , Carla reached its minimum barometric pressure of 931 mbar ( 27 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Later that day , the storm struck Matagorda Island , Texas ( seven miles south of Port O 'Connor ) with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Carla rapidly weakened inland , and degenerated to a Category 2 hurricane on September 12 , while passing just east of Port Lavaca . Six hours later , the storm was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane near Shiner , shortly before being downgraded to a tropical storm between Taylor and Coupland . Beginning late on September 12 , the storm curved just east of due north . After reaching Oklahoma early on September 13 , Carla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located over rural Johnston County . The extratropical remnants of Carla moved rapidly northeastward and brought heavy rainfall to some areas of the Great Plains and Midwestern United States . By September 14 , it entered Canada near Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario . Continuing swiftly northeastward across Ontario , Quebec , and Labrador , before the remnants dissipated over the Labrador Sea on September 17 .
= = Preparations = =
Occurring a year after Hurricane Donna , officials in the Florida Keys took precautions to brace for potential impact from the storm . The United States Navy flew their planes out of Key West , while Coast Guardsmen evacuated Alligator Reef Light , American Shoal Light , and Sombrero Key Light . Ships docked at Key West sailed out to sea to ride out the squalls . On the morning of September 7 , a hurricane watch was issued from the entire coast of Louisiana eastward to Apalachicola , Florida . On September 8 , a hurricane watch was issued along the southwest coast of the state from Vermilion Bay westward . It was later extended westward to include the entire coast of Texas , and eastward to Apalachicola , Florida . A portion of the hurricane watch from Aransas Pass , Texas to Grand Isle , Louisiana was upgraded to a hurricane warning at 1600 UTC on September 9 . An estimated 500 @,@ 000 people fled the coasts of Texas and Louisiana , making it the largest evacuation in the history of the United States , at the time . Further , at least half of those people were from Texas . In small towns along the coast of Texas , 90 – 100 % of their populations evacuated , while 20 % of people left the larger cities . Many in Galveston stayed due to protection from the Galveston Seawall .
= = Impact = =
Carla spawned the largest hurricane @-@ related tornado outbreak on record at the time , when 26 tornadoes touched down within its circulation . However , it was overwhelmingly surpassed by Hurricane Beulah in 1967 , which spawned at least 115 tornadoes . Throughout its path , 43 fatalities and about $ 325 @.@ 74 million in damage were attributed to Carla . Most of the impact occurred in Texas , where the storm made landfall as a large and strong Category 4 hurricane .
= = = United States = = =
= = = = Texas = = = =
Abnormally high tides and storm surge was reported along the coast of Texas , reaching at least 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above mean sea level at many coastal areas between Sabine Pass and Port Aransas . The highest tide reported was 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) at Port Lavaca , with large wave heights including 12 @.@ 6 feet ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) in Matagorda , 10 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) in Port Aransas , 10 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) in Freeport , 10 @.@ 1 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 m ) in Texas City , and 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in Galveston and Sabine . Because the storm was a Category 4 hurricane at landfall , Carla produced strong winds , especially near its path . The strongest sustained winds include 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) in Matagorda , 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) in Victoria , and 88 mph ( 142 km / h ) . Additionally , the highest wind gust observations include 175 mph ( 282 km / h ) in Port Lavaca , 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) in Matagorda , and 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) in Aransas Pass , Austwell , Edna , Port Aransas , and Victoria . Carla produced heavy rainfall in Texas , peaking at 17 @.@ 48 inches ( 444 mm ) in Bay City . Other significant precipitation totals include 16 @.@ 49 inches ( 419 mm ) at Scholes International Airport at Galveston , 14 @.@ 94 inches ( 379 mm ) in Downtown Galveston , 13 @.@ 05 inches ( 331 mm ) in Wharton , 12 @.@ 55 inches ( 319 mm ) in Liberty , 12 @.@ 47 inches ( 317 mm ) in Dickinson , 11 @.@ 81 inches ( 300 mm ) in Flantonia , 10 @.@ 59 inches ( 269 mm ) in Columbus , 8 @.@ 75 inches ( 222 mm ) in Halletsville , and 8 @.@ 9 inches ( 230 mm ) in Smithville .
The most significant damage to property occurred between Port Arthur and Corpus Christi . Port O 'Connor , lying nearest to the location of Carla 's landfall , was virtually destroyed . In Victoria , the highest sustained wind speed was 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , while gusts reached 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . About 4 @,@ 260 homes were damaged , with around 500 severely damaged or destroyed . 43 businesses and 26 public buildings were also significantly impacted . Damage in the city of Victoria reached $ 10 million . Of the 26 tornadoes spawned by Carla , eight of them in Texas caused significant impact . A tornado near Bay City destroyed two radio towers and damaged several buildings . Near Jacksonville , a tornado injured three people , caused the destruction of one house and impacted 3 others , resulting in $ 25 @,@ 000 in damage . Twenty @-@ two people were injured , 18 homes and 6 commercial buildings were destroyed , and 40 additional homes were damaged in a tornado in Channelview , located near Houston ; losses reached $ 200 @,@ 000 . In the early morning hours of September 13 , an F4 tornado moved across Galveston Island along a 15 @-@ mile ( 24 @-@ kilometer ) long , 230 @-@ yard @-@ wide path ( it crossed into Galveston Bay as well ) , severely damaging 200 buildings , of which at least 60 were destroyed , and causing eight deaths and 55 injuries . A few hours later , another twister in the area resulted in the destruction of six houses and extensive lesser damage . In Hardin , a tornado damaged six homes . Several structures sustained impact during a tornado in Fulbright . The final twister occurred during the late afternoon hours in Latex . It caused two injuries , and resulted in $ 5 @,@ 000 in losses , after damaging two houses and three garages .
Then little @-@ known newsman Dan Rather reported live from the Galveston Seawall during the storm , an act that would be imitated by later reporters . This marked the first live television broadcast of a hurricane . Rather also alerted the public of the size of Carla in a way that " literally changed the way the world sees hurricanes " , according to a fellow reporter . Broadcasting live at the Weather Bureau Office in Galveston , Rather asked a meteorologist to draw an outline of the Gulf of Mexico on a transparent sheet of plastic . He then held the map over the black and white radar screen , which put the size of Carla into perspective . CBS was so impressed with Rather 's work that he was offered the position of correspondent . Throughout Texas , Carla destroyed 1 @,@ 915 homes , 568 farm buildings , and 415 other buildings . Additionally , 50 @,@ 723 homes , 5 @,@ 620 farm buildings , and 10 @,@ 487 other buildings suffered damage . There were 460 injuries according to the American Red Cross , though the Monthly Weather Review listed a slightly higher number , 465 . The storm caused 34 fatalities in Texas . Causes of death include 20 people drowning , eight from tornadoes , four electrocutions , and one heart attack . Overall , damage in the state was " conservatively " estimated at $ 300 million . A breakdown of damage indicates $ 200 million incurred to property and $ 100 million to crops , mostly from unharvested rice and lesser impact to cotton and citrus .
= = = = Louisiana = = = =
In southeastern Louisiana , abnormally high tides lashed the coast , though no beach erosion was reported . Rainfall was heavy , peaking at 13 @.@ 9 inches ( 350 mm ) in Many . Other observed precipitation totals include 5 @.@ 6 inches ( 140 mm ) in Baton Rouge , 5 @.@ 57 inches ( 141 mm ) in Morgan City , 4 @.@ 25 inches ( 108 mm ) in Shreveport , 3 @.@ 16 inches ( 80 mm ) in New Orleans , 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 57 mm ) in Lafayette , 2 @.@ 19 inches ( 56 mm ) in Alexandria , 2 @.@ 1 inches ( 53 mm ) in Jonesville and West Monroe , and 1 @.@ 37 inches ( 35 mm ) in Lake Charles . In the western portions of Louisiana , sustained winds peaked at 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) and gusts reached 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . Only minor damage occurred , limited to roofs , glass , and downed tree limbs . Winds caused a local river to reach 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) above flood stage . The 11 tornadoes spawned by Carla in Louisiana destroyed 140 homes and 11 farm and other buildings , while causing major damage to 231 additional homes and 11 farm and other buildings . Additionally , 748 homes and 75 farm and other buildings suffered minor to moderate damage . Six fatalities and 199 injuries occurred , mostly related to the tornadoes . Damage in Louisiana totaled to about $ 25 million . A breakdown of losses include $ 6 million to agriculture , $ 5 million to buildings , $ 4 million to boats and beach property , $ 3 million to roads and bridges , $ 5 million to oil platforms just offshore , and $ 2 million in miscellaneous damage .
= = = = Oklahoma = = = =
Carla and its remnants brought heavy rainfall and strong winds to portions of Oklahoma . About 2 – 8 inches ( 51 – 203 mm ) of rain fell in Grant , Tillman , Washita Counties . Heavier amounts of at least 5 inches ( 130 mm ) fell in Atoka and Pushmataha County . Precipitation in the state peaked at 7 @.@ 68 inches ( 195 mm ) in Kingfisher . More than 140 city blocks were flooded with up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in residential areas of Kingfisher and up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) in business areas . 225 homes and buildings in the city suffered water damaged . Throughout the state , damage in other areas included 90 homes and buildings in Tulsa , 50 homes each in El Reno and Oklahoma City , and 10 homes in Pawnee . Additionally , water inundation washed out several bridges and highways in northeastern parts of the state , leaving roads impassable . Sustained winds between 30 and 55 mph ( 48 and 89 km / h ) and gusts up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) were recorded in Oklahoma . Winds injured two people due to airborne debris . Winds and rain combined severely disrupted electrical and telephone services and caused $ 670 @,@ 000 in damage , with $ 600 @,@ 000 to property and $ 70 @,@ 000 to crops .
= = = = Illinois = = = =
The storm dropped precipitation amounts of 7 inches ( 180 mm ) throughout northwestern Illinois , with a peak of 8 @.@ 18 inches ( 208 mm ) in Mount Carroll . Thus , Carla is the second wettest tropical cyclone in Illinois , behind only Hurricane Audrey in 1957 . Additionally , up to 6 @.@ 29 inches ( 160 mm ) fell in 24 hours . Severe local flooding occurred , especially in the northern portions of the state . Heavy property and agricultural damage occurred . Streets and basements were reported to have flooded , while bridge approaches and a few small bridges were washed out . Precipitation of 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 – 89 mm ) in Chicago flooded about 60 viaducts and 1 @,@ 000 basements . After the Chicago River rose 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , the lock gate to Lake Michigan was opened to release excess water . However , the abrupt onrush of water resulted in about $ 75 @,@ 000 in damage to boats at Wilmette Harbor .
= = = = Elsewhere in the United States = = = =
Winds in Key West reached 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , while much of Florida reported rainfall from the outer bands of Carla . In Kansas , 4 to 7 inches ( 100 to 180 mm ) of rain in only 6 hours caused flash flooding . With a peak amount of 8 @.@ 52 inches ( 216 mm ) in Haddam , Carla was the rainiest tropical cyclone in Kansas , until being surpassed by Hurricane Paine in 1986 and Tropical Storm Frances in 1998 . Severe crop damage occurred , especially in areas of Chautauqua and Shawnee Counties and to the south of the Kansas River . Many highways were left impassable due to water inundation . A family of 4 drowned after their car was swept off a road near Waverly . A fifth fatality occurred after a car with one occupant was swept into a tributary of the Marmaton River near Fort Scott . The storm persistently produced winds of 35 to 50 mph ( 56 to 80 km / h ) , causing further agricultural damage .
In Nebraska , rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 68 inches ( 144 mm ) in Hubbrell , making Carla the rainiest tropical cyclone in the state . Heavy precipitation also fell in Missouri , especially in Brookfield , Lee 's Summit , and Pleasant Hill . The maximum rainfall total in Missouri was 9 @.@ 34 inches ( 237 mm ) in Concordia . One fatality was reported in Missouri , though the cause of death is unknown . Rainfall in Iowa peaked at 9 @.@ 03 inches ( 229 mm ) near Chariton , making Carla the rainiest tropical cyclone in the state . Up to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain fell in a 12 @-@ hour period in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan , mostly between Cheboygan and Grand Rapids . However , the Weather Prediction Center indicated precipitation amounts of 6 @.@ 07 inches ( 154 mm ) in Boyne Falls . Regardless , Carla is the wettest tropical cyclone in the history of Michigan . Despite , the rainfall , flooding in Michigan was relatively minimal , limited to an washed out dam in Traverse City . Precipitation in Wisconsin reached 7 @.@ 58 inches ( 193 mm ) in Brodhead , causing Carla to rank as the wettest tropical cyclone in the state . Precipitation peaks in other states include 4 @.@ 44 inches ( 113 mm ) in Alabama , 5 @.@ 48 inches ( 139 mm ) in Arkansas , 6 @.@ 37 inches ( 162 mm ) in Mississippi , and 3 @.@ 6 inches ( 91 mm ) in Indiana .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In Cuba , broadcasts reported severe flooding near Pinar del Río , and in Los Colomas and Punta de Cartas . Offshore Honduras on Swan Island , a rainfall amount of 3 @.@ 89 inches ( 99 mm ) was reported along with wind gusts up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The remnants of Carla brought tropical storm force winds to some areas of Canada . In Ontario , gusty winds caused power outages in the Clarkson – Port Credit area . Electrical services were are disrupted in New Brunswick , due to winds up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Saint John . Winds of 57 mph ( 92 km / h ) lashed Halifax in Nova Scotia , thus the Halifax Public Gardens closed for threat of falling trees and branches .
= = Aftermath = =
Shortly after the storm , Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson , a lifelong resident of Texas , toured the devastation in the state and met with officials from 18 different counties , remarking that " as always , Texans are arising to a challenge ... We have suffered hurricane , tornado , and floods , but we in Texas are a bold and brave people . " After his report to President John F. Kennedy and Congress , $ 55 million was approved in aid for Texas , though Kennedy later requested an additional $ 65 million . President Kennedy issued a disaster declaration for Texas , allowing all jurisdictions in the state to apply for public assistance . The president also declared 6 parishes in Louisiana a disaster area . Helicopters deployed 88 United States Marines to Galveston to patrol devastated areas . A United States Navy task force composed of medical and construction work teams was also sent to the area . Members of the United States National Guard assisted refugees in returning to their homes and worked to prevent looting . Owing the hurricane 's intensity and destruction , the name Carla was retired and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced by Carol in the 1965 season .
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= Wail al @-@ Shehri =
Wail Mohammed al @-@ Shehri ( Arabic : وائل الشهري , Wāīl ash @-@ Shehrī ; also transliterated as Alshehri ) ( July 31 , 1973 – September 11 , 2001 ) was one of five hijackers of American Airlines Flight 11 , which was hijacked and flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center as part of the September 11 attacks .
Shehri was an elementary school teacher from Khamis Mushait in the Asir region of Saudi Arabia . In early 2000 he traveled to Medina to seek treatment for mental problems . He and his younger brother Waleed traveled to Afghanistan in March 2000 and joined an Al @-@ Qaeda training camp . The brothers were chosen , along with others from the same region of Saudi Arabia , to participate in the September 11 attacks . Once selected , Shehri returned to Saudi Arabia in October 2000 to obtain a clean passport , then returned to Afghanistan . In March 2001 , he recorded his last will and testament on video .
Shehri arrived in the United States in early June 2001 , staying in budget motels in the Boynton Beach area of south Florida . On September 5 , 2001 , Shehri traveled to Boston and checked into a motel with his brother . Six days later , Shehri arrived early in the morning at Boston 's Logan International Airport and boarded American Airlines Flight 11 . Fifteen minutes after take off , the flight was hijacked and deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 8 : 46 a.m.
In the aftermath of the attacks , some news reports mistakenly reported Shehri as a trained pilot and son of a Saudi diplomat , who was still alive and well . The Shehri family in Khamis Mushait spoke to the media , denying those early reports , saying that the Shehri brothers had disappeared and have not been heard from since .
= = Background = =
Wail al @-@ Shehri and his younger brother Waleed were from Khamis Mushait in the Asir province , which is an impoverished area in southwestern Saudi Arabia , along the Yemeni border . Shehri was born in Annams , and grew up in the Um Saraar neighborhood in Khamis Mushait . He had ten brothers and one sister . Several of Shehri 's brothers joined the Saudi military , while his uncle may have been a major in the army and director of logistics . Shehri 's father , Mohammed Ali Asgley Al Shehri , worked as a car dealer . On weekends , the family often spent time together at the Red Sea . The family strictly adhered to the Wahabi school of Islam , which forbids many elements of modernity . As such , the Shehri family did not have satellite television or Internet , nor did his parents permit music or contact with girls . Some of Wail al @-@ Shehri 's elder brothers had visited the United States and could speak English ; however , Wail knew little English .
During high school and college , Shehri was deeply religious and attended Al @-@ Seqley Mosque , which his family had built as the local mosque . Shehri also frequented government @-@ supported religious camps in Saudi Arabia . At this time , there were strong religious feelings in Saudi Arabia , especially in the Asir region . Many young people in the region idolized Osama bin Laden , who had family ties to the area . Wail 's father was a friend of Bin Laden 's father , Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden . Ahmed al @-@ Nami and Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi , who were both hijackers on United Airlines Flight 93 , came from the same area in Saudi Arabia as the Shehri family .
After graduating from Abha teachers college in 1999 , Wail al @-@ Shehri took a job as an elementary school physical education teacher at the Khamis Mushait airbase . Five months into the job , Shehri took leave due to mental illness and depression . Rather than conventional therapy , Wail sought consultation with Muslim clerics , and hoped that a visit to Medina would help . His treatment involved verses from the Qur 'an read to him by a sheikh . He traveled to Medina together with Waleed . After the September 11 attacks , others recalled seeing the Shehri brothers in Medina .
= = Afghanistan = =
Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri disappeared after going to Medina , calling their father just once ; in the conversation , the brothers were vague about when they would return . Both had expressed interest in joining the jihad in Chechnya , though may have been diverted to Afghanistan . Before disappearing , the Shehri brothers went to Al @-@ Seqley Mosque to swear an oath and commitment to jihad , as did Ahmed al @-@ Nami and Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi . Wail presided over the ceremony , dubbing himself Abu Mossaeb al @-@ Janubi after one of Muhammad 's companions .
In March 2000 , he left for Pakistan with Waleed and Ahmed al @-@ Nami ; later , they went on to Afghanistan . Wail al @-@ Shehri followed the standard path for new al @-@ Qaeda recruits in Afghanistan , spending time in the Khalden training camp and then Al Farouq training camp near Kandahar . Details on how the non @-@ pilot ( " muscle " ) hijackers were chosen for the September 11 attacks are vague , though the hijackers appear to have been selected by senior al @-@ Qaeda leaders in 2000 from the thousands of recruits at training camps in Afghanistan . The most capable and motivated volunteers were at al @-@ Farouq , and Saudi citizens were good candidates , since it would be easy for them to obtain visas to travel to the United States . Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) director George Tenet later said that the muscle hijackers were probably told little about their mission in the United States .
Once Wail and the other muscle hijackers completed their training in Afghanistan , they received $ 2 @,@ 000 so they could return to Saudi Arabia to obtain new passports and visas . The Shehri brothers may have been assisted by a relative who worked in the Saudi passport office . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri received passports on October 3 , 2000 , and then obtained United States visas on October 24 . On his visa application , Wail al @-@ Shehri provided vague information , stating his employer / school as " South City " , and his destination as " Wasantwn " . Wail indicated his occupation as " teacher " , and that he would be traveling with his brother on a four @-@ to @-@ six month vacation , which would be paid for with Wail 's teacher salary . Although he would not be working while on vacation , consular officials nonetheless did not question if the Shehri brothers had the financial means to support themselves while in the United States .
In late 2000 , Wail traveled to the United Arab Emirates , where he purchased traveler 's checks , presumed to have been paid for by Mustafa Ahmed al @-@ Hawsawi . Five other hijackers passed through the United Arab Emirates and purchased traveler 's checks , including Majed Moqed , Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi , Ahmed al @-@ Haznawi and Ahmed al @-@ Nami . The 9 / 11 Commission believes that three of the future muscle hijackers , including Wail and Waleed , traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to Beirut and then onward to Iran where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped . An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight , although this may have been a coincidence .
Wail al @-@ Shehri appeared together with hijackers Ahmed al @-@ Nami , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi , and Ahmed al @-@ Ghamdi on a video recorded in March 2001 , and aired on Al Jazeera in September 2002 . Shehri was seen studying maps and flight manuals , but he did not speak in the video ; it also included a segment of Abdulaziz al @-@ Omari reading his last will and testament . While in Afghanistan , another video was recorded that showed Shehri reading his last will and testament . This video was released on September 7 , 2006 .
= = United States = =
On June 5 , 2001 , Wail obtained an International Driving Permit , which was issued in Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates . Wail al @-@ Shehri arrived together with fellow al @-@ Qaeda member Ahmed al @-@ Haznawi at Miami International Airport , via London , from Dubai on June 8 . Both were admitted as tourists for six months . Shehri opened a bank account at SunTrust Bank in Florida on June 18 , with a deposit of $ 8 @,@ 000 that came from American Express traveler 's cheques purchased on June 7 in the United Arab Emirates .
Shehri moved into the Homing Inn , a budget motel in Boynton Beach , on June 21 , 2001 , sharing a room with his brother Waleed , and Satam al @-@ Suqami . Wail and Suqami both used this hotel as their address when they received Florida state non @-@ driver identifications on July 3 . Shehri checked into the Panther Motel & Apartments , in Deerfield Beach , with his brother and Suqami on August 2 , staying there until August 10 . While in Florida , Wail was a member of the World Gym in Boynton Beach , where he trained with Waleed and Suqami . During the summer of 2001 , Wail regularly used computers at the Delray Beach Public Library .
On August 28 , 2001 , Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri made reservations on American Airlines Flight 11 , using the Mail Boxes Etc. in Hollywood , Florida as their address . The Shehri brothers contacted American Airlines on September 3 by telephone to change their first @-@ class seat assignments for American Airlines Flight 11 , selecting seats on the side of the aircraft that offered a direct view of the cockpit . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri left Florida for Boston on September 5 , traveling together on Delta Air Lines Flight 2462 .
Wail checked in together with Waleed at the Park Inn Hotel in Chestnut Hill , Massachusetts on September 5 , 2001 , staying in room 432 . While staying at the Park Inn , Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri may have called a prostitute . Wail al @-@ Shehri accompanied his brother on September 9 to the Travelex at Logan International Airport , where Waleed attempted to wire $ 5 @,@ 000 to the United Arab Emirates . Waleed had insufficient documentation , so Wail and Waleed returned the next day to complete the transaction . Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad received the funds on September 11 at Al @-@ Ansari Exchange in Sharjah . Hijacker Abdulaziz al @-@ Omari possibly spent a night at the Park Inn before leaving with Mohamed Atta for Portland , Maine on September 10 . When Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri checked out on September 11 , they left a sheet of instructions for flying a jet behind in their hotel room .
= = Attacks = =
Wail al @-@ Shehri , his brother Waleed , and Satam al @-@ Suqami arrived together at Logan Airport at 06 : 45 on the morning of September 11 , 2001 . Upon check @-@ in , all three men were selected by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System ( CAPPS ) for further screening of their checked baggage . As the CAPPS was only for luggage , the three hijackers did not undergo any extra scrutiny at the passenger security checkpoint . One of the five Globe Aviation security screeners on @-@ duty later reported that either Wail or Waleed had been using a crutch when they passed through security , and that the crutch had been X @-@ rayed as per regulations .
By 07 : 40 , all five hijackers were aboard the flight , which was scheduled to depart at 07 : 45 . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri sat together in first class in seats 2A and 2B respectively . The aircraft taxied away from Gate 26 , and departed Logan International Airport at 07 : 59 , following a 14 @-@ minute delay . Flight 11 was hijacked at approximately 08 : 14 , which is when the pilot stopped responding to air traffic control . Once the hijacking began , the brothers are suspected of having stabbed two flight attendants . At 08 : 46 : 40 , Mohamed Atta deliberately crashed Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower ( Tower 1 ) of the World Trade Center . The immediate damage destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone , trapping 1 @,@ 344 people . The North Tower collapsed at 10 : 28 , after burning for 102 minutes .
= = Aftermath = =
Waleed al @-@ Shehri was reported to have been found alive by a BBC News article on September 23 , 2001 , and other news reports in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks . Reports said that the Shehri brothers were the sons of a Saudi diplomat stationed in New Delhi , Ahmed al @-@ Shehri . The diplomat 's son was trained as a pilot at Embry @-@ Riddle Aeronautical University in Daytona Beach , Florida , and was working as a pilot for Saudi Arabian Airlines . At the time of the attacks , he was in Morocco for a training program . There were also reports that Wail al @-@ Shehri was a trained pilot . In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , Saudi officials suggested that Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri were victims of identity theft , but the diplomat 's son was the victim of mistaken identity .
Jamal Khashoggi , of Al @-@ Watan and ArabNews in Saudi Arabia , spoke with Muhammad Ali al @-@ Shehri in Khamis Mushait , who said his sons Wail and Waleed had been missing for months . Wail al @-@ Shehri 's father denied reports that Wail had an aeronautics degree , as some news reports said , " My son Wail was 25 years old and had a BA in physical education from the Abha Teacher ’ s College . He was mentally ill and had gone to numerous clerics for assistance in overcoming this instability . He had asked the school , where he taught , for a 6 @-@ month leave to go to Madinah . " His father also told reporters that he dreaded having to believe that Wail and Waleed were involved in the September 11 attacks , " If that turns out to be the truth , then I 'll never , never accept it from them . I 'll never forgive them for that . " Family members said that Wail and Waleed became very religious in the months before they disappeared , had expressed interest in going to Chechnya , and hoped for martyrdom . In a report entitled " A Saudi Apology " for Dateline NBC aired on August 25 , 2002 , John Hockenberry traveled to Asir , where he interviewed Shehri 's brother , Salah , who agreed that Wail and Waleed were deceased . Salah described them as not very religious , and suggested they had been brainwashed .
Saudi officials later stated that the names of the hijackers were in fact correct , and that 15 of the 19 hijackers were Saudi . In response to 9 / 11 conspiracy theories surrounding its original news story suggesting hijackers were still alive , the BBC issued a response in 2006 , saying that later reports on the hijackers superseded the original story . The BBC also explained that confusion arose with the Arabic names that were common .
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= Red Headed Stranger =
Red Headed Stranger is a 1975 album by American outlaw country singer Willie Nelson . After the wide success of his recordings with Atlantic Records , coupled with the negotiating skills of his manager , Neil Reshen , Nelson signed a contract with Columbia Records , a label that gave him total creative control over his works . The concept for the album was inspired by the " Tale of the Red Headed Stranger " , a song that Nelson used to play as a disk jockey on his program in Fort Worth , Texas . After signing with Columbia he decided to record the song , and arranged the details during his return to Austin , Texas , from a trip to Colorado . It was recorded at low cost at Autumn Sound Studios in Garland , Texas . The songs featured sparse arrangements , largely limited to Nelson 's guitar , piano and drums . Nelson presented the finished material to Columbia executives , who were dubious about releasing an album that they at first thought was a demo . However , Nelson had creative control , so no further production was added .
A concept album , Red Headed Stranger is about a fugitive on the run from the law after killing his wife and her lover . The content consists of songs with brief poetic lyrics and arrangements of older material such as Fred Rose 's " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , Wolfe Gilbert 's " Down Yonder " and Juventino Rosas ' " O 'er the Waves " . Despite Columbia 's doubts and the limited instrumentation , Red Headed Stranger was a blockbuster among country music and mainstream audiences . It was certified multi @-@ platinum , and made Nelson one of the most recognized artists in country music . The cover of " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , released as a single previous to the album full release became Nelson 's first number one hit . The title of the album would become a lasting nickname for Nelson . It was ranked # 183 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and number one on CMT 's 40 Greatest Albums in Country Music . In 2010 it was inducted to the National Recording Registry .
In 1986 Nelson starred as the Red Headed Stranger in a movie of the same name , based on the story of the album . The album has had a strong cultural impact ; the song " Time of the Preacher " has been used often in the series Edge of Darkness , and its lyrics were used as well in the first issue of the comic Preacher .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1973 Nelson signed a contract for US $ 25 @,@ 000 per year with Atlantic Records , the first country artist signed by the label . His first album with Atlantic was the critically acclaimed Shotgun Willie , which was followed by one of the first concept albums in country music , Phases and Stages . Due to the success of these recordings , Nelson signed with Columbia Records , and was given complete creative control .
During his return to Austin after a ski trip in Colorado , Nelson was inspired by his then @-@ wife , Connie Koepke , to write a western concept album . Koepke suggested the inclusion of Arthur " Guitar Boogie " Smith 's " Tale of the Red Headed Stranger " , which Nelson sang during his radio shows on KCNC in Fort Worth and previously , to his children at bedtime . Nelson decided to write a complete story that included details of events prior to the ones described in the song . As he spontaneously composed the songs , Koepke wrote down the lyrics . With his original writings , Nelson included on the story , Fred Rose 's " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , Wolfe Gilbert 's " Down Yonder " , Juventino Rosas ' " O 'er the Waves " , Hank Cochran 's " Can I Sleep in Your Arms ? " , Eddy Arnold 's " I Couldn 't Believe it Was True " , and Billy Callery 's " Hands on the Wheel " . When he arrived in Austin , Nelson recorded a demo of the songs on a tape recorder accompanied with his guitar at his ranch in Fitzhugh Road .
Nelson started to look for a studio in Texas to record his new material , to avoid the modifications that they did to his recordings in his previous sessions . Engineer Phil York , who was hired free @-@ lance by the recently opened Autumn Sound Studios in Garland , Texas , heard about his need . York , an acquaintance of Nelson 's harmonicist Mickey Raphael , offered Nelson a day of free recording to boost the popularity of the studio . Nelson and his band went to the trial session during January , and recorded five songs . Later , Rapahel called back York , announcing that Nelson would record the entire album there . After hearing the tapes by Nelson , the band started to improvise to the song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " . Disliking the result , Nelson decided to strip down the instrumentation . Nelson also instructed York to undo the equalization he performed on the tracks , remarking that it was the method his producers used in Nashville . The recording took five days , with an additional day for the mixing , that summed up to US $ 4 @,@ 000 in studio costs.The addtitional costs took the total to US $ 20 @,@ 000 .
Nelson featured arrangements of acoustic guitar , accompanied by piano , played by his sister , Bobbie , as well complementary arrangements of drums , harmonica and mandolin . The sparsely instrumented acoustic arrangements caused Columbia directors to doubt the wisdom of releasing the album as presented , feeling it was under @-@ produced and no more than a demo . However , Nelson had complete creative control , and it was released without any further modifications .
= = Concept = =
The story begins with " Time of the Preacher " , where the character evokes his love for his wife , whom he suspects is unfaithful . In the following song , " I Couldn 't Believe It Was True " , the infidelity is revealed . This leads to a short version of " Time of the Preacher , " wherein the singer ends with the line " Now the lesson is over , and the killing 's begun " . The reaction of the husband is depicted by Nelson in a medley of " Blue Rock , Montana " and " Red Headed Stranger " . The first song describes the double murder of the unfaithful woman and her lover by the Stranger , who states " And they died with a smile on their faces . " This leads to the second song of the medley , which describes the grief of the Stranger . This section is followed by Nelson 's cover of the 1947 Fred Rose , song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , where the fugitive laments the loss of his wife . In " Red Headed Stranger , " the protagonist commits a subsequent murder — he kills a woman he believes is stealing his horse . The horse , to which he undoubtedly holds a sentimental attachment , had belonged to the Stranger 's wife .
The story continues with the Stranger traveling south . In the song " Denver , " the character falls in love with a woman he meets in a bar in town . One of the lines from " Blue Rock Montana " is repeated , with a variation : " And they danced with a smile on their faces " . The following song , " Can I Sleep in Your Arms ? " , shows the desire of the Stranger for redemption and love . Next is " Remember Me " , where he announces that his vows to his deceased wife are broken and he is free to love . The story ends with " Hands on the Wheel " , which depicts the Stranger as an old man who is accompanied by a child , presumably his grandson , and his new love . The song marks the end of the sorrow of the Stranger , and his redemption years later . The album ends with the instrumental song " Bandera " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Chart performance and critical reception = = =
Red Headed Stranger reached number one on the Billboard chart for Top Country Albums , and number 28 during a 43 @-@ week stay in the Top LPs & Tapes chart . On March 11 , 1976 , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , and on November 21 , 1986 , it was certified double @-@ platinum .
Rolling Stone writer Paul Nelson wrote : " Red Headed Stranger is extraordinarily ambitious , cool , tightly controlled .... Hemingway , who perfected an art of sharp outlines and clipped phrases , used to say that the full power of his composition was accessible only between the lines ; and Nelson , on this LP , ties precise , evocative lyrics to not quite remembered , never really forgotten folk melodies to create a similar effect , haunting yet utterly unsentimental . That he did not write much of the material makes his accomplishment no less singular . " Meanwhile , critic Robert Christgau wrote , " Some of the individual pieces are quite nice , but the gestalt is the concept album at its most counterproductive — the lyrics render the nostalgic instrumental parts unnecessarily ironic and lose additional charm in narrative context . "
Music critic Chet Flippo wrote in a Texas Monthly article entitled " Mathew , Mark , Luke and Willie : Willie Nelson 's latest album is more than a good country music ; it 's almost Gospel " : " The difference between Nelson 's Red Headed Stranger and any current C & W album , and especially what passes for a soundtrack for Nashville , is astounding . What Nelson has done is simply unclassifiable ; it is the only record I have heard that strikes me as otherworldly . Red Headed Stranger conjures up such strange emotions and works on so many levels that listening to it becomes totally obsessing " .
Billboard described the album as " lots of instrumental work , with particularly fine piano by Bobbie Nelson , and the usual highly stylized Willie Nelson vocals " . Mother Jones wrote : " Texans have known for 15 years what Red Headed Stranger finally revealed to the world – that Nelson is simply too brilliant a songwriter , interpreter , and singer – just too damn universal – to be defined as merely a country artist " .
In 1996 CMJ New Music Monthly wrote : " His Red Headed Stranger was the Sgt. Pepper 's of country music , the first record to follow a coherent theme instead of merely compiling radio singles " . AllMusic described Red Headed Stranger as " really elusive , as the themes get a little muddled and the tunes themselves are a bit bare . It 's undoubtedly distinctive – and it sounds more distinctive with each passing year – but it 's strictly an intellectual triumph and , after a pair of albums that were musically and intellectually sound , it 's a bit of a letdown , no matter how successful it was " . In 2003 it was included among the top 1 @,@ 000 albums of Zagat Survey magazine , and was rated five stars out of five . The magazine wrote , " Supporters ( of the album ) spread the gospel that it 's just a quintessential outlaw recording , but perhaps the greatest country album ever with a spare style that changed the way C & W was played " .
Sputnikmusic wrote : " The Red Headed Stranger is simple and bare . Following the story of a preacher man that kills his cheating wife and her lover , ol ' Willie spins the tale with a laid back nonchalance that just seems to ooze out of him , his aching chords and somber melodies encapsulating the futility and pain of his character 's situation [ ... ] The Red Headed Stranger is timeless . Willie Nelson 's captivating story telling , and the minimalist majesty of his music fills a well worn grove in the hearts of those that enjoy the folk roots of the United States . "
Red Headed Stranger 's critical success cemented Nelson 's outlaw image , and made him one of the most recognized artists in country music . The title of the album became a long lasting nickname for him . The cover of Fred Rose 's 1945 song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , that had been released as a single previous to the album , became his first number one hit as a singer . In 2004 the album was ranked at number 184 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and number one in CMT 's 40 Greatest Albums in Country Music in 2006 . In 2009 it was adopted into the National Recording Registry because Red Headed Stranger is " culturally , historically , or aesthetically important , and / or informs or reflects life in the United States . "
= = = Movie = = =
At an appearance at the Armadillo World Headquarters , a music venue in Austin , Texas , Nelson met publisher and screenwriter William D. Wittliff . Because of the success of the album , Wittliff decided to write a script for Nelson based on the story of the Red Headed Stranger . In 1979 Wittliff finished a draft of the project , which was turned over to Universal Studios . The studio budgeted the film at $ 14 million and sent the script to Robert Redford , who turned it down . The movie project was tabled , and Wittliff and Nelson had to buy the script back from Universal . The script then went to HBO , who assigned the project a budget of $ 5 million , but this project was not completed either . Finally , Nelson and Wittliff decided to finance the film themselves . Nelson portrayed the role of the stranger , and the movie was released in 1986 .
= = = In popular culture = = =
The first track , " Time of the Preacher " , was used in Bob Dylan 's 1978 film Renaldo and Clara and episodes of the 1985 television drama Edge of Darkness . The lyrics to " Time of the Preacher " were used in the opening pages of the first issue of the Vertigo comic book Preacher , with the song being used in the opening of the premiere of the TV series based on the comic .
The complete album was performed and recorded by Carla Bozulich in 2003 . The Red Headed Stranger included a guest appearance by Nelson . A first season episode of the dramedy series Monk is entitled " Mr. Monk and the Red @-@ Headed Stranger , " and guest @-@ stars Willie Nelson .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original release = = =
= = = Reissue ( 2000 ) = = =
The album was reissued by Columbia / Legacy in 2000 . The new issue features remastered sound , as well as the inclusion of previously unreleased songs .
= = Credits = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Flag of West Virginia =
The flag of West Virginia is the official flag of the U.S. state of West Virginia and was officially adopted by the West Virginia Legislature on March 7 , 1863 . The present flag consists of a pure white field bordered by a blue stripe with the coat of arms of West Virginia in the center , wreathed by Rhododendron maximum and topped by an unfurled red ribbon reading " State of West Virginia . "
The first flags to represent West Virginia following statehood were battle flags utilized by West Virginia regiments during the American Civil War . West Virginia 's first official state flag was adopted in 1905 , based upon the flag designed and used by the West Virginia State Commission at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904 . This flag was altered in 1907 for the Jamestown Exposition and featured the coat of arms on the obverse and a sprig of Rhododendron maximum on the reverse . In order to reproduce the flag more inexpensively , the West Virginia Legislature ratified the current flag with the state 's coat of arms integrated with the rhododendron , which appears on both the obverse and the reverse . The " Pledge of Allegiance to the West Virginia State Flag " was unanimously adopted by the office of the Secretary of State of West Virginia in 1977 .
= = Design = =
The current state flag of West Virginia consists of a pure white field bordered on four sides by a stripe of blue . The white of the field symbolizes purity , while the blue border represents the Union . The center of the state flag is emblazoned with the state 's Coat of Arms , a stylized version of the Great Seal of West Virginia . The lower half of the state flag is wreathed by two tethered swags of Rhododendron maximum , the state flower of West Virginia . Across the top of the state flag is an unfurled red ribbon with the constitutional designation " State of West Virginia " , and across the bottom of the state flag is a tied red ribbon with the state 's Latin motto Montani Semper Liberi ( English : " mountaineers are always free " ) .
The state 's coat of arms in the center of the flag symbolizes the principal pursuits and resources of West Virginia . In the center is an ivy @-@ draped boulder that has been inscribed " June 20 , 1863 , " the date of West Virginia 's admission to the Union as a state . In front of the boulder lie two crossed hunting rifles and a Phrygian cap ( or " Cap of Liberty " ) to illustrate the importance of the state 's fight for liberty . Two men , a farmer and a miner , stand on either side of the boulder and represent agriculture and industry . The farmer stands on the left with an ax and plow before a cornstalk . The miner stands on the right with a pickax and , behind him , an anvil and sledge hammer .
The state flag 's proportions are identical to those of the flag of the United States . When utilized for parade purposes , all but the staff side of the state flag are to be trimmed with gold fringe . When used concurrently with the flag of the United States during ceremonial occasions , the state flag is trimmed and mounted like the United States flag with regard to fringe , cord , tassels , and mounting .
= = History = =
Prior to the adoption of the current state flag of West Virginia , the state had been represented by a number of flags since attaining statehood in 1863 , all of which proved impractical . The first West Virginia Legislature commissioned Joseph H. Diss Debar of Doddridge County to design the Great Seal of West Virginia in 1863 . On September 26 , 1863 , the West Virginia Legislature officially adopted the seal designed by Diss Debar , a stylized version of which was also designated the state 's coat of arms . Despite the adoption of an official seal , the state did not decide upon an official state flag until 1905 .
= = = American Civil War = = =
Prior to West Virginia 's separation from Virginia on June 20 , 1863 , pro @-@ Union supporters in western Virginia created unique flags to show their support for the Union cause . In January 1861 , the residents of Kingwood erected a flagpole measuring about 105 feet ( 32 m ) in height , and on it they hoisted a handmade streamer with the word " UNION " prior to Virginia 's secession . During the war , western Virginia regiments in the Union Army carried flags handmade by supportive women , as was the case with the Fifth Regiment Virginia Volunteer Infantry who carried a flag bearing the legend " 5th Va . Regiment " in 1861 .
In January 1864 , the West Virginia Legislature approved a flag for the Fourth Regiment West Virginia Volunteer Infantry to acknowledge the regiment 's battles at Charleston , Vicksburg , Jackson , and Missionary Ridge , all four of which were listed on the flag . This was the first among many battle flags to represent West Virginia after statehood which were utilized by soldiers of West Virginia regiments throughout the war . State battle flags were presented to each of West Virginia 's Union regiments during the course of the war . These early state flags were squares of silk cloth measuring 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , and were dark blue and trimmed with golden fringe . The obverse side of these flags were painted with the state 's newly minted seal within an oval , along with the name of the respective West Virginia regiment and the names and dates of the battles in which they had participated . On the reverse side , the United States national emblem was painted and consisted of a bald eagle with its wings outstretched , clutching a bundle of 13 arrows in its right talon and an olive branch in its left , and a tricolor shield placed across its breast . In its beak , the eagle clutched a scroll with the national Latin motto E pluribus unum ( English : " Out of Many , One " ) . Following the conclusion of the American Civil War , the state of West Virginia had no official flag , and the matter was not taken up until the early 20th century .
= = = 1905 flag = = =
The need for an official state flag arose in 1904 when the West Virginia State Commission to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis reported that the state required a flag or ensign to represent and distinguish itself among the other U.S. states at the exposition . In lieu of an official state flag , the commission adopted and used a state flag of its own design at the West Virginia building at the exposition , which was a " sprig of mountain laurel upon an immaculate white field with a pale blue border " .
In its report to the West Virginia Legislature , the West Virginia State Commission recommended the adoption of their flag design as the official state flag . On February 24 , 1905 , the West Virginia Legislature ratified the commission 's flag design following its passage of Joint Resolution Number 16 during the gubernatorial administration of Albert B. White . The legislature adopted the commission 's flag design , with the addition of a fringe or border of carmine red . The state flag was approved by the legislature to be employed on occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality was necessary or regarded as appropriate . According to the 1905 joint resolution :
Said state flag shall be in length and breadth in the proportion of nine to thirteen , this being the same as the flag of the great American Republic of which West Virginia forms a part ; the field thereof shall be pure white , upon the center of which shall be a sprig of the rhododendron maximum or " big laurel , " having flowers and leaves ; and on the reverse side shall be the state coat @-@ of @-@ arms and the motto ; the field of pure white shall be bordered by a band or strip of blue , and this in turn shall be bordered by a strip of fringe of carmine red ; and said flag shall be regarded and used as the West Virginia state flag on all occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality shall become necessary , or be regarded as appropriate .
Following its formal adoption by the legislature , schools and other institutions throughout West Virginia began flying the new state flag . The teachers and students at the schools in Ronceverte purchased the new state flag in June 1906 , which measured 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) in length , and used it along with the United States flag for salutes and patriotic exercises .
= = = 1907 flag = = =
By 1907 , the West Virginia Legislature found the 1905 state flag design to be completely unfeasible due to the lettering on one side reading toward the staff , and the differing colors on each respective side showing through the opposite side of the flag 's white field of cloth . The state legislature found that this destroyed " the distinctive features of the banner and leaving the state without a prescribed official flag " . The West Virginia Legislature sought to remedy the state flag 's design flaws in 1907 so that the state could be properly represented at the Jamestown Exposition in Norfolk . On February 25 , 1907 , during the administration of Governor William M. O. Dawson , the West Virginia Legislature passed Joint Resolution 2 , which amended the flag by removing the seal and motto from the reverse side and changing the color of the bordering fringe from carmine red to old gold . Instead of the seal and motto , the reverse of the flag was changed to consist of " a spring or sprig of the rhododendron maximum " . According to the 1907 joint resolution :
Said state flag shall be in length and breadth in proportion the same as the flag of the great American Republic of which West Virginia forms a part ; the field thereof shall be pure white , upon the center of which on the observe side shall be the great seal or coat of arms of the state , beneath which shall appear the legend " State of West Virginia , " in a scroll ; on the reverse side shall appear a sprig or sprigs of the rhododendron maximum , or big laurel , our state flower , having blossoms and leaves ; the field of pure white shall be bordered by a band or strip of blue , and this in turn shall be bordered by a strip or fringe of old gold ; and said flag shall be regarded and used as the West Virginia state flag on all occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality shall become necessary , or be regarded as appropriate .
= = = 1929 flag = = =
The flag design ratified in 1907 remained the state 's official flag until 1929 . The state of West Virginia sought a flag design that could be produced inexpensively so that the state flag could be mass @-@ produced for the state 's public schools . The 1907 flag proved to be more costly to reproduce due to the two different symbols on each side of the banner , the state 's coat of arms on the obverse and the state 's flower on the reverse . The West Virginia Legislature decided the state flag should be stamped with a design that would integrate both the coat of arms and the state flower on both sides . The design of the present state flag was officially adopted by the West Virginia Legislature on March 7 , 1929 , by West Virginia Senate Joint Resolution Number 18 . According to the joint resolution :
The proportions of the flag of the State of West Virginia shall be the same as those of the United States ensign ; the field shall be pure white , upon the center of which shall be emblazoned in proper colors , the coat @-@ of arms of the State of West Virginia upon which appears the date of the admission of the State into the Union , also with the motto , ' Montani Semper Liberi ' ( Mountaineers Are Always Free ) . Above the coat @-@ of @-@ arms of the State of West Virginia there shall be a ribbon lettered , ' State of West Virginia , ' and arranged appropriately around the lower part of the coat @-@ of @-@ arms of the State of West Virginia a wreath of Rhododendron maximum in proper colors . The field of pure white shall be bordered by a strip of blue on four sides . The flag of the State of West Virginia when used for parade purposes shall be trimmed with gold colored fringe on three sides and when used on ceremonial occasions with the United States ensign , shall be trimmed and mounted in similar fashion to the United States flag as regards fringe , cord , tassels , and mounting .
In 2001 , the North American Vexillological Association surveyed its members and other flag enthusiasts on the designs of the 72 U.S. state , U.S. territorial , and Canadian provincial flags . Members ranked the West Virginia state flag at 51 out of the 72 flags surveyed . U.S. state flags with state seals on solid @-@ color fields , like the West Virginia state flag , proved unpopular in the survey .
= = Usage and protocol = =
The West Virginia Legislature has passed a series of laws in the West Virginia Code governing the usage of the West Virginia state flag . The state flag is not permitted to be placed above , or if on the same level , to the right of the United States flag . Both the United States and West Virginia state flags are to be flown over the West Virginia State Capitol building year @-@ round . Any United States or West Virginia state flag purchased with state funds must be manufactured in the United States ; and West Virginia county boards of education must only purchase state flags manufactured in the United States if board building funds are used . To honor the death of law @-@ enforcement officers within the state , the West Virginia Code permits the draping of the state flag over the coffin at no cost , upon the request of the next @-@ of @-@ kin .
= = = Half @-@ mast protocol = = =
Effective July 18 , 2013 , the office of West Virginia Governor Earl Ray Tomblin established guidelines in accordance with the United States Code and West Virginia precedent and customs regarding the half @-@ mast display of United States and West Virginia state flags on West Virginia state properties . Both the United States and West Virginia state flags are to be hoisted to full @-@ mast , before being lowered to the half @-@ mast position ; likewise both flags are to be hoisted full @-@ mast prior to being lowered for the day . Both flags are only to be displayed in the half @-@ mast position in accordance with Federal law on the following occasions :
Memorial Day ( the last Monday in May ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast from sunrise until noon , then raised to full @-@ mast .
Peace Officers Memorial Day ( May 15 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day , unless that day is also Armed Forces Day ( the third Saturday in May ) .
Patriot Day ( September 11 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day .
National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day ( December 7 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day .
Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for 30 days following the day of death of either a current or former President of the United States .
Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for ten days following the day of death of the Vice President of the United States , the Chief Justice or retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States , or the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives .
Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast from the day of death until the day of interment of a former Vice President , an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court , a Secretary of an executive or military department of the United States , or a Governor of a U.S. state , territory , or possession .
Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast on the day of death and the following day for a member of the United States Congress .
Flags displayed at half @-@ mast on state properties following a proclamation by the Governor of West Virginia during other unique instances outlined in the 2013 guidelines .
= = = Desecration = = =
According to West Virginia state law , the desecration of either the flag of the United States or the West Virginia state flag is an offense punishable as a misdemeanor and upon conviction , a guilty verdict can result in a fine " not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars , " or confinement in jail " for a period not exceeding thirty days " at " the discretion of the court or justice trying the case . "
However , such laws are unenforceable as the United States Supreme Court in Texas v. Johnson , 491 U.S. 397 ( 1989 ) , and reaffirmed in U.S. v. Eichman , 496 U.S. 310 ( 1990 ) , has ruled that due to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , it is unconstitutional for a government ( whether federal , state , or municipality ) to prohibit the desecration of a flag , due to its status as " symbolic speech . "
= = Pledge of allegiance = =
On February 8 , 1977 , the office of the Secretary of State of West Virginia unanimously adopted the " Pledge of Allegiance to the West Virginia State Flag . " The motion to adopt the pledge was made by Charles S. Smith and seconded by Carol J. Calvert . The pledge reads as follows :
I pledge allegiance to the flag of West Virginia , which serves as a constant reminder that " Mountaineers Are Always Free , " which stands as a symbol of her majestic mountains , fertile forests , rich veins of coal , and the pride of her people .
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= Battle of Goliad =
The Battle of Goliad was the second skirmish of the Texas Revolution . In the early @-@ morning hours of October 9 , 1835 , Texas settlers attacked the Mexican Army soldiers garrisoned at Presidio La Bahía , a fort near the Mexican Texas settlement of Goliad . La Bahía lay halfway between the only other large garrison of Mexican soldiers ( at Presidio San Antonio de Bexar ) and the then @-@ important Texas port of Copano .
In September , Texians began plotting to kidnap Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos , who was en route to Goliad to attempt to quell the unrest in Texas . The plan was initially dismissed by the central committee coordinating the rebellion . However , within days of the Texian victory at the Battle of Gonzales , Captain George Collinsworth and members of the Texian militia in Matagorda began marching towards Goliad . The Texians soon learned that Cos and his men had already departed for San Antonio de Béxar but continued their march .
The garrison at La Bahía was understaffed and could not mount an effective defense of the fort 's perimeter . Using axes borrowed from townspeople , Texians were able to chop through a door and enter the complex before the bulk of the soldiers were aware of their presence . After a 30 @-@ minute battle , the Mexican garrison , under Colonel Juan López Sandoval , surrendered . One Mexican soldier had been killed and three others wounded , while only one Texian had been injured . The majority of the Mexican soldiers were instructed to leave Texas , and the Texians confiscated $ 10 @,@ 000 worth of provisions and several cannons , which they soon transported to the Texian Army for use in the Siege of Béxar . The victory isolated Cos 's men in Béxar from the coast , forcing them to rely on a long overland march to request or receive reinforcements or supplies .
= = Background = =
In 1835 , Mexico operated two major garrisons within its Texas territory , the Alamo at San Antonio de Béxar and Presidio La Bahía near Goliad . Béxar was the political center of Texas , and Goliad laid halfway between it and the major Texas port of Copano . Military and civilian supplies and military personnel were usually sent by sea from the Mexican interior to Copano Bay and then could be transported overland to the Texas settlements .
In early 1835 , as the Mexican government transitioned from a federalist model to centralism , wary colonists in Texas began forming Committees of Correspondence and Safety . A central committee in San Felipe de Austin coordinated their activities . The Texians staged a minor revolt against customs duties in June ; these Anahuac Disturbances prompted Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna to send additional troops to Texas . In July , Colonel Nicolas Condelle , led 200 men to reinforce Presidio La Bahía . The following month , a contingent of soldiers arrived in Béxar with Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea . Fearing that stronger measures were needed to quell the unrest , Santa Anna ordered his brother @-@ in @-@ law , General Martín Perfecto de Cos to " repress with strong arm all those who , forgetting their duties to the nation which has adopted them as her children , are pushing forward with a desire to live at their own option without subjection to the laws " . Cos landed at Copano Bay on September 20 with approximately 500 soldiers . Cos briefly toured the port at Copano Bay and the small garrison at nearby Refugio and left small groups of soldiers to reinforce each of these locations . The main body of soldiers arrived in Goliad on October 2 .
Unbeknownst to Cos , as early as September 18 , several Texians , including James Fannin , Philip Dimmitt , and John Linn , had independently begun advocating a plan to seize Cos at either Copano or Goliad . As soon as Cos 's warships were spotted approaching Copano Bay , Refugio colonists sent messengers to San Felipe de Austin and Matagorda to inform the other settlements of Cos 's imminent arrival . Concerned that a lack of artillery would make the presidio at Goliad impossible to capture , the central committee chose not to order an assault .
Although Fannin , Dimmitt , and Linn continued to push for an attack on Goliad , Texian attention soon shifted towards Gonzales , where a small group of Texians were refusing to obey orders from Ugartechea . Colonists eagerly rushed to assist , and on October 2 the Battle of Gonzales officially opened the Texas Revolution . After learning of the Texian victory , Cos made haste for Béxar . He left with the bulk of his soldiers on October 5 , but because he was unable to find adequate transportation most of his supplies remained at La Bahía .
= = Prelude = =
On October 6 , members of the Texian militia in Matagorda convened at the home of Sylvanus Hatch . As their first order of business they elected George Collinsworth as their captain ; Dr. William Carleton was then named first lieutenant and D.C. Collinsworth became the unit 's second lieutenant . After appointing their leaders , the men decided to march on La Bahía . They intended to kidnap Cos and , if possible , steal the estimated $ 50 @,@ 000 that was rumored to accompany him . The Texians sent messengers to alert nearby settlements of their quest . By afternoon , 50 Texians were ready to march from Matagorda . During the march , for unknown reasons the men fired Carleton and appointed James W. Moore as the new first lieutenant .
The following day the expedition stopped at Victoria , where they were soon joined by English @-@ speaking settlers from other settlements and 30 Tejanos led by Plácido Benavides . Although no accurate muster rolls were kept , historian Stephen Hardin estimated that the Texian ranks swelled to 125 men . Forty @-@ nine of them signed a " Compact of Volunteers under Collinsworth " on October 9 . These men pledged that they were loyal to the Mexican federal government and would harm no one who remained loyal to the federalist cause .
One of the new arrivals , merchant Philip Dimmitt , received a missive from the Goliad customs agent with news that Cos and his war chest had already departed La Bahía to travel to San Antonio de Béxar . Undeterred , the group marched out on October 9 . Ira Ingram led the vanguard , which halted 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) outside Goliad . The events that follow are not very clear . According to the memoirs of Mexican General Vicente Filisola , who was not in Texas in 1835 , the Texians plotted to draw the presidio commander , Colonel Juan López Sandoval , and his officers from the fort . The Texians allegedly planned a dance in Goliad on October 9 and invited the Mexican officers . Although Sandoval , Captain Manuel Sabriego , and Lieutenant Jesus de la Garza briefly attended the dance , they suspected mischief and returned to the fort . No Texian source mentions such a plot . Several of the Texians , including Dimmitt , did enter the town that evening to try to find guides and support for the effort . Dimmitt 's efforts were successful , and several of the Tejanos who lived near Goliad joined the Texian force . They reported that Sandoval commanded only 50 men — far fewer than the number necessary to defend the entire perimeter of the fort — and provided directions to the fort .
The main body of Texian soldiers , under Collinsworth , became disoriented in the dark and wandered from the road . They were soon tangled in a mesquite thicket . While working their way back towards the road , the Texians met Ben Milam , a Texas colonist who had recently escaped from prison in Monterrey . Milam joined the militia as a private , and the group soon rejoined the vanguard .
= = Battle = =
As the combined Texian force prepared for battle , they sent a messenger to instruct the alcalde of the city to surrender . At 11 pm , the alcade responded that the town would remain neutral , neither surrendering nor fighting . Several of the locals did , however , supply axes to the Texian militia . The Texians divided themselves into four groups , each assigned a different approach to the presidio . In the pre @-@ dawn hours of October 10 , the Texians attacked . The lone sentinel managed to give the alarm but was immediately shot dead . The Texians quickly hacked through a door on the north wall of the fortress and ran to the interior courtyard . Hearing the commotion , the Mexican soldiers had lined the walls to defend the fort .
The Mexican soldiers opened fire , hitting Samuel McCulloch , a former slave whom George Collinsworth had freed , in the shoulder . Texians returned fire for approximately 30 minutes . During a pause in the fighting , a Texian spokesman yelled out that they would " massacre everyone of you , unless you come out immediately and surrender " . The Mexican garrison immediately surrendered .
= = Aftermath = =
McCulloch was the only Texian soldier to be wounded , and he later claimed to be the " first whose blood was shed in the Texas War for Independence " . This distinction earned him a permanent home ; a later law prohibited any freed slave from residing in the Republic of Texas , but in 1840 the Texas legislature specifically excluded McCulloch , his family , and his descendants from its enforcement . The exclusion was reward for McCulloch 's service and his injury .
Estimates of Mexican casualties range from one to three soldiers killed and from three to seven wounded . Approximately 20 soldiers escaped . They warned the garrisons at Copano and Refugio of the advancing Texians ; those garrisons abandoned their posts and joined the soldiers at Fort Lipantitlán . Milam escorted the remaining Mexican soldiers to Gonzales , where the newly formed Texian Army was located . The Texian Army commander , Stephen F. Austin , later released all of the men , on the condition that they leave Texas and vow to stop fighting Texas residents . One wounded Mexican soldier was allowed to remain in Goliad , as was Captain Manuel Sabriego , who was married to a local woman . In secret , Sabriego began organizing a group of settlers in the Goliad area who sympathized with Mexico .
Texian troops confiscated the provisions they found at the fort . Although they found 300 muskets , most of them were broken and unable to be repaired . Dimmitt hired two gunsmiths who were able to bring the remaining weapons into service . The food , clothing , blankets , and other provisions were valued at US $ 10 @,@ 000 . The new quartermaster at the fort , John J. Linn , reported that 175 barrels of flour were confiscated , along with a large supply of sugar , coffee , whiskey , and rum . For the next three months , the provisions were parceled out among companies in the Texian Army . The Texians also gained control of several cannons .
Over the next several days , more Texian settlers joined the group at La Bahía . Many of them were from Refugio , a sprawling settlement that was furthest from Matagorda . Historian Hobart Huson speculates that these men were the last to receive word of the planned attack . Austin ordered that 100 men remain at Goliad , under the command of Dimmitt , while the rest should join the Texian Army in marching on Cos 's troops in Béxar . Collinsworth returned to Matagorda to recruit additional soldiers , but on October 14 the remaining Texians at Goliad began the march towards Béxar .
The loss of Goliad meant that Cos lost his means of communicating with Copano Bay , the closest port to Béxar . The Mexican troops garrisoned at Béxar would now need to get supplies and reinforcements overland .
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= Noise in music =
In music , noise is variously described as unpitched , indeterminate , uncontrolled , loud , unmusical , or unwanted sound . Noise is an important component of the sound of the human voice and all musical instruments , particularly in unpitched percussion instruments and electric guitars ( using distortion ) . Electronic instruments create various colours of noise . Traditional uses of noise are unrestricted , using all the frequencies associated with pitch and timbre , such as the white noise component of a drum roll on a snare drum , or the transients present in the prefix of the sounds of some organ pipes .
The influence of modernism in the early 20th century lead composers such as Edgar Varese to explore the use of noise @-@ based sonorities in an orchestral setting . In the same period the Italian Futurist Luigi Russolo created a " noise orchestra " using instruments he called intonarumori . Later in the 20th century the term noise music came to refer to works consisting primarily of noise @-@ based sound .
In more general usage , noise is any unwanted sound or signal . In this sense , even sounds that would be perceived as musically ordinary in another context become noise if they interfere with the reception of a message desired by the receiver . Prevention and reduction of unwanted sound , from tape hiss to squeaking bass drum pedals , is important in many musical pursuits , but noise is also used creatively in many ways , and in some way in nearly all genres .
= = Definition of noise = =
In conventional musical practices sounds that are considered unmusical tend to be treated as noise . Oscillations and Waves defines noise as irregular vibrations of an object , in contrast to the periodical , patterned structure of music . More broadly , electrical engineering professor Bart Kosko in the introductory chapter of his book Noise defines noise as a " signal we don 't like . " Paul Hegarty , a lecturer and noise musician , likewise assigns a subjective value to noise , writing that " noise is a judgment , a social one , based on unacceptability , the breaking of norms and a fear of violence . " Composer and music educator R. Murray Schafer divided noise into four categories : Unwanted noise , unmusical sound , any loud system , and a disturbance in any signaling system .
In regard to what is noise as opposed to music , Robert Fink in The Origin of Music : A Theory of the Universal Development of Music claims that while cultural theories view the difference between noise and music as purely the result of social forces , habit , and custom , " everywhere in history we see man making some selections of some sounds as noise , certain other sounds as music , and in the overall development of all cultures , this distinction is made around the same sounds . " However , musicologist Jean @-@ Jacques Nattiez considers the difference between noise and music nebulous , explaining that " The border between music and noise is always culturally defined — which implies that , even within a single society , this border does not always pass through the same place ; in short , there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be . "
= = Noise as a feature of music = =
Musical tones produced by the human voice and all acoustical musical instruments incorporate noises in varying degrees . Most consonants in human speech ( e.g. , the sounds of f , v , s , z , both voiced and unvoiced th , Scottish and German ch ) are characterised by distinctive noises , and even vowels are not entirely noise free . Wind instruments include the whizzing or hissing sounds of air breaking against the edges of the mouthpiece , while bowed instruments produce audible rubbing noises that contribute , when the instrument is poor or the player unskilful , to what is perceived as a poor tone . When they are not excessive , listeners " make themselves deaf " to these noises by ignoring them .
= = = Unpitched percussion = = =
Many unpitched percussion instruments , such as the snare drum or maracas , make use of the presence of random sounds or noise to produce a sound without any perceived pitch . See timbre . Unpitched percussion is typically used to maintain a rhythm or to provide accents , and its sounds are unrelated to the melody and harmony of the music . Within the orchestra unpitched percussion is termed auxiliary percussion , and this subsection of the percussion section includes all unpitched instruments of the orchestra no matter how they are played , for example the pea whistle and siren .
= = = Traditional music = = =
= = = = Antiquity = = = =
Although percussion instruments were generally rather unimportant in ancient Greek music , two exceptions were in dance music and ritual music of orgiastic cults . The former required instruments providing a sharply defined rhythm , particularly krotala ( clappers with a dry , nonresonant sound ) and kymbala ( similar to finger @-@ cymbals ) . The cult rituals required more exciting noises , such as those produced by drums , cymbals , jingles , and the rhombos ( bull @-@ roarer ) , which produced a demonic roaring noise particularly important to the ceremonies of the priests of Cybele . Athenaeus ( The Deipnosophists xiv.38 ) quotes a passage from a now @-@ lost play , Semele , by Diogenes the Tragedian , describing an all @-@ percussion accompaniment to some of these rites :
And now I hear the turban @-@ wearing women ,
Votaries of th ' Asiatic Cybele ,
The wealthy Phrygians ' daughters , loudly sounding
With drums , and rhombs , and brazen @-@ clashing cymbals ,
Their hands in concert striking on each other ,
Pour forth a wise and healing hymn to the gods .
An altogether darker picture of the function of this noise music is painted by Livy in Ab urbe condita xxxix.8 – 10 , written in the late first century BC . He describes " a Greek of mean condition ... a low operator in sacrifices , and a soothsayer ... a teacher of secret mysteries " who imported to Etruria and then to Rome a Dionysian cult which attracted a large following . All manner of debaucheries were practised by this cult , including rape and
secret murders ... [ where ] the bodies could not even be found for burial . Many of their audacious deeds were brought about by treachery , but most of them by force , and this force was concealed by loud shouting , and the noise of drums and cymbals , so that none of the cries uttered by the persons suffering violation or murder could be heard abroad .
= = = = Polynesia = = = =
A Tahitian traditional dance genre dating back to before the first contact with European explorers is ʻōteʻa , danced by a group of men accompanied solely by a drum ensemble . The drums consist of a slit @-@ log drum called tō ‘ ere ( which provides the main rhythmic pattern ) , a single @-@ headed upright drum called fa ‘ atete , a single @-@ headed hand drum called pahu tupa ‘ i rima , and a double @-@ headed bass drum called tariparau .
= = = = Asia = = = =
In Shaanxi in the north of China , drum ensembles accompany yangge dance , and in the Tianjin area there are ritual percussion ensembles such as the Fagu hui Dharma @-@ drumming associations , often consisting of dozens of musicians . In Korea , a style of folk music called Nongak ( farmers ' music ) or pungmul has been performed for many hundred years , both by local players and by professional touring bands at concerts and festivals . It is loud music meant for outdoor performance , played on percussion instruments such as the drums called janggu and puk , and the gongs ching and kkwaenggwari . It originated in simple work rhythms to assist repetitive tasks carried out by field workers .
South Asian music places a special emphasis on drumming , which is freed from the primary time @-@ keeping function of drumming found in other part of the world . In North India , secular processional bands play an important role in civic festival parades and the bārāt processions leading a groom 's wedding party to the bride 's home or the hall where a wedding is held . These bands vary in makeup , depending on the means of the families employing them and according to changing fashions over time , but the core instrumentation is a small group of percussionists , usually playing a frame drum ( ḍaphalā ) , a gong , and a pair of kettledrums ( nagāṛā ) . Better @-@ off families will add shawms ( shehnai ) to the percussion , while the most affluent who also prefer a more modern or fashionable image may replace the traditional ensemble with a brass band . The Karnatic music of southern India includes a tradition of instrumental temple music in the state of Kerala , called kṣētram vādyam . It includes three main genres , all focussed on rhythm and featuring unpitched percussion . Thayambaka in particular is a virtuoso genre for unpitched percussion only : a solo double @-@ headed cylindrical drum called chenda , played with a pair of sticks , and accompanied by other chenda and elathalam ( pairs of cymbals ) . The other two genres , panchavadyam and pandi melam add wind instruments to the ensemble , but only as accompaniment to the primary drums and cymbals . A panchavadyam piece typically lasts about an hour , while a pandi melam performance may be as long as four hours .
= = = = Turkey = = = =
The Turkish janissaries military corps had included since the 14th century bands called mehter or mehterân which , like many other earlier military bands in Asia featured a high proportion of drums , cymbals , and gongs , along with trumpets and shawms . The high level of noise was pertinent to their function of playing on the battlefield to inspire the soldiers . The focus in these bands was on percussion . A full mehterân could include several bass drums , multiple pairs of cymbals , small kettledrums , triangles , tambourines , and one or more Turkish crescents .
= = = = Europe = = = =
Through Turkish ambassadorial visits and other contacts , Europeans gained a fascination with the " barbarous " , noisy sound of these bands , and a number of European courts established " Turkish " military ensembles in the late @-@ 17th and early 18th centuries . The music played by these ensembles , however , were not authentically Turkish music , but rather compositions in the prevalent European manner . The general enthusiasm quickly spread to opera and concert orchestras , where the combination of bass drum , cymbals , tambourines , and triangles were collectively referred to as " Turkish music " . The best @-@ known examples include Haydn 's Symphony No. 100 , which acquired its nickname , " The Military " , from its use of these instruments , and three of Beethoven 's works : the " alla marcia " section from the finale of his Symphony No. 9 ( an early sketch reads : " end of the Symphony with Turkish music " ) , his " Wellington 's Victory " — or Battle Symphony — with picturesque sound effects ( the bass drums are designated as " cannons " , side drums represent opposing troops of soldiers , and ratchets the sound of rifle fire ) , and the " Turkish March " ( with the expected bass drum , cymbals , and triangle ) and the " Chorus of Dervishes " from his incidental music to The Ruins of Athens , where he calls for the use of every available noisy instrument : castanets , cymbals , and so forth . By the end of the 18th century , the batterie turque had become so fashionable that keyboard instruments were fitted with devices to simulate the bass drum ( a mallet with a padded head hitting the back of the sounding board ) , cymbals ( strips of brass striking the lower strings ) , and the triangle and bells ( small metal objects struck by rods ) . Even when percussion instruments were not actually employed , certain alla turca " tricks " were used to imitate these percussive effects . Examples include the " Rondo alla turca " from Mozart 's Piano Sonata , K. 331 , and part of the finale of his Violin Concerto , K. 219 .
= = = = = Harpsichord , piano , and organ = = = = =
At about the same time that " Turkish music " was coming into vogue in Europe , a fashion for programmatic keyboard music opened the way for the introduction of another kind of noise in the form of the keyboard cluster , played with the fist , flat of the hand , forearm , or even an auxiliary object placed on the keyboard . On the harpsichord and piano , this device was found mainly in " battle " pieces , where it was used to represent cannon fire . The earliest instance was by Jean @-@ François Dandrieu , in Les Caractères de la guerre ( 1724 ) , and for the next hundred years it remained predominantly a French feature , with examples by Michel Corrette ( La Victoire d 'un combat naval , remportée par une frégate contre plusieurs corsaires réunis , 1780 ) , Claude @-@ Bénigne Balbastre ( March des Marseillois , 1793 ) , Pierre Antoine César ( La Battaille de Gemmap , ou la prise de Mons , ca . 1794 ) , and Jacques @-@ Marie Beauvarlet @-@ Charpentier ( Battaille d 'Austerlitz , 1805 ) . In 1800 , Bernard Viguerie introduced the sound to chamber music , in the keyboard part of a piano trio titled La Bataille de Maringo , pièce militaire et historique . The last time this pianistic " cannon " effect was used before the 20th century was in 1861 , in a depiction of the then @-@ recent The Battle of Manassas in a piece by the black American piano virtuoso " Blind Tom " Bethune , a piece that also feature vocalised sound @-@ effect noises .
Clusters were also used on the organ , where they proved more versatile ( or their composers more imaginative ) . Their most frequent use on this instrument was to evoke the sound of thunder , but also to portray sounds of battle , storms at sea , earthquakes , and Biblical scenes such as the fall of the walls of Jericho and visions of the apocalypse . The noisy sound nevertheless remained a special sound effect , and was not integrated into the general texture of the music . The earliest examples of " organ thunder " are from descriptions of improvisations by Abbé Vogler in the last quarter of the 18th century . His example was soon imitated by Justin Heinrich Knecht ( Die durch ein Donerwetter [ sic ] unterbrochne Hirtenwonne , 1794 ) , Michel Corrette ( who employed a length of wood on the pedal board and his elbow on the lowest notes of the keyboard during some improvisations ) , and also in composed works by Guillaume Lasceux ( Te Deum : " Judex crederis " , 1786 ) , Sigismond Neukomm ( A Concert on a Lake , Interrupted by a Thunderstorm ) , Louis James Alfred Lefébure @-@ Wély ( Scène pastorale , 1867 ) , Jacques Vogt ( Fantaisie pastorale et orage dans les Alpes , ca . 1830 ) , and Jules Blanc ( La procession , 1859 ) . The most notable 19th @-@ composer to use such organ clusters was Giuseppe Verdi . The storm music which opens his opera Otello ( 1887 ) includes an organ cluster ( C , C ♯ , D ) that is also the longest notated duration of any scored musical texture .
= = = = = Bowed strings = = = = =
Percussive effects in imitation of drumming had been introduced to bowed @-@ string instruments by early in the 17th century . The earliest known use of col legno ( tapping on the strings with the back of the bow ) is found in Tobias Hume 's First Part of Ayres for unaccompanied viola da gamba ( 1605 ) , in a piece titled Harke , Harke . Carlo Farina , an Italian violinist active in Germany , also used col legno to mimic the sound of a drum in his Capriccio stravagante for four stringed instruments ( 1627 ) , where he also used devices such as glissando , tremolo , pizzicato , and sul ponticello to imitate the noises of barnyard animals ( cat , dog , chicken ) . Later in the century , Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber , in certain movements of Battalia ( 1673 ) , added to these effects the device of placing a sheet of paper under the A string of the double bass , in order to imitate the dry rattle of a snare drum , and in " Die liederliche Gesellschaft von allerley Humor " from the same programmatic battle piece , superimposed eight different melodies in different keys , producing in places dense orchestral clusters . He also uses the percussive snap of fortissimo pizzicato to represent gunshots .
An important aspect of all of these examples of noise in European keyboard and string music before the 19th century is that they are used as sound effects in programme music . Sounds that would likely cause offense in other musical contexts are made acceptable by their illustrative function . Over time , their evocative effect was weakened as at the same time they became incorporated more generally into abstract musical contexts .
= = = = = Orchestras = = = = =
Orchestras continued to use noise in the form of a percussion section , which expanded though the 19th century : Berlioz was perhaps the first composer to thoroughly investigate the effects of different mallets on the tone color of timpani . However , before the 20th century , percussion instruments played a very small role in orchestral music and mostly served for punctuation , to highlight passages , or for novelty . But by the 1940s , some composers were influenced by non @-@ Western music as well as jazz and popular music , and began incorporating marimbas , vibraphones , xylophones , bells , gongs , cymbals , and drums .
= = = = = Vocal music = = = = =
In vocal music , noisy nonsense syllables were used to imitate battle drums and cannon fire long before Clément Janequin made these devices famous in his programmatic chanson La bataille ( The Battle ) in 1528 . Unpitched or semi @-@ pitched performance was introduced to formal composition in 1897 by Engelbert Humperdinck , in the first version of his melodrama , Königskinder . This style of performance is believed to have been used previously by singers of lieder and popular songs . The technique is best known , however , from somewhat later compositions by Arnold Schoenberg , who introduced it for solo voices in his Gurrelieder ( 1900 – 11 ) , Pierrot Lunaire ( 1913 ) , and the opera Moses und Aron ( 1930 – 32 ) , and for chorus in Die Glückliche Hand ( 1910 – 13 ) . Later composers who have made prominent use of the device include Pierre Boulez , Luciano Berio , Benjamin Britten ( in Death in Venice , 1973 ) , Mauricio Kagel , and Wolfgang Rihm ( in his opera Jakob Lenz , 1977 – 78 , amongst other works ) . A well @-@ known example of this style of performance in popular music was Rex Harrison 's portrayal of Professor Henry Higgins in My Fair Lady . Another form of unpitched vocal music is the speaking chorus , prominently represented by Ernst Toch 's 1930 Geographical Fugue , an example of the Gebrauchsmusik fashionable in Germany at that time .
= = = = = Machine music = = = = =
In the 1920s a fashion emerged for composing what was called " machine music " — the depiction in music of the sounds of factories , locomotives , steamships , dynamos , and other aspects of recent technology that both reflected modern , urban life and appealed to the then @-@ prevalent spirit of objectivity , detachment , and directness . Representative works in this style , which features motoric and insistent rhythms , a high level of dissonance , and often large percussion batteries , are George Antheil 's Ballet mécanique ( 1923 – 25 ) , Arthur Honegger 's Pacific 231 ( 1923 ) , Sergei Prokofiev 's ballet Le pas d 'acier ( The Steel Leap , 1925 – 26 ) , Alexander Mosolov 's Iron Foundry ( an orchestral episode from his ballet Steel , 1926 – 27 ) , and Carlos Chávez 's ballet Caballos de vapor , also titled HP ( Horsepower , 1926 – 32 ) . This trend reached its apex in the music of Edgard Varèse , who composed Ionisation in 1931 , a " study in pure sonority and rhythm " for an ensemble of thirty @-@ five unpitched percussion instruments .
= = = = = Percussion ensembles = = = = =
Following Varèse 's example , a number of other important works for percussion ensemble were composed in the 1930s and 40s : Henry Cowell 's Ostinato Pianissimo ( 1934 ) combines Latin American , European , and Asian percussion instruments ; John Cage 's First Construction ( in Metal ) ( 1939 ) employs differently pitched thunder sheets , brake drums , gongs , and a water gong ; Carlos Chávez 's Toccata for Percussion ( 1943 ) requires six performers to play a large number of European and Latin @-@ American drums and other unpitched percussion together with a few tuned instruments such as xylophone , tubular chimes , and glockenspiel ; Lou Harrison , in works such as the Canticles nos . 1 and 3 ( 1940 and 1942 ) , Song of Queztalcoatl ( 1941 ) , Suite for Percussion ( 1942 ) , and — in collaboration with John Cage — Double Music ( 1941 ) explored the use of " found " instruments , such as brake drums , flowerpots , and metal pipes . In all of these works , elements such as timbre , texture , and rhythm take precedence over the usual Western concepts of harmony and melody .
= = = Experimental and avant @-@ garde music = = =
Use of noise was central to the development of experimental music and avant @-@ garde music in the mid 20th century . Noise was used in important , new ways .
Edgard Varèse challenged traditional conceptions of musical and non @-@ musical sound and instead incorporated noise based sonorities into his compositional work , what he referred to as " organised sound . " Varèse stated that " to stubbornly conditioned ears , anything new in music has always been called noise " , and he posed the question , " what is music but organized noises ? " .
In the years immediately following the First World War , Henry Cowell composed a number of piano pieces featuring tone clusters and direct manipulation of the piano 's strings . One of these , titled The Banshee ( 1925 ) , features sliding and shrieking sounds suggesting the terrifying cry of the banshee from Irish folklore .
In 1938 for a dance composition titled Bacchanale , John Cage invented the prepared piano , producing both transformed pitches and colorful unpitched sounds from the piano . Many variations , such as prepared guitar , have followed . In 1952 , Cage wrote 4 ′ 33 ″ , in which there is no deliberate sound at all , but only whatever background noise occurs during the performance .
Karlheinz Stockhausen employed noise in vocal compositions , such as Momente ( 1962 – 64 / 69 ) , in which the four choirs clap their hands , talk , and shuffle their feet , in order to mediate between instrumental and vocal sounds as well as to incorporate sounds normally made by audiences into those produced by the performers .
Robert Ashley used audio feedback in his avant @-@ garde piece The Wolfman ( 1964 ) by setting up a howl between the microphone and loudspeaker and then singing into the microphone in way that modulated the feedback with his voice .
= = = Electronic music = = =
Noise is used as basic tonal material in electronic music .
When pure @-@ frequency sine tones were first synthesised into complex timbres , starting in 1953 , combinations using inharmonic relationships ( noises ) were used far more often than harmonic ones ( tones ) . Tones were seen as analogous to vowels , and noises to consonants in human speech , and because traditional music had emphasised tones almost exclusively , composers of electronic music saw scope for exploration along the continuum stretching from single , pure ( sine ) tones to white noise ( the densest superimposition of all audible frequencies ) — that is , from entirely periodic to entirely aperiodic sound phenomena . In a process opposite to the building up of sine tones into complexes , white noise could be filtered to produce sounds with different bandwidths , called " coloured noises " , such as the speech sounds represented in English by sh , f , s , or ch . An early example of an electronic composition composed entirely by filtering white noise in this way is Henri Pousseur 's Scambi ( Exchanges ) , realised at the Studio di Fonologia in Milan in 1957 .
In the 1980s , electronic white noise machines became commercially available . These are used alone to provide a pleasant background noise and to mask unpleasant noise , a similar role to conventional background music . This usage can have health applications in the case of individuals struggling with over @-@ stimulation or sensory processing disorder . Also , white noise is sometimes used to mask sudden noise in facilities with research animals .
= = = Rock music = = =
While the electric guitar was originally designed to be simply amplified in order to reproduce its sound at a higher volume , guitarists quickly discovered the creative possibilities of using the amplifier to modify the sound , particularly by extreme settings of tone and volume controls .
Distortion was at first produced by simply overloading the amplifier to induce clipping , resulting in a tone rich in harmonics and also in noise , and also producing dynamic range compression and therefore sustain ( and sometimes destroying the amplifier ) . Dave Davies of The Kinks took this technique to its logical conclusion by feeding the output from a 60 watt guitar amplifier directly into the guitar input of a second amplifier . The popularity of these techniques quickly resulted in the development of electronic devices such as the fuzz box to produce similar but more controlled effects and in greater variety . Distortion devices also developed into vocal enhancers , effects units that electronically enhance a vocal performance , including adding air ( noise or distortion , or both ) . Guitar distortion is often accomplished through use of feedback , overdrive , fuzz , and distortion pedals . Distortion pedals produce a crunchier and grittier tone than an overdrive pedal .
As well as distortion , rock musicians have used audio feedback , which is normally undesirable . The use of feedback was pioneered by musicians such as John Lennon of The Beatles , Jeff Beck of The Yardbirds , Pete Townshend of The Who , and Jimi Hendrix . Hendrix was able to control feedback and turn it into a musical quality , and his use of noise has been described as " sculpted - liquid and fire expertly shaped in mid @-@ air as if by a glass blower . " Other techniques used by Hendrix include distortion , wah , fuzz , dissonance , and loud volume .
= = = Jazz = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , jazz began incorporating elements of rock music , and began using distortion and feedback , partially due to the efforts of Jimi Hendrix , who had strong links with jazz . The proto @-@ punk band MC5 also used feedback and loudness and was inspired by the avant @-@ garde jazz movement . Jazz musicians who have incorporated noise elements , feedback and distortion include Bill Frisell , David Krakauer Cecil Taylor , Gábor Szabó , Garnett Brown , Grachan Moncur III , Jackie McLean , John Abercrombie , John McLaughlin , Joseph Bowie , Larry Coryell , McCo Tyner , Ornette Coleman , Pat Metheny , Phil Minton , Roswell Rudd , and Scott Henderson .
= = = Hip hop = = =
Since its origins in the Bronx during the 1970s , hip hop music has been associated with noise . Author Mark Katz explains that " for the pioneering hip @-@ hop DJs , merely to exist in the Bronx was to experience near @-@ constant noise . But DJs did more than experience noise , they created it , and through their massive sound systems , they indelibly shaped the Bronx soundscape . " According to Katz , the use of loud , extravagant sound systems communicated power and territorial control . Furthermore , techniques such as scratching are an expression of transgression . As scratching a record damages it , scratching , like the visual art of graffiti , is a form of vandalism . " It is a celebration of noise , " writes Katz , " and no doubt part of the pleasure it brought to DJs came from the knowledge that it annoyed the older generation . " Scholar William Jelani Cobb states that " though the genre will always be dismissed by many as brash , monotonous noise , the truth is that hip hop has undergone an astounding array of lyrical and musical transformations . " Scholar Ronald Radano writes that " no term in the modern lexicon conveys more vividly African @-@ American music 's powers of authenticity and resistance than the figure of ' noise ' . In hip @-@ hop parlance , ' noise , ' specifically ' black noise ' , is that special insight from the inside , the anti @-@ philosophy that emerges front and center through the sound attack of rap . " Radano finds the appearance of " black noise " nearly everywhere in the " transnational repetitions of rap opposition , " but stresses that despite its global nature , black noise still conforms to American racial structures . Radano states that " rather than radicalizing the stable binaries of race , noise inverts them ; it transforms prior signs of European musical mastery — harmony , melody , song — into all that is bitchin ' , kickin ' , and black . "
The hip hop group Public Enemy in particular has been noted for its use of noise in its music . The group 's second album , It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back , was backed by the production team The Bomb Squad , who helped craft the album 's layered , anti @-@ harmonic , anarchic noise . Michael Eric Dyson describes the album as a " powerful mix of music , beats , screams , noise , and rhythms from the streets " , and considers it an example of the revival of black radical and nationalist thought . Public Enemy member Chuck D acknowledges that the group 's use of noise was an intentional attempt to blur the boundaries between popular music and the noise of everyday life , a decision which writer Jason W. Buel says " ran directly counter to the values of mainstream music of the time . " He explains that " without a doubt " this intentional use of noise influenced not only the next decade of hip @-@ hop , but of rock as well . Furthermore , notes Buel , the incorporation of noise served a political function , elevating the ordinary and thus suggesting that common , ordinary people should consider themselves on the same footing as their political and cultural leaders .
= = Noise as a type of music = =
Noise music ( also referred to simply as noise ) has been represented by many genres during the 20th century and subsequently . Some of its proponents reject the attempt to classify it as a single overall genre , preferring to call noise music a non @-@ genre , an aesthetic , or a collection of genres . Even among those who regard it as a genre , its scope is unclear . Some commentators use the phrase " noise music " ( or " noise " ) to refer specifically to Japanese noise music , while others instead use the term Japanoise .
While noise music is often nowadays associated with extreme volume and distortion and produced by electronic amplification , the tradition dates back at least to the Futurist Luigi Russolo , who rejected melody , constructed original instruments known as intonarumori and assembled a " noise orchestra " in 1917 . It was not well received . In his 1913 manifesto The Art of Noises he observes :
At first the art of music sought purity , limpidity and sweetness of sound . Then different sounds were amalgamated , care being taken , however , to caress the ear with gentle harmonies . Today music , as it becomes continually more complicated , strives to amalgamate the most dissonant , strange and harsh sounds . In this way we come ever closer to noise @-@ sound .
= = = Some types of noise music = = =
Noise music , abandoning melody , harmony , and sometimes even pulse and rhythm
Industrial music ( 1970s )
Noise rock and noise pop ( 1980s )
Japanoise ( late 1970s - current )
Glitch ( 1990s )
= = Noise reduction = =
Most often , musicians are concerned not to produce noise , but to minimise it . Noise reduction is of particular concern in sound recording . This is accomplished by many techniques , including use of low noise components and proprietary noise reducing technologies such as Dolby .
In both recording and in live musical sound reinforcement , the key to noise minimisation is headroom . Headroom can be used either to reduce distortion and audio feedback by keeping signal levels low , or to reduce interference , both from outside sources and from the Johnson @-@ Nyquist noise produced in the equipment , by keeping signal levels high . Most proprietary noise reducing technologies also introduce low levels of distortion . Noise minimisation therefore becomes a compromise between interference and distortion , both in recording and in live music , and between interference and feedback in live amplification . The work of Bart Kosko and Sanya Mitaim has also demonstrated that stochastic resonance can be used as a technique in noise minimisation and signal improvement in non @-@ linear dynamical systems , as the addition of noise to a signal can improve the signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio .
Noise created by mobile phones has become a particular concern in live performances , particularly those being recorded . In one notable incident , maestro Alan Gilbert halted the New York Philharmonic in a performance of Gustav Mahler 's Symphony No. 9 until an audience member 's iPhone was silenced .
= = Noise as excessive volume = =
Music played at excessive volumes is often considered a form of noise pollution . Governments such as that of the United Kingdom have local procedures for dealing with noise pollution , including loud music .
Noise as high volume is common for musicians from classical orchestras to rock groups as they are exposed to high decibel ranges . Although some rock musicians experience noise @-@ induced hearing loss from their music , it is still debated as to whether classical musicians are exposed to enough high @-@ intensity sound to cause hearing impairments . Nevertheless , in 2008 Trygve Nordwall , the manager of the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra , invoked new EU rules forbidding more than 85 decibels in the workplace , as a reason for dropping the planned world premiere of Dror Feiler 's composition Halat Hisar ( State of Siege ) because it was " adverse to the health " of the musicians . The twenty @-@ minute piece begins with a burst of machine @-@ gun fire , and gets louder . Readings taken during rehearsals measured at least 130 decibels , and some members of the orchestra reported suffering headaches and permanent tinnitis after sustained exposure for three hours during rehearsals . Earplugs for the musicians were suggested , but they objected they could not hear each other and the composer also rejected the idea , adding that his composition was " no louder than anything by Shostakovich or Wagner " .
Music @-@ induced hearing loss is still a controversial topic for hearing researchers . While some studies have shown that the risk for hearing loss increases as music exposure increases , other studies found little to no correlation between the two .
Many bands , primarily in the rock genre , use excessive volumes intentionally . Several bands have set records as the loudest band in the world , with Deep Purple , The Who , and Manowar having received entries in the Guinness Book of World Records . Other claimants to the title include Motörhead , Led Zeppelin , Blue Cheer , Gallows , Bob Dylan 's 1965 backing electric band , Grand Funk Railroad , Canned Heat , and the largely fictional parody group Spinal Tap . My Bloody Valentine are known for their " legendarily high " volume concerts , and Sunn O ) ) ) are described as surpassing them . The sound levels at Sunn O ) ) ) concerts are intentionally loud enough that they are noted for having physical effects on their audience .
= = = Noise in general = = =
Noise ( disambiguation ) for a list of other articles related to noise
Noise ( electronics )
= = = Relating noise to music = = =
The definition of music , detailed discussions
Phonaesthetics for the aesthetics of sound , and particularly what is meant by cacophony
Aesthetics of music
Inharmonicity , one of the factors causing a sound to be perceived as unpitched
Consonance and dissonance # Dissonance for discussion of the nature and usage of discords in melody and harmony and similar devices in rhythm and metre
Timbral listening
= = = Related types = = =
Free jazz
Percussion ensemble
= = = Related types of music = = =
Category : Noise music for an automated list of articles related to noise as a type of music
= = = Perception and use of noise in music = = =
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= = = Noise reduction = = =
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= 2012 – 13 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team =
The 2012 – 13 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team represented the University of Michigan during the 2012 – 13 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . For the 46th consecutive year , the Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team played its home games in Ann Arbor , Michigan , at the Crisler Center . This season marked the team 's 96th consecutive year as a member of the Big Ten Conference , and it is occasionally referred to as " Team 96 " . The team was led by sixth @-@ year head coach John Beilein . As the defending 2011 – 12 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season regular season co @-@ champions , the Wolverines finished fourth in the conference in 2012 – 13 and as National Runner @-@ up in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament after losing in the championship game to Louisville . The team achieved a 31 – 8 record , the most wins by the program in 20 seasons .
Following the 2011 @-@ 12 season , the team lost graduating senior captains Zack Novak and Stu Douglass , who moved on to professional basketball careers in Europe . The incoming class of Mitch McGary , Glenn Robinson III and Nik Stauskas was ranked among the best classes in the nation by the media . With its new lineup , the team matched the greatest starts in school history . Starting the season with 11 consecutive wins matched the best start since the last Michigan national champions , the 1988 – 89 team . At 16 – 0 , Michigan matched its best start since the last repeat Big Ten Regular season championship , the 1985 – 86 team , tying a school record . Reaching 19 – 1 set a record for the best start in school history . The team also reached the number one position in the AP Poll for the first time since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team . The team entered February with a 20 – 1 record ( 7 – 1 Big Ten ) , but with an injury to eventual B1G All @-@ Defensive selection Jordan Morgan and a stretch of games against its strongest conference opponents , Michigan lost three out of four games . The team closed the season with a 5 – 5 run to finish tied for fourth in the conference and won one game in the Big Ten Tournament before being eliminated .
The team was led by 2013 national player of the year , Big Ten Player of the Year and 2013 Consensus All @-@ American Trey Burke and three additional All @-@ Conference honorees . Tim Hardaway , Jr. was named to the 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten first team by the coaches and to the second team by the media ; Robinson was named an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten by the media , and Morgan was an All @-@ Big Ten Defensive team selection . Stauskas and McGary earned multiple Big Ten Freshman of the Week recognitions during the season . Burke was the second National Player of the Year and eighth first @-@ team consensus All @-@ American in Michigan basketball history .
Michigan entered the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament as the youngest team in the field . The team made its first Sweet Sixteen appearance since the 1993 – 94 team did so . The Wolverines appeared in the national championship game for the first time since 1989 – appearances in 1992 and 1993 were vacated due to a scandal . Following the season , at the 2013 NBA Draft , Burke and Hardaway were selected ninth and twenty @-@ fourth , respectively , becoming the first pair of first @-@ round NBA draft choices from Michigan since the 1994 NBA Draft .
= = Preseason roster changes = =
= = = Departures = = =
The team lost both of its captains from the prior season to graduation after they completed their eligibility . Senior two @-@ time captain Douglass turned pro , joining Basket Navarra Club of the Liga Española de Baloncesto . Senior three @-@ time captain Novak graduated to play for Landstede Basketbal in the Dutch Basketball League . In addition to the loss of senior co @-@ captains , the team lost three players who decided to transfer : Evan Smotrycz , Carlton Brundidge and Colton Christian . Smotrycz , who transferred to Maryland , had started in 42 of the 69 games he played during his first two years . He left the program as the fifth @-@ best all @-@ time three @-@ point shooter with a percentage of 40 @.@ 5 . Brundidge transferred to Detroit and Christian transferred to Florida International . The program also announced the departure of walk @-@ on Sai Tummala and the return of walk @-@ on Corey Person for a fifth year .
= = = 2012 – 13 team recruits = = =
Glenn Robinson III , son of former first overall NBA draft pick Glenn Robinson , verbally committed on September 14 , 2010 as the first commitment in Michigan ’ s class of 2012 . On March 26 , 2011 , Michigan received its second verbal commitment of the class of 2012 from Canadian wing guard Nik Stauskas . On November 3 , Mitch McGary , who was ranked as the number two prospect in the nation at the time , announced his verbal commitment to Michigan . Within hours of the commitment , ESPN announced that Michigan ranked as the fifth best class in the nation . Each of the three signed a National Letter of Intent with the team on November 9 . After several other schools announced their commitments , the signing of McGary moved Michigan from outside the top 25 at the end of October to the number 7 class in the nation by mid @-@ November , according to ESPN . That November , McGary , Robinson and Stauskas ranked 3 , 34 , and 79 , respectively , in the Rivals.com Class of 2012 Top 150 .
All three recruits had playoff success : McGary was a member of Brewster Academy 's National Prep Championship team . Stauskas earned the championship game MVP of the NEPSAC Class AA Championship after leading St. Mark 's to victory . Robinson led Lake Central to its first Indiana High School Athletic Association sectional title in 15 years . He earned the Post @-@ Tribune 's Boys basketball player of the year award for Northwest Indiana and the state MVP from the Indiana Basketball News .
McGary was invited to participate in the four @-@ team April 1 , 2012 All @-@ American Championship , along with future teammate Robinson in New Orleans . Robinson was awarded the ESPNHS All @-@ American Championship Player of the Game for his 16 @-@ point , 4 @-@ rebound performance , which included 5 dunks among his 6 @-@ for @-@ 7 shooting night . McGary was also selected to represent USA Basketball at the fifteenth annual Nike Hoops Summit on April 7 as part of the 2012 USA Junior National Select Team .
Michael " Spike " Albrecht committed to Michigan on April 6 , 2012 . Albrecht led Northfield Mount Hermon School to the 2012 NEPSAC Class AAA Boys ' Basketball Tournament , defeating McGary 's Brewster Academy in the semifinals . Albrecht was MVP of the tournament . Albrecht was a former AAU teammate of McGary and Robinson . Albrecht 's and outgoing captain Novak 's fathers were collegiate teammates . Albrecht was a 2011 graduate of Crown Point High School . After most of the big signings announced their decisions on the April 11 signing day , Michigan was ranked as the early number 5 preseason selection as a team by ESPN .
= = 2013 – 14 team recruits = =
Zak Irvin was named 2013 Indiana Mr. Basketball , giving Hamilton Southeastern High School the state 's first back @-@ to @-@ back winners ( Gary Harris ) from the same high school . Derrick Walton was runner up in the 2013 Mr. Basketball of Michigan by a 2130 – 2086 margin to Iowa State signee Monte Morris despite having one more first place vote . Both Walton and Irvin were 2013 Parade All @-@ American honorees and were named state Boys Basketball Gatorade Player of the Year .
= = Roster = =
= = Preseason = =
Michigan basketball hosted its on campus media day press conference on October 10 , 2012 at Crisler Center . The team was represented by Burke , Hardaway , Morgan and Beilein at the Big Ten Conference Basketball Media Day press conference on October 24 in Rosemont , Illinois . When the 24 @-@ person Big Ten Media poll was announced , Michigan was predicted to finish second to Indiana . Burke was a preseason All @-@ Conference selection by the same media .
Michigan enjoyed high expectations from the national media as well during the preseason . Sporting News named them to the number 5 position in its preseason poll , while conference foes Indiana and Ohio State were ranked number 1 and 3 , respectively . Michigan also earned the number 5 ranking in both the preseason Coaches ' Poll and preseason Associated Press poll , but behind Indiana ( # 1 ) and Ohio State ( # 4 ) in both . This was Michigan 's highest preseason ranking since the 1992 – 93 team . Sports Illustrated ranked Michigan number 9 in its October preseason power rankings , again behind Indiana ( # 1 ) and Ohio State ( # 6 ) , but when it printed its November preseason poll listed Michigan at number 6 ahead of Ohio State ( # 7 ) , but behind Indiana ( # 1 ) . Prior to the first exhibition game on November 1 , senior Josh Bartelstein was named team captain .
ESPN 's Eamonn Brennan noted that Michigan was a perimeter oriented team with possibly the best one @-@ two guard combination in the country . Burke and Hardaway were both preseason John R. Wooden Award top 50 selections . Burke was a preseason All @-@ American ( Associated Press first team , CBS Sports second team , Sports Illustrated second team , ESPN second team , Sporting News third team ) as well as a preseason Naismith Award top 50 selection .
= = Slogans , nicknames and emblems = =
= = = WE ON = = =
The acronym " WE ON " was the slogan for the whole team for the 2012 – 13 season . The team and coaching staff selected it at the beginning of the season as another way for Michigan to say Bo Schembechler 's famous quote , " the Team , the Team , the Team . " The acronym " WE ON " stands for " When Everyone Operates N 'sync . " Michigan assistant coach Bacari Alexander even tweeted that the acronym summarizes this team @-@ focused mindset . According to David Brandon , assistant coach LaVall Jordan and director of basketball operations Travis Conlan guided the team to develop the slogan .
Adidas warm up shirts were created and were first worn on November 21 , 2012 , before Michigan 's NIT Season Tip @-@ Off game against the Pittsburgh Panthers . The shirts use the school colors with blue with maize lettering . On February 12 , 2013 , when Michigan played the first of two regularly scheduled rivalry games against Michigan State , students in the Izzone at the Breslin Center wore T @-@ shirts with " YOU OFF " printed in Spartan colors ( green and white ) . Michigan State went on to win the game by 23 points .
" WE " – WE is also an acronym for " Wolverine Excellence " , which is chiefly used by the team . Wolverine Excellence calls for players and managers to focus on its five core values : integrity , unity , passion , diligence and appreciation .
" ON " – ON represented each player 's individual commitment to season @-@ long improvement . There was a " U @-@ M Fuse Box " ( mock @-@ University of Michigan set of switches ) in the Men 's Basketball locker room in Crisler Center . Each player had selected one word on which to focus during the season and before every practice and game , each player flipped their switch " on . " This represented each player 's commitment to improvement every day .
= = = Fresh Five = = =
Prior to the season , the five freshman were dubbed the " Fresh Five " , a moniker hearkening remembrance of the incoming freshman class of 1991 , known as the Fab Five , that led Michigan to back @-@ to @-@ back Championship games while starting the majority of games . However , the nickname and its expectations were downplayed most of the season by the team . Nonetheless , during the final two weeks of the regular season The New York Times ran a feature story on the team that reinvigorated the nickname while noting that the current five were the supporting cast rather than the stars of the team like the original five .
= = = Canadian flag = = =
ESPN 's Chantel Jennings tweeted a picture of a Flag of Canada redone in Michigan 's team colors of maize and blue at Crisler Arena on December 4 . One of her followers noted that the big version on the wall was a general Stauskas fan flag and that a little version of the flag was added next to it for each three @-@ pointer Canadian Stauskas made in the game . By mid @-@ December of his freshman season , the students in the Maize Rage ( Michigan student section at Crisler Arena ) had begun cheering Stauskas on with such a flag . The Michigan Public & Media Relations office started mentioning the flag before Christmas . The flag was mentioned widely in the press as he continued his hot shooting into January . Through the first week of January , Stauskas was shooting 53 @.@ 7 % on three @-@ point shots as the team held a 15 – 0 record .
= = = 96 = = =
The team , which represented Michigan Basketball for the ninety @-@ sixth season in the Big Ten Conference , is sometimes referred to as Team 96 or Squad 96 . Although this team represented Michigan for the ninety @-@ sixth consecutive year , there was controversy as to whether the team should in fact be marketed as Team 96 because the 1908 – 09 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team was not properly accounted for among the prior teams . The subsequent team was marketed as Team 98 .
= = Schedule = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = = November = = = =
Hardaway began the season with his fourth career double @-@ double by scoring 25 points ( including 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 three @-@ point shooting ) and adding 10 rebounds in a 100 – 62 win over Slippery Rock ; this earned him his second career Big Ten Player of the Week award . The 100 @-@ point November 9 performance was Michigan 's first since the 2007 – 08 team posted 103 points against Oakland on December 12 , 2007 .
Michigan hosted games for the first two rounds of the 2012 NIT Season Tip @-@ Off . The team 's first game of the tournament , a November 12 contest against the IUPUI Jaguars , resulted in a 91 – 54 Michigan victory . The win also gave Michigan its first consecutive 90 @-@ point performances since the 2000 – 01 team recorded three consecutive 90 @-@ point games . The following night , Michigan defeated Cleveland State by a 77 – 47 margin , marking the first time the school opened the season with three consecutive 30 @-@ point victories . The win also marked the first time Michigan had posted three consecutive 30 @-@ point wins since the 1988 – 89 Wolverines team ( the 1989 national champion ) won five consecutive 30 @-@ point games .
In the championship rounds of the NIT Season Tip @-@ Off tournament at Madison Square Garden on November 21 and November 23 , Michigan defeated Pittsburgh and Kansas State , respectively , to win the tournament . Hardaway , who totaled 39 points at the Garden , was the tournament MVP and was joined on the all @-@ tournament team by Burke , who contributed 27 points and 10 assists . Stauskas earned Big Ten Freshman of the Week honors for his NIT tournament performance in which he averaged 12 @.@ 5 points and 4 @.@ 5 rebounds . On November 27 , Michigan raised its Big Ten championship banner from the season before . Then , the team defeated its first ranked opponent of the season – NC State ( # 18 AP / # 18 Coaches ) – in the ACC – Big Ten Challenge . The win was supported by Burke 's first career double @-@ double which included a career @-@ high 11 assists , no turnovers and 18 points as well as a career @-@ high 20 points from Stauskas in a 79 – 72 victory .
= = = = December = = = =
Ranked third in both polls , Michigan established a record as the highest ranked visiting team in the history of Carver Arena on December 1 . Giving Stauskas his first career start , Michigan emerged victorious over Bradley . It was the third game of the season that Michigan never trailed in . Stauskas repeated as Big Ten Freshman of the Week on December 3 for his back @-@ to @-@ back 20 @-@ point performances .
On December 4 , Michigan defeated Western Michigan 73 – 41 , giving the team its first 8 – 0 start since the 1996 – 97 team ; the team never trailed in the game . Michigan defeated Arkansas 80 – 67 in its December 8 matchup . It marked the fourth 9 – 0 start in school history ( 1988 – 89 , 1985 – 86 and 1926 – 27 ) and the third consecutive game that Michigan never trailed . Michigan went to 10 – 0 on December 11 by defeating Binghamton 67 – 39 .
Michigan traveled to play in the December 15 Brooklyn Hoops Winter Festival at the Barclays Center , where they defeated West Virginia ( coach Beilein 's previous employer ) 81 – 66 to move to 11 – 0 for the third time in school history ( 1985 – 86 and 1988 – 89 ) . The team never trailed in the contest . For averaging 23 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 5 assists , 4 @.@ 5 rebounds and 2 @.@ 0 steals with only 1 @.@ 0 turnover in the games against Binghamton and West Virginia , Burke earned Player of the Week on December 17 .
On December 20 , the team became the second in school in history ( 1985 – 86 went 16 – 0 ) to reach 12 – 0 when it beat Eastern Michigan . After recording his first career double @-@ double in the game with only 18 minutes of play , McGary was recognized as Big Ten Freshman of the Week . Hardaway suffered an ankle injury that caused him to miss the December 29 game against Central Michigan and that broke his 81 consecutive games played streak that went back to the beginning of his Michigan career . The game also marked the team 's second game without Jon Horford , who dislocated his knee during the West Virginia game . In Hardaway 's absence , Burke posted his second career double @-@ double with 22 points and a career @-@ high tying 11 assists and Robinson posted his second career 20 @-@ point game . Stauskas added career highs with 5 three @-@ pointers and 7 rebounds and earned his third Big Ten Freshman of the Week award on December 31 . The thirteenth win clinched Michigan 's ninth perfect non @-@ conference regular season record . The team never trailed in the contest .
= = = = January = = = =
On January 3 , Michigan opened the 2012 – 13 Big Ten conference schedule with a 94 – 66 win over Northwestern to move to 14 – 0 . Burke had 23 points , 5 assists and a career high 4 steals , while Hardaway added 21 points , Morgan posted a double @-@ double with 12 points and 13 rebounds , while Stauskas and Robinson added 10 points each . Burke and Robinson both posted their third and first career double @-@ doubles , respectively , in a 95 – 67 victory against Iowa on January 6 . It marked the first time that the team scored 90 points in back @-@ to @-@ back conference games since the 1999 – 2000 team and tied for the most points in a conference game since the 1997 – 98 team . On January 7 , Burke was recognized as Big Ten Conference Player of the Week and Robinson was recognized as Conference Freshman of the Week .
The team tied the school record for best start by defeating Nebraska for its 16th straight victory to start the season on January 9 . The victory also marked Beilein 's 400th Division I coaching victory . On January 13 , the team lost to Ohio State ( # 15 AP / # 14 Coaches ) snapping their winning streak . Horford returned to the lineup after missing 5 games . Michigan had been the only remaining unbeaten team and was expected to be ranked # 1 if they had won . The loss was Michigan 's 9th straight in Columbus .
Michigan defeated Minnesota ( # 9 AP / # 12 Coaches ) at Williams Arena on January 17 , marking the first time Michigan defeated a top @-@ 10 team on the road since a December 6 , 1996 , victory by the 1996 – 97 team over Duke . After his performance , in which he scored 21 points while making 7 of 8 shots and 4 of 5 three @-@ point shots , in addition to recording 5 rebounds , 3 assists , 3 steals and 2 blocks , Hardaway earned a second Big Ten Player of the Week Award .
Michigan defeated Purdue 68 – 53 on January 24 and Illinois 74 – 60 on January 27 . This gave Michigan the first 19 – 1 start in school history . Robinson earned his second Big Ten Freshman of the Week award on January 28 for a pair of 12 @-@ point performances during a week in which he averaged 8 rebounds while maintaining 71 @.@ 4 % field goal percentage . Later that day , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 .
Michigan concluded January by beating Northwestern a second time on January 30 , becoming the first team in the country to reach 20 wins . After enduring an injured ankle against Illinois , starting center Jordan Morgan missed his first game since redshirting a full season for the 2009 – 10 Wolverines when he sat out the Northwestern game . Horford started in his place .
= = = = February = = = =
On February 2 , 2013 , Michigan ( # 1 AP / # 2 Coaches ) appeared on ESPN 's College GameDay against Indiana ( # 3 AP / # 3 Coaches ) who hosted the game at Assembly Hall . Michigan lost 81 – 73 , but the television broadcast of the game on ESPN set a Big Ten record for viewership with 4 @.@ 035 million viewers . Morgan only played two minutes behind replacement starter Horford . Michigan then defeated Ohio State ( # 10 AP / # 10 Coaches ) in overtime in the rematch at home on February 5 . Starting center Morgan only played 4 minutes . Coach Beilein noted that Morgan 's absence affected the team 's ability to match up defensively and substitute as it desired .
Michigan lost to Wisconsin on February 9 in overtime following a half @-@ court buzzer beater by Wisconsin that tied the game in regulation It marked Michigan 's eleventh consecutive loss against Wisconsin on the road . Morgan did not play , but McGary played 32 minutes , totaling 12 points , 3 steals and 8 rebounds . However , dramatically increased play in Morgan 's absence enabled McGary to earn his second Big Ten Freshman of the Week honor on February 11 .
On February 12 , Michigan lost 75 – 52 in its rivalry game against ( # 8 AP / # 8 Coaches ) Michigan State . Among those in attendance were Rick Snyder , Matthew Stafford , Mark Dantonio , Brady Hoke , and Lloyd Carr . It marked the first time both teams were ranked in the top ten of the AP Poll , and resulted in Michigan losing back @-@ to @-@ back games and three consecutive road games for the first time since the 2010 – 11 team did so . Burke 's 18 points , 4 assists and 3 steals were one of Michigan 's few bright spots in their February 12 contest .
On February 17 against Penn State , Burke posted a season @-@ high 29 points along with 5 assists , 3 rebounds and two steals . As a result of his efforts , Burke won his third player of the week award of the season and fourth of his career on February 18 . Morgan returned to the starting lineup in the Penn State contest , but he only played 7 minutes .
After playing only 22 total minutes since January 27 , Morgan played more minutes ( 17 ) than the other low post players ( McGary , Horford , and Max Bielfeldt ) for the first time on February 24 against Illinois . Michigan defeated Illinois 71 – 58 behind 26 points and 8 assists from Burke . In the game , Burke became the seventh Wolverine sophomore to reach 1000 career points . On February 27 , Michigan surrendered a 15 @-@ point second @-@ half lead to give Penn State its only conference win of the season . Following the game , the team called a rare players @-@ only meeting at the Pizza House , with fifth @-@ year reserve Corey Person doing most of the talking .
= = = = March = = = =
On March 3 , Michigan defeated Michigan State ( # 9 AP / # 10 Coaches ) in the Ann Arbor rematch of their rivalry series as Trey Burke made 2 steals in the final 30 seconds to secure the 58 – 57 victory . Michigan snapped a 453 @-@ game streak with at least one made three @-@ point shot and became the first team since February 2009 to defeat a top ten opponent without making one . On March 6 , with its Big 10 Conference Championship destiny in its own hands , Michigan defeated Purdue to set up a championship showdown with Indiana on March 10 . Michigan concluded its road schedule with a 5 – 5 record .
Michigan closed out the season by losing to Indiana ( # 2 AP / # 2 Coaches ) on March 10 , failing its pursuit of defense of its conference co @-@ championship . Michigan led by 5 with 52 seconds to go , but then missed 3 free throws , including the first attempt during 2 one @-@ and @-@ one situations . Burke and Morgan also missed last @-@ second shots at the rim . Michigan wound down its regular season with its fifteenth sellout and five seniors on the roster : Eso Akunne , Josh Bartelstein , Blake McLimans , Corey Person , and Matt Vogrich . The loss kept Michigan from its first undefeated home season since the 1976 – 77 team .
= = = Postseason = = =
Michigan participated in the 2013 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament at the United Center in Chicago . As the # 5 seed , they defeated Penn State in the opening round on March 14 by an 83 – 66 margin . In the second round , the team lost to Wisconsin , 68 – 59 . Prior to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Jeff Goodman of CBSSports.com named Michigan first among tournament teams in terms of having the most future NBA talent on its roster ( in the absence of Kentucky , which was left to accept an invitation to the 2013 National Invitation Tournament ) . Among Michigan 's starting lineup , Burke , Robinson , Hardaway , and McGary were all expected to be likely NBA Draft choices , while Stauskas had the potential to be one .
Despite its highly touted lineup , Michigan entered the tournament as the sixth youngest team in the country and the youngest team in the field of 68 teams according to Sports Illustrated , based on weighted minutes played . The game marked Michigan 's first NCAA Championship Monday appearance since 1989 . Some sources claim 1993 as the school 's last appearance , but those results have been vacated by the NCAA due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal .
Michigan was entered in the tournament 's South region where it would play its first two games at The Palace of Auburn Hills in nearby Auburn Hills , Michigan . As a number four seed , Michigan opened the tournament by defeating South Dakota State 71 – 56 , giving the team its most wins in 20 years and matching Beilein 's career high as it raised its record to 27 – 7 . Michigan then ousted 5th @-@ seeded VCU by a 78 – 53 margin . That gave Michigan its first Sweet Sixteen appearance since the 1993 – 94 team went to the 1994 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
= = = = Sweet Sixteen = = = =
The regional championship rounds for Michigan were at AT & T Stadium in Arlington , Texas . On March 29 against Kansas , Michigan overcame a 14 @-@ point deficit with 6 : 50 remaining and a 10 @-@ point deficit with 2 : 52 remaining to force overtime before an eventual victory . Burke scored eight points in the final 1 : 15 of regulation time , including a game @-@ tying long three @-@ pointer with 4 @.@ 2 seconds remaining . McGary ( 25 points and 14 rebounds ) and Burke ( 23 points and 10 assists ) both posted double @-@ doubles .
In the regional finals on March 31 against Florida , Michigan built a 13 – 0 lead and never led by less than 10 the rest of the game . Several players had career @-@ highs in the game : Stauskas with 6 three @-@ point shots , Burke 8 rebounds , McGary 5 steals and off the bench Albrecht 7 points and 3 steals . Eight of McGary 's 11 points came as Michigan built the initial 13 – 0 lead and 5 of Stauskas ' 6 three @-@ pointers came as Michigan built a 41 – 17 lead and closed the half with a 47 – 30 lead . Burke was named South Regional Tournament Most Outstanding Player . McGary and Stauskas joined Burke on the five @-@ man South All @-@ Regional team . Following the regional championship postgame prayer and with Mrs. Beilein 's consent , McGary and Hardaway gave Beilein a Gatorade shower .
= = = = Final four = = = =
The national championship rounds were held at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta , Georgia . In the April 6 national semifinal against Syracuse , Michigan emerged with its thirty @-@ first victory , the most since the 1992 – 93 team went 31 – 5 . McGary posted 10 points , 12 rebounds and 6 assists , while the bench contributed 22 points , including 6 from Albrecht , who raised his NCAA tournament total to 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 on three @-@ point shots .
Michigan lost the April 8 national championship game against Midwest number one seed Louisville by an 82 – 76 score . Albrecht scored 17 first @-@ half points on 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 three @-@ point shooting . Burke scored 24 points in the championship game and made the seven @-@ man All @-@ Tournament team ( which was revised multiple times ) along with teammates McGary and Albrecht . The turning point of the game was described as a missed call by the referees when , as Michigan trailed 67 – 64 with 5 minutes left , Burke pinned Peyton Siva 's dunk attempt with a clean , all @-@ ball block , but was called for a foul , resulting in two made free throws by Silva . Michigan never got closer than 4 points the rest of the game .
= = = Results = = =
= = Statistics = =
Statistics come from the team 's website :
Burke 's 260 assists set a school single @-@ season record . He also finished his sophomore season with 1 @,@ 231 career points , surpassing the former school record for sophomore season career point total of 1 @,@ 218 by Chris Webber . Stauskas reached a total of 80 made three @-@ point shots , which surpassed Hardaway 's 2 @-@ year @-@ old school freshman season record of 76 .
= = Rankings = =
= = Watchlists and awards = =
= = = Preseason = = =
= = = In @-@ season = = =
Stauskas also earned recognition from Sports Illustrated 's Seth Davis as National Freshman of the Week on December 3 . On January 9 , Burke earned the Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week from the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) . Burke also earned ESPN.com Player of the Week recognition on April 1 .
The Wooden Award midseason top 25 list , which included Burke , was announced on January 10 . On January 31 , Burke was named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy ( USBWA National Player of the Year ) midseason top 12 list , while Stuaskas and Robinson were named to the Wayman Tisdale Award ( USBWA National Freshman of the Year ) top 12 midseason list . Burke was one of six Big Ten players named among the top 30 finalists for the Naismith Award when the list was announced on February 26 . Burke was among four Big Ten Players on the March 4 14 @-@ man Robertson watchlist . On March 9 , Burke was named among the top 15 Wooden Award finalists . On March 11 , Burke was named one of five finalists for the Cousy Award . Burke was named one of four finalists for the Naismith Award on March 24 .
Burke was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by Sporting News on March 11 , the USBWA on March 18 , Sports Illustrated on March 19 , CBSSports.com on March 20 , the National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) on March 28 , and the Associated Press on April 1 . Burke was one of four Big Ten players named to the 10 @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team of finalists for the Wooden Award on April 1 . On April 1 , Robinson was one of two Big Ten players ( Harris ) named to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Kyle Macy Freshman All @-@ America team . Burke became the fifth Consensus All @-@ American ( Cazzie Russell , Rickey Green , Gary Grant and Webber ) in school history .
SI also named Burke National Player of the Year , making him the second ( Russell , 1966 ) National Player of the Year in school history . On April 4 , Burke won the Bob Cousy Award and was named Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . Burke won both the Oscar Robertson Trophy from the USBWA as well as the John R. Wooden Award on April 5 . On April 7 , he won the NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year awards , giving him a sweep of the four major player of the year awards .
Burke earned Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2013 and was a unanimous 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten 1st team selection . Hardaway was a 1st team selection by the coaches and second team by the media . Robinson was an honorable mention All @-@ Conference selection and All @-@ freshman honoree by the coaches . Morgan was a coaches All @-@ defensive team selection . On March 12 , the USBWA named Burke and Hardaway to its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based upon voting from its national membership . Burke was recognized as District V Player of the Year . Burke and Hardaway were selected to the NABC Division I All ‐ District 7 first team on March 26 , as selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , making them eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America team . On that same day , Burke was selected to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Lute Olson All @-@ America Team .
John Beilein was selected as an assistant coach for the 2013 World University Games . Seniors Josh Bartelstein and Matt Vogrich were among the 38 Big Ten men 's basketball players recognized as Winter Academic All @-@ Big Ten for maintaining 3 @.@ 0 averages . Trey Burke was named team MVP .
= = 2013 NBA Draft = =
Prior to the final four , McGary stated that he would not enter the 2013 NBA Draft , but a few days later said he had been caught off guard and would prefer to respond after he had time to reflect on his season .
At 12 : 30 PM ET on April 4 , Forbes sports business reporter Darren Heitner tweeted that Burke and teammate Hardaway would declare for the 2013 NBA Draft . According to Heiter , one of Burke 's potential sports agents was Alonzo Shavers , who had known Burke since his birth . Burke 's mother responded at 2 : 15 PM that same day that " He has not made any decision " about going pro , according to Yahoo ! Sports reporter Eric Adelson . At 2 : 23 PM , Heitner tweeted that Hardaway , Sr. said his son was undecided .
On April 9 before boarding the airplane to return from the NCAA Final Four , Beilein met with Burke , Hardaway , Robinson and McGary to direct them to seek the advice of the NBA advisory committee . The draft board had until April 15 to develop each individual report and the players had until April 28 to enter the draft . On that same date , ESPN 's Jason King predicted that if all four players had left for the NBA draft , the 2013 – 14 team would have begun the season unranked . USA Today projected on April 9 that if one of the four possible 2013 NBA draft entrants returned , Michigan could have been ranked number twenty @-@ four , and that if they all returned , Michigan would have been preseason number one . ESPN journalist Myron Medcalf predicted on April 12 that Burke and Hardaway would enter the draft and that McGary and Robinson were on the borderline of doing so .
On April 13 , reports surfaced that Burke would announce that he would enter the NBA Draft at a press conference the following day . He entered the 2013 NBA Draft on April 14 . On April 17 , Hardaway declared for the NBA Draft . McGary and Robinson announced on April 18 that they had decided not to enter their names in the NBA Draft .
On June 27 , 2013 Burke was selected ninth in the 2013 NBA Draft by the Milwaukee Bucks and then traded to the Utah Jazz for the fourteenth and twenty @-@ first picks , which were used to select Shabazz Muhammad and Gorgui Dieng . Hardaway was drafted twenty @-@ fourth by the New York Knicks . Burke and Hardaway became the first Michigan duo selected in the first round since Juwan Howard and Jalen Rose in the 1994 NBA Draft . Burke became the first top @-@ 10 Wolverine selection since Jamal Crawford in the 2000 NBA Draft , and joined Victor Oladipo and Cody Zeller , who were selected second and fourth , respectively , to give the Big Ten its first top ten trio since the 1990 NBA Draft . Hardaway joined his father , who was picked fourteenth in 1989 NBA Draft , as a first round selection .
= = = Team players drafted into the NBA = = =
Every player that started in the 2013 national championship game was drafted either in the 2013 or 2014 NBA draft .
Sources :
= = Postseason roster changes = =
Following the season the team lost five seniors from the roster : guard Eso Akunne , guard Josh Bartelstein ( captain ) , forward Blake McLimans , guard Corey Person and guard Matt Vogrich . The team 's required 10 @-@ year dissociation with players implicated in the University of Michigan basketball scandal ended on May 8 , 2013 . Bartelstein blogged for the team from October 15 , 2010 , until April 11 , 2013 . His blogs from this season were turned into an ebook about the season entitled We On : Behind the Scenes of Michigan 's Final Four Run .
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= Prosperity theology =
Prosperity theology ( sometimes referred to as the prosperity gospel , the health and wealth gospel , or the gospel of success ) is a religious belief among some Christians that financial blessing is the will of God for them , and that faith , positive speech , and donations ( possibly to Christian ministries ) will increase one 's material wealth . They are based on interpretations of the Bible traditional in Judaism ( with respect to the Hebrew Bible ) , though less so in Christianity . Prosperity theology views the Bible as a contract between God and humans : if humans have faith in God , he will deliver his promises of security and prosperity . Confessing these promises to be true is perceived as an act of faith , which God will honor .
The doctrine emphasizes the importance of personal empowerment , proposing that it is God 's will for his people to be happy . The atonement ( reconciliation with God ) is interpreted to include the alleviation of sickness and poverty , which are viewed as curses to be broken by faith . This is believed to be achieved through donations of money , visualization , and positive confession , and is often taught in mechanical and contractual terms .
It was during the Healing Revivals of the 1950s that prosperity theology first came to prominence in the United States , although commentators have linked the origins of its theology to the New Thought movement which began in the 19th century . The prosperity teaching later figured prominently in the Word of Faith movement and 1980s televangelism . In the 1990s and 2000s , it was adopted by influential leaders in the Charismatic Movement and promoted by Christian missionaries throughout the world , sometimes leading to the establishment of mega @-@ churches . Prominent leaders in the development of prosperity theology include E. W. Kenyon , Oral Roberts , TD Jakes , A. A. Allen , Robert Tilton , T. L. Osborn , Joel Osteen , Creflo Dollar , Kenneth Copeland , Reverend Ike and Kenneth Hagin .
Prosperity theology has been criticized by leaders in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements , as well as other Christian denominations . These leaders maintain that it is irresponsible , promotes idolatry , and is contrary to scripture . Some critics have proposed that prosperity theology cultivates authoritarian organizations , with the leaders controlling the lives of the adherents . The doctrine has also become popular in South Korea ; academics have attributed some of its success to its parallels with the traditional shamanistic culture . Prosperity theology has drawn followers from the American middle class and poor , and has been likened to the cargo cult phenomenon , traditional African religion , and black liberation theology .
= = History = =
= = = Late 19th and early 20th @-@ century background = = =
According to historian Kate Bowler , the prosperity gospel was formed from the intersection of three different ideologies : Pentecostalism , New Thought , and " an American gospel of pragmatism , individualism , and upward mobility . " This " American gospel " was best exemplified by Andrew Carnegie 's Gospel of Wealth and Russell Conwell 's famous sermon " Acres of Diamonds " , in which Conwell equated poverty with sin and asserted that anyone could become rich through hard work . This gospel of wealth , however , was an expression of Muscular Christianity and understood success to be the result of personal effort rather than divine intervention .
The New Thought movement , which emerged in the 1880s , was responsible for popularizing belief in the power of the mind to achieve prosperity . While initially focused on achieving mental and physical health , New Thought teachers such as Charles Fillmore made material success a major emphasis of the movement . By the 20th century , New Thought concepts had saturated American popular culture , being common features of both self @-@ help literature and popular psychology .
E. W. Kenyon , a Baptist minister and adherent of the Higher Life movement , is credited with introducing mind @-@ power teachings into early Pentecostalism . In the 1890s , Kenyon attended Emerson College of Oratory where he was exposed to the New Thought movement . Kenyon later became connected with well @-@ known Pentecostal leaders and wrote about supernatural revelation and positive declarations . His writing influenced leaders of the nascent prosperity movement during the post @-@ war American healing revival . Kenyon and later leaders in the prosperity movement have denied that he was influenced by the New Thought movement . Anthropologist Simon Coleman argues that there are " obvious parallels " between Kenyon 's teachings and New Thought .
Kenyon taught that Christ 's substitutionary atonement secured for believers a right to divine healing . This was attained through positive , faith @-@ filled speech ; the spoken word of God allowed believers to appropriate the same spiritual power that God used to create the world and attain the provisions promised in Christ 's death and resurrection . Prayer was understood to be a binding , legal act . Rather than asking , Kenyon taught believers to demand healing since they were already legally entitled to receive it .
Kenyon 's blend of evangelical religion and mind @-@ power beliefs — what he termed " overcoming faith " — resonated with a small but influential segment of the Pentecostal movement . Pentecostals had always been committed to faith healing , and the movement also possessed a strong belief in the power of speech ( in particular speaking in tongues and the use of the names of God , especially the name of Jesus ) . Kenyon 's ideas would be reflected in the teachings of Pentecostal evangelists F. F. Bosworth and John G. Lake ( who co @-@ led a congregation with New Thought author Albert C. Grier prior to 1915 ) .
= = = Postwar Healing Revivals = = =
While Kenyon 's teachings on overcoming faith laid the groundwork for the prosperity gospel , the first generation of Pentecostals influenced by him and other figures , such as Bosworth , did not view faith as a means to attain material prosperity . In fact , early Pentecostals tended to view prosperity as a threat to a person 's spiritual well @-@ being . By the 1940s and 1950s , however , a recognizable form of the doctrine began to take shape within the Pentecostal movement through the teachings of deliverance and healing evangelists . Combining prosperity teaching with revivalism and faith healing , these evangelists taught " the laws of faith ( ' ask and ye shall receive ' ) and the laws of divine reciprocity ( ' give and it will be given back unto you ' ) " .
Oral Roberts began teaching prosperity theology in 1947 . He explained the laws of faith as a " blessing pact " in which God would return donations " seven fold " , promising that donors would receive back from unexpected sources the money they donated to him . Roberts offered to return any donation that did not lead to an equivalent unexpected payment . In the 1970s , Roberts characterized his blessing pact teaching as the " seed faith " doctrine : donations were a form of " seed " which would grow in value and be returned to the donor . Roberts began recruiting " partners " , wealthy donors who received exclusive conference invitations and ministry access in exchange for support .
In 1953 , faith healer A. A. Allen published The Secret to Scriptural Financial Success and promoted merchandise such as " miracle tent shavings " and prayer cloths anointed with " miracle oil " . In the late 1950s , Allen increasingly focused on prosperity . He taught that faith could miraculously solve financial problems and claimed to have had a miraculous experience in which God supernaturally changed one @-@ dollar bills into twenty @-@ dollar bills to allow him to pay his debts . Allen taught the " word of faith " or the power to speak something into being .
In the 1960s , prosperity became a primary focus in healing revivals . T. L. Osborn began emphasizing prosperity in the 1960s and became known for his often ostentatious displays of personal wealth . During that decade , Roberts and William Branham criticized other prosperity ministries , arguing that their fund @-@ raising tactics unfairly pressured attendees . These tactics were prompted in part by the expense of developing nationwide radio networks and campaign schedules . At the same time , leaders of the Pentecostal Assemblies of God denomination often criticized the focus on prosperity taken by independent healing evangelists .
= = = Televangelism = = =
During the 1960s , prosperity gospel teachers embraced televangelism and came to dominate religious programming in the United States . Oral Roberts led the way , developing a syndicated weekly program that became the most watched religious show in the United States . By 1968 , television had supplanted the tent meeting in his ministry .
Reverend Ike , a pastor from New York City , began preaching about prosperity in the late 1960s . He soon had widely aired radio and television programs and became distinguished for his flashy style . His openness about love for material possessions and teachings about the " Science of the Mind " led many evangelists to distance themselves from him .
In the 1980s , public attention in the United States was drawn to prosperity theology through the influence of prominent televangelists such as Jim Bakker . Bakker 's influence waned , however , after he was implicated in a high @-@ profile scandal . In the aftermath , Trinity Broadcasting Network ( TBN ) emerged as the dominant force in prosperity televangelism , having brought Robert Tilton and Benny Hinn to prominence .
= = = Word of Faith = = =
Although nearly all of the healing evangelists of the 1940s and ' 50s taught that faith could bring financial rewards , a new prosperity @-@ oriented teaching developed in the 1970s that differed from the one taught by Pentecostal evangelists of the 1950s . This " Positive Confession " or " Word of Faith " movement taught that a Christian with faith can speak into existence anything consistent with the will of God .
Kenneth Hagin was credited with a key role in the expansion of prosperity theology . He founded the RHEMA Bible Training Center in 1974 , and over the next 20 years , the school trained more than 10 @,@ 000 students in his theology . As is true of other prosperity movements , there is no theological governing body for the Word of Faith movement , and well @-@ known ministries differ on some theological issues . The teachings of Kenneth Hagin have been described by Candy Gunther Brown of Indiana University as the most " orthodox " form of Word of Faith prosperity teaching .
= = = Recent U.S. history = = =
The Neo @-@ Pentecostal movement has been characterized in part by an emphasis on prosperity theology , which gained greater acceptance within charismatic Christianity during the late 1990s . By 2006 , three of the four largest congregations in the United States were teaching prosperity theology , and Joel Osteen has been credited with spreading it outside of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movement through his books , which have sold over 4 million copies . Bruce Wilkinson 's The Prayer of Jabez also sold millions of copies and invited readers to seek prosperity .
By the 2000s , adherents of prosperity theology in the United States were most common in the Sun Belt . In the late 2000s , proponents claimed that tens of millions of Christians had accepted prosperity theology . A 2006 poll by Time reported that 17 percent of Christians in America said they identified with the movement . There is no official governing body for the movement , though many ministries are unofficially linked .
In 2007 , U.S. Senator Chuck Grassley opened a probe into the finances of six televangelism ministries that promoted prosperity theology : Kenneth Copeland Ministries , Creflo Dollar Ministries , Benny Hinn Ministries , Bishop Eddie Long Ministries , Joyce Meyer Ministries , and Paula White Ministries . In January 2011 , Grassley concluded his investigation stating that he believed self @-@ regulation by religious organizations was preferable to government action . Only the ministries led by Meyer and Hinn cooperated fully with Grassley 's investigation .
= = Theology = =
Prosperity theology teaches that Christians are entitled to well @-@ being and , because physical and spiritual realities are seen as one inseparable reality , this is interpreted as physical health and economic prosperity . Teachers of the doctrine focus on personal empowerment , promoting a positive view of the spirit and body . They maintain that Christians have been given power over creation because they are made in the image of God and teach that positive confession allows Christians to exercise dominion over their souls and material objects around them . Leaders of the movement view the atonement as providing for the alleviation of sickness , poverty , and spiritual corruption ; poverty and illness are cast as curses which can be broken by faith and righteous actions . There are , however , some prosperity churches which seek a more moderate or reformed paradigm of prosperity . Kirbyjon Caldwell , pastor of a Methodist mega @-@ church , supports a theology of abundant life , teaching prosperity for the whole human being , which he sees as a path to combating poverty .
Wealth is interpreted in prosperity theology as a blessing from God , obtained through a spiritual law of positive confession , visualization , and donations . This process is often taught in almost mechanical terms ; Kenneth Copeland , an American author and televangelist , argues that prosperity is governed by laws , while other teachers portray the process formulaically . Journalists David van Biema and Jeff Chu of Time have described Word of Faith pastor Creflo Dollar 's teachings about prosperity as an inviolable contract between God and humanity .
The prosperity theology teaching of positive confession stems from its proponents ' view of scripture . The Bible is seen as a faith contract between God and believers ; God is understood to be faithful and just , so believers must fulfill their end of the contract to receive God 's promises . This leads to a belief in positive confession , the doctrine that believers may claim whatever they desire from God , simply by speaking it . Prosperity theology teaches that the Bible has promised prosperity for believers , so positive confession means that believers are speaking in faith what God has already spoken about them . Positive confession is practiced to bring about what is already believed in ; faith itself is a confession , and speaking it brings it into reality .
The teaching is often based on non @-@ traditional interpretations of Bible verses , the Book of Malachi often being given special attention . While Malachi has generally been celebrated by Christians for its passages about the messiah , teachers of prosperity theology usually draw attention to its descriptions of physical wealth . Frequently quoted verses include :
Malachi 3 : 10 : " Bring to the storehouse a full tenth of what you earn so there will be food in my house . Test me in this , " says the Lord All @-@ Powerful . " I will open the windows of heaven for you and pour out all the blessings you need " ( NCV ) .
Matthew 25 : 14 – 30 : the Parable of the talents
John 10 : 10 : " I am come that they might have life , and that they might have it more abundantly " ( KJV ) .
Philippians 4 : 19 : " My God shall supply all your need according to his riches in glory by Christ Jesus " ( KJV ) .
3 John 1 : 2 : " Beloved , I wish above all things that thou mayest prosper and be in health , even as thy soul prospereth " ( KJV ) .
Prosperity theology casts itself as the reclamation of true doctrine and thus part of a path to Christian dominion over secular society . It contends that God 's promises of prosperity and victory to Israel in the Old Testament apply to New @-@ Covenant Christians today , and that faith and holy actions release this prosperity . C. Peter Wagner , a leader of the New Apostolic Reformation , has argued that if Christians take dominion over aspects of society , the Earth will experience " peace and prosperity " . Some Latin Americans who have embraced prosperity theology argue that Christianity has historically placed an unnecessary focus on suffering . They often view this as a Roman Catholic doctrine that should be discarded and replaced with an emphasis on prosperity . Prosperity theology advocates also argue that biblical promises of blessings awaiting the poor have been unnecessarily spiritualized , and should be understood literally .
= = = Practices = = =
Prosperity churches place a strong emphasis on the importance of giving . Some services include a teaching time focused on giving and prosperity , including Biblical references to tithing ; and then a sermon on another topic which follows the offering . Prosperity church leaders often claim a specific blessing can be exchanged for the money being donated to their ministry ; some have been reported to instruct worshipers to hold their donations above their heads during the prayer .
Congregants in prosperity churches are encouraged to speak positive statements about aspects of their lives that they wish to see improved . These statements , known as positive confessions , ( distinct from confessions of sin ) are said to miraculously change aspects of people 's lives if spoken with faith . Prosperity churches also encourage people to " live without limits " and cultivate optimism about their lives . T. D. Jakes , pastor of The Potter 's House non @-@ denominational mega @-@ church , has argued in favor of prosperity , rejecting what he sees as the demonization of success . He views poverty as a barrier to living a Christian life , suggesting that it is easier to make a positive impact on society when one is affluent .
While some prosperity churches have a reputation for manipulating and alienating the poor , many are involved in social programs . Underlying these programs is a theology of empowerment and human flourishing with the goal of releasing people from a " welfare " or " victim " mentality . Many prosperity churches hold seminars on financial responsibility . Kate Bowler , an academic who studies prosperity theology , has criticized such seminars , arguing that though they contain some sound advice the seminars often emphasize the purchase of expensive possessions . Hanna Rosin of The Atlantic argues that prosperity theology contributed to the housing bubble that caused the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis . She maintains that home ownership was heavily emphasized in prosperity churches , based on reliance on divine financial intervention that led to unwise choices based on actual financial ability .
= = = International growth = = =
In the 2000s , churches teaching prosperity theology saw significant growth in the Third World . According to Philip Jenkins of Pennsylvania State University , poor citizens of impoverished countries often find the doctrine appealing because of their economic powerlessness and the doctrine 's emphasis on miracles . One region seeing explosive growth is Western Africa , particularly Nigeria . In the Philippines , the El Shaddai movement , part of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal , has spread prosperity theology outside Protestant Christianity . One South Korean prosperity church , Yoido Full Gospel Church , gained attention in the 1990s by claiming to be the world 's largest congregation .
= = Reception = =
= = = Socioeconomic analysis = = =
Most churches in the prosperity movement are non @-@ denominational and independent , though some groups have formed networks . Prosperity churches typically reject Presbyterian polity ( or governance ) and the idea that a pastor should be accountable to elders ; it is common for pastors of prosperity churches to be the highest organizational authority figure . Critics , including Sarah Posner and Joe Conason , maintain that prosperity teachers cultivate authoritarian organizations . They argue that leaders attempt to control the lives of adherents by claiming divinely bestowed authority . Jenkins contends that prosperity theology is used as a tool to justify the high salaries of pastors .
In the United States , the movement has drawn many followers from the middle class and is most popular in commuter towns and urban areas . In Exporting the American Gospel : Global Christian Fundamentalism Steve Brouwer , Paul Gifford , and Susan Rose speculate that the movement was fueled by a prevailing disdain for social liberalism in the United States that began in the 1970s . Rosin argues that prosperity theology emerged because of broader trends , particularly American economic optimism in the 1950s and 1990s . Tony Lin of the University of Virginia has also compared the teaching to manifest destiny , the 19th @-@ century belief that the United States was entitled to the West . Marvin Harris argues that the doctrine 's focus on the material world is a symptom of the secularization of American religion . He sees it as an attempt to fulfill the American Dream by using supernatural power .
Prosperity theology has become popular among poor Americans , particularly those who seek personal and social advancement . It has seen significant growth in black and Hispanic churches and is particularly popular among immigrants . Apologists for the movement note its ethnic diversity and argue that it encompasses a variety of views . Joel Robbins of Cambridge University notes that most anthropologists attribute the theology 's appeal to the poor — especially in the Global South — to the fact that it promises security and helps explain capitalism . Simon Coleman developed a theory based on the doctrine 's rhetoric and the feeling of belonging it gave parishioners . In a study of the Swedish Word of Life Church , he noted that members felt part of a complex gift @-@ exchange system , giving to God and then awaiting a gift in return ( either from God directly or through another church member ) . Hillsong Church , the largest congregation in Australia , teaches a form of prosperity theology that emphasizes personal success . Marion Maddox has argued that this message has drawn a significant number of upwardly mobile Australians .
In a 1998 interview in Christianity Today , Bong Rin Ro of the Asia Graduate School of Theology suggested that the growth in popularity of prosperity theology in South Korea reflects a strong " shamanistic influence " . Bong pointed to parallels between the tradition of paying shamans for healing and the prosperity theology 's contractual doctrine about giving and blessings . Asia 's economic problems , he argued , encouraged the growth of the doctrine in South Korea , though he claims it ignores the poor and needy . During the interview , he stated that he saw the problem beginning to be reversed , citing calls for renewed faith and other practices . Cho Yong @-@ gi , pastor of Yoido Full Gospel Church in Seoul , has been criticized for shamanising Christianity . This criticism has focused on his healing and exorcism ministries and his promise of material blessings . Malaysian Christian writer Hwa Yung has defended Cho 's healing and exorcism ministries , arguing that he successfully contextualized the gospel in a culture where shamanism was still prevalent . However , Hwa criticizes Cho 's teaching of earthly blessings for not reflecting a trust in God 's daily provision and for their heavy focus on earthly wealth .
= = = Comparisons with other movements = = =
Historian Carter Lindberg of Boston University has drawn parallels between contemporary prosperity theology and the medieval indulgence trade . Coleman notes that several pre @-@ 20th century Christian movements in the United States taught that a holy lifestyle was a path to prosperity and that God @-@ ordained hard work would bring blessing .
Coleman has speculated that modern @-@ day prosperity theology borrows heavily from the New Thought movement , though he admits that the connection is sometimes unclear . Jenkins notes that critics draw a parallel between prosperity theology and the cargo cult phenomenon . While citing the popularity of prosperity theology in agrarian African communities , he argues that it can also bear similarities to traditional African religious rituals . J. Matthew Wilson of Southern Methodist University compares the movement to Black liberation theology owing to its focus on uplifting oppressed groups , though he notes that it differs in its concentration on individual success rather than corporate political change .
= = = Criticism = = =
Mainstream evangelicalism has consistently opposed prosperity theology as heresy and prosperity ministries have frequently come into conflict with other Christian groups , including those within the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements . Critics , such as Evangelical pastor Michael Catt , have argued that prosperity theology has little in common with traditional Christian theology . Prominent evangelical leaders , such as Rick Warren , Ben Witherington III , and Jerry Falwell , have harshly criticized the movement , sometimes denouncing it as heretical . Warren proposes that prosperity theology promotes the idolatry of money , and others argue that Jesus ' teachings indicate a disdain for material wealth . In Mark : Jesus , Servant and Savior , R. Kent Hughes notes that some 1st @-@ century rabbis portrayed material blessings as a sign of God 's favor . He cites Jesus ' statement in Mark 10 : 25 that " It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle , than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God " ( KJV ) as evidence to oppose such thinking .
Other critics of the movement assail promises made by its leaders , arguing that the broad freedom from problems they promise is irresponsible . Televangelists are often criticized for abusing the faith of their listeners by enriching themselves through large donations . Prosperity theology has been opposed for not adequately explaining the poverty of the Apostles . For instance , some theologians believe that the life and writings of Paul the Apostle , who is believed to have experienced significant suffering during his ministry , are particularly in conflict with prosperity theology . Cathleen Falsani , religion writer in an opinion piece in the Washington Post , points to the conflict with basic Christian teachings " Jesus was born poor , and he died poor . During his earthly tenure , he spoke time and again about the importance of spiritual wealth and health . When he talked about material wealth , it was usually part of a cautionary tale . "
In their book Health , Wealth and Happiness , theologians David Jones and Russell Woodbridge characterize the doctrine as poor theology . They suggest that righteousness cannot be earned and that the Bible does not promise an easy life . They argue that it is inconsistent with the gospel of Jesus and propose that the central message of the gospel should be Jesus ' life , death , and resurrection . Jones and Woodbridge see Jesus ' importance as vital , criticizing the prosperity gospel for marginalizing him in favor of a focus on human need . In another article , Jones criticizes the prosperity theology interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant , God 's promise to bless Abraham 's descendants , arguing that this blessing is spiritual and should already apply to all Christians . He also argues that the proponents of the doctrine misconstrue the atonement , criticizing their teaching that Jesus ' death took away poverty as well as sin . He believes that this teaching is drawn from a misunderstanding of Jesus ' life and criticizes John Avanzini 's teaching that Jesus was wealthy as a misrepresentation , noting that Paul often taught Christians to give up their material possessions . Although he accepts giving as " praiseworthy " , he questions the motives of prosperity theology and criticizes the " Law of Compensation " , which teaches that when Christians give generously , God will give back more in return . Rather , Jones cites Jesus ' teaching to " give , hoping for nothing in return . " Jones and Woodbridge also note that Jesus instructed followers to focus on spiritual rewards , citing his command in Matthew 6 : 19 – 20 " Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth ... But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven " ( KJV ) . Jones criticizes the doctrine 's view of faith : he does not believe that it should be used as a spiritual force for material gain but seen as selfless acceptance of God .
In 1980 , the General Council of the Assemblies of God criticized the doctrine of positive confession , noting examples of negative confessions in the Bible ( where Biblical figures express fears and doubts ) that had positive results and contrasting these examples with the focus on positive confessions taught by prosperity theology . The Council argues that the biblical Greek word often translated as " confess " literally translates as " to speak the same thing " , and refers to both positive and negative confessions . The statement also criticizes the doctrine for failing to recognize the will of God : God 's will should have precedence over the will of man , including their desires for wealth , and Christians should " recognize the sovereignty of God " . The statement further criticizes prosperity theology for overlooking the importance of prayer , arguing that prayer should be used for all requests , not simply positive confession . The Council noted that Christians should expect suffering in this life . They urge readers to apply practical tests to positive confession , arguing that the doctrine appeals to those who are already in affluent societies but that many Christians in other societies are impoverished or imprisoned . Finally , the paper criticizes the distinction made by advocates of prosperity theology in the two Greek words that mean " speaking " , arguing that the distinction is false and that they are used interchangeably in the Greek text . The Council accused prosperity theology of taking passages out of context to fulfill its own needs , with the result that doctrine of positive confession is contradictory to the holistic message of the Bible .
On the August 16 , 2015 episode of his HBO weekly series Last Week Tonight , John Oliver satirized prosperity theology by announcing that he had established his own tax @-@ exempt church , called Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption . In a lengthy segment , Oliver focused on what he characterized as the predatory conduct of televangelists who appeal for repeated gifts from people in financial distress or personal crises , and he criticized the very loose requirements for entities to obtain tax exempt status as churches under U.S. tax law . Oliver said that he would ultimately donate any money collected by the church to Doctors Without Borders .
= = Notable works advocating prosperity theology = =
Notable works that advocate prosperity theology include :
Oral Roberts ; Montgomery , G. H. ( 1966 ) . God 's Formula for Success and Prosperity . Abundant Life Publication . OCLC 4654539 .
Gordon Lindsay ( 1960 ) . God 's Master Key to Prosperity . Christ For The Nations . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89985 @-@ 001 @-@ 6 .
Bruce Wilkinson ; Kopp , David ( 2000 ) . The Prayer of Jabez : Breaking Through to the Blessed Life . Multnomah Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57673 @-@ 733 @-@ 0 .
Joel Osteen ( 2004 ) . Your Best Life Now : 7 Steps to Living at Your Full Potential . FaithWords . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 53275 @-@ 4 .
Zig Ziglar ( 1975 ) . See You at the Top . Gretna : Pelican Pub . Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 88289 @-@ 126 @-@ X.
Zig Ziglar ( 2006 ) . Better Than Good : Creating a Life You Can 't Wait to Live . Nashville : Thomas Nelson Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7852 @-@ 8919 @-@ 7 .
Zig Ziglar ; Tom Ziglar ( 2012 ) . Born to Win : Find Your Success Code . Dallas : SUCCESS Media . ISBN 9780983156512 .
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= Newton House , Llandeilo =
Newton House is a Grade II * listed country house situated just to the west of the market town of Llandeilo in Carmarthenshire , Wales . It is owned and maintained by the National Trust and lies within Dinefwr Park ( sometimes anglicised as " Dynevor " ) and the grounds of Dinefwr Castle . The original house was built during the Medieval period on a site which has been occupied for at least two millennia . The current house was built by Edward Rice in the Jacobean style in 1660 , though extensive changes were made in the 1850s in the Venetian Gothic style . The house played a role in the Rebecca Riots of 1843 , when the occupant of the house at the time , Colonel George Rice , received a death threat with an empty grave dug in the ground . After 1956 the property fell into turbulent times when two owners died within the space of a few years . It was sold in 1974 , and later fell into disrepair ; it was occupied by squatters and thieves who removed beams and furniture .
The house , along with Dinefwr Castle , have since been restored by the National Trust and Cadw respectively . It is a three @-@ storey castellated structure , built from grey stone , with four tall towers in each corner , with sloping slate roofs . The front features a grand central porch . Two rooms are open to the public , including a tearoom and exhibition in the basement and ground floor which contain numerous displays related to the history of the estate and occupants . The deer park which surrounds the property was landscaped by Capability Brown in 1775 . The surrounding woodland consists mainly of oak and wych elm . Newton House is cited as one of the most haunted houses in Wales , noted in particular for its ghost of Walter the Butler , a former employee whose tobacco smoke purportedly wafts through the air .
= = History = =
Dinefwr Park has a history of occupation spanning at least two millennia . A polished stone axe dated to the Neolithic period was unearthed on the site in 1976 , and during the Iron Age , a farm existed on the property . The Romans later built a pair of forts here , with one partly overlying the other . There are traces of Roman roads and tracks , some of which may have been part of the Carmarthen @-@ Llandovery Roman road . A Roman milestone and a coin hoard were unearthed near Dinefwr Castle , and pieces of amphorae and Samian items have been excavated near Dinefwr Farm .
During the 12th century , Dinefwr Castle was built by Lord Rhys . The castle and grounds were seized by Henry VIII in 1531 , and the estate owners , who changed their family surname to Rice , subsequently had to buy back their property from the Crown . The family were elevated to the peerage of Great Britain as Baron Dynevor . Mary I is documented to have restored some of the land back to the Rhys family , but it was not until the reign of Charles I that the family fully regained their properties .
Newton House was originally built during the medieval period at some distance from the castle . It is documented to have been later modified in 1595 and 1603 . The current Newton House was completed in 1660 under the command of Edward Rice . In the late 1700s , George Rice and his wife Cecil began the construction of a landscape garden , and hired eminent architect Capability Brown in 1775 to assume responsibility for the development . Turrets and battlements were added between 1760 and 1780 , giving the property a more romanticised appearance . During the Rebecca Riots of 1843 , Colonel George Rice was awoken one night in September and found an empty grave dug in the grounds , warning him that he would be buried in it by October 10 .
Newton House fell into a turbulent period after the death of the 7th Baron Dynevor in 1956 . His son Charles Arthur Uryan , the 8th Baron , died just six years later , and most of the estate and a number of family 's assets had to be sold off to pay duties . In 1974 , the property was sold by the current Baron Dynevor , and later fell into disrepair : it was occupied by squatters and thieves who removed beams and furniture . The house , along with Dinefwr Castle , have since been restored by Cadw and the National Trust respectively . The National Trust acquired the deer park in 1987 and Newton House three years later .
= = Architecture = =
Edward Rice ordered the construction of a Jacobean house on the site of an earlier medieval mansion in 1659 , and it was completed the following year . Turrets and battlements were added between 1760 and 1780 . Though the property remains Jacobean , around 1856 , there were significant changes made in the Venetian Gothic style , which today emanate the ambiance of the Victorian period . The tower was added , and alterations were made by R.K. Penson of Oswestry . The National Trust writes of it : " Most of what you see of the grand building today dates back to the 1850s , when it was given a fashionable Gothic facelift , with stone cladding and four impressive turrets " . A limestone refacing occurred at the same time . Newton House is a Grade II * listed property , as are its summer house and the inner and outer courtyard ranges . The nearby dairy cottage , ha @-@ ha , dovecote , fountain , deer abattoir , icehouse , home farmhouse , corn barn and byre / stable range are Grade II listed in their own right .
Newton House is a three @-@ storey castellated structure , built from grey stone , with four tall towers in each corner , with sloping slate roofs . The front features a grand central porch . The authors of Carmarthenshire and Ceredigion consider the heavily decorated late 17th @-@ century ceilings of the house to be " the finest single architectural legacy among the country houses of the region " . As in Plas Taliaris and several other country houses in the county , the ceilings are panelled , with " thick moulded beams and wreaths in the panels and winged cherubs ' heads in the corners " . The entrance hall contains a columned Doric screen with a 19th @-@ century ribbed and bossed ceiling . The old dining room to the right of this features a coffered ceiling dated to the 17th century , containing " low plaster relief mouldings including guilloché , acanthus and egg and dart " . The chimney piece has been removed . The drawing room to rear of the property also features a richly adorned coffered ceiling with " frieze bearing rosette bands " and a " centre oval with bay leaf design " . The 17th @-@ century staircase features thick balusters and prominent finials , with foliage patterns ingrained in the plasterwork of the handrail . A billiard room was added to the house in 1896 . A strongroom with 18 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 46 cm ) walls and heavy steel fire @-@ proof doors was added in 1914 , for the Dynevors to keep their important documents and valuables . On the upper floors are rooms with 18th @-@ century fittings , including " panelled dados , lugged architraves , low relief plaster ceilings and closets within angled turrets " . The bedroom on the northeast of the house features a particularly detailed coffered ceiling with floral patterns .
The house contains several paintings of note , including William Powell Frith 's Mary , Queen of Scots Bidding Farewell to France ( 1561 ) and Godfrey Kneller 's portrait of the Bishop of Salisbury , William Talbot , dated to 1718 . Two showrooms at the house are open to the public . Aside from the tearoom , the exhibition in the basement and ground floor contains numerous displays related to the Rhys family , the history of the estate and World War II , and is designed as if the year is 1912 .
= = Park and garden = =
The house is surrounded by a deer park which was landscaped by Capability Brown from 1775 . He established a winding path , known as Capability Brown path , through the park and planted deciduous trees in key places to frame the house and castle . The deer park contains notable herds of rare White Park cattle and fallow deer . A small garden behind the house , overlooking the deer park , Moorish in style with a central fountain , has been restored to its former glory . Brown 's beech clumps survive in the present day .
Writing in 1862 , Benjamin Clarje considered the park to exhibit " perhaps a richer display of varied landscape than any spot of similar size in the kingdom " . He notes that the surface in the upper area of the park is " diversified by gentle undulations and has been planted with great judgment and taste " and that the River Towy flows in the vicinity . The Wildlife Trust West Wales acquired the nearby woodland in 1979 . The BBC 's Peter Crawford wrote of it in his book , The Living Isles : " The woodland is primarily oak and wych elm , " he writes . " The shrubs and ground cover are outstanding with cherry , holly , spindle , dog violet and the parasitic toothwort . Lichen communities are of importance and include the rare lungwort . Overlooked by the romantic Castle of Dinefwr the fine old parkland has a herd of fallow deer . The mature trees attract woodpecker , redstarts and pied flycatchers . In winter , the water meadows draw large numbers of ducks " .
= = Haunting = =
The National Trust states that Newton House is " thought to be one of the most haunted houses in Britain " , and Wales Online cites it as one of the most notable ghostly houses of Wales . Over the years , many ghost sightings or paranormal activity have been allegedly witnessed at the house . The servants ' basement is one of the purported centres of activity , with numerous sightings , particularly of a ghost known as Walter the Butler who worked at the house . People have reported smelling his tobacco smoke in the room , muffled voices and lights eerily turning on and off on their own accord . Visitors have reported feeling as if they are being choked when walking up and down the cantilever staircase ; this is believed to be related to the strangling of Lady Elinor Cavendish , the cousin of the lady of Newton House in the 1720s , by a lover whom she had rejected . The alleged hauntings at the property began to be investigated by television journalists in the 1980s , and on one occasion crewmen mysteriously fell ill one after the other while shooting there . During one investigation , the spectre of a young , beautiful girl was said to have glided across the room and disappeared through the cupboard door . The house was later the subject of an investigation in the 11th and 15th series of the Most Haunted programme .
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= Codex Zacynthius =
Codex Zacynthius ( designated by siglum Ξ or 040 in the Gregory @-@ Aland numbering ; A1 in von Soden ) is a Greek New Testament codex , dated paleographically to the 6th century . First thought to have been written in the 8th century , it is a palimpsest — the original ( lower ) text was washed off its vellum pages and overwritten in the 12th or 13th century . The upper text of the palimpsest contains weekday Gospel lessons ; the lower text contains portions of the Gospel of Luke , deciphered by biblical scholar and palaeographer Tregelles in 1861 . The lower text is of most interest to scholars .
The manuscript came from Zakynthos , a Greek island , and has survived in a fragmentary condition . It was brought to England in 1821 and transferred to Cambridge University in 1985 . It is often cited in critical editions of the Greek New Testament .
= = Description = =
The lower text of the manuscript contains fragments of the chapters 1 : 1 @-@ 11 : 33 of the Gospel of Luke . The codex comprises 86 thick , coarse parchment leaves and three partial leaves ; it measures 36 x 29 cm . The text was written in a single column with well @-@ formed uncial script . The letters are large , round and narrow , without spiritus asper , spiritus lenis , or accents . The manuscript was written by two scribes .
Abbreviations are rarely used in the codex . The handwriting is very close to that of the Rossano Gospels . The errors of itacism occur , but not so often as in Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus . It uses grammatical forms typical of the ancient manuscripts ( e.g. ειπαν , ηλθαν , ευραν ) , which are not used in later medieval manuscripts .
The codex uses a peculiar system of chapter divisions , which it shares with Codex Vaticanus and Minuscule 579 . A more common system divides chapters according to their titles . The capital letters at the beginnings of sections stand out in the margin as in the Codices Alexandrinus and Ephraemi .
The text is surrounded by a marginal commentary ; it is the only codex that has both text and commentary in uncial script . The commentary is a catena of quotations of nine church fathers : Origen , Eusebius , Titus of Bostra , Basil , Isidore of Pelusium , Cyril of Alexandria , Sever from Antioch , Victor from Antioch , and Chrysostom . The commentary surrounds the single @-@ column text of Luke on three sides . Patristic text is written in small uncial letters . Most of the quotations are those of Ciril of Alexandria ( 93 scholia ) ; next comes Titus of Bostra ( 45 scholia ) . The commentary was written in a different kind of uncial script than the biblical text .
= = = Contents = = =
The book contains the following chapters and verses of the Gospel of Luke : 1 : 1 @-@ 9 @,@ 19 @-@ 23 @,@ 27 @-@ 28 @,@ 30 @-@ 32 @,@ 36 @-@ 60 @,@ 77 ; 2 : 19 @,@ 21 @-@ 22 @,@ 33 @-@ 3 ; 3 : 5 @-@ 8 @,@ 11 @-@ 20 ; 4 : 1 @-@ 2 @,@ 6 @-@ 20 @,@ 32 @-@ 43 ; 5 : 17 @-@ 36 ; 6 : 21 ; 7 : 6 @,@ 11 @-@ 37 @,@ 39 @-@ 47 ; 8 : 4 @-@ 21 @,@ 25 @-@ 35 @,@ 43 @-@ 50 ; 9 : 1 @-@ 28 @,@ 32 @-@ 33 @,@ 35 ; 9 : 41 ; 10 : 18 @,@ 21 @-@ 40 ; 11 : 1 @-@ 4 @,@ 24 @-@ 33 .
= = = = Variations and omissions = = = =
Luke 9 : 55b @-@ 56a — καὶ εἶπεν , Οὑκ οἴδατε οἵου πνεύματος ἑστε ὐμεῖς ; ὀ γὰρ υἰὸς τοῦ ἁνθρώπου οὑκ ἦλθεν ψυχὰς ἁνθρώπων ἁπολέσαι ἁλλὰ σῶσαι ( and He said : " You do not know what manner of spirit you are of ; for the Son of man came not to destroy men 's lives but to save them ) is omitted , typical of Alexandrian text @-@ type , as in codices Sinaiticus B C Θ L 33 700 892 1241 syr , and copbo .
Luke 4 : 17 it has the textual variant καὶ ἀνοίξας τὸ βιβλίον ( and opened the book ) together with the manuscripts A , B , L , W , 33 , 892 , 1195 , 1241 , ℓ 547 , syrs , h , pal , and copsa , bo , against variant καὶ ἀναπτύξας τὸ βιβλίον ( and unrolled the book ) supported by א , Dc , K , Δ , Θ , Π , Ψ , f1 , f13 , 28 , 565 , 700 , 1009 , and 1010 .
Luke 9 : 10 it has the textual variant εις πολιν καλουμενην Βηθσαιδα ( to a city called Bethsaida ) , as do codices B , L , and 33 ; but later hand @-@ written in the margin εις τοπον ερημον πολεως καλουμενην Βηδσαιδα ( into a deserted place belonging to the city called Bethsaida ) .
= = Text @-@ type = =
The textual character of the codex is representative of the late Alexandrian text @-@ type , and is similar to the Codex Regius . Kurt and Barbara Aland gave the following textual profile of it : 21 , 82 , 21 / 2 , 3s . This means the text of the codex agrees with the Byzantine standard text 2 times , it agrees 8 times with the original text against the Byzantine and it agrees both with the Byzantine and original text 2 times . There are 3 independent or distinctive readings . On the basis of this profile Alands considered the quality of the text to suit his Category III . According to the Claremont Profile Method , it represents the Alexandrian text in Luke 10 and mixed Byzantine text @-@ type in Luke 1 , which probably indicates sporadic Byzantine corrections .
= = Palimpsest = =
The codex is a palimpsest , meaning that the original text was scraped off and overwritten and the parchment leaves folded in half . The upper text was written by a minuscule hand and contains lectionary 299 ( ℓ 299 ) from the 12th or 13th century , though the lectionary text is not complete ; it is written on 176 leaves ( 28 @.@ 7 cm by 18 @.@ 2 cm ) , in one column per page , 33 @-@ 36 lines per page . Three folios are only the lower halves of leaves , one folio was supplied with paper ( folio LXVIII ) . The manuscript contains weekday Gospel lessons ( Evangelistarium ) , but is lacunose . Tregelles did not collate its text because of its secondary value . Scrivener designated it by siglum 200 , Gregory by 299 .
Lectionary 299 in Mark 6 : 33 has textual reading ἐκεῖ καὶ προῆλθον αὐτούς along with Codex Sinaiticus , Codex Vaticanus , 0187 ( omit εκει ) , 892 , ℓ 49 , ℓ 69 , ℓ 70 , ℓ 303 , ℓ 333 , ℓ 1579 , ( ℓ 950 αυτους ) , itaur , vg , ( copsa , bo ) .
The text of the lectionary is cited in some critical editions of the Greek New Testament ( UBS3 ) in the following places : Matthew 10 : 4 ; 11 : 17 ; 12 : 47 ; 13 : 13 ; 14 : 22 ; 18 : 10 ; 22 : 30 ; 26 : 27 ; 28 : 9 ; Mark 1 : 27 ; 2 : 10 @.@ 26 ; 4 : 16 @.@ 20 ; 6 : 2 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 @.@ 33 . It is not cited in UBS4 .
= = History = =
= = = Dating = = =
Tregelles dated the manuscript to the 8th century . Tregelles was aware that the handwriting is typical for the 6th century , but the handwriting of the commentary is much older . The letters ΕΘΟΣ are round , high , and narrow , and could not have been written before the 8th century . C. R. Gregory supported Tregelles 's point of view . According to Nicholas Pocock , the manuscript could not have been written before the 6th century nor after the 8th century .
William Hatch in 1937 , on the basis of palaeographical data , suggested that the codex should be dated to the 6th century . It does not use breathings and accents and the text of the commentary is written in uncial script . Aland supported Hatch 's point of view . This date is accepted by the majority of scholars .
David C. Parker in 2004 argued that manuscript was written later the 6th century , because it has a small number of square letters , and the handwriting is not typical for the 6th century . Some letters were compressed ( Μ , Δ , Ε ) , the bar over the letter Τ is short and the letter Υ is written in several ways . According to Parker the manuscript should be dated to the 7th century .
Currently it is dated by the INTF to the 6th century .
= = = Discovery and further research = = =
The early history of the manuscript is unknown . In 1821 it was brought by general Colin Macaulay to England from the Greek island Zakynthos in the Ionian Sea . The manuscript was placed in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society ( Mss 24 ) in London .
Scholz saw the manuscript in 1845 , and Paul de Lagarde in 1853 , but they did not decipher it . The lower text of the codex was deciphered , transcribed , and edited by Tregelles in 1861 . Tregelles used types originally cast for printing the Codex Alexandrinus , which only approximately represented the shape of the letters of the codex . The hand @-@ written letters are smaller than the type . Tregelles included one page of typographical facsimile in this edition . He did not decipher the small Patristic writing and doubted that it could be read without chemical restoration .
Nicholas Pocock found errors in Tregelles ' edition , but William Hatch thought it satisfactory . J. Harold Greenlee corrected Tregelles ' errors and edited the list of corrections in 1957 , which was examined by William Hatch . In 1959 Greenlee published a commentary . The codex probably needs another examination with modern technology .
Tischendorf cited the codex in his Editio Octava Critica Maior in 564 places . It is often cited in the critical editions of the Greek New Testament ( UBS3 , UBS4 , NA26 , NA27 ) .
In 1985 it was moved to the Cambridge University Library ( BFBS Ms 213 ) . In December 2013 , the Bible Society announced plans to sell some manuscripts , among them the Codex Zacynthius , to raise funds for a Visitors Centre in Wales . The University was given right of first refusal and has until February 2014 to raise the money to acquire the codex .
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= Ernest Deane =
Ernest Cotton Deane MC ( 4 May 1887 – 25 September 1915 ) was a medical officer of the British Indian Army and an Irish international rugby player . Born in the city of Limerick , Ireland , he went to school in Kingstown ( present day Dún Laoghaire ) in County Dublin and then studied medicine at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland ( RCSI ) , graduating in 1909 . He was selected to play rugby for Ireland in one match , against England in February 1909 . His rugby career was cut short when he broke his leg in a match against Oxford University .
Deane was commissioned into the Royal Army Medical Corps in 1911 , after a period as house surgeon at the Adelaide Hospital , Dublin . In 1913 , he was posted to India and served in Burma . He was stationed in Meerut at the start of the First World War . From there , he travelled to France with the Garhwal Brigade of the Indian Expeditionary Force , landing in Marseille in September 1914 . He was deployed immediately to the Western Front , where he served first with the 20th Field Ambulance and then as medical officer of the 2nd Battalion , The Royal Leicestershire Regiment . His unit saw much active service . On 22 August 1915 , he was awarded the Military Cross after running out under machine gun fire to rescue four men who had been wounded by artillery fire . A month later , his regiment participated in the Battle of Loos , and was almost entirely obliterated . He was shot dead after going to help some injured soldiers : his action earned him a mention in despatches . Deane was one of 60 RCSI doctors to receive the Military Cross in the First World War , and one of 17 to be killed in action .
= = Early life = =
Ernest Deane , born in the city of Limerick , Ireland on 4 May 1887 , was the third of the four sons of Thomas and Aileen Deane of Kingstown ( present day Dún Laoghaire ) , County Dublin . He went to Corrig School , Kingstown , from 1901 to 1904 then went on to study medicine at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland from 1904 to 1909 . He became house surgeon at the Adelaide Hospital , Dublin .
= = = Rugby = = =
Deane was an all @-@ round sportsman , skilled in golf , lawn tennis , horse @-@ riding and shooting . Furthermore , at Corrig , Deane was captain of the school 's rugby XV , and later he captained the Adelaide Hospital XV , and the Monkstown XV . He was selected to play wing for Ireland in the match against England at Lansdowne Road , Dublin , on 13 February 1909 , which Ireland lost 5 – 11 . It was England 's first victory on Irish soil since 1895 . Deane 's opposite number that day was the New Zealand @-@ born Alexander Palmer of London Hospital FC , whose speed allowed him to get around Deane , and to score two of England 's three tries , and a conversion .
At the start of the next season , on 29 November 1909 , Deane was part of the Monkstown team to play Oxford University . During the game , he collided with Robert Bourne , breaking his own leg and bringing his rugby career to an end .
International appearance
= = Military service = =
At the start of the 20th century , many Irish doctors joined the British armed forces . Deane himself was commissioned temporary lieutenant in the Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) on 28 July 1911 , confirmed 9 February 1912 . In October 1913 , he went to India and served in Burma . He was stationed at Meerut when the First World War broke out . He went to France with the Garhwal Brigade of the 7th ( Meerut ) Division of the Indian Expeditionary Force , arriving in Marseilles on 26 September 1914 . He was attached to the 20th Field Ambulance , and later served as medical officer of the 2nd Battalion , The Royal Leicestershire Regiment , in active service on the Western Front .
A few days before he died , Deane was awarded the Military Cross , one of 60 awarded to RCSI doctors in the war . Frederick Conway Dwyer , president of the RCSI , proudly read out Deane 's citation in an address to students of the college , and commended recent licentiates to enter the RAMC . The citation in the Gazette said :
For conspicuous gallantry on 22nd August 1915 , near Fauquissart . A standing patrol 120 yards in front of our line was bombed by the enemy at about 10 p.m. , the only notification being two loud bomb explosions . Captain Deane , without any knowledge of the enemy 's strength , at once got over the parapet and ran by himself to the spot under rifle and machine gun fire . Finding four wounded men he returned for stretchers and got them back into safety . This is not the first time that Captain Deane 's gallantry under fire has been brought to notice .
On 25 September , Deane 's battalion , the 2nd Leicesters , took part in the Battle of Loos , in a diversionary attack by the Indian Corps to draw away German reserves from the main attack . According to the personal account of George Wilfred Grossmith , after the battle , the battalion ceased to exist , and most of the other regiments of the Meerut Division were decimated . The artillery bombardment prior to the infantry assault had failed to destroy all of the German barbed wire defences , and some men got caught up in them . Deane went to help . Returning across the open , he was killed instantly by a bullet to the head . His Colonel , who was himself badly wounded , wrote to his family saying :
He was the most gallant fellow I ever met , and we all loved him in the regiment , both officers and men . He was just a part of us , and the few of us left mourn his loss very deeply . We had a big battle on the 25th , and your son went out to try and help some wounded in and got killed . I believe his death was instantaneous , but I am not sure , as I was wounded myself , and had to be taken back . His body was recovered and was buried by our Padre , and I will give you exact location of cemetery afterwards . Everyone knew Deane as one of the bravest of the brave , and it was only the other day that he got one of the best deserved and gallantly won honours , when he was awarded the Military Cross .
Following this action , he was mentioned in despatches .
Captain Ernest Deane was one of 17 RCSI doctors killed in action during the war . He is buried at the Rue @-@ du @-@ Bacquerot No 1 Military Cemetery ( Grave II.D.14 ) , Laventie , France .
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= Kechewaishke =
Chief Buffalo ( Ojibwe : Ke @-@ che @-@ waish @-@ ke / Gichi @-@ weshkiinh – " Great @-@ renewer " or Peezhickee / Bizhiki – " Buffalo " ; also French , Le Boeuf ) ( 1759 ? – September 7 , 1855 ) was a major Ojibwa leader born at La Pointe in the Apostle Islands group of Lake Superior , in what is now northern Wisconsin , USA .
Recognized as the principal chief of the Lake Superior Chippewa ( Ojibwa ) for nearly a half @-@ century until his death in 1855 , he led his nation into a treaty relationship with the United States Government . He signed treaties in 1825 , 1826 , 1837 , 1842 , 1847 , and 1854 . He was instrumental in resisting the efforts of the United States to remove the Chippewa to western areas and secured permanent Indian reservations for his people near Lake Superior .
= = Background = =
= = = Political structure of the Lake Superior Ojibwa = = =
Kechewaishke was born around the year 1759 at La Pointe on Madeline Island ( Mooningwanekaaning ) in the Shagawamikong region . Now part of Wisconsin , La Pointe was a key Ojibwa village and trading center for the empire of New France , which was engaged in the Seven Years ' War with Great Britain at the time of Kechewaishke 's birth . Throughout the 18th century , the Ojibwa spread out from La Pointe into lands conquered from the Dakota people , and settled several village sites . These bands in the western Lake Superior and Mississippi River regions regarded La Pointe as their " ancient capital " and center for spirituality . It had also become a center of trade .
Traditional Ojibwa government and society centers around kinship clans , each of which was symbolized by animal doodem . Each doodem had a traditional responsibility within the tribe . Kechewaishke , or Buffalo as he was known to Europeans , belonged to the Loon clan .
The Loon Clan were said to have been rising in prominence in the middle of the 18th @-@ century due to the efforts of his grandfather Andaigweos ( Ojibwe : Aandegwiiyaas , " Crow 's Meat " ) . Andaigweos was born in the Shagawamikong region , son to a man described as " a Canadian Indian " ( i.e. a Saulteaux from Sault Ste . Marie , a key Ojibwa village at the eastern end of Lake Superior ) . At the time of first French contact in the mid @-@ 17th century , men of the Crane doodem held the positions of hereditary peace chiefs of Chippewa communities at both Sault Ste . Marie and La Pointe . Andaigweos was a skilled orator and favorite of the French officials and voyageurs . In that period , leaders of the Cranes were concerned more with internal matters . By the 19th century , it was Buffalo 's clan the Loons , rather than the Cranes , who were recognized as principal chiefs at La Pointe .
Although the Loons were afforded respect as principal peace chiefs , this status was not permanent . The Cranes , led in Buffalo 's time by his sub @-@ chief Tagwagane , maintained that they were the hereditary chiefs . They said the Loons ' status as spokesmen hinged upon recognition by the Cranes . A chief 's power in Ojibwa society was based on persuasion and consensus ; it was contingent , holding only as long as the community of elders , including the women , chose to respect and follow the chief 's lead .
= = = Personal life = = =
Sources conflict as to the identity of Buffalo 's father , who may also have been named Andaigweos . He appears to have been a descendant or relative of the famous war chief Waubojeeg . When he was about 10 , Buffalo and his parents moved from La Pointe to the vicinity of what now is Buffalo , New York , and lived there until about he was about 12 . The family then relocated to the Mackinac Island area for a while before returning to La Pointe . In his youth , he was admired as a skilled hunter and athlete .
Like many Anishinaabe people , Buffalo was known by more than one Ojibwe name : Peshickee ( Bizhiki : " the Buffalo " ) , and Kechewaishke ( Gichi @-@ weshkiinh : " the Great @-@ renewer " ) . This has caused confusion in records of his life not only because he carried two names , but also because both names were very similar to those of other prominent contemporaries . Bizhiki was the name of a chief from the St. Croix Band , and also of a warrior of the Pillager Chippewa Band ( see Beshekee ) . Additionally , a leading individual of the Caribou doodem , and a son of Waubojeeg , in the Sault Ste . Marie area was known by the name of Waishikey ( Weshki ) . Scholars have mistakenly attributed aspects of the lives of all three of these individuals to Buffalo of La Pointe .
In his long life , Buffalo had five wives and numerous children , many of whom became prominent Ojibwa leaders in the reservation era . He practiced the Midewiwin religion . He converted to Roman Catholicism on his death bed .
= = = Views on international relations = = =
Details on Buffalo 's early life are sparse . Although he appears to have been favored by British traders and decorated by British authorities , few Ojibwa from Lake Superior fought in either the American Revolution or the War of 1812 . There is no record of Buffalo participating .
When Tecumseh 's War broke out , Buffalo and a number of other young warriors from the La Pointe area abandoned the Midewiwin for a time to follow the teachings of the Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa . While en route to Prophetstown to join the attack on the Americans , they were stopped by Michel Cadotte , the respected Métis fur trader from La Pointe . Cadotte convinced Buffalo and the others that it would be fruitless to fight the Americans .
After that incident , Buffalo is recorded as using only peaceful tactics in his relations with the United States , though he often opposed US Indian policy . He also drew a contrast between himself and his contemporaries Aysh @-@ ke @-@ bah @-@ ke @-@ ko @-@ zhay and Hole in the Day , two Ojibwa chiefs from present @-@ day Minnesota , who carried out a long war against the Dakota Sioux people . Although Armstrong records Buffalo winning a large victory over the Dakota in the 1842 Battle of the Brule , 20th @-@ century historians have cast doubt on his account . That year Buffalo was recorded as saying he " never took a scalp in his life , though he had taken prisoners whom he fed and well @-@ treated . " Overall , he seems to have supported efforts at peace between the Ojibwa and Dakota .
Buffalo inherited not only the status afforded his family , but also had skills praised in his grandfather Andaigweos . Noted for his abilities in hunting and battle , it was through his speaking abilities that Buffalo was recognized as chief by his people . By the time the Ojibwa of Wisconsin and Minnesota started treaty negotiations with the US Government , Buffalo was recognized as one of the primary spokesmen for all the bands , not just for the Ojibwa from La Pointe .
= = Treaties of 1825 and 1826 = =
In 1825 , Buffalo was one of forty @-@ one Ojibwa leaders to sign the Treaty of Prairie du Chien , his name recorded as " Gitspee Waishkee " or La Boeuf . He is listed third after Shingabawossin , who was recognized as head of the Crane doodem at Sault Ste . Marie , and therefore of the whole Ojibwa nation ; and chief " Gitspee Jiuaba " . The treaty , which the US Government advanced as a pretext to end hostilities between the Dakota and their neighbors , required all American Indian tribes and bands in and around Wisconsin and Iowa to delineate where their territories began and ended . Although the treaty did not state this goal , the US used information acquired to negotiate to gain Indian lands and remove the nations westward .
A year later , the Treaty of Fond du Lac was signed at a meeting at the western edge of Lake Superior . The signatories were listed by band , and Buffalo , recorded as Peezhickee , signed as the first chief from La Pointe . The treaty , mainly dealing with mineral rights for Ojibwa lands in what is now Michigan , had little immediate effect but foreshadowed future treaties . Buffalo did not speak on the copper issue . He praised the US officials for their ability to keep their young people under their control ; he asked for whiskey to accomplish the same ends among the younger members of his band . When the agent presented him with a silver medal as a symbol of his chieftainship , he explained that his power stemmed from his clan and reputation , and not from anything received from the U.S. Government .
Shortly after the treaties , Henry Rowe Schoolcraft , acting in his capacity as US Indian agent , visited La Pointe . He reprimanded Buffalo for not stopping the continuing sporadic warfare between the Ojibwa and Dakota . Buffalo replied that he was unable to stop the young men of Lac Courte Oreilles , St. Croix , Lac du Flambeau or other bands beyond La Pointe from going against the Dakota . Historians take this to mean that while he was regarded as the head spokesman of the Ojibwa in Wisconsin , he could not control the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of all the bands , which were highly decentralized , particularly about warfare . Buffalo also said that , unlike the British before the War of 1812 , the U.S. Government had not done enough to help maintain the peace among the tribes .
= = Treaties of 1837 and 1842 = =
In the next decades , there was pressure from Americans who wanted to exploit the mineral and timber resources of Ojibwa country , and the US government sought to acquire control of the territory through treaties . The Treaties of 1837 and 1842 covered La Pointe and territories held by other bands over which Buffalo held considerable influence . In both treaties , Americans recognized Buffalo 's position as the principal chief of all the Lake Superior Chippewa .
= = = " Pine Tree " Treaty = = =
In the Treaty of St. Peters ( 1837 ) , the government sought the pine timber resources on Ojibwa lands . They intended to float the harvested timber southwest into the Mississippi River . The negotiations took place at Fort Snelling , near present @-@ day Minneapolis . The delegations from Minnesota and the St. Croix area arrived first and began discussions on July 20 . The assembled chiefs awaited the judgment of Buffalo before deciding to approve the treaty . Despite the impatience of the territorial governor , Henry Dodge , the negotiations were delayed for five days as the assembled bands waited for Buffalo to arrive . While other chiefs spoke about the terms of mineral rights and annuity amounts , Buffalo discussed treatment of the mixed @-@ blood traders , stating :
I am an Indian and do not know the value of money , but the half @-@ breeds do , for which reason we wish you pay them their share in money . You have good judgment in what you do , and if you do not act yourself , you will appoint someone else to divide it between the half breeds . ... I have good reasons for saying to you what I have just said ; for at a certain Treaty held heretofore , there were some who got rich while others received nothing .
Once the terms were agreed to , Buffalo marked and was recorded as Pe @-@ zhe @-@ ke , head of the La Pointe delegation . Although Buffalo and the other Lake Superior chiefs signed , they were said to be relatively silent compared with the Mississippi Chippewa chiefs during the negotiations . Historian Satz says this symbolized disagreement rather than acceptance of the terms of the treaty . Lyman Warren , a trader and interpreter from La Pointe , later complained that the Pillagers ( bands from present @-@ day Minnesota ) had been bribed into selling the lands rightfully belonging to the Wisconsin bands .
Buffalo expressed his misgivings over the treaty negotiations in a letter to Dodge stating ,
" The Indians acted like children ; they tried to cheat each other and got cheated themselves . When it comes my turn to sell my land , I do not think I shall give it up as they did . " Regarding possible future land cessions , he said : " Father I speak for my people , not for myself . I am an old man . My fire is almost out — there is but little smoke . When I sit in my wigwam & smoke my pipe , I think of what has past and what is to come , and it makes my heart shake . When business comes before us , we will try and act like Chiefs . If any thing is to be done , it had better be done straight . "
= = = " Copper " Treaty = = =
Five years later , Buffalo was presented with the Treaty of La Pointe covering his lands . Acting Superintendent of Indian Affairs Henry Stuart , who was promoting development of the Lake Superior copper industry , led the negotiations for the US government . No record of the negotiations was made . But materials written by missionaries , traders , and the Ojibwa through their agent indicated that Stuart used bullying and outright deception to force the Ojibwa to accept the terms .
Buffalo signed and was recorded as Gichi waishkey , 1st chief of La Pointe . Writing in 1855 , Morse describes Buffalo 's " voice so potent at the treaty of ' 42 . " However , three months after the treaty , Buffalo dictated a letter to the government in Washington D.C. , saying he was " ashamed " of the way the treaty was conducted . He said that Stuart had refused to listen to any objections by the Ojibwa , and that Buffalo wanted to add a provision to ensure permanent reservations for the Ojibwe in Wisconsin .
The interpretation of the 1837 and 1842 treaties remains ambiguous , as the US government claimed the Ojibwa ceded title to the lands , and the Ojibwa claiming they ceded only resource rights . The government had stated that the lands of the Ojibwa were unsuitable for farming and white settlement . The Ojibwa did obtain annuity payments to be paid each year at La Pointe , and reserved the right to hunt , fish , gather , and move across any lands outlined in the treaties . They obtained the promise that the nation would not be removed across the Mississippi River , unless they somehow " misbehaved . "
= = Threats of removal = =
In 1830 , President Andrew Jackson had signed the Indian Removal Act , which authorized the government to remove any Indian nations east of the Mississippi River across to the western side and offer land in exchange . As northern Wisconsin was not then under pressure for development by white settlers , as occurred in the Southeast , the Ojibwa were not among the first targets of the act . They watched closely as the government used the territorial claims defined by tribes in 1825 to force numerous tribes in Indiana , southern Michigan and southern Wisconsin to move west to Kansas , Iowa , Minnesota , and Indian Territory , present @-@ day Oklahoma . These included the Odawa and Potawatomi , two Anishinaabe tribes closely related to and allied with the Ojibwa .
In 1848 , Wisconsin achieved statehood ; Indian nations were under increased pressure for removal and marginalization . Corrupt US Indian agents controlled annuity payments , sometimes underpaying tribes , and took authority not granted them by the bands . They allowed white settlers to move onto Ojibwa lands and refused the Ojibwe the rights reserved by treaties . The Ojibwa complained to the President about the mistreatment and broken promises , but politicians were more apt to listen to western land speculators , who saw possibilities for profit in removing the Ojibwa to Minnesota .
Even with the treaties of 1837 and 1842 , leaders worried about Ojibwa removal . Buffalo kept in constant contact with the other bands to ensure the Ojibwa upheld their obligations . He sent runners to all the bands to report back on any conduct by the Ojibwa that could construed as grounds for removal . Nothing was reported . But , President Zachary Taylor signed the removal order on February 6 , 1850 , under corrupt circumstances , claiming to be protecting the Ojibwa from " injurious " whites . The Wisconsin legislature resisted the order and put aside plans for removal . Alexander Ramsey , the territorial governor of Minnesota , and Indian sub @-@ agent John Watrous conspired on a plan to force the Ojibwa to Minnesota anyway , as the two men stood to gain personal economic and political benefits from removal .
= = Sandy Lake Tragedy = =
To force the Ojibwa to comply , the subagent Watrous announced he would pay future annuities only at Sandy Lake , Minnesota instead of La Pointe , where they had been paid previously . This change resulted in the Sandy Lake Tragedy , when hundreds of Ojibwas starved or died of exposure in Minnesota and on the journey home because the promised annuity supplies were late , contaminated or inadequate .
In a later letter , Buffalo described the conditions :
And when a message was sent to me by our Indian agent to come and get our pay , I lost no time in arising & complying with my Agents voice and when I reached my point of destination , verily my Agent fed me with very bad flour it resembled green clay . Soon I became sick and many of my fellow chippewas also were taken sick , and soon the results were manifested by the death of over two hundred persons of my tribe , for this calamity , I laid blame to the provisions issued to us ...
Back in La Pointe , Buffalo took several actions to forestall and prevent removal . He and other leaders petitioned the US government for the next two years to no avail . They did win considerable sympathy from whites who learned of the debacle in Sandy Lake . Newspapers throughout the Lake Superior region ran editorials condemning the removal effort . Buffalo sent two of his sons to St. Paul , the state capital , where they obtained a portion of the annuities still owed .
Ramsey and Watrous continued to work to remove the Ojibwa to Sandy Lake . Watrous said they considered Sandy Lake a " graveyard , " but he still tried to move all the bands to Fond du Lac . Young Ojibwa men in Wisconsin were outraged at these developments and the threat of violent revolt grew . Buffalo called on the services of his well @-@ spoken sub @-@ chief Oshoga , and son @-@ in @-@ law Benjamin Armstrong , a literate white interpreter married to Buffalo 's daughter . He drew up a petition that the 92 @-@ year @-@ old Buffalo would personally deliver to the president in Washington .
= = Trip to Washington = =
After spring thaw in 1852 , the elderly Buffalo , Oshaga , Armstrong , and four others set out from La Pointe for Washington , D.C. by birch bark canoe . Along the way , they stopped in towns and mining camps along the Michigan shore of Lake Superior , securing hundreds of signatures in support of their cause . At Sault Ste . Marie , they were held by the US Indian agent , who told them that no unauthorized Ojibwa delegations could go to Washington and they had to turn back . The men pleaded the urgency of their case and traveled to Detroit by steamship . There another Indian agent tried to stop them . Once allowed to proceed , they sailed to Buffalo , New York and then on to Albany and New York City .
In New York City , the Ojibwe attracted attention , gaining publicity and money for their cause . In Washington , however , they were turned away by Indian Affairs , and told they should never have come in the first place . Luckily , they drew the attention of the Whig Congressman Briggs from New York , who was scheduled a meeting with President Millard Fillmore the next day . At the meeting , Buffalo rose first . He performed the pipe ceremony with a pipe made especially for the occasion . He had the younger chief Oshaga speak for more than an hour about the broken treaty promises and the disastrous attempt at removal . Fillmore agreed to consider the issues . The next day , he announced that the removal order would be canceled , annuity payments would be made at La Pointe , and another treaty would set up permanent reservations for the Ojibwe in Wisconsin .
The delegation traveled back to Wisconsin by rail , spreading the good news to the various Ojibwa bands as they went . Buffalo also announced that all the tribal representatives should gather at La Pointe for payments the next summer ( 1853 ) , and he would reveal the specifics of the agreement .
= = 1854 Treaty and Buffalo estate = =
As promised by Fillmore , treaty commissioners arrived in La Pointe in 1854 to conclude a final treaty . Recalling the experiences of 1837 and 1842 , the Ojibwa leaders sought to control the negotiations in 1854 . Ambiguity in those treaties had been partially to blame for ensuing problems , so Buffalo insisted he would accept no interpreter other than Armstrong , whom he referred to as his adopted son . The Ojibwa insisted on a guarantee of the right to hunt , fish , and gather on all the ceded territory , and on the establishment on several reservations across western Upper Michigan , northern Wisconsin , and northeastern Minnesota. in his mid @-@ nineties and in failing health , Buffalo directed the negotiations but left most of the speaking to other chiefs . He entrusted Armstrong with taking care of the details in the written version .
The reservations in Wisconsin were named the Lac Courte Oreilles Indian Reservation , Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation . The La Pointe Band was given a reservation at Bad River around the Band 's traditional wild ricing grounds , and some reserved land for fishing grounds at the eastern tip of Madeline Island . In Minnesota , the reservations for the Fond du Lac and the Grand Portage bands were established , with pending negotiations promised for the Bois Forte Band . In Michigan , reservations for the Lac Vieux Desert , Ontonagon and L 'Anse bands were established . The St. Croix and Sokaogon bands left the negotiations in protest and were excluded from the agreement .
A small tract of land was also set aside for Chief Buffalo and his family at Buffalo Bay on the mainland across from Madeline Island at a place called Miskwaabikong ( red rocks or cliffs ) . Many of the Catholic and mixed @-@ blooded members of the La Pointe Band elected to settle there around their chief rather than at Bad River . In 1855 , this settlement at the " Buffalo Estate " was acknowledged ; it was extended by executive order into what is now called the Red Cliff Indian Reservation .
= = Death and legacy = =
Chief Buffalo was too ill to participate in the speeches at the time of the annuity payments in summer 1855 . Tensions continued , as the Ojibwe accused US officials of corruption , threats of violence were made by members of the American Fur Company , and infighting erupted among the Ojibwa bands . Morse records that these conflicts worsened Buffalo 's condition . He died of heart disease on September 7 , 1855 , at La Pointe . Members of his band blamed his death on the conduct of the government officials .
He was described as " head and the chief of the Chippewa Nation " and a man respected " for his rare integrity , wisdom in council , power as an orator , and magnanimity as a warrior . " In his final hours he requested that his tobacco pouch and pipe be carried to Washington , D.C. and given to the government . His funeral was conducted in military fashion , with volleys fired at intervals in his honor .
Great Chief Buffalo is regarded a hero of the Lake Superior Ojibwe . Those at Red Cliff also remember him as a founding figure of the community . His life is celebrated during commemorations of the treaty signings and the Sandy Lake Tragedy . Missionary Edmund Ely identified Ojibwe chief John Little Wolf , or Maiingans , as one of Buffalo 's sons . He is buried in the La Pointe Indian Cemetery , near the deep , cold waters of Ojibwe Gichigami ( Lake Superior ) , the " great freshwater @-@ sea of the Ojibwa " . His descendants , many going by the surname " Buffalo , " are widespread in Red Cliff and Bad River . During the series of late 20th @-@ century treaty conflicts that have been called the Wisconsin Walleye War , beginning in 1983 , his name was frequently invoked as one who refused to give up his homeland and tribal sovereignty .
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= Captive Heart ( song ) =
" Captive Heart " is a song by American Tejano pop singer Selena . It was the second promotional single released from Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) , behind " God 's Child ( Baila Conmigo ) " . It was written by Mark Goldenberg and Kit Hain , and was produced by Guy Roche . Recording sessions took place at Selena 's father , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . ' s recording studio Q @-@ Productions and at several other locations . The song was given mixed reviews by music critics . " Captive Heart " is an electropop song performed in a rhythmical pop groove .
= = Production and composition = =
" Captive Heart " was recorded at Bananaboat Studios in Burbank , California in January 1995 , Q @-@ Productions in Corpus Christi , Texas and at Conway Studios in North Hollywood . It was written by Mark Goldenberg and Kit Hain , and was produced by Guy Roche . It was mixed by Nathaniel " Mick " Guzuaski , engineered by Mario Lucy , Brian " Red " Moore and Mona Suchard who also was credited at the assistant engineer . American singer Donna De Lory was the backing vocalist for " Captive Heart " . Recording sessions had taken nearly less than a week to complete the song .
" Captive Heart " is an Electropop song performed in a rhythmical R & B pop groove . It draws influences from synthpop , fast rock , dance @-@ pop and electronic dance music . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is composed in the key of D major with a time signature in common time , and with a moderate groove of 91 beats per minute .
= = Critical reception = =
Vibe editor Ed Morales compared both Evelyn " Champagne " King and " Wherever You Are " ( duet with the Barrio Boyzz ) with the song " Captive Heart " . While , according to the Chicago Tribune , " Captive Heart " was destined for urban @-@ contemporary radio . Leonard Charles of Miami Today , commented on " Captive Heart " ' s lack of impact on the Hot 100 , stating that the song would have been stronger if EMI Records had promoted the single extensively . Charles also commented that he believes that the record company didn 't put in much effort on the song but believed that EMI had only put in effort on singles " Dreaming of You " and " I Could Fall in Love " . Benson Ramos of The Gaston Gazette believed " Captive Heart " wasn 't " crossover potential " . Steven Washington of Aurora Sentinel praised the song 's " electronic feels " and " Latin flavors " that it brings to the song . Sabrina Moore of Corsicana Daily Sun , disliked the song because it felt " unoriginal " but commented that Selena could have done better in another Latin flavored ballad .
The Daily Vault believed Selena made a mistake with " Captive Heart " , stating that " the song was a surprising and painful flaw , because it showcases a mistake of exerting too much throat , which many popular singers currently do " . The Daily Vault instated that it was a one @-@ way ticket to voice destruction . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News stated while reviewing " I 'm Getting Used To You " that the songs " are a bit more uptempo , bordering on that New Jill Swing sound popularized by Mary J. Blige and Jade " .
= = Track listing = =
U.S. Promo Single ( 1995 )
" Captive Heart " – 4 : 23 @-@ 4 ; 18
U.S. Cassette Single ( 1995 )
" Captive Heart " – 4 : 23
= = Credits and personnel = =
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= Clive Mantle =
Clive Andrew Mantle ( born 3 June 1957 ) is an English actor . He is best known for playing general surgeon Dr Mike Barrett in the BBC hospital drama series Casualty and Holby City in the 1990s , and is also noted for his role as Little John in the cult 1980s fantasy series Robin of Sherwood .
Mantle was educated at Kimbolton School , Cambridgeshire between 1970 and 1975 and at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) between 1978 and 1980 . He appeared in 11 productions of the National Youth Theatre in five seasons between 1974 and 1978 , and began carving a successful career as a stage actor in the 1980s , alongside various television roles . In 1984 he was nominated for an Olivier Award and was joint Best Newcomer in the Plays and Players Awards for his performance as Lennie in Of Mice and Men . In 1984 he was also cast as Little John in the cult 1980s fantasy series Robin of Sherwood , a role which he considers the most enjoyable of his career and which has remained one of his best @-@ known roles . He was to appear as the first Nuclear Man in Superman IV : The Quest for Peace in 1987 , but his scenes were cut from the film ; they were later included with other deleted scenes when the film was released on DVD .
After playing several minor roles in other Hollywood films such as White Hunter Black Heart ( 1990 ) and Alien 3 ( 1992 ) , Mantle was cast as consultant Dr Mike Barrett in the BBC television hospital drama series Casualty . He became one of its most popular characters , renowned for his convincing and authoritative portrayal and " dishy doc " persona . He left Casualty in 1996 after appearing in 85 episodes between October 1992 and November 1996 , but after struggling with his acting career , he returned to the role in 1999 in Holby City , and appeared in another 32 episodes until 2001 .
On stage , Mantle has appeared in plays such as Coming Clean , A Streetcar Named Desire , and Educating Rita , and has continued his successful stage career since departing from Holby City . In 2003 he appeared in Rattle of a Simple Man ; in 2006 he played the part of The Narrator in The Rocky Horror Show ; and over the Christmas and New Year period of 2007 – 2008 , he portrayed the villain Abanazer in a pantomime production of Aladdin at the Theatre Royal in Bath . In 2010 he portrayed comedian Tommy Cooper in the stage entertainment show Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out with Tommy Cooper ; it was one of his most challenging roles , due to the various skills the performance required . More recently , Mantle has become known for his roles on television as Lord Greatjon Umber in HBO 's Game of Thrones and as Tony Curry , Ollie 's ( Will Mellor 's ) father , in the BBC 's White Van Man .
= = Early life = =
Mantle was born in Barnet , then in Hertfordshire , in 1957 . He was the cousin of John Hallam and was a keen supporter of Chelsea Football Club from a young age . Mantle studied at the boarding school Kimbolton School in Kimbolton , Huntingdonshire between 1970 and 1975 , and was a chorister in the Choir of St John 's College , Cambridge for four years . He first worked on a farm in Cambridgeshire during his studies and soon became interested in theatre . He appeared in 11 productions of the National Youth Theatre in five seasons between 1974 and 1978 .
As a student , Mantle lived in a basement flat in Islington . He trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) between 1978 and 1980 , where he initially found his towering height of 6 ' 5 ½ " ( 1 @.@ 97 m ) to be a hindrance to the sort of roles he could convincingly perform in his acting . He said that he was discouraged early on by people who said , " You 'll never work , you 're too tall to be an actor . "
He later said about his height :
Height is a very strange thing . If you 're literally playing the milkman or the butler or something like that , they 'll all think , " Now why is the butler so big ? There must be a reason – ah , he 's gonna come back later and kill somebody . " Then , you don 't . It worries an audience in a strange way if someone my height is playing a small part . I was an actor who needed drama school . I used to be so excited about being on stage that I would just run down to the front and shout ; they had to knock that out of me . Physically , just being six @-@ foot @-@ five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , I 'm not one of life 's gazelles . But having said that , I was made aware that I can be gazelle @-@ like if I so choose . If I hadn 't been to drama school , I would have just slouched around and bent over double and apologized for my height .
= = Career = =
= = = 1980s = = =
In 1980 , Mantle debuted on the screen with a small role as Ewen in Christian Marnham 's short thriller feature The Orchard End Murder . In 1981 , he appeared in the National Tours of The Ideal Gnome Expedition for David Wood 's Whirligig Theatre and Deborah Warner 's play , Woyzeck , which showed at the University Theatre during the Edinburgh Festival . In 1982 , he appeared in an episode of the TV series Minder , before taking on the voice of Private Smith in the animated military comedy series Jane . From 3 November 1982 , Mantle portrayed Jurgen opposite Eamon Boland , C. J. Allen , Philip Donaghy and Ian McCurrach in David Hayman 's award winning stage production of Coming Clean at the Bush Theatre in London .
In 1983 , Mantle was cast most notably in the cult fantasy series Robin of Sherwood as " Little John " , a legendary fellow outlaw of Robin Hood , who was said to be Robin 's chief lieutenant and second @-@ in @-@ command of the Merry Men , in a cast which included Michael Praed as " Robin Hood " , Peter Llewellyn Williams as " Much " , Ray Winstone as " Will Scarlet " , and Judi Trott as " Maid Marian " . Footage for the series was shot in rural Somerset and Wiltshire , with the Saxon Tithe Barn in Bradford @-@ on Avon functioning as the great hall of Nottingham Castle , Great Chalfield Manor in Melksham doubling as Maid Marion 's family home , and numerous battles were shot at Leaford Grange and Nettleton Mill near Castle Combe , locations which Mantle considered to be " wonderfully realised and breathtaking " . The waterfall scene for the quarterstaff battle between Robin and Little John in the first episode
" Robin Hood and the Sorcerer " was shot at Bowood House . Helen Phillips said of his performance as Little John , " excellently played by Clive Mantle , the series ' John at first appears to conform to a , by then , well- established stereotype . " Mantle has said of his role :
It is the job I 've enjoyed doing more than anything else on TV . I have the greatest memories of beautiful , halcyon days @-@ out filming on location and we had such a great , fun crew working on the show . We still get together once a year . Not just the cast but also the directors , producer , props guys , it 's like a family ! I think the key to part of the series ' success was that this great camaraderie came across on screen .
In 1984 he was nominated for an Olivier Award and was joint Best Newcomer in the Plays and Players Awards for his performance as Lennie in Of Mice and Men . Following the success of the play , it was transferred from the Nuffield Theatre in Southampton to the Mermaid Theatre in London . He went on to tour extensively as Lennie in Of Mice and Men , and has appeared in 6 different productions of the play . He also played Little John in the theatrical production of Robin Hood at the Young Vic Theatre ; and Mitch in Tim Albery 's production of A Streetcar Named Desire at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield . Other theatrical credits include The Relapse ; The Red Devil Battery Sign ; King John ; Johnny Johnson ; The Ideal Gnome Expedition ; East ; Blood on the Neck of the Cat and Bedroom Farce . He has also appeared as the guest star at the Wyndham 's Theatre and Theatre Royal Bath , in the award winning production of The Play What I Wrote . In 1984 , Mantle was one of four in the live BBC radio comedy show In One Ear. with Nick Wilton , Helen Lederer and Steve Brown . He transferred to TV with a version of it in 1987 called Hello Mum which was also live . In 1986 , Mantle replaced Alan Rickman as Achilles in Howard Davies 's Royal Shakespeare Company production of Troilus and Cressida at the Barbican Theatre in London . London Theatre Record said that Mantle " gives a curious performance : virtually a mirror @-@ image of Ajax in his nasal , bovine stolidity . " He continued with minor screen roles as a ruffian on a bus in Ronald Neame 's film Foreign Body and as " Big Ben " Davis in Dempsey and Makepeace in 1986 . He was to appear as the first Nuclear Man in Superman IV : The Quest for Peace ( 1987 ) , but the role was left on the cutting room floor . Some of his deleted footage from Superman IV was released on DVD in a Special Edition as part of Superman Ultimate Collector 's Edition in November 2006 . The footage was included as " Additional Scenes " but was not reincorporated into the main feature . In 1987 – 1998 he appeared in two episodes of Smith & Jones , and in 1989 played a policeman in the TV series The Return of Shelley and had a small role as Johnny Ladder in the Menahem Golan @-@ directed film Mack the Knife , a 19th @-@ century set crime comedy which starred Raúl Juliá , Richard Harris , and Julia Migenes in the leading roles . He also appeared in the radio plays Farewell , My Lovely ; Frozen Assets ; and The Rise and Fall of the Romanov Autocracy .
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1990 , Mantle had a small role as an electric meter reader in the One Foot in the Grave episode " The Return of the Speckled Band " , and played Harry , a man who " gave Clint Eastwood a pounding " in White Hunter Black Heart . In 1991 , Mantle played an irate husband whose wife is chatted up by Richie ( Rik Mayall ) in the first episode of Bottom , " Smells " , and also had a role as a police inspector in an episode of Drop the Dead Donkey . In 1991 – 92 he played Dave in Sandi Toksvig 's The Pocket Dream at the Nottingham Playhouse and Albery Theatre in London . In 1992 he played a minor character as a bald monk in the film Alien 3 , in which he had to shave his head for the role . In applying for the film , Mantle sent off photographs of himself from a RADA play he had once starred in , sporting a similar shaven look . In an interview at the time , he spoke of his role in Alien 3 :
I 'm playing a heinous criminal . In fact , there are about 12 or 15 of us , the last remaining prisoners on a prison asteroid , which is hurtling through space . It was a hard labour prison , which is about the best place to send all your hardened , nastiest pieces of work . We 're not nice people .
Also in 1992 , he starred in the CITV series WYSIWYG .
Mantle is best known for his long stint as general surgeon Dr Mike Barrett in 85 episodes of the TV series Casualty from October 1992 to November 1996 , and 32 episodes of Holby City between 1999 and 2001 . He previously appeared in Casualty as the brother of a patient in 1988 . Mantle received much acclaim for his role and was one of the show 's most popular characters . He was praised for being entirely convincing as a hospital consultant and very dominant and authoritative in his role , " shouting orders in incomprehensible hospital @-@ speak . " Daily Mirror described him as a " heart @-@ throb consultant " and said that the role brought him " an army of female fans " . A 2001 poll by the Scottish Sunday Mail voted him 7th on a list of Top " 10 heart @-@ throb docs on the box " in a list which included the likes of George Clooney and Goran Višnjić . Mantle has said that during his role as the doctor he received a lot of fan mail , some of which were medically related and asking for his advice , believing him to be a real doctor , but professed that he couldn 't even stand the sight of real blood . He has said , " It 's funny because people always treat me like a doctor . Not a day goes by without someone coming up to me and asking me for advice . " In 1996 , he turned down an offer of £ 250 @,@ 000 to continue playing the character , and last appeared in Casualty in November 1996 . He said of his departure :
I 've had a great time , but I 'm frightened that , if I stick around too long , I 'll end up unable to do anything else . It 's not about money , it 's about doing other things and not wanting Mike to pale into insignificance .
In 1995 , Mantle was honoured with a surprise This Is Your Life edition , presented by Michael Aspel ; the title theme drew upon the " Robin of Sherwood " , after his role as Little John . During the life tribute , Mantle met his heroes from Worcestershire County Cricket Club , and the Chelsea FA Cup winners from 1970 .
In 1994 he played a prophet in Jo Brand Through the Cakehole , and in 1995 he performed on stage as Frank in Educating Rita , a No.1 National Tour . In 1996 he visited Ghana on an eight @-@ day tour for the charity Save The Children . Mantle was a friend of Jill Dando , and played the prosecuting barrister in a TV dramatisation of the trial of Barry George in a Tonight With Trevor McDonald special , Nothing But The Truth .
In 1997 , Mantle was cast opposite Sarah Lancashire as Jack Deakin in the comedy series Bloomin ' Marvellous , written by playwright John Godber , described as " a comedy about a couple who decide to start a family . " The series was panned by most critics , and Mantle sarcastically remarked that " I 've seen murderers and rapists get a better press than we did . " However , several critics , such as Brian Viner of The Mail on Sunday , said that Bloomin ' Marvellous had " charm , top @-@ notch acting and a reasonable sprinkling of laughs , none of which are certainties in television comedy – especially the laughs . "
In 1998 , he appeared in Stephen Daldry 's production of The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists at the Liverpool Playhouse and the Theatre Royal Stratford East theatres . In 1998 @-@ 9 he portrayed Simon Horton , younger brother of David Horton in the British sitcom The Vicar of Dibley for two episodes ; Stevyn Colgan said that his imposing height was " used to great comic effect " in this role when he became the love interest of 5 ' 0 " ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) tall Reverend Geraldine Granger ( Dawn French ) . From March 1999 , Mantle played Victor in Jan Sargent 's production of The Price at the Bristol Old Vic . Ian Shuttleworth of the Financial Times describes Mantle 's Victor as a character who " sacrificed a promising academic career in science to become a cop on the beat simply in order to keep his shattered father " and said that " Clive Mantle expresses his obstinacy through gritted teeth and cold , civil smiles rather than letting it loose " , also remarking that both he and his wife Esther ( played by Susan Wooldridge ) seemed several years too young for their roles . In May 1999 , Mantle , a cricket fan , agreed to participate in a celebrity international cricket tournament with the likes of Caprice Bourret , Rory Bremner , Ainsley Harriott , Lawrence Dallaglio , Lesley Garrett , Barry Norman , and Robbie Earle , and played Sri Lanka on 14 May 1999 .
= = = 2000s = = =
After experiencing mixed fortunes in his acting career after leaving Casualty , Mantle agreed to return to the role as Dr Mike Barrett in Holby City in 1999 . His abilities as a dramatic actor were praised by Christopher Matthew of the Daily Mail who said in 2000 , " Even the great Mike Barratt ( Clive Mantle ) , a dynamo in his Casualty days , manages to make eating a yoghurt seem like high drama . " Claire Stoker of Liverpool Echo said that " Clive will always be the best consultant Holby had ever had . " Mantle finally left his role in Holby City after 32 episodes in 2001 . That year , Mantle participated in a charity trek of the Annapurna circuit in the Himalayas and to Everest Base Camp , reaching 18 @,@ 420 ft in aid of Hope and Homes for Children . In 2002 , Mantle appeared in an episode of Heartbeat .
In 2003 , Mantle played Maynard in Ben Bolt 's TV movie , Second Nature , which starred Alec Baldwin in the leading role , and appeared in the first episode of the series Fortysomething . He portrayed Percy , described as a " big , bashful Northern mill @-@ worker who lives with his mum " , in Patrick Sanford 's stage production of Rattle of a Simple Man at the Clwyd Theatr Cymru in Mold , Flintshire . Gail Cooper of the Western Mail praised his performance and said :
Mantle , better known as dishy and confident consultant Mike Barrett in Casualty , is cast completely against type as Percy , the 42 @-@ year @-@ old virgin who admits to being only 35 . His body language is superb : awkward , self @-@ effacing , obsessively tidy – Coronation Street fans should think Roy Cropper if they want to imagine the sort of man Percy is .
In 2003 , Mantle began filming The Bingo Club , one of five specially commissioned one @-@ hour plays which were screened in January 2004 on BBC1 . Co @-@ starring Paula Wilcox and John McArdle , The Bingo Tales relates the story of three women facing romantic hardship and growing old . During production , Mantle fell on his face while shooting a fencing scene and was rushed to Selly Oak Hospital with a ruptured ligament in his leg .
In 2004 , Mantle appeared in an episode of The Afternoon Play , and in 2005 appeared in John Putch 's two @-@ part TV movie The Poseidon Adventure , opposite Adam Baldwin , Steve Guttenberg and Rutger Hauer . The film was dismissed by one critic as " criminally unimaginative " . He also appeared in an episode of Doctors . In 2006 , he guest @-@ starred in the Doctor Who audio drama The Settling by Big Finish Productions , and had a role in Simon Shore 's TV movie about a boy with autism , After Thomas , He toured as " The Narrator " in The Rocky Horror Show , and also played Brauner opposite Robin Hood 's Michael Praed in Haymarket Productions 's National Tour of Brian Stewart 's Killing Castro . The play was performed at the Festival Theatre in Malvern in June 2006 , and was described by the Birmingham Mail as an " acclaimed comedy " which " chronicles the more bizarre of America 's attempts to kill the Cuban leader Fidel Castro – including filling his shoes with poison and inventing an exploding cigar . " Over the Christmas and New Year period of 2007 and 2008 , Mantle portrayed the villain Abanazer in a pantomime production of Aladdin at the Theatre Royal in Bath , described as an attempt by a theatre spokesman for Mantle to " throw off his gentle giant persona and transform himself into a classic panto baddie for the audience to boo and hiss wildly . " He performed in 64 shows over the duration of five and a half weeks . In 2008 , he appeared in an episode of The Invisibles , opposite Anthony Head , Warren Clarke and Jenny Agutter . In 2009 , Mantle had minor roles in Lucy Akhurst 's Morris dancing comedy Morris : A Life with Bells On and in the Thaddeus O 'Sullivan historical biopic of Sir Winston Churchill , Into the Storm , co @-@ starring Iain Glen , Brendan Gleeson , and James D 'Arcy .
= = = 2010s = = =
In 2010 , Mantle portrayed Tommy Cooper in the successful stage entertainment show Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out With Tommy Cooper , which appeared at the Edinburgh Festival . To train for the role , Mantle mastered many of Cooper 's magic tricks , studying under Geoffrey Durham for several months . Mantle was thrilled to take on the role as Cooper is his ultimate comic hero , saying " It 's such a big privilege playing Tommy – I genuinely love the man . He is one of the funniest comedians this country has ever produced . So this whole tour for me is just an immense thrill . " Mantle considered the role highly challenging , given that he had to combine several aspects of skill , from the magic tricks to the joke @-@ telling , the physical comedy , and emulating the distinctive voice . Some people initially questioned the suitability of Mantle for the character , given that he was well known for playing a solemn doctor in Casualty , but he and the play were warmly received by critics . South Wales Echo called it a " compelling , funny and moving play " and said " Clive , best known for his role as Dr Mike Barratt in Casualty , has had to get used to wearing a fez and conjuring up some magic for his title role of Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out With Tommy Cooper . "
In 2011 he took a supporting role in the TV series White Van Man as Tony Curry , father of the central character , Ollie " Rogan " Josh Curry , played by Will Mellor . He also has an ongoing role in HBO 's Game of Thrones as Lord Greatjon Umber , a close ally of Robb Stark , and has provided the voice to the audio editions of Andy McNab 's Nick Stone thrillers . In 2012 , Mantle appeared in the Sherlock episode " The Hounds of Baskerville " as Dr Frankland .
In 2013 , Mantle performed in the black comedy The Ladykillers , playing the part of Major Courtney . He was forced to withdraw from the touring production in March 2013 after he was attacked at the Travelodge hotel in Newcastle . On the night of Saturday 23 March , he became involved in a brawl after asking a group of fellow guests to keep the noise down , during which part of his right ear was bitten off . He had to have emergency surgery at the Royal Victoria Infirmary hospital to have it sewn back on . A 32 @-@ year @-@ old man from Hamilton , South Lanarkshire was charged over the incident and appeared before a magistrate in April 2013 , and another man was released on bail in connection to the incident ; a third man has been released without charge . In June 2014 the two accused were found not guilty of all charges .
In 2014 Mantle supplied the voice of Gator in the eighteenth season of the British children 's television series Thomas & Friends as well as its sixth CGI animated film Tale of the Brave . He voiced Gator in both British and American dubbed versions .
= = Filmography = =
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= Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru ( 処女はお姉さまに恋してる , lit . The Maidens Are Falling in Love with Me ) , commonly known as Otoboku ( おとボク ) , is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Caramel Box and released on January 28 , 2005 playable on Windows PCs . The game was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) with the adult content removed . The Windows version was released in English by MangaGamer in 2012 . The story follows the life of Mizuho Miyanokouji , an androgynous male high school student , who transfers into an all @-@ girls school due to his grandfather 's will .
The gameplay in Otoboku follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the six female main characters by the player character . The game ranked as the second best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Caramel Box went on to produce two fan discs released in 2005 and 2007 in Caramel Box Yarukibako and Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 , respectively . Caramel Box later produced a sequel to Otoboku titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder released on June 30 , 2010 playable on Windows PCs . Futari no Elder was ported to the PSP with the adult content removed . The story follows Chihaya Kisakinomiya , an androgynous male , who transfers into the all @-@ girls school that was the setting of Otoboku .
A manga adaptation of Otoboku was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Daioh , and a manga adaptation of Futari no Elder was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace . Comic anthologies , light novels and art books were also published , as were audio dramas and several music albums . A 12 @-@ episode Otoboku anime produced by Feel aired in Japanese between October and December 2006 , and an extra original video animation ( OVA ) episode was released in April 2007 . Media Blasters licensed the anime and released the series in three DVD volumes . The Otoboku anime was generally panned in reviews at Anime News Network where the series was described as " cruelly unimaginative " with " obnoxious quirks and technical shortcomings . " In a review of the anime by Mania Entertainment , the series is thought to be " very predictable and bland . " A three @-@ episode OVA adaptation of Futari no Elder produced by Silver Link was released between August and October 2012 .
= = Gameplay = =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Mizuho Miyanokouji . Its gameplay requires little player interaction as much of the game 's duration is spent on reading the text that appears on the screen , which represents the story 's narrative and dialogue . Otoboku follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . Every so often , the player will come to a point where he or she is given the chance to choose from multiple options . Text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . Each scenario is divided into eight episodes , one interlude episode and an epilogue . At the end of an episode , an announcement of the next episode appears showing a preview of what is to consist in the next episode . Each episode takes place within the span of one month between June and March from episode one through the epilogue . The interlude episode is placed between the second and third episodes .
In the adult versions of the game , there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Mizuho and a given heroine having sex . When the game was ported to the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) console , the gameplay was somewhat altered . The PS2 version , and later the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version , both had the sexual content removed , and in these versions there is no evidence that physical relationships actually take place between any of the students .
There are ten additional sub episodes and a special sub episode . The CD and DVD Windows editions contain four sub episodes , the fan disc Caramel Box Yarukibako contains four sub episodes and a special episode , Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 contains two sub episodes , and the PS2 version contains six sub episodes , though the order in which they appeared was altered .
In Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder , the player assumes the roles of the main protagonist Chihaya Kisakinomiya and the secondary character Kaoruko Nanahara . There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . In the adult versions of Futari no Elder , there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Chihaya and a given heroine having sex . The gameplay is somewhat altered in the PSP version . The PSP version has the sexual content removed , the scenarios of Utano Sasou and Kaori Kamichika that appeared in the Windows version are removed , and it contains newly added scenarios of You Kashiwagi and Hatsune Minase . There are three additional sub episodes in the Windows version of Futari no Elder .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The primary setting is at a private all @-@ girls school named Seio Girls ' Academy , also called Seio Jogakuin Christian Education , which was founded in 1886 by Mizuho 's ancestor . Seio was originally named Keisen Girls ' Academy ( 恵泉女学院 , Keisen Jogakuin ) , which was used in original Windows version , the drama CD of the visual novel , and for the Caramel Box Yarukibako fan disc . This name was later ascertained to be similar to a name of an actual school , and the school 's name was changed to Seio Girls ' Academy ( 聖應女学院 , Seiō Jogakuin , 聖応女学院 as written in PlayStation 2 version ) . Seio is used in the PlayStation 2 version , DVD Windows edition , Caramel Box Yarukibako Fukkoku @-@ ban and anime series . The secondary setting is at a dormitory building named Sakura @-@ yakata ( 櫻館 ) , which Mizuho , Mariya , Yukari and Kana are boarding at . There are four other former dormitories named Tsubaki @-@ yakata , Enoki @-@ yakata , Hisagi @-@ yakata and Hiiragi @-@ yakata .
= = = Main characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Mizuho Miyanokouji , the protagonist of Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru . He is a kind high school student who impersonates a girl at an all @-@ girls school , which he transfers into per his grandfather 's will . He spends his time with many fellow attendees , some of which live in the nearby dormitory , and enjoys helping them with any problems they may have . His childhood friend Mariya Mikado attends the school with him , and helps in his female transition . She has a spirited personality with a bit of a temper , and has been a support for Mizuho in the past . Mizuho meets a classmate named Shion Jujo who has a silent voice and demeanor ; she quickly figures out that Mizuho is actually a boy , but tells no one . The previous year , she had to be hospitalized soon after she was elected as the Elder due to an illness .
At the dormitory lives an energetic first @-@ year student named Yukari Kamioka . She is on the track and field team along with Mariya , who is her Oneesama ( お姉さま , meaning " Older sister " ) , and has low confidence in her ability to run . Another first @-@ year at the dormitory named Kana Suoin meets Mizuho on the day he moves in , and soon after Mizuho becomes her Oneesama . Kana is more than happy to serve Mizuho any way she can , since she admires him immensely . A hyperactive ghost resides in Mizuho 's room named Ichiko Takashima and is shown to speak very fast when excited . She says that Mizuho looks very much like her previous Elder love interest , who turns out to be Mizuho 's deceased mother . The student council president at Seio is Takako Itsukushima who tends to have a serious personality .
= = = Story = = =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru revolves around the main protagonist Mizuho Miyanokouji , a male high school student . After Mizuho 's grandfather dies , his will is reviewed , which explains his desire to have his grandson transfer to Seio Girls ' Academy , the same one his own mother attended and his ancestors founded . Abiding by the will , Mizuho cross @-@ dresses to attend the school . The headmistress , the deputy head teacher ( visual novel only ) , Mizuho 's homeroom teacher Hisako Kajiura and Mariya Mikado initially know his secret ; Shion Jujo and Ichiko Takashima also eventually find this out . Mizuho is very popular among the other students , who often talk about how pretty , nice , and athletic Mizuho is . This rampant popularity escalates to him even being nominated against his will to join in on the Elder election . By these terms , the current student council president , Takako Itsukushima , runs against Mizuho .
The Elder election is an old tradition at Seio Girls ' Academy where every June one of the students is elected by her peers to be the " Elder " , who is seen as the number one " Elder Sister " in the school . Until her graduation , she is referred to by her peers as Onee @-@ sama ( お姉さま ) . To become an Elder , a candidate must gain at least 75 % of the votes . If none of the candidates get at least 75 % in the first round of voting , one of the candidates hands over her votes to another candidate , and the candidate who finally obtains at least 75 % of the votes becomes the Elder . If there is no one else in the election , the current year 's student council president becomes the Elder . In Otoboku , Mizuho gains 82 % of the votes in the first round , effectively becoming the 72nd Elder in the school 's history . After becoming Elder , Mizuho progressively gets more popular among the student body since he is now a symbol of the school 's excellence . In the following months , Mizuho starts to get to know some of the girls better and helps them with their problems .
= = = = Futari no Elder = = = =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder is written from the viewpoints of main character Chihaya Kisakinomiya and secondary character Kaoruko Nanahara . Futari no Elder begins about two years after Mizuho 's graduation . The main protagonist Chihaya Mikado was truant at his school because of harassment in the school and of a distrust in men . His mother cannot bear to watch him be in trouble , so she makes him transfer to Seio Girls ' Academy , her old school . He dresses as a girl and introduces himself as Chihaya Kisakinomiya . Chihaya meets another protagonist Kaoruko Nanahara , who once rescued him from a playboy , and he begins to live in the dormitory building . He becomes the focus of public attention due to his attractive face and figure , and due to high grades at studies .
In the 75th Elder election , there are four finalists ; Hatsune Minase hands over her votes to Kaoruko and Makiyo Shingyouji hands over her votes to Chihaya . Then Chihaya and Kaoruko gain the same votes of 368 together . Though a candidate which gains 75 % or more of the votes becomes the Elder , Hatsune , as the student council president , proposes that both Chihaya and Kaoruko become the Elders ; the motion is adopted unanimously . This is the first time there have been two Elders in the history of Seio Girls ' Academy .
= = Development = =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru is the fourth visual novel developed by Caramel Box . The scenario is written by Aya Takaya , and this was the first time Takaya was staffed on a Caramel Box game . Art direction and character design is done by Norita , who was staffed on Caramel Box 's debut release Blue as an artist . The super deformed illustrations featured in Otoboku were drawn by the game illustrator Yoda . The music was composed by the music team Zizz Studio .
The original title uses the kanji 処女 ( shojo ) , which means " virgin " , but is very close to the word for " young lady " , shōjo . The creators added furigana subscript to indicate they wanted it read " otome " meaning " young maiden " . Additionally , furigana was added above お姉さま ( onee @-@ sama ) to indicate that they wanted it read " boku " . Despite the different kanji , the official reading is " Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru " . When the game was ported to the PlayStation 2 , it was rewritten as 乙女はお姉さまに恋してる with the same pronunciation of " Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru " , which uses the actual " otome " ( 乙女 ) kanji . The latter name was kept for the manga and anime releases .
= = = Release history = = =
A free game demo of Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru can be downloaded at the game 's official website . The game was released as an adult game on January 28 , 2005 as a limited edition , playable on a Windows PC as a 2 @-@ disc CD @-@ ROM set . The limited edition came bundled with a special story book entitled Tsunderera . The regular edition was released on February 18 , 2005 , and one select lot of this version contained a limited edition sticker . An updated version with full voice acting was released on April 28 , 2006 as a DVD . Another updated version compatible for Windows Vista / 7 was released on May 27 , 2011 . The Windows version of Otoboku was released in English by MangaGamer on November 23 , 2012 .
Caramel Box released a fan disc of Otoboku on June 24 , 2005 in a collection called Caramel Box Yarukibako , which contained additional scenarios that furthered the story from the original visual novel ; the fan disc came with a small figurine . The collection was re @-@ released under the title Caramel Box Yarukibako Fukkoku @-@ ban on January 26 , 2007 . A second fan disc was released on October 19 , 2007 in the collection Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 , which again contained additional scenarios . Alchemist released a PlayStation 2 port on December 29 , 2005 , which removed the adult elements of the game . Additional scenarios were included in the PS2 version written by Kiichi Kanō . A version of the adult game featuring only Sion 's scenario playable on iOS devices was released in six volumes between March 29 and June 4 , 2010 . A PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Portable was released on April 29 , 2010 by Alchemist .
= = = Sequel = = =
A sequel to the visual novel titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder ( 処女はお姉さまに恋してる ～ 2人のエルダー ～ ) was released as an adult game on June 30 , 2010 as a limited edition , playable on a Windows PC as a DVD . The same staff that worked on Otoboku returned for the sequel . The limited edition came bundled with a 96 @-@ page guide book , an original card from the Lycèe Trading Card Game , and an original pouch . A free game demo of Futari no Elder can be downloaded at the game 's official website . The regular edition was released on July 30 , 2010 . Settings and characters from Sakura no Sono no Étoile , a novel written by the scriptwriter of Otoboku as a sequel to Takako 's story , appear in Futari no Elder . Also , the release date of June 30 coincides in @-@ story with the day of the election day of the 75th Elder sister . A PSP version titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Portable : Futari no Elder was released on April 28 , 2011 by Alchemist . A downloadable version of the PSP release via the PlayStation Store was released by Alchemist on December 1 , 2011 .
= = Related media = =
= = = Novels = = =
Two novels written based on the original game written by Saki Murakami and published by Paradigm were released in Japan in June and August 2005 . The first released was Toraware no Himegimi : Sion @-@ hen ( 囚われの姫君 ～ 紫苑編 ～ , Imprisoned Princess : Sion Chapter ) centering on Sion , with the second entitled Tomadou Juliet : Takako @-@ hen ( とまどうジュリエット ～ 貴子編 ～ , Perplexed Juliet : Takako Chapter ) centering on Takako . These novels contain erotic content . A single volume titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru written by Chihiro Minagawa with accompanying illustrations by Ume Aoi was published by Jive in August 2005 , and centers on Takako 's scenario . Sion 's scenario was ported to the iPhone as an e @-@ book between March 29 and June 4 , 2010 by DML . A semi official dōjin novel was written by the original scenario writer for the game , Aya Takaya , called Sakura no Sono no Étoile ( 櫻の園のエトワール , lit . Étoile in the Cherry Orchard ) , with illustrations by the original game artist Norita . The novel contains a two short stories that is a sequel of Takako 's scenario , and Kana and Yukari have little sisters . The revised and completed edition of the dōjin novel was published as an official novel by Enterbrain on December 25 , 2007 .
Three volumes based on Futari no Elder were written by Tasuku Saiga and published by Paradigm between September 30 , 2010 and January 19 , 2011 . The first volume centers on Kaoruko Nanahara , the second is around Kaori Kamichika , and the third centers on Utano Sasou . A single volume written by Reiji Mai titled Knight no Kimi no Love Romance ( 騎士の君のラブロマンス , Love Affair of You , the Knight ) was published by Kill Time Communication on December 3 , 2010 . These four novels contain erotic content . Three volumes written by Aya Takaya were released by SoftBank Creative between December 15 , 2010 and January 15 , 2012 . The first volume titled Futari no Elder ( 二人のエルダー ) is the story until Chihaya Kisakinomiya and Kaoruko Nanahara are elected as Elders ; the second titled Madogoshi no Ihōjin ( 窓越しの異邦人 , The Stranger Through the Window ) is the story until the end of first term and it mainly focuses Kaoruko Nanahara , You Kashiwagi and Hatsune Minase ; and the third titled Kin no Ori , Ibara no Torikago ( 黄金の檻 荊の鳥籠 , lit . The Golden Cage , The Birdcage of Thorns ) is the story between summer vacation and September and it mainly focuses Awayuki Reizei and Utano Sasou . There were five novels published by Multi Bunko between June 30 , 2011 and March 29 , 2012 : three volumes written by Tasuku Saiga are around Utano Sasou , Fumi Watarai and Awayuki Reizei ; one volume written by Ricotta is around Kaoruko Nanahara ; and a volume written by Mitsuru Iiyama is not dependent on any heroine 's scenario . These eight novels are not erotic .
= = = Manga = = =
A manga adaptation is illustrated by Kanao Araki and was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' magazine Dengeki Daioh between the November 2006 and August 2008 issues in Japan . Two tankōbon volumes were released under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint , the first on August 27 , 2007 and the second on September 27 , 2008 . A four panel comic strip manga was published by Enterbrain in 12 comics anthologies released between March 26 , 2007 and March 25 , 2009 .
A manga adaptation of Futari no Elder illustrated by Akuru Uira was serialized between the July 2010 and February 2012 issues of Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace . Three volumes were published between November 26 , 2010 and January 26 , 2012 . Three volumes of a four panel , comic strip manga of Futari no Elder were published by Enterbrain between September 26 , 2010 and January 29 , 2011 . Two comic anthologies were released by Ichijinsha between October 25 and November 25 , 2010 .
= = = Internet radio show = = =
An Internet radio show to promote the anime series was broadcast between October 5 , 2006 and March 27 , 2008 called the Seio Girls ' Academy Broadcasting Station ( 聖應女学院放送局 , Seiō Jogakuin Hōsōkyoku ) . It aired every Thursday hosted by Miyu Matsuki and Yuko Goto who played Sion Jujo and Ichiko Takashima in the anime , respectively ; it was produced by Animate TV . There are thirteen corners , or parts , to the program which correspond to the general life of the characters in the story , and 74 episodes were produced . There were several guests to the show such as Chiaki Takahashi in episodes six and seven as Takako Itsukushima , Akemi Kanda in episodes eleven and twelve as Kana Suoin , Ayano Matsumoto in episodes fifteen and sixteen as Yukari Kamioka , and Madoka Kimura in episodes nineteen and twenty as Kimie Sugawara . The radio show episodes were released on four CDs released between May 9 , 2007 and February 6 , 2008 .
= = = Anime = = =
An anime adaptation is produced by the animation studio Feel , directed by Munenori Nawa , written by Katsumi Hasegawa , and features character design by Noriko Shimazawa who based the designs on Norita 's original concept . The anime contained twelve episodes which aired between October 6 and December 24 , 2006 on several UHF networks including TV Kanagawa and Chiba TV . The episodes were released on four DVD compilations released in Japan as limited and regular editions . A single original video animation ( OVA ) episode was released on the final limited edition DVD on April 4 , 2007 . Media Blasters released the series , including the OVA , as English @-@ subtitled DVDs between June 24 and October 7 , 2008 under the title Otoboku : Maidens Are Falling For Me ! .
A three @-@ episode OVA adaptation of Futari no Elder is produced by the animation studio Silver Link , directed by Shin 'ya Kawatsura , written by Michiko Yokote , and features character design by Keiichi Sano who based the designs on Norita 's original concept . The episodes were released on three Blu @-@ ray Disc / DVD volumes between August 29 and October 24 , 2012 .
= = = Music and audio CDs = = =
The Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru visual novel has three theme songs : the opening theme " You Make My Day ! " by Yuria , the ending theme " Itoshii Kimochi " ( いとしいきもち ) by Yui Sakakibara , and " Sayonara no Sasayaki " ( さよならの囁き ) by Sakakibara as an insert song . The original soundtrack for the visual novel titled Maiden 's Rest was released in Japan on February 25 , 2005 by Digiturbo . The Futari no Elder visual novel has four theme songs : an opening theme , an ending theme , and two insert songs . For the Windows version of Futari no Elder , the opening theme is " Underhanded Girl " ( アンダーハンデッド ・ ガール ) by Yuria , and the ending theme is " Hidamari no Naka e " ( 陽だまりの中へ ) by Aki Misato . For the PSP version of Futari no Elder , the opening theme is " Crystal Wish " by Miyuki Hashimoto , and the ending theme is " Tamerai , Fuwari " ( ためらい 、 ふわり 。 ) by Shiori . The insert songs , both sung by Sakakibara , are " Utsuriyuku Hana no Yōni " ( 移りゆく花のように ) and " Kimi no Mama de " ( 君のままで ) . An album was released containing the theme songs for the Windows version of Futari no Elder on May 26 , 2010 by Lantis . A single was released containing the theme songs for the PSP version of Futari no Elder on April 27 , 2011 by Lantis .
Two singles were released for the opening and ending themes for the anime adaptation . The first called " Love Power " by Aice5 contained the opening theme of the same name . The other single entitled " Again " by Yui Sakakibara contained the ending theme entitled " Beautiful Day " . The A @-@ side track from that single entitled " Again " was used as an insert song in episode eleven . Both singles were released on October 25 , 2006 by King Records . The soundtrack for the anime was released on November 22 , 2006 by King Records . Three character image song albums were released sung by voice actors from the anime adaptation . The first album was by Yui Horie as Mizuho Miyanokouji , Miyu Matsuki as Sion Jujo and Masumi Asano as Mariya Mikado . The second album featured Ayano Matsumoto as Yukari Kamioka , Akemi Kanda as Kana Suoin and Yuko Goto as Ichiko Takashima . The third album was recorded by Chiaki Takahashi as Takako Itsukushima , Madoka Kimura as Kimie Sugawara and Yui Sakakibara as Hisako Kajiura . These CDs were released between July 26 and September 21 , 2006 .
Seven drama CDs based on Otoboku have also been produced . The first was based on the visual novel and was released on September 22 , 2005 . Four more based on the Otoboku anime adaptation were released between October 25 , 2006 and April 11 , 2007 . A drama CD based on the novel Sakura no Sono no Étoile was released on January 29 , 2010 . The last one was based on a special episode contained in the fan disc Caramel Box Yarukibako with voice actors from anime adaptation released on January 29 , 2010 .
= = Reception = =
According to a national ranking of how well bishōjo games sold nationally in Japan , the Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru limited edition Windows release premiered at number two in the rankings . The limited edition achieved a ranking of four out of 50 in the ranking for the next two weeks . The regular edition Windows release premiered at number six in the rankings , and stayed in the top 50 for a month and a half until mid @-@ April 2005 . The regular edition was again in the rankings for May 2005 , managing to rank in at 38 and 49 . The Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Windows edition playable as a DVD premiered at number 13 in the rankings and stayed at that rank for the next listing . The DVD edition ranked twice more over the next month : the first at 43 and the last at 33 . From May to June 2010 , Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder ranked third in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . Futari no Elder ranked second in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in June 2010 .
The first two anime DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were reviewed by Anime News Network . In the review of the first DVD , the reviewer Carl Kimlinger generally panned the volume , commenting how the three episodes were " cruelly unimaginative " where " afterwards it 's one long slide into a torturous hell of girls ' school tripe where not even humor or romance can pierce the veil of pain . " The Catholic girl 's school premise is likened to Maria @-@ sama ga Miteru and Strawberry Panic ! , and is considered to be used " merely as visual spice . " For the second DVD volume , Kimlinger wrote that " while the onslaught of squealing , caffeinated moe @-@ bait has abated somewhat in its ferocity , a sagging of the already listlessly undirected plot ensures that the series ' sophomore outing is only marginally more tolerable than the first . " Further , the series is described as having " obnoxious quirks and technical shortcomings . "
The first two anime DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were also reviewed by Mania Entertainment . In the review of the first DVD , the reviewer Chris Beveridge felt the anime reminded him of " parts of Princess Princess , especially when it came to the Elder status piece . It 's even reminiscent of Strawberry Panic in this way . " The series is described as " all about the " moe " factor , bringing about an atmosphere that makes you like the characters , care about them and feel good about seeing them interact . It does it well even if it doesn ’ t have an amazing hook . " For the second DVD volume , Beveridge commented that the series continues to be " very predictable and bland " which is " at this point fun but entirely forgettable . " Beveridge also wrote how " the characters are all pleasant , nicely designed and with mildly interesting personalities that could lead to something more but never does . "
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= Atlantis : The Lost Empire =
Atlantis : The Lost Empire is a 2001 American animated action @-@ adventure film created by Walt Disney Feature Animation — the first science fiction film in Disney 's animated features canon and the 41st overall . Written by Tab Murphy , directed by Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise , and produced by Don Hahn , the film features an ensemble cast with the voices of Michael J. Fox , Cree Summer , James Garner , Leonard Nimoy , Don Novello , Phil Morris , Claudia Christian , Jacqueline Obradors , and Jim Varney in his final role before his death . Set in 1914 , the film tells the story of a young man who gains possession of a sacred book , which he believes will guide him and a crew of mercenaries to the lost city of Atlantis .
Development of the film began after production had finished on The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) . Instead of another musical , the production team decided to do an action @-@ adventure film inspired by the works of Jules Verne . Atlantis was notable for adopting the distinctive visual style of comic book creator Mike Mignola . At the time of its release , the film had made greater use of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) than any of Disney 's previous animated features ; it remains one of the few to have been shot in anamorphic format . Linguist Marc Okrand created a language specifically for use in Atlantis , while James Newton Howard provided the score . The film was released at a time when audience interest in animated films was shifting away from hand @-@ drawn animation toward films with full CGI .
Atlantis : The Lost Empire premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California on June 3 , 2001 , and went into general release on June 15 . Released by Walt Disney Pictures , Atlantis performed modestly at the box office . Budgeted at $ 100 million , the film grossed over $ 186 million worldwide , $ 84 million of which was earned in North America . Due to the film 's lackluster box office performance , Disney quietly canceled both a spin @-@ off television series and an underwater attraction at its Disneyland theme park . Some critics praised it as a unique departure from typical Disney animated features , while others disliked it due to the unclear target audience and absence of songs . Atlantis was nominated for a number of awards , including seven Annie Awards , and won Best Sound Editing at the 2002 Golden Reel Awards . The film was released on VHS and DVD on January 29 , 2002 ; the Blu @-@ ray released on June 11 , 2013 . Atlantis is considered to be a cult favorite , due in part to Mignola 's unique artistic influence . A direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel , Atlantis : Milo 's Return , was released in 2003 .
= = Plot = =
A large tidal wave triggered by a distant explosion threatens to drown the island of Atlantis . In the midst of an evacuation from the capital city , the Queen of Atlantis is caught by a strange , hypnotic blue light and lifted up into the " Heart of Atlantis " , a powerful crystal protecting the city . The crystal consumes her and creates a dome barrier that protects the city 's innermost district . She leaves behind a young daughter , Princess Kida , as the island sinks beneath the ocean .
Thousands of years later in 1914 , Milo Thatch , a cartographer and linguist at the Smithsonian Institution who is marginalized for his research on Atlantis , believes that he has found The Shepherd 's Journal , an ancient manuscript that contains directions to the lost island . After the museum board declines his proposal to search for the journal , a mysterious woman , Helga Sinclair , introduces Milo to Preston B. Whitmore , an eccentric millionaire . Whitmore has already funded a successful effort to retrieve the journal as repayment of a debt to Milo 's grandfather , and recruits Milo to lead an expedition to Atlantis as soon as he receives it .
The expedition departs with a team of specialists led by Commander Lyle Rourke , who also led the journal recovery expedition . The crew includes Vinny Santorini , a demolitions expert ; Mole Molière , a geologist ; Dr. Joshua Sweet , a medical officer ; Audrey Ramirez , a mechanic ; Mrs. Wilhelmina Packard , a radio operator ; and Cookie Farnsworth , a mess cook . They set out in the " Ulysses " , a massive submarine . During the journey , they are attacked by the monstrous Leviathan , a robotic lobster @-@ like creature that guards Atlantis ' entrance . The " Ulysses " is subsequently destroyed , but Milo , Rourke , and part of the crew escape by making their way to an underground cavern , described in the journal as the entrance to Atlantis .
After traveling through a network of caves and a dormant volcano , the team reaches the outskirts of Atlantis . They are greeted by Kida who resembles a young woman and discover that the Atlantean language is the basis of many existing languages . Kida enlists Milo 's aid in deciphering the Atlantean written language , long forgotten by the natives . By swimming deep within the city 's submerged ruins and translating underwater murals , Milo helps Kida uncover the nature of the Heart of Atlantis : it supplies the Atlanteans with power and longevity through the crystals worn around their necks . He is surprised this is not mentioned in the journal , but upon examination realizes a page is missing .
Returning to the surface with Kida , Milo discovers Rourke has the missing page . Rourke and the crew betray Milo , intending to bring the crystal to the surface and sell it . Rourke mortally wounds the King of Atlantis while trying to extract information about the crystal 's location , but finds its location for himself hidden beneath the King 's throne room . The crystal detects a threat before merging with Kida . Rourke and the mercenaries lock Kida in a crate and prepare to leave the city . Knowing that when the crystal is gone the Atlanteans will die , Milo berates his friends for betraying their consciences and ultimately convinces them to leave Rourke and remain in Atlantis . The King explains to Milo that the crystal has developed a consciousness – it thrives on the collective emotions of the Atlanteans and provides power , protection and longevity in return . It will find a royal host when Atlantis is in danger . He then reveals that the sinking of Atlantis was caused when he attempted to use it as a weapon of war . As he dies he gives his crystal to Milo , telling him to save Atlantis and Kida . Encouraged by Sweet , Milo rallies the crew and the Atlanteans to stop Rourke .
In the ensuing battle inside the volcano , Helga and the other mercenaries including Rourke are all killed . Milo and the others successfully fly the crystal back to the city , as the volcano erupts . With lava flowing towards the city , Kida ( in her crystal form ) rises into the air and creates a protective shield . The lava breaks away harmlessly , showing a restored Atlantis , and the crystal returns Kida to Milo . The surviving crew members return to the surface and promise to keep the discovery of Atlantis a secret . Having fallen in love with Kida , Milo stays behind to help her rebuild the lost empire .
= = Cast = =
Michael J. Fox as Milo James Thatch , a linguist and cartographer at the Smithsonian who was recruited to decipher The Shepherd 's Journal while directing an expedition to Atlantis . Kirk Wise , one of the directors , said that they chose Fox for the role because they felt he gave his character his own personality and made them more believable on screen . Fox said that voice acting was much easier than his past experience with live action because he did not have to worry about what he looked like in front of a camera while delivering his lines . The directors mentioned that Fox was also offered a role for Titan A.E. ; he allowed his son to choose which film he would work on , and he chose Atlantis . Viewers have noted similarities between Milo and the film 's language consultant , Marc Okrand , who developed the Atlantean language used in the film . Okrand stated that Milo 's supervising animator , John Pomeroy , sketched him , claiming not to know how a linguist looked or acted .
James Garner as Commander Lyle Tiberius Rourke , the leader of the band of mercenaries , for the Atlantean expedition . Wise chose Garner because of his previous experience with action films , especially war and Western films , and said the role " fits him like a glove " . When asked if he would be interested in the role , Garner replied " I 'd do it in a heartbeat . "
Cree Summer as Kidagakash " Kida " Nedakh , the Princess of Atlantis . Kida 's supervising animator , Randy Haycock , stated that Summer was very " intimidating " when he first met her ; this influenced how he wanted Kida to look and act on screen when she meets Milo . Natalie Strom provided dialogue for Kida as a young child .
Don Novello as Vincenzo " Vinny " Santorini , an Italian demolitions expert . Kirk Wise and Russ Edmonds , Vinny 's supervising animator , noted Novello 's unique ability to improvise dialogue . Edmonds recalled , " [ Novello ] would look at the sheet , and he would read the line that was written once , and he would never read it again ! And we never used a written line , it was improvs , the whole movie . "
Phil Morris as Doctor Joshua Strongbear Sweet , a medic of African American and Native American descent . Sweet 's supervising animator , Ron Husband , indicated that one of the challenges was animating Sweet in sync with Morris ' rapid line delivery while keeping him believable . Morris stated that this character was extreme , with " no middle ground " ; he mentioned , " When he was happy , he was really happy , and when he 's solemn , he 's real solemn . "
Claudia Christian as Lieutenant Helga Katrina Sinclair , Rourke 's German second @-@ in @-@ command . Christian described her character as " sensual " and " striking " . She was relieved when she finally saw what her character looked like , joking , " I 'd hate to , you know , go through all this and find out my character is a toad . "
Jacqueline Obradors as Audrey Rocio Ramirez , a teenage Puerto Rican mechanic and the youngest member of the expedition . Obradors said her character made her " feel like a little kid again " and she always hoped her sessions would last longer .
Florence Stanley as Wilhelmina Bertha Packard : an elderly , sarcastic , chain @-@ smoking radio operator . Stanley felt that Packard was very " cynical " and " secure " : " She does her job and when she is not busy she does anything she wants . "
David Ogden Stiers as Fenton Q. Harcourt , a board member of the Smithsonian Institution who dismisses Milo 's belief in the existence of Atlantis . Stiers previously worked with Michael J. Fox in Doc Hollywood . He earlier voice @-@ acted for Disney in Beauty and the Beast , Pocahontas , and The Hunchback of Notre Dame and would do so again in Lilo & Stitch .
John Mahoney as Preston B. Whitmore , an eccentric millionaire who funds the expedition to Atlantis . Lloyd Bridges was originally cast and recorded as Whitmore , but he died before completing the film . Mahoney 's zest and vigor led to Whitmore 's personality being reworked for the film . Mahoney stated that doing voice work was " freeing " and allowed him to be " big " and " outrageous " with his character .
Jim Varney as Jebidiah Allardyce " Cookie " Farnsworth , a Western @-@ style chuckwagon chef . Varney died of lung cancer in February 2000 , before the production ended , and the film was dedicated to his memory . Producer Don Hahn was saddened that Varney never saw the finished film , but mentioned that he was shown clips of his character 's performance during his site sessions and said , " He loved it . " Shawn Keller , supervising animator for Cookie , stated , " It was kind of a sad fact that [ Varney ] knew that he was not going to be able to see this film before he passed away . He did a bang @-@ up job doing the voice work , knowing the fact that he was never gonna see his last performance . "
Corey Burton as Gaëtan " Mole " Molière , a French geologist who acts like a mole . Burton mentioned that finding his performance as Mole was by allowing the character to " leap out " of him while making funny voices . To get into character during his recording sessions , he stated that he would " throw myself into the scene and feel like I 'm in this make @-@ believe world " .
Leonard Nimoy as Kashekim Nedakh , the King of Atlantis and Kida 's father . Michael Cedeno , supervising animator for King Nedakh , was astounded at Nimoy 's voice talent , stating that he had " so much rich character " in his performance . As he spoke his lines , Cadeno said the crew would sit there and watch Nimoy in astonishment .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for Atlantis : The Lost Empire was conceived in October 1996 when Don Hahn , Gary Trousdale , Kirk Wise , and Tab Murphy lunched at a Mexican restaurant in Burbank , California . Having recently completed The Hunchback of Notre Dame the producer and directors wanted to keep the Hunchback crew together for another film with an Adventureland setting . Drawing inspiration from Jules Verne 's A Journey to the Center of the Earth ( 1864 ) , they set out to make a film which would fully explore Atlantis ( compared to the brief visit depicted in Verne 's novel ) . While primarily utilizing the Internet to research the mythology of Atlantis , the filmmakers became interested in the clairvoyant readings of Edgar Cayce and decided to incorporate some of his ideas — notably that of a mother @-@ crystal which provides power , healing , and longevity to the Atlanteans — into the story . They also visited museums and old army installations to study the technology of the early 20th century ( the film 's time period ) , and traveled 800 feet underground in New Mexico 's Carlsbad Caverns to view the subterranean trails which would serve as a model for the approach to Atlantis in the film .
The filmmakers wanted to avoid the common depiction of Atlantis as " crumbled Greek columns underwater " , said Wise . " From the get @-@ go , we were committed to designing it top to bottom . Let 's get the architectural style , clothing , heritage , customs , how they would sleep , and how they would speak . So we brought people on board who would help us develop those ideas . " Art director David Goetz stated , " We looked at Mayan architecture , styles of ancient , unusual architecture from around the world , and the directors really liked the look of Southeast Asian architecture . " The team later took ideas from other architectural forms , including Cambodian , Indian , and Tibetan works . Hahn added , " If you take and deconstruct architecture from around the world into one architectural vocabulary , that 's what our Atlantis looks like . " The overall design and circular layout of Atlantis were also based on the writings of Plato , and his quote " in a single day and night of misfortune , the island of Atlantis disappeared into the depths of the sea " was influential from the beginning of production . The crew wore T @-@ shirts which read " ATLANTIS — Fewer songs , more explosions " due the film 's plan as an action @-@ adventure ( unlike previous Disney animated features , which were musicals ) .
= = = = Language = = = =
Marc Okrand , who developed the Klingon language for the Star Trek films , was hired to devise the Atlantean language for Atlantis : The Lost Empire . Guided by the directors ' initial concept for it to be a " mother @-@ language " , Okrand employed an Indo @-@ European word stock with its own grammatical structure . He would change the words if they began to sound too much like an actual , spoken language . John Emerson designed the written component , making hundreds of random sketches of individual letters from among which the directors chose the best to represent the Atlantean alphabet . The written language was boustrophedon : designed to be read left @-@ to @-@ right on the first line , then right @-@ to @-@ left on the second , continuing in a zigzag pattern to simulate the flow of water .
The Atlantean [ A ] is a shape developed by John Emerson . It is a miniature map of the city of Atlantis ( i.e. , the outside of the swirl is the cave , the inside shape is the silhouette of the city , and the dot is the location of the crystal ) . It 's a treasure map .
= = = Writing = = =
Joss Whedon was the first writer to be involved with the film , but soon left to work on other Disney projects . According to him , he " had not a shred " in a movie . Tab Murphy completed the screenplay , stating that the time from initially discussing the story to producing a script that satisfied the film crew was " about three to four months " . The initial draft was 155 pages , much longer than a typical Disney film script ( which usually runs 90 pages ) . When the first two acts were timed at 120 minutes , the directors cut characters and sequences and focused more on Milo . Murphy said that he created the centuries @-@ old Shepherd 's Journal because he needed a map for the characters to follow throughout their journey . A revised version of the script eliminated the trials encountered by the explorers as they navigated the underground caves to Atlantis . This gave the film a faster pace , because Atlantis is discovered earlier in the story .
The character of Milo J. Thatch was originally supposed to be a descendant of Edward Teach , otherwise known as Blackbeard the pirate . The directors later related him to an explorer so he would discover his inner talent for exploration . The character of Molière was originally intended to be " professorial " but Chris Ure , a story artist , changed the concept to that of a " horrible little burrowing creature with a wacky coat and strange headgear with extending eyeballs " , said Wise . Don Hahn pointed out that the absence of songs presented a challenge for a team accustomed to animating musicals , as solely action scenes would have to carry the film . Kirk Wise said it gave the team an opportunity for more on @-@ screen character development : " We had more screen time available to do a scene like where Milo and the explorers are camping out and learning about one another 's histories . An entire sequence is devoted to having dinner and going to bed . That is not typically something we would have the luxury of doing . "
Hahn stated that the first animated sequence completed during production was the film 's prologue . The original version featured a Viking war party using The Shepherd 's Journal to find Atlantis and being swiftly dispatched by the Leviathan . Near the end of production , story supervisor Jon Sanford told the directors that he felt this prologue did not give viewers enough emotional involvement with the Atlanteans . Despite knowing that the Viking prologue was finished and it would cost additional time and money to alter the scene , the directors agreed with Sanford . Trousdale went home and completed the storyboards later that evening . The opening was replaced by a sequence depicting the destruction of Atlantis , which introduced the film from the perspective of the Atlanteans and Princess Kida . The Viking prologue is included as an extra feature on the DVD release .
= = = Animation = = =
At the peak of its production , 350 animators , artists and technicians were working on Atlantis at all three Disney animation studios : Walt Disney Feature Animation ( Burbank , California ) , Disney Feature Animation Florida ( Orlando ) , and Disney Animation France ( Paris ) . The film was one of the few Disney animated features produced and shot in 70mm anamorphic format . The directors felt that a widescreen image was crucial , as a nostalgic reference to old action @-@ adventure films presented in the CinemaScope format ( 2 @.@ 35 : 1 ) , noting Raiders of the Lost Ark as an inspiration . Because switching to the format would require animation desks and equipment designed for widescreen to be purchased , Disney executives were at first reluctant about the idea . The production team found a simple solution by drawing within a smaller frame on the same paper and equipment used for standard aspect ratio ( 1 @.@ 66 : 1 ) Disney @-@ animated films . Layout supervisor Ed Ghertner wrote a guide to the widescreen format for use by the layout artists and mentioned that one advantage of widescreen was that he could keep characters in scenes longer because of additional space to walk within the frame . Wise drew further inspiration for the format from filmmakers David Lean and Akira Kurosawa .
The film 's visual style was strongly based upon that of Mike Mignola , the comic book artist behind Hellboy . Mignola was one of four production designers ( along with Matt Codd , Jim Martin , and Ricardo Delgado ) hired by the Disney studio for the film . Accordingly , he provided style guides , preliminary character and background designs , and story ideas . " Mignola 's graphic , angular style was a key influence on the ' look ' of the characters , " stated Wise . Mignola was surprised when first contacted by the studio to work on Atlantis . His artistic influence on the film would later contribute to a cult following .
I remember watching a rough cut of the film and these characters have these big , square , weird hands . I said to the guy next to me , " Those are cool hands . " And he says to me , " Yeah , they 're your hands . We had a whole meeting about how to do your hands . " It was so weird I couldn 't wrap my brain around it .
The final pull @-@ out scene of the movie , immediately before the end @-@ title card , was described by the directors as the most difficult scene in the history of Disney animation . They said that the pullout attempt on their prior film , The Hunchback of Notre Dame , " struggled " and " lacked depth " ; however , after making advances in the process of multiplaning , they tried the technique again in Atlantis . The scene begins with one 16 @-@ inch piece of paper showing a close @-@ up of Milo and Kida . As the camera pulls away from them to reveal the newly restored Atlantis , it reaches the equivalent of an 18 @,@ 000 @-@ inch piece of paper composed of many individual pieces of paper ( 24 inches or smaller ) . Each piece was carefully drawn and combined with animated vehicles simultaneously flying across the scene to make the viewer see a complete , integrated image .
At the time of its release , Atlantis : The Lost Empire was notable for using more computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) than any other Disney @-@ animated feature . To increase productivity , the directors had the digital artists work with the traditional animators throughout the production . Several important scenes required heavy use of digital animation : the Leviathan , the Ulysses submarine and sub @-@ pods , the Heart of Atlantis , and the Stone Giants . During production , after Matt Codd and Jim Martin designed the Ulysses on paper , Greg Aronowitz was hired to build a scale model of the submarine , to be used as a reference for drawing the 3D Ulysses . The final film included 362 digital @-@ effects shots , and computer programs were used to seamlessly join the 2D and 3D artwork . One scene that took advantage of this was the " sub @-@ drop " scene , where the 3D Ulysses was dropped from its docking bay into the water . As the camera floated toward it , a 2D Milo was drawn to appear inside , tracking the camera . The crew noted that it was challenging to keep the audience from noticing the difference between the 2D and 3D drawings when they were merged . The digital production also gave the directors a unique " virtual camera " for complicated shots within the film . With the ability to operate in the z @-@ plane , this camera moved through a digital wire @-@ frame set ; the background and details were later hand @-@ drawn over the wire frames . This was used in the opening flight scene through Atlantis and the submarine chase through the undersea cavern with the Leviathan in pursuit .
= = = Music and sound = = =
Since the film would not feature any songs , the directors hired James Newton Howard to compose the score . Approaching it as a live @-@ action film , Howard decided to have different musical themes for the cultures of the surface world and Atlantis . In the case of Atlantis , Howard chose an Indonesian orchestral sound incorporating chimes , bells , and gongs . The directors told Howard that the film would have a number of key scenes without dialogue ; the score would need to convey emotionally what the viewer was seeing on screen .
Gary Rydstrom and his team at Skywalker Sound were hired for the film 's sound production . Like Howard , Rydstrom employed different sounds for the two cultures . Focusing on the machine and mechanical sounds of the early industrial era for the explorers , he felt that the Atlanteans should have a " more organic " sound utilizing ceramics and pottery . The sound made by the Atlantean flying @-@ fish vehicles posed a particular challenge . Rydstrom revealed that he was sitting at the side of a highway recording one day when a semi @-@ truck drove by at high speed . When the recording was sped up on his computer he felt it sounded very organic , and that is what is heard within the film . Rydstrom created the harmonic chiming of the Heart of Atlantis by rubbing his finger along the edge of a champagne flute , and the sound of sub @-@ pods moving through water with a water pick .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Atlantis was among Disney 's first major attempts to utilize internet marketing . The film was promoted through Kellogg 's , which created a website with mini @-@ games and a movie @-@ based video game give @-@ away for UPC labels from specially marked packages of Atlantis breakfast cereal . The film was one of Disney 's first marketing attempts through mobile network operators , and allowed users to download games based on the film . McDonald 's ( which had an exclusive licensing agreement on all Disney releases ) promoted the film with Happy Meal toys , food packaging and in @-@ store decor . The McDonald 's advertising campaign involved television , radio , and print advertisements beginning on the film 's release date . Frito @-@ Lay offered free admission tickets for the film on specially marked snack packages .
= = = Box office = = =
Before the film 's release , reporters speculated that it would have a difficult run due to competition from DreamWorks ' Shrek ( a wholly CGI feature ) and Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( an action @-@ adventure film from Paramount Pictures ) . Regarding the market 's shift from traditional animation and competition with CGI films , Kirk Wise said , " Any traditional animator , including myself , can 't help but feel a twinge . I think it always comes down to story and character , and one form won 't replace the other . Just like photography didn 't replace painting . But maybe I 'm blind to it . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly noted that CGI films ( such as Shrek ) were more likely to attract the teenage demographic typically not interested in animation , and called Atlantis a " marketing and creative gamble " .
Atlantis : The Lost Empire had its world premiere at Disney 's El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California on June 3 , 2001 and a limited release in New York City and Los Angeles on June 8 ; a wider release followed on June 15 . At the premiere , Destination : Atlantis was on display , featuring behind @-@ the @-@ scenes props from the film and information on the legend of Atlantis with video games , displays , laser tag , and other attractions . The Aquarium of the Pacific also loaned a variety of fish for display within the attraction . With a budget of $ 100 million , the film opened at # 2 on its debut weekend , earning $ 20 @.@ 3 million in 3 @,@ 011 theaters . The film 's international release began September 20 in Australia and other markets followed suit . During its 25 @-@ week theatrical run , Atlantis : The Lost Empire grossed over $ 186 million worldwide ( $ 84 million from the United States and Canada ) . Responding to its disappointing box @-@ office performance , Thomas Schumacher , then @-@ president of Walt Disney Feature Animation , said , " It seemed like a good idea at the time to not do a sweet fairy tale , but we missed . "
= = = Home media = = =
Atlantis : The Lost Empire was released on VHS and DVD January 29 , 2002 . During the first month of its home release , the film led in VHS sales and was third in VHS and DVD sales combined . Sales and rentals of the VHS and DVD combined would eventually accumulate $ 157 million in revenue by mid @-@ 2003 . Both a single @-@ disc DVD edition and a two @-@ disc collector 's edition ( with bonus features ) were released . The single @-@ disc DVD gave the viewer the option of viewing the film either in its original theatrical 2 @.@ 35 : 1 aspect ratio or a modified 1 @.@ 33 : 1 ratio ( utilizing pan and scan ) . Bonus features available on the DVD version included audio and visual commentary from the film team , a virtual tour of the CGI models , an Atlantean @-@ language tutorial , an encyclopedia on the myth of Atlantis , and the deleted Viking prologue scene . The two @-@ disc collector 's edition DVD contained all the single @-@ disc features and a disc with supplemental material detailing all aspects of the film 's production . The collector 's @-@ edition film could only be viewed in its original theatrical ratio , and also featured an optional DTS 5 @.@ 1 track . Both DVD versions , however , contained a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 track and were THX certified . Disney digitally remastered and released Atlantis on Blu @-@ ray on June 11 , 2013 , bundled with its sequel Atlantis : Milo 's Return .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 49 % of 140 professional critics have given Atlantis : The Lost Empire a positive review , with a rating average of 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The site 's consensus is that " Atlantis provides a fast @-@ paced spectacle , but stints on such things as character development and a coherent plot " . Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on 29 reviews from mainstream critics ; this was considered " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinema @-@ goers gave Atlantis : The Lost Empire was an " A " on an A + -to @-@ F scale .
While critics had mixed reactions to the film in general , some praised it for its visuals , action @-@ adventure elements , and its attempt to appeal to an older audience . Roger Ebert gave Atlantis three @-@ and @-@ half stars out of four . He praised the animation 's " clean bright visual look " and the " classic energy of the comic book style " , crediting this to the work of Mike Mignola . Ebert gave particular praise to the story and the final battle scene and wrote , " The story of Atlantis is rousing in an old pulp science fiction sort of way , but the climactic scene transcends the rest , and stands by itself as one of the great animated action sequences . " In The New York Times , Elvis Mitchell gave high praise to the film , calling it " a monumental treat " , and stated , " Atlantis is also one of the most eye @-@ catching Disney cartoons since Uncle Walt institutionalized the four @-@ fingered glove . " James Berardinelli , film critic for ReelViews , wrote a positive review of the film , giving it three out of four stars . He wrote , " On the whole , Atlantis offers 90 minutes of solid entertainment , once again proving that while Disney may be clueless when it comes to producing good live @-@ action movies , they are exactly the opposite when it comes to their animated division . " Wesley Morris of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote positively of the film 's approach for an older audience : " But just beneath the surface , Atlantis brims with adult possibility . "
Other critics felt that the film was mediocre in regards to its story and characters , and that it failed to deliver as a non @-@ musical to Disney 's traditional audience . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C + rating , writing that the movie had " gee @-@ whiz formulaic character " and was " the essence of craft without dream " . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times noted the storyline and characterizations were " old @-@ fashioned " and the film had the retrograde look of a Saturday @-@ morning cartoon , but these deficiencies were offset by its " brisk action " and frantic pace . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote , " Disney pushes into all @-@ talking , no @-@ singing , no @-@ dancing and , in the end , no @-@ fun animated territory . " Stephanie Zacharek of Salon loathed the film , specifically Disney 's attempt to make the film for an adult audience , of which she wrote , " The big problem with Disney 's latest animated feature , Atlantis : The Lost Empire , is that it doesn 't seem geared to kids at all : It 's so adult that it 's massively boring . " Rita Kempley of The Washington Post panned the film , calling it a " new @-@ fashioned but old @-@ fangled hash " and wrote , " Ironically Disney had hoped to update its image with this mildly diverting adventure , yet the picture hasn 't really broken away from the tried @-@ and @-@ true format spoofed in the far superior Shrek . "
= = = Themes and interpretations = = =
Several critics and scholars have noted that Atlantis plays strongly on themes of anti @-@ capitalism and anti @-@ imperialism . M. Keith Booker , academic and author of studies about the implicit messages conveyed by media , views the character of Rourke as being motivated by " capitalist greed " when he pursues " his own financial gain " in spite of the knowledge that " his theft [ of the crystal ] will lead to the destruction of [ Atlantis ] " . Religion journalist Mark Pinsky , in his exploration of moral and spiritual themes in popular Disney films , asserts that " it is impossible to read the movie ... any other way " than as " a devastating , unrelenting attack on capitalism and American imperialism " . Max Messier of FilmCritic.com observes , " Disney even manages to lambast the capitalist lifestyle of the adventurers intent on uncovering the lost city . Damn the imperialists ! " According to Booker , the film also " delivers a rather segregationist moral " by concluding with the discovery of the Atlanteans kept secret from other surface @-@ dwellers in order to maintain a separation between the two highly divergent cultures . Others saw Atlantis as an interesting look at utopian philosophy of the sort found in classic works of science fiction by H. G. Wells and Jules Verne .
When the film was released , some viewers noticed that Atlantis : The Lost Empire bore a number of similarities to the 1990 – 1991 Japanese anime television program Nadia : The Secret of Blue Water and the 1986 film Castle in the Sky from Studio Ghibli , particularly in its character design , setting , and story . Although Disney never responded formally to claims of plagiarism , co @-@ director Kirk Wise posted on a Disney animation news group in May 2001 , " Never heard of Nadia till it was mentioned in this [ news group ] . Long after we 'd finished production , I might add . " Both Atlantis and Nadia were inspired , in part , by the 1870 Jules Verne novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea , of which Lee Zion ( reporting for Anime News Network ) wrote , " There are too many similarities not connected with 20 @,@ 000 Leagues for the whole thing to be coincidence . " Critics also saw parallels with the 1994 film Stargate . Milo 's characteristics were said to resemble those of Daniel Jackson , the protagonist of Stargate and its spinoff television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 — which coincidentally launched its own spinoff , titled Stargate Atlantis .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Related works = =
Atlantis : the Lost Empire was meant to provide a springboard for an animated television series entitled Team Atlantis , which would have presented the further adventures of its characters . However , because of the film 's under @-@ performance at the box office the series was not produced . On May 20 , 2003 , Disney released a direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel called Atlantis : Milo 's Return , consisting of three episodes planned for the aborted series . In addition , Disneyland planned to revive its Submarine Voyage ride with an Atlantis theme with elements from the movie and the ride was promoted with a meet @-@ and @-@ greet by the movie 's characters . These plans were canceled and the attraction was re @-@ opened in 2007 as the Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage , its theme based on the 2003 Disney · Pixar animated film Finding Nemo .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack to Atlantis : The Lost Empire was released on May 22 , 2001 . It consists primarily of James Newton Howard 's score and includes " Where the Dream Takes You " , written by Howard and Diane Warren and performed by Mýa . It was also available in a limited edition of 20 @,@ 000 numbered copies with a unique 3D album cover insert depicting the Leviathan from the film . A rare promotional edition ( featuring 73 minutes of material , compared to the 53 minutes on standard commercial editions ) was intended only for Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences voters , but was bootlegged and distributed with fan @-@ created artwork . Concerning the promotional edition , Filmtracks said , " Outside of about five minutes of superior additional material ( including the massive opening , " Atlantis Destroyed " ) , the complete presentation is mostly redundant . Still , Atlantis is an accomplished work for its genre . "
= = = Video games = = =
There are several video games based on the film . Atlantis The Lost Empire : Search for the Journal ( commonly known as Atlantis : Search for the Journal ) was developed by Zombie Studios and published by Buena Vista Games , a subsidiary of Disney Interactive . It was released on May 1 , 2001 , for the Microsoft Windows platform and was a first @-@ person shooter game , the first of two games based on the film developed by Zombie Studios and released for UPC labels from Kellogg 's products for promotion . Atlantis : The Lost Empire — Trial by Fire ( commonly known as Atlantis : Trial by Fire ) was the second game developed by Zombie Studios and published by Disney Interactive , and was released May 18 , 2001 , for the Microsoft Windows platform .
Atlantis : The Lost Empire is an action game developed by Eurocom for the PlayStation console which was released June 14 , 2001 . The player controls Milo , Audrey , Molière , and Vinny as they traverse Atlantis , unlocking its secrets . Some features in the game unlock others ( such as a movie ) by finding items hidden throughout the game . THQ released Disney 's Atlantis : The Lost Empire for the Game Boy Advance and Game Boy Color . It is a platform game in which the player controls Milo and three other characters from the film across 14 levels on a quest to discover Atlantis . The game was met with average to mixed reviews upon release . GameRankings and Metacritic gave it a score of 73 @.@ 83 % and 73 out of 100 for the PlayStation version ; 64 @.@ 50 % for the Game Boy Color version ; and 55 @.@ 86 % and 51 out of 100 for the Game Boy Advance version .
= = = Books = = =
= = = DVD media = = =
= = = Periodicals = = =
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= Pam 's Replacement =
" Pam 's Replacement " is the seventh episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 159th episode overall . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 10 , 2011 . It was written by Allison Silverman and was directed by Matt Sohn . The episode guest stars Lindsey Broad and Steve Moore .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) trains an attractive temporary worker to take her place while she is on maternity leave , and enlists Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) support when she tries to show that Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) finds her replacement attractive . Meanwhile , Robert California ( James Spader ) surprises Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) , and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) when he requests to join their band .
" Pam 's Replacement " relates to Pam 's pregnancy ; Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby . The episode received mixed reviews from critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode received 5 @.@ 96 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 marking a slight drop in the ratings from the previous episode , " Doomsday " .
= = Plot = =
Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) trains a temporary worker Cathy Simms ( Lindsey Broad ) so that she can take her place when she goes on maternity leave . In the break room , the other workers discuss how attractive Cathy is and how excited they are to have her in the office . Pam , being well into her pregnancy , is sensitive about her looks and so becomes offended by their discussion . Most of them respond by assuring Pam that she is , if anything , more sexually attractive than before she was pregnant . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , however , argues that sexual attractiveness is a mostly objective quality and pregnant women cannot be sexually attractive , and accuses the others of lying to spare Pam 's feelings . Troubled by Dwight 's comments , Pam asks her husband Jim ( John Krasinski ) if he finds the new temp attractive . Not wanting to upset his wife , Jim tells her that he does not find her replacement attractive , even objectively . Though Jim gives no sign of unease , Pam is convinced that he is lying to her , and enlists the help of the harshly honest Dwight to prove it . After a number of unsuccessful attempts to trick Jim into revealing he finds Pam 's replacement attractive , Dwight and Pam convince Jim to submit to a lie detection test in the form of a retail store 's blood pressure tester . At the conclusion of the interview , Dwight triumphantly announces that he recorded hypertension when Jim said he does not find the new temp attractive , but as Jim continues to insist he is telling the truth Dwight admits that he recorded equal hypertension on every question , including Jim 's name . Pam realizes that Jim has unusually high blood pressure , which his father also suffers from , and forgets about the issue in order to focus on her husband 's health .
Meanwhile , CEO Robert California ( James Spader ) surprises Andy ( Ed Helms ) , Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) , and Darryl ( Craig Robinson ) when he asks to join their band after he finds them having a jam session in the warehouse . Soon thereafter , California 's friends , skilled musicians themselves , arrive to join in . Not having brought their own instruments , two of them take over Kevin 's drums and Darryl 's synthesizer , while Andy 's acoustic guitar is drowned out by the newcomer 's electric guitar . The three of them are thus relegated to playing percussion . Andy , Kevin and Darryl , with the help of warehouse worker Val , realize that they were ousted , and after a failed attempt to try getting their original band roles back , they instead satisfyingly jam outside by themselves .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by consulting producer Allison Silverman , her first writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the eighth season . It was directed by Matt Sohn , one of the series ' cinematographers and camera operators , his third directing credit for the series . The episode features a guest appearance from Lindsey Broad , and her character was described as " Pam ’ s competent and likable pal , " Cathy . She appeared in a recurring role in the eighth season . The episode also relates to Pam 's pregnancy . Jenna Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby . The man who played Robert 's skilled drummer friend is Steve Moore , better known as " The Mad Drummer " for a viral video he was featured in .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Pam 's Replacement " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 96 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a two @-@ tenths decrease in the ratings from the previous episode , " Doomsday " . Despite this , however , the episode ranked second in its timeslot , beating Bones which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic and Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 2 % share , although both the latter two shows had more viewers . " Pam 's Replacement " was defeated by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 10 % share . Added with DVR viewers , who viewed the episode within seven days of the original broadcast , the episode received a 4 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 4 rating to the original viewership . A repeat of the episode on January 5 , 2012 drew 1 @.@ 85 million and received a 0 @.@ 7 rating / 2 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third and last in its time slot .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Pam 's Replacement " received generally mixed reviews from critics . HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall complimented the episode for staying true to the characters compared to the rest of the season , which he had criticized in an earlier review . He called the episode a " significant step up " albeit just " decent " in absolute terms . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized the Andy – Kevin – Darryl subplot for its lack of continuity or any sort of punchlines . He was also critical of the Pam – Dwight plot for not staying true to the characters , and suggested that the writers needed to write the show as less of " a bland copy of itself " . He called it one of the laziest half @-@ hours of the show and gave it a C − . Cindy White of IGN said that the episode needed a stronger A @-@ plot writing that the plots " felt like a meal made up of two tasty side dishes " . She gave it a 7 out of 10 . Hanna Lawrence of Hollywood.com praised the episode for being believable and for showing things that happen in real life . She also praised the Jim – Pam plot for showcasing the couple as not completely " perfect " . She called the band subplot " weak " .
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= WASP @-@ 43b =
WASP @-@ 43b is a transiting planet in orbit around the young , active , and low @-@ mass star WASP @-@ 43 in the constellation Sextans . The planet is a Hot Jupiter with a mass twice that of Jupiter , and a radius equal to Jupiter 's . WASP @-@ 43b was flagged as a candidate by the SuperWASP program before they conducted follow @-@ ups using instruments at La Silla Observatory in Chile , which confirmed the planet 's existence and provided orbital and physical characteristics . The planet 's discovery was published on April 14 , 2011 .
At the time of its discovery , WASP @-@ 43b had an orbital period of approximately 0 @.@ 8 days ( 19 @.@ 2 hours ) , the second shortest orbit ever detected , surpassed only by WASP @-@ 19b . In addition , at the time of discovery , WASP @-@ 43b was the most closely orbiting Hot Jupiter known , a phenomenon that can most likely be explained by its host star 's low mass .
= = Observational history = =
WASP @-@ 43 was first flagged as host to a potential transiting event ( when a body crosses in front of and dims its host star ) by data collected by SuperWASP , a British organization working to discover transiting planets across the entirety of the sky . In particular , WASP @-@ 43 was observed first by the leg of WASP @-@ South at the South African Astronomical Observatory between January and May 2009 .
Later observation by both SuperWASPs in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres led to the collection of 13 @,@ 768 data points between January and May 2010 and to the use of the CORALIE spectrograph at La Silla Observatory in Chile . Fourteen measurements using the radial velocity method confirmed WASP @-@ 43b as a planet , revealing its mass in the process . The use of La Silla 's TRAPPIST telescope helped the science team working on the planet to create a light curve of the planet 's transit in December 2010 .
The planet 's discovery was published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics on April 14 , 2011 .
In 2014 , secondary transit of the planet was reported . Full observation of phases of the planet was reported in the September of 2014 .
= = Host star = =
WASP @-@ 43 is a K @-@ type star in the Sextans constellation that is about 80 parsecs ( 261 light years ) away . The star has a mass of 0 @.@ 58 times that of the Sun , but is more diffuse with a radius of 0 @.@ 93 times that of the Sun . The star 's effective temperature is 4400 K , making the star cooler than the Sun , and is metal @-@ poor with regards to the Sun because it has a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = − 0 @.@ 05 ( 89 % the amount of iron in the Sun ) . The star is young , and is estimated to be 598 million years old ( as compared to the Sun 's 4 @.@ 6 billion years ) . Analysis of emission lines have indicated that WASP @-@ 43 is an active star .
WASP @-@ 43 has one detected planet in its orbit , WASP @-@ 43b . The star has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 4 , and thus is too faint to be seen with the unaided eye from Earth .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 43b is a dense Hot Jupiter with a mass of 1 @.@ 78 times the mass of Jupiter , but a radius of 0 @.@ 93 times that of Jupiter 's . The planet orbits its host star at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 0142 AU every 0 @.@ 813475 days ( 19 @.@ 5234 hours ) ; this orbital period , at the time of WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery , was the second @-@ shortest orbit yet detected , surpassed only by WASP @-@ 19b . In addition , WASP @-@ 43b had the closest orbit to its host star ( among Hot Jupiters ) at the time of its discovery , comparable only to the Super @-@ Earth planet GJ 1214b and to the planetary candidate orbiting KOI @-@ 961 . While Hot Jupiters are known to have small orbital periods , planets with exceptionally small periods below three or four days are extremely rare ; however , in the case of WASP @-@ 43b , the planet 's proximity can be explained because its host star has a very low mass . The rarity of systems like that of WASP @-@ 43 and its planet suggest that Hot Jupiters do not usually occur around low @-@ mass stars , or that such planets cannot maintain stable orbits around such stars .
WASP @-@ 43b , along with the planets WASP @-@ 19b and WASP @-@ 18b , conflicted with currently accepted models of tidal movements derived from observations of the orbits of binary star systems . Revisions to the model with regard to planets were proposed to help the models conform to the orbital parameters of these planets .
In comparison , planet Mercury has an orbital period of 87 @.@ 97 days and lies at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 387 AU from the Sun .
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= Flag of Poland =
The flag of Poland consists of two horizontal stripes of equal width , the upper one white and the lower one red . The two colors are defined in the Polish constitution as the national colors . A variant of the flag with the national coat of arms in the middle of the white stripe is legally reserved for official use abroad and at sea . A similar flag with the addition of a swallow @-@ tail is used as the naval ensign of Poland .
White and red were officially adopted as national colors in 1831 . They are of heraldic origin and derive from the tinctures ( colors ) of the coats of arms of the two constituent nations of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , i.e. the White Eagle of Poland and the Pursuer of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , a white knight riding a white horse , both on a red shield . Prior to that , Polish soldiers wore cockades of various color combinations . The national flag was officially adopted in 1919 . Since 2004 , Polish Flag Day is celebrated on May 2 .
The flag is flown continuously on the buildings of the highest national authorities , such as the parliament and the presidential palace . Other institutions and many Polish people fly the national flag on national holidays and other special occasions of national significance . Current Polish law does not restrict the use of the national flag without the coat of arms as long as the flag is not disrespected .
Horizontal bicolors of white and red being a relatively widespread design , there are several flags that are similar but unrelated to the Polish one . There are two national flags with the red stripe above the white one : those of Indonesia and Monaco . In Poland , many flags based on the national design also feature the national colors .
= = Design = =
= = = Legal sources = = =
The colors and flags of the Republic of Poland are described in two legal documents : the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997 , and the Coat of Arms , Colors and Anthem of the Republic of Poland , and State Seals Act ( Ustawa o godle , barwach i hymnie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz o pieczęciach państwowych ) of 1980 with subsequent amendments ( henceforth referred to as " the Coat of Arms Act " ) .
Legislation concerning the national symbols is far from perfect . The Coat of Arms Act has been amended several times and refers extensively to executive ordinances , some of which have never been issued . Moreover , the Act contains errors , omissions and inconsistencies which make the law confusing , open to various interpretations and often not followed in practice .
= = = National colors = = =
According to Chapter I , Article 28 , paragraph 2 of the Constitution , the national colors of Poland are white and red . The Coat of Arms Act , Article 4 , further specifies that the colors are white and red in two horizontal , parallel stripes of equal width , of which the top one is white and the bottom one is red . If the colors are displayed vertically , the white stripe is placed on the left from the onlooker 's viewpoint . Attachment no . 2 to the Act shows the national colors in both horizontal and vertical alignment , as well as the official shades of both colors expressed as coördinates in the CIE xyY ( CIE 1931 ) color space with the tolerated color differences ( ΔE ) specified in the CIE 1976 ( L * , u * , v * ) color space ( CIELUV ) .
= = = Variants of the national flag = = =
The Constitution contains no mention of a national flag . Instead , the flag is defined by the Coat of Arms Act which specifies two variants of the national flag : the national flag of the Republic of Poland ( flaga państwowa Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) and the national flag with coat of arms of the Republic of Poland ( flaga państwowa z godłem Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) . Both flags are defined in Article 6 of the act as follows :
The state flag of the Republic of Poland is a rectangular piece of cloth in the colors of the Republic of Poland hoisted on a flagpole .
The state flag of the Republic of Poland is also the flag specified in paragraph 1 , with the coat of arms of the Republic of Poland placed in the middle of the white stripe .
The hoist to fly ratio for both flags is 5 : 8 . For the latter flag , the proportion between the inescutcheon of the coat of arms and the hoist is 2 : 5 . Images of both variations of the flag can be found in attachment no . 3 to the Coat of Arms Act .
= = Usage = =
= = = Respect for the flag = = =
Polish law says that treating the national symbols , including the flag , " with reverence and respect " is the " right and obligation " of every Polish citizen and all state organs , institutions and organizations . Public disrespect , destruction or intentional removal of the flag is considered a crime punishable by a fine , penal servitude or up to one year of imprisonment . Official statistics show that crimes against national symbols are rare : 43 such crimes in 2003 and 96 in 2004 were less than 0 @.@ 001 % of all crimes registered in Poland in those years . Other , unspecified violation of regulations on the Polish flag is an infraction , punishable by a fine or up to one month imprisonment .
= = = Right and obligation to fly the flag = = =
According to the Coat of Arms Act , everyone can use the Polish flag , especially during national and cultural events , as long as it is done in a respectful manner . This liberty in the use of national colors is a relative novelty . Until 2004 , Polish citizens were only allowed to fly the Polish flag on national holidays . The use of both variants was restricted , but only flying the flag with coat of arms was , from 1955 until 1985 , punishable by a fine or arrest for up to one year . After 1985 , unauthorized use of any national symbols was an infraction . A possible explanation to such harsh measures was the fact that the officially @-@ promoted holiday of May 1st was separated by only one day from the pre @-@ war ( and current ) national holiday of Poland , the anniversary of signing of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . While hoisting a flag on May 1 was acceptable , no later than the following day it must have been hidden .
This restriction and kind of state monopoly on the use of national symbols during the Communist regime made flying the Polish flag a symbol of resistance against the government . It became customary – and still is – for workers to hoist Polish flags on plant buildings when going on strike . This is why the Polish flag , as a symbol of patriotism and resistance against the Communist rule , is part of the Solidarity trade union logo .
= = = = Flag without coat of arms = = = =
Organs that are required by law to fly the national flag without coat of arms either on top or in front of their official buildings are :
the Sejm ( lower house of parliament ) ;
the Senate ( upper house of parliament ) ;
the President of the Republic ;
the Council of Ministers ( cabinet ) and the President of the Council of Ministers ( Prime Minister ) ;
Voivodeship sejmiks ( provincial legislatures ) – only during their sessions ;
other state and local government organs – only on national holidays .
Additionally , the national flag without coat of arms is used as an ensign for inland navigation .
= = = = Flag with coat of arms = = = =
While the ban on using the flag without coat of arms has been lifted , the use of the national flag with coat of arms is still legally restricted . This flag should be only flown :
on or in front of Polish embassies , consulates and other representative offices and missions abroad , as well as by Polish ambassadors and consuls on their residences and vehicles ;
at civilian airports and heliports ( civil air ensign ) ;
on civilian airplanes – only during international flights ;
on buildings of seaport authorities ;
as a merchant ( civil ) ensign .
In practice , however , this restriction is often ignored and the two flags – with and without coat of arms – are treated as interchangeable . The variant with the coat of arms is particularly often used by the Polonia , or Polish diaspora outside Poland , especially in the United States .
= = = Flag flying days = = =
State and local government organs are legally required , and other institutions and organizations as well as all citizens are encouraged to fly the Polish flag on the following days :
May 1 – State Holiday ( May Day , formerly Labor Day ) ;
May 2 – Polish Flag Day ;
May 3 – Constitution Day ;
November 11 – Independence Day .
Polish Flag Day ( formally : Flag of the Republic of Poland Day , Dzień Flagi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) was first observed on May 2 , 2004 . It was established in order to educate the Polish people about the history and significance of national symbols . The date was chosen to coincide with the Polonia Day traditionally observed by the Polish diaspora outside Poland and the Polish Senate on May 2 . There was also a historical reason : under the Communist regime , May 2 was a day when national flags , hoisted for Labor Day on May 1 were being quickly removed before Polish Constitution Day ( May 3 ) , which was banned by the authorities . Since the re @-@ introduction of the Constitution Day in 1990 and establishment of the Polish Flag Day , the flag is flown continuously during the first three days of May . Unlike May Day and Constitution Day , the Flag Day is not a public holiday , although making a bridge , i.e. taking a day off on that day is common practice ( see Holidays in Poland ) .
Other days when the Polish flag is often flown on official buildings include :
May 5 and May 9 – Europe Days ( together with the European flag ) ;
August 15 – Polish Armed Forces Day ( mostly on military premises and at tombs of the Unknown Soldier )
September 27 – Polish Underground State Day .
The flag is also popularly flown during important sporting events , such as the FIFA World Cup , if Polish athletes are participating ; and during an official visit of a particularly important person , especially a pope , in Poland . During a pope 's visit , the national flag is usually flown together with yellow and white Church flags , and white and blue Marian flags . It is uncommon to fly the national flag on personal occasions , such as birthdays or weddings .
According to polls , about one out of three Poles say they own a Polish flag , and about one out of four fly it on national holidays . Such public display of patriotism is much more common in western Poland , especially in Greater Poland , than in other parts of the country .
= = Flag protocol = =
Flags in Poland are used according to a customary , rather than legal , flag protocol . Apart from the obligation to treat the flag with due respect , Polish law does not offer a detailed code of correct usage of the Polish flag . Some organizations and public institutions , such as the Heraldic and Vexillological Institute and the Supreme Chamber of Control have proposed written flag protocols for the Polish flag , based on custom , flag protocols of other countries such as India and the United States , and common sense . These guidelines , however , are not legally binding .
Traditionally , the national flag is reserved to serve either informative of festive purposes . A single specimen of the flag on or in front of a public office building indicates its official role . Multiple flags , on the other hand , are normally used to decorate both public and private buildings to mark special occasions , such as national holidays .
In Polish heraldry , the tincture of the charge has priority in relation to the tincture of the field . In the case of Polish national colors , white , the color of the White Eagle , should always be placed in a more honorable position than red , the color of the field of the Polish coat of arms . In the most usual , horizontal alignment , this means that the white stripe is placed above the red one . If the alignment is vertical , the white stripe should be on the left from the onlooker 's point of view . If the flag is hung vertically above a street , the white stripe should be placed on the left when looking in the direction of increasing house numbers . If it drapes a coffin , the white stripe should be placed over the heart .
The flag should be raised before 8 a.m. and lowered at sunset , and if flown at night , it should be illuminated . During a ceremonial raising of the flag , the national anthem is played so that the timing of the raising matches the duration of the anthem . Civilians pay respect by standing in a dignified manner ; additionally , men uncover their heads . Members of uniformed services stand at attention ; if their uniform includes headgear and they are not standing in an organized group , they also perform the two @-@ finger salute . Color guards dip their banners to the flag . ( See video )
According to generally accepted standards of respect , the national flag should never be dipped to any person or thing . Care should be taken to prevent the flag from touching the ground , floor or water beneath it . It should be also secured from being torn off or falling to the ground and it should not be flown outdoors during a heavy rain , blizzard or very strong wind . The flag should never be flown dirty , torn or faded . When no longer in a fit condition to be used , it should be disposed of in a dignified manner , preferably by cutting it in half so as to separate the colors and then , burning .
When displayed with other flags , the Polish flag should be raised first and lowered last . Each flag must be flown from a separate pole of the same height , but the flag of Poland should be always placed in the most honorable position . It means that if the total number of flags is even , the Polish flag should be placed to its right of the other flags . If the total number of flags is odd , it should be placed in the middle . Alternatively , two Polish flags may be placed , one at each end of the row of flags . The order of precedence for flags is as follows :
flag of Poland ,
national flags of other countries ( in alphabetical order ) ,
voivodeship flags ,
county flags ,
commune flags ,
European flag ,
flags of domestic organizations ,
flags of international organizations ,
public services flags ,
corporate flags ,
other flags .
The President of the Republic may announce a period of national mourning . During that time Polish flags are flown at half @-@ staff . If a flag is flown from a wooden pole rather than a staff or mast , a black ribbon is attached to the pole as a sign of mourning or a black flag is flown to its left from the national flag .
= = History = =
= = = Royal banner = = =
The earliest vexilloids ( flag @-@ like objects ) used in Poland were known as stanice and probably resembled the Roman vexillum , that is a cloth draped vertically from a horizontal crosspiece attached to a wooden pole or spear . They served as both religious and military symbols as early as 10th century CE . With Poland 's conversion to Christianity in 966 , the stanice were probably Christianized by replacing pagan symbols with Christian ones . The royal banner of arms dates back to the reign of King Boleslaus the Generous ( r . 1076 – 1079 ) , but it was during the reign of King Vladislaus the Elbow @-@ High ( r . 1320 – 1333 ) that a red cloth emblazoned with the White Eagle of the arms of Poland was finally established as the Banner of the Kingdom of Poland , a symbol of royal authority used at coronations and in battles .
In the times of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ( 1569 – 1795 ) , a banner of the Commonwealth was also used , combining the heraldic symbols of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The Commonwealth banner was initially plain white emblazoned with the arms of the Commonwealth which consisted of the heraldic charges of Poland ( White Eagle ) and Lithuania ( Pursuer ) . Since both Polish and Lithuanian coats of arms consisted of white ( Argent ) charges in a red ( Gules ) field , these two colors started to be used for the entire banner . During the 17th century , the banner was usually divided into two , three or four horizontal , often swallow @-@ tailed , stripes of red and white .
= = = National cockade = = =
In the 18th and 19th centuries , European nations used cockades , or knots of colored ribbons pinned to the hat , to denote the nationality of their military . In Poland , until 1831 , there was no consensus as to what the colors of the national cockade should be . Polish soldiers wore white , white @-@ and @-@ red , blue @-@ and @-@ red or blue @-@ white @-@ red cockades .
The custom came to Poland from Saxony during the reign of Augustus II ( r . 1697 – 1733 ) , King of Poland and Elector of Saxony . During that time , the cockade worn by the Polish military had , like in Saxony , the form of a white silk ribbon with a knot in the middle . It was later replaced with a circular white cockade wrinkled toward the center , patterned after the cockade of the Kingdom of France . During the reign of King Stanislaus Augustus ( r . 1764 – 1795 ) , a white @-@ and @-@ red cockade came into use alongside the plain white one . In 1791 , the Military Commission introduced a metal cross pattée as a more durable alternative to the cockade . However , many soldiers continued to either pin the cross to the cockade or wear the cockade without the cross . Polish military leaders and national heroes of the time , such as General Tadeusz Kościuszko and Prince Józef Poniatowski pinned plain white " national " cockades to their hats .
The patriotic and staunchly Catholic members of the Bar Confederation of 1768 – 1772 adopted crimson – the symbol of Polish szlachta , or nobility – and blue – symbolizing Virgin Mary – as their colors . These , as well as white @-@ and @-@ red , were considered national colors during the Great Sejm of 1788 – 1792 . White and red were first publicly used as national colors by civilians on May 3 , 1792 in Warsaw , during a celebration of the first anniversary of the adoption of the Constitution of 1791 . Meanwhile , the political left wore the blue @-@ white @-@ red cockades of the French Revolution . Polish Legions created in 1797 in French @-@ controlled republics in Italy , used either national cockades of the particular Italian republics in which they served or the French tricolor cockade . In the latter case , the red and blue colors were replaced with crimson and navy blue respectively , hues considered to be traditionally Polish . The General Confederation of the Kingdom of Poland , which sought to revive the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth during the French invasion of Russia in 1812 , adopted red @-@ and @-@ blue cockades , symbolizing the unity of Poland ( red ) and Lithuania ( blue ) . The military of the French @-@ controlled Duchy of Warsaw ( 1807 – 1815 ) and the Russian @-@ controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland ( 1815 – 1831 ) used the white cockade , which was also worn by the cadets who started the November Uprising against Russian rule on November 29 , 1830 .
During the uprising , the Sejm realized the need for unified national insignia that could be used by the Polish military . On February 7 , 1831 it adopted white and red , the tinctures ( colors ) of the Polish and Lithuanian coats of arms , as the national cockade of Poland . The white @-@ and @-@ red cockade was henceforth worn by Polish soldiers in the November Uprising , as well as by participants of the Kraków Uprising of 1846 , Polish freedom fighters in the Grand Duchy of Posen and the Austrian Empire during the Spring of Nations of 1848 , and Polish insurgents during the January Uprising of 1863 – 1864 . White and red colors were also used by civilians to show their protest against the Russian rule , as well as by people in France , Britain , Germany , Belgium and other countries as a sign of their sympathy with the Polish cause . The Sejm 's decision was not , however , immediately accepted by all . Left @-@ wing politicians of the time , such as Joachim Lelewel , continued to regard the revolutionary blue , white and red as true national colors . Tricolor standards were used by some Polish guerrilla units during the January Uprising .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
White @-@ and @-@ red flags were first waved during a patriotic demonstration on May 3 , 1916 in Warsaw . The organizing committee advised participants about the correct alignment of the colors , that is with the white stripe above the red one . Still , many demonstrators brought flags with the red stripe on top . On August 1 , 1919 , almost a year after Poland regained independence in November 1918 , the Sejm officially introduced a white @-@ and @-@ red bicolor as the Polish national flag . In order to avoid confusion with the white @-@ and @-@ red maritime signal flag used internationally by harbor pilots and tugboats , the same act of Sejm introduced a variant of the flag with the coat of arms in the white stripe for use as a civil ensign and by Polish diplomats and consuls abroad .
Apart from changes in the legal specifications of the shades of the national colors ( see the section below ) , the basic design of the Polish flag , including the 5 : 8 ratio , has remained unchanged to this day . The flag with coat of arms was only modified to adjust to the changes in the coat of arms itself . Major modifications included a change in the stylization of the eagle from Classicist to Baroque in 1927 and the removal of the crown from the eagle 's head during the Communist rule from 1944 to 1990 .
20th @-@ century Polish insurgents wore white @-@ and @-@ red brassards ( armbands ) which played a role similar to the cockade of previous centuries . Such armbands were worn by Polish freedom fighters during the Greater Poland Uprising ( 1918 – 1919 ) and Silesian Uprisings ( 1919 – 1921 ) , as well as during the Second World War ( 1939 – 1945 ) by the soldiers of the Home Army ( AK ) and Peasants ' Battalions ( BCh ) – usually emblazoned with the acronyms of their formations . During the Second World War , Polish soldiers raised the Polish flag on several sites of their victories . On May 18 , 1944 , after an Allied victory over the German forces in the Battle of Monte Cassino , a patrol of the 12th Podolian Uhlan Regiment ( part of the Polish 3rd Carpathian Rifle Division ) raised a Polish flag on ruins of the Monte Cassino abbey in Italy . On August 1 , 1944 , the first day of the Warsaw Uprising , a white @-@ and @-@ red flag was hoisted on the Prudential building , Warsaw 's tallest skyscraper of the time . During the liberation of Warsaw by Soviet forces and Polish People 's Army on January 17 , 1945 , Polish flags were raised on the Belvedere palace and ruins of the Main Railway Station . On May 2 , 1945 , after the capture of Berlin , soldiers of the 7th Battery , 3rd Division , 1st Light Artillery Regiment planted Polish flags on the Berlin Victory Column .
Polish flags were also used by anti @-@ government demonstrators under the Communist rule . During the bloody riots of 1956 in Poznań and 1970 in Gdynia , protesters carried flags that were blood @-@ stained on the white stripe .
= = = Shades of red = = =
Until 1927 , the exact shades of the national colors were not legally specified . In practice , the actual hue , particularly of red , depended on what kind of red dye was available . In pre @-@ partition Poland , crimson , due to its high price , was a color associated with the rich and the privileged . It could be obtained from the domestically harvested Polish cochineal , although imported alternatives were also available : kermes from the Mediterranean Basin ( hence karmazyn , the Polish name of the color ) and Mexican cochineal after the discovery of the New World . Crimson was reserved for the nobility and considered a symbol of the aristocracy , so that karmazyn became synonymous with a magnate . A royal ban on wearing this color could be a form of punishment ; in the 14th century , the Nałęcz clan of Greater Poland were forbidden to dress in crimson for their ancestors ' complicity in the assassination of King Premislaus in 1296 . In the first half of the 19th century , due to the influence of French fashion , crimson was largely replaced with the cheaper amaranth .
The National Cockade Act of 1831 did not specify the shade of red , for which it was criticized by Joachim Lelewel , nor did the Coat of Arms and National Colors Act of 1919 . In 1921 , the Ministry of Military Affairs issued a pamphlet with illustrations of the Polish flag and other national symbols which used the crimson shade of red . The pamphlet was not , however , an official source of law and was published for informative purpose only . The shade of red was first legally specified by a presidential decree of December 13 , 1927 which stipulated that the official shade was vermilion . This specification was upheld by a decree of December 7 , 1955 . The Coat of Arms Act of January 31 , 1980 replaced the verbal prescription with trichromatic coordinates in the CIE color space as proposed by Nikodem Sobczak , an expert in colorimetry , bringing the resulting hue closer to crimson again .
= = Related and similar flags = =
The flag of the Grand Duchy of Posen , a Polish @-@ populated autonomous province of the Kingdom of Prussia created in 1815 , was a red @-@ and @-@ white horizontal bicolor . Its colors were taken from the duchy 's coat of arms which consisted of the Prussian Black Eagle with an inescutcheon of the Polish White Eagle . With Germany 's increasingly anti @-@ Polish policy and a rising identification of white and red as Polish national colors , the red @-@ and @-@ white flag of Posen was replaced in 1886 with a white @-@ black @-@ white horizontal triband . No other part of Poland during the time of Partitions used a flag that would incorporate Polish national colors .
Today , many flags used in Poland are based on the design of the national flag . This applies especially to flags defined by Polish law and used by the Polish military and other uniformed services , such as the naval ensign – a swallow @-@ tailed horizontal bicolor of white and red defaced with the arms of Poland in the white stripe . Flags of some administrative subdivisions also resemble the national flag . Examples include the former flag of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship – a horizontal bicolor of white and red defaced with the arms of the voivodeship – or the flag of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship – a horizontal tricolor of white , yellow and red with the yellow stripe half as wide as any of the other two .
Due to the horizontal bicolor being a relatively simple and widespread flag design , and white and red being the most popular colors used on flags , there are many flags worldwide that are similar or near identical to the flag of Poland despite being unrelated to it . For example , the historical flag of Bohemia , the major historical region of Poland 's southern neighbor , the Czech Republic , consists of two horizontal stripes , white on top and red on bottom . Similarly to the flag of Poland , it is of heraldic origin , the coat of arms of Bohemia being Gules , a lion rampant , queue fourchée Argent , crowned , langued and armed Or , that is a silver double @-@ tailed lion in a red field . The white @-@ and @-@ red Bohemian flag came into use when Bohemia was a province of Austria @-@ Hungary and , after the end of the First World War in 1918 , it was shortly used as a flag of the newly formed Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic . In 1920 , in order to avoid confusion with the Polish flag , a blue triangle was added to create a flag used by Czechoslovakia until its dissolution in 1993 and currently used as the flag of the Czech Republic .
Other examples of flags that could be confused with the Polish one include the civil flags of the following regions : Cantabria , Spain ; Kranj , Slovenia ; Thuringia , Germany ; Upper Austria and Tyrol , Austria ; as well the city of Honda , Colombia . Furthermore , the Dutch city of Maastricht used a similar design between 1938 @-@ 1994 but reinstitated its old flag to avoid confusion . There are currently two independent states – Indonesia and Monaco – whose national flags are horizontal bicolors of red and white , reversing the Polish flag . The Monaco and Indonesia flags differ in proportions and shades of the colors ( see Flag of Indonesia and Flag of Monaco ) .
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= Archimyrmex =
Archimyrmex is an extinct genus of ant in the formicid subfamily Myrmeciinae , described by palaeoentomologist Theodore Cockerell in 1923 . The genus contains four described species , Archimyrmex rostratus , Archimyrmex piatnitzkyi , Archimyrmex smekali and Archimyrmex wedmannae . Archimyrmex is known from a group of Middle Eocene fossils which were found in North America , South America , and Europe . The genus was initially placed in the subfamily Ponerinae , but it was later placed in Myrmeciinae ; it is now believed to be the ancestor of the extant primitive genus Myrmecia from Australia . Despite this , Archimyrmex is not a member to any tribe and is regarded as incertae sedis within Myrmeciinae . However , some authors believe Archimyrmex should be assigned as incertae sedis within Formicidae . These ants can be characterised by their large mandibles and body length , ranging from 13 @.@ 2 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) . They also have long , thin legs and an elongated mesosoma ( thorax ) and petiole .
= = History and classification = =
When described the genus Archimyrmex was known from a solitary fossil preserved as an impression in fine shale of the Green River formation in Colorado . The fossil was recovered in July 1922 from the " station 1 " fossil site near the top of the Ute trail by entomologist Wilmatte Porter Cockerell . One side of the A. rostratus holotype is currently deposited in the University of Colorado paleontology collections while the counterpart is in the US National Museum , and an additional eleven fossils were known as of 2002 . The holotype was first studied by palaeoentomologist Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell of the University of Colorado and his 1923 type description of the new genus and species was published in The Entomologist . The specific epithet " rostratus " is a reference to the beak @-@ like outline of the mandibles seen in the type specimen .
Cockerell placed the genus into the subfamily Ponerinae . He noted similarities between Archimyrmex and Myrmecia and Prionomyrmex , suggesting Archimyrmex to be an intermediate between the two other genera . The genus was re @-@ described in 1928 by palaeoentomologist William Wheeler who moved the genus from Ponerinae to Myrmicinae . This placement was not challenged until a 2003 paper by Russian palaeoentomologists G.M. Dlussky and K.S. Perfilieva , who moved the genus again , this time to the primitive Subfamily Myrmeciinae based on the close similarity between Archimyrmex and Prionomyrmex . In 1957 , an additional species of fossil ant was described from the Middle Eocene Ventana Formation in the Rio Pichileufu region of Argentina by M.J. Viana and J.A. Haedo Rossi . They placed the species into a new genus , Ameghinoia as Ameghinoia " piatnitzkyi . As with Archimyrmex , the genus was first placed in Ponerinae . It was subsequently moved to Myrmeciinae by R.R. Snelling in 1981 . A second Ventana Formation ant species was described in 1981 by E. Rossi de Garcia and placed into another new genus Polanskiella as P. smekali . Recovered from an outcrop of the Ventana Formation in the Rio Limay area , Rossi de Garcia distinguished the new species from " A. " piatnitzkyi based on characteristics of the wing venation and because of the difference in size of the two type specimens . A series of fossils from the three genera were examined by Dlussky and Perfilieva and based on the very notable similarities between the three species , they synonymized the three genera under Archimyrmex , treating both Ameghinoia and " Polanskiella " as junior synonyms . A fourth species , A. wedmannae was described by Dlussky in 2012 based on fossils found in the Middle Eocene Messel Pit site of Germany . The specific epithet was chosen by Dlussky to honour paleoentomologist Sonja Wedmann .
Before Archimyrmex was placed into the subfamily Myrmeciinae , Wheeler classified the genus as incertae sedis ( Latin for " of uncertain placement " ) within the ant subfamily Myrmicinae , as it could not be confidently placed into any ant tribe . Even after its placement within Myrmeciinae it was still classified as incertae sedis . However , Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland classified the genus as incertae sedis within the family Formicidae . Baroni Urbani justifies his decision by stating the characters of the ant are similar to those of Cariridris , an insect from the Lower Cretaceous that was once placed in Myrmeciinae , but is now incertae sedis within the subclade Aculeata . Archimyrmex also shares a similar structure to other ants and insects within the order Hymenoptera . The key diagnostic traits ( synapomorphies ) of Myrmeciinae ants cannot be observed although the described species have elongated scapes ( the first segment of the antenna ) , a key diagnostic trait for Formicidae . A 2012 report describing new myrmecine fossils accepted the classification of Archibald and colleagues while disregarding Baroni Urbani 's comments .
The following cladogram generated by Archibald and colleagues show the possible phylogenetic position of Archimyrmex among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae ; it is possible that Archimyrmex may be the ancestor of Myrmecia .
= = Description = =
In general Archimyrmex individuals have a head capsule that bears a set of enlarged | mandibles with either a rectangular or triangular outline . The mandibles have a mixed arrangement of teeth and denticles ( smaller teeth ) on the inside margin . The gynes have long legs and long mesosomas , an elongated petiole ( a narrow waist between the mesosoma and gaster ) which is usually smooth in profile on the upper surface . The petiole structure in combination with little to no constriction between abdominal segments III and IV is unique to the genus and separates it from the other Myrmeciinae genera .
= = = A. piatnitzkyi = = =
A. piatnitzkyi is reported from three specimens , giving a body length between 16 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) . The holotype is currently preserved at the Bernardino Rivadavia Natural Sciences Museum palaeoentomological collection . The head capsule is slightly ovoid , being a little longer than it is wide and having elongated mandibles that are notably shorter than the head . As with A. smekali , the mesosoma is massive , being between 1 @.@ 7 @-@ 1 @.@ 8 times as long as it is tall . The legs are like those of the other species , being long and thin . Unlike the other species , the petiole of A. piatnitzkyi does not have a constricted post @-@ petiole .
= = = A. rostratus = = =
The type specimen numbers are UC no . 15174 and USNM no . 69617 for the part and counterpart ; females of the type species A. rostratus have a body length estimated to be between 13 @.@ 2 – 15 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 – 0 @.@ 62 in ) , with a small gaster that is shorter than the mesosoma and sporting a short thick sting . The length of the head when excluding the mandibles is 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) , the mesosoma is 5 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 21 in ) and the middle femur is around 3 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 15 in ) . The preserved specimens are brown and the upper area of the head and gaster is black , which is similar to Myrmecia nigriceps . The head capsules have antennae borne on a scape which is long and passes the edge of the occipital margin of the head . The short , thickened mandibles have several larger teeth interspersed with small denticles , and are about 50 % of the length of the head capsule . The scape is believed to be long and thin , and its mesosoma is narrow and long . The width of the scutum is greater than its length , the legs are noticeably elongated and thin , and the podeum ( a narrow stalk that connects the mesosoma with the abdomen ) is slightly convex .
= = = A. smekali = = =
The A. smekali lectotype numbered NMW. no . 1972 / 1574 / 9 is housed in the Museum of Natural History . The lectotype female has an estimated body length of 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) with an mesosoma that is described as " relatively massive " ( being only 1 @.@ 7 @-@ 1 @.@ 9 times as long as tall ) and an oval shaped gaster . There is a notable constriction in the post @-@ petiole abdominal segment not seen in the other species . The head capsule has mandibles which are about 70 % as long as the head capsule , and have four to five large teeth each . The antennal scape is longer than the occipital margin and the antenna is composed of an estimated twelve segments . The legs are elongated and narrow , the propodeum is weakly convex and the petiole does not have a node ( a segment between the mesosoma and gaster ) . A. smekali can be distinguished from other species by its massive size , the constriction in the post @-@ petiole and the absence of the node . It was previously thought the ant had an eight @-@ segmented antennae , but the lectotype has seven segments ; Dlussky also mentions that the original description provided by Elsa Rossi de Garcia does not match the description he provided .
= = = A. wedmannae = = =
A. wedmannae from Germany is described from a single gyne that is approximately 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) , found in the Messel pit . The fossil is believed to be 47 million years old . The mesosoma measures 7 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 29 in ) , the length of the head is 2 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) , the scape is 3 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 13 in ) , the diameter of the eyes are 1 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 047 in ) and the forewings are 10 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 42 in ) . The species has a head which is shorter than it is wide , but has mandibles about as long as the head which are triangular in outline . The eyes are oval shaped . As with the three other species the antennal scape is long , one @-@ third of the scape length protrudes past the occipital margin of the head . The pronotum in profile is either straight or weakly concave , and the petiole is weakly rounded with no node present . The propodeum has small denticles and is weakly convex , and the legs are long . The gaster has a well developed and long sting . This species can be distinguished from other Archimyrmex ants by its long mandibles ; the shape of the petiole is almost the same as A. smekali , but their mandibles are much shorter and the mesosoma is more compact . The propodeum 's dorsal surface is also more convex .
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= Kīlauea =
Kīlauea ( English / ˌkiːlaʊˈeɪə / KEE @-@ low @-@ AY @-@ ə , also US / ˌkɪləˈweɪə / KIL @-@ ə @-@ WAY @-@ ə ; Hawaiian : [ tiːlɐwˈwɛjə ] ) is a currently active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands , and the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the island of Hawaiʻi . Located along the southern shore of the island , the volcano is between 300 @,@ 000 and 600 @,@ 000 years old and emerged above sea level about 100 @,@ 000 years ago . It is the second youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain . Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa , Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor . Structurally , Kīlauea has a large , fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones , one extending 125 km ( 78 mi ) east and the other 35 km ( 22 mi ) west , as an active fault of unknown depth moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year .
Kīlauea 's eruptive history has been a long and active one ; its name means " spewing " or " much spreading " in the Hawaiian language , referring to its frequent outpouring of lava . The earliest lavas from the volcano date back to its submarine preshield stage , samples having been recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles from its submerged slopes ; samples of other flows have been recovered as core samples . Lavas younger than 1 @,@ 000 years cover 90 percent of the volcano 's surface . The oldest exposed lavas date back 2 @,@ 800 years . The first well @-@ documented eruption of Kīlauea occurred in 1823 ( Western contact and written history began in 1778 ) , and since that time the volcano has erupted repeatedly . Most historical eruptions have occurred at the volcano 's summit or its eastern rift zone , and are prolonged and effusive in character . The geological record shows , however , that violent explosive activity predating European contact was extremely common , and in 1790 one such eruption killed over 80 warriors ; should explosive activity start anew the volcano would become much more of a danger to humans . Kīlauea 's current eruption dates back to January 3 , 1983 , and is by far its longest @-@ duration historical period of activity , as well as one of the longest @-@ duration eruptions in the world ; as of January 2011 , the eruption has produced 3 @.@ 5 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava and resurfaced 123 @.@ 2 km2 ( 48 sq mi ) of land .
Kīlauea 's high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide , producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert . Nonetheless , wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea 's ( and the island of Hawaiʻi 's ) isolation from the nearest landmass . Historically , the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea 's Halemaumau Crater served as the body and home of Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . William Ellis , a missionary from England , gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano ; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , located on the rim of Kīlauea caldera , has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general . In 1916 a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson ; since then the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination , attracting roughly 2 @.@ 6 million people annually .
= = Geology = =
= = = Setting = = =
Like all Hawaiian volcanoes , Kīlauea was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth 's underlying mantle . The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that , over 70 million years , has created the 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) -long Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain . The prevailing , though not completely settled , view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet 's mantle for much , if not all of the Cenozoic Era . However , while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well @-@ understood and extensively studied , the nature of hotspots themselves remains fairly enigmatic .
Kīlauea is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi , created by the Hawaii hotspot . The oldest volcano on the island , Kohala , is more than a million years old , and Kīlauea , the youngest , is believed to be between 300 @,@ 000 and 600 @,@ 000 years of age ; Lōʻihi Seamount on the island 's flank is even younger , but has yet to breach the surface . Thus it is the second youngest volcano in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain , a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to the Kuril – Kamchatka Trench in Russia .
Following the pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation , Kīlauea started as a submarine volcano , gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt lava before emerging from the sea with a series of explosive eruptions about 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years ago . Since then , the volcano 's activity has likely been as it is now , a continual stream of effusive and explosive eruptions of roughly the same pattern as its activity in the last 200 or 300 years .
At most 600 @,@ 000 years old , Kīlauea is still quite young for a Hawaiian volcano ; the oldest volcano on the island , the northwestern Kohala , experienced almost 900 @,@ 000 years of activity before going extinct . The volcano 's foreseeable future activity will likely be much like it has been for the past 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years ; Hawaiian and explosive activity will continue to heighten Kīlauea 's summit , build up its rift zones , and fill and refill its summit caldera .
= = = Structure = = =
Kīlauea has been active throughout its history . Since 1918 , Kīlauea 's only prolonged period of rest was an 18 @-@ year pause between 1934 and 1952 . The bulk of Kīlauea consists of solidified lava flows , intermittent with scattered volcanic ash and tephra sourced from relatively lower @-@ volume explosive eruptions . Much of the volcano is covered in historical flows , and 90 percent of its surface dates from the last 1 @,@ 100 years . Kīlauea built itself up from the seafloor over time , and thus much of its bulk remains underwater ; its subaerial surface is in the form of a gently sloping , elongate , decentralized shield with a surface area of approximately 1 @,@ 500 km2 ( 579 sq mi ) , making up 13 @.@ 7 percent of the island 's total surface area .
Kīlauea lacks a topographical prominence , appearing only as a bulge on the southeastern flank of the nearby Mauna Loa ; because of this , both native Hawaiians and early geologists considered it an active satellite of its more massive neighbor . However , analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from the two volcanoes shows that they have separate magma chambers , and are thus distinct . Nonetheless , their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other . When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952 , Mauna Loa became active , and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974 , the reverse was true . This is not always the case ; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea , but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption , and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loa 's summit , indicative of a future eruption , began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlauea 's Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater . Geologists have suggested that " pulses " of magma entering Mauna Loa 's deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions .
Kīlauea has a large summit caldera , measuring 4 by 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 by 2 mi ) with walls up to 120 m ( 400 ft ) high , breached by lava flows on the southwestern side . It is unknown if the caldera was always there or if it is a relatively recent feature , and it is possible that it has come and gone throughout Kīlauea 's eruptive history ; what is known is that it likely formed over several centuries , with its construction estimated to have begun about 500 years ago , and that its present form was finalized by a particularly powerful eruption in 1790 . A major feature within the caldera is Halemaʻumaʻu Crater , a large pit crater and one of Kīlauea 's most historically active eruption centers . The crater is approximately 920 m ( 3 @,@ 018 ft ) in diameter and 85 m ( 279 ft ) deep , but its form has varied widely through its eruptive history ; the floor of the Halemaʻumaʻu Crater is now mostly covered by flows from its most recent eruption , in 1974 .
Kīlauea has two rift zones radiating from its summit , one leading 125 km ( 78 mi ) out to the east , the other 35 km ( 22 mi ) long and trending towards the southwest . Tectonic extension along both rift zones is causing Kīlauea 's bulk to slowly slide seaward off its southern flank at a rate of about 6 to 10 cm ( 2 to 4 in ) per year , centered on a basal décollement fault 7 to 9 km ( 4 to 6 mi ) beneath the volcano 's surface . The eastern rift zone in particular is a dominant feature on the volcano ; it is almost entirely covered in lava erupted in the last 400 years , and at its crest near the summit is 2 to 4 km ( 1 to 2 mi ) wide . Non @-@ localized eruptions , typical of rift zone activity , have produced a series of low @-@ lying ridges down the majority of the east rift zone 's length . Its upper segment is the most presently active section of the volcano , and is additionally the site of a number of large pit craters ; its lower extremity reaches down Kīlauea 's submerged flank to a depth of more than 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) . By contrast , the much smaller southwestern rift has been quiet since a rifting episode in 1974 , and to date has not been involved in the current eruptive cycle at all . The southwestern rift zone 's extremity is also underwater , although its submarine length is more limited . The southwestern rift zone also lacks a well @-@ defined ridge line or a large number of pit craters , evidence that it is also geologically less active than the eastern rift zone .
A prominent structure on Kīlauea 's southern flank is the Hilina fault system , a highly active fault moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year along the system . Its physiographic province is 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) deep , but it is unknown if it is a shallow listric fault or if it penetrates to the very base of the volcano . A number of cinder cones , satellite shields , lava tubes , and other eruptive structures also dot the volcano , evidence of its recent activity . Kīlauea has some interactions with Mauna Loa , its larger neighbor and only other recently active volcano on the island ; interspersed lava flows and ash deposits belonging to its neighbor have been found on its flanks , and some of Mauna Loa 's flows are , in turn , blanketed in Kīlauea tephra . In particular , the saddle between the two volcanoes is currently depressed , and is likely to fill over in the future .
All historical eruptions at Kīlauea have occurred at one of three places : its summit caldera , its eastern rift zone , or its southwestern rift zone . Half of Kīlauea 's historical eruptions have occurred at or near Kīlauea 's summit caldera . Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century , capped by a massive explosive eruption in 1924 before petering out by 1934 . Recent activity has mostly shifted to Kīlauea 's eastern rift zone , the site of 24 historical eruptions , located mostly on its upper section ; by contrast , the volcano 's southwestern rift zone has been relatively quiet , and has only been the site of five events to date .
= = Eruptive history = =
= = = Prehistoric eruptions = = =
Geologists have dated and documented dozens of major eruptions over the volcano 's long history , bridging the long gap between Kīlauea 's oldest known rock and only extremely recent written records and historical observation . Historical lava flows from the volcano are generally recovered by scientists in one of three ways . The oldest flows , dating back 275 @,@ 000 to 225 @,@ 000 years , have been recovered from Kīlauea 's submerged southern slope by ship @-@ towed remotely operated vehicles . These lavas exhibit forms characteristic of early , submerged preshield @-@ stage eruptive episodes , from when the volcano was still a rising seamount that had not yet breached the ocean surface , and their surface exposure is unusual , as in most other volcanoes such lavas would have since been buried by more recent flows .
The second method of recovering older rock is through the drilling of deep core samples ; however , the cores have proved difficult to date , and several samples from depths of around 1 @,@ 700 m ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) that suggested dates as old as 450 @,@ 000 years have since been found erroneous . More reliable paleomagnetic dating , limited to rocks dating from after Kīlauea 's emergence from the sea , has suggested ages of around 50 @,@ 000 years . Exposed flows above sea level have proved far younger . Some of the oldest reliably dated rock , 43 @,@ 000 years old , comes from charcoal sandwiched beneath an ash layer on a fault scarp known as Hilina Pali ; however , sampled dated from higher up the scarp indicate ash deposition at an average rate of 6 m ( 20 ft ) per thousand years , indicating the oldest exposed flows , from the base of the feature , could date back as far as 70 @,@ 000 years . This date is similar to that of the oldest dated extant lava flow , a southwestern rift zone flow with an uncorrected radiocarbon dating of approximately 4650 BC .
The oldest well @-@ studied eruptive product from Kīlauea is the Uwēkahuna Ash Member , the product of explosive eruptions between 2 @,@ 800 and 2 @,@ 100 years ago . Although it has since been largely buried by younger flows , it remains exposed in some places , and has been traced more than 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the volcano 's caldera , evidence of very powerful eruptions . Evidence suggests the existence of an active eruptive center at this time , termed the Powers Caldera , 2 km ( 1 mi ) away from the modern one . At least 1 @,@ 200 years ago , lava from the Powers Caldera overtopped its rim and solidified the structure ; this was followed by a period of very voluminous tube @-@ fed pāhoehoe flows from the summit . Following cessation of activity around 400 years ago , eruptions re @-@ centered on the eastern part of Kīlauea 's summit , and concurrently activity increased at the northern end of the eastern rift zone .
= = = 1790 to 1934 = = =
The earliest reliable written records of historical activity date back to about 1820 , and the first well @-@ documented eruption occurred in 1823 , when the volcano was first put under observation ; although Native Hawaiians are thought to have first settled on the island around 1 @,@ 500 years ago , oral records predating European arrival on the island are few and difficult to interpret . One pre @-@ contact eruption in particular , a phreatomagmatic event in 1790 , was responsible for the death of a party of warriors , part of the army of Keōua Kuahuʻula , the last island chief to resist Kamehameha I 's rule ; their death is evidenced by a set of footprints preserved within the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Kilauea has been the site of 61 separate eruptions since 1823 , easily making it one of the most active volcanoes on Earth .
During its observed history , the volume of lava erupted by Kīlauea has varied widely . In 1823 Kīlauea 's summit caldera was far deeper than it is today , but was in the process of filling up under nearly continuous summit eruption , with 3 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava erupted there alone by 1840 . The period between 1840 and 1920 saw approximately half that in eruptive volume , and in the thirty years between then and about 1950 , the volcano was unusually quiet and exhibited very little activity ; Kīlauea 's eruptive volume has increased steadily since then , with present activity comparable to that of the early 1800s .
The length and origin these eruptions has also varied . Events last anywhere between days and years , and occur at a number of different sites . Half of all eruptions occur at or near Kīlauea 's summit caldera . Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century , and after a reprieve between 1894 and 1907 , continued onwards until 1924 . There have been five historical eruptions at the volcano 's relatively southwestern rift zone , and 24 along its more active eastern rift zone , mostly along its upper section .
The volcano 's observed history has mostly been one of effusive eruptions ; however , this is a relatively recent occurrence . Prior to the arrival of the first Europeans on the island , Kīlauea was the site of regular explosive activity , evidenced then by tribal chants referencing the volcano 's fickle nature , and today by geological records of an explosively active mode of past activity . Although explosive activity still occurs at the volcano , it is not as intense as it once was , and the volcano would become much more dangerous to the general public if it returned to its old phase of activity once more .
Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832 , but the first major eruption since the 1790 event occurred in 1840 , when its eastern rift zone became the site a large , effusive Hawaiian eruption over 35 km ( 22 mi ) of its length , unusually long even for a rift eruption . The eruption lasted for 26 days and produced an estimated 205 to 265 million cubic meters of lava ; the light created by the event was so intense that one could reportedly read a newspaper in Hilo at night , 30 km ( 19 mi ) away .
The volcano was active again in 1868 , 1877 , 1884 , 1885 , 1894 , and 1918 , before its next major eruption in 1918 – 1919 . Halemaʻumaʻu , then a small upwelling in the caldera floor , was topped by a lava lake that then drained , before refilling again , forming an enormous lava lake and nearly reaching the top edge of the caldera before draining once more . This activity eventually gave way to the construction of Mauna Iki , building up the large lava shield within the caldera over a period of eight months . The eruption also featured concurrent rift activity and a large amount of lava fountaining .
Activity in 1921 – 1923 followed . The next major eruption occurred in 1924 . Halemaʻumaʻu Crater , a fully formed pit crater after the 1919 event and the site of a sizable lava lake , first drained , then quickly began sinking into the ground , deepening to nearly 210 m ( 689 ft ) beneath a thick cloud of volcanic ash . Explosive activity began on May 10 of that year , blowing rock chunks weighing as much as 45 kg ( 99 lb ) 60 m ( 197 ft ) out , and smaller fragments weighing about 9 kg ( 20 lb ) out as far as 270 m ( 886 ft ) , and , after a brief reprieve , intensified through a major blast on May 18 , when an enormous explosive event caused the eruption 's only fatality . The eruption continued and formed numerous eruption columns up to and beyond 9 km ( 6 mi ) in height , before slowly petering down and ending by May 28 . Volcanic activity was soon confined to the summit , and ceased completely after 1934 .
= = = 1952 to 1982 = = =
After the Halemaʻumaʻu event , Kīlauea remained relatively quiet , and , for a time , completely silent , with all activity confined to the summit . It came alive again in 1952 with an enormous lava fountain 245 m ( 804 ft ) high at the Halemaʻumaʻu Crater . Multiple continuous lava fountains between 15 and 30 m ( 49 and 98 ft ) persisted , and the eruption lasted 136 days . Eruptions occurred soon after in 1954 , 1955 , and 1959 , capped by a large event in 1960 , when fissure @-@ based phreatic eruption and earthquake activity gave way to a massive a 'a flow that overran multiple evacuated communities and resorts ; the resulting summit deflation eventually caused the ever @-@ active Halemaʻumaʻu to collapse even further .
Following the event , eruptive events yearly and nearly continuous , a state of activity that remains today . 1967 – 1968 saw a particularly large , 80 @-@ million @-@ cubic @-@ meter , 251 @-@ day event from Halemaʻumaʻu Crater . This event was superseded the very next year by the marathon Mauna Ulu eruption , a large effusive eruption which lasted from May 24 , 1969 to July 24 , 1974 and added 230 acres ( 93 ha ) of new land to the island . After eruptive activity had died down , there was a magnitude 7 @.@ 2 earthquake that caused a partial summit collapse , after which activity did not resume at Kīlauea until 1977 .
The Mauna Ulu eruption of Kīlauea began on May 24 , 1969 , and ended on July 22 , 1974 . At the time , Mauna Ulu was the longest flank eruption of any Hawaiian volcano in recorded history . The eruption created a new vent , covered a large area of land with lava , and added new land to the island . The eruption started as a fissure between two pit craters , ʻĀloʻi and ʻAlae , where the Mauna Ulu shield would eventually form . Both pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lava erupted from the volcano . Early on , fountains of lava burst out as much as 540 meters ( 1772 ft ) high . In early 1973 , an earthquake occurred that caused Kīlauea to briefly stop erupting near the original Mauna Ulu site and instead erupt near the craters Pauahi and Hiʻiaka .
= = = 1983 - present = = =
The most recent major eruption at Kīlauea has also proved to be by far its eruption of longest @-@ known duration . The current Kīlauea eruption began on January 3 , 1983 , along the eastern rift zone . The vent produced vigorous lava fountains that quickly built up into Puʻu ʻŌʻō cone , sending lava flows down the volcano 's slope . In 1986 , activity shifted down the rift to a new vent , named Kūpaʻianahā , where it took on a more effusive character . Kūpaʻianahā built up a low , broad volcanic shield , and lava tubes fed flows extending 11 to 12 km ( about 7 mi ) to the sea . Between 1986 and 1991 , Chain of Craters Road was cut , and the community of Kapa ’ ahu , the village of Kalapana , and the subdivisions of Kālapana Gardens and Royal Gardens were lost to the lava . A black sand beach at Kaimu was also engulfed . In 1992 , the eruption moved back to Puʻu ʻŌʻō , but continued in the same manner , covering nearly all of the 1983 – 86 lava flows and large areas of coastline . As of December 2012 , the eruption had produced 4 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava , covered 125 km2 ( 48 sq mi ) of land , added 202 ha ( 499 acres ) of land to the island , destroyed 214 structures , and buried 14 @.@ 3 km ( 9 mi ) of highway under lava as thick as 35 m ( 115 ft ) .
In December 2014 , the June 27 flow from the ongoing eruption threatened to enter the town of Pahoa , and to cut Highway 130 , the only route into and out of Lower Puna . As a result , work was begun to reopen Chain of Craters Road , initially as a one @-@ lane gravelled surface , and to make Railroad Avenue and Government Beach Road usable as emergency routes . However the flow stopped just short of entering Pahoa , and by March 2015 the threat to the town was much reduced .
= = = Volcanic Explosivity Index = = =
The Global Volcanism Program has assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) to all except five of Kīlauea 's ninety @-@ five known eruptions of the last 11 @,@ 700 years . The eruption of 1790 has a VEI of 4 . The eruptions of 1820 , 1924 , 1959 and 1960 have a VEI of 2 . The eruptions of 680 , 1050 , 1490 , 1500 , 1610 , 1868 , four eruptions in 1961 and the current eruption since 1983 have a VEI of 1 . The other seventy @-@ four eruptions have a VEI of 0 .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Background = = =
Because of its position more than 2 @,@ 000 miles from the nearest continental landmass , the island of Hawaiʻi is one of the most geographically isolated landmasses on Earth ; this in turn has strongly influenced its ecology . The majority of the species present on the island are endemic to it and can be found nowhere else on Earth , the result of an isolated evolutionary linage sheltered from external biotic influence ; this makes its ecosystem vulnerable both to invasive species and human development , and an estimated third of the island 's natural flora and fauna has already gone extinct .
Kīlauea 's ecological community is additionally threatened by the activity of the volcano itself ; lava flows often overrun sections of the volcano 's forests and burns them down , and volcanic ash distributed by explosive eruptions often smothers local plant life . Layers of carbonized organic material at the bottom of Kīlauea ash deposits are evidence of the many times the volcano has wrought destruction on its own ecosystem and that of its neighbor Mauna Loa , and parts of the volcano present a dichotomy between pristine montane forest and recently buried volcanic " deserts " yet to be recolonized .
Kīlauea 's bulk affects local climate conditions through the influence of trade winds coming predominately from the northeast , which , when squeezed upwards by the volcano 's height , results in a moister windward side and a comparatively arid leeward flank . The volcano 's ecology is further complicated by height , though not nearly as much as with its other , far taller neighbors , and by the local distribution of volcanic products , which make for varied soil conditions . The northern part of Kīlauea is mostly below 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) and receives more than 75 in ( 191 cm ) mean annual rainfall , and can mostly be classified as a lowland wet community ; further south , the volcano has squeezed out much of the precipitation and receives less than 50 in ( 127 cm ) mean annual rainfall , and is considered mostly a lowland dry environment .
= = = Ecosystems = = =
Much of Kīlauea 's southern ecosystem lies within the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park , where a ’ e ferns , ʻōhiʻa trees ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) , and hapu ’ u of the genus Cibotium are common . The park hosts a large variety of bird species , including the ' apapane ( Himatione sanguinea ) , the ' amakihi ( Hemignathus virens ) , the ' i 'iwi ( Vestiaria coccinea ) , the ‘ ōma ’ o ( Myadestes obscurus ) , the ʻelepaio ( Chasiempis sp . ) , and the endangered ' akepa ( Loxops coccineus ) , ' akiapola 'au ( Hemignathus munroi ) , nēnē ( Branta sandvicensis ) , ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) , and ʻio ( Buteo solitarius ) species . The Kīlauea coast also hosts three of the nine known critically endangered hawksbill sea turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata ) nesting sites on the island .
Some of the area alongside Kīlauea 's southwestern rift zone takes the form of the unusual Kaʻū Desert . Although not a " true " desert ( rainfall there exceeds the maximum 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) a year ) , precipitation mixing with drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide forms acid rain with a pH as low as 3 @.@ 4 , greatly hampering regional plant growth . The deposited tephra particulates make the local soil very permeable . Plant life in the region is practically nonexistent .
Kīlauea 's northern lowland wet forest ecosystem is partially protected by the Puna Forest Reserve and the Kahauale`a Natural Area Reserve . At 27 @,@ 785 acres ( 11 @,@ 244 ha ) , Wao Kele in particular is Hawaiʻi 's largest lowland wet forest reserve , and is home to rare plant species including hāpuʻu ferns ( Cibotium spp . ) , ʻieʻi.e. vines ( Freycinetia arborea ) , and kōpiko ( Psychotria mariniana ) , some of which play a role in limiting invasive species ' spread . ʻOpeʻapeʻa ( Lasiurus cinereus semotus ) ʻio ( Buteo solitarius ) , common ʻamakihi ( Hemignathus virens ) , and nananana makakiʻi ( Theridion grallator ) live in the trees . There are thought to be many more as @-@ yet @-@ undocumented species within the forest . Wao Kele 's primary forest tree is ʻōhiʻa lehua ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) .
= = Human history = =
= = = Ancient Hawaiian = = =
The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores , where food and water were plentiful . Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source . Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem , and caused many extinctions , particularly amongst bird species , as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates . The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland ; some of this change was caused by the use of fire , but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian rat ( Rattus exulans ) .
The summits of the five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains . Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities . In Hawaiian mythology , the sky father Wākea marries the earth mother Papa , giving birth to the Hawaiian Islands . Kīlauea itself means " spewing " or " much spreading " in Hawaiian , referencing its high state of activity , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea is the body of the deity Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . It is here that the conflict between Pele and the rain god Kamapuaʻa was centered ; Halemaʻumaʻu , " House of the ʻamaʻumaʻu fern " , derives its name from the struggle between the two gods . Kamapuaʻa , hard @-@ pressed by Pele 's ability to make lava spout from the ground at will , covered the feature , a favorite residence of the goddess , with fern fronds . Choked by trapped smoke , Pele emerged . Realizing that each could threaten the other with destruction , the others gods called a draw and divided the island between them , with Kamapuaʻa getting the moist windward northeastern side , and Pele directing the drier Kona ( or leeward ) side . The rusty singed appearance of the young fronds of the ʻamaʻumaʻu is said to be a product of the legendary struggle .
This early era was followed by peace and cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century . Land was divided into regions designed for both the immediate needs of the populace and the long @-@ term welfare of the environment . These ahupuaʻa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast .
= = = Modern era = = =
The first foreigner to arrive at Hawaii was James Cook in 1778 . The first non @-@ native to observe Kīlauea in detail was William Ellis , an English missionary who in 1823 spent more than two weeks trekking across the volcano . He collated the first written account of the volcano and observed many of its features , establishing the premise for future explorations of the volcano .
One of the earliest and most important surveyors of Kīlauea was James Dwight Dana , who , staying with the missionary Titus Coan , studied the island 's volcanoes in detail for decades first @-@ hand . Dana visited Kīlauea 's summit and described it in detail in 1840 . After publishing a summary paper in 1852 , he directed a detailed geological study of the island in 1880 and 1881 but did not consider Kīlauea a separate volcano , instead referring to it as a flank vent of Mauna Loa ; it was not until another geologist , C. E. Dutton , had elaborated on Dana 's research during an 1884 expedition that Kīlauea came to be generally accepted as a separate entity .
The next era of Kīlauea 's history began with the establishment of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory on the volcano 's rim in 1912 . The first permanent such installation in the United States , the observatory was the brainchild of Thomas Jaggar , head of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; after witnessing the devastation of the 1908 Messina earthquake near Mount Etna in Italy , he declared that something must be done to support systematic volcanic and seismic study , and chose Kīlauea as the site of the first such establishment . After securing initial funding from MIT and the University of Hawaii , Jaggar took directorship of the observatory and , whilst its head between 1912 and 1940 , pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of active volcanoes . After initial funding ran out , the Observatory was successively funded by the National Weather Service , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , and the National Park Service , before settling on the USGS , under whose banner the observatory has been operating since 1947 . The main building has been moved twice since establishment , and today is positioned on the northwest rim of Kīlauea 's caldera .
= = Tourism = =
The volcano became a tourist attraction from the 1840s onwards , and local businessmen such as Benjamin Pitman and George Lycurgus ran a series of hotels at the rim , including Volcano House which is still the only hotel or restaurant located within the borders of the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park . In 1891 , Lorrin A. Thurston , grandson of the American missionary Asa Thurston and investor in hotels along the volcano 's rim , began campaigning for a park on the volcano 's slopes , an idea first proposed by William Richards Castle , Jr. in 1903 . Thurston , who owned the Honolulu Advertiser newspaper , printed editorials in favor of the idea ; by 1911 Governor Walter F. Frear had proposed a draft bill to create " Kilauea National Park " . Following endorsements from John Muir , Henry Cabot Lodge , and former President Theodore Roosevelt ( in opposition to local ranchers ) and several legislative attempts introduced by delegate Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana 'ole , House Resolution 9525 was signed into law by Woodrow Wilson on August 1 , 1916 . It was the 11th National Park in the United States , and the first in a Territory ; a few weeks later , the National Park Service Organic Act was signed into law , creating the National Park Service and tasking it with running the expanding system . Originally called " Hawaii National Park " , it was split from the Haleakala National Park on 22 September 1960 . Today the park , renamed the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park , is a major conservatory agency and tourist attraction , and , since 1987 , a World Heritage Site .
In its early days tourism was a relatively new concept , but grew slowly before exploding with the advent of air travel around 1959 , the year Hawaiʻi became a state . Today tourism is driven by the island 's exotic tropical locations , and Kīlauea , being one of the few volcanoes in the world in a more or less constant state of moderate eruption , is a major part of the island 's tourist draw . Today , Kīlauea is visited by roughly 2 @.@ 6 million people annually , most of whom proceed up the volcano from the recently revamped Kilauea Visitor Center near the park entrance . The Thomas A. Jaggar Museum is also a popular tourist stop ; located at the edge of Kīlauea caldera , the museum 's observation deck offers the best sheltered view on the volcano of the activity at Halemaumau Crater . The Volcano House still provides the nearest lodging , and the nearby Volcano Village the most numerous ; visitors associated with the military can find lodging at the Kilauea Military Camp . A number of hiking trails , points of interest , and guided ranger programs exist , and the Chain of Craters Road , Hilina Pali Road , and Crater Rim Drive provide access .
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= Gray wolf =
The gray wolf or grey wolf ( Canis lupus ) , also known as the timber wolf or western wolf , is a canid native to the wilderness and remote areas of Eurasia and North America . It is the largest extant member of its family , with males averaging 43 – 45 kg ( 95 – 99 lb ) , and females 36 – 38 @.@ 5 kg ( 79 – 85 lb ) . Like the red wolf , it is distinguished from other Canis species by its larger size and less pointed features , particularly on the ears and muzzle . Its winter fur is long and bushy , and predominantly a mottled gray in color , although nearly pure white , red , or brown to black also occur . As of 2005 , 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 .
The gray wolf is the second most specialised member of the genus Canis , after the Ethiopian wolf , as demonstrated by its morphological adaptations to hunting large prey , its more gregarious nature , and its highly advanced expressive behavior . It is nonetheless closely related enough to smaller Canis species , such as the eastern wolf , coyote , and golden jackal to produce fertile hybrids . It is the only species of Canis to have a range encompassing both the Old and New Worlds , and originated in Eurasia during the Pleistocene , colonizing North America on at least three separate occasions during the Rancholabrean . It is a social animal , travelling in nuclear families consisting of a mated pair , accompanied by the pair 's adult offspring . The gray wolf is typically an apex predator throughout its range , with only humans and tigers posing a serious threat to it . It feeds primarily on large ungulates , though it also eats smaller animals , livestock , carrion , and garbage .
The gray wolf is one of the world 's best known and well researched animals , with probably more books written about it than any other wildlife species . It has a long history of association with humans , having been despised and hunted in most pastoral communities because of its attacks on livestock , while conversely being respected in some agrarian and hunter @-@ gatherer societies . Although the fear of wolves is pervasive in many human societies , the majority of recorded attacks on people have been attributed to animals suffering from rabies . Non @-@ rabid wolves have attacked and killed people , mainly children , but this is rare , as wolves are relatively few , live away from people , and have developed a fear of humans from hunters and shepherds .
= = Etymology = =
The English ' wolf ' stems from the Old English wulf , which is itself thought to be derived from the Proto @-@ Germanic * wulfaz . The Latin lupus is a Sabine loanword . Both derive from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root * wlqwos / * lukwos .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Canis lupus was recorded by Carl Linnaeus in his publication Systema Naturae in 1758 . The Latin classification translates into English as " dog wolf " . The subspecies of Canis lupus are listed in Mammal Species of the World . The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf ( Canis lupus lupus ) , also known as the common wolf . As of 2005 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 , however the classification of several as either species or subspecies has recently been challenged .
= = = Evolution and relationship with the dog = = =
The evolution of the wolf occurred over a geologic time scale of 800 thousand years , transforming the first Middle Pleistocene wolf specimen that is recognized as being morphologically similar to Canis lupus into today 's dog , dingo and gray wolf . Ecological factors including habitat type , climate , prey specialization and predatory competition will greatly influence the wolf 's genetic population structure and cranio @-@ dental plasticity . Wolves went through a population bottleneck 20 @,@ 000 years before present ( YBP ) , which indicates that many wolf populations had gone extinct at a time that coincided with the Last Glacial Maximum and the expansion of modern humans worldwide with their technology for capturing large game . The domestic dog is the most widely abundant large carnivore and a descendant from one of those now @-@ extinct wolf populations . Today , the wolf is represented by the many extant subspecies of Canis lupus , which includes the dog and dingo .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Globally , C. lupus taxonomy has been subject to numerous revisions , particularly in North America . As of 2005 , 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 . Its list includes the domestic dog , dingo , eastern wolf and red wolf , but lists C. l. italicus and C. l. communis as synonyms of C. l. lupus .
= = = Hybridization with other Canis = = =
Dogs and gray wolves do not voluntarily interbreed in the wild , though they can produce fertile wolf @-@ dog offspring . In North America , black colored wolves acquired their coloration from wolf @-@ dog hybridization , which occurred 10 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Like pure wolves , hybrids breed once annually , though their mating season occurs three months earlier , with pups mostly being born in the winter period , thus lessening their chances of survival . However , one genetic study undertaken in the Caucasus Mountains showed that as many as 10 % of dogs in the area , including livestock guardian dogs , are first generation hybrids . The captive breeding of wolf @-@ dog hybrids has proliferated in the USA , with 300 @,@ 000 such animals being present there .
The gray wolf has interbred extensively with the eastern wolf producing a hybrid population termed Great Lakes boreal wolves . Unlike the red and eastern wolf , the gray wolf does not readily interbreed with coyotes . Nevertheless , coyote genetic markers have been found in some wild isolated gray wolf populations in the southern United States . Gray wolf Y @-@ chromosomes have also been found in Texan coyote haplotypes . In tests performed on a putative chupacabra carcass , mtDNA analysis showed that it was a coyote , though subsequent tests revealed that it was a coyote – gray wolf hybrid sired by a male Mexican gray wolf . In 2013 , a captive breeding experiment in Utah between gray wolves and western coyotes produced six hybrids through artificial insemination , making this the very first hybridization case between pure coyotes and northwestern gray wolves . At six months of age , the hybrids were closely monitored and were shown to display both physical and behavioral characteristics from both species . Although hybridization between wolves and golden jackals has never been observed , evidence of such occurrences was discovered through mtDNA analysis on jackals in Bulgaria . Although there is no genetic evidence of gray wolf @-@ jackal hybridization in the Caucasus Mountains , there have been cases where otherwise genetically pure golden jackals have displayed remarkably gray wolf @-@ like phenotypes , to the point of being mistaken for wolves by trained biologists .
= = Physical description = =
= = = Anatomy and dimensions = = =
Compared to its closest wild cousins ( the coyote and golden jackal ) , the gray wolf is larger and heavier , with a broader snout , shorter ears , a shorter torso and longer tail . It is a slender , powerfully built animal with a large , deeply descending ribcage , a sloping back and a heavily muscled neck . The wolf 's legs are moderately longer than those of other canids , which enables the animal to move swiftly , and allows it to overcome the deep snow that covers most of its geographical range . Females tend to have narrower muzzles and foreheads , thinner necks , slightly shorter legs and less massive shoulders than males .
The gray wolf 's head is large and heavy , with a wide forehead , strong jaws and a long , blunt muzzle . The ears are relatively small and triangular . The teeth are heavy and large , being better suited to crushing bone than those of other extant canids , though not as specialised as those found in hyenas . Its molars have a flat chewing surface , but not to the same extent as the coyote , whose diet contains more vegetable matter . The gray wolf 's jaws can exert a crushing pressure of perhaps 10 @,@ 340 kPa ( 1 @,@ 500 psi ) compared to 5 @,@ 200 kPa ( 750 psi ) for a German shepherd . This force is sufficient to break open most bones . A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators when adjusted for the body mass found that for placental mammals , the bite force at the canines ( in Newtons / kilogram of body weight ) was greatest in the extinct dire wolf ( 163 ) , then followed among the extant canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves : the African hunting dog ( 142 ) , the gray wolf ( 136 ) , the dhole ( 112 ) , and the dingo ( 108 ) .
The gray wolf usually carries its head at the same level as the back , raising it only when alert . It usually travels at a loping pace , placing its paws one directly in front of the other . This gait can be maintained for hours at a rate of 8 – 9 km / h , and allows the wolf to cover great distances . On bare paths , a wolf can quickly achieve speeds of 50 – 60 km / h . The gray wolf has a running gait of 55 to 70 km / h , can leap 5 metres horizontally in a single bound , and can maintain rapid pursuit for at least 20 minutes .
The gray wolf is the largest extant member of the Canidae , excepting certain large breeds of domestic dog . Gray wolf weight and size can vary greatly worldwide , tending to increase proportionally with latitude as predicted by Bergmann 's Rule , with the large wolves of Alaska and Canada sometimes weighing 3 – 6 times more than their Middle Eastern and South Asian cousins . On average , adult wolves measure 105 – 160 cm ( 41 – 63 in ) in length and 80 – 85 cm ( 32 – 34 in ) in shoulder height . The tail measures 29 – 50 cm ( 11 – 20 in ) in length . The ears are 90 – 110 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) in height , and the hind feet are 220 – 250 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) . The skull averages 9 – 11 inches in length , and 5 – 6 inches wide . The mean body mass of the extant gray wolf is 40 kg ( 88 lb ) , with the smallest specimen recorded at 12 kg ( 26 lb ) and the largest at 80 kg ( 176 lb ) . Gray wolf weight varies geographically ; on average , European wolves may weigh 38 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 85 lb ) , North American wolves 36 kilograms ( 79 lb ) and Indian and Arabian wolves 25 kilograms ( 55 lb ) . Females in any given wolf population typically weigh 5 – 10 lbs less than males . Wolves weighing over 54 kg ( 120 lbs ) are uncommon , though exceptionally large individuals have been recorded in Alaska , Canada , and the forests of western Russia . The heaviest recorded gray wolf in North America was killed on 70 Mile River in east @-@ central Alaska on July 12 , 1939 and weighed 79 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 175 lb ) .
= = = Fur = = =
The gray wolf has very dense and fluffy winter fur , with short underfur and long , coarse guard hairs . Most of the underfur and some of the guard hairs are shed in the spring and grow back in the autumn period . The longest hairs occur on the back , particularly on the front quarters and neck . Especially long hairs are on the shoulders , and almost form a crest on the upper part of the neck . The hairs on the cheeks are elongated and form tufts . The ears are covered in short hairs , which strongly project from the fur . Short , elastic and closely adjacent hairs are present on the limbs from the elbows down to the calcaneal tendons . The winter fur is highly resistant to cold ; wolves in northern climates can rest comfortably in open areas at − 40 ° by placing their muzzles between the rear legs and covering their faces with their tail . Wolf fur provides better insulation than dog fur , and does not collect ice when warm breath is condensed against it . In warm climates , the fur is coarser and scarcer than in northern wolves . Female wolves tend to have smoother furred limbs than males , and generally develop the smoothest overall coats as they age . Older wolves generally have more white hairs in the tip of the tail , along the nose and on the forehead . The winter fur is retained longest in lactating females , though with some hair loss around their nipples . Hair length on the middle of the back is 60 – 70 mm . Hair length of the guard hairs on the shoulders generally does not exceed 90 mm , but can reach 110 – 130 mm .
Coat color ranges from almost pure white through various shades of blond , cream , and ochre to grays , browns , and blacks , with variation in fur color tending to increase in higher latitudes . Differences in coat color between sexes are largely absent , though females may have redder tones . Black colored wolves in North America inherited the Kb allele responsible for melanism from past interbreeding with dogs , while the mutation was found to be naturally occurring in wolves from Iran . Black specimens are more common in North America than in Eurasia , with about half the wolves in Yellowstone National Park being black .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social and territorial behaviors = = =
The gray wolf is a social animal , whose basic social unit consists of a mated pair , accompanied by the pair 's adult offspring . The average pack consists of a family of 5 – 11 animals ( 1 – 2 adults , 3 – 6 juveniles and 1 – 3 yearlings ) , or sometimes two or three such families , with exceptionally large packs consisting of 42 wolves being known . In ideal conditions , the mated pair produces pups every year , with such offspring typically staying in the pack for 10 – 54 months before dispersing . Triggers for dispersal include the onset of sexual maturity and competition within the pack for food . The distance travelled by dispersing wolves varies widely ; some stay in the vicinity of the parental group , while other individuals may travel great distances of 390 km , 206 km , and 670 km from their natal packs . A new pack is usually founded by an unrelated dispersing male and female , travelling together in search of an area devoid of other hostile packs . Wolf packs rarely adopt other wolves into their fold , and typically kill them . In the rare cases where other wolves are adopted , the adoptee is almost invariably an immature animal ( 1 – 3 years of age ) unlikely to compete for breeding rights with the mated pair . In some cases , a lone wolf is adopted into a pack to replace a deceased breeder . During times of ungulate abundance ( migration , calving etc . ) , different wolf packs may temporarily join forces .
Wolves are highly territorial animals , and generally establish territories far larger than they require to survive in order to assure a steady supply of prey . Territory size depends largely on the amount of prey available and the age of the pack 's pups , tending to increase in size in areas with low prey populations or when the pups reach the age of 6 months , thus having the same nutritional needs as adults . Wolf packs travel constantly in search of prey , covering roughly 9 % of their territory per day ( average 25 km / d or 15 mi / d ) . The core of their territory is on average 35 km2 ( 14 sq mi ) , in which they spend 50 % of their time . Prey density tends to be much higher in the territory 's surrounding areas , though wolves tend to avoid hunting in the fringes of their range unless desperate , because of the possibility of fatal encounters with neighboring packs . The smallest territory on record was held by a pack of six wolves in northeastern Minnesota , which occupied an estimated 33 km2 ( 13 sq mi ) , while the largest was held by an Alaskan pack of ten wolves encompassing a 6 @,@ 272 km2 ( 2 @,@ 422 sq mi ) area . Wolf packs are typically settled , and usually only leave their accustomed ranges during severe food shortages .
Wolves defend their territories from other packs through a combination of scent marking , direct attacks and howling ( see Communication ) . Scent marking is used for territorial advertisement , and involves urination , defecation and ground scratching . Scent marks are generally left every 240 metres throughout the territory on regular travelways and junctions . Such markers can last for 2 – 3 weeks , and are typically placed near rocks , boulders , trees or the skeletons of large animals . Territorial fights are among the principal causes of wolf mortality , with one study concluding that 14 – 65 % of wolf deaths in Minnesota and the Denali National Park and Preserve were due to predation by other wolves .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
The gray wolf is generally monogamous , with mated pairs usually remaining together for life , unless one of the pair dies . Upon the death of one mated wolf , pairs are quickly re @-@ established . Since males often predominate in any given wolf population , unpaired females are a rarity . If a dispersing male gray wolf is unable to establish a territory or find a mate , he mates with the daughters of already established breeding pairs from other packs . Such gray wolves are termed " Casanova wolves " and , unlike males from established packs , they do not form pair bonds with the females they mate with . Some gray wolf packs may have multiple breeding females this way , as is the case in Yellowstone National Park . Gray wolves also practice alloparental care , in which a wolf pair may adopt the pup or pups of another . This might take place if the original parents die or are for some reason separated from them . In addition to heterosexual behavior , homosexual behavior has been observed in gray wolves . Male gray wolves often mount each other when the highest ranking female in the pack comes into heat .
The age of first breeding in gray wolves depends largely on environmental factors : when food is plentiful , or when wolf populations are heavily managed , wolves can rear pups at younger ages in order to better exploit abundant resources . This is further demonstrated by the fact that captive wolves have been known to breed as soon as they reach 9 – 10 months , while the youngest recorded breeding wolves in the wild were 2 years old . Females are capable of producing pups every year , with one litter annually being the average . Unlike the coyote , the gray wolf never reaches reproductive senescence . Estrus typically occurs in late winter , with older , multiparous females entering estrus 2 – 3 weeks earlier than younger females . During pregnancy , female wolves remain in a den located away from the peripheral zone of their territories , where violent encounters with other packs are more likely . Old females usually whelp in the den of their previous litter , while younger females typically den near their birthplace . The gestation period lasts 62 – 75 days , with pups usually being born in the summer period .
Wolves bear relatively large pups in small litters compared to other canid species . The average litter consists of 5 – 6 pups , with litter sizes tending to increase in areas where prey is abundant , though exceptionally large litters of 14 – 17 pups occur only 1 % of the time . Pups are usually born in spring , coinciding with a corresponding increase in prey populations . Pups are born blind and deaf , and are covered in short soft grayish @-@ brown fur . They weigh 300 – 500 grams at birth , and begin to see after 9 – 12 days . The milk canines erupt after one month . Pups first leave the den after 3 weeks . At 1 @.@ 5 months of age , they are agile enough to flee from danger . Mother wolves do not leave the den for the first few weeks , relying on the fathers to provide food for them and their young . Pups begin to eat solid food at the age of 3 – 4 weeks . Pups have a fast growth rate during their first four months of life : during this period , a pup 's weight can increase nearly 30 times . Wolf pups begin play fighting at the age of 3 weeks , though unlike young foxes and coyotes , their bites are inhibited . Actual fights to establish hierarchy usually occur at 5 – 8 weeks of age . This is in contrast to young foxes and coyotes , which may begin fighting even before the onset of play behavior . By autumn , the pups are mature enough to accompany adults on hunts for large prey .
= = = Hunting and feeding behaviors = = =
Although social animals , single wolves or mated pairs typically have higher success rates in hunting than do large packs , with single wolves having occasionally been observed to kill large prey such as moose , bison and muskoxen unaided . The gray wolf 's sense of smell is relatively weakly developed when compared to that of some hunting dog breeds , being able to detect carrion upwind no farther than 2 – 3 km . Because of this , it rarely manages to capture hidden hares or birds , though it can easily follow fresh tracks . Its auditory perception is acute enough to be able to hear up to a frequency of 26 kHz , which is sufficient to register the fall of leaves in the autumn period . A gray wolf hunt can be divided into five stages :
Locating prey : The wolves travel in search of prey through their power of scent , chance encounter , and tracking . Wolves typically locate their prey by scent , though they must usually be directly downwind of it . When a breeze carrying the prey 's scent is located , the wolves stand alert , and point their eyes , ears and nose towards their target . In open areas , wolves may precede the hunt with group ceremonies involving standing nose @-@ to @-@ nose and wagging their tails . Once concluded , the wolves head towards their prey .
The stalk : The wolves attempt to conceal themselves as they approach . As the gap between the wolves and their prey closes , the wolves quicken their pace , wag their tails , and peer intently , getting as close to their quarry as possible without making it flee .
The encounter : Once the prey detects the wolves , it can either approach the wolves , stand its ground , or flee . Large prey , such as moose , elk , and muskoxen , usually stand their ground . Should this occur , the wolves hold back , as they require the stimulus of a running animal to proceed with an attack . If the targeted animal stands its ground , the wolves either ignore it , or try to intimidate it into running .
The rush : If the prey attempts to flee , the wolves immediately pursue it . This is the most critical stage of the hunt , as wolves may never catch up with prey running at top speed . If their prey is travelling in a group , the wolves either attempt to break up the herd , or isolate one or two animals from it .
The chase : A continuation of the rush , the wolves attempt to catch up with their prey and kill it . When chasing small prey , wolves attempt to catch up with their prey as soon as possible , while with larger animals , the chase is prolonged , in order to wear the selected prey out . Wolves usually give up chases after 1 – 2 km ( 0 @.@ 62 – 1 @.@ 3 mi ) , though one wolf was recorded to chase a deer for 21 km ( 13 mi ) . Both Russian and North American wolves have been observed to drive prey onto crusted ice , precipices , ravines , slopes and steep banks to slow them down .
The actual killing method varies according to prey species . With large prey , mature wolves usually avoid attacking frontally , instead focusing on the rear and sides of the animal . Large prey , such as moose , is killed by biting large chunks of flesh from the soft perineum area , causing massive blood loss . Such bites can cause wounds 10 – 15 cm in length , with three such bites to the perineum usually being sufficient to bring down a large deer in optimum health . With medium @-@ sized prey such as roe deer or sheep , wolves kill by biting the throat , severing nerve tracks and the carotid artery , thus causing the animal to die within a few seconds to a minute . With small , mouse @-@ like prey , wolves leap in a high arc and immobilize it with their forepaws . When prey is vulnerable and abundant , wolves may occasionally surplus kill . Such instances are common in domestic animals , but rare in the wild . In the wild , surplus killing primarily occurs during late winter or spring , when snow is unusually deep ( thus impeding the movements of prey ) or during the denning period , when wolves require a ready supply of meat when denbound . Medium @-@ sized prey are especially vulnerable to surplus killing , as the swift throat @-@ biting method by which they are killed allows wolves to quickly kill one animal and move on to another .
Once prey is brought down , wolves begin to feed excitedly , ripping and tugging at the carcass in all directions , and bolting down large chunks of it . The breeding pair typically monopolizes food in order to continue producing pups . When food is scarce , this is done at the expense of other family members , especially non @-@ pups . The breeding pair typically eats first , though as it is they who usually work the hardest in killing prey , they may rest after a long hunt and allow the rest of the family to eat unmolested . Once the breeding pair has finished eating , the rest of the family tears off pieces of the carcass and transport them to secluded areas where they can eat in peace . Wolves typically commence feeding by consuming the larger internal organs of their prey , such as the heart , liver , lungs and stomach lining . The kidneys and spleen are eaten once they are exposed , followed by the muscles . A single wolf can eat 15 – 19 % of its body weight in a single feeding .
= = Communication = =
= = = Visual = = =
The gray wolf 's expressive behavior is more complex than that of the coyote and golden jackal , as necessitated by its group living and hunting habits . While less gregarious canids generally possess simple repertoires of visual signals , wolves have more varied signals that subtly inter grade in intensity . When neutral , the legs are not stiffened , the tail hangs down loosely , the face is smooth , the lips untensed , and the ears point in no particular direction . Postural communication in wolves consists of a variety of facial expressions , tail positions and piloerection . Aggressive , or self @-@ assertive wolves are characterized by their slow and deliberate movements , high body posture and raised hackles , while submissive ones carry their bodies low , sleeken their fur and lower their ears and tail . When a breeding male encounters a subordinate family member , it may stare at it , standing erect and still with the tails horizontal to its spine . Two forms of submissive behavior are recognized : passive and active . Passive submission usually occurs as a reaction to the approach of a dominant animal , and consists of the submissive wolf lying partly on its back and allowing the dominant wolf to sniff its anogenital area . Active submission occurs often as a form of greeting , and involves the submissive wolf approaching another in a low posture , and licking the other wolf 's face . When wolves are together , they commonly indulge in behaviors such as nose pushing , jaw wrestling , cheek rubbing and facial licking . The mouthing of each other 's muzzles is a friendly gesture , while clamping on the muzzle with bared teeth is a dominance display .
Similar to humans , gray wolves have facial color patterns in which the gaze direction can be easily identified , although this is often not the case in other canid species . In 2014 , a study compared the facial color pattern across 25 canid species . The results suggested that that the facial color pattern of canid species is related to their gaze communication , and that especially gray wolves use the gaze signal in conspecific communication .
= = = Auditory = = =
Gray wolves howl to assemble the pack ( usually before and after hunts ) , to pass on an alarm ( particularly at a den site ) , to locate each other during a storm or unfamiliar territory and to communicate across great distances . Wolf howls can under certain conditions be heard over areas of up to 130 km2 ( 50 sq mi ) . Wolf howls are generally indistinguishable from those of large dogs . Male wolves give voice through an octave , passing to a deep bass with a stress on " O " , while females produce a modulated nasal baritone with stress on " U " . Pups almost never howl , while yearling wolves produce howls ending in a series of dog @-@ like yelps . Howling consists of a fundamental frequency that may lie between 150 and 780 Hz , and consists of up to 12 harmonically related overtones . The pitch usually remains constant or varies smoothly , and may change direction as many as four or five times . Howls used for calling pack mates to a kill are long , smooth sounds similar to the beginning of the cry of a horned owl . When pursuing prey , they emit a higher pitched howl , vibrating on two notes . When closing in on their prey , they emit a combination of a short bark and a howl . When howling together , wolves harmonize rather than chorus on the same note , thus creating the illusion of there being more wolves than there actually are . Lone wolves typically avoid howling in areas where other packs are present . Wolves from different geographic locations may howl in different fashions : the howls of European wolves are much more protracted and melodious than those of North American wolves , whose howls are louder and have a stronger emphasis on the first syllable . The two are however mutually intelligible , as North American wolves have been recorded to respond to European @-@ style howls made by biologists .
Other vocalisations of wolves are usually divided into three categories : growls , barks and whines . Barking has a fundamental frequency between 320 – 904 Hz , and is usually emitted by startled wolves . Wolves do not bark as loudly or continuously as dogs do , but bark a few times and retreat from perceived danger . Growling has a fundamental frequency of 380 – 450 Hz , and is usually emitted during food challenges . Pups commonly growl when playing . One variation of the howl is accompanied by a high pitched whine , which precedes a lunging attack . Whining is associated with situations of anxiety , curiosity , inquiry and intimacy such as greeting , feeding pups and playing .
= = = Olfactory = = =
Olfaction is probably the wolf 's most acute sense , and plays a fundamental role in communication . The wolf has a large number of apocrine sweat glands on the face , lips , back , and between the toes . The odor produced by these glands varies according to the individual wolf 's microflora and diet , giving each a distinct " odor fingerprint " . A combination of apocrine and eccrine sweat glands on the feet allows the wolf to deposit its scent whilst scratching the ground , which usually occurs after urine marking and defecation during the breeding season . The follicles present on the guard hairs from the wolf 's back have clusters of apocrine and sebaceous glands at their bases . As the skin on the back is usually folded , this provides a microclimate for bacterial propagation around the glands . During piloerection , the guard hairs on the back are raised and the skin folds spread , thus releasing scent . The pre @-@ caudal scent glands may play a role in expressing aggression , as combative wolves raise the base of their tails whilst drooping the tip , thus positioning the scent glands at the highest point . The wolf possesses a pair of anal sacs beneath the rectum , which contain both apocrine and sebaceous glands . The components of anal sac secretions vary according to season and gender , thus indicating that the secretions provide information related to gender and reproductive state . The secretions of the preputial glands may advertise hormonal condition or social position , as dominant wolves have been observed to stand over subordinates , apparently presenting the genital area for investigation , which may include genital licking . During the breeding season , female wolves secrete substances from the vagina , which communicate the females ' reproductive state , and can be detected by males from long distances . Urine marking is the best @-@ studied means of olfactory communication in wolves . Its exact function is debated , though most researchers agree that its primary purpose is to establish boundaries . Wolves urine mark more frequently and vigorously in unfamiliar areas , or areas of intrusion , where the scent of other wolves or canids is present . So @-@ called raised leg urination ( RLU ) is more common in male wolves than in females , and may serve the purpose of maximizing the possibility of detection by conspecifics , as well as reflect the height of the marking wolf . Only dominant wolves typically use RLU , with subordinate males continuing to use the juvenile standing posture throughout adulthood . RLU is considered to be one of the most important forms of scent communication in the wolf , making up 60 – 80 % of all scent marks observed .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitat = = =
The gray wolf is a habitat generalist , and can occur in deserts , grasslands , forests and arctic tundras . Habitat use by gray wolves is strongly correlated with the abundance of prey , snow conditions , absence or low livestock densities , road densities , human presence and topography . In cold climates , the gray wolf can reduce the flow of blood near its skin to conserve body heat . The warmth of the footpads is regulated independently of the rest of the body , and is maintained at just above tissue @-@ freezing point where the pads come in contact with ice and snow . Gray wolves use different places for their diurnal rest : places with cover are preferred during cold , damp and windy weather , while wolves in dry , calm and warm weather readily rest in the open . During the autumn @-@ spring period , when wolves are more active , they willingly lie out in the open , whatever their location . Actual dens are usually constructed for pups during the summer period . When building dens , females make use of natural shelters such as fissures in rocks , cliffs overhanging riverbanks and holes thickly covered by vegetation . Sometimes , the den is the appropriated burrow of smaller animals such as foxes , badgers or marmots . An appropriated den is often widened and partly remade . On rare occasions , female wolves dig burrows themselves , which are usually small and short with 1 – 3 openings . The den is usually constructed not more than 500 metres away from a water source , and typically faces southwards , thus ensuring enough sunlight exposure , keeping the denning area relatively snow free . Resting places , play areas for the pups and food remains are commonly found around wolf dens . The odour of urine and rotting food emanating from the denning area often attracts scavenging birds such as magpies and ravens . As there are few convenient places for burrows , wolf dens are usually occupied by animals of the same family . Though they mostly avoid areas within human sight , wolves have been known to nest near domiciles , paved roads and railways .
= = = Diet = = =
All social terrestrial mammalian predators feed mostly on terrestrial herbivorous mammals with a body mass similar to the combined mass of the social group members attacking the prey animal , and a pack of timber wolves can bring down a 500 kg moose as their preferred prey . The gray wolf generally specializes in vulnerable individuals of large prey . In Eurasia , many gray wolf populations are forced to subsist largely on livestock and garbage in areas with dense human activity , though wild ungulates such as moose , red deer , roe deer and wild boar are still the most important food sources in Russia and the more mountainous regions of Eastern Europe . Other prey species include reindeer , argali , mouflon , wisent , saiga , ibex , chamois , wild goats , fallow deer and musk deer . The prey animals of North American wolves have largely continued to occupy suitable habitats with low human density , and cases of wolves subsisting largely on garbage or livestock are exceptional . Animals preferred as prey by North American wolves include moose , white @-@ tailed deer , elk , mule deer , bighorn sheep , Dall 's sheep , American bison , muskox and caribou .
Although wolves primarily feed on medium to large sized ungulates , they are not fussy eaters . Smaller sized animals that may supplement the diet of wolves include marmots , hares , badgers , foxes , weasels , ground squirrels , mice , hamsters , voles and other rodents , as well as insectivores . They frequently eat waterfowl and their eggs . When such foods are insufficient , they prey on lizards , snakes , frogs , rarely toads and large insects as available . In times of scarcity , wolves readily eat carrion , visiting cattle burial grounds and slaughter houses . Cannibalism is not uncommon in wolves : during harsh winters , packs often attack weak or injured wolves , and may eat the bodies of dead pack members . Wolf packs in Astrakhan hunt Caspian seals on the Caspian Sea coastline and some wolf packs in Alaska and Western Canada have been observed to feed on salmon . Humans are rarely , but occasionally preyed upon . Other primates occasionally taken by wolves include grey langurs in Nepal and hamadryas baboons in Saudi Arabia .
Wolves supplement their diet with fruit and vegetable matter . They willingly eat the berries of mountain ash , lily of the valley , bilberries , blueberries and cowberry . Other fruits include nightshade , apples and pears . They readily visit melon fields during the summer months . A well @-@ fed wolf stores fat under the skin , around the heart , intestines , kidneys , and bone marrow , particularly during the autumn and winter . Digestion only takes a few hours , thus wolves can feed several times in one day , making quick use of large quantities of meat .
= = = Enemies and competitors = = =
Gray wolves typically dominate other canid species in areas where they both occur . In North America , incidents of gray wolves killing coyotes are common , particularly in winter , when coyotes feed on wolf kills . Wolves may attack coyote den sites , digging out and killing their pups , though rarely eating them . There are no records of coyotes killing wolves , though coyotes may chase wolves if they outnumber them . Near identical interactions have been observed in Eurasia between gray wolves and golden jackals , with the latter 's numbers being comparatively small in areas with high wolf densities . Gray wolves are the most important predator of raccoon dogs , killing large numbers of them in the spring and summer periods . Wolves also kill red , arctic and corsac foxes , usually in disputes over carcasses , sometimes eating them . In Asia , they may compete with dholes , though there is at least one record of a lone wolf associating with a pair of dholes in Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary .
Brown bears typically dominate wolf packs in disputes over carcasses , while wolf packs mostly prevail against bears when defending their den sites . Both species kill each other 's young . Wolves eat the brown bears they kill , while brown bears seem to only eat young wolves . Wolf interactions with American black bears are much rarer than with brown bears , because of differences in habitat preferences . The majority of black bear encounters with wolves occur in the species ' northern range , with no interactions being recorded in Mexico . Wolves have been recorded on numerous occasions to actively seek out black bears in their dens and kill them without eating them . Unlike brown bears , black bears frequently lose against wolves in disputes over kills . While encounters with brown and black bears appear to be common , polar bears are rarely encountered by wolves , though there are two records of wolf packs killing polar bear cubs . Wolves also kill the cubs of Asian black bears .
Wolves may encounter striped hyenas in Israel , Central Asia and India , usually in disputes over carcasses . Striped hyenas feed extensively on wolf @-@ killed carcasses in areas where the two species interact . One @-@ to @-@ one , hyenas dominate wolves , but wolf packs can drive off single or outnumbered hyenas . However , there was a case of a female striped hyena dominating 12 Arabian wolves . Two cases are known however from southern Israel , where wolves and striped hyenas associated closely with each other in an apparently amicable way .
Large wolf populations limit the numbers of small to medium @-@ sized felines . Wolves encounter cougars along portions of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent mountain ranges . Wolves and cougars typically avoid encountering each other by hunting on different elevations . In winter , however , when snow accumulation forces their prey into valleys , interactions between the two species become more likely . Wolves in packs usually dominate cougars and can steal kills . They have been reported killing mothers and their kittens . Wolves hunt steppe cats , and may scavenge from snow leopard kills . Wolves may also reduce Eurasian lynx populations . Wolves may kill lynxes by running them down , or killing them before they can escape into trees . Similar reports of encounters between wolves and bobcats have been documented .
Leftovers of wolf kills are sometimes scavenged by wolverines . Wolverines usually wait until the wolves are done feeding , but have been known to drive away wolves from kills . However , there have been confirmed reports of wolf packs killing wolverines .
Other than humans , tigers appear to be the only serious predators of wolves . Wolf and tiger interactions are well documented in Sikhote @-@ Alin , where tigers depress wolf numbers , either to the point of localized extinction or to such low numbers as to make them a functionally insignificant component of the ecosystem . Wolves appear capable of escaping competitive exclusion from tigers only when human persecution decreases tiger numbers . Proven cases of tigers killing wolves are rare and attacks appear to be competitive rather than predatory in nature , with at least four proven records of tigers killing wolves without consuming them .
= = Range and conservation = =
The gray wolf was once one of the world 's most widely distributed mammals , living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15 ° N latitude in North America and 12 ° N in India . However , deliberate human persecution has reduced the species ' range to about one third , because of livestock predation and fear over attacks on humans . The species is now extinct in much of Western Europe , in Mexico and much of the United States . In modern times , the gray wolf occurs mostly in wilderness and remote areas , particularly in Canada , Alaska and northern USA , Europe , and Asia from about 75 ° N to 12 ° N. Wolf population declines have been arrested since the 1970s , and have fostered recolonization and reintroduction in parts of its former range , due to legal protection , changes in land @-@ use and rural human population shifts to cities . Competition with humans for livestock and game species , concerns over the danger posed by wolves to people , and habitat fragmentation pose a continued threat to the species . Despite these threats , because of the gray wolf 's relatively widespread range and stable population , it is classified as least concern by the IUCN .
= = = Europe = = =
= = = = Decline = = = =
Although wolf @-@ dog hybridization in Europe has raised concern among conservation groups fearing for the gray wolf 's purity , genetic tests show that introgression of dog genes into European gray wolf populations does not pose a significant threat . Also , as wolf and dog mating seasons do not fully coincide , the likelihood of wild wolves and dogs mating and producing surviving offspring is small .
The extermination of Northern Europe 's wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages , and continued until the late 1800s . In England , wolf persecution was enforced by legislation , and the last wolf was killed in the early sixteenth century during the reign of Henry VII . Wolves lasted longer in Scotland , where they sheltered in vast tracts of forest , which were subsequently burned down . Wolves managed to survive in the forests of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684 . The extirpation of wolves in Ireland followed a similar course , with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786 . A wolf bounty was introduced in Sweden in 1647 , after the extermination of moose and reindeer forced wolves to feed on livestock . The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives . By 1960 , few wolves remained in Sweden , because of the use of snowmobiles in hunting them , with the last specimen being killed in 1966 . The gray wolf was exterminated in Denmark in 1772 and Norway 's last wolf was killed in 1973 . The species was decimated in 20th century Finland , despite regular dispersals from Russia . The gray wolf was only present in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900 , though its numbers increased after World War II .
In Central Europe , wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early nineteenth century , because of organized hunts and reductions in ungulate populations . In Bavaria , the last wolf was killed in 1847 , and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899 and largely disappeared in Switzerland before the end of the nineteenth century . In 1934 , Nazi Germany became the first state in modern history to place the wolf under protection , though the species was already extirpated in Germany at this point . The last free @-@ living wolf to be killed on the soil of present @-@ day Germany before 1945 was the so @-@ called " Tiger of Sabrodt " , which was shot near Hoyerswerda , Lusatia ( then Lower Silesia ) in 1904 . Today , wolves have returned to the area . Wolf hunting in France was first institutionalized by Charlemagne between 800 – 813 , when he established the louveterie , a special corps of wolf hunters . The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789 , but was re @-@ established in 1814 . In 1883 , up to 1 @,@ 386 wolves were killed , with many more by poison .
In Eastern Europe , wolves were never fully exterminated , because of the area 's contiguity with Asia and its large forested areas . However , Eastern European wolf populations were reduced to very low numbers by the late nineteenth century . Wolves were extirpated in Slovakia during the first decade of the twentieth century and , by the mid @-@ twentieth century , could only be found in a few forested areas in eastern Poland . Wolves in the eastern Balkans benefitted from the region 's contiguity with the former Soviet Union and large areas of plains , mountains and farmlands . Wolves in Hungary occurred in only half the country around the start of the 20th century , and were largely restricted to the Carpathian Basin . Wolf populations in Romania remained largely substantial , with an average of 2 @,@ 800 wolves being killed annually out of a population of 4 @,@ 600 from 1955 – 1965 . An all @-@ time low was reached in 1967 , when the population was reduced to 1 @,@ 550 animals . The extermination of wolves in Bulgaria was relatively recent , as a previous population of about 1 @,@ 000 animals in 1955 was reduced to about 100 – 200 in 1964 . In Greece , the species disappeared from the southern Peloponnese in 1930 . Despite periods of intense hunting during the eighteenth century , wolves never disappeared in the western Balkans , from Albania to the former Yugoslavia . Organized persecution of wolves began in Yugoslavia in 1923 , with the setting up of the Wolf Extermination Committee ( WEC ) in Kocevje , Slovenia . The WEC was successful in reducing wolf numbers in the Dinaric Alps .
In Southern Europe , wolf extermination was not as complete as in Northern Europe , because of greater cultural tolerance of the species . Wolf populations only began declining in the Iberian Peninsula in the early 19th @-@ century , and was reduced by a half of its original size by 1900 . Wolf bounties were regularly paid in Italy as late as 1950 . Wolves were exterminated in the alps by 1800 , and numbered only 100 by 1973 , inhabiting only 3 – 5 % of their former Italian range .
= = = = Recovery = = = =
The recovery of European wolf populations began after the 1950s , when traditional pastoral and rural economies declined and thus removed the need to heavily persecute wolves . By the 1980s , small and isolated wolf populations expanded in the wake of decreased human density in rural areas and the recovery of wild prey populations .
The gray wolf has been fully protected in Italy since 1976 , and now holds a population of over 1 @,@ 269 @-@ 1 @,@ 800 . Italian wolves entered France 's Mercantour National Park in 1993 , and at least fifty wolves were discovered in the western Alps in 2000 . By 2013 the 250 wolves in the Western Alps imposed a significant burden on traditional sheep and goat husbandry with a loss of over 5 @,@ 000 animals in 2012 . There are approximately 2 @,@ 000 wolves inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula , of which 150 reside in northeastern Portugal . In Spain , the species occurs in Galicia , Leon , and Asturias . Although hundreds of Iberian wolves are illegally killed annually , the population has expanded south across the river Duero and east to the Asturias and Pyrenees Mountains .
In 1978 , wolves began recolonising central Sweden after a twelve @-@ year absence , and have since expanded into southern Norway . As of 2005 , the total number of Swedish and Norwegian wolves is estimated to be at least one hundred , including eleven breeding pairs . The gray wolf is fully protected in Sweden and partially controlled in Norway . The Scandinavian wolf populations owe their continued existence to neighbouring Finland 's contiguity with the Republic of Karelia , which houses a large population of wolves . Wolves in Finland are protected only in the southern third of the country , and can be hunted in other areas during specific seasons , though poaching remains common , with 90 % of young wolf deaths being due to human predation , and the number of wolves killed exceeds the number of hunting licenses , in some areas by a factor of two . Furthermore , the decline in the moose populations has reduced the wolf 's food supply . Since 2011 , Netherlands , Belgium and Denmark have also reported wolf sightings presumably by natural migration from adjacent countries .
Wolf populations in Poland have increased to about 800 – 900 individuals since being classified as a game species in 1976 . Poland plays a fundamental role in providing routes of expansion into neighbouring Central European countries . In the east , its range overlaps with populations in Lithuania , Belorussia , Ukraine , and Slovakia . A population in western Poland expanded into eastern Germany and in 2000 the first pups were born on German territory . In 2012 , an estimated 14 wolf packs were living in Germany ( mostly in the east ) and a pack with pups has been sighted within 15 miles of Berlin . The gray wolf is protected in Slovakia , though an exception is made for wolves killing livestock . A few Slovakian wolves disperse into the Czech Republic , where they are afforded full protection . Wolves in Slovakia , Ukraine and Croatia may disperse into Hungary , where the lack of cover hinders the buildup of an autonomous population . Although wolves have special status in Hungary , they may be hunted with a year @-@ round permit if they cause problems .
Romania has a large population of wolves , numbering 2 @,@ 500 animals . The wolf has been a protected animal in Romania since 1996 , although the law is not enforced . The number of wolves in Albania and Macedonia is largely unknown , despite the importance the two countries have in linking wolf populations from Greece to those of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia . Although protected , sometimes wolves are still illegally killed in Greece , and their future is uncertain . Wolf numbers have declined in Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1986 , while the species is fully protected in neighbouring Croatia and Slovenia .
= = = Asia = = =
= = = = Historical range and decline = = = =
During the 19th century , gray wolves were widespread in many parts of the Holy Land east and west of the Jordan River . However , they decreased considerably in number between 1964 and 1980 , largely because of persecution by farmers . The species was not considered common in northern and central Saudi Arabia during the 19th century , with most early publications involving animals either from southwestern Asir , northern rocky areas bordering Jordan , or areas surrounding Riyadh .
The gray wolf 's range in the Soviet Union encompassed nearly the entire territory of the country , being absent only on the Solovetsky Islands , Franz @-@ Josef Land , Severnaya Zemlya , and the Karagin , Commander and Shantar Islands . The species was exterminated twice in Crimea , once after the Russian Civil War , and again after World War II . Following the two world wars , Soviet wolf populations peaked twice . 30 @,@ 000 wolves were harvested annually out of a population of 200 @,@ 000 during the 1940s , with 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 harvested during peak years . Soviet wolf populations reached a low around 1970 , disappearing over much of European Russia . The population increased again by 1980 to about 75 @,@ 000 , with 32 @,@ 000 being killed in 1979 . Wolf populations in northern inner Mongolia declined during the 1940s , primarily because of poaching of gazelles , the wolf 's main prey . In British @-@ ruled India , wolves were heavily persecuted because of their attacks on sheep , goats and children . In 1876 , 2 @,@ 825 wolves were bountied in the North @-@ Western Provinces ( NWP ) and Bihar . By the 1920s , wolf extermination remained a priority in the NWP and Awadh . Overall , over 100 @,@ 000 wolves were killed for bounties in British India between 1871 and 1916 .
Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji restoration period , an extermination known as ōkami no kujo . The wolf was deemed a threat to ranching , which the Meiji government promoted at the time , and targeted via a bounty system and a direct chemical extermination campaign inspired by the similar contemporary American campaign . The last Japanese wolf was a male killed on January 23 , 1905 near Washikaguchi ( now called Higashi Yoshiro ) . The now extinct Japanese wolves were descended from large Siberian wolves , which colonized the Korean Peninsula and Japan , before it separated from mainland Asia , 20 @,@ 000 years ago during the Pleistocene . During the Holocene , the Tsugaru Strait widened and isolated Honshu from Hokkaidō , thus causing climatic changes leading to the extinction of most large bodied ungulates inhabiting the archipelago . Japanese wolves likely underwent a process of island dwarfism 7 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 years ago in response to these climatological and ecological pressures . C. l. hattai ( formerly native to Hokkaidō ) was significantly larger than its southern cousin C. l. hodophilax , as it inhabited higher elevations and had access to larger prey , as well as a continuing genetic interaction with dispersing wolves from Siberia .
= = = = Modern range = = = =
There is little reliable data on the status of wolves in the Middle East , save for those in Israel and Saudi Arabia , though their numbers appear to be stable , and are likely to remain so . Israel 's conservation policies and effective law enforcement maintain a moderately sized wolf population , which radiates into neighbouring countries , while Saudi Arabia has vast tracts of desert , where about 300 – 600 wolves live undisturbed . The wolf survives throughout most of its historical range in Saudi Arabia , probably because of a lack of pastoralism and abundant human waste . Turkey may play an important role in maintaining wolves in the region , because of its contiguity with Central Asia . The mountains of Turkey have served as a refuge for the few wolves remaining in Syria . A small wolf population occurs in the Golan Heights , and is well protected by the military activities there . Wolves living in the southern Negev desert are contiguous with populations living in the Egyptian Sinai and Jordan . Throughout the Middle East , the species is only protected in Israel . Elsewhere , it can be hunted year @-@ round by Bedouins .
Little is known of current wolf populations in Iran , which once occurred throughout the country in low densities during the mid @-@ 1970s . The northern regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan are important strongholds for the wolf . It has been estimated that there are about 300 wolves in approximately 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of Jammu and Kashmir in northern India , and 50 more in Himachal Pradesh . Overall , India supports about 800 @-@ 3 @,@ 000 wolves , scattered among several remnant populations . Although protected since 1972 , Indian wolves are classed as endangered , with many populations lingering in low numbers or living in areas increasingly used by humans . Although present in Nepal and Bhutan , there is no information of wolves occurring there .
Wolf populations throughout Northern and Central Asia are largely unknown , but are estimated in the hundreds of thousands based on annual harvests . Since the fall of the Soviet Union , continent @-@ wide extermination of wolves has ceased , and wolf populations have increased to about 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 animals throughout the former Soviet Union . In China and Mongolia , wolves are only protected in reserves . Mongolian populations have been estimated at 10 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 , while the status of wolves in China is more fragmentary . The north has a declining population of an estimated 400 wolves , while Xinjiang and Tibet hold about 10 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 respectively .
= = = North America = = =
= = = = Historical range and decline = = = =
Originally , the gray wolf occupied all of North America north of about 20 ° N. It occurred all over the mainland , save for the southeastern United States , California west of the Sierra Nevada , and the tropical and subtropical areas of Mexico . Large continental islands occupied by wolves included Newfoundland , Vancouver Island , southeastern Alaskan islands , and throughout the Arctic Archipelago and Greenland . While Lohr and Ballard postulated that the gray wolf had never been present on Prince Edward Island , analysis of references to the Island ’ s native fauna in unpublished and published historical records has found that gray wolves were resident there at the time of the first French settlement in 1720 . In his 6 November 1721 letter to the French Minister of the Marine , Louis Denys de La Ronde reported that the Island was home to wolves “ of a prodigious size ” , and sent a wolf pelt back to France to substantiate his claim . As the Island was cleared for settlement , the gray wolf population may have been extirpated , or relocated to the mainland across the winter ice : the few subsequent wolf reports date from the mid @-@ nineteenth century and describe the creatures as transient visitors from across the Northumberland Strait .
The decline of North American wolf populations coincided with increasing human populations and the expansion of agriculture . By the start of the 20th century , the species had almost disappeared from the eastern USA , excepting some areas of the Appalachians and the northwestern Great Lakes Region . In Canada , the gray wolf was extirpated in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia between 1870 and 1921 , and in Newfoundland around 1911 . It vanished from the southern regions of Quebec and Ontario between 1850 and 1900 . The gray wolf 's decline in the prairies began with the extermination of the American bison and other ungulates in the 1860s – 70s . From 1900 – 1930 , the gray wolf was virtually eliminated from the western USA and adjoining parts of Canada , because of intensive predator control programs aimed at eradicating the species . The gray wolf was exterminated by federal and state governments from all of the USA by 1960 , except in Alaska and northern Minnesota . The decline in North American wolf populations was reversed from the 1930s to the early 1950s , particularly in southwestern Canada , because of expanding ungulate populations resulting from improved regulation of big game hunting . This increase triggered a resumption of wolf control in western and northern Canada . Thousands of wolves were killed from the early 1950s to the early 1960s , mostly because of poisoning . This campaign was halted and wolf populations increased again by the mid @-@ 1970s .
= = = = Modern range = = = =
The species ' modern range in North America is mostly confined to Alaska and Canada , with populations also occurring in northern Minnesota , northern Wisconsin and Michigan 's Upper Peninsula , and portions of Washington , Idaho , northern Oregon , and Montana . A functional wolf population should exist in California by 2024 according to estimates by state wildlife officials . Canadian wolves began to naturally re @-@ colonize northern Montana around Glacier National Park in 1979 , and the first wolf den in the western U.S. in over half a century was documented there in 1986 . The wolf population in northwest Montana initially grew as a result of natural reproduction and dispersal to about 48 wolves by the end of 1994 . From 1995 @-@ 1996 , wolves from Alberta and British Columbia were relocated to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho . In addition , the Mexican wolf ( Canis lupus baileyi ) was reintroduced to Arizona and New Mexico in 1998 . The gray wolf is found in approximately 80 % of its historical range in Canada , thus making it an important stronghold for the species .
Canada is home to about 52 @,@ 000 – 60 @,@ 000 wolves , whose legal status varies according to province and territory . First Nations residents may hunt wolves without restriction , and some provinces require licenses for residents to hunt wolves while others do not . In Alberta , wolves on private land may be baited and hunted by the landowner without requiring a license , and in some areas , wolf hunting bounty programs exist . Large @-@ scale wolf population control through poisoning , trapping and aerial hunting is also presently conducted by government @-@ mandated programs in order to support populations of endangered prey species such as woodland caribou .
In Alaska , the gray wolf population is estimated at 6 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 , and can be legally harvested during hunting and trapping seasons , with bag limits and other restrictions . As of 2002 , there are 250 wolves in 28 packs in Yellowstone , and 260 wolves in 25 packs in Idaho . The gray wolf received Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) protection in Minnesota , Wisconsin , and Michigan in 1974 , and was re @-@ classed from endangered to threatened in 2003 . Reintroduced Mexican wolves in Arizona and New Mexico are protected under the ESA and , as of late 2002 , number 28 individuals in eight packs . A female wolf shot in 2013 in Hart County , Kentucky by a hunter was the first gray wolf seen in Kentucky in modern times . DNA analysis by Fish and Wildlife laboratories showed genetic characteristics similar to those of wolves in the Great Lakes Region .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
= = = Viral and bacterial infections = = =
Viral diseases carried by wolves include rabies , canine distemper , canine parvovirus , infectious canine hepatitis , papillomatosis , and canine coronavirus . Wolves are a major host for rabies in Russia , Iran , Afghanistan , Iraq and India . In wolves , the incubation period is 8 – 21 days , and results in the host becoming agitated , deserting its pack , and travelling up to 80 km a day , thus increasing the risk of infecting other wolves . Infected wolves do not show any fear of humans , with most documented wolf attacks on people being attributed to rabid animals . Although canine distemper is lethal in dogs , it has not been recorded to kill wolves , except in Canada and Alaska . The canine parvovirus , which causes death by dehydration , electrolyte imbalance , and endotoxic shock or sepsis , is largely survivable in wolves , but can be lethal to pups . Wolves may catch infectious canine hepatitis from dogs , though there are no records of wolves dying from it . Papillomatosis has been recorded only once in wolves , and likely doesn 't cause serious illness or death , though it may alter feeding behaviors . The canine coronavirus has been recorded in Alaskan wolves , with infections being most prevalent in winter months .
Bacterial diseases carried by wolves include brucellosis , lyme disease , leptospirosis , tularemia , bovine tuberculosis , listeriosis , anthrax and foot and mouth disease . Wolves can catch Brucella suis from wild and domestic reindeer . While adult wolves tend not to show any clinical signs , it can severely weaken the pups of infected females . Although lyme disease can debilitate individual wolves , it does not appear to have any significant effect on wolf populations . Leptospirosis can be contracted through contact with infected prey or urine , and can cause fever , anorexia , vomiting , anemia , hematuria , icterus , and death . Wolves living near farms are more vulnerable to the disease than those living in the wilderness , probably because of prolonged contact with infected domestic animal waste . Wolves may catch tularemia from lagomorph prey , though its effect on wolves is unknown . Although bovine tuberculosis is not considered a major threat to wolves , it has been recorded to have once killed two wolf pups in Canada .
= = = Parasitic infections = = =
Wolves carry ectoparasites and endoparasites , with wolves in the former Soviet Union having been recorded to carry at least 50 species . Most of these parasites infect wolves without adverse effects , though the effects may become more serious in sick or malnourished specimens . Parasitic infection in wolves is of particular concern to people , as wolves can spread them to dogs , which in turn can carry the parasites to humans . In areas where wolves inhabit pastoral areas , the parasites can be spread to livestock .
Wolves are often infested with a variety of arthropod exoparasites , including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites . The most harmful to wolves , particularly pups , is Sarcoptes scabiei ( or mange mite ) , though they rarely develop full blown mange , unlike foxes . Lice , such as Trichodectes canis , may cause sickness in wolves , but rarely death . Ticks of the genus Ixodes can infect wolves with Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever . The tick Dermacentor pictus also infests wolves . Other ectoparasites include biting lice , sucking lice and the fleas Pulex irritans and Ctenocephalides canis .
Endoparasites known to infect wolves include protozoans and helminths ( flukes , tapeworms , roundworms and thorny @-@ headed worms ) . Of 30 @,@ 000 protozoan species , only a few have been recorded to infect wolves : Isospora , Toxoplasma , Sarcocystis , Babesia , and Giardia . Wolves may carry Neospora caninum , which is of particular concern to farmers , as the disease can be spread to livestock , with infected animals being 3 – 13 times more likely to miscarry than those not infected . Among flukes , the most common in North American wolves is Alaria , which infects small rodents and amphibians that are eaten by wolves . Upon reaching maturity , Alaria migrates to the wolf 's intestine , but harms it little . Metorchis conjunctus , which enters wolves through eating fish , infects the wolf 's liver or gall bladder , causing liver disease , inflammation of the pancreas , and emaciation . Most other fluke species reside in the wolf 's intestine , though Paragonimus westermani lives in the lungs . Tapeworms are commonly found in wolves , as their primary hosts are ungulates , small mammals , and fish , which wolves feed upon . Tapeworms generally cause little harm in wolves , though this depends on the number and size of the parasites , and the sensitivity of the host . Symptoms often include constipation , toxic and allergic reactions , irritation of the intestinal mucosa , and malnutrition . Infections by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus in ungulate populations tend to increase in areas with high wolf densities , as wolves can shed Echinoccocus eggs in their feces onto grazing areas . Wolves can carry over 30 roundworm species , though most roundworm infections appear benign , depending on the number of worms and the age of the host . Ancylostoma caninum attaches itself on the intestinal wall to feed on the host 's blood , and can cause hyperchromic anemia , emaciation , diarrhea , and possibly death . Toxocara canis , a hookworm known to infect wolf pups in utero , can cause intestinal irritation , bloating , vomiting , and diarrhea . Wolves may catch Dioctophyma renale from minks , which infects the kidneys , and can grow to lengths of 100 cm . D. renale causes the complete destruction of the kidney 's functional tissue , and can be fatal if both kidneys are infected . Wolves can tolerate low levels of Dirofilaria immitis for many years without showing any ill effects , though high levels can kill wolves through cardiac enlargement and congestive hepatopathy . Wolves probably become infected with Trichinella spiralis by eating infected ungulates . Although T. spiralis isn 't known to produce clinical signs in wolves , it can cause emaciation , salivation , and crippling muscle pains in dogs . Thorny @-@ headed worms rarely infect wolves , though three species have been identified in Russian wolves : Nicolla skrjabini , Macrocantorhynchus catulinus , and Moniliformis moniliformis .
= = Relationships with humans = =
= = = In culture = = =
= = = = In personal names = = = =
Old English literature contains several instances of Anglo @-@ Saxon kings and warriors taking on wulf as a prefix or suffix in their names . Examples include Wulfhere , Cynewulf , Ceonwulf , Wulfheard , Earnwulf , Wulfmǣr , Wulfstān and Æthelwulf . Wolf @-@ related names were also common among pre @-@ Christian Germanic warriors : Wolfhroc ( Wolf @-@ Frock ) , Wolfhetan ( Wolf Hide ) , Isangrim ( Grey Mask ) , Scrutolf ( Garb Wolf ) , Wolfgang ( Wolf Gait ) and Wolfdregil ( Wolf Runner ) .
Ancient Greek literature is similar : Autolycus ( " the wolf itself " ) , Lycurgus ( " wolf @-@ work " ) .
The Latin for " female prostitute " is lupa , and the most famous brothel in Pompeii was the Lupanar .
= = = = In folklore , religion and mythology = = = =
The wolf is a common motif in the foundational mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout Eurasia and North America ( corresponding to the historical extent of the habitat of the gray wolf ) . The obvious attribute of the wolf is its nature of a predator , and correspondingly it is strongly associated with danger and destruction , making it the symbol of the warrior on one hand , and that of the devil on the other . The modern trope of the Big Bad Wolf is a development of this . The wolf holds great importance in the cultures and religions of the nomadic peoples , both of the Eurasian steppe and of the North American Plains . In many cultures , the identification of the warrior with the wolf ( totemism ) gave rise to the notion of Lycanthropy , the mythical or ritual identification of man and wolf .
= = = = In fable and literature = = = =
Aesop featured wolves in several of his fables , playing on the concerns of Ancient Greece 's settled , sheep @-@ herding world . His most famous is the fable of The Boy Who Cried Wolf , which is directed at those who knowingly raise false alarms , and from which the idiomatic phrase " to cry wolf " is derived . Some of his other fables concentrate on maintaining the trust between shepherds and guard dogs in their vigilance against wolves , as well as anxieties over the close relationship between wolves and dogs . Although Aesop used wolves to warn , criticize and moralize about human behavior , his portrayals added to the wolf 's image as a deceitful and dangerous animal . Isengrim the wolf , a character first appearing in the 12th @-@ century Latin poem Ysengrimus , is a major character in the Reynard Cycle , where he stands for the low nobility , whilst his adversary , Reynard the fox , represents the peasant hero . Although portrayed as loyal , honest and moral , Isengrim is forever the victim of Reynard 's wit and cruelty , often dying at the end of each story . The tale of Little Red Riding Hood , first written in 1697 by Charles Perrault , is largely considered to have had more influence than any other source of literature in forging the wolf 's negative reputation in the western world . The wolf in this story is portrayed as a potential rapist , capable of imitating human speech . The hunting of wolves , and their attacks on humans and livestock feature prominently in Russian literature , and are included in the works of Tolstoy , Chekhov , Nekrasov , Bunin , Sabaneyev , and others . Tolstoy 's War and Peace and Chekhov 's Peasants both feature scenes in which wolves are hunted with hounds and borzois . Farley Mowat 's largely fictional 1963 memoir Never Cry Wolf was the first positive portrayal of wolves in popular literature , and is largely considered to be the most popular book on wolves , having been adapted into a Hollywood film and taught in several schools decades after its publication . Although credited with having changed popular perceptions on wolves by portraying them as loving , cooperative and noble , it has been criticized for its idealization of wolves and its factual inaccuracies .
= = = = In heraldry and symbolism = = = =
The wolf is a frequent charge in English armory . It is illustrated as a supporter on the shields of Lord Welby , Rendel , and Viscount Wolseley , and can be found on the coat of arms of Lovett and the vast majority of the Wilsons and Lows . The demi @-@ wolf is a common crest , appearing in the arms and crests of members of many families , including that of the Wolfes , whose crest depicts a demi @-@ wolf holding a crown in its paws , in reference to the assistance the family gave to Charles II during the battle of Worcester . Wolf heads are common in Scottish heraldry , particularly in the coats of Clan Robertson and Skene . The wolf is the most common animal in Spanish heraldry , and is often depicted as carrying a lamb in its mouth , or across its back . The wolf is featured on the flags of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation , the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin and the Pawnee . In modern times , the wolf is widely used as an emblem for military and paramilitary groups . It is the unofficial symbol of the spetsnaz , and serves as the logo of the Turkish Grey Wolves . During the Yugoslav Wars , several Serb paramilitary units adopted the wolf as their symbol , including the White Wolves and the Wolves of Vučjak .
= = = Conflicts = = =
= = = = Wolf predation on livestock = = = =
Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves , and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation : as well as causing economic losses , the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers , and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found . Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programmes or state insurance . Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves , as they have evolved under constant human protection , and are thus unable to defend themselves very well . Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted : in Eurasia , a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock , while such incidences are rare in North America , where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored . The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period , with untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation . The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep ( Europe ) , domestic reindeer ( northern Scandinavia ) , goats ( India ) , horses ( Mongolia ) , cattle and turkeys ( North America ) . The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species : most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death , while turkeys , sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus . Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing , though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures . In some cases , wolves do not need to physically attack livestock to negatively affect it : the stress livestock experiences in being vigilant for wolves may result in miscarriages , weight loss and a decrease in meat quality .
= = = = Conflicts with dogs = = = =
Being the most abundant carnivores , feral and free @-@ ranging dogs have the greatest potential to compete with wolves . A review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves . Competition would favor the wolf , which is known to kill dogs , however wolves tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted , giving them a disadvantage facing large groups of dogs .
Wolves kill dogs on occasion , with some wolf populations relying on dogs as an important food source . In Croatia , wolves kill more dogs than sheep , and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations . Wolves may display unusually bold behavior when attacking dogs accompanied by people , sometimes ignoring nearby humans . Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests . Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin . The most frequently killed hunting breeds in Scandinavia are harriers , with older animals being most at risk , likely because they are less timid than younger animals , and react to the presence of wolves differently . Large hunting dogs such as Swedish elkhounds are more likely to survive wolf attacks because of their better ability to defend themselves .
Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low , it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs . In many cultures , there are strong social and emotional bonds between humans and their dogs that can be seen as family members or working team members . The loss of a dog can lead to strong emotional responses with demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations .
Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human – wolf conflicts , and are often proposed as one of the non @-@ lethal tools in the conservation of wolves . Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive , but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviors , such as barking , social greeting , invitation to play or aggression . The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation , especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock @-@ guarding dogs . However , shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves .
= = = = Wolf predation on humans = = = =
The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies , though humans are not part of the wolf 's natural prey . How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people : wolves lacking any negative experience of humans , or which are food conditioned , may show little fear of people . Although wolves may react aggressively under provocation , such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities , and the attacks are not pressed . Predatory attacks ( attacks by wolves treating humans as food ) may be preceded by a long period of habituation , in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans . The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face , and are then dragged off and consumed , unless the wolves are driven off . Such attacks typically occur only locally , and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated . Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year , with a peak in the June – August period , when the chances of people entering forested areas ( for livestock grazing or berry and mushroom picking ) increase , though cases of non @-@ rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in Belarus , Kirov and Irkutsk oblasts , Karelia and Ukraine . Also , wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period . The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and , in the rare cases where adults are killed , the victims are almost always women . Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species , as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease , but can be infected by animals such as dogs , jackals and foxes . Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America , though numerous in the eastern Mediterranean , Middle East and Central Asia . Wolves apparently develop the " furious " phase of rabies to a very high degree which , coupled with their size and strength , makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals , with bites from rabid wolves being 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs . Rabid wolves usually act alone , travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals . Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods . Unlike with predatory attacks , the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten , and the attacks generally only occur on a single day . Also , the victims are chosen at random , though the majority of cases involve adult men . In the half @-@ century up to 2002 , there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia , and more than 200 in south Asia . Between 2005 @-@ 2010 , two people were killed in North America .
= = = = Human predation on wolves = = = =
Wolves are notoriously difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness , their sharp senses , their high endurance in the chase and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs . Historically , many methods have been devised to hunt wolves , including the killing of spring @-@ born litters in their dens , coursing with dogs ( usually combinations of sighthounds , bloodhounds and fox terriers ) , poisoning with strychnine , and foothold and deadfall traps . A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with fladry poles carrying a human scent . This method relies heavily on the wolf 's fear of human scents , though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the smell . Some hunters are able to lure wolves by imitating their calls . In Kazakhstan and Mongolia , wolves are traditionally hunted with eagles and falcons , though this practise is declining , as experienced falconers are becoming few in number . Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective , as it allows greater visibility of wolves than hunting on the ground , though this method is controversial , as it allows wolves little chance to escape or defend themselves . Some dog breeds like the Borzoi wolfhound , the Irish wolfhound , or the Kyrgyz Tajgan have been specifically selected for wolf hunting .
= = = As pets and working animals = = =
Wild wolves are sometimes kept as exotic pets , and in some rarer occasions , as working animals . Although closely related to domesticated dogs , wolves do not show the same tractability as dogs in living alongside humans , and generally , much more work is required in order to obtain the same amount of reliability . Wolves also need much more space than dogs , about 10 to 15 square miles so they can exercise .
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= Irataba =
Irataba ( Mohave : eecheeyara tav [ eːt ͡ ʃeːjara tav ] , also known as Yara tav , Yarate : va , Arateve ; c . 1814 – 1874 ) was a leader of the Mohave Nation , known for his role as a mediator between his people and the United States . He was born near the Colorado River in present @-@ day Arizona . Irataba was a renowned orator and one of the first Mohave to speak English , a skill he used to develop relations with the United States . Early records mention his large physical size and gentle demeanor . Irataba first encountered European Americans in 1851 , when he assisted the Sitgreaves Expedition . In 1854 , he met Amiel Whipple , then leading an expedition crossing the Colorado . Several Mohave aided the group , and Irataba agreed to escort them through the territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail , which would take them to southern California . He later helped and protected other expeditions , earning him a reputation among whites as the most important native leader in the region .
Against Irataba 's advice , in 1858 Mohave warriors attacked the first emigrant wagon train to use Beale 's Wagon Road through Mohave country . As a result , the U.S. War Department sent a detachment under Colonel William Hoffman to pacify the tribe . Following a series of confrontations known as the Mohave War , Hoffman succeeded in dominating the natives , and demanded that they allow the passage of settlers through their territory . To ensure compliance , Fort Mohave was constructed near the site of the battle in April 1859 . Hoffman also imprisoned several Mohave leaders . Having been an advocate for friendly relations with the whites , Irataba became the nation 's Aha macave yaltanack , an elected , as opposed to hereditary , leader .
As a result of his many interactions with U.S. officials and settlers , Irataba was invited to Washington , D.C. , in 1864 , for an official meeting with members of the U.S. military and its government , including President Abraham Lincoln . In doing so , he became the first Native American from the Southwest to meet an American president . He received considerable attention during his tours of the U.S. capital , and of New York City and Philadelphia , where he was given gifts , including a silver @-@ headed cane from Lincoln . Upon his return he negotiated the creation of the Colorado River Indian Reservation , which caused a split in the Mohave Nation when he led several hundred of his supporters to the Colorado River valley . The majority of the Mohave preferred to remain in their ancestral homelands near Fort Mohave and under the leadership of their hereditary leader , Homoseh quahote , who was less enthusiastic about direct collaboration with whites . As leader of the Colorado River band of Mohave , Irataba encouraged peaceful relations with whites , served as a mediator between the warring tribes in the area , and during his later years continued to lead the Mohave in their ongoing conflicts with the Paiute and Chemehuevi .
Some consider Irataba a great leader who championed peace , but others feel he should have done more to defend the Mohave way of life . The Irataba Society , a non @-@ profit charity run by the Colorado River Indian Tribes , was established in 1970 in Parker , Arizona , where a sports venue , Irataba Hall , is also named after him . In 2002 , the US Bureau of Land Management designated 32 @,@ 745 acres ( 132 @.@ 51 km2 ) in the Eldorado Mountains as Ireteba Peaks Wilderness . In March 2015 , Mohave Tribal chairman Dennis Patch credited Irataba with ensuring that " the Mohaves stayed on land they had lived on since time immemorial . "
= = Background = =
Irataba 's name , also rendered as Ireteba , Yara tav , Arateve , Yarate : va , and Yiratewa , derives from the Mohave language phrase eecheeyara tav , which means " beautiful bird " . He was born into the Neolge , or Sun Fire clan of the Mohave Nation c . 1814 . He lived near a rock formation that gave its name to Needles , south of where the Grand Canyon empties into the Mohave Canyon in present @-@ day Arizona , near the Nevada and California border . The Mohave lived in houses along the riverbank in the Mohave Valley , during winter in half @-@ buried dwellings built with cottonwood logs and arrowweed covered in earth , and in the summer in open @-@ air flat @-@ roofed houses called ramadas .
In the mid @-@ 19th century , the Mohave were composed of three geographical groups ; Irataba was the hereditary leader of the Huttoh Pah group , who lived near the east bank of the Colorado River and occupied the central portion of the Mohave Valley . Mohave government consisted of a loose system of hereditary clan leaders with a head of the entire nation . They were often involved in conflicts with the Chemehuevi , Paiute , and Maricopa peoples . Irataba was a member of the Mohave warrior society called kwanami , who led groups of warriors in battle and were dedicated to defending their lands and people .
Little is known of Irataba 's family relations , except for the name of his son Tekse thume , and his nephews Qolho qorau ( Irataba 's sister 's son who succeeded him as leader ) and Aspamekelyeho . Olive Oatman , who lived with the Mohave for five years , later stated that Irataba was the brother of the former chief , presumably Cairook , with whom Irataba clearly had a close relation . One anecdotal description states that Irataba had several wives , among them a Hualapai woman who had been taken as a captive and who is also described as having a young son . He also had at least one daughter , the mother of his granddaughter Tcatc who was interviewed in the 1950s . She stated that Irataba had wanted to leave his land deeds and medals to his brother 's sons , but that they were eventually lost .
In contemporary accounts Irataba was described as an eloquent speaker , and linguist Leanne Hinton suggests that he was among the first Mohave people to become fluent in English , which he learned through his many interactions with Anglo @-@ Americans . Like many Mohave men , Irataba was very tall , particularly by 19th @-@ century standards ; the United States Army estimated his height at 6 feet 4 inches ( 193 cm ) in 1861 . American author Albert S. Evans , writing in The Overland Monthly , referred to him as " the old desert giant " . Edward Carlson , a soldier based at Fort Mohave who knew Irataba well in the 1860s , described him as having a powerful frame , but also a " very gentle " and " kind ... demeanor " .
Irataba lived through a tumultuous period of Mohave history where the people went from being a politically independent nation to coming under the political control of the United States , and the events surrounding his role in these encounters are well documented . Most historical sources for the life of Irataba come from descriptions by white explorers or government agents with whom he interacted , or from contemporary newspapers that reported on his visits to the East Coast and California , and on the conflicts in Arizona territory . Some Mohave versions of the events also exist : in the early 20th century anthropologist A. L. Kroeber interviewed Jo Nelson ( Mohave : Chooksa homar ) , a Mohave man who participated in many of the events and knew Irataba personally ; another version was told to ethnographer George Devereux by Irataba 's granddaughter Tcatc , and versions recounted by members of the Fort Mohave band of Mohave , the descendants of Homoseh quahote , were recorded by ethnographer Lorraine Sherer during the 1950s and 1960s .
= = Contact with emigrants and explorers = =
Irataba assisted Captain Lorenzo Sitgreaves during his 1851 exploration of the Colorado . On March 19 , 1851 , most of the Oatman family , traveling by wagon train in what is now Arizona , were killed by what are believed to have been members of the Tolkepaya band of Western Yavapai . The Yavapai killed seven members of the family , but spared the lives of 14 @-@ year @-@ old Olive Oatman and her 7 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Mary Ann . After a year with the Yavapai , the girls were sold to the Mohave , and adopted into the Oach clan where they lived with the family of a Mohave man called Tokwatha ( Musk Melon ) . Mary Ann died two years later , and Olive remained with the Mohave until February 22 , 1856 , when Tokwatha , having been warned that having a white girl among them might be seen as an offense by whites , brought her to Fort Yuma carpenter Henry Grinnell , releasing her in return for two horses and some blankets and beads .
= = = Whipple Expedition = = =
On February 23 , 1854 , Irataba , Cairook , and other Mohave people encountered an expedition led by military officers Amiel Whipple and J.C. Ives , as the group approached the Colorado en route to California . Whipple and his men counted six hundred Mohave gathered near their camp , trading corn , beans , squash , and wheat for beads and calico . By the end of their commerce , the party had purchased six bushels of corn and two hundred pounds of flour . The Mohave played a traditional game played with a hoop and pole , and the two groups entertained themselves with target practice , the Mohave using bows and arrows and the whites firing pistols and rifles . When the expedition had difficulty crossing the Colorado on February 27 , several Mohave jumped into the water and helped salvage the supplies .
Irataba and Cairook agreed to escort the group across the territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail that would take them to southern California . German artist Balduin Möllhausen accompanied the Whipple expedition , and made drawings of several Mohave , including Irataba . Möllhausen 's drawings were featured in Ives ' 1861 congressional report , making Irataba " among the first named likenesses of California Indians ever published " .
= = = Ives Expedition = = =
In February 1858 , Ives returned to the area in a paddle steamer named Explorer . He was leading an expedition up the Colorado from the south , and he wanted Irataba to guide them . The Mohave gave permission to navigate the river , and Cairook , Irataba , and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mohave boy named Nahvahroopa joined them . Möllhausen again accompanied the expedition , and was impressed with the Mohave guides , later noting Irataba 's enthusiastic handshake and lamenting that their only form of communication was sign language . He also noted that Irataba and the Mohave readily began wearing European clothes given to them by members of the expedition , and showed great interest in smoking tobacco . Aside from the friendship shown to him by Irataba and Cairook , Ives noted that the Mohave appeared less friendly than on earlier occasions , a change that he attributed to their contact with Mormons , who were in conflict with the US and had succeeded in converting some Mohave .
Irataba guided the party into the Mohave Canyon , indicating the location of rapids and advising the Explorer 's pilot of convenient places to anchor while camping for the night . When they reached the entrance to the Black Canyon of the Colorado , the ship crashed against a submerged rock , throwing several men overboard , dislodging the boiler , and damaging the wheelhouse . Using their skiff , the crew towed the Explorer to the shore , where they camped for three days while repairing the vessel . The expedition had relied on beans and corn provided by the Mohave during the previous weeks ; as their supplies dwindled they grew increasingly anxious about the arrival of a resupply pack train from Fort Yuma . Irataba volunteered to hike towards the Mohave Valley to try to locate the supplies that had been requested several days earlier . He also warned that the expedition was being watched by Paiutes .
When Irataba returned he informed Ives that he would not venture any deeper into the territory of the Hualapais , but agreed to help them locate friendly guides in the region before parting company . Irataba was reluctant to venture into the canyon because he feared the party would be ambushed by Paiutes aligned with Mormons . After enlisting three Hualapai guides , Irataba prepared to take his leave from the expedition and return to the Mohave community . On April 4 , the Mohave received payment for their services ; Möllhausen described the exchange : " Lieutenant Ives informed Irataba that he had been authorized by the ' Great Grandfather in Washington ' to give him two mules ... for his loyalty and his trustworthiness so that he could take his possessions and those of his companions more conveniently to his home valley . " The next morning , as they were preparing to leave : " Irataba was visibly moved ... and in his sincere eyes expressed so much honesty and loyalty as can only be found in an unspoiled nature ... I maintain that there was not one in our expedition who did not feel a certain sadness to see this huge man with ... a harmless soul leave . "
= = Mohave War and aftermath = =
Following their experiences with the Sitgreaves and Whipple expeditions , and encounters with Mormons and the soldiers at Fort Yuma , the Mohave were aware that whites were immigrating to the region in increasing numbers . It was difficult for the Mohave to predict the behavior of the arriving whites , some of whom , like Whipple , were amiably disposed towards them , whereas others such as the Mormons were hostile . The kwanami were divided on how the situation should be approached ; some advocated an aggressive posture , denying whites all passage through their territory , but others , including Irataba , preferred a peaceful approach , or even an alliance with them that could put the Mohave in a stronger position relative to their traditional enemies the Paiute , Chemehuevi , and Walapai .
On September 1 , 1857 , a joint force of Mohave and Quechan warriors launched a major attack with hundreds of warriors on a Maricopa village close to Maricopa Wells , Arizona , on the Gila river . The Battle of Pima Butte was described by a group of white mail carriers who witnessed it . They stated that the battle was fought mostly with clubs , as well as bows and arrows , and that probably more than 100 warriors died , most of them from the attacking party . It is unknown whether Irataba participated in the attack , but given his status as kwanami , it is likely that he did . The battle has been described as the last major battle involving only Native American nations . This defeat put the Mohave on the defensive , wary of the possibility that whites would take this moment of weakness as an opportunity to begin settling on tribal lands .
= = = Rose – Baley Party attack = = =
In October 1857 , an expedition led by Edward Fitzgerald Beale was tasked with establishing a trade route along the 35th parallel from Fort Smith , Arkansas , to Los Angeles , California . From Fort Smith , his journey continued through Fort Defiance , Arizona , before crossing the Colorado near Needles , California . This route became known as Beale 's Wagon Road , and the location where Beale crossed the river as Beale 's Crossing . Beale 's journal and subsequent report to the United States Secretary of War did not mention any problems with Irataba and the Mohave , but an assistant named Humphrey Stacy recorded that the Mohave had prevented Beale from traveling downriver .
In 1858 , the Rose – Baley Party comprising at least a hundred settlers with wagons and a large herd of cattle , was the first emigrant train to venture onto Beale 's Wagon Road . Upon entering Mohave territory the settlers started cutting down cottonwood trees , which were an important resource for the Mohave . The most warlike of the kwanamis organized an attack on the party , and drove away and slaughtered many of the party 's cattle . On August 30 , three hundred Mohave warriors attacked the emigrants but were repelled , with one member of the party killed in battle and eleven wounded . Another family who were not with the main party during the attack were killed in an event that has often been blamed on the Mohave , but which in Colonel William Hoffman 's opinion was more likely carried out by a band of Walapai , along with seven renegade Mohave . The emigrants killed seventeen Mohave warriors . The incident was widely publicized in the media and labeled " a massacre " , scaring many white Californians who feared being cut off from the eastern US by hostile natives , and it motivated the War Department to quickly subjugate the tribe .
Irataba was away at Fort Yuma during the attack on the settlers , and upon hearing of it he scolded the Mohave . Chooksa homar participated in the events and reported that Irataba told the warriors , " I hear you fought , though I told you not to . And you will have war again : I know it . You used to fight the Maricopa . I want to go [ to Phoenix ] to see the Maricopa and tell them : ' The Mohave will not come any more to attack you ' . " Irataba , weary of the constant fighting and worried that further conflicts with neighboring tribes would draw more attention from the US soldiers , organized a peace expedition to the Maricopa , settling the ancient disputes between the two peoples .
= = = Conflict with the US army = = =
When news of the attack reached California , the US War Department decided to establish a military fort at Beale 's Crossing to keep the Mohave under control and secure white travelers safe passage through Mohave lands . On December 26 , 1858 , Hoffman and fifty dragoons from Fort Tejon were dispatched to cross the desert and confront the Mohave . Irataba attempted to arrange a peaceful meeting , but Hoffman ordered his troops to fire on the warriors , who counterattacked and repelled the force . He returned in April 1859 , by way of Fort Yuma , with four companies of the 6th Infantry Regiment . When they arrived at Beale 's Crossing , the Mohave decided against attacking the army of five hundred soldiers . On April 23 , at Hoffman 's request , he and his officers met with several hundred Mohave warriors and their leaders . The indigenous leaders included Cairook , Irataba , Homoseh quahote ( also called Seck @-@ a @-@ hoot and Asika hota ) , and Pascual , leader of the Quechan . During the meeting the Mohave were surrounded by armed soldiers who prevented them from leaving .
Hoffman gave the Mohave a choice between war and peace , and he demanded that they agree to never again harm white settlers along the wagon trail . He also declared that , as punishment , the Mohave were required to surrender as hostages a member of each clan and three warriors who had taken part in the attack . Hoffman demanded that the chief who had ordered the attack on the settlers offer himself up as a hostage . According to Chooksa homar , the chief who had ordered the attack was Homoseh quahote , who was reluctant to give himself up . Cairook offered himself in his place , along with eight others , including Tokwatha , Irataba 's son Tekse thume , and Irataba 's nephews Qolho qorau , and Aspamekelyeho . Other hostages were named Itsere- ' itse , Ilyhanapau , and Tinyam @-@ isalye . They were transported in the river steamer General Jessup to Fort Yuma . Many soldiers remained to begin construction on the Beale 's Crossing fort , which was named Fort Mohave . Although Irataba visited the garrison several times and argued for their release , the hostages were held for more than a year . On June 21 , 1859 , Cairook and one other captive were killed by soldiers while attempting to escape their incarceration . Most of the other Mohave captives escaped .
In July 1861 , the commander of Fort Mohave , Major Lewis Armistead , ordered soldiers to fire into a group of Mohave who he suspected of having attacked a mail carrier and slaughtered his mule . The Mohave did not respond violently to the attack , but Armistead decided to punish them for harassing the mail party . He arrived at Irataba 's ranch where a group of Mohave boys were planting beans , and from a hidden position he shot one of the planters , killing him . This attack prompted an assault on Armistead 's detachment , who from an advantageous position on the high ground were able to repel the Mohave , killing many of them in a battle that lasted most of the day . Armistead 's report of the assault of Irataba 's ranch reported 23 dead Mohave warriors , but the Mohave remember a much higher number of casualties , including women and children killed by the soldiers . Sherer speculated that , given that 50 soldiers fired around 10 shots each , the casualty count could have been much higher than reported . The attack on Irataba 's ranch is remembered by the Mohave as " the first and last battle with the Federal Troops . "
= = As Aha macave yaltanack = =
After Cairook 's death , whites living near the Colorado River began to view Irataba as the main leader of the Mohave . He had become Aha macave yaltanack ( leader of the Mohave Nation ) or hochoch ( leader elected by the people ) ; " yaltanack " is Mohave for " leader " , and " hochach " means " head of a group " . Homoseh quahote was a hereditary leader of the Malika clan ( " the understanding people " ) , and the position of head of the Mohave was traditionally inherited only by someone from that clan . Because Irataba was of the Huttoh pah , in order for him to become the leader of the Mohave Nation , Homoseh quahote had to step down so Irataba , as an elected leader , could take his place .
Despite the accepted English translations , the words yaltanack and huchach do not mean a " ruler " or " boss " . Devereux describes Mohave government as " one of the least understood segments of Mohave culture " , and notes that while white officials " tended to act on the assumption that Indian chiefs exercised absolute authority " , as an elected leader Irataba was " primarily a servant of the tribe " .
By the mid @-@ 1860s a deep rift had developed between Irataba , who was proactive in cooperating with white settlers , and Homoseh quahote , who passively tolerated but did not approve of white encroachment on Mohave lands . Irataba was Aha macave yaltanack of the Mohave from 1861 to 1866 , but from 1867 to 1869 opinions differ , and by 1870 US government correspondence suggests that Homoseh quahote had succeeded him as leader of the Fort Mohave group .
= = Mining ventures = =
In 1862 , Irataba acted as a guide for the Walker Party Exploration , gold prospectors led by Joseph R. Walker and including Jack Swilling , who later founded Phoenix , Arizona . Irataba brought them to a river that he called Hasyamp , later named the Hassayampa River , where they found plentiful gold . Arizona 's first mining district was established there the following year , which led to the founding of Prescott , Arizona soon afterward . Relations between settlers and the Mohave were positive during this period , but as emigration increased , gold seekers founded a town nearby named La Paz , stirring fear among settlers of a native uprising against further encroachment on Mohave land . The following year a group of soldiers from Fort Mohave discovered an area between Needles , Fort Mohave , and the Colorado River that was abundant in copper ore . The parcel was named Irataba Mining District , and within the year a mining company had been formed to work it . A small mining town named Irataba City was established on a bluff two miles below Fort Mohave .
= = Travels = =
In the early 1860s , Irataba worked with prospectors as a guide . One of them was John Moss , an experienced prospector whom Irataba had shown the location of a gold mine in the Mojave desert , which Moss later sold . Moss suggested Irataba be invited to Washington so that he could see firsthand the United States ' military might . In November 1863 , Irataba traveled with Moss to San Pedro , Los Angeles , where they boarded the steamship Senator , bound for San Francisco . In San Francisco , he stayed at the Occidental Hotel and created a storm as he walked down Jackson Street , dressed in clothing typical of European Americans , which Irataba soon preferred to traditional Mohave clothing . The press documented his every movement and wrote extensively about his physical size and strong features . On December 2 , 1863 , the Daily Evening Bulletin described Irataba as a large man , " granitic in appearance as one of the Lower Coast mountains , with ... a lower jaw massive enough to crush nuts or crush quartz . "
In January 1864 they sailed for the Isthmus of Panama on board the Orizaba , then traveled onwards to New York City . Upon Irataba 's arrival in New York , Harper 's Weekly described him as " the finest specimen of unadulterated aboriginal on this continent " . Here Irataba exchanged his suit and sombrero for the uniform and regalia of a major general , including a bright yellow sash , a gold badge encrusted with precious stones , and a medal with the inscription , " Irataba , Chief of the Mohaves , Arizona Territory " . In February , when The New York Times asked him to explain the nature of his visit , he replied : " to see where so many pale faces come from " . In New York he met with the former Mohave captive Olive Oatman , and the two conversed in Mohave . Irataba told Oatman that her Mohave adoptive sister Topeka , to whom she had grown very close , still missed her and hoped she would return . Oatman described the encounter as a meeting between friends .
Irataba moved on to Philadelphia and Washington , D.C. , where he earned great acclaim ; government officials and military officers lavished him with gifts of medals , swords , and photographs . In Washington he met with President Abraham Lincoln , who gave him a silver @-@ headed cane . He was the first Native American from the Southwest to meet an American president . The tour ended in April , when he and Moss sailed to California , again by way of Panama , and made their way back to Beale 's Crossing from Los Angeles by wagon .
Upon Irataba 's return from Washington D.C. , he met with the Mohave while dressed in his major general 's uniform , with medals . He wore a European @-@ style hat and carried a long Japanese sword , and he told the Mohave about all the things he had seen . He tried to convince them that peace with the United States was in their best interests , and that war against them was futile , stressing their dominant military capabilities . Many Mohave were skeptical of his reports , and reacted with disbelief .
= = Colorado River Indian Reservation = =
The completion of Fort Mohave began the process of military subjugation of the Mohave , and the next step was the establishment of reservations . In 1863 , Charles Debrille Poston , the first Superintendent of Indian Affairs of the Arizona Territory , called a conference between the Chemehuevi and Irataba 's faction of the Mohave , in which he convinced them to form an alliance with the US against the Apache . The treaty was never ratified by the US Congress but formed an important step in establishing friendly relations between the Mohave and the US government following the military campaigns and the establishment of Fort Mohave .
Poston promoted the idea of establishing a reservation in the southern portion of Mohave country . Many Mohave opposed the proposed location and instead argued for a smaller parcel further north in the Mohave Valley , which had more fertile land . With Irataba and an engineer , Poston traveled down the Colorado River to survey a location . In August 1864 the post commander at Fort Mohave , Captain Charles Atchisson , stated that Irataba was against the proposed location . In September 1864 , Poston gave the impression that Irataba was in favor of it . In a letter to General Richard C. Drum , Atchisson reported that Irataba and four Mohave leaders were unhappy with how Poston was handling the situation :
Mr. Poston had marked out a reservation for the Mojave Indians in the upper part of the La Paz valley on the East side of the Colorado River ... Iratabu says this reservation is covered with sand and unfit for cultivation and the Indians are opposed to giving up their good lands in the Mojave Valley and moving to it ... Iratabu says if he can have the valley below the Fort Mojave reserved for the home of the Indians , he is willing to give up all claims to lands on other parts of the river , and bring his Indians from La Paz and other points to this valley ... I have full confidence in the friendship of Iratabu towards white men , but not in his tribe , if troubles with any other Indians should occur , while he has more influence over them than any other chief , his control over them is not complete , and they are as likely to lead him ( as he is them ) .
Faced with Irataba 's disagreement , Poston promised that the US government would assist the Mohave with installing an irrigation system at the Colorado that would make most of the reservation arable . This apparently convinced Irataba , who traveled to the Colorado River Valley with about 800 people , almost a fifth of the entire Mohave Nation . General James Henry Carleton thought a reservation was unnecessary , and engineer Herman Ehrenberg disagreed with Poston 's proposed location on the basis that the soil was too alkaline for farming , the need for irrigation too great , and the task of raising the river too insurmountable . Nonetheless , on March 3 , 1865 , Congress established the Colorado River Indian Reservation at Poston 's proposed location . Ehrenberg 's concerns proved valid , and neither Poston nor any subsequent US authority was willing to dedicate the considerable resources required to make the location suitable for farming . The reservation was established without a treaty having been established between the Mohave and the US government . The boundaries were expanded and clarified by executive orders issued by President Grant in 1873 , 1874 and 1867 .
Most of the Mohave refused to leave their ancestral homelands for the reservation , but Irataba 's conviction that the reservation was their best option marked the beginning of a rift between his group and those who stayed behind to follow Homoseh quahote , the nation 's hereditary leader . According to an eyewitness account by Chooksa homar , Irataba explained his decision to move :
" You get angry sometimes ; I know you are brave men and think you can beat anybody . You thought you could beat the whites : you said so . I told you you could not ; the whites have beaten all tribes ; all are friends to them now . You did not listen to what I said when I told you that . You did what you thought , and many have got killed . If the soldiers come , you cannot resist them . You did not know that , but now you know it . The country down river from here , which we took away from another tribe [ the Halchidhoma ] , I will live there . Those of you who want to go on fighting can stay here . I do not want to and will leave you . "
As the promised irrigation assistance was not immediately forthcoming , the first year at the reservation brought a drought that made it necessary for the Mohave to request food assistance . In 1867 , Irataba and the Mohave began to build an irrigation canal , digging by hand a ditch that ran for 9 miles ( 14 km ) . A report by a US official visiting the reservation in 1870 recorded that attempts by the Mohave at agricultural cultivation on the site were restricted to an area of not more than 40 acres ( 16 ha ) .
= = Later years = =
Irataba continued to lead the Colorado River band of Mohave during the 1860s . He pursued peaceful relations with the surrounding tribes and cooperated actively with US authorities . He also helped the Yavapai and Walapai in ongoing conflicts with Paiutes and Chemehuevi .
In March 1865 , Irataba and the Mohave defeated the Chemehuevi after their allies , the Paiutes , killed two Mohave women . The Mohave pushed the Chemehuevi off their traditional territory and into the California desert , but they soon returned . To avoid fighting a two @-@ front war , Irataba attacked the Chemehuevi first , then turned his attention to the Paiutes , who were planning an attack on the Mohave farm and granary on the Colorado 's Cottonwood Island . During a subsequent battle with the Chemehuevi in October 1865 , Irataba was taken prisoner while wearing his major general 's uniform . According to a contemporary news report based on second hand accounts from white travelers , the captors feared that killing him would invite repercussions from the soldiers stationed at Fort Mohave , so they instead stripped him naked and sent him home badly beaten . In the Mohave account of the events as told by Chooksa homar , Irataba surrendered in an effort to make peace with the Chemehuevi , and offered his uniform to their chief as a gesture of peace . In 1867 , a treaty signed by Irataba and the Chemehuevi leader Pan Coyer restored peaceful relations between the two nations .
Irataba also welcomed bands of Yavapai onto the reservation after they had been subject to massacres by US troops , or suffered starvation due to having been driven from their lands . The meager resources of the reservation proved unable to sustain the additional population and eventually the Yavapai had to leave . Irataba frequently served as a mediator between Yavapai and Walapai who had become embroiled in conflicts with the US army , and participated in peace parlays . In 1871 – 72 , General George Crook came to the Mohave reservation looking for a group of Yavapai thought to be responsible for the Wickenburg Massacre , and Irataba had no choice but to turn the war party over to the army . He traveled to the trial proceedings at Fort Date Creek , where he was instructed to hand tobacco to the Yavapai he believed to be responsible , as a way for him to testify against them without their realizing it . As soldiers attempted to arrest the men that Irataba identified , fighting broke out and one of the Yavapai leaders , Ohatchecama , and his brother were shot . Despite having been shot twice and stabbed with a bayonet , Ohatchecama survived and escaped to organize the Tolkepaya Yavapai in resistance against the US army . The Yavapai felt betrayed by Irataba , and plotted to kill him in revenge , but were eventually persuaded that he was not the one who had turned them over to Crook .
The Colorado River band of Mohave never replaced Irataba ; he was their leader when he died at their reservation on May 3 or 4 , 1874 . His cause of death is unknown , but smallpox and natural causes are both cited . The Mohave grieved deeply ; Irataba 's cremation and the rituals of mourning were reported in newspapers as far away as Omaha , Nebraska . Irataba was succeeded as leader on the Colorado Reservation by his nephew , Qolho qorau of the Vemacka clan , who upheld his uncle 's policies .
= = Legacy and influence = =
In 1966 , Sherer commented regarding Irataba 's legacy amongst the Mohave : " Estimation of his position in Mojave history from the Mojave viewpoint differs . To some he is an heroic figure , to others he was a white collaborator who did not stand up for Mojave rights . From the standpoint of white men who were conquering a wilderness , he was indeed the Mojave who worked unswervingly for peace . "
Irataba 's influence as a leader may even have left its mark on the Mohave language . A list of Mohave words that he dictated to an anthropologist during his visit in Washington shows that he was among the first Mohave speakers to shift the sounds [ s ] and [ ʂ ] ( similar to sh as in " shack " ) to [ θ ] ( th as in " thick " ) and [ s ] , respectively . By the late 19th century all Mohave speakers had adopted this change . Linguist Leanne Hinton has suggested that this may be due in part to Irataba 's influence , both because he was a prestigious leader whose ways of speaking may have been emulated by other Mohave , and also because when he led the Mohave onto the reservation the old distinctions between dialect groups were erased through dialect leveling , making new changes spread quickly through the community .
The Irataba Society , a non @-@ profit charity run by the Colorado River Indian Tribes , was established in Parker , Arizona , in 1970 . The charity holds an annual pow wow or National Indian Days celebration . Irataba Hall , a sports venue in Parker , is also named after him . In 2002 , the US Bureau of Land Management designated 32 @,@ 745 acres ( 13 @,@ 251 ha ) of the Eldorado Mountains , contained largely within the Lake Mead National Recreation Area , as Ireteba Peaks Wilderness .
In March 2015 , the Colorado River Indian Tribes celebrated the sesquicentennial history of their reservation with a weekend @-@ long event that included cultural activities and a parade . Speakers at the event stressed the important role that Irataba 's strong leadership played in establishing and preserving the reservation , and the continuing need for Native leaders to protect native language and culture . Tribal chairman Dennis Patch commented : " Some people would think we 're lucky , as we have this river and 220 @,@ 000 acre feet of water ... But we have had great leaders , like Chief Irataba . He made sure the Mohaves stayed on land they had lived on since time immemorial . " Former CRIT Museum Director Dr. Michael Tsosie stated , " Irataba understood the Mohave people would need to keep fighting to keep what they had . " He noted that the Colorado River Indian Reservation " is unique in American history in that they have not lost any land " .
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= Christopher Smart 's asylum confinement =
The English poet Christopher Smart ( 1722 – 1771 ) was confined to mental asylums from May 1757 until January 1763 . Smart was admitted into St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics , Bethnal Green , London , on 6 May 1757 . He was taken there by his father @-@ in @-@ law , John Newbery , although he may have been confined in a private madhouse before then . While in St Luke 's he wrote Jubilate Agno and A Song to David , the poems considered to be his greatest works . Although many of his contemporaries agreed that Smart was " mad " , accounts of his condition and its ramifications varied , and some felt that he had been committed unfairly .
Smart was diagnosed as " incurable " while at St Luke 's , and when they ran out of funds for his care he was moved to Mr. Potter 's asylum . All that is known of his years of confinement is that he wrote poetry . Smart 's isolation led him to abandon the poetic genres of the 18th century that had marked his earlier work and to write religious poetry such as Jubilate Agno ( " Rejoice in the Lamb " ) . His asylum poetry reveals a desire for " unmediated revelation " , and it is possible that the self @-@ evaluation found in his poetry represents an expression of evangelical Christianity .
Late 18th @-@ century critics felt that Smart 's madness justified them in ignoring his A Song to David , but during the following century Robert Browning and his contemporaries considered his condition to be the source of his genius . It was not until the 20th century , with the rediscovery of Jubilate Agno ( not published until 1939 ) , that critics reconsidered Smart 's case and began to see him as a revolutionary poet , the possible target of a plot by his father @-@ in @-@ law , a publisher , to silence him .
= = Background = =
Christopher Smart was an English poet who was confined to asylums during a time of debate about the nature of madness and its treatment . During the 18th century , madness was " both held to reveal inner truth and condemned to silence and exclusion as something unintelligible by reason , and therefore threatening to society and to humanity " . It was commonly held to be an incurable affliction whose sufferers should be isolated from society . Physician William Battie — who later treated Smart — wrote :
[ we ] find that Madness is , contrary to the opinion of some unthinking persons , as manageable as many other distempers , which are equally dreadful and obstinate , and yet are not looked upon as incurable , and that such unhappy objects ought by no means to be abandoned , much less shut up in loathsome prisons as criminals or nuisances to the society .
In particular , Battie defined madness as " deluded imagination " . However , he was attacked by other physicians , such as John Monro , who worked at Bethlem Hospital . In his Remarks on Dr. Battie 's Treatise on Madness , Monro explained that those who were mad had the correct perceptions , but that they lacked the ability to judge properly . Although Monro promoted ideas of reform , his suggested treatment — beating patients — was as harsh on patients as Battie 's preferred option , of completely isolating patients from society .
In 1758 , Battie and others argued that those deemed " mad " were abused under the British asylum system , and they pushed for parliamentary action . Battie 's Treatise on Madness emphasised the problems of treating the hospitals as tourist attractions and the punitive measures taken against patients . The arguments of Battie and others resulted in the passage of the Act for Regulating Private Madhouses ( 1774 ) , but were too late to help Smart .
Modern critics , however , have a more cynical view of the 18th @-@ century use of the term " madness " when diagnosing patients ; psychiatrist Thomas Szasz viewed the idea of madness as arbitrary and unnatural . Agreeing with Szasz 's position , philosopher Michel Foucault emphasised that asylums were used in the 18th century to attack dissenting views and that the idea of madness was a cultural fear held by the British public , rather than a legitimate medical condition . In particular , Foucault considered the 18th century a time of " great confinement " . This description is consistent with Smart 's 1760s writings on the subject in which , according to Thomas Keymer , " the category of madness is insistently relativized , and made to seem little more than the invention of a society strategically concerned to discredit all utterances or conduct that threatens its interests and norms . "
18th century treatment of inpatients was simple : they were to be fed daily a light diet of bread , oatmeal , some meat or cheese , and a little amount of beer , which were inadequate in meeting daily nutritional needs ; they were denied contact with outsiders , including family members ; and they would be denied access to that which was deemed to be the cause of their madness ( these causes ranged from alcohol and food to working outside ) . If their actions appeared " afresh and without assignable cause " , then their condition would be labelled as " original " madness and deemed incurable . An institution like St Luke 's , run by Battie , held both " curable " and " incurable " patients . There were few spots available for patients to receive free treatment , and many were released after a year to make room for new admittances .
= = Asylum = =
During the 1740s , Smart published many poems while a student at Pembroke College , Cambridge . He eventually left the university in 1749 to devote his time to poetry . In 1750 , Smart started to familiarise himself with Grub Street , London 's writing district , and met John Newbery , a publisher . Soon after , Newbery began publishing Smart 's works in various magazines and in collections , including Poems on Several Occasions ( 1752 ) . Of these works , Smart was known for his Seatonian Prize @-@ winning poems , his pastoral poem The Hop @-@ Garden , and his mock epic The Hilliad . In 1752 , Smart married Newbery 's daughter , Anna Maria Carnan , and had two daughters with her by 1754 . Although many of Smart 's works were published between 1753 and 1755 , he had little money to provide for his family . At the end of 1755 , he finished a translation of the works of Horace , but even that provided little income . Having no other choices , Smart signed a 99 @-@ year @-@ long contract in November 1755 to produce a weekly paper entitled The Universal Visiter or Monthly Memorialist , and the strain of writing caused Smart 's health to deteriorate .
On 5 June 1756 , Smart 's father @-@ in @-@ law Newbery published , without permission , Smart 's Hymn to the Supreme Being , a poem which thanked God for recovery from an illness of some kind , possibly a " disturbed mental state " . During the illness , Smart was possibly confined to Newbery 's home and unable to write or be socially active . Out of sympathy for Smart , many of his friends , including writer and critic Samuel Johnson , began to write in the Universal Visiter to fulfill Smart 's contractual obligation to produce content for the magazine . The publication of Hymn to the Supreme Being marked the beginning of Smart 's obsession with religion and eventual confinement for madness because he began praying " without ceasing " .
Smart 's behaviour was probably influenced by St Paul 's command in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians to " Pray without ceasing " and William Law 's The Spirit of Prayer , which argues that a constant state of prayer will establish a connection with God . Smart began by praying at regular intervals but this slowly deteriorated into irregular praying in which he would interrupt his friends ' activities and call them into the street to pray with him . These calls for public prayer continued until an incident that Smart later described in Jubilate Agno : " For I blessed God in St James 's Park till I routed all the company ... For the officers of the peace are at variance with me , and the watchman smites me with his staff " ( Jubilate Agno B 90 – 91 ) .
Christopher Hunter , Smart 's biographer and nephew , described the situation :
Though the fortune as well as the constitution of Mr. Smart required the utmost care , he was equally negligent in the management of both , and his various and repeated embarrassments acting upon an imagination uncommonly fervid , produced temporary alienations of mind ; which at last were attended with paroxysms so violent and continued as to render confinement necessary .
Hunter reports that Samuel Johnson visited Smart during the latter 's confinement , and it was Johnson that , " on the first approaches of Mr Smart 's malady , wrote several papers for a periodical publication in which that gentleman was concerned . " However , at no time did Smart ever believe himself to be insane ; these meetings began before Smart was ever put into asylum because he still contributed , although not as significantly , to the Universal Visiter . In joking about writing for the Universal Visiter , Johnson claimed : " for poor Smart , while he was mad , not then knowing the terms on which he was engaged to write ... I hoped his wits would return to him . Mine returned to me , and I wrote in ' the Universal Visitor ' no longer . "
There are other possibilities beyond madness or religious fervor that may have led to Smart 's confinement : Newbery may have used the imprisonment of his son @-@ in @-@ law as leverage to control the publication of Smart 's work and as a warning to others who worked for him not to cross him . Another theory suggests Smart 's actions were a result of alcohol , and had nothing to do with a mental imbalance . However , Smart may have been imprisoned for embarrassing his father @-@ in @-@ law in some way , which could have resulted from an incident in which Smart drank . Hester Thrale reinforced this latter possibility when she claimed that Smart 's " religious fervor " tended to coincide with times that Smart was intoxicated . Smart 's own testimony that he " blessed God in St. James 's Park till I routed all the company " ( Jubilate Agno B 90 – 91 ) as representing his religious madness is equally dismissed as resulting from drinking , as he was known for pulling pranks and the Board of Green Cloth , the government body that controlled St James 's Park , would treat most disturbances in the park as resulting from madness . If Smart was placed into the asylum as a result of actions at St James 's , he would not have been the only one , since records show that the Board of Green Cloth was responsible for admitting sixteen people to Bethlem Hospital for " frenzy " at St James 's Park during the century prior to Smart being placed in St Luke 's .
The specific events of Smart 's confinement are unknown . He may have been in a private madhouse before St Luke 's and later moved from St Luke 's to Mr Potter 's asylum until his release . At St Luke 's , he transitioned from being " curable " to " incurable " , and was moved to Mr Potter 's asylum for monetary reasons . During Smart 's confinement time , his wife Anna left and took the children with her to Ireland . There is no record that he ever saw her again . His isolation led him into writing religious poetry , and he abandoned the traditional genres of the 18th century that marked his earlier poetry when he wrote Jubilate Agno .
During his time in asylum , Smart busied himself with a daily ritual of writing poetry ; these lyric fragments eventually formed his Jubilate Agno and A Song to David . Smart might have turned to writing poetry as a way to focus the mind or as self @-@ therapy . Although 20th @-@ century critics debate whether his new poetic self @-@ examination represents an expression of evangelical Christianity , his poetry during his isolation does show a desire for " unmediated revelation " from God . There is an " inner light " that serves as a focal point for Smart and his poems written during his confinement , and that inner light connects him to the Christian God .
= = = St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics = = =
Few details are known about Smart 's time at St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics . He was admitted to St Luke 's on 6 May 1757 as a " Curable Patient " . It is possible that Smart was confined at Newbery 's behest over old debts and a poor relationship that existed between the two ; Newbery had previously mocked Smart 's immorality in A Collection of Pretty Poems for the Amusement of Children six Foot High . Regardless of Newbery 's exact reasons , there is evidence suggesting that Newbery 's admittance of Smart into the mental asylum was not based on madness . To have Smart admitted , Newbery probably provided a small bribe , although bribes were against St Luke 's policy .
There is little information about Smart 's condition during his stay at St Luke 's , possibly because Battie 's denied his patients from being visited , including by their own family members . One of the few records that survive of Smart 's time at St Luke 's was an entry in St Luke 's Minute Book , which read :
12 May 1758
Dr. Battie having acquainted this Committee that Christopher Smart ( who was admitted on the 6th day of May 1757 ) continues disordered in his Senses notwithstanding he has been admitted into this Hospital above 12 Calendar Months and from the present Circumstances of his Case there is not Suffit. reason to expect his speedy Recovery And he being brought up and examined . Ordered . That he be discharged and that Notice be sent to his Securities to take him away .
During Smart 's confinement at St Luke 's , not even other doctors were allowed to see Smart unless they had received personal permission from Battie . It was improbable that Smart could have left the asylum without being released by Battie . Even if Smart would have attempted to obtain release via legal means , the rules for subpoenaing release would have been almost impossible to follow based on the system that Battie had in place , which isolated the individual from all contact . Eventually , Smart was deemed " incurable " and would not have been released by the hospital but for its lack of funds .
= = = Mr Potter 's madhouse = = =
After being released from St Luke 's , Smart was taken to a private madhouse . Elizabeth LeNoir , Smart 's daughter , was brought to see her father and stated that he was " committed by Mr Newbery to the care of a Mr Potter who kept a private house at Bethnal Green " . She described her experience as being held in a " small neat parlour " . However , Mr Potter 's private madhouse was not " homely " , and Smart 's treatments were far worse , as he describes : " For they work on me with their harping @-@ irons , which is a barbarous instrument , because I am more unguarded than others " ( Jubilate Agno B 129 ) . Smart was left alone for four years , except for his cat Jeoffry and the occasional gawker who would come to see those deemed mad . Piozzi described Smart 's general situation : " He was both a wit and a scholar , and visited as such while under confinement for MADNESS . " It is very possible that he felt " homeless " during his confinement and surely felt that he was in a " limbo ... between public and private space " from being watched by outsiders .
In London , only a few of his works were still being published , but the proceeds were taken by Newbery . However , Smart did get to see published a collection of his work under the pseudonym " Mrs Midnight " titled Mrs. Midnight 's Orations ; and other Select Pieces : as they were spoken at the Oratory in the Hay @-@ Market , London . Smart did not profit from the work , but he was able to see at least some of his previous work being printed again . Smart , according to his 20th @-@ century biographer Arthur Sherbo , had only " his God and his poetry " . A few of his loyal friends eventually grew tired of the treatment Smart received and freed him from Mr Potter 's .
= = = Release = = =
There is little information about how and why Smart was released from asylum , but his daughter claimed : " He grew better , and some misjudging friends who misconstrued Mr Newbery 's great kindness in placing him under necessary & salutary restriction which might possibly have eventually wrought a cure , invited him to dinner and he returned to his confinement no more . " What is known about the actual events is that John Sherratt , Christopher Smart 's friend , believed that Smart 's confinement was unfair and wanted to negotiate Smart 's release . In January 1763 , he met with a parliamentary committee to discuss the issue of individuals falsely imprisoned and abuses that they would receive in asylums . In particular , Sherratt argued that many were admitted for habitual intoxication , which undermined Battie 's and other asylum keeper 's reputations . A finding by the parliamentary committee released 27 January 1763 bolstered Sherratt 's chances to release Smart . To those around him , Smart appeared perfectly sane , and he was most likely released because of legislation concurrently being passed in parliament advocating for a reform to patient care . Smart left the asylum on 30 January 1763 with Sherratt .
Upon leaving asylum , Smart took the manuscripts of A Song to David , many translations of Psalms , and Jubilate Agno . A Song to David was published on 6 April 1763 . Harsh reviews followed which mocked Smart 's time in the asylum instead of dealing with the poems . Jubilate Agno stayed in manuscript form and passed into the hands of the friends of William Cowper , a poet also placed into asylum and Smart 's contemporary , when they investigated the concept of " madness " . The work stayed in private holdings until it was rediscovered in the 20th century by William Stead . It was not published until 1939 when it was printed with the title Rejoice in the Lamb : A Song from Bedlam .
= = Analysis = =
Samuel Johnson 's biographer James Boswell described a moment when Charles Burney inquired of his friend Johnson of Smart 's state . Johnson used the term " madness " to comment on the state of society before explaining to Burney that Smart 's actions that were deemed symptoms of madness were actually reasonable :
Madness frequently discovers itself merely by unnecessary deviation from the usual mode of the world . My poor friend Smart shewed the disturbance of his mind , by falling upon his knees , and saying his prayers in the street , or in any other unusual place . Now although , rationally speaking , it is greater madness not to pray at all , than to pray as Smart did , I am afraid there are so many who do not pray , that their understanding is not called in question .
Concerning this unfortunate poet , Christopher Smart , who was confined in a mad @-@ house , he had , at another time , the following conversation with Dr [ Charles ] Burney : – Burney . ' How does poor Smart do , Sir ; is he likely to recover ? ' Johnson . ' It seems as if his mind had ceased to struggle with the disease ; for he grows fat upon it . ' Burney . ' Perhaps , Sir , that may be from want of exercise . ' Johnson . ' No , Sir ; he has partly as much exercise as he used to have , for he digs in the garden . Indeed , before his confinement , he used for exercise to walk to the ale @-@ house ; but he was carried back again . I did not think he ought to be shut up . His infirmities are not noxious to society . He insisted on people praying with him ; and I 'd as lief pray with Kit [ = Christopher ] Smart as any one else . Another charge was that he did not love clean linen ; and I have no passion for it . ' – Johnson continued . ' Mankind have a great aversion to intellectual labour ; but even supposing knowledge to be easily attainable , more people would be content to be ignorant than would take even a little trouble to acquire it.'
In an article printed in the Gentleman 's Magazine , Hester Piozzi , Smart 's acquaintance and Johnson 's close friend , argued that in many aspects Smart appears sane :
In every other transaction of life no man 's wits could be more regular than those of Smart , for this prevalence of one idea pertinaciously keeping the first place in his head had in no sense , except in what immediately related to itself , perverted his judgement at all ; his opinions were unchanged as before , nor did he seem more likely to fall into a state of distraction than any other man ; less so , perhaps , as he calmed every violent start of passion by prayer .
Beyond Smart 's circle of friends , few were willing to dismiss claims that Smart was affected by madness . Most contemporary literary critics knew of Smart 's time in asylum and , upon publication of his A Song to David , called attention to aspects of the poem which they could use to claim that Smart was still " mad " . The view was widely held , and the poet William Mason wrote to Thomas Gray , " I have seen his Song to David & from thence conclude him as mad as ever . "
= = = 19th century = = =
It was a century before a positive twist was put on Christopher Smart 's time in asylum ; the Victorian poet Robert Browning argued that A Song to David was great because Smart was mad at the time . In his poem Parleyings ( 1887 ) , Browning claimed :
Armed with this instance , have I diagnosed
Your case , my Christopher ? The man was sound
And sane at starting : all at once the ground
Gave way beneath his step
* * * * *
Then — as heaven were loth
To linger ; — let earth understand too well
How heaven at need can operate — off fell
The flame @-@ robe , and the untransfigured man
Resumed sobriety , — as he began ,
So did he end nor alter pace , not he !
To Browning , Smart 's temporary madness was what allowed him to compose in A Song to David poetry similar to that of John Milton and John Keats . Christopher Smart , as Browning 's poem continued ,
pierced the screen
'Twixt thing and word , lit language straight from soul , —
Left no fine film @-@ flake on the naked coal
Live from the censer
Browning 's remarks brought about a later appreciation of A Song to David and Smart 's madness . A review of Browning 's Parleying claimed that Christopher Smart was " possessed by his subject ... and where there is true possession – where the fires of the poet 's imagination are not choked by self @-@ consciousness or by too much fuel from the intellect – idiosyncracy , mannerism , and even conventional formulae are for the time ' burnt and purged away ' . "
The 19th @-@ century poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti emphasised the benefits of Smart 's madness and claimed that A Song to David was " the only great accomplished poem of the last century . " Two years later , Francis Palgrave continued the theme when he wrote that the Song exhibited " noble wildness and transitions from grandeur to tenderness , from Earth to Heaven " and that it was " unique in our Poetry . " Seven years after Palgrave , critic John Churton Collins agreed with Rossetti and Palgrave , but to a lesser extent , when he wrote , " This poem stands alone , the most extraordinary phenomenon , perhaps , in our literature , the one rapt strain in the poetry of the eighteenth century , the work of a poet who , though he produced much , has not produced elsewhere a single line which indicates the power here displayed . "
= = = 20th century and contemporary = = =
Twentieth @-@ century critics favoured the view that Smart suffered from some kind of mental distress when writing his poems . A review by " Mathews " titled " Thin Partitions " , in 30 March 1901 The Academy , claimed that :
Now Christopher Smart was a very beggarly poet of the eighteenth century [ ... ] but had not the smallest claim to rank with those great men beyond their common trade of poem . Kit Smart , in fact , though he wrote a pestilent deal of verse , could not write poetry — nor anything else [ ... ] Legally mad , that is ; for he appears to have been very mad in his senses , and a decent citizen out of them . He went mad — legally and medically — once , and nothing came out of it , perhaps because he was not mad enough . Then he went mad again and being duly shut up in Bedlam wrote one of the finest outbursts of lyric genius in the eighteenth century — perhaps the finest @-@ before the advent of Blake [ ... ] Smart regained his senses , and therewith his hopeless inability to write poetry . And he never did anything after .
In 1933 , A. E. Housman sided with Browning 's and Mathew 's interpretation and connected Smart 's madness with poetic genius in his lecture The Name and Nature of Poetry : " As matters actually stand , who are the English poets of that age in whom pre @-@ eminently one can hear and recognize the true poetic accent emerging clearly from the contemporary dialect ? These four : Collins , Christopher Smart , Cowper , and Blake . And what other characteristic had these four in common ? They were mad . " In 1994 , Branimir Rieger differed from Housman 's view by distancing Smart from the others when he argued that " Collins and Cowper pine as isolated individuals , guiltily aware of a vitality that is not finally human but divine . Smart soars beyond individuality to embrace that vitality , but at a cost of all human relationship . "
However , there are many that disagreed that Smart suffered from madness ; Edward Ainsworth and Charles Noyes , when discussing Smart 's Hymn to the Supreme Being , said , " The mind that composed this hymn was not deranged . Yet in the poem one sees the morbidly religious mind which , in disorder , was to produce the Jubilate Agno , and , with order restored , the Song to David . Additionally , they claimed that Smart 's
preternatural excitement to prayer seems to have been poor Smart 's only real mental aberration , unless his drunkenness be considered pathological . When his mind was removed entirely from the field of prayer , he was but little changed from his sane state . His powers of reason , though thus warped , were not taken from him , and he neither raved nor sank into mental lethargy .
Nevertheless , Ainsworth and Noyes were not completely sceptical about Smart 's diagnosis when they continued : " But when the desire to pray struck him , Smart abandoned what the world chose to call rationality . "
In 1960 , psychiatrist Russel Brain diagnosed Smart as suffering from cyclothymia or manic depression . Brain based his diagnosis on Smart 's own claims about how he felt , and he concluded that " in Smart 's case the mental illness was not the result of his drunkenness , but he drank because he was mentally unstable . " Arthur Sherbo , in 1967 , argued that " The nature of Smart 's madness is impossible to diagnose at this distance in time " and then argued that :
since Battie himself pronounced him uncured , he must have been subject to hallucinations . Strong drink , taken often enough and in sufficient quantity , will have that effect , of course , but Battie , distinguishing between ' original ' and ' consequential ' madness [ ... ] would allow only that excessive drinking could ' become a very common , tho ' remoter cause of Madness . ' Others differed : John Ball in his Modern Practice of Physic , 1760 , lists ' anxiety of mind ' and too much ' strong vinous or spirituous liquors ' as ' antecedent causes ' of madness . Smart 's mania , however it manifested itself , and it usually manifested itself in loud public prayer , did not stem from drunkenness ; it was aggravated , however , by frequent recourse to the bottle . Ironically enough , as Mrs. Piozzi recognised , if Smart had prayed in the privacy of his home , all might have been well for him .
The possible religious component of Smart 's condition was taken up by 20th @-@ century critics as an explanation for why the 18th century saw Smart as mad . Laurence Binyon , in 1934 , believed that religion played a major role in how society viewed Smart : " Smart 's madness seems to have taken the form of a literal interpretation of the injunction Pray without ceasing . He embarrassed visitors by insisting on their joining him in his supplications [ ... ] Obsession with a fixed idea is a common form of insanity . But such obsessions are a mental imprisonment ; whereas the Song is unmistakably the expression of a great release . " Binyon 's idea was picked up by Sophia Blaydes , in 1966 , who pointed out that society was prejudiced against those who experienced enthusiasm , a strong spiritual connection to God . It was against religious prejudice that she argued ,
The cause of Smart 's eclipse may be traced in part to a prejudice of the age , one which was founded in reason but developed in fear . There was one inescapable fact which hampered any clear perception of Smart 's work — he had been confined for madness . It was easier to use a difficult allusion or unusual image as evidence of madness than to interpret it . What could cause a fundamentally rational group of people to react so irrationally ? To some degree , it was the fear of ' enthusiasm ' .
In the 18th century , as Blaydes continued , the word changed from possessed by god to inspired to falsely inspired . The result of this change was that British society viewed enthusiasm as the enemy to both reason and social order . Thus , " Smart , the hack @-@ writer , would not have been greeted by a hostile audience , but Smart , the enthusiast , would have been condemned immediately . The result would be obvious : his past work , previously lauded , would be ignored , and his future work would receive immediate condemnation. such was the history of Smart 's contemporary reputation . " In determining if Smart was really mad or not , Blaydes concluded , " in Smart 's day , any sign of enthusiasm would have been cause for the judgment of madness [ ... ] Two accounts of Smart and the nature of his madness have been preserved for us . Each permits some doubt that the poet was mad and could be regarded so in any age . "
Frances Anderson , in 1974 characterised Smart 's " illness " as insanity and obsession , but believed that " Smart 's madness consisted of his efforts to obey literally St Paul 's injunction to the Thessalonians : ' Pray without ceasing . ' " During his episodes of illness , as Anderson continued , Smart " probably suffered some periods of delirium " but also " appeared to know what he was doing " . Smart 's actions were similar to 18th @-@ century Methodists that were " addicted to public prayer with what was thought to be overly charged high spirits . Such displayers of religious emotionalism were often confined not only to private madhouses , but also to Bedlam " . Later , in 1998 , Charles Rosen pointed out that " The Enlightenment condemned religious enthusiasm as appropriate for the uneducated and the great unwashed " and " it is understandable that the only original and vital religious poetry between 1760 and 1840 should have been written by poets considered genuinely mad by their contemporaries : Smart , Blake , and Hölderlin . "
Accounts at the end of the 20th century focused on the effects of Smart 's confinement . Clement Hawes , following Michel Foucault 's interpretation of the 18th century that there was an " ' animality ' of madness " , believed that Smart emotionally connected with animals because of the " medical stigmatization " he felt at the hands of his fellow man . Chris Mounsey , agreeing with Hawes 's interpretation , believed that Smart 's treatment was " a bestializing process and had taught him to hold his tongue and sit out his time as quietly as possible . " Contrary to the bestialisation , Allan Ingram argued that Jubilate Agno was " a poetic phenomenon that would have demolished contemporary poetic orthodoxies had it been publishable . The mad individual presented a gross distortion of the human form that nevertheless insisted on remaining human , but mad language could be even more disturbing . "
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