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= My Mother , the Fiend =
" My Mother , the Fiend " is the ninth episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the thirty @-@ first episode overall . Directed by Nick Marck , the episode was co @-@ written by Phil Klemmer and Dayna Lynne North . The episode was first shown on November 30 , 2005 , on UPN .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica finds her mother 's old high school records and starts digging into her mother 's past , discovering information about the Kane family in the process . Meanwhile , Beaver ( Kyle Gallner ) proposes a business plan to help Kendall ( Charisma Carpenter ) .
" My Mother , the Fiend " features the third and final appearance by Alyson Hannigan on the show . The show 's crew found it difficult to work an episode into Hannigan 's schedule because of other projects . The episode was accompanied by an alternate ending , a publicity move made by executive producer Joel Silver and the UPN promotions department . The episode was initially viewed by 2 @.@ 82 million viewers and received mostly positive reviews . For example , Rowan Kaiser , of The A.V. Club , wrote " I am intrigued by the decisions to make Veronica less than pure , but this time , I 'm not as disappointed by the followthrough . "
= = Synopsis = =
In health class , the whole class starts taking care of fake babies . Vice Principal Clemmons ( Duane Daniels ) calls Veronica into his office and gives her detention for having keys to his file cabinet . Beaver walks up to Mac ( Tina Majorino ) and asks her for a few favors . For Veronica ’ s detention , she has to alphabetize files and put them in cabinets . Veronica finds her mother ’ s permanent file and figures out that she was troubled in high school . Logan ( Jason Dohring ) punches Weevil ( Francis Capra ) and Logan 's cronies beat up on him . Veronica talks to a teacher and finds out that Lianne and that teacher spread false rumors around the school and got suspended because of it . Weevil gets duct @-@ taped to the flagpole . Veronica asks Vice Principal Clemmons about who might have known her mom in high school . Veronica talks to Principal Moorhead , who tells her that her mom was “ vicious . ” Trina ( Alyson Hannigan ) is coming back to perform in a play at Neptune High . Kendall tries to seduce Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) again . Trina meets Kendall , and the interaction is rife with sarcasm . Veronica looks through her mom ’ s yearbook and eventually tracks down one of her mother ’ s old friends , who provides more information on the love triangle between Celeste ( Lisa Thornhill ) , Jake ( Kyle Secor ) , and Lianne .
Veronica asks Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) about Lianne ’ s suspension , which she thinks was about spreading a rumor that Celeste was pregnant . Keith says that he doesn ’ t know anything about it . Trina slips and falls during a play rehearsal . Beaver meets with Kendall and confronts her about selling his father ’ s possessions for little money . Beaver gives her his plan , which involves her being the face of his business idea . Keith checks the birth records and finds that no baby was born to either “ Kane ” or “ Carnathan ” ( Celeste ’ s maiden name ) at that time . However , he finds a mysterious baby found in the girl ’ s bathroom at the Neptune high prom . Veronica bad @-@ mouths Celeste in Duncan ’ s room before Celeste comes in and Veronica learns that Duncan never told his parents about their relationship . Celeste insults Veronica ’ s mother , and Veronica deduces that Celeste ’ s cleaning lady , Astrid , is probably her daughter . Weevil confronts Logan angrily , and they fight , despite agreeing that they need to team up to find out who actually killed Felix .
Mac shows her work to Beaver , which involves his new business project . Veronica , under a disguise , meets with the prom baby ’ s temporary foster mom . Veronica learns that the baby ’ s foster mother committed suicide and her father was in jail , hinting that the baby is Trina Echolls . Veronica talks to Trina and tells her the news of her parentage . Trina actually wants her story to go to the tabloids . However , a deaf lunch lady storms in and says that she ’ s actually Trina ’ s mother . The lunch lady says that Lianne was a friend who covered up her pregnancy to protect her . Trina ’ s father is Principal Moorehead , and Trina confronts him about leaving her at the prom in front of many faculty . Veronica finds the dead rat that Keith picked up at the bus . Veronica finds out that Principal Clemmons deliberately gave Veronica her detention task so that she would find her mother ’ s permanent file and frame Principal Moorehead . Veronica picks up Abel Koontz ’ s ( Christian Clemenson ) belongings and walks into Meg ’ s ( Alona Tal ) room and discovers that Meg is pregnant .
= = Production = =
Directed by Nick Marck , " My Mother , the Fiend " was written by Phil Klemmer and Dayna Lynne North . The episode marks Klemmer 's eighth writing credit , the fifth and penultimate writing credit for North , and Marck 's seventh directing credit . Despite being credited , Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) , Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) , and Jackie ( Tessa Thompson ) do not appear in the episode . Among the episode 's guest stars are Alyson Hannigan and Charisma Carpenter , who portray Trina Echolls and Kendall Casablancas , respectively . The two previously starred together in Buffy the Vampire Slayer , with Hannigan playing Willow Rosenberg and Carpenter portraying Cordelia Chase . Although the two characters had appeared previously , they had never shared a scene together . Jason Dohring , who portrays Logan , stated that he had a special connection with Hannigan on @-@ set : " We get together and just tease each other , she sucker @-@ punches me . There ’ s just a total , I don ’ t know , we really have a sister @-@ brother thing going on . I ’ ve never had that kind of connection with an actress before . It totally works . " Dohring also noted that Hannigan responded strongly to any spoilers that she was given during filming of the episode .
" My Mother , the Fiend " also marks Hannigan 's third and final guest appearance on the show . Hannigan was open to appearing in another episode , but she was unsure whether or not her busy schedule would allow it . She also felt that the character 's arc had come to a natural close in this episode . In an interview , Rob Thomas said that due to her busy schedule , it was difficult to write an episode featuring Hannigan . On Hannigan 's role in the episode and her future availability , Thomas commented :
Well , to work around Alyson ’ s schedule is really difficult for us . It ’ s hard to plan to write an episode with Alyson in it because we don ’ t know exactly what her free days are . Even the episode that we did with her , there was a huge kerfuffle , we actually had to slide that story line one episode down from when we originally wrote that . We ’ ve loved having Alyson in the show , and I ’ m sure we will again , some day , if she ’ s willing , because we ’ ve had a lot of fun with her . But we have nothing booked with her right now .
The episode also features a reappearance by Celeste Kane ( Lisa Thornhill ) , a recurring character during the first season . The second season DVD includes an alternate ending to this episode , which was released around the airing of the episode as a promotional tool . The alternate ending starts the same way as the regular ending , with Veronica discovering that Meg is pregnant . But instead of the episode ending there , Meg 's mom comes into the room while Veronica hides in the bathroom . When the mom leaves , Meg is dead with a pillow over her face , indicating smothering . However , Veronica takes the pillow off before a nurse comes in . Thomas commented that the alternate ending was never going to be the actual conclusion to the episode . He said : " We never seriously considered having that be the ending . There were various other endings that we did have , but they were so subtly different , it was like , ' When does Veronica enter the room ? ' " The idea to promote the alternate ending was a joint venture from the UPN promotions department and executive producer Joel Silver . After Thomas learned that others wanted an alternate ending , he decided to make it very different from the episode 's actual conclusion . " But once we could have a [ very different ] alternate ending , we thought , ' Let 's make it rock . ' The beauty of having that alternate ending is that we don 't have to play it out in the next episode . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " My Mother , the Fiend " received 2 @.@ 82 million viewers , marking an increase from " Ahoy , Mateys ! " and ranking 101st ( out of 112 ) in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Price Peterson , of TV.com , gave the episode a positive review , writing that he " [ l ] oved this episode . That reveal was simultaneously shocking and heartbreaking . Plus it took one of the show 's most annoying characters ( Trina ) and made her both sympathetic and heartbreaking . " He also praised the information found on Veronica 's mother : " It was nice that Veronica got to see a better side of her mother than we usually do … Heartwarming ! " Maureen Ryan , of the Chicago Tribune , called the episode " engrossing " and that it is a better use of a viewer 's time than Lost , which aired at the same time as Veronica Mars .
Rowan Kaiser , of The A.V. Club , lauded Veronica 's characterization as an antiheroine in the episode . " I 've discussed times when [ Veronica has ] behaved in ways that I 'm not certain are ethical , but this might be the most blatant case . [ … ] Once again , I am intrigued by the decisions to make Veronica less than pure , but this time , I 'm not as disappointed by the followthrough . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B " . Alan Sepinwall singled out the scene between Carpenter and Hannigan and the Weevil and Logan subplot as particular points of praise . Sepinwall also called the alternate ending " an interesting little feature " while going on to state that he was " glad the real show didn 't go in that direction . "
BuzzFeed ranked the episode 48th on its ranking of Veronica Mars episodes , writing that it made the viewer " bored . " On a similar list , TV Line ranked the episode 19th .
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= Rochdale Town Hall =
Rochdale Town Hall is a Victorian @-@ era municipal building in Rochdale , Greater Manchester , England . It is " widely recognised as being one of the finest municipal buildings in the country " , and is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building . The Town Hall functions as the ceremonial headquarters of Rochdale Metropolitan Borough Council and houses local government departments , including the borough 's civil registration office .
Built in the Gothic Revival style at a cost of £ 160 @,@ 000 ( £ 13 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) , it was inaugurated for the governance of the Municipal Borough of Rochdale on 27 September 1871 . The architect , William Henry Crossland , was the winner of a competition held in 1864 to design a new Town Hall . It had a 240 @-@ foot ( 73 m ) clock tower topped by a wooden spire with a gilded statue of Saint George and the Dragon , both of which were destroyed by fire on 10 April 1883 , leaving the building without a spire for four years . A new 190 @-@ foot ( 58 m ) stone clock tower and spire in the style of Manchester Town Hall was designed by Alfred Waterhouse , and erected in 1888 .
Art critic Nikolaus Pevsner described the building as possessing a " rare picturesque beauty " . Its stained glass windows are credited as " the finest modern examples of their kind " . The building came to the attention of Adolf Hitler , who was said to have admired it so much that he wished to ship the building , brick @-@ by @-@ brick , to Nazi Germany had the United Kingdom been defeated in the Second World War .
= = History = =
Rochdale had developed into an increasingly large , populous , and prosperous urban mill town since the Industrial Revolution . Its newly built rail and canal network , and numerous factories , resulted in the town being " remarkable for many wealthy merchants " . In January 1856 the electorate of the Rochdale constituency petitioned the Privy Council for the grant of a charter of incorporation under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , to constitute the town as a municipal borough . This would give it limited political autonomy via an elected town council , comprising a mayor , aldermen , and councillors , to oversee local affairs . The petition was successful and the charter was granted in September 1856 . The newly formed Rochdale Corporation — the local authority for the Municipal Borough of Rochdale — suggested plans to build a town hall in which to conduct its business in May 1858 . The site of an abandoned 17th @-@ century house known as The Wood was proposed . Six months later , in April 1860 , Rochdale Corporation arranged to buy the site on the outskirts of the town centre for £ 4 @,@ 730 ( £ 427 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . However , plans were shelved due to lengthy negotiations and increasing land prices . In January 1864 the scheme resumed with a new budget of £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 690 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .
The wood and surrounding area were cleared , but it is unknown what became of the dispossessed ; there was no legal requirement for the authorities to rehouse the former inhabitants . A design competition to find a " neat and elegant building " was held by the Rochdale Corporation , who offered the winning architect a prize of £ 100 ( £ 8 @,@ 900 in 2016 ) , and a Maltese cross souvenir . From the 27 entries received , William Henry Crossland 's was chosen . The Rochdale @-@ born Radical and Liberal statesman John Bright laid the foundation stone on 31 March 1866 . Construction was complete by 1871 although the cost had , by then , increased beyond expectations from the projected £ 40 @,@ 000 to £ 160 @,@ 000 ( £ 13 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .
The Town Hall was one of several built in the textile towns of North West England following the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , but is one of only two in Greater Manchester built in the Gothic style . Between the setting of the foundation stone and the building 's completion , revisions and additions were made to the original design . Money was " lavished " upon the decor and inventory , and the extra expenditure did not escape the ire of its critics . The cost of the building increased year @-@ on @-@ year through a combination of mismanagement , overspending and " unauthorised work " . Public criticism of the high cost was aimed at Crossland and the Mayor of Rochdale , George Leach Ashworth , who oversaw the work . Nevertheless , Rochdale Town Hall was ultimately celebrated as " a source of pride " , and its completion prompted celebration and rejoicing ; it transformed a " derelict and marshy riverbank in to a huge romantic Gothic plaza " . The opening ceremony on 27 September 1871 was performed by Mayor Ashworth , who had been instrumental in the changes made to the building 's design .
In 1882 or 1883 dry rot was found in the 240 @-@ foot ( 73 m ) high spire . On the recommendation of Rochdale 's Borough Surveyor , contractors were engaged to rebuild it . The spire was to be demolished to clear the way for a replacement . It was rumoured that the workmen who were dismantling the top section of the wooden spire may have tried to speed up the dismantling process with matches and , at 9 : 20 am on 10 April 1883 , a blaze was discovered . Despite the efforts of volunteers and the local fire brigade , 100 minutes after the discovery of the fire the entire spire , including a statue of Saint George and the Dragon , had been destroyed . The cause of the fire was never established , but Rochdale 's fire service was criticised for taking longer to respond to the blaze than Oldham 's , ( based 5 miles ( 8 km ) south ) , despite the Rochdale Fire Brigade being based in the Town Hall . Alfred Waterhouse was given the task of designing a 190 @-@ foot ( 58 m ) stone replacement . His work on the clock tower , which was built between 1885 and 1887 about 15 yards ( 14 m ) further to the east than the original , shows many similarities to Manchester Town Hall , which he also designed . The tower was opened in 1888 ; an inscribed plaque commemorates the fire of 1883 .
On 15 January 1931 , at the height of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom , the Territorial Army was called to guard the Town Hall during a protest against unemployment and hunger .
In May 1938 , Rochdale @-@ born actress , singer and comedian Gracie Fields was granted Honorary Freedom of the Borough for her contribution to entertainment . " When the ceremony was over , Gracie went onto the town hall balcony to receive the cheers and good wishes of the thousands of people who were packing the streets below . "
Although it is not fully understood how it came to his attention , Rochdale Town Hall was admired by Adolf Hitler . It has been suggested a visit by Hitler in 1912 – 13 while staying with his half @-@ brother Alois Hitler , Jr. in Liverpool , or military intelligence on Rochdale , or information from Nazi sympathiser William Joyce ( who had lived in Oldham ) , brought the building to his attention . Hitler admired the architecture so much that it is believed he wished to ship the building , brick @-@ by @-@ brick , to Nazi Germany had German @-@ occupied Europe encompassed the United Kingdom . Rochdale was broadly avoided by German bombers during the Second World War .
= = Features = =
= = = Location = = =
At OS Grid Reference SD895132 ( 53 @.@ 6156 ° , − 2 @.@ 1594 ° ) , Rochdale Town Hall is the centerpiece of Rochdale , located in Town Hall Square to the south of The Esplanade and the River Roch . The Parish Church of St Chad is situated by the wooded hillside behind the Town Hall . In Town Hall Square , opposite the Town Hall , is a statue of John Bright , dated 1891 , and the Rochdale War Memorial . Bright was a Rochdale @-@ born orator , pacifist and Member of Parliament for Birmingham known for his campaigns to repeal the Corn Laws as well as his opposition to slavery in the United States and the Crimean War . Touchstones Rochdale art gallery and local studies centre is across The Esplanade .
= = = Exterior and layout = = =
The frontage and principal entrance of the Town Hall face the River Roch , and comprises a portico of three arches intersected by buttresses . Decorating the main entrance are stone crockets , gargoyles , and finials . Four gilded lions above a parapet around three sides of the portico bear shields carrying the coats of arms of Rochdale Council and the hundred of Salford .
Rochdale Town Hall is 264 feet ( 80 m ) wide , 123 feet ( 37 m ) deep , and is faced with millstone grit quarried from Blackstone Edge and Todmorden . Although now blackened by industrial pollution , the building has been described as a " rich example of domestic Gothic architecture " . Naturalistic carved foliage on the exterior recalls the style of Southwell Minster , and the architecture is influenced by Perpendicular Period and medieval town halls of continental Europe . The building has been likened to Manchester Town Hall , Manchester Assize Courts , the Royal Courts of Justice , and St Pancras railway station , all products of the Gothic Revival architectural movement . The stained glass windows , some of which were designed by William Morris , have been described as " the finest modern examples of their kind " . At each end of the frontage is an octagonal staircase .
In the words of Nikolaus Pevsner , Rochdale Town Hall has " a splendidly craggy exterior of blackened stone " . The building has a roughly symmetrical E @-@ shaped plan , and is broken down into three self @-@ contained segments : a central Great Hall and transverse wings at each end , which have variously been used as debating chambers , corporation @-@ rooms , trade and a public hall . The south @-@ east wing used to house the magistrates ' courts , and the north @-@ west wing the mayor 's rooms . In the north @-@ east is a tower . Access to the main entrance is through a central porte cochere . The façade extends across 14 bays , of which the Great Hall accounts for seven . On both sides , the outermost bays rise to three storeys . They flank asymmetric round @-@ headed arcades — two to the left and three to the right , all of single @-@ storey height — which sit below plain mullioned windows , balconies and ornately decorated gables .
= = = Clock tower = = =
The present clock tower , which has a stone spire , was built to replace the one destroyed in the 1883 fire . It was designed by Alfred Waterhouse in a similar style to one of his earlier works , the clock tower of Manchester Town Hall . The first stone was laid by Thomas Schofield JP , Alderman and Rochdale Borough Councillor , on 19 October 1885 and the tower was declared complete on 20 June 1887 , the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria . It contains five bells which ring on the hour and at 15 @-@ minute intervals . The design of the original tower was more elaborate and 50 feet ( 15 m ) higher than its successor , which is 190 feet ( 58 m ) tall .
The tower rises from a plinth and has four stages including the gable @-@ headed clock stage , which is also decorated with pinnacles . A small stone spire completes the composition .
= = = Interior = = =
Murals in the former council chamber depict the inventions that drove the Industrial Revolution , and the Great Hall is adorned with a large fresco of the signing of Magna Carta by artist Henry Holiday , although the painting is dirty . Responsibility for the decoration of the interior was given to Heaton , Butler and Bayne , who incorporated floor tiles that were manufactured by Mintons and decorated with the local insignia and the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom . The stone Grand Staircase , which leads from the vestibule to the Great Hall , is decorated with stained glass ; such glass windows decorate most of the Town Hall and are considered to be the finest example of the work of Heaton , Butler and Bayne . The medieval style Great Hall , described by Pevsner as a room of " great splendour and simplicity " , has a hammerbeam roof flanked by statues of angels , in a design that resembles Westminster Hall .
= = Heritage status and function = =
The Town Hall was listed at Grade I on 25 October 1951 . Such buildings are defined as being of " exceptional interest , sometimes considered to be internationally important " . In February 2001 , it was one of 39 Grade I listed buildings , and 3 @,@ 701 listed buildings of all grades , in Greater Manchester . Within the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale , it is one of only three Grade I listed buildings , and 312 listed buildings of all grades .
Although the majority of local government functions take place in Rochdale 's Municipal Offices building , Rochdale Town Hall continues to be used for cultural and ceremonial functions . For instance it is used for the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale 's mayoralty , civil registry , and for formal naturalisation in British Citizenship ceremonies .
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= Colin McCool =
Colin Leslie McCool ( 9 December 1916 – 5 April 1986 ) was an Australian cricketer who played in 14 Tests from 1946 to 1950 . McCool , born in Paddington , New South Wales , was an all @-@ rounder who bowled leg spin and googlies with a round arm action and as a lower order batsman was regarded as effective square of the wicket and against spin bowling . He made his Test début against New Zealand in 1946 , taking a wicket with his second delivery . He was part of Donald Bradman 's Invincibles team that toured England in 1948 but injury saw him miss selection in any of the Test matches .
A good tour of South Africa in 1949 – 50 was followed by a lack of opportunity in the next two seasons , leading McCool to sign a contract to play professional cricket in the Lancashire League in 1953 . Three years later , Somerset County Cricket Club recruited McCool where he was a success , especially as a middle @-@ order batsman ; he played five seasons and saw the club achieve its highest place in the County Championship since 1892 . He retired from cricket in 1960 and returned to Australia to work as a market gardener . He died in Concord , New South Wales on 5 April 1986 .
= = Early career = =
As a child growing up in Paddington , McCool attended Crown Street State School — earlier students included Victor Trumper and Monty Noble . He played his childhood cricket on concrete wickets in Moore Park and learnt to bowl from reading Clarrie Grimmett 's instructional book , Getting Wickets . McCool played his early grade cricket with Paddington Cricket Club before coming to the notice of the New South Wales selectors . He made his first @-@ class début for New South Wales against " Rest of Australia " in March 1940 , making 19 and 15 and taking one wicket . While the Australian Cricket Board suspended the Sheffield Shield competition at the end of the 1939 – 40 season , at the request of the Australian government , a series of matches were arranged to raise money for wartime charities in the following 1940 – 41 season . McCool played in six of these matches for New South Wales , scoring 416 runs at average of 52 @.@ 00 and taking 24 wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 50 .
McCool enlisted on 12 September 1941 and served as a Pilot Officer with the No. 33 Squadron of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Stationed in New Guinea , McCool had reached the rank of Flight Lieutenant when he was discharged from the RAAF on 18 September 1945 .
After the war , he moved to Brisbane and was selected in the Queensland cricket team . Playing for Queensland , he formed a formidable partnership with wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon . He was selected in the Australian team to tour New Zealand in 1945 – 46 , making his Test début at the Basin Reserve in Wellington . He made seven runs in Australia 's only innings and took a wicket with his second ball in Test cricket ; the last man dismissed in the Test , Don McRae .
= = Test player = =
The following season , Wally Hammond 's England cricket team travelled to Australia for the 1946 – 47 Ashes series . In a warm @-@ up match before the series , McCool performed well for Queensland against the English tourists at the Brisbane Cricket Ground ( the ' Gabba ) , taking nine wickets and " the English batsmen seemed like rabbits fascinated in the presence of a snake " . He was selected for the First Test at the same ground the following week . He just missed out on a century on his Ashes debut , scoring 95 and only bowling one over as Australia won the Test by an innings and 332 runs . In the Second Test at Sydney , McCool took eight wickets , including the prize wicket of Hammond twice . Australia won by an innings and 33 runs . The Third Test at Melbourne saw McCool make his maiden Test century , 104 not out in a drawn match . The Melbourne businessman and underworld figure , John Wren had promised McCool one pound for every run he made that innings ; this was at a time when ten pounds was the average weekly wage in Australia . The cheque — given to McCool the next day — allowed him to place a deposit on a house .
He played in the remaining two Tests , making 272 runs at an average of 54 and taking 18 wickets at just over 27 apiece . He took 5 / 44 in the Fifth Test . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack wrote that his batting featured " wristy cuts " and " vigorous hooks " , opining that there were " few better players of spin bowling on a difficult pitch " . Wisden said that his slow and loopy leg spin was " a clever mixture of leg @-@ breaks and googlies " .
India toured Australia for the first time in 1947 – 48 . McCool played in three Tests without much success , scoring only 46 runs and taking only four wickets . Nevertheless , he was selected as part of Australian team to tour England in 1948 that would be known as the Invincibles . He took 57 wickets on the tour but bowling for long periods caused him to continually tear a callus on his third finger , used to impart spin on the ball . As a result , his captain , Don Bradman , felt compelled to leave him out of the Test matches , feeling that his finger would not be able to handle the necessarily long bowling spells . This decision was aided by the then existing rule allowing a new ball to be used every 55 overs , allowing Bradman to use his fast bowlers more often . For the rest of his career , McCool was troubled by the skin rubbing off his spinning finger . McCool and his fellow fringe members of the squad , Ron Hamence and Doug Ring , would refer themselves as the " ground @-@ staff " as it was unlikely that the tour selectors would include them in the Test team that tour . The cricket writer Alan Gibson , who knew McCool well in his later cricket career at Somerset , wrote that the omission " distressed him greatly at the time , though he could be philosophical enough about it later " .
He played in all five Tests on tour against South Africa . He took 51 wickets in all matches , including 5 / 41 in the Second Test at Newlands . In 1950 – 51 , McCool was the leading wicket taker in the Sheffield Shield competition , however he was not selected in the Test team against the touring English ; nor against the West Indies the following season .
= = English cricket = =
Prior to the 1953 Australian team to tour England , McCool signed a professional contract with Lancashire League team East Lancashire , replacing fellow Australian leg spinner Bruce Dooland . In his first season in the league , he was the leading wicket @-@ taker with 93 wickets at the low average of 10 @.@ 2 runs per wicket , and he also made 678 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 9 . The following year , he played less often : his 547 runs came at the better average of 42 @.@ 1 but his 52 wickets cost 13 @.@ 1 apiece , and East Lancashire , who had finished either first or second in the Championship ten times in the previous twelve seasons , finished 10th out of 14 . He did not return to East Lancashire for the 1955 season due to being contracted to play county cricket for Somerset . The cricket writer Alan Gibson , who knew McCool well , wrote that " after he had made the decision to come , an extension of the qualifying period for overseas cricketers kept him waiting even longer " .
Delayed by the change to the rules , McCool had a five @-@ year stint from 1956 in English county cricket . Somerset , having finished on the bottom of the County Championship table for the four years between 1952 – 1955 , had embarked on a renewal programme . Part of the programme involved a vigorous recruiting campaign , including an offer to McCool that saw him return to first @-@ class cricket at the age of 39 .
At Somerset , McCool was an instant success as a batsman , scoring 1 @,@ 967 runs in his first season , including three centuries and a highest score of 141 . After four seasons , Somerset came off the bottom of the County Championship ( to 15th out of 17 ) , and Wisden was in no doubt of McCool 's influence : " Much of the credit for the all @-@ round improvement went to one man – McCool , " it wrote . " At the start of the season it was hoped that the former Australian Test leg @-@ break bowler would lend power and variety to the attack . From that viewpoint his 45 wickets at over thirty runs apiece might be counted disappointing . But with the bat McCool exceeded all expectations . He was one of the most consistent scorers in the country and he failed by only 34 to reach 2 @,@ 000 runs in his first season of county cricket . McCool was the backbone of a mediocre batting side , and he never departed from his natural attacking style . " Against the touring Australians that season he made 90 and 116 , the first innings 90 coming out of 139 in two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours and including 15 fours , the second innings century out of 167 in just 95 minutes , with four sixes and 14 fours . Wisden reported that he was " very severe on [ Ian Johnson ] and [ Jack Wilson ] " .
Over the 1956 / 57 new year , McCool was one of a party of 12 cricketers , all but one of them Test players , who made a brief trip to India to play two first @-@ class matches in celebration of the silver jubilee of the Bengal Cricket Association in a side raised by the Lancashire secretary Geoffrey Howard . McCool did not play in the first match and in the second , he replaced Jock Livingston , the team 's only wicketkeeper , who had been taken ill during the first game . McCool made only 23 and 1 with the bat , but he stumped Vinoo Mankad off the bowling of Dooland , one of only two stumpings in his career as a very occasional wicketkeeper .
Back in England in 1957 he was joined at Taunton by another Australian , Bill Alley , but still finished as the leading scorer for the county with 1 @,@ 678 runs in all matches , to go with 44 wickets . In the wet summer of 1958 Somerset finished third in the Championship , their highest position since 1892 . McCool 's contribution was 1 @,@ 590 runs and 46 wickets at , for him , the low average of 23 runs each . In this season , McCool made his highest score for Somerset – 169 out of a total of 314 against Worcestershire at Stourbridge – and in the last match of the season he produced his best bowling figures of his career , taking eight second @-@ innings Nottinghamshire wickets for 74 runs on what Wisden described as " a sporting pitch " .
In contrast to 1958 , the 1959 season was hot and dry and McCool 's figures improved : he made 1769 runs at an average of more than 40 runs per innings and took 64 first @-@ class wickets , more than in any other Somerset season . McCool 's final season with Somerset before his retirement was 1960 , and he signed off with 1 @,@ 222 runs and 29 wickets .
In 138 matches across the five seasons for Somerset , McCool made 7 @,@ 913 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 82 . He also took 219 wickets at 28 @.@ 05 but in his five years with the county he was never the first @-@ choice spin bowler : in his first two seasons , Somerset used Australian @-@ born slow left @-@ arm orthodox bowler John McMahon as the main spin bowler , with young off @-@ spin bowler Brian Langford also bowling more than McCool . When McMahon left , Langford took over as the top spin bowler , and by 1960 was bowling four times the number of overs that McCool took . But McCool had also lost some of his control at this stage : " He could do beguiling things with the ball , though length and line seemed to become a decreasing consideration , " says the history of Somerset cricket . He also made 146 catches , many of them at first slip , where he stood " rather deeper than usual " . His influence on Somerset 's recovery from the trough of the early 1950s was considerable . A later Somerset history says : " Occasionally some of the younger pros didn 't relish the way he treated them . Maybe they also resented that his salary was well in excess of their own . But their respect for his competitive approach and sheer experience was undeniable . "
= = Playing style = =
McCool had a round @-@ arm bowling action , releasing the ball with his arm almost parallel to the ground . Before he developed problems with the skin on his spinning finger , he was , in spite of his unorthodox action , able to generate sharp spin . The cricket writer , Jack Pollard said of McCool , " [ McCool ] was almost unplayable on badly prepared pitches , so wide and sharp was the turn of his leg @-@ breaks . " and that he " made even State [ i.e. first @-@ class ] batsmen look inept " . On the advice of coaches and ex @-@ players , McCool attempted to alter his action to a more orthodox style on several occasions but always returned to his natural style .
A short man but with a strong build , as a batsman he was a vigorous hooker and a wristy cutter , scoring mostly square of the wicket . He was particularly good against spin bowling , even on difficult pitches .
During his time at Somerset , he was known for " [ turning ] a match with his cracking strokes in an hour . " Alan Gibson wrote : " We hardly think of him as a stylist , and he was mostly a back @-@ foot player , getting the greater number of his runs in the segments fanning out from point and square @-@ leg . But he was enjoyable to watch , compact , tidy , combining powerful hitting with delicate placing . In the best Somerset tradition , he was always after the bowling , and in the best Australian tradition , he always relished a fight . " But he also adapted his style to suit English pitches : in an early innings for Somerset , he was out trying to hook a ball from Trevor Bailey . " The hook , he decided , was a stroke to be used sparingly on English pitches ... McCool was constantly amending his technique that season [ 1956 ] , whenever he spotted a flaw in his method . Again and again he held the Somerset batting together . Nothing in his previous experience had equipped him for the task of holding up a losing side in a damp English summer . "
He was renowned for his catching , often spending an hour at a time practising catching a ball thrown into the side of a roller normally used to prepare the cricket pitch . Journalist and former team @-@ mate Bill O 'Reilly said after McCool 's death in 1986 : " If Colin had played in the last 10 years , he would have been regarded as one of the greatest all @-@ rounders ever in Australian cricket . He was a great batsman , [ ... ] a wonderful bowler and one of the best slips fieldsmen I have ever seen . "
= = Personality and personal life = =
Accounts of McCool in his Somerset period portray him as a thoughtful but slightly aloof character . " Off the field he was a quiet man , " wrote David Foot . He was " a contemplative pipe @-@ smoker in the corner of the dressing room , " says another account , and somewhat intolerant of others who appeared less committed than he was . " Occasionally some of the younger pros didn 't relish the way he treated them . Maybe they also resented that his salary was well in excess of their own . "
Alan Gibson wrote about him more volubly : " He thought about the game a lot . Many Australian cricketers do , more than English cricketers probably , but McCool was in some ways an untypical Australian . He had a diffidence and gentleness , which do not always spring to mind as familiar Australian qualities : but he had plenty of Australian determination . "
Gibson wrote that McCool " did not quite come to terms with the West Country " . He went on : " He missed the sunshine . ' There 's no winter , ' he said , ' and the beer 's better . And the f------ off @-@ spinners don 't turn . ' I think an additional reason was that he found some difficulty in accepting the conventions of English cricket as it was then . There was a Somerset committee member , who liked and admired him , and would greet him with , ' Morning , McCool ' . That committee member was seeking to be courteous . He would have thought it pompous to say ' Mr McCool ' , and impertinent to say ' Colin ' . But it infuriated Colin . He thought it a reflection on his status . He would have preferred something like ' Hi , Col , you old bastard . ' The worlds were too far apart . "
McCool was given a testimonial season by Somerset in 1959 after just three years with county and the circumstances were unusual enough for it to be remarked on in the county 's Year Book , published in the winter before the season . " Although Colin McCool has played for the County for three seasons only , this Testimonial is a fitting reward for his valuable services as an all @-@ rounder and off the field , where his influence is most marked . "
After retirement from first @-@ class cricket at the end of the 1960 season in England , McCool returned to Australia , taking up market gardening with a specialty in rare blooms at Umina Beach on the Central Coast of New South Wales . He continued playing club cricket in the Newcastle competition for Belmont until rheumatism forced him to retire from all forms of cricket aged 55 : " Rheumatism in my right hand made it embarrassing for me to continue . It was alarming to an old pro like me who prided himself on length and directions to have the ball slip out of my fingers out of control . "
McCool was the author of two books on cricket : Cricket is a Game , which was an autobiography , and The Best Way to Play Cricket , both published in 1961 . John Arlott , reviewing them in Wisden 1962 , said the first was " full of trenchant good sense , humour , anecdote and shrewd observation " . The second book , Arlott wrote , was " to the best of this reviewer 's knowledge , the first cricket book to be initially published in the modern paper @-@ back format " . It was , he added , " full of good instruction and ... sets down some genuine cricket wisdom with freshness and vitality " .
He married Dorothy Everlyn Yabsley in 1943 in Sydney . His son , Russ McCool , who was born in Taunton , played one first @-@ class match for Somerset in 1982 , in addition to playing for New South Wales Colts and New South Wales Country .
= = Test match performance = =
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= Yoshi 's Island =
Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island , known in Japan as Yossy 's Island ( ヨッシーアイランド , Yosshī Airando ) , is a 1995 platform video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Acting as a prequel to Super Mario World , the game casts players as Yoshi as he escorts Baby Mario through 48 levels in order to reunite him with his brother Luigi , who had been kidnapped by Baby Bowser 's minions . As a Super Mario series platformer , Yoshi runs and jumps to reach the end of the level while solving puzzles and collecting items . In a style new to the series , the game has a hand @-@ drawn aesthetic and is the first to have Yoshi as its main character . The game introduces his signature abilities to flutter jump , produce eggs from swallowed enemies , and transform into vehicles . It also features 2D graphics with Linear transformations ( similar to Super Mario World ) .
The game 's hand @-@ drawn aesthetic — a style new to the series — descends from producer and Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto 's distaste for the computer pre @-@ rendered graphics of the game 's contemporary Donkey Kong Country . Yoshi 's Island was released in Japan in August 1995 , and worldwide two months later . Some of its special effects were powered by a new Super FX2 microchip . The game was rereleased for the Game Boy Advance with few changes in 2002 under the title Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 . Nintendo later released this version via the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U Virtual Console .
Yoshi 's Island received " instant " and " universal acclaim " , according to IGN and review aggregator Metacritic , and sold over four million copies . Both contemporaneous and retrospective reviewers offered lavish praise for the game 's aesthetics , sound , level design , and gameplay , and posited Yoshi 's Island as a masterpiece and the best platformer of all time . The game brought newfound renown to both Yoshi as a character and Miyamoto 's artistic and directorial career . The distinct art style and Yoshi 's signature characteristics established in Yoshi 's Island would carry throughout a series of cameos , spin @-@ offs , and sequels , including the 1998 Yoshi 's Story , 2006 Yoshi 's Island DS , 2014 Yoshi 's New Island , and 2015 Yoshi 's Woolly World . The next Mario 2D platform game for home consoles was New Super Mario Bros. Wii , released 14 years later .
= = Gameplay = =
Yoshi 's Island is a two @-@ dimensional side @-@ scrolling platformer in which players help friendly dinosaurs known as Yoshis escort Baby Mario safely through 48 levels across six worlds in order to rescue his brother Luigi , who had been kidnapped by an evil Magikoopa named Kamek .
Each level casts players as a different colored Yoshi , who must escort Baby Mario on his back and reach the end of the level , where he is passed on to the next Yoshi . Similar to Super Mario World , Yoshi can use his tongue to ensnare enemies and put them into his mouth . When something is in his mouth , Yoshi can either spit it out as an attack , or swallow it to turn it into an egg . These eggs can then be thrown at an angle , even bouncing off walls , to attack enemies or reach far away or hard to reach items . Yoshi can carry up to six eggs at a time , with some colored eggs spawning items once they hit something . Yoshi can also eat watermelons that let him spit out seeds , or flaming enemies that let him spit out fire . Yoshi is also able to perform a flutter jump , in which he can kick his legs in mid @-@ air to gain extra height or hover over long distances , and a ground pound , a downward attack that can hammer down on enemies and stumps .
The goal of each level is to protect Baby Mario , who rides on Yoshi 's back . If Yoshi is hit by an enemy or obstacle , Baby Mario will float off into a bubble and a timer will start counting down . If the player fails to recover Baby Mario before the counter reaches zero , Baby Mario will be taken away by Koopas and Yoshi will lose a life . The timer can recover up to ten seconds , and Yoshi can collect stars to increase the amount of time on the counter . However , if Yoshi falls into a bottomless pit , gets crushed , or comes into contact with spikes or lava , he will automatically lose a life . In some areas , players can collect a Starman that transforms Baby Mario into Super Baby Mario . During these areas , players take control of Baby Mario who , for a short period , is invincible , can run on walls and ceilings , and can float using his cape . Additionally , some areas transform Yoshi into various vehicles , such as a helicopter or digger , allowing him to reach otherwise inaccessible areas for a short amount of time .
Each of the game 's worlds feature eight main levels , with a boss appearing at the end of every fourth and eighth level . Hidden throughout each of these levels are five Flowers and twenty Red Coins , the latter of which are hidden behind specific coins in each level . Collecting Flowers adds flowers to the gate at the end of each level ( not including boss levels ) . If the player manages to land on an open flower after jumping through the end gate , they can play a bonus game during which they can earn extra lives or bonus items that can be activated from the pause menu , such as additional stars or maginifying glasses that reveal the location of hidden Red Coins . At the end of each level , players receive a score based on how many Flowers and Red Coins they found , as well as how many stars they have remaining , with a maximum score of 100 awarded for finding all Flowers and Red Coins and ending the level with 30 stars . Completing all levels in a world with a score of 100 unlocks two additional levels for that world .
= = Development and re @-@ release = =
While Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto worked on Super Mario World , he thought to make Yoshi the series ' " next hero " since the game designer did not like the other Yoshi games , including Yoshi 's Safari and Yoshi 's Cookie , and thought he could make something more authentic . When he first brought the game to Nintendo marketing , they declined the game for having Mario @-@ style graphics rather than the vogue , computer pre @-@ rendered graphics of Donkey Kong Country . In comparison , they felt that his game lacked the power to impress . Incensed and opposed to the style , Miyamoto instead further escalated his cartoonish visuals into a hand @-@ drawn , crayon style . Nintendo 's marketing department accepted this revision . Miyamoto later recalled feeling that the marketing department wanted " better hardware and more beautiful graphics instead of ... art " . Around the time of his rejection , Miyamoto allegedly said that " Donkey Kong Country proves that players will put up with mediocre gameplay as long as the art is good " . However , he later clarified his remarks , stating that " recently some rumour got out that I didn 't really like that game ? I just want to clarify that that 's not the case , because I was very involved in that . And even emailing almost daily with Tim Stamper right up until the end . "
Yoshi 's Island was developed by Nintendo EAD and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . According to Miyamoto , who served as a producer , Yoshi 's Island was in development for four years , which let the team add " lots of magic tricks " . The game cartridge used an extra microchip to support the game 's rotation , scaling and other sprite @-@ changing special effects . Yoshi 's Island was designed to use the Super FX chip , but when Nintendo stopped supporting the chip , the game became the first to use Argonaut Games 's Super FX2 microchip . The chip powered scenes including a drawbridge falling into the foreground , rotation effects like rolling and enlarged rather than reanimated enemies , and a psychedelic effect in a level when Yoshi touches a floating fungus .
Yoshi 's Island was released first in Japan in August 1995 , and two months later in North America and Europe . At the time of release , the Super NES was in its twilight as a console in anticipation of Nintendo 's upcoming console to be released the following year , 1996 . Yoshi 's Island was rereleased for the Game Boy Advance as Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 in North America on September 23 , 2002 . In the game 's preview at E3 2002 , IGN named Yoshi 's Island " Best Platformer " on a handheld console . The Game Boy Advance version is a direct port of the original , apart from few changes . The developers used the Yoshi voice from a subsequent series game , cropped the original display to fit the handheld 's smaller screen , and added exclusive bonus levels . Like the other Super Mario Advance rereleases , the handheld version includes the 1983 game Mario Bros. with support for up to four players via link cable . The new cartridge did not need an extra microchip to support the original 's special effects .
The Game Boy Advance version of the game was released on the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U via Nintendo 's digital Virtual Console platform . The port retains the handheld version 's cropped screen and pack @-@ in Mario Bros. game , though its multiplayer mode is disabled . The 3DS version was released on December 16 , 2011 , as an exclusive reward for early adopters of the Nintendo 3DS . It did not receive a wider release . The Wii U version was released worldwide on April 24 , 2014 . At E3 2010 , Nintendo demoed " classic " 2D titles such as Yoshi 's Island as remastered 3D games with a " pop @-@ up book feel " .
= = Reception = =
Yoshi 's Island received " instant " and " universal acclaim " , according to an IGN retrospective and video game review aggregator Metacritic , respectively . At the time of its 1995 release , Matt Taylor of Diehard GameFan thought Yoshi 's Island could be " possibly the best platform game of all time " . Nintendo Power too said that the game was " one of the biggest , most beautiful games ever made " . Next Generation was also most impressed by the game 's " size and playability " . Diehard GameFan 's three reviewers gave the game a near perfect score . To wit , Nicholas Dean Des Barres said it was " one of the handful of truly perfect games ever produced " , and lamented that the magazine had given Donkey Kong Country , which he felt was a lackluster game in comparison , the extra single point for a perfect score . Casey Loe removed that one point for Baby Mario 's " annoying screech " . Nintendo Power and Nintendo Life too found Baby Mario 's crying sounds annoying . Major Mike of GamePro called it " a work of art . " He lauded the " almost perfect " control , the variety of techniques , the graphical variety , and the " abundance of hidden items and concealed rooms " , and unlike other reviewers , he found Baby Mario 's cries for help to be very affecting . He concluded that Yoshi 's Island " is one of the last of a dying breed : a 16 @-@ bit game that shows real heart and creativity . " Reviewing the Super NES release over a decade later , Kaes Delgrego of Nintendo Life said the crying and some easy boss battles , while both minor , were the game 's only shortcomings . Delgrego charged Yoshi 's Island with perfecting the genre , calling it " perhaps the greatest platformer of all time " . The game has sold over four million copies .
Both contemporaneous and retrospective reviewers offered lavish praise for the game 's aesthetics , level design , and gameplay , which became legacies of the game . Some called it " charm " . Delgrego of Nintendo Life would stop mid @-@ game just to watch what enemies would do . Martin Watts of the same publication called it " an absolute pleasure on the eyes and unlike any other SNES game " . Others praised the control scheme , technical effects , and sound design . Nintendo Life 's Delgrego felt " goosebumps and tingles " during the ending theme , and marked the soundtrack 's range from the lighthearted intro to the " epic grandeur of the final boss battle " .
Edge praised the game 's balance of challenge and accessibility . The magazine thought that the new power @-@ ups of Yoshi 's Island gave its gameplay and level design great range , and that the powers were significant additions to the series on par with the suits of Super Mario Bros. 3 or Yoshi 's own debut in Super Mario World . Diehard GameFan 's Taylor wrote that there was enough gameplay innovation to make him cry and listed his favorites as the Baby Mario cape invincibility power @-@ up , the machine gun @-@ style seed spitting , and the snowball hill level . Nintendo Life 's Watts called the egg stockpiling mechanic as " clever " for the way it encourages experimentation with the environment as well as tempered wastefulness . Edge thought of Yoshi 's Island as a " fusion of technology and creativity , each enhancing the other " . The magazine considered the game 's special effects expertly integrated into the gameplay , and described the developer 's handicraft as having an " attention to detail that few games can match " .
Reviewing the Game Boy Advance release in 2002 , Craig Harris of IGN wrote that Yoshi 's Island was both the console 's best platformer as well as " the best damn platformer ever developed " . While acknowledging the game 's roots in the Super Mario series , he said the game created enough gameplay ideas to constitute its own franchise . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote that the game 's story was also interesting as the origin story for the Mario brothers . Harris felt that the FX2 sprite @-@ changing effects gave the game " life " and that the Game Boy Advance cartridge could handle the effects just as well . He added that Yoshi 's morphing abilities and sound effects were designed well . Levi Buchanan of IGN said the game struck the right balance of tutorial by trial and error . IGN 's Harris also noted a few Game Boy Advance @-@ specific issues : framerate drop in areas where a lot is happening onscreen , camera panning problems due to the screen 's lower resolution , and a " poor " implementation of the " dizzy " special effect on the handheld release . Critics wrote that the " coloring book " -style graphics held up well . IGN 's Harris felt it was the best of the Super Mario Advance games . Of the similar version for the Wii U , Watts of Nintendo Life also noticed the framerate issues and problems resulting from the screen 's closer crop , which were " not enough to ruin the game , but ... noticeable " . Edge felt that game 's only disappointment was the linearity of its overworld following the exploratory Super Mario World and that the sequel would " inevitably ... have less impact " in comparison .
= = Legacy = =
Multiple retrospective critics declared Yoshi 's Island a " masterpiece " . IGN recalled it as " one of the most loved SNES adventures of all time " . Yoshi 's Island brought newfound renown to both Yoshi as a character and Shigeru Miyamoto 's artistic and directorial career . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote that game marked where Yoshi " came into his own " and developed many of his definitive characteristics : the " signature " flutter jump , and ability to throw eggs and transform shape . Baby Mario , who debuted in the game , went on to have his own career in a number of sports @-@ related titles . Series producer Takashi Tezuka said he consciously continued " the handicraft feel " of the original throughout the series , which later included yarn and similar variations . Official Nintendo Magazine called the art style " a bold step ... that paid off handsomely " . Delgrego of Nintendo Life wrote that the game marked a new era of art in video games that prioritized creativity over graphics technology .
Delgrego continued that the game 's countdown @-@ based life was a " revolutionary " mechanic that would later become ubiquitous in games like the Halo series . Martin Watts also of Nintendo Life considered Super Mario 64 to be a more momentous event in gaming history , but felt that Yoshi 's Island was the " most significant " event in the " Mario Bros. timeline " . In a retrospective , IGN wrote that Super NES owners widely embraced the game alongside Donkey Kong Country .
IGN 's Jared Petty wrote that Yoshi 's Island bested " the test of time far better than many of its contemporaries " . Levi Buchanan of IGN thought Nintendo took a risk with Yoshi 's Island by making Mario passive and giving Yoshi new abilities . Christian Donlan of 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die wrote that the game was a testament to the Mario team 's " staggering confidence " in its development ability . He said the game was " perhaps the most imaginative platformer " of its time . Yoshi 's Island ranked 22nd on Official Nintendo Magazine 's 2009 top 100 Nintendo games as a " bone fide classic " , 15th on IGN 's 2014 top 125 Nintendo games of all time , and 2nd on USgamer 's 2015 best Mario platformers list .
= = = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = = =
Yoshi 's Island led to a strong year for Yoshi as a character . IGN 's Thomas added that the hand @-@ drawn style of Yoshi 's Island made the computer @-@ generated Donkey Kong Country appear outdated , though both games sold well , and Rareware included a Yoshi cameo in their sequel , Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest , released that same year . Yoshi 's Island graphics and characters were also incorporated into the 1996 Super NES tile puzzle game Tetris Attack .
Following Yoshi 's Island 's success , Nintendo developed Yoshi 's Story , a 1998 platformer for the Nintendo 64 , which " disappointed " audiences and deflated " massive ... anticipation " with fetch quests and the 3D style Miyamoto eschewed in its predecessor . The Nintendo 64 game expanded on Yoshi 's character voice as introduced in Yoshi 's Island , but also " dumbed down Yoshi 's character " . Nintendo created two Yoshi 's Island spin @-@ off games : the tilt sensor @-@ controlled Yoshi Topsy Turvy ( 2004 , Game Boy Advance ) , which was developed by Artoon and critically panned , and the Nintendo @-@ developed minigame Yoshi Touch & Go ( 2005 , Nintendo DS ) . The 1995 original release received a direct sequel in 2006 : Yoshi 's Island DS , also developed by Artoon . Titled Yoshi 's Island 2 until just before it shipped , the game retained the core concept of transporting baby Nintendo characters , and added babies Princess Peach , Bowser , Donkey Kong , and Wario , each with an individual special ability . Yoshi had a similar move set to Yoshi 's Island and added dash and float abilities , but was more passive a character compared to the babies on his back .
About seven years later , series producer Takashi Tezuka decided enough time had passed to make another direct sequel , Yoshi 's New Island ( 2013 , Nintendo 3DS ) . It was developed by former Artoon employees at their new company , Arzest . As in the original , Yoshi carries Baby Mario and throws eggs . The game adds the ability to swallow big foes , which become big eggs that can destroy big obstacles . Yoshi 's Island DS developer Arzest assisted in its development . In 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die ( 2010 ) , Christian Donlan wrote that despite the " streamlined " Yoshi 's Story and " brilliant " Yoshi 's Touch and Go , " the original was never bettered and never truly advanced upon " . In Eurogamer 's 2015 preview of Yoshi 's Woolly World , Tom Phillips wrote that it had " been 20 years since the last truly great Yoshi 's Island " . The next console release of a Mario 2D side @-@ scroller , New Super Mario Bros. Wii , was released 14 years later .
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= Pierce Brosnan =
Pierce Brendan Brosnan OBE Hon ( born 16 May 1953 ) is an Irish actor and film producer who after leaving comprehensive school at age 16 , began training in commercial illustration . He then went on to train at the Drama Centre in London for three years . Following a stage acting career he rose to popularity in the television series Remington Steele ( 1982 – 87 ) , which blended the genres of romantic comedy , drama , and detective procedural . After the conclusion of Remington Steele , Brosnan appeared in films such as the Cold War spy film The Fourth Protocol ( 1987 ) and the comedy Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) .
In 1994 , Brosnan became the fifth actor to portray secret agent James Bond in the Eon Productions film series , starring in four films from 1995 to 2002 ( GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , The World Is Not Enough and Die Another Day ) . He lent his likeness for Bond in the video games James Bond 007 : Nightfire and James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing , providing his voice too for the latter . During this period , he also took the lead in other films such as the epic disaster adventure film Dante 's Peak ( 1997 ) and the remake of the heist film The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1999 ) . Since leaving the role of Bond , he has starred in such films as the musical / romantic comedy Mamma Mia ! ( 2008 ) , the Roman Polanski @-@ directed political thriller The Ghost Writer ( 2010 ) and the action spy thriller The November Man ( 2014 ) .
In 1996 , along with Beau St. Clair , Brosnan formed Irish DreamTime , a Los Angeles @-@ based production company . In later years , he has become known for his charitable work and environmental activism . He was married to Australian actress Cassandra Harris from 1980 until her death in 1991 . He married American journalist and author Keely Shaye Smith in 2001 , and became an American citizen in 2004 . He has earned two Golden Globe Award nominations , first for the television miniseries Nancy Astor ( 1982 ) and next for the dark comedy film The Matador ( 2005 ) .
= = Early life = =
Brosnan was born in Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital in Drogheda , County Louth , Ireland , the only child of Thomas Brosnan , a carpenter , and May ( née Smith , born circa 1934 ) . He lived in Navan , County Meath for 12 years and considers it his home town . Brosnan 's father abandoned the family when Pierce was an infant . When he was four years old , his mother moved to London to work as a nurse . From that point on , he was largely brought up by his grandparents , Philip and Kathleen Smith . After their deaths , he lived with an aunt and then an uncle , but was subsequently sent to live in a boarding house run by a woman named Eileen . He was educated at Elliott School , now known as Ark Putney Academy , a coeducational secondary school with academy status in South West London .
According to Brosnan ,
Childhood was fairly solitary . I grew up in a very small town called Navan in County Meath . I never knew my father . He left when I was an infant and I was left in the care of my mother and my grandparents . To be Catholic in the ' 50s , and to be Irish Catholic in the ' 50s , and have a marriage which was not there , a father who was not there , consequently , the mother , the wife suffered greatly . My mother was very courageous . She took the bold steps to go away and be a nurse in England . Basically wanting a better life for her and myself . My mother came home once a year , twice a year .
Brosnan was brought up in a Roman Catholic family and educated in a local school run by the de la Salle Brothers while serving as an altar boy .
Brosnan left Ireland on 12 August 1964 and was reunited with his mother and her new husband , William Carmichael , now living in the Scottish village of Longniddry , East Lothian . Carmichael took Brosnan to see a James Bond film for the first time ( Goldfinger ) , at the age of 11 . Later moving back to London , Brosnan was educated at Elliott School , a state comprehensive school in Putney , south west London . Brosnan has spoken about the transition from Ireland to England and his education in London ; " When you go to a very large city , a metropolis like London , as an Irish boy of 10 , life suddenly moves pretty fast . From a little school of , say , seven classrooms in Ireland , to this very large comprehensive school , with over 2 @,@ 000 children . And you 're Irish . And they make you feel it ; the British have a wonderful way of doing that , and I had a certain deep sense of being an outsider . " When he attended school , his nickname was " Irish " .
After leaving school at 16 , he decided to be a painter and began training in commercial illustration at Saint Martin 's School of Art . While attending a rehearsal for a workshop at the Oval House , a fire eater was teaching people how to eat fire and he decided to join . A circus agent saw him busking and hired him for three years . He later trained for three years as an actor at the Drama Centre London . Brosnan has described the feeling of becoming an actor and the impact it had on his life : " When I found acting , or when acting found me , it was a liberation . It was a stepping stone into another life , away from a life that I had , and acting was something I was good at , something which was appreciated . That was a great satisfaction in my life . "
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
After graduating from the Drama Centre in 1975 , Brosnan began working as an acting assistant stage manager at the York Theatre Royal , making his acting debut in Wait Until Dark . Within six months , he was selected by playwright Tennessee Williams to play the role of McCabe in the British première of The Red Devil Battery Sign . His performance caused a stir in London and Brosnan still has the telegram sent by Williams , stating only " Thank God for you , my dear boy " . In 1977 he was picked by Franco Zeffirelli to appear in the play Filumena by Eduardo De Filippo opposite Joan Plowright and Frank Finlay .
He continued his career making brief appearances in films such as The Long Good Friday ( 1980 ) and The Mirror Crack 'd ( 1980 ) , as well as early television performances in The Professionals , Murphy 's Stroke , and Play for Today . He became a television star in the United States with his leading role in the popular miniseries Manions of America . He followed this with his 1982 Masterpiece Theatre documentary that chronicled the life of Lady Nancy Astor , the first woman to sit in British Parliament . His portrayal of Robert Gould Shaw II garnered him a 1985 Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor .
In 1982 , Brosnan moved to Southern California and rose to popularity in the United States playing the title role in the NBC romantic detective series Remington Steele . The Washington Post noted that same year that Brosnan " could make it as a young James Bond . " After Remington Steele ended in 1987 , Brosnan went on to appear in several films , including The Fourth Protocol ( 1987 ) , a Cold War thriller in which he starred alongside Michael Caine , The Deceivers and James Clavell 's Noble House both in ( 1988 ) , and The Lawnmower Man ( 1992 ) . In 1992 , he shot a pilot for NBC called Running Wilde , playing a reporter for Auto World magazine . Jennifer Love Hewitt played his daughter . The pilot never aired , however . In 1993 he played a supporting role in the comedy film Mrs. Doubtfire . He also appeared in several television films , including Victim of Love ( 1991 ) , Death Train ( 1993 ) and Night Watch ( 1995 ) , a spy thriller set in Hong Kong .
= = = James Bond ( 1994 – 2005 ) = = =
Brosnan first met James Bond films producer Albert R. Broccoli on the sets of For Your Eyes Only because his first wife , Cassandra Harris , starred as Countess Lisl von Schlaf , mistress to Milos Columbo . Broccoli said , " if he can act ... he 's my guy " to inherit the role of Bond from Roger Moore . It was reported by both Entertainment Tonight and the National Enquirer , that Brosnan was going to inherit another role of Moore 's , that of Simon Templar in The Saint . Brosnan denied the rumours in July 1993 but added , " it 's still languishing there on someone 's desk in Hollywood . "
In 1987 , NBC cancelled Remington Steele and Brosnan was offered the role as James Bond , but the publicity revived Remington Steele . His contract with the Remington Steele producers required him to resume his role and he regretfully declined the Bond role . The producers instead hired Timothy Dalton for The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) , and Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) . Legal squabbles between the Bond producers and the studio over distribution rights resulted in the cancellation of a proposed third Dalton film in 1991 and put the Bond series on a hiatus for several years . After the legal issues had been resolved , Dalton decided not to return for a third film . On 7 June 1994 , Brosnan was announced as the fifth actor to play Bond .
Brosnan was signed for a three @-@ film Bond deal with the option of a fourth . The first , 1995 's GoldenEye , grossed US $ 350 million worldwide , the fourth highest worldwide gross of any film in 1995 , making it the most successful Bond film since Moonraker , adjusted for inflation . It holds an 80 % Rotten tomato rating , while Metacritic holds it at 65 % . In the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , saying that Brosnan 's Bond was " somehow more sensitive , more vulnerable , more psychologically complete " than the previous ones , also commenting on Bond 's " loss of innocence " since previous films . James Berardinelli described Brosnan as " a decided improvement over his immediate predecessor " with a " flair for wit to go along with his natural charm " , but added that " fully one @-@ quarter of Goldeneye is momentum @-@ killing padding . "
In 1996 , Brosnan formed a film production company entitled " Irish DreamTime " along with producing partner and longtime friend Beau St. Clair . Brosnan and St. Clair released Irish DreamTime 's first production , The Nephew , in 1998 . One year later , the company 's second studio project , The Thomas Crown Affair , was released and met both critical and box office success .
Brosnan returned in 1997 's Tomorrow Never Dies and 1999 's The World Is Not Enough , which were also successful . In 2002 , Brosnan appeared for his fourth time as Bond in Die Another Day , receiving mixed reviews but was a success at the box office . Brosnan himself subsequently criticised many aspects of his fourth Bond movie . During the promotion , he mentioned that he would like to continue his role as James Bond : " I 'd like to do another , sure . Connery did six . Six would be a number , then never come back . " Brosnan asked Eon Productions , when accepting the role , to be allowed to work on other projects between Bond films . The request was granted , and for every Bond film , Brosnan appeared in at least two other mainstream films , including several he produced , playing a wide range of roles , ranging from a scientist in Tim Burton 's Mars Attacks ! , to the title role in Grey Owl which documents the life of Englishman Archibald Stansfeld Belaney , one of Canada 's first conservationists .
Shortly after the release of Die Another Day , the media began questioning whether or not Brosnan would reprise the role for a fifth time . At that time , Brosnan was approaching his 50th birthday . Brosnan kept in mind that both fans and critics were very unhappy with Roger Moore playing the role until he ( Moore ) was 58 , but he was receiving popular support from both critics and the franchise fanbase for a fifth instalment . For this reason , he remained enthusiastic about reprising his role . In October 2004 , Brosnan said he considered himself dismissed from the role . Although Brosnan had been rumoured frequently as still in the running to play 007 , he had denied it several times , and in February 2005 he posted on his website that he was finished with the role . Daniel Craig took over the role on 14 October 2005 . In an interview with The Globe and Mail , Brosnan was asked what he thought of Daniel Craig as the new James Bond . He replied , " I 'm looking forward to it like we 're all looking forward to it . Daniel Craig is a great actor and he 's going to do a fantastic job " . He reaffirmed this support in an interview to the International Herald Tribune , stating that " [ Craig 's ] on his way to becoming a memorable Bond . "
During his tenure on the James Bond films , Brosnan also took part in James Bond video games . In 2002 , Brosnan 's likeness was used as the face of Bond in the James Bond video game Nightfire ( voiced by Maxwell Caulfield ) . In 2004 , Brosnan starred in the Bond game Everything or Nothing , contracting for his likeness to be used as well as doing the voice @-@ work for the character . He also starred along with Jamie Lee Curtis and Geoffrey Rush in The Tailor of Panama in 2001 , and lent his voice to The Simpsons episode " Treehouse of Horror XII " , as a machine with Pierce Brosnan 's voice .
= = = Post @-@ James Bond = = =
Since 2004 , Brosnan has talked of backing a film about Caitlin Macnamara , wife of poet Dylan Thomas , the title role to be played by Miranda Richardson . Brosnan 's first post @-@ Bond role was that of Daniel Rafferty in 2004 's Laws of Attraction . Garreth Murphy , of entertainment.ie , described Brosnan 's performance as " surprisingly effective , gently riffing off his James Bond persona and supplementing it with a raffish energy " . In the same year , Brosnan starred in After the Sunset alongside Salma Hayek and Woody Harrelson . The film elicited generally negative reviews and a 17 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes . Brosnan 's next film was 2005 's The Matador . He starred as Julian Noble , a jaded , neurotic assassin who meets a travelling salesman ( Greg Kinnear ) in a Mexican bar . The film garnered generally positive reviews . Roger Ebert for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called Brosnan 's performance the best of his career . Brosnan was nominated for a Golden Globe award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy , but lost to Joaquin Phoenix for Walk the Line . In December 2005 , Brosnan was reported to be starring in The November Man , an adaptation of Bill Granger 's novel , There Are No Spies. but the project was cancelled in 2007 . In 2006 , Brosnan narrated The Official Film of the 2006 FIFA World Cup , directed by Michael Apted .
In 2007 , Brosnan appeared in the film Seraphim Falls alongside fellow Irishman Liam Neeson . The film was released for limited screenings on 26 January 2007 to average reviews . Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times noted that Brosnan and Neeson made " fine adversaries ; " Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter thought that they were " hard @-@ pressed to inject some much @-@ needed vitality into their sparse lines . " During the same year , Brosnan spoke of making a western with fellow Irishmen Gabriel Byrne and Colm Meaney . In that same year Brosnan starred as Tom Ryan in Butterfly on a Wheel . The film was released in the United States under the name of Shattered , and in Europe as Desperate Hours .
In 2008 , Brosnan joined Meryl Streep in the film adaption of the ABBA musical Mamma Mia ! . He played Sam Carmichael , one of three men rumoured to be the father of lead Amanda Seyfried , while Streep played her mother . Judy Craymer , producer to the film , said " Pierce brings a certain smooch factor , and we think he 'll have great chemistry with Meryl in a romantic comedy . " Brosnan 's preparation in singing for the role included walking up and down the coast and singing karaoke to his own voice for about six weeks , followed by rehearsals in New York in which he noted he " sounded dreadful . " Brosnan 's singing in the film was generally disparaged by critics , with his singing compared in separate reviews to the sound of a water buffalo , a donkey , and a wounded raccoon . In September 2008 , Brosnan provided the narration for the Thomas & Friends special The Great Discovery . He was originally set to narrate for both US and UK from Season 12 and onward , but withdraw from it for unknown reasons .
In 2009 , Brosnan starred in The Big Biazarro , ( alternative title The Ace ) , an adaptation of the Leonard Wise novel , directed by Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall . Brosnan portrayed a card player who mentors a headstrong protégé . Also in 2009 , Brosnan finished the well @-@ received The Ghost Writer , playing a disgraced British Prime Minister , directed and produced by Roman Polanski . The film won a Silver Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival . He starred as Charles Hawkins in the film Remember Me and as Chiron in Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief , both released in 2010 .
In 2012 , Brosnan played the role of Philip in the Danish romantic comedy Love Is All You Need .
His latest announced project is a role in the Danny DeVito @-@ helmed feature Charlotte Doyle , an adaptation of the novel The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle , in which he will appear alongside Morgan Freeman . His production company Irish DreamTime is developing The Topkapi Affair , a follow @-@ up to The Thomas Crown Affair for MGM . In February 2013 Brosnan was awarded honorary patronage of the Dublin University Players society at Trinity College , Dublin . Brosnan is also said to be playing a " heroic government agent " in an action thriller called The Coup ( later renamed to No Escape ) alongside Owen Wilson . Brosnan will also be headlining Last Man Out , which is an adaptation of Stuart Neville 's crime novel titled The Twelve ( released as Ghosts of Belfast in the US ) , scripted by Craig Ferguson and Ted Mulkerin , with Terry Loan will be helming the project .
In 2013 , Brosnan appeared in television commercials as a tongue in cheek version of himself to promote the launch of Sky Broadband in Ireland . After its cancellation in 2007 , Brosnan 's production company , " Irish DreamTime " resurrected The November Man film project in 2012 with an announcement made on his part that he was jumping back to the spy arena . Filming took place in Serbia a year later , with Brosnan in action as a retired CIA operative called Devereaux , alongside co @-@ star Olga Kurylenko in a supporting role . The film received negative reception with a 34 % on Rotten Tomatoes and a 38 / 100 on Metacritic . In 2015 , he appeared alongside Milla Jovovich in suspense thriller movie written by Phil Shelby , called Survivor , which began filming in January 2014 , with Charles and Irwin Winkler producing , and James McTeigue directing . Brosnan later starred in a revenge thriller called I.T. , which is still yet to be released .
In January 2016 Pierce Brosnan was seen filming The Foreigner in London , co @-@ starring with Jackie Chan , taking on a role of a former IRA man turned government official Liam Hennessy . The film is directed by Martin Campbell , who previously worked with Brosnan on his debut James Bond film , GoldenEye . It was noted that Brosnan bore a strong resemblance to Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams . An announcement was made that Brosnan and Campbell will team up once again in a film adaptation of an Ernest Hemingway novel , Across the River and into the Trees , in which Brosnan will play the role of the protagonist , Colonel Cantwell .
Brosnan replaced actor Sam Neill in the role of Eli McCullough in a television miniseries adaptation of Philipp Meyer 's novel The Son , with Kevin Murphy serving as both executive producer and showrunner of a ten @-@ episode miniseries , which begins production in June 2016 , aiming for a 2017 release .
= = Personal life = =
Brosnan married twice , was widowed once and has five children and three grandchildren as of 2015 .
Brosnan met Australian actress Cassandra Harris through her stepson David Harris , one of Richard Harris ' nephews , in 1977 , shortly after he left drama school . On meeting her , he has described his feelings , saying , " What a beautiful looking woman . I never for an instant thought she was someone I 'd spend 17 years of my life with . I didn 't think of wooing her , or attempting to woo her ; I just wanted to enjoy her beauty and who she was . " They began dating , and eventually bought a house in Wimbledon . They married on 27 December 1980 and had one son together , Sean , who was born on 13 September 1983 . They lived with her children , Charlotte ( 1971 @-@ 2013 ) and Christopher , and after their father Dermot Harris died in 1986 , he adopted them and they took the surname Brosnan .
Brosnan supplemented his income by working in West End productions and in a television film about Irish horse racing . After Harris appeared in the James Bond film For Your Eyes Only in 1981 , they secured a bank loan and moved to southern California where Brosnan secured a role in the TV series Remington Steele , easing their financial worries .
An episode of Remington Steele that was filmed in Ireland generated significant publicity . One outcome was that Brosnan met his father , who had left when Brosnan was an infant , in a brief get @-@ together at his hotel . Brosnan said he expected to see a very tall man , but described his father as " a man of medium stature , pushed @-@ back silver hair , flinty eyes and a twizzled jaw . He had a very strong Kerry accent . " Brosnan was regretful that they met under such public circumstances . He said he would have preferred more private arrangements that would have given him the opportunity to speak privately with his father .
While filming The Deceivers in Rajasthan , India , in 1987 , Brosnan 's wife Harris became seriously ill . She was later diagnosed with ovarian cancer and died on 28 December 1991 at age 43 . Brosnan struggled to cope with her cancer and death . " When your partner gets cancer , then life changes . Your timetable and reference for your normal routines and the way you view life , all this changes . Because you 're dealing with death . You 're dealing with the possibility of death and dying . And it was that way through the chemotherapy , through the first @-@ look operation , the second look , the third look , the fourth look , the fifth look . Cassie was very positive about life . I mean , she had the most amazing energy and outlook on life . It was and is a terrible loss , and I see it reflected , from time to time , in my children . " Harris had always wanted Brosnan to play the role of James Bond , and in 1995 , four years after her death , Brosnan was given the role in GoldenEye .
In 1994 , Brosnan met American journalist Keely Shaye Smith in Mexico . They were married in 2001 at Ballintubber Abbey in County Mayo , Ireland . They have two sons together , Dylan Thomas Brosnan ( born 13 January 1997 ) and Paris Beckett Brosnan ( born 27 February 2001 ) .
In July 2003 , the Queen made Brosnan an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his " outstanding contribution to the British film industry " . As an Irish citizen , he is ineligible to receive the full OBE honour , which is awarded only to a citizen of the Commonwealth realms , but he is still allowed the letters " OBE " after his name . In 2002 , Brosnan was also awarded an honorary degree from the Dublin Institute of Technology and , a year later , the University College Cork .
On 23 September 2004 , Brosnan became a citizen of the United States , but retained his Irish citizenship . Brosnan said that " my Irishness is in everything I do . It 's the spirit of who I am , as a man , an actor , a father . It 's where I come from . " Brosnan was asked by a fan if it annoyed him when people get his nationality confused . He said : " It amuses me in some respects that they should confuse me with an Englishman when I 'm dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool , born and bred Irishman ... I don 't necessarily fly under any flag . But no , it doesn 't bother me . "
Brosnan has expressed contempt for his education by the Christian Brothers . However , in 2013 he commented , " It always helps to have a bit of prayer in your back pocket . At the end of the day , you have to have something and for me that is God , Jesus , my Catholic upbringing , my faith ... God has been good to me . My faith has been good to me in the moments of deepest suffering , doubt and fear . It is a constant , the language of prayer ... I might not have got my sums right from the Christian Brothers or might not have got the greatest learning of literature from them but I certainly got a strapping amount of faith . " Brosnan attends Mass , but adheres to other spiritual beliefs . In 2008 he said " I also love the teachings of Buddhist philosophy . It 's my own private faith . I don 't preach it , but it 's a faith that is a comfort to me when the night is long . "
Brosnan and wife Keely Shaye Smith were involved in a riparian water rights legal case ( 1999 – 2010 ) . The dispute centred on a parcel of land in Wainiha , Hawaii .
Brosnan 's daughter Charlotte died on 28 June 2013 of ovarian cancer , the same illness that claimed her mother 's life .
= = = Environmental and charitable work = = =
Pierce Brosnan has been an Ambassador for UNICEF Ireland since 2001 and recorded a special announcement to mark the launch of UNICEF 's " Unite for Children , Unite against AIDS " Campaign with Liam Neeson . Brosnan supported John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election and is a vocal supporter of same @-@ sex marriage .
Brosnan first became aware of nuclear disarmament at the age of nine when worldwide condemnation of the 1962 U.S. nuclear tests in Nevada headlined international news . During the 1990s , he participated in news conferences in Washington , D.C. to help Greenpeace draw attention to the issue . Brosnan boycotted the French GoldenEye premiere to support Greenpeace 's protest against the French nuclear testing program . From 1997 to 2000 , Brosnan and wife Smith worked with the Natural Resources Defense Council ( NRDC ) and International Fund for Animal Welfare ( IFAW ) to stop a proposed salt factory from being built at Laguna San Ignacio . The couple with Halle Berry , Cindy Crawford and Daryl Hannah successfully fought the Cabrillo Port Liquefied Natural Gas facility that was proposed off the coast of Malibu ; the State Lands Commission eventually denied the lease to build the terminal . In May 2007 , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the facility . Brosnan is also listed as a member of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society 's Board of Advisors . Brosnan was named ' Best @-@ dressed Environmentalist ' by the Sustainable Style Foundation in 2004 .
Brosnan also raises money for charitable causes through sales of his paintings . He trained early on as an artist , but later shifted to theatre ; during his first wife 's terminal illness , he withdrew from acting to be with her and took up painting again for therapeutic reasons , producing colourful landscapes and family portraits . He has continued painting since then , using spare time on set and at home . Profits from sales of giclée prints of his works are given to a trust to benefit " environmental , children 's and women 's health charities . " Since Harris ' death , Brosnan has been an advocate for cancer awareness and , in 2006 , he served as spokesperson for Lee National Denim Day , a breast cancer fundraiser which raises millions of dollars and raises more money in a single day than any other breast cancer fundraiser .
In May 2007 , Brosnan and Smith donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to help replace a playground on the Hawaiian island of Kauai , where they own a house . On 7 July 2007 , Brosnan presented a film at Live Earth in London . He also recorded a television advertisement for the cause . Brosnan lives with his family in Malibu , California and on the island of Kauai .
In April 2016 , a fire ripped through his $ 18 @.@ 5 million Malibu mansion causing $ 1 million in damages to the garage and a nearby guest bedroom .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
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= Charles Kanaʻina =
Charles Kanaʻina , officially referred to as His Honour and his Highness , ( Kanaʻina II ) ( c . 1801 – March 13 , 1877 ) was an aliʻi ( hereditary noble ) of the Kingdom of Hawaii and father of William Charles Lunalilo , the 6th monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii . Kanaʻina was a descendant of notable figures from ancient Hawaiian history , including Liloa , Hakau and Umi @-@ a @-@ Liloa of Hawaiʻi Island as well as Piilani of Maui . He served on both the Privy Counsel and in the House of Nobles . He was named after his uncle Kanaʻina , a name that means " The conquering " in the Hawaiian Language . This uncle greeted Captain James Cook in 1778 and confronted the navigator before he was killed .
His wife Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi was a widow and niece of Kamehameha I. She was also Married to Kamehameha II before he converted to Christianity and gave up all but one wife . Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi lived in a traditional aliʻi style home in a sacred neighborhood in Honolulu , Oahu , Hawaii called Pohukaina near Kekūanāoa , Kaʻahumanu and their offspring . The compound would eventually become the official Royal Residence of the Hawaiian Royal Family when Kekūanāoa would build Hale Aliʻi in the center of the families estates as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu . The site would become the Iolani Palace and Palace Walk . Kanaʻina kept his property at the palace until his death and would be the only original owner to do so while the Palace was in use , living there from Kamehameha II up to Kalakaua .
Kanaʻina 's son , William Charles Lunalilo , was named by Kamehameha III as an heir to the throne of the kingdom and ascended in 1873 while his father still lived . Lunalilo died only a year later , three years before his father 's death . Kanaʻina died on March 13 , 1877 . He had not re @-@ written his will and when produced still left everything to his son Lunalilo . Having died intestate , probate hearings proceeded for 5 years . Final adjudication went to several of Kanaʻina 's cousins including Ruth Keelikōlani and Bernice Pauahi Bishop .
= = Birth , early life and marriage = =
Charles Kanaʻina was born Charles Kanaʻina Eia , circa 1801 at Napoʻopoʻo , Hawaii to [ Eia ] Ka @-@ makakaualii ( father ) and Kauwa Palila ( mother ) . His maternal great grandmother was High Chiefess ʻIliki @-@ a @-@ Moana , the granddaughter of King Keakealanikane and Kaleiheana . His great grandfather , Kauhiahaki ( Kauhiapiiao ) and ʻIliki @-@ a @-@ Moana were cousins , both being descendants of King Piʻilani of Maui . From Keakealanikane , Kanaʻina is descended from Liloa through the ancient rulers son Umi @-@ a @-@ Liloa . He is also descended from Liloa 's son Hakau through his great , great , great grandmother Kaleiheana . His paternal grandparents were Makakaualii and Kapulaoa .
He was named Kanaʻina , after the nickname of his uncle Kalaimanokahoowaha , the chief who was drawn by artist John Webber and who later is reputed to have first struck Captain James Cook before he was killed at Kealakekua Bay . In the Hawaiian language , ka naʻina means " the conquering " .
Kanaʻina married Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi in 1821 when Kamehameha II converted to Christianity and gave up all but one wife . Kekāuluohi was free to marry the monarch 's friend Kanaʻina on Kauaʻi . Kekāuluohi had been one of several wives of both Kamehameha I and Kamehameha II . However , under the influence of Christian missionaries , Kamehameha II renounced all his other wives except one . Kekāuluohi was then free to marry Kanaʻina after they both took Christian first names .
= = = Residence = = =
The couple lived near their family members . Kekūanāoa had his home just west of Kanaʻina 's called Haliimaile . Kekāuluohi and Kanaʻina had their home in the area called Pohukaina . This area was a sacred burial site for aliʻi nobles . The aliʻi style home was similar to that of the other estates in the neighborhood consisting of small buildings used for different purposes . The sitting and sleeping area had a folding door entrance of green painted wood under glass upper panels . The house had two rooms separated by a festooned tent door of chintz fabric and was carpeted with hand crafted makaloa mats . In the front was a lounge area opposite a sideboard and mirror . In the middle they placed a semi circle of armchairs with a center table where the couple would write . Four matching cabinet @-@ bookshelves with glass doors were set in each corner of the room with silk scarves hanging from each . In his book , A visit to the South Seas , in the U.S. Ship Vincennes : during the years 1829 and 1830 , Charles Samuel Stewart states :
They both write with great readiness ; and the husband with a freedom and command of hand that would class him among good penman anywhere . Both are among the most studious and improving of their compeers .
Next to their home was an old estate that had been demolished called Hanailoia . This was the spot of an ancient heiau called Kaahaimauli . In July 1844 Kekūanāoa began building a large home here as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu . Instead , Kamehameha III would buy the estate and use as his Royal Residence after moving the capitol of the kingdom to Honolulu . It would become the Iolani Palace . As older aliʻi died , the lands were passed down and concentrated into fewer hands . Kekāuluohi 's lands were passed down to her from the Kamehameha family . When she died , she left her accumulated lands and wealth to her son , not her husband Kanaʻina . In 1865 Kamehameha V moved the bodies of the royal family to a new royal mausoleum however , he refused to allow the remains of Kekāuluohi to be moved with the rest of the Kamehamehas . When Lunalilo made out his will he made provisions for a royal tomb to be built across the street from the palace at Kawaiahao Church where he , his mother and Kanaʻina would be buried .
Kanaʻina served as a member of the House of Nobles of Kamehameha III from 1841 to 1876 , on the Privy Council from July 29 , 1845 , to 1855 , and on the Supreme Court from when it was first founded on May 10 , 1842 . In the tradition of European royalty , he was granted the style ( manner of address ) of " His Highness " .
= = Children = =
Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi had two sons . Their first son Davida , died young . They had two hānai ( informal adoption to other family members ) children , Kalama , the wife of Kamehameha III and later Kalama 's second son Keaweaweulaokalani II . Their surviving natural son , William Charles Lunalilo was born on January 31 , 1835 , at Pohukaina . He was considered the grandnephew of Kamehameha I , and second cousin to King Kamehameha V , King Kamehameha IV , and Princess Victoria Kamāmalu , through his mother , Kekāuluohi , who was the cousin of Elizabeth Kīnaʻu ( later called Kaʻahumanu II ) . He was declared eligible to succeed by the royal decree of King Kamehameha III and sent to the Chief 's Children 's School ( later called the Royal School ) when it was founded by missionaries Amos Starr Cooke and Juliette Montague Cooke .
= = = Lunalilo Trust = = =
Kanaʻina acted as trustee of the royal lands that had been inherited by his wife while his son was a minor , and after his son 's death . When Kanaʻina died , the court appointed nine trustees , six of which would take part in the militia that overthrew the monarchy and also take part in the new provisional government . Dole himself had been on the record as supporting the break up of crown lands to promote American style farming in his newspaper in 1872 . Various lawsuits ensued over the property including a suit questioning the validity of the will due to Lunalilo being under the guardianship of his father when he made it out . Lunalilo had requested in his will to use the estate to fund a charity . The trustees favored splitting up the estate by selling it off , while others claimed the value of land was underestimated , and an endowment to run the charity could have been funded by lease income . For example , Kanaʻina leased ( and later his heirs would sell ) thousands of acres of land on the island of Hawaii to businessman ( and son of missionaries ) William Herbert Shipman .
= = Death and legacy = =
Kanaʻina died on March 13 , 1877 , in Honolulu , Oahu , and was buried at Kawaiahaʻo Church in the Lunalilo Mausoleum , next to his son who had died before him . While Kanaʻina had made out a will , he had left everything to his son , and so had died intestate . Petitions to administer the estate began the following day . Probate proceedings were litigated for four years , between 1877 and 1881 , and re @-@ affirmed in 1886 .
Attorney General Alfred S. Hartwell applied for the appointment of trustees shortly after Kanaʻina 's death under the articles of Lunalilo 's will . Article three of that will bequeathed the entirety of his estate to three trustees appointed by the Justices of the Supreme Court of the Hawaiian Kingdom . The property was to be sold and invested until the sum of $ 25 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 was raised to fund a home for the poor and destitute . Chief Justice Charles Coffin Harris ordered a hearing for April 5 , 1877 , to hear the petition pertaining to the estate of the late Charles Kanaʻina and anyone who could show reason not to grant it .
= = = Estate probate = = =
A petition was filed by King David Kalakaua and his sisters and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Lydia K. Dominis , Miriam K. Cleghorn and Archibald Scott Cleghorn , with a hearing set by Justice Lawrence McCully . In July 1878 , Justices Harris , Judd and McCully heard Kalakaua 's appeal . While the Justices felt that the claim of Kalakaua and his sisters had not been proven , they were impressed with that of Kilinahe ( Kanaʻina 's first cousin ) and other claimants based on testimony and witnesses . The court decreed that the estate be split into four equal shares : one quarter to go to Haalilio ( k ) , Haalelea ( k ) and Kahukaiola ( k ) ; one quarter each to Pahua ( w ) and Kaahua ( k ) ; and one quarter to the widow and children of Kilinahe , who had died before the adjudication of his claim .
Claimants from the line of Moana Wahine made petitions to the court under the act of 1874 to quite land titles . The act was later deemed unconstitutional and a new decree of heirship was made . By December 1879 disbursement of land in trust with William Cooper Parke , ( Marshal of Hawaii from 1853 to 1884 ) and owned by heirs , could not be agreed upon for settlement . Most supported the sale of the lands , so an order was made and all land sold at auction .
= = = Heirs and legacy = = =
Final adjudication of probate found a total of eight parties or groups of relatives , most of whom were descended from Moana and her four husbands , as heirs to the Kanaʻina estate splitting a total of 9 shares , with 2 shares going to one party . The probate records include a great deal of information from the four years of litigation . A great number of people petitioned the courts to claim title as heirs after the initial 1878 judgement . In the final adjudication , Bernice Pauahi Bishop received two of the nine shares . The remaining seven of the nine shares were divided equally in 1 / 9th and distributed to Ruth Keelikōlani , Haalilio and Haalelea ( namesakes of the historic figures ) , Kilinahe ( Who 's grandmother was the older sister of Kanaʻina 's mother ) and 5 other parties . The first three trustees included John Mott @-@ Smith and Sanford B. Dole .
The Hawaii public archives building , built in 1906 on the ʻIolani Palace grounds , in a section that was formerly the Kanaʻina 's estate , was dedicated as the Kanaʻina building . It held state offices in the 1950s , added as a contributing property of the Hawaii Capital Historic District and then restored for the Friends of ʻIolani Palace in 1990 .
= = Family tree = =
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= 2 / 3rd Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 3rd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Raised for service during the Second World War as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , it was formed in October 1939 in Sydney and was attached to the 16th Brigade , 6th Division , the first formation raised as part of the 2nd AIF during the war . Deploying to the Middle East in early 1940 , it saw action in North Africa , Greece , Crete , and Syria in 1941 – 42 before returning to Australia following Japan 's entry into the war , and was one of only two Australian infantry battalions to fight against all the major Axis powers of the war : the Germans , Italians , Japanese and Vichy French .
In 1942 – 43 , the battalion took part in fighting along the Kokoda Track before returning to Australia where it spent over a year training and being rebuilt . In December 1944 , the 2 / 3rd returned to New Guinea to take part in the Aitape – Wewak campaign and remained there until the war ended . Following the end of hostilities , the battalion was disbanded on 8 February 1946 in Brisbane . The battalion 's battle honours are perpetuated by the Royal New South Wales Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Upon the outbreak of the Second World War the Australian government decided to raise an all @-@ volunteer force for service overseas , due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which restricted the deployment of the part @-@ time Militia to only those areas considered to be Australian territory . This force was known as the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , and the 6th Division was the first to be raised . As a unit of this formation , the 2 / 3rd Battalion was formed at Victoria Barracks , Sydney , on 24 October 1939 . Along with the 2 / 1st , 2 / 2nd and 2 / 4th Battalions , the 2 / 3rd was assigned to the 16th Brigade .
Although initially the infantry battalions of the 6th Division adopted the Australian battalion structure of two rifle companies , a support company , a light machine gun platoon and an administrative headquarters , they soon switched to the British structure with four rifle companies – each consisting of three platoons with three sections – and a headquarters company consisting of signals , carrier , pioneer , anti @-@ aircraft , transport , administrative and mortar platoons .
The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Vivian England , an officer who had fought in the First World War and had continued to serve in the Militia after the war , commanding the 55th Battalion . Personnel for the battalion were raised from an area around New South Wales that is known by the Aboriginal name of " The Werriwa " . This area is bounded by a line from Sydney to Bega in the south , and from Bega , west to the Snowy Mountains , Cooma , Canberra , Yass , then north to Sydney through the Goulburn and Liverpool areas . The men were enlisted from 20 October onwards , and by 3 November 1939 the battalion was formed . The colours chosen for the Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were the same as those of the 3rd Battalion , a unit which had served during the First World War before being raised as a Militia formation in 1921 . These colours were chocolate over green , in a horizontal rectangle , although a 3 mm border of gray was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart , which would also go on to serve with distinction during the war .
Following a brief period of training at Liverpool and Ingleburn , the battalion took part in a farewell march through Sydney . The Sydney Morning Herald of 4 January 1940 gave an account of their farewell march : " The long khaki columns thrilled the hearts of Sydney as it had not been so moved for a quarter of a century since that still , spring day in 1914 when the first A.I.F. marched through the same streets on its way to Anzac and imperishable glory ; the marching was magnificent . " Afterwards , the battalion sailed in the first troop convoy to leave Australia on 10 January 1940 , embarking upon the transport Orcades . They disembarked at El Kantara on the Suez Canal on 14 February 1940 , and from there they were trucked to their camp at Julis in Palestine , where they undertook further training .
= = = First actions : North Africa 1941 = = =
The first engagement that Australian troops were involved in during the Second World War came at Bardia , a major Italian military outpost in the north of Libya . The 16th Brigade broke through Bardia 's western defensive perimeter at dawn on 3 January 1941 , when the 2 / 1st Battalion breached the wire defences and swung left before advancing . The 2 / 2nd Battalion followed suit , swinging to the right , and the 2 / 3rd then moved straight through the breach . Meanwhile , the 17th Brigade led a diversion to the south . Although the 16th Brigade was able to capture Bardia in the late afternoon of 4 January , resistance continued , and fighting did not cease until the next morning . Over 40 @,@ 000 Italians were captured along with significant amounts of equipment and material – including food and ammunition – which was in short supply . A significant amount of alcohol was also captured by the Australians in Italian dugouts inside the 2 / 3rd 's position around Wadi @-@ el @-@ Ghereida . During this period , the 2 / 3rd lost five officers and 56 men killed or wounded .
After this , the Allied forces advanced to the fortified naval outpost of Tobruk . The 6th Division attacked the perimeter defences early on 21 January , following a week of continuous bombardment from both land and sea . The 2 / 3rd Battalion was tasked with breaching the outer Italian defences for the 2 / 1st Battalion to pass through . Following the initial breakthrough , the 2 / 3rd then advanced west along the inner ring of defences , attacking a number of Italian posts as they went . Tobruk fell the next day , with the Italians surrendering to Brigadier Horace Robertson , the commander of the 19th Brigade . The Italian flag was taken down and in the absence of an Australian flag , a signaler from the 2 / 4th Battalion tied his slouch hat to the flag staff and hauled it up to the top . The battalion 's losses during the fighting for Tobruk were seven officers and 50 men killed or wounded .
Following the capture of the town , the 2 / 3rd garrisoned Tobruk , although B Company was detached to the 19th Brigade for its assault on Derna , and remained there after its capture on 30 January . Prime Minister Robert Menzies interrupted his journey from Australia to England to address the troops after the capture of Tobruk . On 7 March 1941 , the battalion left Tobruk , along with the rest of the 6th Division , to bolster the Allied defences in Greece .
= = = Reverses in Greece and Crete 1941 = = =
On 18 March 1941 , the 2 / 3rd Battalion sailed from Alexandria aboard HMS Gloucester , arriving in Greece and landing in the port of Piraeus on the following day , after a 22 @-@ hour voyage during which their convoy had been attacked numerous times by Axis aircraft . After the invasion of the country on 6 April , they were moved north to attempt to turn back the German forces . The following day they occupied Veria , and on 12 April the 6th Division was grouped together with the 2nd New Zealand Division and a lone British brigade to form an Anzac Corps . This formation did not last long , however , as the Greek government requested Allied forces withdraw from Greece on 16 April before ceasing organised resistance on 18 April . Due to a series of withdrawals elsewhere , the battalion was forced to pull back from its positions at Veria and did not come into contact with the Germans until 18 April when they attempted to block passage of the Tempe Gorge . Fighting alongside the 2 / 2nd Battalion and New Zealanders , the rearguard action was successful and enabled the Allies to withdraw to the south . Brigadier Arthur Allen , commander of the 16th Brigade , later wrote of this encounter : " it was a fantastic battle . Everyone was on top , with no time to dig in , and all in the front line , including artillery , Bren carriers and infantry , as well as headquarters , with transport only yards in the rear . Some confusion could be expected in the circumstances , with every weapon firing and aircraft almost continually strafing from above . If you saw it in the cinema you would say the author had never seen battle . "
With the Germans enjoying numerical superiority on the ground , and with the Luftwaffe in total control of the skies , they then captured the township of Tempe . Although fierce rearguard fighting continued while the Australian and New Zealand forces withdrew to a new defensive line at Thermopylae , the situation deteriorated . An official evacuation plan was issued on 21 April , and on 25 April – Anzac Day – parties of evacuating Allied troops marched through Athens on their way to the coast . The 2 / 3rd Battalion embarked from Kalamata on 27 April . The 2 / 3rd 's casualties during the campaign amounted to 14 killed , 31 wounded and 62 captured .
While the majority of the 2 / 3rd Battalion was successfully evacuated to Egypt , a small force of 141 men were evacuated to the island of Crete instead , after the transport ship they were on was sunk . Having formed the rearguard during the withdrawal from Greece , they had embarked separately from the main body , being taken aboard the Costa Rica . During the voyage to Alexandria , the transport had been attacked by German aircraft , and as it sank , they were ordered to abandon ship . After being rescued by Royal Navy destroyers , the troops were transported to Crete , where they were formed into a composite battalion with men from other units of the 16th Brigade , and together the unit became known as the 16th Brigade Composite Battalion .
With only limited small arms and ammunition they moved to positions above Kalives on the shores of Suda Bay to undertake garrison duties in anticipation of a German attack on the island . Following the German invasion on 20 May 1941 , some of these troops saw direct action against German paratroopers . After the Allied evacuation from the island a week later , they undertook active patrols around the island before being evacuated on 31 May 1941 aboard HMS Phoebe . They arrived in Alexandria on 1 June 1941 . Two 2 / 3rd Battalion men were killed during the fighting on Crete , and one was wounded . Fifty became prisoners of war . Meanwhile , the rest of the battalion had concentrated in Palestine , where it was rebuilt in advance of its next campaign .
= = = Securing Syria and Lebanon , 1941 – 42 = = =
Australian troops from the 7th Division were already fighting in the Syria – Lebanon Campaign when the re @-@ formed 2 / 3rd Battalion , along with the 2 / 5th Battalion and the 6th Division Cavalry Regiment , were committed as reinforcements , to help bring the 7th Division up to strength . In a bitter campaign that lasted 28 days , Vichy French forces attempted to resist the Allied invasion , which had been launched in order to deny the Germans the use of Vichy territory to launch attacks against Egypt . Against a modest Allied force with only limited armour and artillery , the well @-@ equipped French force outnumbered the attackers and had the advantage of holding the mountainous terrain . Having contributed a company to garrison duties around Sidon in Lebanon , and provided 100 men to help re @-@ form the shattered 2 / 1st Battalion , the 2 / 3rd was understrength – consisting of only 21 officers and 385 other ranks – when it entrained at Majdal in Palestine on 18 June 1941 to join the campaign .
Initially , after arriving from Palestine , the battalion was committed to forming a block on the road between Damascus and Deraa ; they were later committed to an attack to sever the Beirut road around Mezze , as part of wider fighting around Damascus on 20 – 22 June . Operating with British and Indian forces on the right flank , they then launched an unsuccessful action at Jebel Mazar on 24 – 28 June , where they were tasked with capturing the high ground overlooking the main road , along which the Australians were advancing . The battalion came under command of the re @-@ formed 17th Brigade , which was reconstituted to bring the 7th Division up to full strength as it operated along the coast . Despite being well below strength – consisting of just two companies with a total of 300 men – it joined the fighting at Damour on 6 – 10 July , advancing along the Darmour River and leading the 17th Brigade 's advance . Despite heavy fighting the Allied forces slowly advanced simultaneously along the coast and inland , finally overcoming the Vichy French defences . Following the armistice on 14 July , the troops remained in Syria until January 1942 preparing defences and undertaking other garrison duties . The battalion 's casualties during the short campaign amounted to 16 killed and 77 wounded .
= = = Garrison duties in Ceylon 1942 = = =
Following Japan 's entry into the war in December 1941 the decision was made to bring the 6th Division back to bolster the Allied defences in the Pacific , and the 2 / 3rd Battalion left the Middle East on 10 March 1942 , aboard the steamer Orontes . The original intention was that they would be sent to reinforce Java ; however , while they were at sea concerns about a Japanese attack on Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) prompted the diversion of the 16th and 17th Brigades to Colombo , and they arrived there on 21 March . The freighter Ben Rennies , carrying the battalion 's vehicles , arrived shortly afterwards and the 2 / 3rd took up defensive positions in the southeast part of the island , which was considered to be the most likely location for a Japanese invasion force to land .
On 5 April , a Japanese naval force sortied from the recently captured Andaman Islands and launched a series of attacks by carrier @-@ based aircraft on Colombo and Trincomalee . Another attack occurred on 9 April . Little damage was done on land , but both the British and Australian navies suffered losses . Regardless , the Japanese failed to sustain their initial momentum and the expected invasion did not occur . Nevertheless , men from the 2 / 3rd Battalion were kept busy for the remainder of their time preparing defences , manning anti @-@ aircraft positions and undertaking jungle training , while receiving instruction in lessons learned from operations in Malaya and Singapore . The men were taught how to use the jungle according to author Paul Ham " ... to ' melt ' into the foliage ; to retrace their steps at night ; to use camouflage properly ; to detect human presence by crushed twigs and disturbed leaf mould ; to move silently over undergrowth . To build shelters ; and to discern human from animal sounds . "
In July , British forces were sent from India to relieve the Australian troops in Ceylon . Preparations were made for the 2 / 3rd Battalion to return to Australia , and after embarking upon the SS Westernland , they arrived in Melbourne on 8 August 1942 , having returned via the southern route away from the Japanese submarines patrolling the east coast . After this , the troops all received two weeks home leave , staggered from the time of their arrival . The final group had their leave cut short after only three days , however , when they were recalled by urgent telegram . The 16th Brigade was again on the move , this time to Port Moresby in New Guinea , where the fighting against the Japanese along the Kokoda Track was reaching a critical stage . After a short voyage , the brigade arrived at Port Moresby on 21 September 1942 .
= = = Fighting in New Guinea , 1942 – 43 = = =
Following their arrival at Port Moresby , the 16th Brigade along with the 25th Brigade , prepared to relieve the forces on the Kokoda Track . With the Australians having finally halted the Japanese advance , the fresh troops would be tasked with launching a counterattack to drive the Japanese back to Buna in the north . Consequently , throughout October , November and into December , the 2 / 3rd Battalion took part in three major actions : Eora Creek ( 22 – 28 October ) , Oivi ( 5 – 12 November ) , and an action on the Sanananda Track ( 21 November – 19 December ) .
On 3 October , General Douglas MacArthur spoke to the 16th Brigade 's commander , Brigadier John Lloyd , at Ower 's Corner , at the foot of the Kokoda Track : " Lloyd , by some act of God your Brigade has been chosen for this job . The eyes of the Western world are upon you . I have every confidence in you and your men . Good luck and don 't stop . " The 16th Brigade arrived at Templeton 's Crossing on 19 October , just three days behind the 2 / 25th and 2 / 33rd Battalions , whom they relieved . The following day the 16th Brigade continued the advance but found that the Japanese had withdrawn to Eora Creek , where they had established a strong defensive position .
Here the Japanese held the high ground in well @-@ concealed positions that had clear fields of fire into the narrow gorge below . With no other options , the 16th Brigade was forced to assault the Japanese defences frontally , advancing straight up the gorge . Amidst torrential rain and stiff defence , progress was slow as each defensive position had to be dealt with individually . As the water level in the creek rose steadily , the troops came under heavy mortar fire and were attacked with grenades lobbed from the heights above . The supply situation grew desperate too , but by 28 October the 2 / 3rd Battalion had managed to work its way around the Japanese right flank in preparation for an attack . In the afternoon , the battalion launched its attack , breaking through the Japanese outposts and into the main position . The defenders were overwhelmed and many of them abandoned their weapons as they fled . That night , the remaining Japanese withdrew from the position . The 16th Brigade lost 72 killed and 154 wounded in this action .
Despite the successful action , the superiors of the 7th Division 's commander , Major @-@ General Arthur Allen , were dissatisfied by the counter @-@ offensive 's rate of progress , and he was relieved of his command the day before the Australian forces won through at Eora Creek . Japanese resistance decreased after that battle , and by 31 September the 16th Brigade was advancing along the eastern fork of the Track through Missima without opposition . On 2 November they passed through the recently abandoned village of Kokoda . Three days later , as the Australians advanced towards the Kumusi River , the 2 / 3rd Battalion went into battle at Oivi , after coming up against an entrenched force holding the high ground from Oivi to Gorari . The Japanese counter @-@ attacked the next day , and as fighting continued through to 6 November , Major General George Vasey , the new divisional commander , sent the 25th Brigade and the 2 / 1st Battalion on a successful attack against the Japanese rear at Gorari . The Japanese at Oivi , their supply and withdrawal route cut , were then forced to retreat .
The 2 / 3rd Battalion 's final involvement in the campaign came as the 16th Brigade advanced towards Sanananda in November . They left the Wairopi area on 16 November , with the battalion second in order of march . Tired and drained from the exertions of the last two months , the advance across the swamps of the coastal plain proved heavy work . On the first day they made 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , but after heavy rains the following day and failures in the resupply effort , a large number of men fell behind due to exhaustion . On 19 November , the 2 / 3rd spearheaded the brigade 's advance to the coast . Several Japanese stragglers were taken prisoner and a number of minor contacts followed , but the Japanese defenders withdrew before the Australians could shake out to conduct an assault .
The following morning , the brigade reached the junction of the Sananada and Cape Killerton trails , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the coast . After the 2 / 1st Battalion was attacked , the 2 / 3rd Battalion took part in a brigade flanking attack around the Japanese position to the right , forcing the Japanese to fall back . The action , however , had severely depleted the brigade to the point where , with less than 1 @,@ 000 fit men , it was unable to continue offensive operations . Thereafter activity was limited to patrolling and maintaining a defensive perimeter . In early December the 16th Brigade was relieved by the 30th Brigade . The 2 / 3rd Battalion itself was relieved on 6 December , returning to Poppondetta with a strength of just six officers and 67 other ranks , before being evacuated back to Port Moresby by plane on 23 December 1942 . They were returned to Australia shortly afterwards for leave and to reorganise . During the fighting along the Kokoda Track and the advance north to the sea , the 2 / 3rd lost 69 men killed and 103 wounded .
= = = Final campaign : Aitape – Wewak 1944 – 45 = = =
After a short period of leave the 6th Division came together again in late January 1943 on the Atherton Tablelands to begin training , and to convert to the more austere jungle establishment . Under this structure , the size of the battalion was reduced by one officer and 106 other ranks , giving the 2 / 3rd Battalion a total of 803 men of all ranks . At this time , a camp was built from scratch at Wondecla , but it was 12 months before the battalion 's ranks were brought to full strength by the return of sick and wounded soldiers . As the battalion began to reform , some who had performed well in the preceding campaigns were recommended for commissioning and were sent to an Officer Training Unit at Woodside , in South Australia . Along with training there was time for recreation including swimming carnivals , boxing tournaments and a 6th Division rugby league championship in which the 2 / 3rd Battalion was victorious , beating the 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion in the final . The team captain , Col Windon , later went on to play for and captain the Wallabies .
During this time the battalion received a number of reinforcements from its associated Militia unit , the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) . This unit had been fighting in New Guinea as part of the 30th Brigade , with whom it had served on the Kokoda Track alongside the 2 / 3rd as well as the 39th and 49th Battalions , before being returned to Australia , where it had been disbanded . Other reinforcements also arrived from the 16th Battalion .
Due to a combination of political and strategic decisions , it was almost two years before the battalion went into combat again . In late 1944 , in order to free up American troops for operations in the Philippines , Australian forces were directed to take over responsibility for operations around Aitape in New Guinea . The 6th Division returned to New Guinea in November 1944 , with the final brigade arriving on 31 December 1944 . Although basically cut off from resupply , there were around 35 @,@ 000 Japanese troops in the area , holding the coast past Wewak and into the interior . Supported by food supplies from native gardens in the Torricelli Mountains , the Japanese put up heavy resistance to the Australians ' primary tactic of aggressive patrolling .
Tasked with reducing the Japanese , while remaining available to support operations elsewhere , the 6th Division began a limited offensive in the Wewak area . The 16th Brigade was initially held in divisional reserve , occupying a defensive position west of the Raihu River , until in February 1945 it was tasked with securing a forward supply base near Dogreto Bay and clearing up to the Anumb River , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east of the river . They came up against only minor opposition and by 23 February they had crossed the Anumb ; less than a month later they had progressed 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east , occupying the coastal town of But and removing the Japanese from the Dagua area .
During this time , contact with the Japanese was limited to small @-@ scale actions rather than a large general action ; nevertheless , these actions caused heavy casualties as the Japanese defended stubbornly . Casualties amongst the Australians were , according to author Eustace Keogh , " heavy in relation to the size of ... the numerous small actions the Japanese forced them to fight " . In addition , the strenuous nature of the campaign reduced the troops ' resistance and ability to undertake proper medical precautions and as a result there were large numbers of sickness casualties . Malaria took a particularly heavy toll , with troops being affected by a particularly strong strain that proved resistant to the normal doses of atebrine . Accidents also resulted in losses . In one incident , seven men from the 2 / 3rd drowned when the Danmap River flooded amidst a torrential downpour .
Wewak was captured on 10 May 1945 , and the 16th Brigade began pursuing the Japanese defenders that had withdrawn inland . They continued until 11 August , when offensive operations ceased after word was received that the Japanese had entered into ceasefire talks . The battalion was in the Mount Shiburangu area on 15 August when news came that the Japanese had surrendered following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The battalion 's losses during its final campaign were 51 killed and 76 wounded .
= = = Disbandment = = =
After the cessation of hostilities , the battalion remained in the Aitape – Wewak area undertaking occupation duties . Its strength was slowly reduced as personnel were repatriated to Australia for demobilisation or transferred to other units for further service . Eventually , the remaining cadre of personnel returned to Australia , and on 8 February 1946 the 2 / 3rd Battalion disbanded in Brisbane , as one of the most decorated battalions of the 2nd AIF . They had fought all the major Axis powers : the Italians , Germans , Vichy French and Japanese . Alongside the Australian 2 / 5th Battalion , they were the only Allied troops able to make this claim . During its service a total of 3 @,@ 303 men served with the 2 / 3rd Battalion of whom 203 were killed and 432 wounded . Members of the 2 / 3rd received four Distinguished Service Orders , 16 Military Crosses , 12 Distinguished Conduct Medals , 30 Military Medals , two British Empire Medals and 73 Mentions in Despatches .
In 1948 , the Militia units that had fought during the war were re @-@ raised as part of the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , and it was decided to entrust the battle honours of the 2nd AIF units to their associated CMF units . As a result , the 2 / 3rd Battalion 's battle honours were passed to the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) , which was reformed around Canberra . In 1960 , with the introduction of the Pentropic division into the Australian Army , the CMF was reorganised and the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) was reduced to company strength , forming ' C ' Company , 3rd Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment ( 3 RNSWR ) . In 1965 , following the abandonment of the Pentropic divisional structure , the 3rd Battalion was reformed in its own right as the individual companies were split up to form new battalions with the old regionally based numerical designations . In 1987 , however , following another reorganisation of the Army Reserve which saw a reduction in the number of the infantry battalions across Australia , 3 RNSWR was linked with 4 RNSWR to become 4th / 3rd Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment ( 4 / 3 RNSWR ) .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 3rd Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during the war :
North Africa , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Syria 1941 , Damascus 1941 , Dimas , Damour , Greece 1941 , Mount Olympus , Tempe Gorge , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 1945 , Kokoda Trail , Eora Creek – Templeton 's Crossing II , Oivi – Gorari , Buna – Gona and Sanananda Road .
These battle honours are now carried by the Royal New South Wales Regiment .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the 2 / 3rd Battalion :
Lieutenant Colonel Vivian England ( 1939 – 41 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb ( 1941 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel John Stevenson ( 1941 – 43 ) ; and
Lieutenant Colonel Ian Hutchison ( 1943 – 46 ) .
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= Cyclone Mala =
Cyclone Mala was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2006 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . In mid @-@ April , an area of disturbed weather formed over the southern Bay of Bengal and nearby Andaman Sea . Over a period of several days , the system became increasingly organized and was classified as a depression on April 24 . Situated within a region of weak steering currents , the storm slowly intensified as it drifted in a general northward direction . It attained gale @-@ force winds and was named Mala the next day . Conditions for strengthening improved markedly on April 27 and Mala subsequently underwent rapid intensification which culminated in the cyclone attaining its peak . Early on April 28 , the cyclone had estimated winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center considered Mala to have been slightly stronger , classifying it as a Category 4 @-@ equivalent cyclone . Steady weakening ensued thereafter and the storm made landfall in Myanmar 's Rakhine State on April 29 . Rapid dissipation took place once onshore and Mala was last noted early the next morning .
In contrast to Mala 's intensity , damage was relatively minimal across Myanmar due to adequate early warnings , while timely and effective evacuations minimized loss of life along the coast . The greatest damage resulted from a thunderstorm near Yangon on April 28 that spawned a possible tornado in an industrial zone . A total of 586 homes were damaged there . Just outside the city in the Hinthada District , a flash flood killed at least 18 people . Overall , the storm claimed 37 lives in the country and left US $ 6 @.@ 7 million in damage . In the wake of Mala , the Red Cross distributed relief aid to affected residents while local officials set up shelters to house those left homeless . Government and social organizations donated 5 @.@ 4 million kyat ( US $ 4 @,@ 320 ) in cash to survivors in the Ayeyarwady Region .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid- to late @-@ April , a pulse in the Madden – Julian oscillation , coupled with a Kelvin wave , ( which later contributed to the formation of Typhoon Chanchu in the western Pacific ) enhanced convective activity over the Bay of Bengal . By April 22 , a trough developed along an axis from the southern Bay of Bengal eastward to the Andaman Sea . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring the system for potential tropical cyclogenesis the following day . By 0600 UTC on April 24 , an area of low pressure formed southeast of the Andaman Islands and the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) began monitoring the disturbance . Quickly organizing , the low developed into a tropical depression later on April 24 and the JTWC began writing full advisories on the cyclone without issuing a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Organization slowed thereafter due to moderate wind shear , but continued at a near @-@ climatological rate as upper @-@ level outflow allowed for continued convective development . Early on April 25 , the JTWC estimated the system to have attained gale @-@ force winds . The IMD followed suit later that day and subsequently assigned it the name Mala . Weak steering currents prompted slow and erratic movement with an overall northward trajectory .
Forecasters at this time anticipated little intensification as the system was expected to move into a region of higher shear . However , on April 27 , the system moved under a subtropical ridge and conditions quickly became favorable for intensification . The presence of the ridge greatly enhanced the outflow over the cyclone and an eye developed by 1200 UTC . By this time , both the JTWC and IMD estimated Mala to have attained hurricane @-@ force winds with the latter classifying it as a very severe cyclonic storm . The previously weak steering currents became more established as well , with the storm now tracking northeast toward Myanmar through a weakness in a ridge over Southeast Asia . Situated in an area with sea surface temperatures of 28 to 29 ° C ( 82 to 84 ° F ) , the cyclone was able to undergo rapid intensification as wind shear abruptly diminished . The IMD estimated Mala to have reached its peak intensity at 0900 UTC on April 28 with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 954 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 17 inHg ) . Using the Dvorak technique , a method of determining a tropical cyclone 's strength via satellite imagery , the agency gave Mala a rating of T # 5 @.@ 5 which yields an intensity of 189 km / h ( 117 mph ) .
The JTWC estimated Mala to have been a stronger system , with peak winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) and a pressure of 922 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 23 inHg ) — equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Their Dvorak values peaked at T # 6 @.@ 5 or 235 km / h ( 146 mph ) . As the powerful storm approached Myanmar , the combined effects of increasing wind shear and land interaction soon took their toll on Mala . At 0700 UTC on April 29 , Mala made landfall just south of Thandwe in Myanmar 's Rakhine State as a very severe cyclonic storm . The JTWC estimated winds at this time to have been 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Rapid weakening ensued once the cyclone moved onshore . Within 12 hours of landfall , Mala weakened to a deep depression and was last noted as a dissipating system earl on April 30 .
Sea surface temperatures in the wake of Cyclone Mala decreased up to 4 – 5 ° C ( 7 – 9 ° F ) due to upwelling . From April 28 – 29 , the low @-@ level inflow associated affected much of the northern Bay of Bengal and resulted in northwesterly winds as far away as Hyderabad , India . These winds brought dry , dust filled air over the bay with mean particulate @-@ matter doubling over the region .
= = Preparations = =
On April 26 , the local Department of Meteorology and Hydrology in Myanmar stated that the Ayeyarwady , Bago Region , and Yangon regions were likely to be affected within two days and Rakhine State within three days . Officials began broadcasting storm warning to the public over radio the following day . Evacuations of at @-@ risk coastal areas were conducted , though specifics are unknown . Once the storm moved inland , residents across the country were advised of the likelihood of widespread heavy rain from the remnant system .
Despite never being forecast to strike Bangladesh , officials there warned residents that the storm could strike the nation and cause loss of life . Cautionary signals were raised at ports in Chittagong , Cox 's Bazar , and Mongla , advising seafaring vessels to remain docked until the storm 's passage . Roughly 34 @,@ 000 members of the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society were placed on standby for possible relief efforts .
Flash flood warnings were issued across northern Thailand on April 29 under the threat of heavy rains from Mala 's remnants .
= = Impact = =
Throughout almost the entire existence of Mala , it produced rainfall in the Andaman and Nicobar islands . Daily totals peaked on April 27 at 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in Car Nicobar .
After moving through Myanmar , Mala brought heavy rains to northern Thailand . According to local meteorologists the storm also accelerated the onset of the seasonal monsoon which would contribute to a wetter @-@ than @-@ average year for the region .
= = = Myanmar = = =
Though Mala struck Myanmar as a powerful cyclone , early warnings and proper evacuations minimized loss of life along coastal areas . Additionally , no major storm surge was reported , limiting the potential for major damage . The most significant effects were caused inland from torrential rains rather than at the coast . Overall , the storm claimed 37 lives and left 1 @.@ 24 billion kyat ( US $ 6 @.@ 7 million ) in damage . Approximately 12 @,@ 000 families were significantly affected by the cyclone .
Rakhine State suffered a direct hit from the cyclone , with Gwa Township reporting the worst damage . There , 88 homes were destroyed and 1 @,@ 246 more were damaged . One person was killed and at least four others were injured in the township . Ra Haing Ku Toe village suffered significant losses as well , with 132 homes destroyed and 531 more damaged . A storm surge of 4 @.@ 57 m ( 15 @.@ 0 ft ) struck the region , but did not impact populated areas .
Across the Irrawaddy Delta , hurricane @-@ force winds caused extensive damage to housing and infrastructure . Haigyi Island was the first area struck by the storm . Several homes were destroyed and many more lost their roof there . Thunderstorms from the storm 's outer bands on April 28 damaged 586 homes in Hlaingthaya Township . Residents described what appeared to be a tornado as the cause of the damage . The Hlaingthaya industrial zone was hardest hit , with five factories destroyed and dozens of homes having their roof torn off . Locals , however , claimed that the damage was more severe than reported by the government . Cars were reportedly tossed into the air during the storm . Two people were killed and fourteen others were injured in Hlaingthaya . The winds also downed numerous power lines , leaving many without electricity . In Labutta Township , near the southern tip of the Delta , 88 homes were destroyed . In the Hinthada District , torrential rains caused flash flooding that killed 18 people and left 14 others missing .
= = = = Aftermath = = = =
By May 1 , the local branch of the Red Cross distributed essential supplies to residents in Labutta Township . In coordination with the Disaster Assistance Response Team , the areas in greatest need for aid were identified and requests for tarpaulin were made . Members of the Cabinet of Burma donated 3 @.@ 7 million kyat ( US $ 2 @,@ 960 ) in cash and 140 bags of rice to victims in the Ayeyarwady Region . On May 3 , another 1 @.@ 7 million kyat ( US $ 1 @,@ 360 ) was donated by social organizations to residents in rural areas outside Yangon . Temporary shelters were set up across Gwa Township . Local donations provided residents in the town with 200 @,@ 000 kyat ( US $ 160 ) worth of blankets , clothes , and cash . A local newspaper , The New Light of Myanmar , claimed that government officials immediately provided assistance to affected residents across the country . Red Cross operations continued through November 30 , by which time 3 @,@ 485 families were provided with aid . Additionally , though the agency planned to assist 4 @,@ 000 families with rebuilding their homes , a lack of necessary funds prevented the operation . Instead , a cash donation was provided to the 1 @,@ 000 most affected families .
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= George W. Johnson ( governor ) =
George Washington Johnson ( May 27 , 1811 – April 8 , 1862 ) was the first Confederate governor of Kentucky . A lawyer @-@ turned @-@ farmer from Scott County , Kentucky , Johnson favored secession as a means of preventing the Civil War , believing the Union and Confederacy would be forces of equal strength , each too wary to attack the other . As political sentiment in the Commonwealth took a decidedly Union turn following the elections of 1861 , Johnson was instrumental in organizing a sovereignty convention in Russellville , Kentucky with the intent of " severing forever our connection with the Federal Government . " The convention created a Confederate shadow government for the Commonwealth , and Johnson was elected its governor .
Despite his meager political experience — having previously served only three years in the Kentucky House of Representatives — Johnson labored vehemently to ensure the success of the shadow government . Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 , but the shadow government 's influence in the Commonwealth extended only as far as the Confederate Army advanced . When Albert Sidney Johnston abandoned the Confederate capital of Bowling Green , Governor Johnson and the other government officials accompanied him . Despite his advanced age and a crippled arm , Johnson volunteered for military service in General Johnston 's army . Johnson was killed at the Battle of Shiloh , making him the only state governor , Union or Confederate , to fall in battle during the Civil War . He was succeeded by Richard Hawes , the second and last governor of Confederate Kentucky .
= = Early life and career = =
George Washington Johnson was born on May 27 , 1811 near Georgetown in Scott County , Kentucky , the son of major William and Betsy Payne Johnson . Major Johnson died soon after the close of the War of 1812 , in which he was a participant , and George Johnson was reared in the home of his stepfather , John Allen . Johnson received three degrees from Transylvania University : an A.B. in 1829 , an LL.B. in 1832 , and an M.A. in 1833 . On August 20 , 1833 , he married Ann Eliza Viley , daughter of Captain Willa and Lydia Smith Viley . The couple had ten children , seven of whom lived to adulthood .
Johnson briefly practiced law in Georgetown , but decided he preferred farming . He owned a 300 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) farm near Georgetown , as well as a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) plantation in Arkansas . In 1838 , Johnson was elected as a Democrat to the Kentucky House of Representatives . He was offered the nominations for lieutenant governor and U.S. Congressman , but declined them both . In August 1845 , Johnson headed the Committee of Sixty that seized abolitionist Cassius M. Clay 's printing press and shipped it to Cincinnati , Ohio .
= = Civil War = =
Although he supported John C. Breckinridge for president in 1860 , he did not feel that Abraham Lincoln 's election justified secession , since Republicans controlled neither Congress nor the Supreme Court . As the Confederate States of America were formed , however , Johnson began to lose hope for Kentucky as a part of the Union . Instead , he began to advocate that Kentucky join the Confederacy , believing that the Union and Confederate nations would be too evenly matched to consider war and would negotiate a free trade agreement that would benefit both .
In 1861 , Johnson traveled to Richmond , Virginia to ask Jefferson Davis to respect Kentucky 's neutrality in the Civil War . Following a near sweep of Kentucky 's state and federal elections by Union sympathizers , William " Bull " Nelson established Camp Dick Robinson , a Union recruiting camp , in Garrard County . Southern sympathizers saw this as a breach of the Commonwealth 's neutrality , and called a State Rights Convention on September 10 , 1861 . Johnson was among the delegates from seventy Kentucky counties who attended the convention . The delegates elected Richard Hawes as chair , called for a restoration of Kentucky 's neutrality in the war , and condemned the Federal government for its " invasion . " This last @-@ minute effort to prevent Kentucky from aiding the Union was unsuccessful , and Johnson , a known Southern sympathizer , fled to Virginia with Breckinridge and others to avoid potential arrest by Union forces . From Virginia , Johnson traveled through Tennessee to Bowling Green where , despite his age ( 49 ) and a crippled arm , he volunteered as an aid to General Simon B. Buckner .
= = = Russellville Convention = = =
On October 29 , 1861 , a group of Kentuckians — Johnson among them — met at Russellville , Kentucky to discuss the formation of a Confederate government for the Commonwealth , believing the Unionist government in Frankfort did not represent the will of the majority of Kentucky 's citizens . Johnson chaired the committee that authored the convention 's final report , and personally introduced some of its key resolutions . The report called for a sovereignty convention to sever ties with the Federal government . Johnson , Breckinridge , and Humphrey Marshall were among the notable members of the Committee of Ten that made arrangements for the convention .
On November 18 , 1861 , 116 delegates representing 68 Kentucky counties convened at the Clark House in Russellville . Over the next three days , a shadow government was established with Bowling Green as its temporary capital . Johnson was unanimously chosen as governor of the new Confederate state .
= = = Confederate governor = = =
On November 21 , 1861 , Johnson wrote Confederate president Jefferson Davis to request Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . Though Davis had some reservation about the circumvention of the elected General Assembly in forming the Confederate government , he concluded that Johnson 's request had merit . Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 .
During the winter of 1861 , Johnson tried mightily to assert the legitimacy of the fledgling government , but to no avail . Its jurisdiction extended only as far as the area controlled by the Confederate Army . Johnson came woefully short of raising the 46 @,@ 000 troops requested by the Confederate Congress in Richmond . Efforts to levy taxes and to compel citizens to turn over their guns to the government were similarly unsuccessful . On January 3 , 1862 , Johnson requested a sum of $ 3 million from the Confederate Congress to meet the provisional government 's operating expenses . The Congress instead approved a sum of $ 2 million , the expenditure of which required approval of Secretary of War Judah P. Benjamin and President Davis .
During his labors to sustain the provisional government , Johnson 's lack of hearing from his family weighed heavily upon him . The only family member with whom he had contact was his son Madison ( " Matty " ) , who had joined John Hunt Morgan 's cavalry . Johnson admired and respected Morgan , and was pleased that his son had chosen to serve under him . In 1862 , he requested by letter that his wife send their fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son Junius to serve in the Confederate Army . Despite Johnson 's protestations that he would ensure his son 's safety , his wife refused this request .
It was Johnson 's practice to avoid interference with military decisions , however he supported Morgan 's request for two light artillery pieces that became hallmarks of his command . By contrast , he consistently opposed the command of General Lloyd Tilghman , trying repeatedly but unsuccessfully to have him removed . It is unclear how much military influence Johnson wielded in his position as governor , though he enjoyed a cordial relationship with most of the Confederate generals .
= = = Death at the Battle of Shiloh = = =
When General Albert Sydney Johnston was forced to withdraw his troops from Bowling Green in February 1862 , the Confederate state government moved with his army to Tennessee . On April 6 , 1862 , General Johnston attacked the Union army at Shiloh , Tennessee . During this battle , Governor Johnson served as a volunteer aide to General Breckinridge and Colonel Robert P. Trabue . After his horse was killed out from under him , Johnson fought on foot with Company E of the Fourth Kentucky Infantry Regiment , and insisted on being sworn in as a private . He declared " I will take a good night 's rest and be ready for the fight tomorrow . "
The next day , Governor Johnson was seriously wounded in the right thigh and abdomen . He lay wounded on the battlefield until the next morning , when he was recognized by Union General Alexander McDowell McCook . Johnson and McCook had both attended the 1860 Democratic National Convention and were both Freemasons . Johnson was taken aboard the Union hospital ship Hannibal , where despite the ministrations of several physicians , he died on April 8 . Friends in the Union army , including General John M. Harlan , packed Johnson 's body in salt and shipped it to Louisville , then on to Georgetown for burial .
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= Edwin of Northumbria =
Edwin ( Old English : Ēadwine ; c . 586 – 12 October 632 / 633 ) , also known as Eadwine or Æduinus , was the King of Deira and Bernicia – which later became known as Northumbria – from about 616 until his death . He converted to Christianity and was baptised in 627 ; after he fell at the Battle of Hatfield Chase , he was venerated as a saint .
Edwin was the son of Ælle king of Deira and seems to have had ( at least ) two siblings . His sister Acha was married to Æthelfrith , king of neighbouring Bernicia . An otherwise unknown sibling fathered Hereric , who in turn fathered Abbess Hilda of Whitby and Hereswith , wife to Æthelric , the brother of king Anna of East Anglia .
= = Early life and exile = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle reported that on Ælle 's death a certain " Æthelric " assumed power . The exact identity of Æthelric is uncertain . He may have been a brother of Ælle , an elder brother of Edwin , an otherwise unknown Deiran noble , or the father of Æthelfrith . Æthelfrith himself appears to have been king of " Northumbria " — both Deira and Bernicia — by no later than 604 . During the reign of Æthelfrith , Edwin was an exile . The location of his early exile as a child is not known , but late traditions , reported by Reginald of Durham and Geoffrey of Monmouth , place Edwin in the kingdom of Gwynedd , fostered by king Cadfan ap Iago , so allowing biblical parallels to be drawn from the struggle between Edwin and his supposed foster @-@ brother Cadwallon . By the 610s he was certainly in Mercia under the protection of king Cearl , whose daughter Cwenburg he married .
By around 616 , Edwin was in East Anglia under the protection of king Raedwald . Bede reports that Æthelfrith tried to have Raedwald murder his unwanted rival , and that Raedwald intended to do so until his wife persuaded him otherwise with Divine prompting . Æthelfrith faced Raedwald in battle by the River Idle in 616 , and Æthelfrith was defeated ; Raedwald installed Edwin as king of Northumbria . Raedwald 's son Raegenhere may have been killed at this battle , but the exact date or manner of Raedwald 's death are not known . He likely died between the years 616 – 627 , and the efficacy of Edwin ’ s kingship ostensibly depended greatly on his fealty to Raedwald .
Edwin was installed as king of Northumbria , effectively confirming Raedwald as bretwalda : Æthelfrith 's sons went into exile in Irish Dál Riata and Pictland . That Edwin was able to take power not only in his native Deira but also in Bernicia may have been due to his support from Raedwald , to whom he may have remained subject during the early part of his reign . Edwin 's reign marks an interruption of the otherwise consistent domination of Northumbria by the Bernicians and has been seen as " contrary to the prevailing tendency " .
= = Edwin as king = =
With the death of Æthelfrith , and of the powerful Æthelberht of Kent the same year , Raedwald and his client Edwin were well placed to dominate England , and indeed Raedwald did so until his death a decade later . Edwin expelled Ceretic from the minor British kingdom of Elmet in either 616 or 626 . Elmet had probably been subject to Mercia and then to Edwin . The larger kingdom of Lindsey appears to have been taken over c . 625 , after the death of king Raedwald .
Edwin and Eadbald of Kent were allies at this time , and Edwin arranged to marry Eadbald 's sister Æthelburg . Bede notes that Eadbald would agree to marry his sister to Edwin only if he converted to Christianity . The marriage of Eadbald 's Merovingian mother Bertha had resulted in the conversion of Kent and Æthelburg 's would do the same in Northumbria .
Edwin 's expansion to the west may have begun early in his reign . There is firm evidence of a war waged in the early 620s between Edwin and Fiachnae mac Báetáin of the Dál nAraidi , king of the Ulaid in Ireland . A lost poem is known to have existed recounting Fiachnae 's campaigns against the Saxons , and the Irish annals report the siege , or the storming , of Bamburgh in Bernicia in 623 – 624 . This should presumably be placed in the context of Edwin 's designs on the Isle of Man , a target of Ulaid ambitions . Fiachnae 's death in 626 , at the hands of his namesake , Fiachnae mac Demmáin of the Dál Fiatach , and the second Fiachnae 's death a year later in battle against the Dál Riata probably eased the way for Edwin 's conquests in the Irish sea province .
The routine of kingship in Edwin 's time involved regular , probably annual , wars with neighbours to obtain tribute , submission , and slaves . By Edwin 's death , it is likely that these annual wars , unreported in the main , had extended the Northumbrian kingdoms from the Humber and the Mersey north to the Southern Uplands and the Cheviots .
The royal household moved regularly from one royal vill to the next , consuming the food renders given in tribute and the produce of the royal estates , dispensing justice , and ensuring that royal authority remained visible throughout the land . The royal sites in Edwin 's time included Yeavering in Bernicia , where traces of a timber amphitheatre have been found . This " Roman " feature makes Bede 's claim that Edwin was preceded by a standard @-@ bearer carrying a " tufa " ( OE thuuf , this may have been a winged globe ) appear to be more than antiquarian curiosity , although whether the model for this practice was Roman or Frankish is unknown . Other royal sites included Campodunum in Elmet ( perhaps Barwick ) , Sancton in Deira , and Goodmanham , the site where the pagan high priest Coifi destroyed the idols according to Bede . Edwin 's realm included the former Roman cities of York and Carlisle , and both appear to have been of some importance in the 7th century , although it is not clear whether urban life continued in this period .
= = Edwin 's conversion to Christianity = =
The account of Edwin 's conversion offered by Bede turns on two events . The first , during Edwin 's exile , tells how Edwin 's life was saved by Paulinus of York . The second , following his marriage to Æthelburg , was the attempted assassination at York , at Easter 626 , by an agent of Cwichelm of Wessex . Edwin 's decision to allow the baptism of his daughter Eanfled and his subsequent promise to adopt Christianity if his campaign against Cwichelm proved successful . Apart from these events , the general character of Bede 's account is one of an indecisive king , unwilling to take risks , unable to decide whether to convert or not .
Along with these events , the influence of Edwin 's half @-@ Merovingian Queen cannot be ignored , and the letters which Bede reproduces , sent by Pope Boniface V to Edwin and Athelburg , are unlikely to have been unique . Given that Kent was under Frankish influence , while Bede sees the mission as being " Roman " in origin , the Franks were equally interested in converting their fellow Germans and in extending their power and influence . Bede recounts Edwin 's baptism , and that of his chief men , on 12 April 627 . Edwin 's zeal , so Bede says , led to Raedwald 's son Eorpwald also converting .
Bede 's account of the conversion is oft @-@ cited . After Paulinus explains the tenets of Christianity , the king asks his counselors what they think of the new doctrine . Edwin 's priest Coifi responds that they may be worthwhile ; after all , he says , no one has been more respectful of and devoted to their gods than he , and he has seen no benefits from his dedication to them . Then , an unnamed counselor stands up and addresses the king , also seeing the benefit of the new faith . Coifi speaks again and announces that they should destroy the idols and temples they had hitherto worshiped . King Edwin agrees and embraces Christianity ; Coifi himself will set fire to the idols. declaring " I will do this myself , for now that the true God has granted me knowledge , who more suitably than I can set a public example , and destroy the idols that I worshipped in ignorance ? ” Bede goes on to describe the scene as Cofi " formally renounces his superstitions , and asked the king to give him arms and a stallion . " Armed with both a sword and spear , Cofi rides Edwin ’ s horse towards the idols , all within view of the crowd gathered to witness Edwin ’ s conversion . Upon reaching the temple , Cofi " cast a spear into it and profaned it . "
In an article titled " How Cofi Pierced Christ ’ s Side " , Julia Barrow examines Bede ’ s Latinate text and pays particular attention to the passage concerning Cofi ’ s attack upon the temple . Barrow notes that Bede 's use of lancea was " not the word medieval writers normally used for spear " , while “ hasta was the usual choice . " Barrow goes on to claim that lancea was likely used by Bede as a reference to the details of the crucifixion of Christ provided in the vulgate book of John , thus Cofi ’ s desecration of the shrine is to be understood " as an inversion of the piercing of the temple of Christ ’ s body . " All of these details support an understanding that Bede had great " warmth and admiration " for Edwin .
The brief speech by the unnamed counselor , a nobleman , has attracted much attention ; suggesting the " wisdom and hopefulness of the Christian message " , it has inspired poets such as William Wordsworth and was called " the most poetic simile in Bede " :
The present life man , O king , seems to me , in comparison with that time which is unknown to us , like to the swift flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at supper in winter amid your officers and ministers , with a good fire in the midst whilst the storms of rain and snow prevail abroad ; the sparrow , I say , flying in at one door and immediately out another , whilst he is within is safe from the wintry but after a short space of fair weather he immediately vanishes out of your sight into the dark winter from which he has emerged . So this life of man appears for a short space but of what went before or what is to follow we are ignorant . If , therefore , this new doctrine contains something more certain , it seems justly to deserve to be followed .
Noteworthy is Bede ’ s summation of the nature of Edwin ’ s reign as King of Northumbria :
“ It is told that at the time there was so much peace in Britannia , that whenever King Edwin ’ s power extended , as is said proverbially right up to today , even if a woman with a recently born child wanted to walk across the whole island , from sea to sea , she could do so without anyone harming her . ”
Kershaw indicates that “ Bede ’ s decision to couch Edwin ’ s peace in proverbial terms offers ... a chilling insight into the levels of lawlessness accepted in eighth @-@ century England ” . Furthermore , a definition of “ peace ” is to be understood as “ freedom from robbery , rape , or violence ; security to travel at will and to literally ‘ go in peace . ’ ”
Edwin 's conversion and Eorpwald 's were reversed by their successors , and in the case of Northumbria the Roman Paulinus appears to have had very little impact . Indeed , by expelling British clergy from Elmet and elsewhere in Edwin 's realm , Paulinus may have weakened the Church rather than strengthening it . Very few Roman clergy were present in Paulinus 's time , only James the Deacon being known , so that the " conversion " can have been only superficial , extending little beyond the royal court . Paulinus 's decision to flee Northumbria at Edwin 's death , unlike his acolyte James who remained in Northumbria for many years afterwards until his death , suggests that the conversion was not popular , and the senior Italian cleric unloved .
= = Edwin as overlord = =
The first challenge to Edwin came soon after his marriage @-@ alliance with Kent , concluded at Canterbury in the summer of 625 . By offering his protection to lesser kings , such as the king of Wight , Edwin thwarted the ambitions of Cwichelm of Wessex . Cwichelm 's response was to send an assassin , as noted already . Edwin did not immediately respond to this insult , suggesting either that he felt unable to do so , or that Bede 's portrayal of him as a rather indecisive ruler is accurate . Following the failed assassination , as noted , Edwin committed himself to Christianity provided only that he was victorious against Cwichelm .
From about 627 onwards , Edwin was the most powerful king among the Anglo @-@ Saxons , ruling Bernicia , Deira and much of eastern Mercia , the Isle of Man , and Anglesey . His alliance with Kent , the subjection of Wessex , and his recent successes added to his power and authority . The imperium , as Bede calls it , that Edwin possessed was later equated with the idea of a Bretwalda , a later concept invented by West Saxon kings in the 9th century . Put simply , success confirmed Edwin 's overlordship , and failure would diminish it .
Edwin 's supposed foster @-@ brother Cadwallon ap Cadfan enters the record circa 629 , but Cadwallon was defeated and either submitted to Edwin 's authority or went into exile . With the defeat of Cadwallon , Edwin 's authority appears to have been unchallenged for a number of years , until Penda of Mercia and Cadwallon rose against him in 632 – 633 .
Edwin faced Penda and Cadwallon at the Battle of Hatfield in the autumn of 632 or 633 and was defeated and killed . For a time his body was ( allegedly ) hidden in Sherwood Forest at a location that became the village of Edwinstowe ( trans . Edwin 's resting place ) , his head being eventually buried at York and the rest of his body at Whitby . Of his two grown sons by Cwenburh of Mercia , Osfrith died at Hatfield , and Eadfrith was captured by Penda and killed some time afterwards .
After his death , Edwin 's Queen Æthelburg , along with Paulinus , returned to Kent , taking her son Uscfrea , daughter Eanfled , and Osfrith 's son Yffi into exile with her . Uscfrea and Yffi were sent to the court of Æthelburg 's kinsman Dagobert I , king of the Franks , but died soon afterwards . Eanfled , however , lived to marry her first cousin king Oswiu , son of Acha and Æthelfrith .
= = Death and legacy = =
Edwin 's realm was divided at his death . He was succeeded by Osric , son of Edwin 's paternal uncle Ælfric , in Deira , and by Eanfrith , son of Æthelfrith and Edwin 's sister Acha , in Bernicia . Both reverted to paganism , and both were killed by Cadwallon ; eventually Eanfrith 's brother Oswald defeated and killed Cadwallon and united Northumbria once more . Thereafter , with the exception of Oswine son of Osric , power in Northumbria was in the hands of the Idings , the descendants of Ida of Bernicia , until the middle of the 8th century .
After his death , Edwin came to be venerated as a saint by some , although his cult was eventually overshadowed by the ultimately more successful cult of Oswald , who was killed in 642 . They met their deaths in battle against similar foes , the pagan Mercians and the British , thus allowing both of them to be perceived as martyrs ; however , Bede 's treatment of Oswald clearly demonstrates that he regarded him as an unambiguously saintly figure , a status that he did not accord to Edwin .
Edwin 's renown comes largely from his treatment at some length by Bede , writing from an uncompromisingly English and Christian perspective , and rests on his belated conversion to Christianity . His united kingdom in the north did not outlast him , and his conversion to Christianity was renounced by his successors . When his kingship is compared with his pagan brother @-@ in @-@ law Æthelfrith , or to Æthelfrith 's sons Oswald and Oswiu , or to the resolutely pagan Penda of Mercia , Edwin appears to be something less than a key figure in Britain during the first half of the 7th century . Perhaps the most significant legacies of Edwin 's reign lay in his failures : the rise of Penda and of Mercia , and the return from Irish exile of the sons of Æthelfrith , which tied the kingdom of Northumbria into the Irish sea world for generations .
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= Oubliette ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Oubliette " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and originally aired on the Fox network on November 17 , 1995 . Written by Charles Grant Craig and directed by Kim Manners , " Oubliette " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . It earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 5 and was watched by 15 @.@ 90 million people on its initial broadcast . The episode received positive reviews . Both the emotional nature of the story and David Duchovny 's performance received positive critical attention .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the installment , a little girl named Amy is kidnapped and imprisoned by a mentally unstable photographer . Mulder discovers a psychic connection between the recently kidnapped victim and Lucy , another girl kidnapped by the same man years ago . He attempts to use the connection to help solve the investigation , but discovers that the event may be too traumatic for Lucy to handle .
" Oubliette " is the only X @-@ Files screenplay written by Craig , who exited the writing staff before the entry was produced . The extensive outdoor filming lead to several difficulties for the production crew . Amy was 12 years old in the original screenplay . The Fox network was concerned her situation was an uncomfortable parallel to the recent Polly Klaas case , resulting in her age being increased before filming could begin . Critics have complimented the thematic resonance of the kidnapping and its effect on Mulder .
= = Plot = =
In Seattle , photography assistant Carl Wade ( Michael Chieffo ) photographs 15 @-@ year @-@ old Amy Jacobs ( Jewel Staite ) for school picture day . He becomes obsessed with her following the event , eventually kidnapping her . Her younger sister is the only witness to the incident , which takes place in their bedroom in the middle of the night . At exactly the same time , fast food worker Lucy Householder ( Tracey Ellis ) collapses with a nosebleed . Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) investigates Amy 's disappearance , drawn to the case because his younger sister was kidnapped in a similar situation . The investigation leads Mulder to Lucy , who was taken from her bedroom at age eight , twenty two years before , and held in a dark basement for five years before she escaped .
Mulder 's partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) suspects that Lucy may be connected to Amy 's disappearance , based on her long criminal record and the fact that her nosebleed contained not only her blood type , but Amy 's as well . In her room at a halfway house , scratches appear on Lucy 's face and she experiences temporary blindness — injuries identical to Amy 's , who is being tortured in the basement of Wade 's cabin . The two develop an unexplainable psychic connection ; everything that happens to Amy physically also happens to Lucy . Mulder tries to convince Lucy that she can help them find Amy , but she is too afraid to assist . Scully informs Mulder of their new lead in the case , the school photography assistant Wade , who was recently fired under strange circumstances . Mulder is adamant that Lucy , who admits that Wade was the man who abducted her , is not part of the kidnapping , and snaps at Scully when she suggests that Samantha 's disappearance is causing him to become too involved with the case .
The investigation team receives a tip from a tow truck driver concerning Wade 's location , which corresponds to the area where Lucy was found years ago . They find Wade 's cabin in the woods near Easton , Washington , discovering Lucy in the basement with no clear indication of how or why she came there . Lucy begins to feel cold and wet ; Mulder deduces that because of Lucy 's connection to Amy , she must be at the local river . Mulder and Scully rush there to find Wade attempting to drown Amy . Back with the police , Lucy begins to drown despite not even being near water . Mulder shoots Wade while Scully attempts to perform CPR on Amy , but because of the connection it resuscitates Lucy instead . Amy lies on the riverbank , dead . Mulder continues to attempt CPR , despite Scully 's protests .
Suddenly , the process is reversed ; Amy recovers and Lucy dies . Overwhelmed by Lucy 's sacrifice and his inability to save her , Mulder breaks down sobbing over her body . He later tells Scully he suspects that she died not only to save Amy , but to forget what Wade did to her all those years ago .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The screenplay for " Oubliette " was authored by Charles Grant Craig , a writer who at the time had little background or experience within television . Before joining the writing staff of The X @-@ Files during the third season , his most significant writing credits included episodes for Renegade and Booker . His most notable television screenplay was The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents entry " Final Escape " . Though Craig left the staff shortly before " Oubliette " entered production for unknown reasons , he was credited as a supervising producer on several installments for the third season . The title was derived from the French word " oubliette " , which refers to a pit @-@ like dungeon consisting of " total darkness " with a hole that opens from the top .
The narrative centers on Mulder 's identification with Lucy which is based on the abduction of his sister , Samantha . It was decided that time would not be spent on Scully 's sympathy with the victim , despite her own abduction experience in the second season episode " Ascension " . Despite this , Scully is gentle towards Mulder and " wanted to believe " him until the evidence pointed overwhelmingly to Lucy . After that point , Scully takes on an antagonistic role , going against the wishes of her partner . Though not originally included the script , David Duchovny added the line about how his connection to the case was not just because of Samantha .
Series creator Chris Carter stated that in Craig 's original draft Lucy was more " hard @-@ boiled " , but actress Tracey Ellis played her as a more wounded person . Fox 's standards and practices department was uncomfortable with the screenplay , because it featured a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl being kidnapped . The network requested that she be in her late teens and that the plot would not heavily feature Amy 's ordeal or suffering . Jewel Staite had just turned 13 when she was cast , but the producers felt she looked older and even applied make @-@ up to add to that effect .
The reason for the concern was because the original screenplay featured similarities to the Polly Klaas case , which had received large public attention around the time of production . Polly Klaas was a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl who was kidnapped during a slumber party , and eventually strangled to death . The antagonist of the episode was compared to Richard Allen Davis , the culprit of the case , who was convicted and sentenced to death for his crimes . Ngaire Genge in his novel The Unofficial X @-@ Files Companion commented that " tragically , unlike Amy , Klaas didn 't survive her abduction " .
= = = Filming = = =
" Oubliette " was shot in Vancouver , British Columbia , as were the rest of the episodes of the third season . The location of the antagonist 's house was an important factor during production . Craig 's screenplay called for a remote house in the " middle of nowhere " , but the producers required a site closer to the studio . With a production crew consisting of 60 members , it was decided to use somewhere that could appear " rustic while being next to a parking lot . " A suitable area was found near the peak of Mount Seymour , a location that had previously been used in " Ascension " . The mountain featured both a parking lot and a log cabin that met the needs of the filming crew . An issue arose because the mountain had a ski lift , which needed to be avoided while composing shots . Over 1000 prop trees had to be brought to the filming site to camouflage surroundings , to give the atmosphere a " remote " feel .
The crew encountered a larger issue with the contract with the Provincial Park committee . The park required a seven @-@ day notice before filming of any kind was approved . The production manager had to contact the park Representative directly , who assured him that their needs would be met . For the final sequence , both the Capilano River and Lynn Headwaters were considered ; however , the Seymour River was ultimately chosen because it was the safest filming location . The filming of the episode was plagued by rain and heavy weather conditions . In one example , while directing the climax , the river had risen by four or five inches , causing the crew to move to another position to shoot at a week later . This cost the crew several days worth of production and a large sum of money . Shooting conditions were further complicated because shoots involving water are notably difficult , requiring a new set of costumes for each take .
Because of the extensive outdoor shooting , director Kim Manners hated directing the episode , commenting that " it couldn 't be fucking worse . " Despite a negative experience with shooting on the mountain , the episode " Gethsemane " from the fourth season was filmed there with similar issues . Gillian Anderson 's stand @-@ in Bonnie Hay , who appears in a cameo , previously played a doctor in both " Colony " and " End Game " and a nurse in " D.P.O. " .
= = Themes = =
The kidnapping of Amy shares several similarities with the abduction of Mulder 's sister . Mulder 's sister Samantha was abducted by aliens when Mulder was a child , before the timeline of The X @-@ Files . Both Amy and Lucy are kidnapped and victimized by the same pedophile , who represents the " logic of duplication " . Wade treats both girls in virtually identical ways , kidnapping them and photographing them obsessively in the same manner . David Lavery in Deny All Knowledge asserts that Mulder is capable of seeing beyond " simple equivalents " , caring about each individual girl separately . Lavery argues that this grants Mulder the ability to separate the case from his own personal experience with his sister . The scene that best exemplifies this trait is when Mulder attempts to comfort Amy 's mother following her daughter 's kidnapping . Mulder comments that he " knows how she feels " , not because of what happened to his sister , but because he can identify with her general sense of loss . Thematic elements concerning the concept of " remote viewing " — the paranormal ability to perceive feelings from a distance — are later explored in greater detail in the fifth season installment " Mind 's Eye " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Oubliette " was first broadcast on the Fox network on November 17 , 1995 . It earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 2 , with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was watched by a total of 15 @.@ 90 million viewers . In the UK it premiered the following year on BBC1 on October 17 , 1996 .
" Oubliette " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club assessed it as a " B + " , commenting that it " belongs to a subcategory of X @-@ Files episodes that can often be more satisfying than the usual categories " due to the villain being a human being . He described it as " impressively dark and occasionally moving " , and praised the cinematography , editing , and storytelling . However , he was critical of Ellis 's performance as Lucy , finding that her characterization did not fit the character , and he noted that the installment fell into the trope of using women as victims . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the program three and a half stars out of four . She felt that Mulder and Lucy 's relationship was " believable " and , in contrast to VanDerWerff , thought that Ellis 's performance was " perfect " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Oubliette " five stars out of five , noting that it was difficult and uncomfortable to watch with its parallels to the real world which made it " nevertheless one of the series ' boldest and greatest achievements " . The two praised the depth of Mulder 's characterization as well as Duchovny 's performance . Entertainment Weekly gave " Oubliette " a grade of " B- " , stating that the plot wasn 't as scary as it could have been considering the subject matter , positively critiquing that the episode was " worth it for Lucy 's channeling sequences " . The review also criticized Scully 's " aggressive I 'm @-@ not @-@ buying @-@ it mode " .
Writer Sarah Stegall awarded the entry five out of five , commenting that the subject matter made it hard for her to watch , as a mother herself . She praised the characterization of Mulder , and the performance by Duchovny , commenting that he brought warmth to the plot . Stegall positively described Mulder as " a truly gentle man who can show compassion without being maudlin about it " , but wrote negatively about Scully , who seemed " antagonistic " towards the well @-@ meaning Mulder , and the scene in which Scully " makes a half @-@ hearted attempt to resuscitate [ Amy ] before giving up " . Duchovny was particularly pleased with his work in the episode , feeling that it was amongst his best acting performance during the entire run of The X @-@ Files . He later cited the episode as one of his favorites .
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= 2000 Spanish Grand Prix =
The 2000 Spanish Grand Prix ( formally the XLII Gran Premio Marlboro de España ) was a Formula One motor race held on 7 May 2000 at the Circuit de Catalunya , Montmeló , Barcelona , Catalonia , Spain . It was the fifth round of the 2000 Formula One season and the 42nd Spanish Grand Prix . The 65 @-@ lap race was won by McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen who started from the second position . His team @-@ mate David Coulthard finished second and Rubens Barrichello finished third in a Ferrari .
Michael Schumacher started from the pole position and held off a challenge from Häkkinen on the first lap . He maintained the lead until his first pit stop on lap 24 when a refuller was struck by his rear tyre , allowing Häkkinen to take over the lead until his pit stop two laps later . Michael Schumacher kept the lead for a further twenty @-@ one laps as he and Häkkinen made their second pit stops together , with Häkkinen emerging in front because Schumacher experienced a slow pit stop . Häkkinen kept the lead for the remaining twenty @-@ three laps to win the race .
The victory was Häkkinen 's first of the season , and put him into second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , fourteen points behind Michael Schumacher . Coulthard 's second @-@ place finish meant that he dropped to third , and Barrichello third place moved him ahead of Ralf Schumacher . In the World Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's one @-@ two finish allowed them to move within seven points from leaders Ferrari . Williams remained in third on 15 points , with twelve races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams with two drivers each . The teams ( also known as constructors ) were McLaren , Ferrari , Jordan , Jaguar , Williams , Benetton , Prost , Sauber , Arrows , Minardi and British American Racing ( BAR ) . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre types to the race ; two dry compounds ( soft and medium ) .
Before the race Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers ' Championship with 34 points , ahead of David Coulthard ( 14 points ) and Mika Häkkinen ( twelve ) . Rubens Barrichello and Ralf Schumacher were tied in fourth place with nine points each . In the Constructors ' Championship Ferrari led with 43 points , seventeen points ahead of rival McLaren in second . Williams were third with twelve points , while Benetton and Jordan with eight points each contended for fourth place . Ferrari had dominated the championship , winning three out of the previous four races , with Coulthard winning the British Grand Prix . Barrichello , Häkkinen and Giancarlo Fisichella had second @-@ place finishes , and Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen had finished third .
After the British Grand Prix on 23 April , all teams conducted in @-@ season testing at the Circuit de Catalunya on April 25 – 28 to prepare for the upcoming Spanish Grand Prix . Jos Verstappen was fastest on the first day of testing despite spinning into the gravel early in the session , ahead of McLaren test driver Olivier Panis . Michael Schumacher was quickest on the second day . Michael Schumacher remained the fastest driver on the third day of testing . The session was disrupted because several drivers stopped on the circuit with problems with their cars . On the final day , ( which was held in wet weather conditions in the morning and during the end of the session ) Michael Schumacher stayed the quickest driver on the final day .
In the week leading up to the race , Coulthard was leasing the Learjet of friend David Murray when the aeroplane developed engine trouble en route to Côte d 'Azur International Airport in Nice , and crashed while attempting an emergency landing at Lyon @-@ Satolas Airport , France . Coulthard , his then @-@ girlfriend the American model Heidi Wichlinski and personal trainer / bodyguard Andy Matthews survived ; Murray 's personal pilot David Saunders and co @-@ pilot Dan Worley died . Coulthard suffered from bruises to his right rib cage and severe grazed elbows in the crash . FIA Formula One Safety and Medical Delegate Sid Watkins declared that Coulthard was passed fit to compete in the race .
BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve was passed fit in the days leading up to the race . At the Brazilian Grand Prix , Villeneuve suffered back injury after his seat became loose during the race and the effects became worse and it caused him to withdraw from testing in Barcelona . He was also required to undergo physiotherapy . BAR had their official test driver Darren Manning available to replace Villeneuve should the need arise .
Some teams made modifications to their cars in preparation for the event . Minardi débuted a new gearbox which was constructed out of titanium , the first for a Formula One team . Prost made modifications to their cars oil system to improve the reliability of their engines and made minor aerodynamic changes to the front wing and the floor . The team also used an updated version of their engine the Peugeot A20 EV2 during the Friday practice sessions and reverted to the EV3 for the remainder of the weekend . BAR fitted their cars with a revised aerodynamic package which included new bargeboards and rear wings .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race , two each on Friday and Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour ; the third and fourth sessions , on Saturday morning , lasted 45 minutes each . Conditions were dry and overcast for the Friday practice sessions and was held on a dirty track which was caused by rainfall in the run up to the event . Michael Schumacher set the first session 's fastest time with an early lap of 1 : 21 @.@ 982 , half a second quicker than team @-@ mate Barrichello . Häkkinen had the third fastest time , ahead of Ralf Schumacher and Jean Alesi . The two Benetton drivers were sixth and eighth ( with Fisichella ahead of Alexander Wurz ) ; the two were separated by Johnny Herbert . Eddie Irvine and Verstappen completed the top ten . In the second practice session , Michael Schumacher was unable to improve his time but remained fastest ; Ralf Schumacher had the second fastest time after putting on a new set of tyres towards the end of the session . Barrichello was third @-@ fastest , ahead of Jarno Trulli , Coulthard and Jenson Button . Häkkinen , Pedro Diniz , Frentzen and Alesi followed in the top ten .
The weather remained dry for the Saturday morning practice sessions . Coulthard set the fastest lap of the third session at 1 : 21 @.@ 370 , ahead of team @-@ mate Häkkinen who was two @-@ tenths of a second slower . Ralf Schumacher ( with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 604 ) was third quickest , ahead of Michael Schumacher and Villeneuve . Fisichella and Frentzen followed in sixth and seventh . The two Arrows drivers were eighth and ninth ( with Verstappen ahead of Pedro de la Rosa ) . Mika Salo rounded out the top ten . During the final practice session , Michael Schumacher used a new set of tyres and set the fastest time of 1 : 21 @.@ 088 ; Coulthard finished with the second quickest lap . Barrichello was third fastest , in front of Häkkinen who struggled with a lack of grip and a loose rear end . Ralf Schumacher recorded the fifth fastest time . The Jordan drivers were sixth and seventh ( with Trulli in front of Frentzen ) . de la Rosa , Villeneuve and Button completed the top ten ahead of qualifying .
Saturday afternoon 's qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session the 107 % rule was in effect , requiring each driver to remain within 107 % of the fastest lap time to qualify for the race . The session was held in sunny and hot conditions , with the ambient temperature 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) and the track temperature between 22 to 26 ° C ( 72 to 79 ° F ) . Michael Schumacher clinched the first pole position of the season and the 24th of his career , with a time of 1 : 20 @.@ 974 on his second run . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Häkkinen who set a lap 0 @.@ 076 seconds slower in the closing seconds of qualifying . Barrichello qualified third , and felt that his car did not feel good having not made any changes . Coulthard secured fourth position , despite losing time early in qualifying because of a fuel pressure problem . He decided against taking his team 's spare car set up for Häkkinen because he believed it would take up time and had to run more fuel throughout the remainder of the session . Ralf Schumacher qualified fifth and he was suffering from excessive oversteer which prevented him from setting a quicker lap time but was delighted with his starting position . Villeneuve secured sixth position and said he achieved the best from his car . Both Jordan drivers lined up the fourth row of the grid ( with Trulli ahead of Frentzen ) and believed they could have a better starting position because of windy conditions. de la Rosa and Irvine rounded out the top ten fastest drivers , with de la Rosa confident of finishing in a higher position in his home country . Later on Saturday afternoon , a fuel sample from de la Rosa 's car was analysed and declared illegal by the FIA and Arrows announced that it would appeal the decision , allowing de la Rosa to retain his starting position . Button , eleventh , reported his car felt unstable due to the windy conditions . He was ahead of Verstappen in the slower of the two Arrows , Salo in the faster Sauber , and Fisichella . Herbert , fifteenth , lost his front wing mounted camera after hitting a kerb in the early part of qualifying and made a minor mistake which prevented him from starting higher up the field . Diniz had excessive oversteer and managed sixteenth place . Ricardo Zonta managed seventeenth after he was unable to find a set @-@ up which suited him and his fastest time was nine @-@ tenths of a second slower than team @-@ mate Villeneuve . Alesi qualified eighteenth , ahead of Wurz in nineteenth . Heidfeld had engine problems and had to use the spare Prost monocoque and took 20th position . The two Minardi drivers Marc Gené and Gastón Mazzacane qualified at the rear of the field in positions 21 and 22 .
= = = Race = = =
The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up in cool and dry weather . Michael Schumacher maintained his good performance , setting a time of 1 : 22 @.@ 855 despite going into the gravel after braking too deep and also drove the spare Ferrari . Häkkinen was the second @-@ fastest driver ; Barrichello was third and Coulthard rounded out the top four . After the session ended , Arrows withdrew their appeal after they accepted the FIA 's findings and de la Rosa was required to start at the back of the field .
The conditions on the grid were dry before the race ; the air temperature ranged between 21 to 30 ° C ( 70 to 86 ° F ) and the track temperature was between 22 to 23 ° C ( 72 to 73 ° F ) .The race started at 14 : 00 local time . A total of approximately 79 @,@ 000 people attended the race . Ralf Schumacher started the race in the spare Williams monocoque because his race car developed a sensor issue with his engine the previous day . When the race started , Häkkinen got a better start than Michael Schumacher but the Ferrari driver moved across the circuit to block Häkkinen . Ralf Schumacher also got a good start and passed Coulthard and Barrichello . At the exit of the first corner , Ralf Schumacher made contact with the rear of Häkkinen 's car , sending him slightly sideways and both drivers were able to continue . Button also made a good start , moving from eleventh to ninth by the end of the first lap , while Irvine dropped three places over the same distance . Diniz spun off into the gravel on the first lap and retired . At the end of the first lap , the top ten were Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Ralf Schumacher , Coulthard , Barrichello , Villeneuve , Frentzen , Trulli , Button and Salo .
Michael Schumacher began to pull away from Häkkinen. de la Rosa ran into the rear of Alesi at Wurth corner on lap two causing Alesi to retire , with de la Rosa sustaining a broken front wing and retired after going off at Campsa corner . Further back , Irvine passed Verstappen for twelfth position . The positions at the front were the same for the next sixteen laps with the gap between Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen fluctated from 1 @.@ 6 seconds to 3 @.@ 4 seconds while Coulthard and Barrichello battled Ralf Schumacher for third position . Button became the first driver to make a pit stop on lap 18 and rejoined in front of Mazzacane . Villeneuve made his pit stop on the 21st lap , which promoted Frentzen into the points @-@ scoring positions . After rejoining the circuit , his car caught fire and he pulled off to the side of the track at the exit of Seat corner . Trulli 's pit stop , which dropped him to 17th , proved problematic : he stalled his engine which required his mechanics to restart it . Ralf Schumacher made a pit stop one lap later and re @-@ emerged in fifth . On lap 24 , Michael Schumacher made his pit stop . As he accelerated from his pit box , his rear wheel hit the Ferrari refuller Nigel Stepney who was dragged before being knocked over . Stepney was taken to the circuit 's medical center for observation and he was replaced by reserve refuller Andrea Vacari . Coulthard made a pit stop on the same lap and experienced problems with leaving his pit box because he selected second gear and re @-@ emerged behind Ralf Schumacher .
Häkkinen made his pit stop on the 26th lap and emerged behind Michael Schumacher , while Verstappen retired from the race with an mechanical problem . All of the leaders had taken their stops by the start of lap 28 , the top ten were Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Ralf Schumacher , Barrichello , Coulthard , Button , Frentzen , Salo , Zonta and Wurz . Häkkinen set the fastest lap of the race on the same lap , a 1 : 24 @.@ 470 as he started to close the gap to Michael Schumacher , as Ralf Schumacher again became under pressure by Coulthard in fourth . Eleven laps later , Coulthard entered the pit lane , triggering the second round of pit stops . Ralf Schumacher and Barrichello made a pit stop on the following lap and rejoined behind Coulthard . Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen both made their pit stops on the 41st lap , with Häkkinen emerging in front because Michael Schumacher 's pit stop was problematic . Michael Schumacher 's mechanics had started refulling after putting his tyres on causing him to be stationary for ten seconds longer than usual . Salo and Zonta went into the pit lane on lap 45 , allowing Button into sixth .
Coulthard had caught Michael Schumacher ( who had air leaking from his left rear tyre ) by lap 46 . Coulthard attempted to pass the Ferrari driver on the following lap around the outside going into the first corner , but Schumacher drove into Coulthard 's line as a blocking manoevure . Coulthard replicated his move on lap 48 and passed Michael Schumacher around the outside under braking going into turn one . Ralf Schumacher had caught up to Michael Schumacher on lap 50 . Ralf Schumacher tried to overtake Michael Schumacher on the same lap , but the Ferrari driver blocked him . Ralf Schumacher was forced wide and lost momentum , allowing Barrichello to pass both drivers . Ralf Schumacher attempted to reclaim the position and got alongside Barrichello with Michael Schumacher taking the inside line to emerge in front . Michael Schumacher entered the pit lane on the same lap for new tyres and rejoined in front of Button . He immediately set new personal fastest laps in an effort to catch Ralf Schumacher . However , the order was stable at the front of the field as Häkkinen had a comfortable lead over Coulthard , while Ralf Schumacher had dropped back from Barrichello . Button pulled over to the side of the track on lap 62 , with smoke billowing from his engine , and retired . Häkkinen continued to maintain his lead and crossed the finish line on lap 65 to secure his first victory of the season in a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 550 @.@ 390 at an average speed of 122 @.@ 040 miles per hour ( 196 @.@ 404 km / h ) . Coulthard finished second 16 seconds behind , ahead of Barrichello who clinched third , Ralf Schumacher in fourth , Michael Schumacher in fifth and Frentzen rounded out the points @-@ scoring positions in sixth . Salo , Zonta , Fisichella , Wurz and Irvine filled the next five finishers , while Trulli , Herbert , Gené , Mazzacane , Heidfeld and Button ( despite his retirement ) completed the final classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in a later press conference . Häkkinen said that he was " pleased " to win the race and admitted that he waited until the pit stop phase to have any chance of overtaking Michael Schumacher . The driver said that his team had more work to do on his car and was looking forward to the next race . Coulthard believed he made the right decision to compete in the Grand Prix despite his injuries and that the result was " the best thing that could have happened for the team and myself . " He also said he was looking forward to resting over the coming days to allow his injuries to heal . Barrichello admitted that the race had not been good for him until his overtake on Michael Schumacher and Ralf Schumacher and said the absence of Stepney caused his second pit stop to be slower than usual .
Attention focused on the battle between Ralf Schumacher and Michael Schumacher during the race . Michael Schumacher blamed his brother for instigating the move and did not understand why he was upset over the incident . Ralf Schumacher did not comment and stated that he would watch a video of the incident before he would say anything . Their father , Rolf talked to the pair in an effort to get them reconciled . One week after the race , Ralf Schumacher said that tensions between him and his brother had eased and that there were no hard feelings for each other , saying , " It 's a lot of fun when we are out there on the track duelling against each other . " There was similar ill @-@ feeling between de la Rosa and Alesi after their collision on lap two. de la Rosa accused Alesi of blocking him , and of causing the crash by not looking in his mirrors , while Alesi said de la Rosa attempted to overtake him in a corner where overtaking is difficult .
After the race , Häkkinen reduced the lead of Michael Schumacher in the Drivers ' Championship to be seven points behind . Coulthard fell to third , two points behind Michael Schumacher . Barrichello moved up into fourth place on 13 points , and Ralf Schumacher fell to fifth overall . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari maintained their lead but McLaren 's one @-@ two finish moved to within seven points clear of the Italian team . Williams maintained third position with nine points . Frentzen 's sixth @-@ place finish allowed Jordan to move point clear of Benetton in the battle for fourth , with twelve races remaining in the season .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Liberty Arming the Patriot =
Liberty Arming the Patriot , sometimes called Freedom Arming the Patriot , is a bronze sculpture at Park Place in Pawtucket , Rhode Island , commemorating the participation of the city 's citizens in the American Civil War . It was designed by William Granville Hastings and cast by the Gorham Manufacturing Company in 1897 . Unlike many Civil War memorials , Liberty Arming the Patriot is a dynamic composition , depicting a young farmer setting his plow aside , and reaching to take a sword from a classical female figure clad in breastplate and wielding a pike . The statue is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in height , and is mounted on a granite base 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide . The sculpture was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .
= = History and design = =
The sculpture was commissioned by the Ladies ' Soldiers ' Memorial Association of Pawtucket , Rhode Island to honor those who served in the American Civil War . The funding for the sculpture came as the result of an 11 @-@ year fundraising campaign that was provided for by donations and entertainment events . The cost of the monument was stated to be $ 13 @,@ 000 by The New York Times , but report stated it to be $ 12 @,@ 000 . William Granville Hastings was chosen as the sculptor to execute the construction of the monument after winning a competition . The sculpture was cast by the Gorham Manufacturing Company .
The central feature of the monument depicts the theme of a young man called from civil life to serve his nation in a time of need and it transforms the theme into a contemporary allegory . It captures the decisive moment as farmer is caught mid @-@ transition , with his left hand still on the plow handle , and taking the sword with his right hand from Liberty . The details of the farmer includes realistic work clothes , a yoked shirt with rolled sleeves and work trousers tucked into his boots . Liberty , identified by her Phrygian cap , stands just above the farmer in classical robes with a breastplate , sandals and cloak . Her face is impassive as she bestows the sword upon the farmer with her left hand while her right hand holds her pike .
Beneath the farmer and Liberty is a bronze plaque depicting a Union artillery battery under the command of General Ambrose Burnside capturing a bridge in the Battle of Antietam . Flanked on the sides are two smaller triangular plaques which depict the female figures of History and Eternity . The Scribe of History , alternatively known as Epic Poetry , is writing on a tablet and Eternity both contemplates and is identified by a fern . The monument was dedicated on May 31 , 1897 , in ceremony conducted by the Grand Army of the Republic and an oration given by the Governor of Rhode Island , Elisha Dyer , Jr .. The statue is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in height , and is mounted on a granite base 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide .
According to the National Register of Historic Places , Liberty Arming the Patriot is historically significant as a " good representative of the character of early twentieth century figurative sculpture " and the quality of its design . It is also historically significant for its association with the Gorham Manufacturing Company , a prominent Rhode Island producer of high quality silverware and bronze statuary . Though it is commemorative in intention , the statue is important " because it documents the principal effort of Pawtucket to honor those who served in the Civil War . " The sculpture was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .
= = Inscription = =
In Grateful Recognition
Of The Valiant And Self @-@ Sacrificing Service To Their Country
Of All Persons
Who Went From Pawtucket And It Vicinity To Join
The Forces Of The United States
During The Civil War .
And Especially To The Memory Of Those Who Suffered
And Died In That Service .
This Monument Is Erected By
The Ladies Soldiers Memorial Association
Of Pawtucket , Rhode Island
And By Then Is Consecrated As An Everlasting
Memorial
Anno Domini 1897
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= Triaenops menamena =
Triaenops menamena is a bat in the genus Triaenops found on Madagascar , mainly in the drier regions . It was known as Triaenops rufus until 2009 , when it was discovered that that name had been incorrectly applied to the species . Triaenops rufus is a synonym of Triaenops persicus , a Middle Eastern species closely related to T. menamena — the Malagasy species had previously been placed as a subspecies of T. persicus by some authors . Triaenops menamena is mostly found in forests , but also occurs in other habitats . It often roosts in large colonies and eats insects such as butterflies and moths . Because of its wide range , common occurrence , and tolerance of habitat degradation , it is not considered to be threatened .
With a forearm length of 50 to 56 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 2 in ) in males and 46 to 53 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 1 in ) in females , this is a medium @-@ sized bat . Its fur color is variable , ranging from reddish @-@ brown to gray , but it is generally darker than the species in the closely related genus Paratriaenops which also occur on Madagascar . The skull contains a pronounced swelling around the nose and the second upper premolar is displaced outside the toothrow . The maximum frequency of the echolocation call averages 94 @.@ 2 kHz and the species can easily be recognized on the basis of its call .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1881 , Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards described two new species in the genus Triaenops on the basis of specimens supposedly collected by Léon Humblot on Madagascar : the reddish Triaenops rufus and the larger , gray T. humbloti . Jean Dorst , who reviewed Madagascan Triaenops in 1947 , retained both as separate species ; in another review , published in 1982 , John Edwards Hill considered the two to represent the same species . In 1994 , Karl Koopman considered rufus itself to be part of the Middle Eastern and mainland African species Triaenops persicus , a possibility Hill had discussed , but most authors regarded the two as distinct species . In 2006 , Julie Ranivo and Steven Goodman revised Madagascan Triaenops and found little variation among specimens of T. rufus from throughout the dry parts of the island . Three years later , they published another paper which showed that the original material of T. rufus and T. humbloti was distinct from Madagascan specimens identified as " Triaenops rufus " and more similar to T. persicus . On his journey to Madagascar , Humblot had stayed in Somalia and Yemen , and Goodman and Ranivo concluded that he had probably collected the Triaenops there , after which their provenance was incorrectly recorded . Thus , rufus and humbloti cannot be used for the Madagascan species , and Goodman and Ranivo proposed the new name Triaenops menamena for the species formerly known as T. rufus . The specific name menamena is Malagasy for " reddish " , referring to the animal 's coloration . " Rufous trident bat " has been used as a common name for Triaenops rufus .
Triaenops menamena is currently one of four living species in the genus Triaenops ; a 2009 revision by Petr Benda and Peter Vallo split off the African T. afer and the Yemeni T. parvus from T. persicus and removed three other species , including two from Madagascar , to the separate genus Paratriaenops . An extinct species , Triaenops goodmani , is known from northwestern Madagascar . In 2007 and 2008 , Amy Russell and colleagues used phylogenetic and coalescent methodologies to investigate the history of the Triaenops group . They found that T. menamena ( as T. rufus ) was closest to mainland African Triaenops ( but did not study Middle Eastern bats ) and concluded that T. menamena and the species of Paratriaenops ( then still placed in Triaenops ) independently reached Madagascar from Africa ; the colonization of the island by T. menamena was dated to about 660 @,@ 000 years ago . Benda and Vallo also studied phylogenetic relationships in Triaenops and included Middle Eastern T. persicus and T. parvus in their analysis . They found little resolution of relationships within Triaenops , but some evidence suggested that T. menamena is more closely related to the Middle Eastern species than to T. afer in mainland Africa ; therefore , T. menamena may have reached Madagascar from the Middle East or northeastern Africa . They also placed the split between T. menamena and the other species much further back , at around 4 million years ago .
= = Description = =
Triaenops menamena is a medium @-@ sized species with variable fur coloration , ranging from reddish @-@ brown to gray . It is larger and darker than Paratriaenops auritus and P. furculus . Among living Triaenops species , it is smaller than T. persicus and T. afer , but somewhat larger than T. parvus . The extinct Triaenops goodmani , which is known only from three mandibles ( lower jaws ) , is also larger . In the complexly shaped noseleaf ( a group of fleshy structures around the nose and mouth ) , T. menamena has the trident structure characteristic of Triaenops and Paratriaenops : three adjacent lancets ( projecting structures ) on the posterior leaf . In T. menamena , the two outer lancets are shorter than the middle one and curved , whereas the three lancets are more equal in Paratriaenops . The anterior leaf contains a broad , flat , horizontal process and the intermediate leaf contains a pointed process . The ears are small and broad and contain notches on the inner side . The fur is silky and the hairs on the body are about 5 to 6 mm long . The wing membrane is dark and translucent and the end of the tail usually projects from the uropatagium ( tail membrane ) . Males average slightly larger than females . Wingspan is 270 to 305 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 0 in ) .
The skull is similar to that of Madagascan Paratriaenops , but the premaxilla is longer . The rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is well @-@ developed and contains a pronounced nasal swelling , which is less pronounced than in Paratriaenops ; the depression behind the swelling is relatively shallow . Compared to other species of Triaenops , the rostrum is relatively narrow and short , similar to T. parvus ; T. afer and T. persicus have a broader rostrum . The front margin of the rostrum is cast back between the left and right corners . A transverse line passes over the roof of the rostrum . The infraorbital foramen , an opening in the skull , is oblong in shape . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are not broadened towards the sides , are connected to the maxillaries by broad bones , and contain clear crests on their upper sides . In T. menamena , these crests are rectangular in form and larger than in Paratriaenops . The braincase is lower than in other species of Triaenops . The sagittal crest , which is on the roof of the braincase , is poorly developed . In the mandible , the coronoid process is blunt and rounded , but the angular process ( both processes at the back of the bone ) is small .
The upper incisors have two cusps and the upper canine has three — a large central one , a small but well @-@ developed one at the back , and a small cuspule at the front . The front upper premolar is projected outside the toothrow , so that the canine before it and back premolar behind it touch . The first lower incisor has two cusps and the second has three . On the second lower molar , the protoconid cusp is notably taller than the hypoconid ; these cusps are about as high in T. goodmani .
The species can easily be identified from recordings of its echolocation call . The call consists of a component with constant frequency followed by a short one with changing frequency . The call takes 6 @.@ 5 to 13 @.@ 5 ms , averaging 10 @.@ 1 ms , and the period between two calls is 22 @.@ 7 to 86 @.@ 3 ms , averaging 42 @.@ 7 ms . The maximum frequency averages 94 @.@ 2 kHz , the minimum frequency averages 82 @.@ 0 kHz , and the call emits the most energy at a frequency of 93 @.@ 2 kHz .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Triaenops menamena mainly occurs in the dry regions of western Madagascar , but has also been recorded in humid areas in the far southeast and northeast , and is found up to 1300 m ( 4300 ft ) above sea level . It mainly occurs in forests , but has also been recorded outside forest and is not dependent on it . An obligate cave dweller , it is known to roost in large colonies , with one cave colony estimated to contain over 40 @,@ 000 bats ; this cave also contained an estimated 10 @,@ 000 Paratriaenops furculus . The effective population size of the species is estimated to be about 121 @,@ 000 . Lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) form the main component of its diet , but it also eats Coleoptera ( beetles ) and Hemiptera ( bugs ) and fewer members of some other insect orders . It is unclear how the ecological niches of Triaenops and the less frequently captured Paratriaenops furculus are separated , as both eat lepidopterans and occur in the same regions .
= = Conservation status = =
Under Triaenops rufus , the IUCN Red List lists this species as being of " Least Concern " , citing its common occurrence over a wide distribution and tolerance of human modifications of its habitat , even though its forest habitat is being destroyed in places . It has been recorded in numerous protected areas . Bats , mainly the large Hipposideros commersoni , are sometimes hunted for food in southwestern Madagascar , and T. menamena is also taken incidentally .
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= Henry le Despenser =
Henry le Despenser ( c . 1341 – 1406 ) was a 14th @-@ century English nobleman and Bishop of Norwich whose reputation as the ' Fighting Bishop ' was gained for his part in suppressing the Peasants ' Revolt in East Anglia and in defeating the peasants at the Battle of North Walsham in the summer of 1381 .
As a young man he studied at Oxford University and held numerous positions in the English Church . He fought in Italy before being consecrated as a bishop in 1370 . Parliament agreed to allow Despenser to lead a crusade to Flanders in 1383 , which was directed against Louis II of Flanders , a supporter of the antipope Clement VII . The crusade was in defence of English economic and political interests . Although well funded , the expedition was poorly equipped and lacked proper military leadership . After initial successes , a disastrous attempt to besiege the city of Ypres forced Despenser to return to England . Upon his return he was impeached in parliament . His temporalities were confiscated by Richard II of England , but were returned in 1385 , the year he accompanied the king northward to repel a potential French invasion of Scotland .
Despenser was an energetic and able administrator who staunchly defended his diocese against Lollardy . In 1399 , he was among those who stood by Richard , following the landing of Henry Bolingbroke in Yorkshire towards the end of June . He was arrested for refusing to come to terms with Bolingbroke . The following year , he was implicated in the Epiphany Rising , but was pardoned .
= = Birth and ancestry = =
Henry le Despenser was the youngest son of Edward le Despenser ( 1310 – 1342 ) , who married Anne ( died 1367 ) , daughter of Sir Ralph Ferrers of Groby . Henry was born around 1342 , the year that his father was killed at the siege of Vannes . He and his three brothers all grew up to become soldiers . His eldest brother Edward le Despencer , 1st Baron le Despencer ( around 1335 – 1375 ) was reputed to be one of the greatest knights of his age : he and Henry fought together for Pope Urban V in his war against Milan in 1369 . Comparatively little is known of his other siblings : Hugh le Despenser fought abroad and died in Padua in March 1374 , Thomas fought in France and died unmarried in 1381 and Gilbert le Despenser died in 1382 . Their sister Joan was a nun at Shaftesbury Abbey until her death in 1384 .
The le Despenser family originated from the lords of Gomiécourt in north @-@ eastern France . Henry 's grandmother Eleanor de Clare was a granddaughter of Edward I of England .
Henry 's great @-@ grandfather Hugh le Despenser , 1st Earl of Winchester ( 1262 – 1326 ) and grandfather Hugh Despenser the Younger ( 1286 – 1326 ) , who was a favourite of Edward II , were both exiled and later executed after the rebellion of Queen Isabella and her lover Mortimer against Edward II of England . Hugh le Despenser had become Edward II 's adviser , holding power until the king 's defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn , but he was later restored to favour . His son was appointed the king 's chamberlain and enjoyed a still larger share of royal favour . The barons were hostile to the Despensers , due to their acquired wealth and perceived arrogance , and in 1321 they were banished . Their sentences were soon afterwards annulled and from 1322 they played an important role in the governing of the country , but in 1326 Isabella acted against them and both men were tried and executed .
In 1375 , Despenser 's nephew Thomas le Despenser , 1st Earl of Gloucester succeeded his father Edward . Thomas was captured and killed following the attempt to restore Richard II in the Epiphany Rising .
= = Early career = =
In 1353 ( as an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy ) Henry ' de Exon ' became the canon of Llandaff and a year later he was secured a canonry of Salisbury Cathedral . By the age of nineteen he had become the rector of Bosworth and by February 1361 he was a master at Oxford University , studying civil law . He was ordained on 17 December 1362 . By 20 April 1364 he was archdeacon of Llandaff . Of his early life Capgrave tells us that he spent some time in Italy fighting for Pope Urban V in his war against Milan in 1369 :
'In this same tyme was Ser Herry Spenser a grete werrioure in Ytaile , or the tyme that he was promoted.'
= = Bishop of Norwich = =
In 1370 Despenser , then the canon of Salisbury , was appointed as Bishop of Norwich by a papal bull dated 3 April 1370 . He was consecrated at Rome on 20 April and returned to England . He received the spiritualities of his see from the Archbishop of Canterbury on 12 July 1370 and the temporalities from the king on 14 August .
= = = Involvement in the suppression of the Peasants ' Revolt = = =
During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , rebels from Kent and Essex marched to London and , once admitted to the city , managed to capture the Tower of London . King Richard , who had promised to agree to all the demands of the peasants , met the rebels outside the city , where the leader of the peasants Wat Tyler was killed and the rebellion was ended . The king 's promises were retracted .
The rebellion quickly spread to other parts of England , including the diocese of Norwich , where it lasted for less than a fortnight . On 14 June a group of rebels reached Thetford and from there the insurrection spread over south @-@ western Norfolk towards the Fens . At the same time the rebels , led by a local dyer , Geoffrey Litster , moved across the north @-@ eastern part of the county , urging insurrection throughout the local area . Over the next few days , the rebels converged on Norwich , Lynn and Swaffham . Norwich , then one of the largest and most important cities in the realm , was taken and occupied by Litster and his followers , who caused considerable damage to the property and possessions of their enemies once they managed to enter the city . The Norwich rebels then travelled to Yarmouth , destroying legal records and landowners ' possessions ; other insurgents moving across north @-@ east Norfolk destroyed court rolls and taxation documents ; there were numerous incidents of pillage and extortion across the whole county .
Despenser first heard news of the rising in his own diocese at a time when he was absent at his manor of Burley in Rutland , 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of Norwich . Armed , he hastened back to Norfolk via Peterborough , Cambridge and Newmarket , with a company of only eight lances and a small body of bowmen . His followers increased on the way , and by the time he reached North Walsham , near the Norfolk coast , he had a considerable force under his command . There he found the rebels entrenched and defended by makeshift fortifications . According to Thomas Walsingham , in the Battle of North Walsham the bishop himself led the assault and overpowered his enemies in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Many were slain or captured , including the rebels ' leader , who was hanged , drawn and quartered soon afterwards . Despenser personally superintended Litster 's execution . In the following months he proceeded to deal with other rebels in his diocese . But the rigour with which he put down the rebellion made him highly unpopular in Norfolk and in the following year a plot was organised to murder him . The scheme was betrayed in time by one of the conspirators , and the plotters were dealt with by the authorities .
= = = Norwich Crusade of 1383 = = =
Soon after Urban VI had been elected pope in 1378 , Robert of Geneva was elected as a rival pope , taking the name Pope Clement VII and removing himself to Avignon . The so @-@ called Western Schism subsequently caused a great crisis in the Church and created rivalry and conflict throughout Christian Europe . It was eventually resolved as a result of the Council of Constance ( 1414 – 1418 ) .
In the autumn and winter of 1382 , Flanders had been invaded by Charles VI of France . Philip Van Artevelde had fallen at the Battle of Roosebeke and the country had been compelled to submit to the French king , who obliged all the conquered towns to recognise Clement VII . In response to events in Flanders , Pope Urban issued bulls for the proclamation of a crusade , choosing Bishop Despenser to lead a campaign against the followers of Clement VII in Flanders . He granted Despenser extraordinary powers for the fulfillment of his mission and plenary indulgence to those who should take part in or contribute support to it .
Both the commons and King Richard II were enthusiastic about the launch of a crusade to Flanders , for political and economic reasons : revenues from the English wool staple ( that had ceased following the advance of the French ) could be resumed ; sending the bishop and not the king or his uncles to Flanders would enable John of Gaunt 's unpopular plans for a royal crusade to Castille to be abandoned ; French forces would be drawn away from the Iberian peninsula ; and Anglo @-@ Flemish relations would be strengthened . Another advantage in approving a crusade was that its cost would be borne by the Church and not by means of government levies : ever since the Peasants ' Revolt , the government was fearful of the consequences of imposing a tax to pay for a new war against the French .
On 6 December 1382 , Richard ordered the crusade to be published throughout England . Later that month the bishop and his men took the cross at St. Paul 's Cathedral . In February 1383 Parliament , after hesitating in entrusting the mission to a churchman , ultimately assigned to him the subsidy which it had granted the king in the previous October for carrying on the war in Flanders . The king 's only stipulation was that the crusaders should await the arrival of William Beauchamp before launching offensive operations against the French and their allies .
The bishop issued mandates for the publication of the bulls and the archbishop did the same . The enterprise was ardently seconded by the friars and contributions of immense value were made from all quarters , but especially , according to Henry Knighton , from " the rich ladies of England " . The English landed at Calais in May 1383 and proceeded to attack Gravelines , which was in the hands of the French . Gravelines , Dunkirk and the neighbouring country ( including the towns of Bourbourg , Bergues , Poperinghe , and Nieuport ) soon fell . On 25 May the crusaders put to flight a Franco @-@ Flemish army , under the command of the Count of Flanders , in a pitched battle fought near Dunkirk . Despenser was then persuaded by his followers to attempt to besiege Ypres , which was to prove to be the turning point of the crusade . He was unwilling to attack the city but his Gantois allies and some of his officers insisted that Ypres should be taken .
The inhabitants of Ypres were well prepared for a siege by the time the English and their allies arrived and attacked the city on 8 June 1383 . Dwellings in the outlying suburbs had been abandoned ; the timber from them was used to strengthen the earth ramparts and the stone gates of the city . A mission had been dispatched to Paris to replace artillery powder stocks . The city was well organised under the command of the Castellan of Ypres , John d 'Oultre , and had been divided into different defensive sectors . Although the ramparts were low , they were well protected with a double wet ditch , a high thorny hedge reinforced with stakes and a wooden stockade and fire @-@ step .
The English attacked the Temple Gate on the first day but were beaten off . Over the next three days the city gates were attacked simultaneously , without success . Before the end of the first week of the siege , reinforcements arrived to completely encircle the city walls and the outer ditch was breached using soil . On the eighth day ( 15 June ) Despenser attacked the defences with artillery , firing on the Messines Gate and damaging it , but not enough to cause the city defences to be breached . Over the following days of the siege , sustained artillery attacks had little overall effect and the assaults of Despenser 's troops were all beaten off . An attempt to drain the ditches seriously threatened the Yprois , but the attempt was unsuccessful and the besieged managed to communicate with the Duke of Burgundy through Louis le Mâle , who was able to raise a large French army to come to the aid of the city . On 8 August , after eight weeks of effort , Despenser abruptly decided to abandon the siege , leaving his allies to continue on their own .
After the débâcle at Ypres , the bishop 's forces divided , some going back to England , some remaining with the bishop and others under Sir Thomas Trivet and Sir Hugh Calveley retiring to Bourbourg and Bergues . The bishop and Calveley had wished to advance into France , but Sir William Elmham , Trivet and some of the other commanders refused to go . The bishop , after entering Picardy for some distance , was obliged to fall back upon Gravelines . It turned out that the French had little stomach for a showdown with the English and their allies , preferring instead to negotiate : part of the French army was unwilling to fight when Despenser and Calveley encountered it when moving towards Picardy . It is possible that had King Richard crossed the Channel with a large English army , the campaign would have ended in a famous victory . However , for the demoralised and disease @-@ ridden English forces , the arrival of the French headed by the boy @-@ king Charles VI was decisive . Charles had taken the oriflamme on 2 August and his army was mustered in Arras on 15 August . They advanced into Flanders , reaching Thérouanne by the end of August , Drincham on 5 September , Bergues on 7 September ( forcing Trivet 's and Elmham 's retreat to Bourbourg and Gravelines ) and Dunkirk on 9 September . Bourbourg was besieged on 12 September : two days later the Duke of Brittany persuaded the French to negotiate a surrender and the English garrison was given safe conduct from the town . The French army then proceeded along the coast and besieged Gravelines . There , without Despenser 's authority , the defenders accepted bribes and the bishop 's treasurer pocketed 5000 francs . Despenser at first refused the surrender terms , but a few days later Gravelines was evacuated and Despenser ordered it to be sacked . By the end of October the remaining crusaders had returned across the English Channel .
= = = Career after 1383 = = =
Soon after returning from Flanders , the bishop was impeached in parliament , on 26 October 1383 , in the presence of the king . The chancellor Michael de la Pole accused him of not mustering his troops at Calais , as had been agreed ; not recruiting a high enough number of armed men ; refusing to certify properly who his military leaders were ; deceiving the king by not allowing a secular lord to command the expedition to Flanders ; and disbanding his forces prematurely . Despenser denied all the charges , insisting that enough men had assembled at Ypres , that he had chosen his commanders well and that he had not refused to obey the king 's orders . After de la Pole declared the bishop 's replies to be insufficient , Despenser requested another hearing to defend himself still further , which was granted . In this hearing Despencer proceeded to blame his own commanders for forcing him to retreat from Ypres and then evacuate the garrisons . All his arguments were refuted and he was blamed for the failure of the expedition . His temporalities were confiscated and he was ordered to repay any costs taken from money gained from the French .
Despenser 's fall from grace did not last long . Following Scottish incursions into England , it was decided that the 18 @-@ year @-@ old King Richard should lead an army into Scotland , marking the start of his military career . In 1385 every magnate of consequence , including Despenser , joined the immense host that advanced north with the king ,
" finding a country totally waste , where there was nothing to plunder , and little that could even be destroyed , excepting here and there a tower , whose massive walls defied all means of destruction then known , or a cluster of miserable huts .... " ' ( Sir Walter Scott , Scotland , vol . 1 ) .
The English army reached Edinburgh , which was sacked , but then retreated back to England , despite John of Gaunt 's wish to go on to Fife . The Scottish campaign was one of the last times that Despenser marched with an army .
Henry le Despenser continued to be controversial after his fighting career was over , mainly because of the vigorous methods he used to maintain control over the laity in his diocese and his own cathedral church . He defended the orthodoxy of the church against Lollardy as passionately as he defended his episcopal rights and privileges .
For over a decade Despenser was involved in disputes with the chapter of Norwich Cathedral and with other religious communities in his diocese , mainly concerning the bishop 's right to intervene in their internal affairs . In 1384 the monks appealed successfully to Pope Boniface IX against Despenser , but in 1385 matters were still not resolved , for that year the pope ordered William Courtenay the Archbishop of Canterbury to assist in mediating between the parties . On Richard II 's instruction , the bishop and the convent instead appeared before Archbishop Courtenay and a royal council , but Courtenay 's death in July 1386 prevented a resolution of the dispute from being finalised until 1398 , when a royal commission decided in favour of Despenser . Pope Boniface annulled the decisions of the commission in 1401 , after the convent appealed to him , but the papal sentences were ignored by Despenser . Eventually the monks came to terms with the bishop and accepted a loss of their autonomy .
= = = = Fighting Lollardy = = = =
Since 1381 , there had been a growing fear of Lollardy among the English political elite . The Lollards had first appeared in the 1370s and had briefly found favour with the upper classes , but in 1382 power was given for the authorities to detain heretics and examine them in a Church court . During the second half of his reign Richard II became steadily more determined to maintain religious orthodoxy and acted increasingly harshly to suppress the Lollards . His successor Henry IV went even further , introducing the death penalty for heresy and for possession of a bible .
Despenser took active steps to maintain orthodoxy in his own diocese . The chronicler Thomas Walsingham praised Henry 's actions against the Lollards and contrasted him with his fellow bishops :
" He swore , moreover , and did not repent of what he said , that if anyone belonging to that perverse sect should presume to preach in his diocese , they should be taken to the fire or beheaded . Consequently , having understood this , no one belonging to that tendency had any desire to embrace martyrdom , with the result that , up to now , the faith and true religion have remained unaffected within the bounds of his episcopal authority . " ( Walsingham , Historia Anglicana ) .
Henry however appears not to have dealt too savagely in dealing with heretics . On 1 May 1399 , William Sawtrey , a Norfolk curate and a Lollard , was examined before him . Sawtrey recanted his heresies in public and apparently received no serious punishment , but after moving to London , Sawtrey 's heretical preaching attracted the attention of Archbishop Thomas Arundel and he was summoned to appear before a convocation at St. Paul 's . Despenser did not attend but sent a written memorandum on 23 February . Following his trial Sawtrey was condemned as a relapsed heretic and was burned in chains at Smithfield in 1401 .
= = = = Final years = = = =
Upon the death of John of Gaunt on 3 February 1399 , his son Henry Bolingbroke became the Duke of Lancaster , but Richard II moved quickly to strip him of his patrimony . Bolingbroke resolved to return to England from Paris to claim the restoration of his family estates and in July 1399 he disembarked at Ravenspur . Henry le Despenser reacted to these events by standing loyally by Richard . On 2 July he commissioned three vicars @-@ general to deputise for him whilst he was absent from the diocese and by 10 July he had reached St. Albans with reinforcements for the Duke of York 's army . There he joined up with York and they travelled to join the king as he returned from Ireland , whilst Bolingbroke moved south towards Bristol to intercept Richard 's supporters . Despenser was with York at Berkeley Castle when he came to terms with Bolingbroke at the end of July , but the bishop refused to submit and was arrested and briefly imprisoned . On 30 September Bolingbroke was proclaimed king in London , an event that Despenser may have witnessed . The bishop attended the first parliament of the new reign on 6 October 1399 , in which it was agreed that King Richard should be imprisoned . After this time Despenser 's influence in his diocese seems to have diminished , power having shifted to Sir Thomas Erpingham .
Henry was implicated in the abortive ‘ Epiphany Rising ' of January 1400 , during which his nephew Thomas , Earl of Gloucester played a key part and was subsequently executed . Thomas had been created Earl of Gloucester by Richard II , but in 1399 was accused of being involved in the death of the son of the Duke of Gloucester and as a result lost his earldom . He joined in the conspiracy of the earls of Rutland , Kent and Huntingdon and was with their army at Cirencester , when they were attacked by the townsmen , who burnt Thomas le Despenser 's lodgings . Thomas fled , boarding a ship , but the captain forced him to Bristol , where on 13 January he was released to the mob and beheaded at the high cross .
In the aftermath of the rebellion Henry le Despenser appointed John Derlington , the archdeacon of Norwich , as his vicar @-@ general on 5 February 1400 and then submitted himself to the custody of Archbishop Arundel who accompanied him to Parliament on 20 January 1401 . There his enemy Sir Thomas Erpingham falsely accused him of being involved in the plot . He was finally reconciled to Henry IV when the king granted him a pardon in 1401 .
Despenser died on 23 August 1406 and was buried in Norwich Cathedral before the high altar . A brass inscription dedicated to him was placed there , but has since been destroyed .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Pluteus nevadensis =
Pluteus nevadensis is a species of fungus in the agaric family Pluteaceae . Described as new to science in 2010 , the species is known only from subtropical and pine forests in Mexico , where it grows on rotting pine and oak wood . Fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have red @-@ orange caps up to 3 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter with a shape ranging from conic , convex , or flattened , depending on their age . The silky yellow stems are up to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) long . It is similar in appearance to Pluteus aurantiorugosus , with which it shares an orange- or scarlet @-@ colored cap and a yellow stem . P. nevadensis can be distinguished from this and other superficially similar Pluteus species by differences in microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described by Olivia Rodríguez in 2010 in the journal Mycotaxon , based on collections made in 1991 . The holotype material was collected on the Colima volcano , in the Municipality of Zapotlán el Grande , at an elevation of 2 @,@ 100 m ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) . The species was formerly referred to Pluteus aurantiorugosus , with which it bears a close resemblance . After close examination and comparison of the two species , the authors concluded that the differences in morphology and DNA sequence were sufficient to warrant describing a new species .
According to Rolf Singer 's infrageneric classification of the genus Pluteus , the fungus belongs in the section Celluloderma . Species in this section have pleurocystidia that are either absent or non @-@ metuloid . Furthermore , the majority have a cap cuticle comprising short club @-@ shaped or spheropedunculate ( somewhat spherical with a stem ) cells , that may or may not be mixed with elongated cystidia @-@ like cells . Other species in Celluloderma include P. romellii , P. aurantiorugosus , P. pulverulentus , P. thompsonii , and P. horakianus . Molecular analyses of internal transcribed spacer DNA sequences supports the placement of P. nevadensis in Celluloderma , and further suggest that it has a sister relationship with P. horakianas . The specific epithet nevadensis refers to the mountain , Nevado de Colima , where the type material was collected .
= = Description = =
The cap is 15 – 38 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter , conic when young , bell @-@ shaped to convex or plano @-@ convex when mature , and umbonate . The cap margin is curved downward , even or slightly eroded . The red @-@ orange cap surface is dry to moist , and wrinkled towards the margin but smooths out as it approaches the center . Sometimes there is white @-@ yellowish flesh underneath the cap cuticle . The gills are free from attachment to the stem , crowded closely together , broad to swollen in the middle , and white or whitish when young to salmon @-@ pinkish in age . The edge of the gill is floccose ( with wool @-@ like tufts ) or fringed , and whitish . The stem , which is centrally attached to the cap , measures 6 – 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 1 @.@ 77 in ) by 2 – 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 24 in ) , and is roughly equal in width throughout . It is smooth to slightly fibrillose ( covered in small slender fibers or filaments ) , silky , and hollow . The color is yellow or yellowish near the top , and deep orange or with orange tinges towards the base . The base of the stem is covered with cottony whitish mycelia . The flesh of the cap is 1 mm thick or more at the center and whitish . The stem tissue is yellowish or yellow gold . Fruit bodies of Pluteus nevadensis have no distinctive taste or odor .
The color of the spore print is pinkish @-@ brown . The smooth spores measure 5 @.@ 5 – 7 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm , roughly spherical to broadly ellipsoid in shape . Their walls are thin to slightly thickened , and almost translucent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are 22 – 29 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm ( including sterigmata ) , club @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored . They have refringent contents and are hyaline ( translucent ) . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are 41 @.@ 8 – 75 by 11 @.@ 8 – 24 µm , frequent , scattered , and flask @-@ shaped with short or elongated necks . Some pleurocystidia are somewhat fusiform ( tapered on each end ) or somewhat utriform ( shaped like a leather bottle or flask ) , thin @-@ walled , and hyaline . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are 32 – 55 by 10 – 18 @.@ 5 µm , crowded , and club @-@ shaped . Some are utriform , roughly cylindrical or egg @-@ shaped , thin walled , and hyaline . The gill tissue is convergent , meaning that the hyphae appear to converge toward the center of the tissue . The cap cuticle comprises club @-@ shaped or sphaeropedunculate cells that measure 25 @.@ 6 – 60 by 13 @.@ 6 – 31 @.@ 2 µm . These cells typically have a long pedicel ( stalk ) with a thin or slightly thickened wall , and are hyaline . The species lacks oleiferous hyphae ( filled with oil @-@ like contents ) and clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Pluteus aurantiorugosus is very similar to P. nevadensis in external appearance , and the two can only be reliably distinguished by microscopic characteristics or DNA sequence . In contrast to the latter species , the former has oblong spores , and cystidia that are shorter and less slender . P. aurantiorugosus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , but rare .
The species Pluteus horakianus shares with P. nevadensis a fragile fruit body , a red cap , and similar cystidial morphology . It differs in its orange @-@ red gill edges , red stem , and cap cuticle cells that contain pigment . Other species with a roughly similar appearance , including P. aurantiopustulatus , P. aurantipes , P. flammipes , P. laetifrons , and P. laetus , can be distinguished by differences in microscopic characteristics .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Pluteus nevadensis is known only from subtropical and pine forests in the states of Guerrero and Jalisco , Mexico , where it grows on the rotting wood of pine and oak . It is one of 34 Pluteus species known in Mexico .
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= Madge Syers =
Florence Madeline " Madge " Syers ( née Cave , 16 September 1881 – 9 September 1917 ) was a British figure skater . She became the first woman to compete at the World Figure Skating Championships in 1902 by entering what was previously an all @-@ male event and won the silver medal , which prompted the International Skating Union ( ISU ) to create a separate ladies ' championship . Syers was the winner of the first two ladies ' events in 1906 and 1907 , and went on to become the Olympic champion at the 1908 Summer Olympics , the first Olympic Games to include figure skating . She also competed as a pairs skater with her husband Edgar Syers , winning the bronze medal at the 1908 Olympics .
= = Personal life = =
Florence Madeline Cave was born on 16 September 1881 in Kensington , London , one of 15 children of Edward Jarvis Cave , a builder , and his wife Elizabeth Ann . She was a proficient figure skater , as well as a gifted swimmer and equestrienne . Madge became a regular at the Prince 's Skating Club in Knightsbridge , which had been formed in 1896 and was popular with aristocratic society in London .
In 1899 Madge met her future husband Edgar Syers , a figure skater and coach who was 18 years her senior . Edgar was an exponent of the international skating style , which was freer and less rigid than the traditional English style , and encouraged Madge to adopt this style . Madge and Edgar completed together in pairs skating events , and in 1900 finished second in one of the first international pairs events , staged in Berlin . They married in June of that year . The Syers co @-@ authored The Book of Winter Sports in 1908 .
= = Career = =
= = = 1902 World championships = = =
The World Figure Skating Championships , first contested in 1896 , was regarded as an all @-@ male event since competitive skating was generally viewed as a male activity , but there was no regulation barring women , enabling Syers to enter and compete at the 1902 Championships in London . She won the silver medal behind Ulrich Salchow , who was reputedly so impressed with her challenge that he offered her his gold medal . T. D. Richardson later wrote : " Rumour , nay more than rumour – a good deal of expert opinion – thought she should have won . "
Syers ' entry into the World Championships prompted the ISU to discuss the subject of women competing against men at their next Congress in 1903 . The concerns raised were that " ( 1 ) the dress prevents the judges from seeing the feet ; ( 2 ) a judge might judge a girl to whom he was attached ; and ( 3 ) it is difficult to compare women with men . " The Congress voted six to three in favour of barring women from the championships .
= = = 1903 – 1907 = = =
Syers continued to compete elsewhere , and in 1903 won the inaugural British Figure Skating Championships , which began as a mixed competition . She won again the following year , beating her husband , who won the silver medal . She also entered the 1904 European Championships but withdrew due to injury after the first stage of the competition , the compulsory figures .
The 1905 ISU Congress established a separate ladies ' event , which was supported by strong lobbying from the National Ice Skating Association . The event was known at the time as the Ladies ' Championship of the ISU rather than a World Championship , and was staged at a different date and location from the men 's event . Syers won the inaugural event held in Davos , Switzerland in 1906 , finishing first in a field of five competitors . She won her second title in Vienna at the 1907 Championships .
= = = 1908 Olympics = = =
The 1908 Summer Olympics in London were the first Games to include figure skating events in the programme , which were staged in October at the Prince 's Club . Syers entered both the ladies ' event and the pairs with Edgar . In the ladies ' event , Syers comfortably won the compulsory figures section , with all five judges placing her first . The official report of the Games described her as " in a class by herself " and stated that " the wonderful accuracy of her figures , combined with perfect carriage and movement , was the chief feature of the morning 's skating . " In the free skating , the report described her as having " excelled in rhythm and time @-@ keeping , and her dance steps , pirouettes , & c . , were skated without a fault . " She was again placed first by all five judges and won the title . In the pairs event Syers and Edgar finished third ( of three couples ) and won the bronze medal .
= = Later life = =
Syers retired from competitive skating after the Olympics due to fading health . She and Edgar co @-@ authored a second book together , The Art of Skating ( International Style ) , published in 1913 . She died of heart failure caused by acute endocarditis on 9 September 1917 at her home in Weybridge , Surrey , aged 35 .
Syers was elected to the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 1981 .
= = Results = =
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= Senate of the Roman Republic =
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic . It was not an elected body , but one whose members were appointed by the consuls , and later by the censors . After a Roman magistrate served his term in office , it usually was followed with automatic appointment to the Senate . According to the Greek historian Polybius , our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic , the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government . Polybius noted that it was the consuls ( the highest @-@ ranking of the regular magistrates ) who led the armies and the civil government in Rome , and it was the Roman assemblies which had the ultimate authority over elections , legislation , and criminal trials . However , since the Senate controlled money , administration , and the details of foreign policy , it had the most control over day @-@ to @-@ day life . The power and authority of the Senate derived from precedent , the high caliber and prestige of the senators , and the Senate 's unbroken lineage , which dated back to the founding of the Republic in 509 BC .
Originally the chief @-@ magistrates , the consuls , appointed all new senators . They also had the power to remove individuals from the Senate . Around the year 318 BC , the " Ovinian Plebiscite " ( plebiscitum Ovinium ) gave this power to another Roman magistrate , the censor , who retained this power until the end of the Roman Republic . This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate . Thus , after this point in time , election to magisterial office resulted in automatic Senate membership . The appointment was for life , although the censor could impeach any senator .
The Senate directed the magistrates , especially the consuls , in their prosecution of military conflicts . The Senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome . This was especially the case with regards to its management of state finances , as only it could authorize the disbursal of public monies from the treasury . In addition , the Senate passed decrees called senatus consultum , which was officially " advice " from the Senate to a magistrate . While technically these decrees did not have to be obeyed , in practice , they usually were . During an emergency , the Senate ( and only the Senate ) could authorize the appointment of a dictator . The last ordinary dictator , however , was appointed in 202 BC . After 202 BC , the Senate responded to emergencies by passing the senatus consultum ultimum ( " Ultimate Decree of the Senate " ) , which suspended civil government and declared something analogous to martial law .
= = Venue and ethical standards = =
The rules and procedures of the Roman Senate were both complex and ancient . Many of these rules and procedures originated in the early years of the Republic , and were upheld over the centuries under the principle of mos maiorum ( " customs of the ancestors " ) . While Senate meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city ( the pomerium ) , no meeting could take place more than a mile outside of the pomerium . Senate meetings might take place outside of the formal boundary of the city for several reasons . For example , the Senate might wish to meet with an individual , such as a foreign ambassador , whom they did not wish to allow inside the city .
At the beginning of the year , the first Senate meeting always took place at the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus . Other venues could include the Temple of Fides or the Temple of Concord , or , if the meeting was outside of the formal boundary of the city , at the Temple of Apollo or ( if a war meeting ) at the Temple of Bellona . In addition , the Senate operated while under various religious restrictions . For example , before any meeting could begin , a sacrifice to the gods was made , and a search for divine omens ( the auspices ) was taken . The auspices were taken in order to determine whether that particular Senate meeting held favor with the gods . The Senate was only allowed to meet in a building of religious significance , such as the Curia Hostilia .
The ethical requirements of senators were significant . Senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract . They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce , and they could not leave Italy without permission from the Senate . In addition , since they were not paid , individuals usually sought to become a senator only if they were independently wealthy .
The censors were the magistrates who enforced the ethical standards of the Senate . Whenever a censor punished a senator , they had to allege some specific failing . Possible reasons for punishing a member included corruption , abuse of capital punishment , or the disregard of a colleague 's veto , constitutional precedent , or the auspices . Senators who failed to obey various laws could also be punished . While punishment could include impeachment ( expulsion ) from the Senate , often a punishment was less severe than outright expulsion . While the standard was high for expelling a member from the Senate , it was easier to deny a citizen the right to join the Senate . Various moral failings could result in one not being allowed to join the Senate , including bankruptcy , prostitution , or a prior history of having been a gladiator . One law ( the Lex repetundarum of 123 BC ) made it illegal for a citizen to become a senator if they had been convicted of a criminal offense . Many of these laws were enacted in the last century of the Republic , as public corruption began reaching unprecedented levels .
= = Debates = =
Meetings usually began at dawn , although occasionally certain events ( such as festivals ) might delay the beginning of a meeting . A magistrate who wished to summon the Senate had to issue a compulsory order ( a cogere ) , and senators could be punished if they failed to appear without reasonable cause . In 44 BC for example , consul Mark Antony threatened to demolish the house of the former consul Cicero for this very reason . The Senate meetings were technically public because the doors were usually left open , which allowed people to look in , but only senators could speak . The Senate was directed by a presiding magistrate , who was usually either a consul ( the highest @-@ ranking magistrate ) or , if the consul was unavailable , a Praetor ( the second @-@ highest ranking magistrate ) . By the late Republic , another type of magistrate , a plebeian tribune , would sometimes preside .
While in session , the Senate had the power to act on its own , and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished . The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech ( the verba fecit ) , which was usually brief , but was sometimes a lengthy oration . The presiding magistrate would then begin a discussion by referring an issue to the senators , who would discuss the issue , one at a time , by order of seniority , with the first to speak , the most senior senator , known as the princeps senatus ( leader of the Senate ) , who was then followed by ex @-@ consuls ( consulares ) , and then the praetors and ex @-@ praetors ( praetorii ) . This continued , until the most junior senators had spoken . Senators who had held magisterial office always spoke before those who had not , and if a patrician was of equal seniority as a plebeian , the patrician would always speak first .
A senator could make a brief statement , discuss the matter in detail , or talk about an unrelated topic . All senators had to speak before a vote could be held , and since all meetings had to end by nightfall , a senator could talk a proposal to death ( a filibuster or diem consumere ) if they could keep the debate going until nightfall . It is known , for example , that the senator Cato the Younger once filibustered in an attempt to prevent the Senate from granting Julius Caesar a law that would have given land to the veterans of Pompey .
= = Delaying and obstructive tactics = =
Senators had several ways in which they could influence ( or frustrate ) a presiding magistrate . When a presiding magistrate was proposing a motion , for example , the senators could call " consult " ( consule ) , which required the magistrate to ask for the opinions of the senators . Any senator could demand a quorum call ( with the cry of numera ) , which required a count of the senators present . Like modern quorum calls , this was usually a delaying tactic . Senators could also demand that a motion be divided into smaller motions . Acts such as applause , booing , or heckling often played a major role in a debate , and , in part because all senators had an absolute right to free speech , any senator could respond at any point if he was attacked personally . Once debates were underway , they were usually difficult for the presiding magistrate to control . The presiding magistrate typically only regained some control once the debating had ended , and a vote was about to be taken .
In the later years of the Republic , attempts were made by the aristocracy to limit the increasing level of chaos associated with the obstructive tendencies and democratic impulses of some of the senators . Laws were enacted to prevent the inclusion of extraneous material in bills before the Senate . Other laws were enacted to outlaw the so @-@ called omnibus bills , which are bills , usually enacted by a single vote , that contain a large volume of often unrelated material .
Laws were also enacted to strengthen the requirement that three days pass between the proposal of a bill , and the vote on that bill . During his term as dictator , Julius Caesar enacted laws that required the publication of Senate resolutions . This publication , called the acta diurna , or " daily proceedings " , was meant to increase transparency and minimize the potential for abuse . This publication was posted in the Roman Forum , and then sent by messengers throughout the provinces .
= = Votes and the Tribune 's veto = =
When it was time to call a vote , the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals ( in whatever order ) he wished , and every vote was between a proposal and its negative . Quorums were required for votes to be held , and it is known that in 67 BC the size of a quorum was set at 200 senators ( by the lex Cornelia de privilegiis ) . At any point before a motion passed , the proposed motion could be vetoed . Usually , vetoes were handed down by plebeian tribunes . If the Senate proposed a bill that the plebeian tribune ( the magistrate who was the chief representative of the people ) did not agree with , he issued a veto , which was backed by the promise to literally " ' interpose the sacrosanctity of his person ' " ( or intercessio ) if the Senate did not comply . If the Senate did not comply , he could physically prevent the Senate from acting , and any resistance could be criminally prosecuted as constituting a violation of his sacrosanctity . If the vetoed motion was proposed the next day , and the plebeian tribune who had vetoed it the day before was not present to interpose himself , the motion could be passed . In general , the plebeian tribune had to physically be present at the Senate meeting , otherwise his physical threat of interposing his person had no meaning . Ultimately , the plebeian tribune 's veto was based in a promise of physical force .
Once a vote occurred , and a measure passed , he could do nothing , since his promise to physically interpose his person against the senators was now meaningless . In addition , during a couple of instances between the end of the Second Punic War in 201 BC and the beginning of the Social War in 91 BC , although they had no legal power to do so , several Consuls were known to have vetoed acts of the Senate . Ultimately , if there was no veto , and the matter was of minor importance , it could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands . If there was no veto , and the matter was of a significant nature , there was usually a physical division of the house , where senators voted by taking a place on either side of the chamber .
Any motion that had the support of the Senate but was vetoed was recorded in the annals as a senatus auctoritas , while any motion that was passed and not vetoed was recorded as a senatus consultum . After the vote , each senatus consultum and each senatus auctoritas was transcribed into a final document by the presiding magistrate . This document included the name of the presiding magistrate , the place of the assembly , the dates involved , the number of senators who were present at time the motion was passed , the names of witnesses to the drafting of the motion , and the substance of the act . In addition , if the motion was a senatus consultum , a capital letter " C " was stamped on the document , to verify that the motion had been approved by the Senate .
The document was then deposited in the temple that housed the Treasury ( the aerarium ) . While a senatus auctoritas ( vetoed Senate motion ) had no legal value , it did serve to show the opinion of the Senate . If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law ( lex ) that was passed by a Roman Assembly , the law overrode the senatus consultum , because the senatus consultum had its authority based in precedent , and not in law . A senatus consultum , however , could serve to interpret a law .
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= Spokane , Washington =
Spokane ( pronunciation : / spoʊˈkæn / spoh @-@ KAN ) is a city in the state of Washington , in the northwestern United States . Spokane is the seat of Spokane County . It is located on the Spokane River , west of the Rocky Mountain foothills in eastern Washington , 92 miles ( 148 km ) south of the Canadian border , approximately 20 miles ( 30 km ) from the Washington – Idaho border , and 280 miles ( 450 km ) east of Seattle along Interstate 90 . The city and wider Inland Northwest region is served by Spokane International Airport , 5 miles ( 8 km ) west of downtown Spokane . According to the 2010 Census , Spokane had a population of 208 @,@ 916 , making it the second largest city in Washington and the 102nd largest city in the United States .
The first humans to live in the area , the Spokane people ( their name meaning " children of the sun " in Salishan ) , arrived between 13 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 years ago , living off plentiful game . Known as the birthplace of Father 's Day , Spokane is officially nicknamed the " Lilac City " . David Thompson explored the area with the westward expansion and establishment of the North West Company 's Spokane House in 1810 . This trading post was the first long @-@ term European settlement in Washington . Completion of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1881 brought settlers to the Spokane area , and that same year it was officially incorporated as a city with the name " Spokan Falls " . The " e " was added to Spokane in 1883 , and " Falls " was dropped in 1891 . In the late 19th century , gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Northwest . The local economy depended on mining , timber , and agriculture until the 1980s . Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed World 's Fair at Expo ' 74 .
Many of the older Romanesque Revival @-@ style buildings in the downtown area were designed by architect Kirtland Kelsey Cutter after the Great Fire of 1889 . The city also features Riverfront and Manito parks , the Smithsonian @-@ affiliated Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture , the Davenport Hotel , and the Fox and Bing Crosby theaters . The Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane with Thomas Daly as the newly appointed Bishop as of 2015 . The Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist ( Spokane , Washington ) represents the Anglican community . The city is also the center of the Mormon Spokane Washington Temple District . Gonzaga University was established in 1887 by the Society of Jesus , and the private Presbyterian Whitworth University moved to north Spokane in 1914 from Tacoma , WA . In sports , the Gonzaga Bulldogs collegiate basketball team competes at the Division I level . Professional and semi @-@ professional sports teams include the Spokane Indians in Minor League Baseball , Spokane Empire in arena football , and Spokane Chiefs in junior ice hockey . As of 2010 , Spokane 's only major daily newspaper , The Spokesman @-@ Review , had a daily circulation of over 75 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
The first humans to live in the Spokane area arrived between 13 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 years ago and were hunter @-@ gatherer societies that lived off plentiful game . The Spokane tribe , after which the city is named ( the name meaning " children of the sun " Salishan ) , [ a ] are believed to be either their direct descendants , or descendants of people from the Great Plains . When asked by early white explorers , the Spokanes said their ancestors came from " up North " .
Early in the 19th century , the Northwest Fur Company sent two white fur trappers west of the Rocky Mountains to search for fur . These were the first white men met by the Spokanes , who believed they were sacred , and set the trappers up in the Colville River valley for the winter .
= = = Trading post = = =
The explorer @-@ geographer David Thompson , working as head of the North West Company 's Columbia Department , became the first European to explore the Inland Empire ( now called the Inland Northwest ) . Crossing what is now the U.S. – Canadian border from British Columbia , Thompson wanted to expand the North West Company further south in search of furs . After establishing the Kullyspell House and Saleesh House trading posts in what are now Idaho and Montana , Thompson then attempted to expand further west . He sent out two trappers , Jacques Raphael Finlay and Finan McDonald , to construct a fur trading post on the Spokane River in Washington and trade with the local Indians . This post was established in 1810 , at the confluence of the Little Spokane and Spokane rivers , becoming the first enduring European settlement of significance in Washington state . Known as the Spokane House , or simply " Spokane " , it was in operation from 1810 to 1826 . Operations were run by the British North West Company and later the Hudson 's Bay Company , and the post was the headquarters of the fur trade between the Rocky and Cascade mountains for 16 years . After the latter business absorbed the North West Company in 1821 , the major operations at the Spokane House were eventually shifted north to Fort Colville , reducing the post 's significance .
In 1836 , Reverend Samuel Parker visited the area and reported that around 800 Native Americans were living in Spokane Falls . A medical mission was established by Marcus and Narcissa Whitman to cater for Cayuse Indians and hikers of the Oregon Trail at Walla Walla in the south . After the Whitmans were killed by Indians in 1847 , Reverend Cushing Eells established Whitman College in the city of Walla Walla , WA in their memory . Rev. Eells built the first church in Spokane in 1881 Between 1881 and 1882 the first Baptist and Episcopal churches were started , and the first Presbyterian church in 1883 .
In 1853 , two years after the establishment of the Washington Territory , the first governor , Isaac Stevens , made an initial effort to make a treaty with Chief Garry and the Spokanes at Antoine Plantes ' Ferry , not far from Millwood .
After the last campaign of the Yakima Indian War , the Coeur d 'Alene War of 1858 was brought to a close by the actions of Col. George Wright , who won decisive victories against a confederation of tribes in engagements at the battles of Four Lakes and Spokane Plains . The cessation of hostilities opened the inter @-@ mountain valley of the Pacific Northwest to safe habitation by settlers .
= = = American settlement = = =
Joint American – British occupation of Oregon Country , in effect since the Treaty of 1818 , eventually led to the Oregon Boundary Dispute after a large influx of American settlers along the Oregon Trail . The first American settlers in what is now Spokane were J.J. Downing and S.R. Scranton , cattle ranchers who squatted and established a claim at Spokane Falls in 1871 . Together they built a small sawmill on a claim near the south bank of the falls . James N. Glover and Jasper Matheney , Oregonians passing through the region in 1873 , recognized the value of the Spokane River and its falls for the purpose of water power . They realized the investment potential and bought the claims of 160 acres ( 65 ha ) and the sawmill from Downing and Scranton for a total of $ 4 @,@ 000 . Glover and Matheney knew that the Northern Pacific Railroad Company had received a government charter to build a main line across this northern route . Amid many delays in construction and uncertainty over the completion of the railroad and its exact course , Matheney sold his interest in the claim to Glover . [ b ] Glover confidently held on to his claim and became a successful Spokane business owner and was the second mayor of Spokane in 1883 . He later came to be known as the " Father of Spokane " . When Spokane was officially incorporated in 1881 Robert W. Forrest was elected as the first mayor of the city , with a Council of seven @-@ S.G. Havermale , A.M. Cannon , Dr. L.H.Whitehouse , L.W. Rima , F.R. Moore , George A. Davis , and W.C. Gray . The Mayor and Councilmen served without pay .
In 1880 , Fort Spokane was established by U.S. Army troops under Lt. Col. Henry Clay Merriam 56 miles ( 90 km ) northwest of Spokane , at the junction of the Columbia and Spokane Rivers , to protect the construction of the Northern Pacific Railway and secure a place for U.S. settlement . By June 30 , 1881 , the railway reached the city , bringing major European settlement to the area . The city of Spokan Falls ( the " e " was added in 1883 and " Falls " dropped in 1891 ) was officially incorporated as a city of about 1 @,@ 000 residents on November 29 , 1881 . [ c ] The marketing campaigns of transportation companies with affordable fertile land to sell along their trade routes lured many settlers into the region they dubbed " Spokane Country " .
The 1883 discovery of gold , silver , and lead in the Coeur d 'Alene region of northern Idaho lured prospectors . The Inland Empire erupted with numerous mining rushes from 1883 to 1892 . Mining and smelting emerged as a major stimulus to Spokane . At the onset of the initial 1883 gold rush in the nearby Coeur d 'Alene mining district , Spokane became popular with prospectors , offering low prices on everything " from a horse to a frying pan " . It would keep this status for subsequent rushes in the region due to its trade center status and accessibility to railroad infrastructure . [ d ]
Spokane 's growth continued unabated until August 4 , 1889 , when a fire , now known as The Great Fire ( not to be confused with the Great Fire of 1910 , which happened nearby ) , began just after 6 : 00 p.m. and destroyed the city 's downtown commercial district . Due to technical problems with a pump station , there was no water pressure in the city when the fire started . In a desperate bid to starve the fire , firefighters began razing buildings with dynamite . Eventually the winds and the fire died down ; 32 blocks of Spokane 's downtown core had been destroyed and one person killed .
Despite this catastrophe , and in part because of it , Spokane experienced a building boom . [ e ] The downtown was rebuilt , and the city was reincorporated under the present name of " Spokane " in 1891 . According to historian David H. Stratton , " From the late 1890s to about 1912 , a great flurry of construction created a modern urban profile of office buildings , banks , department stores , hotels and other commercial institutions , " which stretched from the Spokane River to the site of the Northern Pacific railroad tracks below the South Hill . Yet the rebuilding and development of the city was far from smooth : between 1889 and 1896 alone , all six bridges over the Spokane River were destroyed by floods before their completion . In the 1890s the city was subject to intrastate migration by African @-@ Americans from Roslyn , looking for work after the closure of the area 's mines . Two African @-@ American churches , Calvary Baptist and Bethel African Methodist Episcopal , were founded in 1890 . Just three years after the fire , in 1892 , James J. Hill 's Great Northern Railway arrived in the chosen site for Hill 's rail yards , the newly created township of Hillyard ( annexed by Spokane in 1924 ) . Spokane became an important rail shipping and transportation hub for the Inland Empire , connecting mines in the Silver Valley with agricultural areas around the Palouse region . The city 's population ballooned to 19 @,@ 922 in 1890 , and to 36 @,@ 848 in 1900 with the arrival of additional railroads . By 1910 the population had hit 104 @,@ 000 , and Spokane eclipsed Walla Walla as the commercial center of the Inland Empire . In time the city came to be known as the " capital " of the Inland Empire and the heart of a vast tributary region . After the arrival of the Northern Pacific , Union Pacific , Great Northern , and Chicago , Milwaukee , St. Paul and Pacific railroads , Spokane became one of the most important rail centers in the western U.S.
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Expansion abruptly stopped in the 1910s and was followed by a period of population decline , due in large part to Spokane 's slowing economy . Control of regional mines and resources became increasingly dominated by national corporations rather than local people and organizations , diverting capital outside of Spokane and decreasing growth and investment opportunities in the city . During this time of stagnation , unrest was prevalent among the area 's unemployed , who became victimized by " job sharks " , who charged a fee for signing up workers in the logging camps . Job sharks and employment agencies were known to cheat itinerant workers , sometimes paying bribes to periodically fire entire work crews , thus generating repetitive fees for themselves . Crime spiked in the 1890s and 1900s , with eruptions of violent activity involving unions such as the Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW ) , or " Wobblies " as they were often known , whose free speech fights had begun to garner national attention . Now , with grievances concerning the unethical practices of the employment agencies , they initiated a free speech fight in September 1908 by purposely breaking a city ordinance on soapboxing . With IWW encouragement , union members from many western states came to Spokane to take part in what had become a publicity stunt . Many Wobblies were incarcerated , including feminist labor leader Elizabeth Gurley Flynn , who published her account in the local Industrial Worker .
After mining declined at the turn of the 20th century , agriculture and logging became the primary influences in the Spokane economy . The population explosion and the building of homes , railroads , and mines in northern Idaho and southern British Columbia fueled the industry . Although overshadowed in importance by the vast timbered areas on the coastal regions west of the Cascades , and burdened with monopolistic rail freight rates and stiff competition , Spokane became a noted leader in the manufacture of doors , window sashes , blinds , and other planing mill products . Rail freight rates were much higher in Spokane than the rates in coastal seaport cities such as Seattle and Portland , so much so that Minneapolis merchants could ship goods first to Seattle and then back to Spokane for less than shipping directly to Spokane , even though the rail line ran through Spokane on the way to the coast . [ f ] Local morale was affected for years by the collapse of the Division Street Bridge early in the morning on December 15 , 1915 , which killed five people and injured over 20 , but a new bridge was built ( eventually replaced in 1994 ) . The 1920 census showed a net increase of just 35 individuals , which actually indicates that thousands left the city when considering the natural growth rate of a population . Growth in the 1920s and 1930s remained slow but less drastically so , forcing city boosters to market the city as a quiet , comfortable place suitable for raising a family rather than a dynamic community full of opportunity . The Inland Empire was heavily dependent on natural resources and extractive goods produced from mines , forests , and farms , which experienced a fall in demand . The situation improved slightly with the start of World War II as aluminum production commenced in Spokane due to the area 's cheap electricity ( produced from regional dams ) and the increased demand for airplanes .
= = = Second half of the 20th century = = =
After decades of stagnation and slow growth , Spokane businessmen formed Spokane Unlimited in the early 1960s , an organization that sought to revitalize downtown Spokane . A recreation park showcasing the Spokane Falls was the preferred option , and after successful negotiation to relocate the railroad facilities on Havermale Island , Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed World 's Fair in Expo ' 74 on May 4 , becoming the smallest city at the time to host a World 's Fair . This event transformed Spokane 's downtown , removing a century of railroad infrastructure and reinventing the urban core . After Expo ' 74 , the fairgrounds became the 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) Riverfront Park .
The growth witnessed in the late 1970s and early 1980s was interrupted by another U.S. recession in 1981 , in which silver , timber , and farm prices dropped . The period of decline for the city lasted into the 1990s and was also marked by a loss of many steady family @-@ wage jobs in the manufacturing sector . Although this was a tough period , Spokane 's economy had started to benefit from some measure of economic diversification ; growing companies such as Key Tronic and other research , marketing , and assembly plants for technology companies helped lessen Spokane 's dependence on natural resources .
= = = 21st century = = =
As of 2014 , Spokane is still trying to make the transition to a more service @-@ oriented economy in the face of a less prominent manufacturing sector . Developing the city 's strength in the medical and health sciences fields has seen some success , resulting in the expansion of the University District with a medical school branch . The city faces challenges such as a scarcity of high @-@ paying jobs , pockets of poverty , and areas of high crime .
The opening of the River Park Square Mall in 1999 sparked a downtown rebirth that included the building of the Spokane Arena and expansion of the Spokane Convention Center . Other major projects include the building of the Big Easy concert house ( now the Knitting Factory ) and renovation of the historic Montvale Hotel , the Kirtland Cutter @-@ designed Davenport Hotel ( after being vacant for over 20 years ) , and the Fox Theater ( now home to the Spokane Symphony ) . The Kendall Yards development on the west side of downtown Spokane is one of the largest construction projects in the city 's history . Directly across the Spokane River from downtown , it will blend residential and retail space with plazas and walking trails .
In August 2015 , the city entered a legal battle with international agricultural giant Monsanto , alleging that the company has pumped harmful products into the Spokane River for decades , and insist the company be responsible for cleanup costs . The city also announced it will spend hundreds of millions of dollars to keep harmful products out of the river in the coming years .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Spokane is located on the Spokane River in eastern Washington at an elevation of 1 @,@ 843 feet ( 562 m ) above sea level , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Idaho , 110 miles ( 180 km ) south of the Canadian border , 232 miles ( 373 km ) east of Seattle , and 277 miles ( 446 km ) southwest of Calgary . The lowest elevation in the city of Spokane is the northernmost point of the Spokane River within city limits ( in Riverside State Park ) at 1 @,@ 608 feet ( 490 m ) ; the highest elevation is on the northeast side , near the community of Hillyard ( though closer to Beacon Hill and the North Hill Reservoir ) at 2 @,@ 591 feet ( 790 m ) . Spokane is part of the Inland Northwest region , consisting of eastern Washington , northern Idaho , northwestern Montana , and northeastern Oregon . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 60 @.@ 02 square miles ( 155 @.@ 45 km2 ) , of which 59 @.@ 25 square miles ( 153 @.@ 46 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 77 square miles ( 1 @.@ 99 km2 ) is water .
Spokane lies in the Columbia Plateau ecoregion on the eastern edge of the basaltic Channeled Scablands steppe , a plain that then eventually rises sharply to the east towards the rugged , timbered Rocky Mountain foothills , the Selkirk Mountains . It is in a transition area between the barren landscape of the Columbia Basin and the coniferous forests to the east ; to the south are the lush prairies and rolling hills of the Palouse . The highest peak in Spokane County is Mount Spokane , at an elevation of 5 @,@ 883 feet ( 1 @,@ 793 m ) , located on the eastern side of the Selkirk Mountains . The most prominent water feature in the area is the Spokane River , a 111 @-@ mile ( 179 km ) tributary of the Columbia River , originating from Lake Coeur d 'Alene in northern Idaho . The river flows west across the Washington state line through downtown Spokane , meeting Latah Creek , then turns to the northwest , where it is joined by the Little Spokane River on its way to the Columbia River , north of Davenport . The Channeled Scablands and many of the area 's numerous large lakes , such as Lake Coeur d 'Alene and Lake Pend Oreille , were formed by the Missoula Floods after the ice @-@ dammed Glacial Lake Missoula ruptured at the end of the last ice age . The Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge south of Cheney is the closest natural reserve , and the closest national park is Glacier National Park , approximately a four @-@ hour drive away from Spokane .
= = = Climate = = =
Spokane has a dry @-@ summer continental climate ( Dsb under the Köppen classification ) , a rare climate due to its elevation and significant winter precipitation ; Spokane , however , is adjacent to and sometimes even classified as a cool @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) because the average temperature for the coldest month is just over 27 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) .
The area typically has a hot , arid climate during the summer months , bracketed by short spring and fall seasons . On average , July and August are equally warm , and the coolest month is December ; July averages 69 @.@ 5 ° F ( 20 @.@ 8 ° C ) while December averages 27 @.@ 5 ° F ( − 2 @.@ 5 ° C ) . Daily temperature ranges are large during the summer , often exceeding 30 ° F ( 17 ° C ) , and small during the winter , with a range just above 10 ° F ( 5 @.@ 6 ° C ) . The reason is the very opposite weather existing between the extremely sunny summers and the extremely overcast winters . The record high and low are 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) and − 30 ° F ( − 34 ° C ) , but temperatures of more than 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) or less than − 10 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) are rare . Temperatures above 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) occur an average of 19 days annually , Temperatures above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) occur an average of only 1 day annually , and those below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) average 3 @.@ 5 days a year .
Spokane 's location , between the Cascades Range to the west and the Rocky Mountains to the east and north , protects it from weather patterns experienced in other parts of the Pacific Northwest . The Cascade Mountains form a barrier to the eastward flow of moist and relatively mild air from the Pacific Ocean in winter and cool air in summer . As a result of the rain shadow effect of the Cascades , the Spokane area has 16 @.@ 5 inches ( 420 mm ) average annual precipitation , less than half of Seattle 's 37 inches ( 940 mm ) . The most precipitation occurs in December , and summer is the driest time of the year . The Rockies shield Spokane from some of the winter season 's coldest air masses traveling southward across Canada .
= = Administration and politics = =
The City of Spokane operates under a mayor – council form of government , with executive and legislative branches . In 2011 , David Condon was elected mayor as a non @-@ partisan candidate , taking office on the last business day of the year . The previous mayor was Mary Verner , who succeeded the recalled James " Jim " West . Spokane voters have not reelected a mayor since 1973 , when incumbent David H. Rodgers was granted a second term . The city elected James Everett Chase as its first African @-@ American mayor in 1981 , and after his retirement , elected the city 's first woman mayor , Vicki McNeil . Spokane is the county seat of Spokane County , a position it wrested from Cheney in 1886 .
Democrat Jay Inslee was elected governor of Washington in 2012 . Federally , Spokane is part of Washington 's 5th congressional district , and has been represented by Republican Cathy McMorris Rodgers since 2004 . Washington State is represented nationally in the Senate by Democrat Patty Murray and Democrat Maria Cantwell . In the 2012 general election , Spokane County favored Mitt Romney for President over Barack Obama by 51 @.@ 5 to 45 @.@ 7 percent ; on the state ballot , the county supported the legalization of recreational marijuana ballot measure by 52 @.@ 2 to 47 @.@ 9 percent and opposed the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage by 44 @.@ 1 to 55 @.@ 9 percent . Spokane native Tom Foley was a Democratic Speaker of the House and served as a representative of Washington 's 5th district for 30 years , enjoying large support from Spokane , until his narrow defeat in the " Republican Revolution " of 1994 , the only time U.S. voters have turned out a sitting Speaker of the House since 1860 . Today , Spokane has a slight Democratic tilt , although the county and surrounding metropolitan area as a whole is staunchly conservative , and as a result , Spokane is governed by a strong amount of Republicans .
= = = Crime = = =
The crime rate per 1 @,@ 000 people in the Spokane metropolitan area ( Spokane County ) was 64 @.@ 8 in 2012 , higher than the Washington state average of 38 @.@ 3 ; the violent crime rate of 3 @.@ 8 and property crime rate of 61 also exceed the statewide averages of 2 @.@ 5 and 35 @.@ 8 , respectively . Spokane 's crime rate is also higher for both violent and property crime than in 98 % of communities in the U.S.
Data shows that most crimes reported in the city tend to be focused around the downtown city center and its environs . Half of all property crimes are localized in about 6 @.@ 5 percent of the city . An individual in Spokane has a 1 in 140 chance of becoming a victim of burglary , larceny , motor vehicle theft , or arson . Spokane had the fourth highest rate of auto theft in the U.S. in 2010 and 2011 according to the National Insurance Crime Bureau . Drive @-@ by shootings and drug use , particularly crack cocaine use , became worse in the early 1990s , and four drive @-@ by shootings were recorded in December 1993 alone . In the 1990s , a special gang unit within the Spokane Police Department was established , with an officer " collecting intelligence on gang activity and disseminating it to street officers " . The 1990s also saw Spokane 's most prolific serial killer , Robert Lee Yates , who killed thirteen prostitutes in Spokane 's East Sprague red light district and confessed to two others in Tacoma , Washington . The transition of the Spokane Police Department to a community @-@ policing precinct model has been successful in curbing crime rates since its introduction downtown , and has been expanded citywide .
Spokane and the Spokane Police Department ( SPD ) have received national publicity and scrutiny in the 2000s and 2010s due to many officer @-@ involved shootings and the use of excessive force . The most high @-@ profile of these incidents was the 2006 death of Otto Zehm , a mentally challenged man who was initially suspected of theft at a convenience store . Zehm was later found to have committed no crime , but was struck with batons by several officers and tasered . The increased pressure on the SPD prompted an independent review by a commission of the organization 's use @-@ of @-@ force policies , an internal culture audit , and the purchase of body cameras .
Spokane 's high crime rate is related to its being a major dumping ground for Washington state 's prison system .
= = = Utilities = = =
The City of Spokane provides municipal water , wastewater management , and solid waste management . Spokane operates Washington 's only waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant as well as two solid waste transfer stations as part of the Spokane Regional Solid Waste System , a collaboration between the City of Spokane and Spokane County . Electricity generated by the waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant is used to operate the facility , with excess energy being sold to Puget Sound Energy . Spokane draws its water from the Spokane Valley – Rathdrum Prairie Aquifer ; this 370 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 958 km2 ) " sole source aquifer " is the only water supply for Spokane County in Washington , and for Kootenai and Bonner counties in Idaho .
Natural gas and electricity are provided by the local utility , Avista Utilities , while CenturyLink and Comcast provide television , internet , and telephone service . Spokane hosts three hydroelectric generation facilities on the Spokane River : the Upriver Dam , the Upper Falls Dam , and the Monroe Street Dam . The Upriver Dam is owned and operated by the City of Spokane , and generates the electricity needed to operate the municipal water supply 's pressure pumps . The power generated in excess of that is sold to Avista Utilities . The Upper Falls and Monroe Street dams are owned and operated by Avista Utilities , and have respective generation capacities of 10 and 15 MW .
= = Demographics = =
According to the American Community Survey , the median income for a household in Spokane in 2012 was $ 42 @,@ 274 , and the median income for a family was $ 50 @,@ 268 . Males had a median income of $ 42 @,@ 693 and females had a median income of $ 34 @,@ 795 . The per capita income for the city was $ 24 @,@ 034 . About 13 @.@ 3 % of families and 18 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 23 @.@ 8 % of those under the age of 18 and 10 @.@ 8 % of those aged 65 and older .
At the 2010 census , there were 208 @,@ 916 people , 87 @,@ 271 households , and 49 @,@ 204 families residing in the city . The population density was 3 @,@ 526 @.@ 0 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 361 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 94 @,@ 291 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 591 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 614 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 86 @.@ 7 % White , 2 @.@ 29 % African American , 2 @.@ 0 % Native American , 2 @.@ 6 % Asian , and 0 @.@ 6 % Pacific Islander , along with 1 @.@ 3 % from other races and 4 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . Hispanics and Latinos of any race were 5 @.@ 0 % of the population .
There were 87 @,@ 271 households , of which 28 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 38 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 12 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , 5 @.@ 0 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 43 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . In 2010 , 34 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 11 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 31 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 97 .
The median age in the city was 35 years . In Spokane , 22 @.@ 4 % of residents were under the age of 18 , 12 @.@ 3 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 , 27 @.@ 6 % were from 25 to 44 , 25 @.@ 1 % were from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 8 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 48 @.@ 8 % male and 51 @.@ 2 % female .
According to the Association of Religion Data Archives ' 2010 Metro Area Membership Report , the denominational affiliations of the Spokane MSA are 64 @,@ 277 Evangelical Protestant , 682 Black Protestant , 24 @,@ 826 Mainline Protestant , 754 Orthodox , 66 @,@ 202 Catholic , 31 @,@ 674 Other , and 339 @,@ 338 Unclaimed . As of 2014 , there are also at least three Jewish congregations . The Emanu @-@ El congregation erected the first synagogue in Spokane and the state of Washington on September 14 , 1892 . The city 's first mosque opened in 2009 as the Spokane Islamic Center .
Spokane , like Washington and the Pacific Northwest region as a whole , is part of the Unchurched Belt , a region characterized by low church membership rates and religious participation . The city serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane , which was established in 1913 , and the Mormon Spokane Washington Temple District .
Spokane has been criticized and sometimes derided for its lack of diversity and multicultural offerings , but the city has become more diverse in recent decades . People from countries in the former Soviet Union ( especially Russians and Ukrainians ) form a comparatively large demographic in Spokane and Spokane County , the result of a large influx of immigrants and their families after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 . According to the 2000 Census , the number of people of Russian or Ukrainian ancestry in Spokane County was reported to be 7 @,@ 700 ( 4 @,@ 900 residing in the city of Spokane ) , amounting to two percent of the county . Among the fastest @-@ growing demographics in Spokane is the Pacific Islander ethnic group , which is estimated to be the third largest minority group in the county , after the Russian and Ukrainian community and Latinos . Spokane was once home to a sizable Asian community , mostly Japanese , centered in a district called Chinatown from the early days of the city until 1974 . As in many western railway towns , the Asian community started off as an encampment for migrant laborers working on the railroads . The Chinatown Asian community thrived until the 1940s , after which its population decreased and became integrated and dispersed , losing its Asian character ; urban blight and the preparations leading up to Expo ' 74 led to Chinatown 's eventual demolition .
= = = Metropolitan area = = =
The Spokane metropolitan area consists of Spokane , Stevens , and Pend Oreille counties . As of the 2013 census estimates , the Spokane metropolitan area had a population of 535 @,@ 724 . Directly east of Spokane County is the Coeur d 'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Area , which consists of Kootenai County , Idaho , anchored by the city of Coeur d 'Alene . The urban areas of the two MSAs largely follow the path of Interstate 90 between Spokane and Coeur d 'Alene . The Spokane area has suffered from suburbanization and urban sprawl in past decades , despite Washington 's use of urban growth boundaries ; the city ranks low among major Northwest cities in population density and smart growth . The Spokane and Coeur d 'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Areas ( MSA ) are now included in a single Combined Statistical Area ( CSA ) by the Office of Management and Budget . The Spokane – Coeur d 'Alene CSA had around 679 @,@ 989 residents in 2013 .
= = Economy = =
Spokane became an important rail and shipping center because of its location between mining and farming areas . In the early 1880s , gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Empire ; as a regional shipping center , the city furnished supplies to the miners who passed through on their way to the mineral @-@ rich Coeur d 'Alene , Colville and Kootenay districts . The mining districts are still considered among the most productive in North America .
Natural resources have historically been the foundation of Spokane 's economy , with the mining , logging , and agriculture industries providing much of the region 's economic activity . After mining declined at the turn of the 20th century , agriculture and logging replaced mining as the primary influences in the economy . Lumberjacks and millmen working in the hundreds of mills along the railroads , rivers , and lakes of northern Washington and Idaho were provisioning themselves in Spokane . Agriculture has always been an important sector in the local economy ; the surrounding area , especially to the south , is the Palouse , a productive agricultural region that supports many vineyards and microbreweries as well . By the early 20th century Spokane was primarily a commercial center rather than an industrial center .
In Spokane , wood and food processing , printing and publishing , primary metal refining and fabrication , electrical and computer equipment , and transportation equipment are leaders in the manufacturing sector . Gold mining company Gold Reserve , and Fortune 1000 company Potlatch Corporation – a forest products company that operates as a real estate investment trust – are headquartered in the city proper . Mining , forestry , and agribusiness remain important to the local and regional economy , but Spokane 's economy has diversified to include other industries , including the high @-@ tech and biotech sectors . Spokane is becoming a more service @-@ oriented economy in the face of a less prominent manufacturing sector , particularly as a medical and biotechnology center ; Fortune 1000 technology company Itron , for instance , is headquartered in the area . Avista Corporation , the holding company of Avista Utilities , is the only company in Spokane that has been listed in the Fortune 500 , ranked 299 on the list in 2002 . Other companies with head offices in the Spokane area include technology company Key Tronic , hotelier Red Lion Hotels Corporation , and microcar maker Commuter Cars .
As of 2013 , the top five employers in Spokane are the State of Washington , Spokane Public Schools , Providence Sacred Heart Medical Center and Children 's Hospital , the 92d Air Refueling Wing , and Spokane County . The largest military facility and employer , the 92d Air Refueling Wing , is stationed at Fairchild Air Force Base near Airway Heights . The leading industries in Spokane for the employed population 16 years and older were educational services , health care , and social assistance ( 26 @.@ 5 percent ) , retail trade ( 12 @.@ 7 percent ) , and arts , entertainment , recreation , and accommodation food services ( 10 @.@ 4 percent ) . As the metropolitan center of the Inland Northwest , as well as parts of southern British Columbia and Alberta , Spokane serves as a commercial , manufacturing , transportation , medical , shopping , and entertainment hub . In 2010 , the Spokane – Spokane Valley MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $ 19 @.@ 48 billion .
As of 2014 , economic development in the Spokane area primarily focuses on promoting the following industries : manufacturing ( especially aerospace manufacturing ) , health sciences , professional services , information science and technology , finance and insurance as well as clean technology , and digital media . To aid economic development , the eastern branch of Innovate Washington , a state @-@ supported business incubator was placed in the city .
Despite diversification to new industries , Spokane 's economy has struggled in recent decades . Spokane was ranked the # 1 " Worst City For Jobs " in America in both 2012 and 2015 , while also ranking # 4 in 2014 . Additionally , Forbes named Spokane the " Scam Capital of America " in 2009 due to widespread business fraud . Trends of fraud were noted as far back as 1988 , again in 2002 , and continuing through 2011 .
= = Cityscape = =
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Spokane 's neighborhoods range from the Victorian @-@ style South Hill and Browne 's Addition , to the Davenport District of Downtown , to the more contemporary neighborhoods of North Spokane . Spokane 's neighborhoods are gaining attention for their history , as illustrated by the city being home to 18 recognized National Register Historical Districts .
Some of Spokane 's most prominent neighborhoods are Riverside , Browne 's Addition , and Hillyard . The Riverside neighborhood consists primarily of downtown Spokane and is the central business district of Spokane . The neighborhoods south of downtown Spokane are generally known as the South Hill . Downtown Spokane contains many of the city 's public facilities , including City Hall , Riverfront Park ( site of Expo ' 74 ) , and the Spokane Convention Center and INB Performing Arts Center , as well as the Spokane Arena and Spokane County Courthouse across the river in the historic West Central neighborhood . The Monroe Street Bridge , a city icon , connects the two areas . To the east of downtown is East Central and the adjacent University District and International District . To the west of downtown is one of Spokane 's oldest and densest neighborhoods , Browne 's Addition .
A National Historic District west of Downtown , Browne 's Addition was Spokane 's first prestigious address , notable for its array of old mansions built by Spokane 's early elite in the Queen Anne and early American Craftsman styles . The area houses the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture . In northeast Spokane , the Hillyard neighborhood began in 1892 as the chosen site for James J. Hill 's Great Northern Railway yard , placed outside Spokane city limits to avoid " burdensome taxes . " The downtown Hillyard Business District , located on Market Street , was the Spokane neighborhood listed in the National Register of Historic Places . Many of the former town 's houses were built to house railroad workers , mainly immigrant laborers working in the local yard , who gave Hillyard an independent , blue @-@ collar character . Hillyard has become a home for much of Spokane 's growing Russian , Ukrainian , and Southeast Asian communities .
= = = Architecture = = =
= = = = Commercial and public buildings = = = =
Spokane neighborhoods contain a patchwork of architectural styles that give them a distinct identity and illustrate the changes throughout the city 's history . Most of Spokane 's notable buildings and landmarks are in the Riverside neighborhood and the downtown commercial district , where many of the buildings were rebuilt following the Great Fire of 1889 in the Romanesque Revival style . Examples include the Great Northern clock tower , Review Building , Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes , First Congregational Church , Washington Water Power Post Street substation , Peyton Building , and The Carlyle . The principal architect of many buildings of this period was Kirtland Kelsey Cutter . Self @-@ taught , he came to Spokane in 1886 and began by designing " Chalet Hohenstein " for himself and other residences for his family while also working as a bank teller . Other structures designed by Cutter include the Spokane Club , Washington Water Power Substation , Monroe Street Bridge ( featured in the city seal ) , Central Steam Plant , and the Davenport Hotel . Built in renaissance and Spanish revival style , the Davenport Hotel cost two million dollars to complete , and included new technologies at the time of its opening in September 1914 , such as chilled water , elevators , and air cooling .
Other well @-@ represented architectural styles downtown include art deco ( Spokane City Hall , Paulsen Center , Fox Theater , City Ramp Garage ) , renaissance revival ( Steam Plant Square , Thomas S. Foley Courthouse , San Marco ) , neoclassical ( Masonic Center , Hutton Building , Bing Crosby Theater ) , and Chicago school ( U.S. Bank Building , Liberty Building ) . The tallest building in the city , at 288 feet ( 88 m ) , is the modernist Bank of America Financial Center . Also of note is the Spokane County Courthouse in West Central ( the building on the seal of Spokane County ) , the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist in Rockwood , the Benewah Milk Bottles in Riverside and Garland , Mount Saint Michael in Hillyard , and the Cambern Dutch Shop Windmill in South Perry .
= = = = Residential = = = =
As an early affluent Spokane neighborhood , the Browne 's Addition neighborhood and residences contain the largest variety of residential architecture in the city . These residences are lavish and personalized , featuring many architecture styles that were popular and trendy in the Pacific Northwest from the late 19th century to 1930 , such as the Victorian and Queen Anne styles . In high demand following his firms ' design of the Idaho Building at the Chicago World 's Fair in 1893 , Cutter found work constructing many mansions for mining and railroad tycoons such as Patrick " Patsy " Clark and Daniel and Austin Corbin .
The older neighborhoods of the early 20th century , such as West Central , East Central , Logan , Hillyard , and much of the lower South Hill , feature a large concentration of American Craftsman style bungalows . In Hillyard , the most architecturally intact neighborhood in Spokane , 85 percent of these buildings are historic . As the city expanded mainly to the north in the middle of the 20th century , the bungalows in the " minimal traditional " style commonplace from the 1930s to the 1950s tend to predominate in the Northwest , North Hill , and Bemiss neighborhoods . This architectural style occupies the neighborhoods where the integrity of Spokane 's street grid pattern is largely intact ( especially the areas north of downtown and south of Francis Ave . ) , and the houses have backyard alleys for carports , deliveries , and refuse collection . Contemporary suburbs and architecture are prevalent at the north and south edges of Spokane as well as in the new Kendall Yards neighborhood north of downtown .
= = = Parks and recreation = = =
In 1907 , Spokane 's board of park commissioners retained the services of the Olmsted Brothers to draw up a plan for Spokane 's parks . Much of Spokane 's park land was acquired by the city prior to World War I , establishing it early on as a leader among Western cities in the development of a city @-@ wide park system . Spokane has a system of over 87 parks totaling 4 @,@ 100 acres ( 17 km2 ) and includes six neighborhood aquatic centers . Some of the most notable parks in Spokane 's system are Riverfront Park , Manito Park and Botanical Gardens , Riverside State Park , Mount Spokane State Park , Saint Michael 's Mission State Park , John A. Finch Arboretum , and the Dishman Hills Conservation Area .
Riverfront Park , created after Expo ' 74 and occupying the same site , is 100 acres ( 40 ha ) in downtown Spokane and the site of some of Spokane 's largest events . The park has views of the Spokane Falls and holds a number of civic attractions , including a skyride , a rebuilt gondola lift that carries visitors across the falls from high above the river gorge . The park also includes the historic hand @-@ carved Riverfront Park Looff carousel created in 1909 by Charles I. D. Looff . Manito Park and Botanical Gardens on Spokane 's South Hill features the Duncan Gardens , a classical European Renaissance @-@ style garden and the Nishinomiya Japanese Garden designed by Nagao Sakurai . Riverside State Park , close to downtown , is a site for outdoor activities such as hiking , mountain biking , and horseriding .
The Spokane area has many trails and rail trails , the most notable of which is the Spokane River Centennial Trail , which features over 37 @.@ 5 miles ( 60 @.@ 4 km ) of paved trails running along the Spokane River from Spokane to the Idaho border . This trail continues on towards Coeur d 'Alene for 24 miles ( 39 km ) as the North Idaho Centennial Trail and is often used for alternative transportation and recreational use . In the summer , it has long been popular to visit North Idaho 's " Lake Country " , such as Lake Coeur d 'Alene , Lake Pend Oreille , Priest Lake , or one of the other nearby bodies of water and beaches . In the winter , the public has access to five ski resorts within a couple hours of the city . The closest of these is the Mt . Spokane Ski and Snowboard Park , which has trails for cross @-@ country skiing , snowshoeing , snowmobiling , and dog sledding .
= = Culture = =
= = = Arts and theater = = =
Spokane 's main art districts are located in the Davenport Arts District , the Garland Business District , and East Sprague . The First Friday Artwalk , which occurs the first Friday of every month , is dedicated to local vendors and performers displaying art around downtown . The two most important Artwalk dates ( the first Friday of February and October ) attract large crowds to the art districts . The Davenport Arts District has the largest concentration of art galleries and is home to many of Spokane 's main performing arts venues , including the Knitting Factory , Fox Theater , and Bing Crosby Theater . The Knitting Factory is a concert house that serves as a setting for many mainstream touring musicians and acts . The Martin Woldson Theater at the Fox , restored to its original 1931 Art Deco state after years of being derelict , is home to the Spokane Symphony Orchestra . The Metropolitan Performing Arts Center was restored in 1988 and renamed the Bing Crosby Theater in 2006 to honor the former Spokanite . Theater is provided by Spokane 's only resident professional company , The Modern Theater , though there are also the Spokane Civic Theatre and several other amateur community theaters and smaller groups . The INB Performing Arts Center is often host to large traveling exhibitions , shows , and tours . Spokane was awarded the All @-@ America City Award by the National Civic League in 1974 , 2004 and 2015 .
Spokane offers an array of musical performances catering to a variety of interests . Spokane 's local music scene , however , is considered somewhat lacking by the Spokane All @-@ Ages Music Initiative and other critics , who have identified a need for a legitimate all @-@ ages venue for music performances . The Spokane Symphony presents a full season of classical music , and the Spokane Jazz Orchestra , a full season of jazz music . The Spokane Jazz Orchestra , formed in 1962 , is a 70 @-@ piece orchestra and non @-@ profit organization .
= = = Museums = = =
There are several museums in the city , most notably the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture , located a few blocks from the center of downtown in Browne 's Addition , amid the mansions of Spokane 's late 19th @-@ century " Age of Elegance " . A Smithsonian affiliate museum , it houses a large collection of Native American artifacts as well as regional and national traveling art exhibits .
The Mobius Science Center and the related Mobius Kid 's Museum in downtown Spokane seek to generate interest in science , technology , engineering , and math among the youth in a hands @-@ on experience . The Jundt Art Museum at Gonzaga University features 2 @,@ 800 square feet ( 260 m2 ) of exhibition space and contains sizable collections of prints from the Bolker , Baruch , Jacobs , and Corita Kent collections . The museum houses glass art by Dale Chihuly , bronze sculptures by Auguste Rodin , tapestries , paintings , ceramics , photographs , and a wide range of gifts , including from the Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Foundation and Collections . On the campus of Gonzaga University , the Crosby House , Bing Crosby 's childhood home houses , the Bing Crosby Memorabilia Room , the world 's largest Crosby collection with around 200 pieces .
= = = Events and activities = = =
Spokane is known as the birthplace of the national movement started by Sonora Smart Dodd that led to the proposal and eventual establishment of Father 's Day as a national holiday in the U.S. The first observation of Father 's Day in Spokane was on June 19 , 1910 . Sonora conceived the idea in Spokane 's Central Methodist Episcopal Church while listening to a Mother 's Day sermon .
The Lilac Bloomsday Run , held in summer on the first Sunday of May , is a 7 @.@ 46 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 01 km ) race for competitive runners as well as walkers that attracts international competition . Also in May is the Lilac Festival , which honors the military , celebrates youth , and showcases the region . Spokane 's nickname , the " Lilac City " , refers to a flowering shrub that has flourished since its introduction to the area in the early 20th century . In June the city hosts Spokane Hoopfest , a 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 basketball tournament , among the largest of its kind . One of Spokane 's most popular local events is Pig Out in the Park , an annual six @-@ day food and entertainment festival where attendees may eat a variety of foods and listen to free live music concerts featuring local , regional , and national recording artists in Riverfront Park .
Other notable events in Spokane include the Spokane Interstate Fair , Spokane Comic @-@ Con , and Japan Week . The Spokane Interstate Fair is held annually in September at the Spokane Fair and Expo Center . Japan Week is held in April and celebrates the sister @-@ city relationship with Nishinomiya , Hyogo , demonstrating the many commonalities shared between the two cities . Students from the Spokane campus of Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute , Gonzaga , Whitworth , and other area schools organize an array of Japanese cultural events . The gay and lesbian Spokane Pride Parade is held each June .
= = Education = =
Serving the general educational needs of the local population are two public library districts , the Spokane Public Library ( within city limits ) and the Spokane County Library District . Founded in 1904 with funding from philanthropist Andrew Carnegie , the Spokane Public Library system comprises a downtown library overlooking the Spokane Falls and five branch libraries . Special collections focus on Inland Pacific Northwest history and include reference books , periodicals , maps , photographs , and other archival materials and government documents .
Spokane Public Schools ( District 81 ) is the largest public school system in Spokane and the second largest in the state as of 2014 , serving roughly 30 @,@ 000 students in six high schools , six middle schools , and thirty @-@ four elementary schools . Other public school districts in the Spokane area include the Mead School District in north Spokane County , outside city limits . A variety of state @-@ approved , independent charter schools and private and parochial elementary and secondary schools augment the public school system . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane manages 11 such schools in Spokane .
Spokane is home to many higher education institutions . They include the private universities Gonzaga and Whitworth University , and the public Community Colleges of Spokane system ( Spokane Community College and Spokane Falls Community College ) as well as a variety of technical institutes . Gonzaga University and Law School were founded by the Italian @-@ born priest Joseph Cataldo and the Jesuits in 1887 . Whitworth , founded in 1890 , is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church , and had 2 @,@ 500 students studying in 53 different undergraduate and degree programs as of 2011 . While Spokane is one of the larger cities in the U.S. to lack a main campus of a state @-@ supported university within its city limits , Eastern Washington University ( EWU ) and Washington State University ( WSU ) have operations at the Riverpoint Campus in the University District , just adjacent to downtown and across the Spokane River from the Gonzaga campus . Washington State University Spokane is WSU 's health sciences campus and houses the school 's College of Medical Sciences , College of Nursing , and College of Pharmacy . The main EWU campus is located 15 miles ( 24 km ) southwest of Spokane in nearby Cheney , and WSU is located 65 miles ( 105 km ) to the south in Pullman . In addition to WSU 's health science presence in Spokane , there is also a four @-@ year medical school branch affiliated with the University of Washington 's WWAMI program . An international branch campus of the Mukogawa Women 's University , the Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute , is located in Spokane .
= = Sports = =
Spokane is close to dozens of lakes and rivers . People use these for swimming , boating , rafting , and fishing . Nearby mountains provide skiing , hiking , biking and sightseeing . Spokane 's professional and semi @-@ professional sports teams include the Spokane Indians in Minor League Baseball , Spokane Empire in indoor football , the Spokane Chiefs in junior ice hockey and Spokane Anarchy Wrestling . Collegiate sports in Spokane focus on the local teams such as the Gonzaga Bulldogs that compete in the NCAA 's Division I West Coast Conference and the Whitworth Pirates playing in the Division III Northwest Conference as well as other regional teams , including the Washington State Cougars , Eastern Washington Eagles , and the Idaho Vandals .
The Spokane Indians are a Class @-@ A @-@ Short @-@ Season baseball team in the Northwest League ( NWL ) and have been a farm team of the Texas Rangers since 2003 . The Indians play their home games at the 6 @,@ 803 @-@ seat Avista Stadium and have won seven NWL titles since their Short @-@ Season @-@ A debut in 1982 . Prior to 1982 , the Indians played at the Triple @-@ A level . The team achieved considerable success in the early 1970s , winning the Pacific Coast League championship in 1970 , and having a 94 – 52 record . In the 1920s and 1930s the Spokane City League , a semiprofessional baseball league of teams of the Inland Empire , reached its peak .
The Spokane Shock was an indoor football franchise awarded to the city in August 2005 in the AF2 league . The team was quickly placed into the Arena Football League ( AFL ) after winning championships in two of their four seasons in the Arenafootball2 league , all while setting league records for attendance . The Shock were crowned AFL champions in their inaugural season after defeating the Tampa Bay Storm 69 – 57 in ArenaBowl XXIII . After the 2015 season , the owner of the Shock , Nader Naini , decided to have the team leave the AFL to join the Indoor Football League in order to have a geographic rival in the Tri @-@ Cities Fever . The AFL decided to retain the rights the Shock 's franchise , so Naini was forced to rename the team and it became the Spokane Empire beginning with the 2016 season .
The Spokane Chiefs are a major junior ice hockey team that play in the Canadian Hockey League 's Western Hockey League . They play their home games in the Spokane Arena and have a regional rivalry with the Tri @-@ City Americans . They have won the CHL 's top prize , the Memorial Cup , two times in club history , first in 1991 and again in 2008 .
The Spokane Veterans Memorial Arena is the city 's premier sports venue . In the years since the Spokane Arena opened , it has played host to several major sporting events . The first major event was the 1998 Memorial Cup , the championship game of the Canadian Hockey League . Four years later in 2002 , the city hosted the 2002 Skate America figure skating competition and then the 2007 U.S. Figure Skating Championships in the Spokane Arena . The latter event set an attendance record , selling nearly 155 @,@ 000 tickets . Spokane later hosted the 2010 U.S. Figure Skating Championships – ending eighteen days before the start of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , British Columbia .
= = Transportation = =
= = = City streets = = =
Spokane 's streets use a street grid that is oriented to the four cardinal directions ; generally , the east – west roads are designated as avenues , and the north – south roads are referred to as streets . Major east – west thoroughfares in the city include Francis , Wellesley , Mission , Sprague , and 29th Avenues . Major north – south thoroughfares include Maple – Ash , Monroe , Division , Hamilton , Greene – Market ( north of I @-@ 90 ) , and Ray – Freya ( south of I @-@ 90 ) Streets . Division Street divides the city into East and West , while Sprague Avenue splits the city into North and South . Division Street is Spokane 's major retail corridor ; Sprague Avenue serves the same purpose in Spokane Valley . With over 40 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in average daily traffic from Interstate 90 north to the US 2 – US 395 junction , North Division is Spokane 's busiest corridor .
= = = Walkability = = =
Spokane has an average Walk Score of 45 , indicating most errands require a car , and an average Transit Score of 36 . The extensive skywalk system covers thirteen blocks in the downtown area and is among the largest in the United States ; it is used for pedestrian travel in cold and inclement weather and retail space as well .
= = = Freeways and highways = = =
Spokane is primarily served by interstate freeway I @-@ 90 and highways US 195 , US 395 , and US 2 .
Interstate 90 runs east – west from Seattle , through Spokane and suburban areas to the east , onward to Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho and Montana .
US 195 , also known as the Inland Empire Highway , connects Spokane with the Palouse region to the south and intersects Interstate 90 just west of Spokane near Latah Creek
US 395 enters Spokane from the west concurrently with I @-@ 90 , splitting off at Division St. , and continues northward to Deer Park , Colville and Canada . Its route designation will move from Division St. to the limited @-@ access North Spokane Corridor upon completion of that project .
US 2 , also enters Spokane from the west and runs concurrently US 395 until they reach " The Y " in north Spokane , where US 2 branches off to the northeast , continuing to Mead , Newport , and Sandpoint .
The Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) is tasked with improving local highways to keep up with the region 's growth and to try to prevent congestion problems that plague many larger cities . The WSDOT is constructing the North Spokane Corridor . When completed , the corridor will be a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) limited @-@ access highway that will run from I @-@ 90 , in the vicinity of the Thor / Freya interchange , northward through Spokane , meeting the existing US 395 just south of the Wandermere Golf Course .
= = = Mass transportation = = =
Before the influx of automobiles , Spokane 's electric streetcar and interurban lines played a dominant role in moving people and goods around Spokane . Streetcars were installed as early as 1888 , when they were pulled by horses . Many older side streets in Spokane still have visible streetcar rails embedded in them . Streetcar service was reduced due to declining ridership beginning in 1922 , and by August 1936 , all lines had been abandoned or converted to motor buses . Mass transportation throughout the Spokane area is provided by the Spokane Transit Authority ( STA ) , which operates a fleet of 156 buses . Its service area covers roughly 248 square miles ( 640 km2 ) and reaches 85 percent of the county 's population . A large percentage of STA bus routes originate from the central hub , the STA Plaza in downtown Spokane . Spokane has rail and bus service provided by Amtrak and Greyhound via the Spokane Intermodal Center . The city is a stop for Amtrak 's Empire Builder on its way to and from Chicago 's Union Station en route to Seattle and Portland . Amtrak 's through service to Seattle and Portland is a legacy of BNSF Railway 's old Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway trackage . Spokane is a major railway junction for the BNSF Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad and is the western terminus for the Montana Rail Link .
= = = Airports = = =
Spokane International Airport ( IATA : GEG , ICAO : KGEG ) serves as the primary commercial airport for Spokane , Eastern Washington , and Northern Idaho . It is the second largest airport in the state of Washington and is recognized by the Federal Aviation Administration as a small hub , with service from six airlines and two air cargo carriers . The 4 @,@ 800 @-@ acre ( 19 @.@ 42 km2 ) airport is located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of downtown Spokane and is approximately a 10 @-@ minute drive away . The international airport 's three @-@ letter designation is " GEG " , a result and legacy of the Geiger Field days prior to 1960 , when the airport was named after Army aviator Major Harold Geiger in 1941 .
Felts Field is a general aviation airport serving the Spokane area and is located in east Spokane along the south bank of the Spokane River . Aviation at Felts Field dates back to 1913 and the strip served as Spokane 's primary airport until commercial air traffic was redirected to Geiger Field after World War II . In 1927 , the strip was one of the first in the western U.S. to receive official recognition as an airport by the U.S. Department of Commerce and is now named in honor of James Buell Felts , a Washington Air National Guard pilot .
= = Healthcare = =
The Spokane area has six major hospitals , four of which are full @-@ service facilities . The healthcare industry is a large and increasingly important industry in Spokane ; the city provides specialized care to many patients from the surrounding Inland Northwest and as far north as the Canadian border . The city 's healthcare needs are served primarily by non @-@ profit Seattle @-@ based Providence Health & Services and for @-@ profit Tennessee @-@ based Community Health Systems , which run the two biggest hospitals , Sacred Heart Medical Center , and Deaconess Medical Center , respectively . These two hospitals , along with most of Spokane 's major health care facilities , are located on Spokane 's Lower @-@ South Hill , just south of downtown , in what is known as the " Medical District " of Spokane . The Sacred Heart Hospital , opened originally , with just 31 beds , on Spokane Falls Boulevard on January 27 , 1887 , but later moved to its present location at 101 West Eighth Avenue . As of 2014 it had 642 beds , with 28 @,@ 319 admissions , 71 @,@ 543 emergency room visits , and 2 @,@ 982 births annually , and a full @-@ time staff of 29 doctors and dentists and 583 registered nurses . Deaconess Medical Center , the smaller of the two main hospitals , had 388 beds as of 2014 . Other hospitals in the area include the Spokane Veterans Affairs Medical Center in the northwest part of town , Holy Family Hospital on the north side , and Valley Hospital and Medical Center in the Spokane Valley . One of 20 specialty orthopedic Shriners Hospitals in the U.S. is also located in Spokane . One of Washington 's two state psychiatric hospitals , Eastern State Hospital , is located 15 miles ( 24 km ) away in Medical Lake .
= = Media = =
Newspaper service in Spokane is provided by its only major daily newspaper , The Spokesman @-@ Review , which has a daily circulation of 76 @,@ 291 and Sunday circulation of 95 @,@ 939 . The Spokesman @-@ Review was formed from the merger of the Spokane Falls Review ( 1883 – 1894 ) and the Spokesman ( 1890 – 1893 ) in 1893 and was first published under the present name on June 29 , 1894 . It later absorbed the competing afternoon paper The Spokane Daily Chronicle , a significant newspaper historically that existed from 1890 until the merger in 1982 . More specialized publications include the weekly alternative newspaper The Pacific Northwest Inlander , the bi @-@ weekly business journal The Spokane Journal of Business , the student @-@ run The Gonzaga Bulletin , the monthly GLBT newsmagazine Q View Northwest , and a monthly newspaper for parents , Kids newspaper . The city also has several community magazines , such as the monthly paper covering the Garland neighborhood , The Garland Times , and Spokane Coeur d 'Alene Living , a monthly home and lifestyle magazine .
According to Arbitron , Spokane is the 94th largest radio market in the U.S. , with 532 @,@ 100 listeners aged 12 and over . There are 28 AM and FM radio stations broadcast in the city . The five most listened @-@ to stations are KKZX @-@ FM ( classic rock ) , KQNT @-@ AM ( news / talk ) , KXLY @-@ FM ( country ) , KISC @-@ FM ( adult contemporary ) , and KZZU @-@ FM ( Hot AC ) . Spokane 's primary sources of non @-@ commercial and community radio include Spokane 's NPR @-@ affiliate station KPBX @-@ FM and KYRS , a full @-@ power community radio station .
Spokane is the 73rd largest television market in the U.S. , accounting for 0 @.@ 366 % of the total TV households in the U.S. The city has six television stations , representing the major commercial networks and public television . Spokane is the television broadcast center for much of eastern Washington ( except the Yakima and Tri @-@ Cities area ) , northern Idaho , northwestern Montana , northeastern Oregon , and parts of southern Canada ( by cable television ) . Spokane receives broadcasts in the Pacific Time Zone , with weekday prime time beginning at 8 pm . Montana and Alberta , Canada are in the Mountain Time Zone and receive Spokane broadcasts one hour later by their local time . The major network television affiliates include KREM ( TV ) 2 ( CBS ) , KXLY @-@ TV 4 ( ABC ) , KHQ @-@ TV 6 ( NBC ; Spokane 's first television station , on air on December 20 , 1952 ) , KAYU 28 ( FOX ) , KSKN 22 ( The CW ) , KSPS @-@ TV 7 ( PBS ) and KCDT @-@ TV 26 ( PBS ; operating out of Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho ) .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Spokane has five current sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :
Nishinomiya , Hyōgo Prefecture , Japan – since September 1961 ( Spokane 's first sister city )
Jecheon , South Korea
Jilin City , China
Limerick , Ireland
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= Fortifications of Xi 'an =
The fortifications of Xi 'an ( Chinese : 西安城墙 ) , also known as Xi 'an City Wall , in Xi 'an , an ancient capital of China , represent one of the oldest , largest and best preserved Chinese city walls . It was built under the rule of the Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang as a military defense system . It exhibits the " complete features of the rampart architecture of feudal society " . It has been refurbished many times since it was built in the 14th century , thrice at intervals of about 200 years in the later half of 1500s and 1700s , and in recent years in 1983 . The wall encloses an area of about 36 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi )
The Xi 'an City Wall is on the tentative list of UNESCO 's World Heritage Site under the title " City Walls of the Ming and Qing Dynasties " . Since 2008 , it is also on the list of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage of the People 's Republic of China . Since March 1961 , the Xi 'an City Wall is a heritage National Historical and Cultural Town .
= = Location = =
Xi 'an City Wall is located in the urban district of Xi 'an City , which at one time was an imperial city during the periods of the Sui and Tang dynasties . It is situated at the end of the ancient Silk Road .
= = History = =
Zhu Yuanzhang , the first Emperor of the Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) , was advised by Zhu Sheng , a sage , to build a fortified high wall around the city , create storage facilities for food and then establish his empire by unifying all the other states . Following the hermit 's advice , Zhu established the Ming dynasty , and then built a highly fortified wall over a previously existing wall of the Tang dynasty ( 618 -907 ) . He started building the Xian City Wall , as the capital of northwestern Shaanxi Province in 1370 . He incorporated the ancient fortified embankments built by the Sui and Tang Dynasties by including them in the wall 's western and southern parts , enlarging the eastern and northern parts . The edifice was built over an eight @-@ year period and was well maintained during both the Ming Dynasty , and the Qing Dynasty , which followed .
The wall was initially built solely from tamped earth . During the Longqing Emperor 's period ( 1568 ) the wall was strengthened by laying blue bricks on the top and exterior faces of the earthen walls . During the reign of Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty ( 1781 ) , the wall was enlarged ; drainage features , crenels and other modifications were made ; and the structure as it is now seen came into existence . By the end of the Qing dynasty rule , the structure had begun to deteriorate . In a limited degree the Republican Authorities carried out maintenance of the wall , which was in a poor state . In the first decade of the 20th century , the wall 's defense system was considered to be of strategic importance , even though demolishing of similar walls in other regions of the country was undertaken following the 1911 Revolution . In 1926 , the wall was attacked with bombs by enemy forces resulting in serious structural damage , but the city within the wall was not affected . During the Second World War , when the Japanese carried out air bombings from 1937 to 1940 , the residents built around 1 @,@ 000 bunkers , as anti @-@ aircraft shelters within the wide base ( thickness of more than 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ) of the wall . A few escape openings were also made through the wall as passageways . Even later , new gates to allow traffic through the Xian Wall were constructed during the Republican rule .
According to the Shenboo Atlas of 1933 , in the 1930s most people lived within the perimeter of the Xi 'an Wall but still there were a lot of unoccupied open areas . Among the visitors who came to see the Xian Wall were American captain ( later general ) Stilwell in 1922 and the Czech sinologist Jaroslav Průšek ( 1906 – 1980 ) in 1933 . In 1983 , the administration of the Xi 'an municipality carried out more renovations and additions to the wall . At that time , the Yangmacheng tower , the Zhalou sluice tower , the Kuixinglou dipper tower , the Jiaolou corner tower and the Dilou defense tower were all refurbished ; the crumbling parts of the rampart were changed into gates ; and the moat was restored . In May 2005 , all of Xi 'an 's ramparts were inter @-@ connected .
The Xi 'an City Wall was proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage of the People 's Republic of China in 2008 . UNESCO included the site in the tentative List of World Heritage Sites under the title " City Walls of the Ming and Qing Dynasties " as a cultural heritage designee under Criterion iii & iv . In March 1961 , the Xi 'an City Wall was fully approved as a heritage site as a National Historical and Cultural Town .
Michelle Obama , the first lady of the United States , visited the Xi 'an City Wall on 24 March 2014 , describing it as " a wall that has withstood war and famine and the rise and fall of dynasties " .
= = Features = =
The Xi 'an Wall is rectangular in shape and has a total length of 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) , with almost all stretches subjected to some kind of restoration or rebuilding . Along the top of the wall is a walkway , which would typically take four hours to cover . It is built in the Chinese architecture style . As a defense fortification , it was constructed with a moat , drawbridges , watch towers , corner towers , parapet walls and gate towers . The wall is 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in height with a width of 12 – 14 metres ( 39 – 46 ft ) at the top and base width of 15 – 18 metres ( 49 – 59 ft ) . Ramparts are built at intervals of 120 metres ( 390 ft ) , projecting from the main wall . There are parapets on the outer side of the wall , built with 5 @,@ 984 crenels , which form " altogether protruding ramparts " . There are four watch towers , located at the corners and the moat that surrounds the wall has a width of 18 metres ( 59 ft ) and depth of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . The area within the wall is about 36 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi ) , enclosing the small area of 14 square kilometres ( 5 @.@ 4 sq mi ) occupied by the city .
The southern embrasured watchtower constructed in 1378 , was destroyed by fire in 1926 during the civil war of 1926 , and was restored in September 2014 . This was done after a careful historical review of documents related to the historical features that existed before it was damaged . The other three watchtowers forming the northern , eastern and western gates of the wall were also examined during the planning phase of the modifications done for the South Tower . They were modified , without affecting the integrity of the wall , by an encompassing hall offering protection to the structures by using steel , wood work and the ancient @-@ type tiles and bricks structure . Major gates have ramp access except the South Gate which has entry outside the walls .
There is an " Archery Tower " , which provides security to one of the four gates of the Xi 'an wall . Created as a large trap @-@ like chamber , capped by a tower filled with windows , it gave an advantageous position for archers to shoot arrows ( in the initial years of building the wall ) and later cannon balls at the opposing revolutionary forces . In the event that the enemy was able to breach the walls through the main gate they would become trapped in the small chamber that faced yet another gate and thus be easy targets for the defending troops .
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= Radio ( LL Cool J album ) =
Radio is the debut studio album by American rapper LL Cool J , released November 18 , 1985 on Def Jam Recordings in the United States . It serves as the label 's first full @-@ length album release . Recording sessions for the album took place during 1984 to 1985 at Chung King House of Metal in New York City . The album was primarily produced by Rick Rubin , who provided a sparse and minimal production style . Radio also features a sound that is punctuated by DJ scratching , mostly brief samples , and emphasis of the downbeat . LL Cool J 's b @-@ boy lyricism conveys themes of inner city culture , teenage promiscuity , and braggadocio raps .
The album experienced a significant amount of commercial success and sales for a hip hop record at the time , earning U.S. Billboard chart success and selling over 500 @,@ 000 copies within its first five months of release . On April 19 , 1989 , Radio was certified platinum in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , following sales in excess of one million copies in the United States . Initial criticism of the album was generally positive , as LL Cool J 's lyricism and Rick Rubin 's production were praised by several music critics . It has since been recognized by critics as LL Cool J 's greatest work .
Reflecting the new school and ghettoblaster subculture in the U.S. during the mid @-@ 1980s , Radio belongs to a pivotal moment in the history and culture of hip hop . Its success contributed to the displacement of the old school with the new school form and to the genre 's mainstream success during the period . Its success also served as a career breakthrough for LL Cool J and Rick Rubin . Radio has been recognized by music writers as one of the first cohesive and commercially successful hip hop albums .
= = Background = =
In March 1984 , when NYU student Rick Rubin and promoter @-@ manager Russell Simmons founded the then @-@ independent Def Jam label , 16 year – old St. Albans , Queens native James Todd Smith was creating demo tapes in his grandparents ' home . His grandfather , a jazz saxophonist , purchased him $ 2 @,@ 000 worth of stereo equipment , including two turntables , an audio mixer and an amplifier . Smith later discussed his childhood background and rapping , stating that " By the time I got that equipment , I was already a rapper . In this neighborhood , the kids grow up in rap . It 's like speaking Spanish if you grow up in an all @-@ Spanish house . I got into it when I was about 9 , and since then all I wanted was to make a record and hear it on the radio . " By using the mixing table he had received from his grandfather , Smith produced and mixed his own demos and sent them to various record companies throughout New York City , including Simmons ' and Rubin 's own Def Jam Recordings .
Under his new stage name , LL Cool J ( an acronym for Ladies Love Cool James ) , Smith was signed by Def Jam , which led to the release of his first official record , the 12 @-@ inch single " I Need a Beat " ( 1984 ) . The single was a hard @-@ hitting , streetwise b @-@ boy song with spare beats and ballistic rhymes . Smith later discussed his search for a label , stating " I sent my demo to many different companies , but it was Def Jam where I found my home . " That same year , Smith made his professional debut concert performance at Manhattan Center High School . In a later interview , LL Cool J recalled the experience , stating " They pushed the lunch room tables together and me and my DJ , Cut Creator , started playing . ... As soon as it was over there were girls screaming and asking for autographs . Right then and there I said ' This is what I want to do ' . " LL 's debut single sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies and helped establish both Def Jam as a label and Smith as a rapper . The commercial success of " I Need a Beat " , along with the Beastie Boys ' single " Rock Hard " ( 1984 ) , helped lead Def Jam to a distribution deal with Columbia Records the following year .
LL Cool J dropped out of Andrew Jackson High School in Queens to record his first studio album , also the first LP to be issued by Def Jam . Recording sessions for the album took place at Chung King Studios in Manhattan 's Chinatown under Rubin 's direction throughout 1984 and 1985 . Notable from the personnel line @-@ up was LL 's DJ Jay Philpot , better known as " Cut Creator " . A Queens native and former trombonist , Philpot met LL at a block party and they began performing together . The audio mastering was handled by engineer Herb Powers at 130 West 42nd Street in the Frankford Wayne Mastering Labs and the album was set for release as Radio in November 1985 , containing a dedication in the liner notes from LL Cool J to his mother and his grandparents . The album 's release had been anticipated by many rap fans following LL Cool J 's appearance in the hip hop movie Krush Groove , which was based on the beginnings of the Def Jam label and featured the single " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " from Radio .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album 's production , handled entirely by Rick Rubin with a remix by DJ Jazzy Jay , has been noted by critics and music writers for Rubin 's minimalist style and stripped @-@ down aggressiveness . Steve Huey of AllMusic described the production for Radio as " bare @-@ bones " and " skeletal " , while calling the instrumentation " basically just a cranked @-@ up beatbox . " The sound of Radio is mostly punctuated by DJ scratching and features occasional brief samples , which emphasize a downbeat . In summing up the musical style of Radio , Huey stated " The result is rap at its most skeletal , with a hard @-@ hitting , street @-@ level aggression that perfectly matches LL 's cocksure teenage energy . "
The lyrical themes regarding the culture and the way of life of inner city youth that surface in Radio , including the growing and popular b @-@ boy attitude ( " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " , " Rock the Bells " ) and teenage promiscuity ( " Dear Yvette " ) , along with LL 's " teenage energy " , as described by writer Nelson George , helped appeal to a younger music audience and were essential in the album 's commercial success . LL Cool J 's lyricism on Radio is highlighted by clever disses , playful boasts and braggadocio raps . Columnist Stephen Holden of The New York Times described LL Cool J as " a brawny young giant with the animal magnetism and amiable self @-@ assurance of the young Muhammad Ali . " " I Want You " and " I Can Give You More " have been recognized by listeners of hip hop as the first hip @-@ hop ballads , and have been cited likewise by several music writers and critics .
Author of the 1985 book Fresh : Hip Hop Don 't Stop , writer Nelson George further elaborated on the appeal of Radio to listeners at the time , describing LL Cool J as a " minimalist homeboy who knows his beats " , and stating " You can call it rap , hip hop or street , but it really is a way of hearing music — and partying hard — that expresses the experiences and attitudes of a great many inner city kids . L.L. Cool J is one of the best young talkologists around , because he speaks directly to and about his generation over large beats that recall Run @-@ D.M.C. , Trouble Funk , James Brown , and funky little bits of AC / DC and Yes ... This teenage music is built around beats , but not just any old beats . It is all about a beat with style , with personality , and L.L. Cool J has plenty of both . "
= = Release and reception = =
Released November 18 , 1985 , on Def Jam Recordings in the United States , Radio earned a significant amount of commercial success and sales for a hip hop record at the time . Shortly after its release , the album sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in its first five months , eventually selling over 1 million copies by 1988 , according to the Recording Industry Association of America . Radio peaked at number 6 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and at number 46 on the Billboard 200 albums chart . It entered the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart on December 28 , 1985 , and remained there for forty @-@ seven weeks , while also entering the Pop Albums chart on January 11 , 1986 . Radio remained on the chart for thirty @-@ eight weeks . By 1989 , the album had earned platinum status from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , after earning a gold certification in the United States on April 14 , 1986 , with sales exceeding one million copies .
Radio received positive reviews from both " street and dance music " aficionados and mainstream music critics , including Robert Christgau from The Village Voice , who described it in a January 1986 article as " the most engaging and original rap album of the year " . LL Cool J 's aggressive rapping and Rick Rubin 's stripped @-@ down production were praised by critics who also agreed that LL 's lyrics set a new standard for MC 's at the time . The songs ' lyrics were favored by critics who described LL 's song @-@ writing as clever and fun . Connie Johnson of the Los Angeles Times said that he is an integral artist of hip hop 's " second generation " because of his " razor @-@ sharp wit " . Rolling Stone magazine 's Debby Bull was impressed by his songwriting and how its originality lies in the ballads , even though " it 's the sassier , dance @-@ worthy songs that make this record such an irresistible party . " The critical success of the album would later result in its comparison to other LL Cool J albums , which were not as critically successful as Radio . In his review for the Trouser Press , Ira Robbins called the album a " primary classic of hip @-@ hop 's original commercial surge " and went on to write :
Since its initial reception , Radio has been viewed by fans and critics as LL Cool J 's greatest work , as well as one of hip hop 's best albums . In retrospect , some critics and music writers have given more praise to producer Rick Rubin 's contributions to Radio , as well as note the importance of his production on the album . Yahoo ! Music 's Frank Meyer said that the album was " one of the earliest records , along with Run @-@ DMC , to combine the vocal approach of rap with the musical arrangements and riffing of rock ' n ' roll . ' I Can 't Live Without My Radio ' is a hip @-@ hop classic and this album set the standard for East Coast rap for a long time . "
Radio was later ranked at number 2 on ego trip magazine 's " Hip Hop 's 25 Greatest Albums ( 1980 @-@ 98 ) " , number 69 on Rolling Stone 's " 100 Best LPs of the 80s " , and number 71 on Blender 's " 100 Greatest American Albums of All Time " list . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 478 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ; it was ranked number 470 in a revised list in 2012 . The album was also included in Rolling Stone magazine 's 1997 issue of " The Essential 200 Rock Records " . In 1998 , Radio was selected as one of The Source magazine 's " 100 Best Rap Albums " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
With the breakthrough success of his hit single " I Need a Beat " and the Radio LP , LL Cool J became one of the first hip @-@ hop acts to achieve mainstream success along with Kurtis Blow and Run @-@ D.M.C. Gigs at larger venues were offered to LL as he would join the 1986- ' 87 Raising Hell tour , opening for Run @-@ D.M.C. and the Beastie Boys . Another milestone of LL 's popularity was his appearance on American Bandstand as the first hip hop act on the show .
The album 's success also helped in contributing to Rick Rubin 's credibility and repertoire as a record producer . Radio , along with Raising Hell ( 1986 ) and Licensed to Ill ( 1986 ) , would form a trilogy of New York City @-@ based , Rubin @-@ helmed albums that helped to diversify hip @-@ hop . Rubin 's production credit on the back cover reads " REDUCED BY RICK RUBIN " , referring to his minimalist production style , which gave the album its stripped @-@ down and gritty sound . This style would serve as one of Rubin 's production trademarks and would have a great impact on future hip @-@ hop productions . Rubin 's early hip hop production work , before his exit from Def Jam to Los Angeles , helped solidify his legacy as a hip hop pioneer and establish his reputation in the music industry .
Radio 's release coincided with the growing new school scene and subculture , which also marked the beginning of hip @-@ hop 's " golden age " and the replacement of old school hip hop . This period of hip hop was marked by the end of the disco rap stylings of old school , which had flourished prior to the mid @-@ 80s , and the rise of a new style featuring " ghetto blasters " . Radio served as one of the earliest records , along with Run @-@ D.M.C. ' s debut album , to combine the vocal approach of hip hop and rapping with the musical arrangements and riffing sound of rock music , pioneering the rap rock hybrid sound .
The emerging new school scene was initially characterized by drum machine @-@ led minimalism , often tinged with elements of rock , as well as boasts about rapping delivered in an aggressive , self @-@ assertive style . In image as in song , the artists projected a tough , cool , street b @-@ boy attitude . These elements contrasted sharply with the 1970s P @-@ Funk and disco @-@ influenced outfits , live bands , synthesizers and party rhymes of acts prevalent in 1984 , rendering them old school . In contrast to the lengthy , jam @-@ like form predominant throughout early hip hop ( " King Tim III " , " Rapper 's Delight " , " The Breaks " ) , new school artists tended to compose shorter songs that would be more accessible and had potential for radio play , and conceive more cohesive LPs than their old school counterparts ; the style typified by LL Cool J 's Radio . A leading example of the new school sound is the song " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " , a loud , defiant declaration of public loyalty to his boom box , which The New York Times described as " quintessential rap in its directness , immediacy and assertion of self " . It was featured in the film Krush Groove ( 1985 ) , which was based on the rise of Def Jam and new school acts such as Run @-@ D.M.C. and the Fat Boys .
The energy and hardcore delivery and musical style of rapping featured on Radio , as well as other new school recordings by artists such as Run @-@ D.M.C. , Schooly D , T La Rock and Steady B , proved to be influential to hip hop acts of the " golden age " such as Boogie Down Productions and Public Enemy . The decline of the old school form of hip hop also led to the closing of Sugar Hill Records , one of the labels that helped contribute to early hip @-@ hop and that , coincidently , rejected LL 's demo tape . As the album served as an example of an expansion of hip hop music 's artistic possibilities , its commercial success and distinct sound soon led to an increase in multi @-@ racial audiences and listeners , adding to the legacy of the album and hip hop as well .
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= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Isaac Newton =
Sir Isaac Newton PRS ( / ˈnjuːtən / ; 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726 / 27 ) was an English physicist and mathematician ( described in his own day as a " natural philosopher " ) who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution . His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( " Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy " ) , first published in 1687 , laid the foundations for classical mechanics . Newton made seminal contributions to optics , and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for the development of calculus .
Newton 's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation , which dominated scientists ' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries . By deriving Kepler 's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity , and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets , the tides , the precession of the equinoxes , and other phenomena , Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the Solar System . This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles . His prediction that Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by the measurements of Maupertuis , La Condamine , and others , which helped convince most Continental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of Descartes .
Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum . He formulated an empirical law of cooling , studied the speed of sound , and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid . In addition to his work on calculus , as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series , generalised the binomial theorem to non @-@ integer exponents , developed a method for approximating the roots of a function , and classified most of the cubic plane curves .
Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge . He was a devout but unorthodox Christian , and , unusually for a member of the Cambridge faculty of the day , he refused to take holy orders in the Church of England , perhaps because he privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity . Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences , Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of biblical chronology and alchemy , but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death . In his later life , Newton became president of the Royal Society . Newton served the British government as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Isaac Newton was born according to the Julian calendar ( in use in England at the time ) on Christmas Day , 25 December 1642 ( NS 4 January 1643 ) , at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe @-@ by @-@ Colsterworth , a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire . His father , also named Isaac Newton , had died three months before . Born prematurely , he was a small child ; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug . When Newton was three , his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband , the Reverend Barnabas Smith , leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother , Margery Ayscough . The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him , as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19 : " Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them . " Newton 's mother had three children from her second marriage .
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen , Newton was educated at The King 's School , Grantham which taught Latin and Greek but no mathematics . He was removed from school , and by October 1659 , he was to be found at Woolsthorpe @-@ by @-@ Colsterworth , where his mother , widowed for a second time , attempted to make a farmer of him . Newton hated farming . Henry Stokes , master at the King 's School , persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education . Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully , he became the top @-@ ranked student , distinguishing himself mainly by building sundials and models of windmills .
In June 1661 , he was admitted to Trinity College , Cambridge , on the recommendation of his uncle Rev William Ayscough . He started as a subsizar — paying his way by performing valet 's duties — until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664 , which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M.A. At that time , the college 's teachings were based on those of Aristotle , whom Newton supplemented with modern philosophers such as Descartes , and astronomers such as Galileo and Thomas Street , through whom he learned of Kepler 's work . He set down in his notebook a series of ' Quaestiones ' about mechanical philosophy as he found it . In 1665 , he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus . Soon after Newton had obtained his B.A. degree in August 1665 , the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague . Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student , Newton 's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus , optics , and the law of gravitation .
In April 1667 , he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity . Fellows were required to become ordained priests , although this was not enforced in the restoration years and an assertion of conformity to the Church of England was sufficient . However , by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way . Nevertheless , Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II ( see " Middle years " section below ) .
His studies had impressed the Lucasian professor , Isaac Barrow , who was more anxious to develop his own religious and administrative potential ( he became master of Trinity two years later ) , and in 1669 , Newton succeeded him , only one year after he received his M.A. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1672 .
= = = Middle years = = =
= = = = Mathematics = = = =
Newton 's work has been said " to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied " . His work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus , seen in a manuscript of October 1666 , is now published among Newton 's mathematical papers . The author of the manuscript De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas , sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669 , was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins in August of that year as :
Mr Newton , a fellow of our College , and very young ... but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things .
Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus ( the Leibniz – Newton calculus controversy ) . Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently , although with very different notations . Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693 , and did not give a full account until 1704 , while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684 . ( Leibniz 's notation and " differential Method " , nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations , were adopted by continental European mathematicians , and after 1820 or so , also by British mathematicians . ) Such a suggestion , however , fails to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton 's time and modern times have pointed out in Book 1 of Newton 's Principia itself ( published 1687 ) and in its forerunner manuscripts , such as De motu corporum in gyrum ( " On the motion of bodies in orbit " ) , of 1684 . The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as Newton 's ( later ) ' dot ' notation would write it . His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishing small quantities : in the Principia itself , Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of ' the method of first and last ratios ' and explained why he put his expositions in this form , remarking also that ' hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles ' .
Because of this , the Principia has been called " a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus " in modern times and " lequel est presque tout de ce calcul " ( ' nearly all of it is of this calculus ' ) in Newton 's time . His use of methods involving " one or more orders of the infinitesimally small " is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684 and in his papers on motion " during the two decades preceding 1684 " .
Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism . He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier . In 1691 , Duillier started to write a new version of Newton 's Principia , and corresponded with Leibniz . In 1693 , the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed .
Starting in 1699 , other members of the Royal Society ( of which Newton was a member ) accused Leibniz of plagiarism . The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud . This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study 's concluding remarks on Leibniz . Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter 's death in 1716 .
Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem , valid for any exponent . He discovered Newton 's identities , Newton 's method , classified cubic plane curves ( polynomials of degree three in two variables ) , made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences , and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations . He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms ( a precursor to Euler 's summation formula ) and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series . Newton 's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin 's decimals . A very useful modern account of Newton 's mathematics was written by the foremost scholar on Newton 's mathematics , D.T. Whiteside or Tom Whiteside . Tom Whiteside translated and edited all of Newton 's mathematical writings and at the end of his life wrote a summing up of Newton 's work and its impact . This was published in 2013 as a chapter in a book edited by Bechler .
When Newton received his MA and became a Fellow of the " College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity " in 1667 , he made the commitment that " I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time prescribed by these statutes [ 7 years ] arrives , or I will resign from the college . " Up till this point he had not thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the thirty @-@ nine articles , the basis of Church of England doctrine .
He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669 on Barrow 's recommendation . During that time , any Fellow of a college at Cambridge or Oxford was required to take holy orders and become an ordained Anglican priest . However , the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church ( presumably so as to have more time for science ) . Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement , and Charles II , whose permission was needed , accepted this argument . Thus a conflict between Newton 's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted .
= = = = Optics = = = =
In 1666 , Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is oblong , even when the light ray entering the prism is circular , which is to say , the prism refracts different colours by different angles . This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light — a point which had been debated in prior years .
From 1670 to 1672 , Newton lectured on optics . During this period he investigated the refraction of light , demonstrating that the multicoloured spectrum produced by a prism could be recomposed into white light by a lens and a second prism . Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton 's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy .
He also showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects . Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected , scattered , or transmitted , it remained the same colour . Thus , he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already @-@ coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves . This is known as Newton 's theory of colour .
From this work , he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours ( chromatic aberration ) . As a proof of the concept , he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors instead of lenses as the objective to bypass that problem . Building the design , the first known functional reflecting telescope , today known as a Newtonian telescope , involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique . Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal , using Newton 's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes . In late 1668 he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope . It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer and larger image . In 1671 , the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope . Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes , Of Colours , which he later expanded into the work Opticks . When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton 's ideas , Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate . Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679 – 80 , when Hooke , appointed to manage the Royal Society 's correspondence , opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions , which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector ( see Newton 's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum ) . But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke 's death .
Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles , which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium . He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films ( Opticks Bk.II , Props . 12 ) , but still retained his theory of ' fits ' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted ( Props.13 ) . However , later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction . Today 's quantum mechanics , photons , and the idea of wave – particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton 's understanding of light .
In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 , Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles . The contact with the theosophist Henry More , revived his interest in alchemy . He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles . John Maynard Keynes , who acquired many of Newton 's writings on alchemy , stated that " Newton was not the first of the age of reason : He was the last of the magicians . " Newton 's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science . This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science . Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance , across a vacuum , he might not have developed his theory of gravity . ( See also Isaac Newton 's occult studies . )
In 1704 , Newton published Opticks , in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light . He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles , that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation " Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another , ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition ? " Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator , using a glass globe .
In an article entitled " Newton , prisms , and the ' opticks ' of tunable lasers " it is indicated that Newton in his book Opticks was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander . In the same book he describes , via diagrams , the use of multiple @-@ prism arrays . Some 278 years after Newton 's discussion , multiple @-@ prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow @-@ linewidth tunable lasers . Also , the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple @-@ prism dispersion theory .
Subsequent to Newton , much has been amended . Young and Fresnel combined Newton 's particle theory with Huygens ' wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light 's wavelength . Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics . The German poet and scientist , Goethe , could not shake the Newtonian foundation but " one hole Goethe did find in Newton 's armour , ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible . He therefore thought that the object @-@ glasses of telescopes must for ever remain imperfect , achromatism and refraction being incompatible . This inference was proved by Dollond to be wrong . "
= = = = Mechanics and gravitation = = = =
In 1679 , Newton returned to his work on ( celestial ) mechanics by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler 's laws of planetary motion . This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679 – 80 with Hooke , who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society 's correspondence , and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions . Newton 's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680 – 1681 , on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed . After the exchanges with Hooke , Newton worked out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector ( see Newton 's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum ) . Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum , a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society 's Register Book in December 1684 . This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia .
The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley . In this work , Newton stated the three universal laws of motion . Together , these laws describe the relationship between any object , the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion , laying the foundation for classical mechanics . They contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years . Many of these advancements continue to be the underpinnings of non @-@ relativistic technologies in the modern world . He used the Latin word gravitas ( weight ) for the effect that would become known as gravity , and defined the law of universal gravitation .
In the same work , Newton presented a calculus @-@ like method of geometrical analysis using ' first and last ratios ' , gave the first analytical determination ( based on Boyle 's law ) of the speed of sound in air , inferred the oblateness of Earth 's spheroidal figure , accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon 's gravitational attraction on the Earth 's oblateness , initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the moon , provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets , and much more .
Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System — developed in a somewhat modern way , because already in the mid @-@ 1680s he recognised the " deviation of the Sun " from the centre of gravity of the Solar System . For Newton , it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest , but rather " the common centre of gravity of the Earth , the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem 'd the Centre of the World " , and this centre of gravity " either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line " ( Newton adopted the " at rest " alternative in view of common consent that the centre , wherever it was , was at rest ) .
Newton 's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing " occult agencies " into science . Later , in the second edition of the Principia ( 1713 ) , Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium , writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction , as they did ; but they did not so far indicate its cause , and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena . ( Here Newton used what became his famous expression " hypotheses non @-@ fingo " ) .
With the Principia , Newton became internationally recognised . He acquired a circle of admirers , including the Swiss @-@ born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier .
= = = Classification of cubics and beyond = = =
Descartes was the most important early influence on Newton the mathematician . Descartes freed plane curves from the Greek and Macedonian limitation to conic sections , and Newton followed his lead by classifying the cubic curves in the plane . He found 72 of the 78 species of cubics . He also divided them into four types , satisfying different equations , and in 1717 Stirling , probably with Newton 's help , proved that every cubic was one of these four types . Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them , and this was proved in 1731 .
According to Tom Whiteside ( 1932 – 2008 ) , who published 8 volumes of Newton 's mathematical papers , it is no exaggeration to say that Newton mapped out the development of mathematics for the next 200 years , and that Euler and others largely carried out his plan .
= = = Later life = = =
In the 1690s , Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible . A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5 : 7 and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament , remained unpublished until 1785 .
Even though a number of authors have claimed that the work might have been an indication that Newton disputed the belief in Trinity , others assure that Newton did question the passage but never denied Trinity as such . His biographer , scientist Sir David Brewster , who compiled his manuscripts for over 20 years , wrote about the controversy in well @-@ known book Memoirs of the Life , Writings , and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton , where he explains that Newton questioned the veracity of those passages , but he never denied the doctrine of Trinity as such . Brewster states that Newton was never known as an Arian during his lifetime , it was first William Whiston ( an Arian ) who argued that " Sir Isaac Newton was so hearty for the Baptists , as well as for the Eusebians or Arians , that he sometimes suspected these two were the two witnesses in the Revelations , " while other like Hopton Haynes ( a Mint employee and Humanitarian ) , " mentioned to Richard Baron , that Newton held the same doctrine as himself " .
Later works — The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended ( 1728 ) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John ( 1733 ) — were published after his death . He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy ( see above ) .
Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University in 1689 – 90 and 1701 – 2 , but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed .
Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696 , a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu , 1st Earl of Halifax , then Chancellor of the Exchequer . He took charge of England 's great recoining , somewhat treading on the toes of Lord Lucas , Governor of the Tower ( and securing the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley ) . Newton became perhaps the best @-@ known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699 , a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life . These appointments were intended as sinecures , but Newton took them seriously , retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701 , and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters .
As Warden , and afterwards Master , of the Royal Mint , Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during the Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit . Counterfeiting was high treason , punishable by the felon 's being hanged , drawn and quartered . Despite this , convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult . However , Newton proved equal to the task .
Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns , he gathered much of that evidence himself . For all the barriers placed to prosecution , and separating the branches of government , English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority . Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties — there is a draft of a letter regarding this matter stuck into Newton 's personal first edition of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica which he must have been amending at the time . Then he conducted more than 100 cross @-@ examinations of witnesses , informers , and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699 . Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners .
As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty 's Treasury the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by Royal proclamation on 22 December 1717 , forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings . This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports , while exports were paid for in gold , effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard . It is a matter of debate as whether he intended to do this or not . It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work .
Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences . In his position at the Royal Society , Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed , the Astronomer Royal , by prematurely publishing Flamsteed 's Historia Coelestis Britannica , which Newton had used in his studies .
In April 1705 , Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College , Cambridge . The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the Parliamentary election in May 1705 , rather than any recognition of Newton 's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint . Newton was the second scientist to be knighted , after Sir Francis Bacon .
Newton was one of many people who lost heavily when the South Sea Company collapsed . Their most significant trade was slaves , and according to his niece , he lost around £ 20 @,@ 000 .
Towards the end of his life , Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park , near Winchester with his niece and her husband , until his death in 1727 . His half @-@ niece , Catherine Barton Conduitt , served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London ; he was her " very loving Uncle , " according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox .
Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 ( OS 20 March 1726 ; NS 31 March 1727 ) and was buried in Westminster Abbey . Voltaire may have been present at his funeral . A bachelor , he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years , and died intestate . His papers went to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton . After his death , Newton 's hair was examined and found to contain mercury , probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits . Mercury poisoning could explain Newton 's eccentricity in late life .
= = = Personal relations = = =
Although it was claimed that he was once engaged , Newton never married . The French writer and philosopher Voltaire , who was in London at the time of Newton 's funeral , said that he " was never sensible to any passion , was not subject to the common frailties of mankind , nor had any commerce with women — a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments " . The widespread belief that he died a virgin has been commented on by writers such as mathematician Charles Hutton , economist John Maynard Keynes , and physicist Carl Sagan .
Newton did have a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier , whom he met in London around 1690 . Their intense relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693 , and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown . Some of their correspondence has survived .
In September of that year , Newton had a breakdown which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke . His note to the latter included the charge that Locke " endeavoured to embroil me with woemen " .
= = After death = =
= = = Fame = = =
The mathematician Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived , and once added that Newton was also " the most fortunate , for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish . " English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton 's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph :
Nature and nature 's laws lay hid in night ;
God said " Let Newton be " and all was light .
Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements , famously writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676 :
If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants .
Two writers think that the above quotation , written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries , was an oblique attack on Hooke ( said to have been short and hunchbacked ) , rather than — or in addition to — a statement of modesty . On the other hand , the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants , published among others by seventeenth @-@ century poet George Herbert ( a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College ) in his Jacula Prudentum ( 1651 ) , had as its main point that " a dwarf on a giant 's shoulders sees farther of the two " , and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the ' dwarf ' .
In a later memoir , Newton wrote :
I do not know what I may appear to the world , but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea @-@ shore , and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary , whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me .
In 1816 , a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £ 730 ( us $ 3 @,@ 633 ) in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring . The Guinness World Records 2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth , which would value approximately £ 25 @,@ 000 ( us $ 35 @,@ 700 ) in late 2001 . Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed .
Albert Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell . Newton remains influential to today 's scientists , as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain 's Royal Society ( formerly headed by Newton ) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science , Newton or Einstein . Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution . In 1999 , an opinion poll of 100 of today 's leading physicists voted Einstein the " greatest physicist ever ; " with Newton the runner @-@ up , while a parallel survey of rank @-@ and @-@ file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton .
= = = Commemorations = = =
Newton 's monument ( 1731 ) can be seen in Westminster Abbey , at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen , near his tomb . It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack ( 1694 – 1770 ) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent . The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus , his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design . Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680 . A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism . The Latin inscription on the base translates as :
Here is buried Isaac Newton , Knight , who by a strength of mind almost divine , and mathematical principles peculiarly his own , explored the course and figures of the planets , the paths of comets , the tides of the sea , the dissimilarities in rays of light , and , what no other scholar has previously imagined , the properties of the colours thus produced . Diligent , sagacious and faithful , in his expositions of nature , antiquity and the holy Scriptures , he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good , and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners . Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race ! He was born on 25 December 1642 , and died on 20 March 1726 / 7 . — Translation from G.L. Smyth , The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul 's Cathedral , and of Westminster Abbey ( 1826 ) , ii , 703 – 4 .
From 1978 until 1988 , an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £ 1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England ( the last £ 1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England ) . Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope , a prism and a map of the Solar System .
A statue of Isaac Newton , looking at an apple at his feet , can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History . A large bronze statue , Newton , after William Blake , by Eduardo Paolozzi , dated 1995 and inspired by Blake 's etching , dominates the piazza of the British Library in London .
= = Religious views = =
Although born into an Anglican family , by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that , had it been made public , would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity ; in recent times he has been described as a heretic .
By 1672 he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only recently been examined . They demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early church writings and show that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed , he took the side of Arius , the loser , who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity . Newton " recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man , who was subordinate to the Father who created him . " He was especially interested in prophecy , but for him , " the great apostasy was trinitarianism . "
Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement . At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair .
In Newton 's eyes , worshipping Christ as God was idolatry , to him the fundamental sin . Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says of Newton , " Isaac Newton was a heretic . But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith — which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical . He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs . " Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser ( he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books ) , possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti @-@ trinitarian .
In a minority view , T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Eastern Orthodox view on the Trinity . However , this type of view ' has lost support of late with the availability of Newton 's theological papers ' , and now most scholars identify Newton as an Antitrinitarian monotheist .
Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton 's best @-@ known discoveries , he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine , as if akin to a great clock . He said , " Gravity explains the motions of the planets , but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion . God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done . "
Along with his scientific fame , Newton 's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy . Newton wrote works on textual criticism , most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture . He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April , AD 33 , which agrees with one traditionally accepted date .
He believed in a rationally immanent world , but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza . The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood , and must be understood , by an active reason . In his correspondence , Newton claimed that in writing the Principia " I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity " . He saw evidence of design in the system of the world : " Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice " . But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system , due to the slow growth of instabilities . For this , Leibniz lampooned him : " God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time : otherwise it would cease to move . He had not , it seems , sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion . "
Newton 's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence . A century later , Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace 's work " Celestial Mechanics " had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits don 't require periodic divine intervention .
= = = Effect on religious thought = = =
Newton and Robert Boyle 's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts , and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians . The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism , and at the same time , the second wave of English deists used Newton 's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a " Natural Religion " .
The attacks made against pre @-@ Enlightenment " magical thinking " , and the mystical elements of Christianity , were given their foundation with Boyle 's mechanical conception of the Universe . Newton gave Boyle 's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and , perhaps more importantly , was very successful in popularising them .
Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation .
= = = Occult = = =
In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible , he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060 . In predicting this he said , " This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be , but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end , and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail . "
= = = Alchemy = = =
In the character of Morton Opperly in " Poor Superman " ( 1951 ) , speculative fiction author Fritz Leiber says of Newton , " Everyone knows Newton as the great scientist . Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with alchemy , looking for the philosopher 's stone . That was the pebble by the seashore he really wanted to find . "
Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton 's papers , about one million deal with alchemy . Many of Newton 's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts , with his own annotations . Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation , often hidden behind layers of wordplay , allegory , and imagery to protect craft secrets . Some of the content contained in Newton 's papers could have been considered heretical by the church .
In 1888 , after spending sixteen years cataloging Newton 's papers , Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth . In 1936 , a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby ’ s . The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £ 9 @,@ 000 . John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction . Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton 's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946 .
All of Newton 's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University : " The Chymistry of Isaac Newton " . The project is headed by William R. Newman . Here is a quote from the project web site .
Newton 's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction , the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors , and the formulation of the calculus . Yet there is another , more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known , a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life , although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues . We refer to Newton 's involvement in the discipline of alchemy , or as it was often called in seventeenth @-@ century England , " chymistry . "
= = Enlightenment philosophers = =
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo , Boyle , and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural law to every physical and social field of the day . In this respect , the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded .
It was Newton 's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology . Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights ; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self @-@ interest to economic systems ; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress . Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton 's work , but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature .
= = Apple incident = =
Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree . Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment , acquaintances of Newton ( such as William Stukeley , whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society ) do in fact confirm the incident , though not the cartoon version that the apple actually hit Newton 's head . Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton 's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726 :
we went into the garden , & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees ; only he , & my self. amidst other discourse , he told me , he was just in the same situation , as when formerly , the notion of gravitation came into his mind . " why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground , " thought he to himself ; occasion 'd by the fall of an apple , as he sat in a contemplative mood . " why should it not go sideways , or upwards ? but constantly to the earths center ? assuredly , the reason is , that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter . & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center , not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly , or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter ; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth , as well as the earth draws the apple .
John Conduitt , Newton 's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton 's niece , also described the event when he wrote about Newton 's life :
In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire . Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity ( which brought an apple from a tree to the ground ) was not limited to a certain distance from earth , but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought . Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so , that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit , whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition .
In similar terms , Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry ( 1727 ) , " Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens , had the first thought of his system of gravitation , upon seeing an apple falling from a tree . "
It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends , in an inverse @-@ square proportion , to the Moon ; however it took him two decades to develop the full @-@ fledged theory . The question was not whether gravity existed , but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit . Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance , one could indeed calculate the Moon 's orbital period , and get good agreement . He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions , and hence named it " universal gravitation " .
Various trees are claimed to be " the " apple tree which Newton describes . The King 's School , Grantham , claims that the tree was purchased by the school , uprooted and transported to the headmaster 's garden some years later . The staff of the [ now ] National Trust @-@ owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this , and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton . A descendant of the original tree can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College , Cambridge , below the room Newton lived in when he studied there . The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale can supply grafts from their tree , which appears identical to Flower of Kent , a coarse @-@ fleshed cooking variety .
= = Works = =
= = = Published in his lifetime = = =
De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas ( 1669 , published 1711 )
Method of Fluxions ( 1671 )
Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation ( unpublished , c . 1671 – 75 )
De motu corporum in gyrum ( 1684 )
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( 1687 )
Opticks ( 1704 )
Reports as Master of the Mint ( 1701 – 25 )
Arithmetica Universalis ( 1707 )
= = = Published posthumously = = =
The System of the World ( 1728 )
Optical Lectures ( 1728 )
The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended ( 1728 )
De mundi systemate ( 1728 )
Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John ( 1733 )
Newton , Isaac ( 1991 ) . Robinson , Arthur B. , ed . Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel , and the Apocalypse of St. John . Cave Junction , Oregon : Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine . ISBN 0 @-@ 942487 @-@ 02 @-@ 8 . ( A facsimile edition of the 1733 work . )
An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture ( 1754 )
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= HMS Furious ( 47 ) =
HMS Furious was a modified Courageous @-@ class battlecruiser built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) during the First World War . Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by the First Sea Lord of the Admiralty , Lord John Fisher , the ship was very lightly armoured and designed to be armed with only two heavy guns ( 18 @-@ inch ) , one forward and one aft , plus a number of lesser guns . Furious was modified and became an aircraft carrier while under construction . Her forward turret was removed and a flight deck was added in its place , so that aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure to land . Later in the war , the ship had her rear turret removed and a second flight deck installed aft of the superstructure , but this was less than satisfactory due to air turbulence . Furious was briefly laid up after the war before she was reconstructed with a full @-@ length flight deck in the early 1920s .
After her conversion , Furious was used extensively for trials of naval aircraft and later as a training carrier once the new armoured carriers like Ark Royal entered service in the late 1930s . During the early months of the Second World War the carrier spent her time hunting for German raiders in the North Atlantic and escorting convoys . This changed dramatically during the Norwegian Campaign in early 1940 when her aircraft provided air support to British troops ashore in addition to attacking German shipping . The first of what would be a large number of aircraft ferry missions was made by the carrier during the campaign . After the withdrawal of British troops in May , Furious made several anti @-@ shipping strikes in Norway with little result before beginning a steady routine of ferrying aircraft for the Royal Air Force .
At first Furious made several trips to West Africa , but she began to ferry aircraft to Gibraltar in 1941 . An unsuccessful attack on German @-@ occupied ports on the Arctic Ocean interrupted the ferry missions in mid @-@ 1941 . Furious was given a lengthy refit in the United States and spent a few months training after her return in April 1942 . She made several more ferry trips in mid @-@ 1942 before her aircraft attacked airfields in Vichy French Algeria as part of the opening stages of Operation Torch in November 1942 . The ship remained in the Mediterranean until February 1943 when she was transferred to the Home Fleet .
Furious spent most of 1943 training , but made a number of attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz and other targets in Norway during the first half of 1944 . By September 1944 , the ship was showing her age and she was placed in reserve . Furious was decommissioned in April 1945 , but was not sold for scrap until 1948 .
= = Design and description = =
During the First World War , Admiral Fisher was prevented from ordering an improved version of the preceding Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by a wartime restriction that banned construction of ships larger than light cruisers . To obtain ships suitable for traditional battlecruiser roles , such as scouting for fleets and hunting enemy raiders , he settled on ships with the minimal armour of a light cruiser and the armament of a battlecruiser . He justified their existence by claiming he needed fast , shallow @-@ draught ships for his Baltic Project , a plan to invade Germany via its Baltic coast .
Furious had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 88 feet ( 26 @.@ 8 m ) , and a draught of 24 feet 11 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) at deep load . She displaced 19 @,@ 513 long tons ( 19 @,@ 826 t ) normally and 22 @,@ 890 long tons ( 23 @,@ 257 t ) at deep load . She had a metacentric height of 5 @.@ 33 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) at deep load . Furious and her half @-@ sisters were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . To save design time the installation used in the light cruiser Champion , the first cruiser in the RN with geared turbines , was copied and simply duplicated to provide two sets of turbines . The four Brown @-@ Curtis turbines were powered by eighteen Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers that were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ship 's speed was an estimated 31 @.@ 5 knots ( 58 @.@ 3 km / h ; 36 @.@ 2 mph ) , but she never ran her sea trials .
Furious was designed to normally carry 750 long tons ( 762 t ) of fuel oil , but could carry a maximum of 3 @,@ 160 long tons ( 3 @,@ 211 t ) . At full capacity , she could steam for an estimated 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 110 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ship was designed to carry two BL 18 @-@ inch Mark I guns in two single turrets , one each fore ( ' A ' ) and aft ( ' Y ' ) . Her secondary armament consisted of 11 BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns . A pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns were mounted before the funnel . Furious also mounted two submerged tubes for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes and 10 torpedoes were carried .
Even as she was being built , Furious was modified with a large hangar capable of housing ten aircraft on her forecastle that replaced the forward turret . A 160 @-@ foot ( 49 m ) flight deck was built along its roof . Aircraft were flown off and , rather less successfully , landed on this deck . Floatplanes like the Short Type 184 used a four @-@ wheel trolley that ran down a track along the centre of the flight deck for take @-@ off . Aircraft were lifted by crane from the hangar to the flight deck . Although the aft turret was fitted and the gun tested , it was not long before Furious returned to her builders for further modifications . In November 1917 , the rear turret was replaced by a 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) deck for landing aircraft over another hangar . Her funnel and superstructure remained intact , with a narrow strip of decking around them to connect the fore and aft flight decks . Turbulence from the funnel and superstructure was severe enough that only three landing attempts were successful before further attempts were forbidden . Her 18 @-@ inch guns were reused on Lord Clive @-@ class monitors General Wolfe and Lord Clive during the war .
Furious was laid down on 8 June 1915 at Armstrong Whitworth 's Low Walker shipyard in Newcastle upon Tyne . The ship was launched on 18 August 1916 and commissioned on 26 June 1917 . As completed , her complement numbered 737 officers and enlisted men .
= = Aircraft landing and the First World War = =
On 2 August 1917 , while performing trials , Squadron Commander Edwin Dunning landed a Sopwith Pup , believed to have been N6453 , successfully on board Furious , becoming the first person to land an aircraft on a moving ship . On 7 August , he made one more successful landing in the same manner , but on his third attempt , in Pup N6452 , the engine choked and the aircraft crashed off the starboard bow , killing him . The deck arrangement was unsatisfactory because aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure in order to land .
In the meantime , all three Courageous @-@ class ships were assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron ( CS ) in October 1917 when the Admiralty received word of German ship movements on 16 October , possibly indicating a raid . Admiral Beatty , commander of the Grand Fleet , ordered most of his light cruisers and destroyers to sea in an effort to locate the enemy ships . Furious was detached from the 1st CS and ordered to sweep along the 56th parallel as far as 4 ° East and to return before dark . Her half @-@ sisters Courageous and Glorious were not initially ordered to sea , but were sent to reinforce the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron patrolling the central part of the North Sea later that day . Two German Brummer @-@ class light cruisers managed to slip through the gaps in the British patrols and destroyed the Scandinavia convoy during the morning of 17 October , but no word was received of the engagement until that afternoon . The 1st CS was ordered to attempt to intercept the German ships , but they proved to be faster than hoped and the British ships were unsuccessful .
Furious returned to the dockyard in November to have the aft turret removed and replaced by another deck for landing , giving her both a launching and a recovery deck . Two lifts ( elevators ) serving the hangars were also installed . Furious was recommissioned on 15 March 1918 , and her embarked aircraft were used on anti @-@ Zeppelin patrols in the North Sea after May . In July 1918 , she flew off seven Sopwith Camels which participated in the Tondern raid , attacking the Zeppelin sheds there with moderate success .
= = Conversion = =
= = = Overview = = =
Furious was laid up after the war , but was converted to an aircraft carrier with a continuous flight deck between June 1921 and September 1925 . Her design was based on experience gained with the first two British carriers , Argus and Eagle , although this was very limited as Argus was less than three years old and Eagle had only carried out 143 deck landings during her preliminary sea trials in 1920 .
The ship 's superstructure , masts , funnel and landing deck were removed and she was given a 576 @-@ by @-@ 92 @-@ foot ( 175 @.@ 6 by 28 @.@ 0 m ) flight deck that extended over three @-@ quarters of her length . This flight deck was not level ; it sloped upwards about three @-@ quarters of the way from the stern to help slow down landing aircraft , which had no brakes at that time . The fore @-@ and @-@ aft 320 @-@ foot ( 97 @.@ 5 m ) arresting gear was not intended to stop landing aircraft — the landing speeds of the time were low enough that this was unnecessary given a good headwind — but rather to prevent aircraft from veering off to one side and potentially falling off the flight deck . Various designs for the flight deck were tested in a wind tunnel by the National Physical Laboratory which showed that the distinctive elliptical shape and rounded edges used minimised turbulence .
Furious was not lengthened , but her beam was increased 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) to 89 feet .75 inches ( 27 @.@ 1 m ) and her average draught was now 27 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load , 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) deeper than before the conversion . She displaced 22 @,@ 500 long tons ( 22 @,@ 900 t ) at normal load and 26 @,@ 500 long tons ( 26 @,@ 900 t ) at deep load , over 3000 long tons more than her previous displacement . Her metacentric height was 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load , a reduction of 1 @.@ 48 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) after her conversion . During the ship 's post @-@ conversion sea trials she reached 30 @.@ 03 knots ( 55 @.@ 62 km / h ; 34 @.@ 56 mph ) . Her fuel capacity was increased by 700 long tons ( 710 t ) during her reconstruction , which increased her range to 5 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 800 km ; 6 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) or 7 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 850 km ; 8 @,@ 610 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
A two @-@ level hangar was built under the flight deck , 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in height per level . The lower hangar was 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long by 35 – 50 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 – 15 @.@ 2 m ) wide and the upper was 520 by 50 feet ( 158 @.@ 5 by 15 @.@ 2 m ) . Each hangar could be sectioned off by electrically operated steel shutters on rollers . Her boilers were ducted down the side of the ship to exhaust either out of gratings at the rear of the flight deck or , when landing operations were in progress , out of the side of the lower hangar at the rear of the ship . This solution proved to be very unsatisfactory as it consumed valuable space , made parts of the lower hangar unbearable and interfered with landing operations to a greater or lesser degree . Her original flying @-@ off deck remained in place for use by small aircraft like fighters which improved launch and recovery cycle flexibility allowing the ship to simultaneously land aircraft on the main flight deck while fighters were taking off on the lower deck or to speedily fly off her aircraft from both decks . Doors at the forward end of the upper hangar opened onto the lower flying deck . Like Argus , Furious was flush @-@ decked and lacked an island superstructure to minimise any turbulence over the flight deck ; instead she had a navigating position at the leading edge of the flight deck , starboard , and was provided with a retractable charthouse forward , on the flight deck centreline . The ship could normally only carry about 36 aircraft .
Two 47 @-@ by @-@ 46 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 3 by 14 @.@ 0 m ) lifts ( elevators ) were installed to transfer aircraft between the flight deck and hangars . No arresting gear was fitted and two 600 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 700 l ; 720 US gal ) ready @-@ use petrol tanks were provided for aircraft and the ship 's boats on the upper deck . An additional 20 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 91 @,@ 000 l ; 24 @,@ 000 US gal ) of petrol were in bulk storage . In 1939 , her complement consisted of 41 officers and 754 crewmen .
= = = Armament = = =
Furious retained ten of her original eleven breech @-@ loading 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) guns , five on each side , for self @-@ defence from enemy warships . Six QF 4 @-@ inch Mark V guns replaced her original anti @-@ aircraft guns . Four were mounted on the sides of the flying @-@ off deck and two on the quarterdeck . The four guns on the flying @-@ off deck were removed in 1926 – 27 for trials of the lower flight deck , but only two were replaced when the trials were concluded . Four single QF 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ poms " were installed in 1927 . During Furious 's September 1930 – February 1932 refit , her anti @-@ aircraft outfit was reinforced by the addition of two eight @-@ barrel QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark V pom @-@ pom mounts where the forward 4 @-@ inch guns on the flying @-@ off deck had been removed earlier .
The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch and 4 @-@ inch guns were replaced during her refit in early 1939 by a dozen QF 4 @-@ inch Mk XVI guns in twin dual @-@ purpose Mark XIX mounts . One mount each was on the former flying @-@ off deck and the quarterdeck while the other four were mounted two per side . Two more Mark V 2 @-@ pounder mounts were added fore and aft of the newly added island superstructure at the same time . While later refitting in the United States , the ship was fitted with a maximum of 22 manually operated automatic 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Oerlikon light anti @-@ aircraft guns , which replaced the single quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mount .
A single High Angle Control System director was fitted on the island and another on an elevated mount on the former flying @-@ off deck . Two pom @-@ pom directors were also mounted on the island for the weapons mounted fore and aft of the island .
= = Inter @-@ war service = =
Furious was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet after commissioning in 1925 although she spent much of the next several years conducting trials for practically every aircraft in the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) inventory . These included landing and flying @-@ off tests of Fairey IIID and Fairey Flycatcher floatplanes , with and without wheels , to compare various designs of wooden and metal floats . The lower flight deck was greased to allow them to take off with a minimum of difficulty . A Flycatcher fitted with wooden skids was also tested and behaved perfectly satisfactorily . The arresting gear was barely used during these trials and it was removed shortly afterwards . Deck @-@ edge palisades were installed in 1927 to keep aircraft from blowing over the side in rough weather . The first carrier night @-@ landing was made by a Blackburn Dart on 6 May 1926 aboard Furious . In the 1920s , the ship commonly carried one flight of fighters ( Fairey Flycatcher ) , two of spotters ( Blackburn Blackburn or Avro Bison ) , one spotter reconnaissance ( Fairey IIID ) and two flights of torpedo bombers ( Blackburn Dart ) , each usually of six aircraft .
Furious was reduced to reserve on 1 July 1930 in preparation for a lengthy overhaul at Devonport . It lasted from September 1930 to February 1932 and was focused on refitting her machinery and re @-@ tubing her boilers . In addition her quarterdeck was raised by one deck , the AA armament was revised and spraying facilities were fitted in the hangars . Upon completion , she ran a full @-@ power trial on 16 February 1932 where her maximum speed was 28 @.@ 8 knots ( 53 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 1 mph ) from a total of 89 @,@ 745 shaft horsepower ( 66 @,@ 923 kW ) .
Furious recommissioned in May 1932 as part of the Home Fleet with a reduced crew before being brought up to full complement in November . Transverse arresting gear was fitted sometime during the mid @-@ 1930s . She was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet from May to October 1934 . Furious was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI . She became a deck @-@ landing training carrier in 1937 , although she was refitted in Devonport between December 1937 and May 1938 where the forward end of her lower flight deck was raised to make her less wet forward . During the Munich Crisis in September 1938 , the ship embarked 801 , 821 and 822 Squadrons and joined the fleet at Scapa Flow , before resuming her training duties after the peaceful conclusion of the affair . She was struck a glancing blow by the destroyer Encounter during this time , but suffered only minor damage .
From 1933 to the end of 1938 Furious carried 801 Squadron which initially flew a mixture of six Hawker Nimrod and three Flycatcher fighters . Hawker Osprey fighters replaced the Flycatchers in early 1934 and the Nimrods were withdrawn in October 1936 . 811 and 822 Squadrons were embarked for reconnaissance and anti @-@ shipping missions . They flew the Blackburn Ripon , the Blackburn Baffin and the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers and as well as the Fairey IIIF , the Fairey Seal and the Blackburn Shark reconnaissance aircraft .
The ship was given a more extensive refit from January to May 1939 that removed her 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and palisades , mounted anti @-@ aircraft guns on her lower flying @-@ off deck , plated in the doors at the forward end of the upper hangar , and gave her a small island on the starboard side . Furious resumed her training duties after the completion of the refit and continued them until October 1939 . As a deck @-@ landing training carrier in 1939 Furious embarked 767 Squadron , flying Shark , Swordfish and Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers and reconnaissance aircraft , and 769 Squadron , flying Blackburn Skua , Blackburn Roc , and Gloster Sea Gladiator fighters .
= = Second World War = =
Furious remained on training duties , combined with anti @-@ submarine sweeps off the east coast of Scotland until 2 October 1939 . She was then assigned to the Home Fleet to replace the sunken Courageous and embarked nine Swordfish aircraft from 816 Squadron and a detachment of three more Swordfish from 818 Squadron . The ship sortied on 8 October with the fleet to unsuccessfully hunt for the German battleship Gneisenau and escorting ships which had been spotted off southern Norway . After returning from this search , Furious departed her berth adjacent to the battleship Royal Oak in Scapa Flow for more futile searches for German ships on 13 October , the day before Royal Oak was sunk by U @-@ 47 . Afterwards she was transferred to Halifax , Nova Scotia , where she and the battlecruiser HMS Repulse formed a hunting group for German raiders . Furious served as the flagship for the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain in mid @-@ December 1939 . In the darkness on 17 December , the west @-@ bound ocean liner SS Samaria passed through the convoy unseen . She ripped off the horizontal wireless masts on Furious 's starboard side , carried away five overhanging lifeboats from the port side of RMS Aquitania , and just missed the third and fourth ships in line .
= = = Norwegian Campaign = = =
Furious joined the Home Fleet off the coast of Norway on 10 April 1940 with only eighteen Swordfish from 816 and 818 Squadrons embarked ; no fighters were able to join the ship in time . Sixteen Swordfish made unsuccessful torpedo attacks on German ships in Trondheim harbour the following morning . On 12 April , both squadrons attempted to attack German ships in Narvik in bad weather . Disappointed with the failure of the torpedo attacks the previous day , bombs were carried instead . 818 Squadron , making the first attack , damaged several captured Norwegian ships , but lost two aircraft to flak , although the crews were rescued by the British cruiser Penelope and the destroyer Punjabi . Following 40 minutes behind , 816 Squadron was forced to turn back by heavy weather . One aircraft was lost while landing , but the crew was recovered . Another attack was launched the next day in support of the British ships entering Narvik , but they contributed little and another pair of Swordfish were shot down .
Furious , ordered to remain behind after the bulk of the Home Fleet departed on 15 April , departed the Narvik area on 14 April , escorted by three destroyers , to refuel at Tromsø . En route , her Swordfish attacked Junkers Ju 52 transports that had landed on frozen Lake Hartvikvatnet approximately 10 miles ( 16 @.@ 1 km ) north @-@ east of Narvik . Two of the Ju 52s were destroyed and several others damaged . She reached the port on 16 April with only 27 % of her fuel remaining . She stayed there until 18 April when she headed south to scout the Narvik area . She was attacked en route by a single Heinkel He 111 bomber of the II . / KG 26 wing from very high altitude . Two large bombs narrowly missed the ship , the closest only 11 yards ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) off the port side aft . The shock shook her propeller shafts out of alignment and jarred the port inner high @-@ pressure turbine so that she was limited to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Furious remained off the coast of Norway despite the damage and attempted to fly off aircraft on 22 April , despite severe weather , to discourage German aircraft from delivering supplies to the German forces in Narvik . One aircraft was shot down by the Germans and the others returned reporting heavy snowstorms between the ship and Narvik . The weather worsened the next day and Captain Troubridge decided to head to Harstad to check the damage from the near miss . It proved worse than anticipated and he was ordered back to the United Kingdom . Only six of the nine remaining Swordfish were serviceable .
After quick repairs , which included the removal of several rows of turbine blades , Furious returned to Norway on 18 May carrying the Gladiators of a reformed Royal Air Force 263 Squadron ; they were flown off on 21 April once their base at Bardufoss was ready . One Gladiator and the guiding Swordfish crashed en route , killing all crewmen . The ship returned to Scapa Flow once all the Gladiators had been flown off , carrying only six Sea Gladiators of 804 Squadron and nine Swordfish of 816 Squadron for self @-@ protection while ferrying 263 Squadron .
On 14 June , carrying only half of 816 Squadron for her own protection , Furious sailed unescorted for Halifax carrying £ 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in gold bullion . On 1 July she escorted a convoy of Canadian troops bound for Iceland from Halifax and ferried over almost 50 aircraft with spare parts and munitions . On his own initiative , Captain Troubridge ordered all available space should be used to transport sugar to Britain . Upon her arrival , she embarked the rest of 816 Squadron , as well as nine Skuas of 801 Squadron and nine Swordfish of 825 , and made a number of largely unsuccessful air strikes on shipping in Norwegian waters and on the seaplane base at Tromsø in September and October 1940 , at a cost of several aircraft . Both Swordfish squadrons disembarked afterwards to make room as she prepared to resume her role as an aircraft transport .
= = = Ferry duties = = =
Furious loaded 55 aircraft , mostly crated Hawker Hurricane fighters of No. 73 Squadron RAF , in Liverpool on 7 November and sailed for Takoradi , Gold Coast on 15 November where they were flown off or off @-@ loaded on 27 November with the ultimate destination of Egypt . During this time she retained only six Skuas of 801 Squadron for her own protection . Furious was back in Liverpool by 15 December where she embarked 40 more Hurricanes for Takoradi . She sailed on 21 December and joined up with Convoy WS5A and the small carrier Argus . The German cruiser Admiral Hipper encountered the convoy on 25 December , but little damage was inflicted by Admiral Hipper before she was driven off by the escorts . No air strike could be flown against the German cruiser because the Swordfish were embarked in Argus with bombs that they could not carry and their torpedoes were aboard Furious . After Furious 's Skuas had flown off to search for Hipper , space was made to land the Swordfish to load the torpedoes , but the Skuas could not locate Admiral Hipper because of the poor visibility . Furious reached Takoradi on 10 January 1941 and arrived back in Britain on 5 February where she was given a brief refit . She made another ferry trip to Takoradi on 4 March , carrying 12 Fairey Fulmars of 807 Squadron and six Swordfish of 825 Squadron for self @-@ defence .
Furious now had a new destination for her ferry trips and she transported 24 Hurricanes to Gibraltar on 25 April where they were transferred to Ark Royal to be flown off for Malta . She sailed for a brief refit at Belfast immediately afterwards . While in Belfast she was hit by one small bomb and near @-@ missed by two others during a German air raid in early May , but was only lightly damaged . The ship loaded another batch of 40 Hurricane IIs , plus nine Fulmars from ' X ' Flight of 800 Squadron in Liverpool , and arrived back in Gibraltar on 18 May . Some of these fighters were moved to Ark Royal via planks between the flight decks of the carriers berthed stern to stern . This time she accompanied Ark Royal and the two carriers flew off their fighters from a position south of Sardinia . Furious loaded 48 more Hurricane IIs and arrived back in Gibraltar on 1 June where some of the fighters were transferred to Ark Royal . The two carriers departed Gibraltar on 4 June and flew off 44 of the 48 fighters . Furious returned to the Clyde for her biggest load of aircraft yet , 64 Hurricanes , leaving room for only nine Swordfish from 816 Squadron on this voyage . Upon her arrival on 25 June she transferred 22 Hurricanes to Ark Royal and that carrier flew them off to Malta the next day . Of the 42 Hurricanes left on Furious , 26 were moved to Ark Royal when she returned on 28 June . This time , however , both carriers sailed to deliver the fighters to their usual take @-@ off point west of Sicily . The tenth of Furious 's aircraft to take off crashed into her island , killing 14 men and starting a serious fire on the flight deck . The blocked flight deck forced the remaining six Hurricanes to remain on board and they were returned to Gibraltar . Furious exchanged 816 Squadron for 818 from Ark Royal , then departed for home .
In July , Furious embarked nine Fulmars of 800 Squadron , ' A ' Flight of 880 Squadron with four Sea Hurricane IBs , nine Swordfish from 812 Squadron and nine Albacores of 817 Squadron to attack the German @-@ occupied ports of Kirkenes , Norway , and Petsamo , Finland , departing Scapa Flow on the 23rd in company with the carrier Victorious , two cruisers and six destroyers . The two carriers and their escorts gathered in Seidisfjord , Iceland , under the command of Rear Admiral Wake @-@ Walker where they refuelled in late July . Furious attacked ships in Petsamo on 30 July with all of her Swordfish and Albacores , escorted by six Fulmars and all four Sea Hurricanes , but there was very little shipping present . One small ship , MV Trotter , was sunk , several oil storage tanks were set afire , and several wooden jetties were torpedoed . The British ships had been spotted before the attack and two Fulmars and an Albacore were shot down by the alerted defences . Furious was short of fuel and had to leave shortly afterwards , but she transferred her Albacores to Victorious to fill up that carrier 's decimated squadrons before she left . Sea Hurricanes of 880 Squadron shot down a shadowing Dornier Do 18 flying boat on 31 July as the ship was leaving .
On 30 August , Furious left Belfast with a load of 49 Hurricanes , carrying three Fulmars of 800 Squadron and four Sea Hurricane IBs of 880A Squadron for self @-@ defence , and nine Swordfish of 812 Squadron for Ark Royal . She arrived in Gibraltar on 6 September and transferred 40 Hurricanes to the other carrier the next day . Ark Royal sailed for the departure point the following day , but could only fly off 14 Hurricanes because some of the Bristol Blenheim bombers used to guide the fighters to Malta failed to make their rendezvous . When Ark Royal returned , she transferred the six Swordfish of 810 Squadron to Furious and both carriers departed that same day to deliver the Hurricanes . This was Furious 's last ferry mission as she was sent to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , for a lengthy refit . She arrived on 7 October and did not return to the United Kingdom until April 1942 .
Furious spent the next three months after her return working up . In August , she was detailed to accompany the convoy bound for Malta in Operation Pedestal , but she was only to sail far enough with them to allow her 38 Supermarine Spitfires to reach Malta . This she did , just as Eagle was torpedoed , but Furious turned around after flying off her fighters and reached Gibraltar successfully . She loaded another batch of 32 Spitfires on 16 August and they were flown off the following day south @-@ east of the Balearic Islands . After this mission , Furious was sent back to the Home Fleet for training . One last mission was necessary to reinforce the defences of Malta before Operation Torch and the ship arrived at Gibraltar on 27 October . She loaded 32 Spitfires and launched them on 29 August before returning to Gibraltar and being assigned to Force H.
As part of Operation Torch , Furious embarked 12 Supermarine Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron , another 12 Seafire IICs of 807 Squadron and nine Albacores of 822 Squadron to provide air cover for the amphibious landings by the Central Task Force . On the morning of 8 November , Furious 's Seafires strafed the Vichy French airfield at Tafraoui , destroying three aircraft on the ground and shooting down one Dewoitine D.520 fighter , the first air @-@ to @-@ air kill by a Seafire . Eight Albacores , escorted by Sea Hurricanes from two escort carriers , attacked the field at La Senia . They were attacked by D.520s as they began their attack dive , but they destroyed 47 aircraft on the ground despite the loss of an Albacore from anti @-@ aircraft fire and the loss of three and damage to two more against the French fighters . Seafires of 807 Squadron from Furious covered the landings at Oran , engaging a flight of D.520s , shooting down three and destroying about twenty aircraft on the ground .
= = = Home Waters = = =
Furious remained with Force H until February 1943 before transferring to the Home Fleet where she remained for the rest of the war . In July , the fleet demonstrated off the coast of Norway in strength to distract attention from the Allied invasion of Sicily ; Furious 's role was to allow a German reconnaissance aircraft to spot the British ships and make a report , then shoot it down . She was refitted in August and spent the rest of the year training . During the passage of Convoy JW @-@ 57 from the U.K. to Russia in February 1944 , Furious , escorted by the British battleship Anson and the French battleship Richelieu , attacked German shipping off the Norwegian coast on 24 February . The carrier had the Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron aboard , plus the Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 827 Squadron and 830 Squadrons . No aircraft were lost and a beached freighter was destroyed .
In preparation for Operation Tungsten , an attack on the German battleship Tirpitz , Furious and Victorious exchanged Barracuda squadrons , 827 for 831 Squadron , so that the squadrons that trained together could fly together . Furious also embarked 880 Squadron with eight Seafire L.IIC fighters to reinforce the six Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron . On the morning of 3 April , 21 Barracudas of 827 and 830 Squadrons made the first attack just as the Tirpitz was getting under way for sea trials . The Germans were caught entirely by surprise and the Tirpitz 's smokescreen was only just beginning to form . The British aircraft enjoyed a clear view of their target and hit the German battleship six times . An hour later the second wave of 19 Barracudas from 829 and 831 Squadrons arrived and scored eight more hits . Only one Barracuda was shot down from each wave and another crashed on take @-@ off . 801 and 880 Squadrons were retained for fleet air defence during the operation . Tirpitz 's superstructure and upper hull was moderately damaged by the bombs , but her machinery was intact because the Barracuda pilots pressed home their attack below the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 910 m ) altitude necessary to give their 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bombs enough velocity to penetrate Tirpitz 's main armoured deck . Nonetheless Tirpitz was under repair for three months .
The Home Fleet tried another attack on Tirpitz later on 23 April , but bad weather prevented any attack from being made that day and for the next several days . Instead , the aircraft attempted to attack installations at Bodø on 26 April , but found a German convoy instead and sank three ships . Furious and the escort carrier Searcher attacked shipping in the vicinity of Kristiansund and sank the ore carrier Almora and the tanker Saarburg for the loss of two aircraft on 6 May . Another attack on Tirpitz by the Home Fleet had to be abandoned on 15 May because of poor weather . Yet another attempt on 28 May was foiled by bad weather , but a German convoy was successfully attacked on 1 June . One ammunition ship was sunk and two others were set on fire .
Furious and the fleet carriers Formidable and Indefatigable made another attempt to sink the Tirpitz on 17 July , in Operation Mascot . For this attack the carrier embarked 880 Squadron with three Seafire L.IICs , 20 Grumman Hellcats of 1840 Squadron , Barracudas of 830 Squadron and three Swordfish of 842 Flight . The Barracudas , heavily loaded with bombs of up to 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) , launched using a wooden ramp : an early example of what was to be later named the ski @-@ jump . The attack was unsuccessful against the fully alerted German defences as a smokescreen covered the German battleship so that the Barracudas had to drop their bombs blindly through the smoke . Four more attacks on Tirpitz were made in August under the name of Operation Goodwood in a concerted effort to sink her . Furious carried twelve Seafire F.IIIs of 801 Squadron , another twelve Seafire L.IICs of 880 Squadron and nine Barracudas of 827 Squadron for this operation . The first attack on 20 August was recalled because of bad weather , but the attack on 22 August was spotted by the Germans and 11 aircraft were lost . Another attack was made two days later ; one armour @-@ piercing bomb penetrated Tirpitz 's armoured deck but failed to detonate , and another 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb did only superficial damage . A fourth attack was made on 29 August , but inflicted no damage .
By this time the ship 's age and limitations became increasingly apparent and she was placed in reserve on 15 September 1944 . The ship was paid off in April 1945 and , berthed at Loch Striven , was used to evaluate the effects of aircraft explosives on the ship 's structure . Furious was sold in 1948 for scrap , and had been completely broken up in Troon by 1954 .
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= Warning from Space =
Warning from Space ( 宇宙人東京に現わる , Uchūjin Tokyo ni arawaru , Spacemen Appear in Tokyo ) is a Japanese science fiction tokusatsu film released in January 1956 by Daiei , and was the first Japanese science fiction film to be produced in color . In the film 's plot , starfish @-@ like aliens disguised as humans travel to Earth to warn of the imminent collision of a rogue planet and Earth . As the planet rapidly accelerates toward Earth , a nuclear device is created at the last minute and destroys the approaching world .
The film , directed by Koji Shima , was one of many early Japanese monster films quickly produced after the success of Toho 's Godzilla in 1954 . The film was loosely based on a novel by Gentaro Nakajima . After release , the film was met with negative reviews , with critics calling it " bizarre " and accusing it of using science fiction clichés . Warning from Space influenced many other Japanese science fiction films , such as Gorath . The film , along with other 1950s science fiction films , influenced director Stanley Kubrick , who would later direct 2001 : A Space Odyssey .
= = Plot = =
A small ship travels to a rotating space station . Aboard the station , a group of starfish @-@ like beings discuss how to warn humans of an impending disaster , deciding on contacting Japanese scientist Dr. Kumara . Meanwhile , flying saucers are spotted over the skies of Tokyo , baffling scientists . A journalist tries to get a statement from Dr. Kumara about the sightings , but Kumara replies that there is not enough evidence to formulate a hypothesis . At an observatory , Professor Isobe spots an object in his telescope apparently releasing smaller objects .
Isobe discusses his findings with Kumara and a physician , Dr. Matsuda , who believes they should get photographs via a rocket . The photographs they retrieve , however , turn out to be unclear , though they deduce the object has a high energy output . In the meantime , the extraterrestrials have been unsuccessfully attempting to contact humans . They begin appearing in lakes and rivers , frightening local fishermen and sailors . One of the aliens manages to secure a photo of Hikari Aozora , a famous Japanese entertainer . Their plan is for one of the aliens to mutate into the form of Aozora . Back aboard the space station , one of the Pairan leaders , Ginko , volunteers herself . Her starfish form is slowly mutated into a human form .
On Earth , Toru , Isobe 's son , discovers the disguised alien floating in the water . After her rescue , she exhibits superhuman characteristics such as jumping ten feet and materializing in different places without walking . Soon , she disrupts Dr. Matsuda 's work on a nuclear device , explaining she understands the complex equations he was writing and warning against the effects of a device , leading him to believe she is not human . Shortly afterwards , as the team of scientists discuss her abnormal traits , the camouflaged Ginko appears and reveals her true identity , explaining she is from Paira , a world on the same orbit as Earth but on the opposite side of the Sun . She then continues to reveal her mission , to warn Earth of an imminent collision of a rogue planet , which is dubbed " Planet R " by the media . They appeal to the World Congress about the situation , but are swiftly rejected . Only after they show Planet R and its rapid acceleration in the telescope does the World Congress launch its nuclear weapons , which ineffectively explode on its surface .
In the meantime , a group of spies have abducted Matsuda and are attempting to steal his formula to the nuclear device the disguised Pairan warned him about . Matsuda does not comply and is eventually tied to a chair in a remote building . As the Earth 's atmosphere heats up due to the approaching world , Ginko again arrives to learn why Planet R is not yet destroyed . They locate Matsuda through Pairan technology and gather the formula for the device . The scientists then all watch as the nuclear device is shot from the space station and destroys Planet R , cooling the atmosphere and removing the threat . Ginko then changes back to her original form aboard the space station .
= = Production = =
After the success of Toho 's 1954 film Godzilla , which depicted a giant dinosaur attacking Tokyo , many Japanese film studios began to produce similar monster films , including Warning from Space . Along with other films such as Shintōhō 's Terrifying Attack of the Flying Saucers and the American Forbidden Planet , Warning from Space became part of a fledgling subgenre of films based around science fiction creatures . The film also used the theme of atomic bombs that was present in many films at the time , but showed how the weapons , which devastated the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki a decade earlier , could be put to good use . Still others noted the film used another common theme of cosmic collisions in the style of earlier films such as the 1931 film End of the World , which depicted a comet on a collision course with the Earth .
The Pairan aliens were designed by the prominent avant @-@ garde artist Tarō Okamoto , which used a single eye that is common among science fiction aliens . Although official film posters showed the Pairan aliens towering over buildings , the actual cinematic version of the aliens were on the scale of humans , at about two meters . Walt Lee reports that Gentaro Nakajima 's novel , on which this film was based , was in turn based on the Japanese folktale Kaguya @-@ hime . The film was one of fourteen Japanese color pictures produced in early 1956 , but the first color Japanese science @-@ fiction film .
= = Release = =
Warning From Space was released in Japan in 1956 . Daiei also hoped to find a foreign market for Warning from Space , though the company found difficulty in selling it . Nevertheless , the film played at both King Cinema in Rangoon , Burma and Tai Khoon Theatre in Sandakan , Malaysia , in 1958 . The film did help Daiei achieve some success in the genre . It was passed for release , anglicized as Warning from Space , by the BBFC in the United Kingdom in 1957 , and later in the United States in 1963 . It was picked up by American International Television later in the 1960s . The film was released in Spain as Asalto a la Tierra , and in France as Le Satellite Mystérieux . Warning from Space has since fallen into the public domain , allowing companies to distribute the free film on DVD .
= = Reception = =
From retrospective reviews , a review included in the book A Guide to Apocalyptic Cinema , author Charles P. Mitchell called the film " bizarre " and gave it two stars . Similarly , in a 1978 issue of the magazine Cue , viewers were warned " don 't watch it . " In the 1986 Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies by Phil Hardy and Denis Gifford , the film is accused of using the science fiction clichés of flying saucers and atomic bombs . Gyan Prakash , in his book Noir Urbanisms : Dystopic Images of the Modern City , called the film " charming . " The film was noted for its misleading characterization of astronomers , with one author observing that it advanced the cinematic portrayal of astronomers as scientists in lab coats peering through an enormous telescope .
In his biography of Stanley Kubrick , author John Baxter traces Kubrick 's interest in science fiction films , which led to his 2001 : A Space Odyssey , to the Japanese kaiju eiga films of the 1950s , including Warning from Space , with its " nameless two @-@ metre @-@ tall black starfish with a single central eye , who walk en pointe like ballet dancers . " Baxter notes that despite their " clumsy model sequences , the films were often well @-@ photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well @-@ designed and well @-@ lit sets . "
= = Legacy = =
Warning from Space influenced Toho 's Gorath , a 1963 film which depicts a rogue planet on a collision course with Earth . The planet Paira in Warning from Space may have been an influence in the Daiei films Gamera vs. Guiron and Gamera : Super Monster , which feature the planet Tera , another planet on the opposite of Earth 's orbit . Critics have also noted plot similarities to the later Toho film Monster Zero , in that a friendly planet warns Japan of the atom bomb and subsequently assists in celestial defense . The Pairans ' asteroidean appearance is similar to that of a later pentagrammic creation , Starro , a villain from DC Comics ' Justice League .
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= Fatbeard =
" Fatbeard " is the seventh episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 188th overall episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 22 , 2009 and in the United Kingdom on April 24 , 2009 . It was the mid @-@ season finale , marking the final South Park episode for six months . In the episode , Cartman misinterprets news reports about piracy in the Indian Ocean to mean the return of the classic era of swashbuckling pirates , and misleads a handful of South Park boys to voyage to Mogadishu to start a pirate crew .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States for strong to extreme language . " Fatbeard " was a reference to increasing international media attention to piracy in the Indian Ocean , and the script depicted the pirates in a sympathetic light . The crew of the USS Bainbridge , the Arleigh Burke @-@ class guided missile destroyer which participated in the rescue of the hijacked MV Maersk Alabama , contacted the South Park creators to praise them for the episode . " Fatbeard " received generally positive reviews and was seen by 2 @.@ 59 million households in its original broadcast , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Having misunderstood the news about an upsurge of piracy in the Indian Ocean , Cartman excitedly tells his friends the classic era of piracy has returned , and asks the boys to join him in becoming a pirate in what he describes as a responsibility @-@ free life in a warm tropical paradise . Sensing an opportunity to get rid of Cartman once and for all , Kyle encourages him to go , even offering to help pay for his ticket . Although Butters , Ike , Clyde and Kevin are the only students who agree to join his crew , an undaunted Cartman uses his mother 's credit card to book a trip to Somalia . After a long flight and a 49 @-@ hour bus ride , the boys arrive in Mogadishu dressed as stereotypical pirates . Once there , however , they are shocked to find themselves in a desolate land , the complete opposite of their expectations .
They quickly find the pirates , who are shocked that anyone would knowingly venture into their base . The pirates decide to ransom the boys to the first European vessel they find . The boys confidently go with them , believing they are being taken to a pirate ship , but are once again disappointed when they are taken to a small motorboat . Eventually , the pirates find a French schooner and demand a ransom of five thousand euros in exchange for the boys ' lives . Meanwhile in South Park , Kyle happily claims partial credit for sending Cartman to Somalia and expects things will be better without Cartman around . But when his parents discover a farewell letter from Ike , Kyle realizes his brother has run off with Cartman to Somalia , and he sets off for Mogadishu to bring his brother home . Back in Somalia , the ransom is paid and the boys are surrendered . Once on board , however , Cartman assumes control of the schooner and orders the crew to get onto the lifeboat . Although the captain initially refuses , Kevin brandishes a toy lightsaber , frightening the French crew into abandoning ship . Cartman and the boys return to Mogadishu with the captured vessel , giving several bundles of Euros to the pirates . The pirates are initially shocked , but begin to respect Cartman . Unimpressed by their lack of " pirate " traits , he in turn leads them in raiding ships via a traditional sea shanty called " Somalian Pirates , We " , and starts fashioning them into a stereotypical pirate crew .
Meanwhile , the French crew is rescued by a cargo ship , and the U.S. Navy is deployed by NATO after getting word from the cargo ship captain that the pirates now have " advanced weaponry " ( which was really just Kevin 's toy lightsaber , that the French crew thought was real ) . Kyle arrives in Mogadishu , but is immediately taken captive by the pirates and held hostage . He pleads with Cartman to let him and his brother leave , but Cartman refuses , believing that Kyle is simply jealous of his new pirate life . Meanwhile , an English @-@ speaking pirate named Guleed asks Butters and Ike why they decided to become pirates . When they say that they left because they were tired of things like school , chores , homework , and being yelled at by adults , Guleed responds by telling them that he dreamed of a simple life going to school , and that his mother is suffering with AIDS but cannot be treated , and his father was killed in an attempt to find food for his family . He never set out to be a pirate , but was forced into piracy to support his family . Realizing how close @-@ minded they 've been , Butters and Ike admit that a life of piracy is one of hardship and suffering , not fun and adventure like normal life can be . They then tell Cartman that they want to return home , but he refuses to give up his romantic delusions of grandeur and threatens the boys with death by calling the real pirates to hold them at gunpoint . However , Cartman 's vision is quickly disrupted when a U.S Navy ship hired by NATO appears off the coast carrying snipers , who shoots all of Cartman 's pirate colleagues with a single gunshot to each of their heads . This leaves Cartman dumbfounded and annoyed .
= = Production = =
" Fatbeard " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 22 , 2009 and was the mid @-@ season finale , marking the final South Park episode until October 2009 . " Fatbeard " is based on real @-@ life piracy in the Indian Ocean , which began receiving increasing international media attention in 2008 until its demise in 2012 / 2013 .
The episode began production two weeks before its airdate , with the intention to broadcast it on April 15 , 2009 . The writing team had developed the idea for Cartman mistaking Somalian piracy for classic piracy amid the pirate hijacking of the MV Maersk Alabama at the time . Captain Richard Phillips was taken hostage in the event , and Parker and Stone decided to hold the episode indefinitely , although animation had begun . Realizing the severity of the situation — if Phillips were killed and the South Park episode seemed to mock the situation — they decided to resume work on the episode " Pinewood Derby " , which had been in production for a while , as the creators had no idea to where to go with its story . When Phillips was rescued over the weekend , they wanted to resume work on " Fatbeard " , but as animation work on the episode proved difficult , including new sets depicting Somalia , it was decided it would be unfeasible .
The episode 's ending was unusual , as many episodes of South Park tend to resolve the episode 's events ; in " Fatbeard " , the main characters don 't return home and are shown at the end still in Somalia . An alternate ending made it to the animatic stage , in which Cartman , in a self @-@ referential manner , congratulates the show on the conclusion of the season and invites the season 's celebrity parodies ( among those the Jonas Brothers and Kanye West ) . The ending , which Parker likened to that of a variety show , was something he felt was funny in writing but didn 't succeed visually .
While most South Park episodes feature Parker and Stone providing almost all the voice acting , " Fatbeard " included several French @-@ speaking actors providing the lines of the schooner crew . Outside voice actors were also brought in for the role of the Somalian pirates , including Abdi Fatah Adawe , Dahir Ali , Abdullahi Prime , and Julien Zeitouni . The week after its original broadcast , in response to requests by fans , the full 90 @-@ second version of episode 's sea shanty song , " Somalian Pirates , We " was made available for download on South Park Studios , the official South Park website . Shortly after " Fatbeard " was originally broadcast , the site also featured six different types of T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode .
= = Themes = =
The ending , in which the pirates are each shot to death by American snipers , reflects the resolution of the pirate hijacking of the MV Maersk Alabama in April 2009 , where U.S. Navy SEALs rescued the captain after three snipers simultaneously killed three pirates with one shot each . They are portrayed in a particularly sympathetic light when they are killed during the ending . Travis Fickett of IGN said , " It 's one of those moments where South Park feels the need to give voice to a side the media is ignoring — and points out that things aren 't quite as cut and dry [ sic ] as we might like . " The episode has also been described as a commentary on the way in which Americans tend to take their relative wealth and comfort for granted . A U.S. Navy SEAL ordering another to " not hit the white ones " has also been described as an indictment of the American approach to foreign policy .
= = Cultural references = =
Ike indicates he will " vomit my balls out through my mouth " if he has to hear anything more about Susan Boyle , the Scottish amateur singer who gained worldwide attention around the time of the episode 's airing for her performance of the song " I Dreamed a Dream " from Les Misérables on the show Britain 's Got Talent . The Boyle reference in particular received a great deal of media attention the week " Fatbeard " first aired . Cartman says that Jewish people , Mexicans , and ginger @-@ haired people are not allowed to be pirates . The French schooner crew members are portrayed as pretentious cowards , a stereotype of the French based on the government 's surrender during World War II . The schooner itself strongly resembles the French luxury yacht Le Ponant , which was seized by Somali pirates in April 2008 . Cartman refers to Blackbeard , the famous English pirate from the 17th and 18th centuries , from whom the episode derives its name . Much of the décor and music in the episode is influenced by the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park ride and associated film franchise . Kevin wields a toy lightsaber , the Jedi weapon from the Star Wars films ; this is also a reference to the sixth season episode " The Return of the Fellowship of the Ring to the Two Towers " , in which he dresses as an Imperial stormtrooper while the rest of the boys are in Lord of the Rings attire .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Fatbeard " was watched by 2 @.@ 59 million overall households , according to the Nielsen ratings , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . The episode received generally positive reviews . Carlos Delgado of If magazine , who gave the episode an A- grade , particularly praised the Cartman and Ike characters and called the ending " perfect " . Delgado said of the show 's creators , " These guys see episode potential in nearly everything that passes through the news desk . And because South Park can be made in like a week — and I ’ m talking start to finish , from concept to finished product — they end up being the most socially conscious and timely show on television today . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the episode and the Somalian pirate song , and complimented the show for presenting the pirates as sympathetic human beings . Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club said the portrayal of Somalian pirates was a predictable storyline , but said he enjoyed the episode because of the pacing : " Rather than a cobbled @-@ together collection of gags , everything progressed very organically . " IGN writer Travis Fickett said the episode was amusing but not exceptional . Fickett enjoyed the takeover of the French vessel and the extent to which Cartman 's delusion about pirates takes him , but he said the pirate plot " isn 't entirely in good taste ( and ) it never really gathers a full head of steam " .
The crew of the USS Bainbridge , the Arleigh Burke @-@ class guided missile destroyer which participated in the rescue of Richard Phillips from the hijacked MV Maersk Alabama , contacted the creators of South Park to commend them on the episode . Ensign Jonathan Sieg , the Bainbridge public relations officer , wrote : " Pretty much everyone onboard our ship — from Captain to seaman — is a huge fan of South Park , and when we heard about the episode Fatbeard , as you can imagine , we were thrilled and very interested to watch . " Sieg requested copies of the episode because the streaming online video was difficult to watch on the ship , and the South Park staff in return sent them a care package including several copies of the episode . On the official South Park Studios FAQ , they wrote back , " No , sir , thank you . We were honored to read that , and making an episode about you kicking pirate booty was our pleasure . "
= = Home release = =
" Fatbeard " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
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= Ain 't It Fun ( Paramore song ) =
" Ain 't It Fun " is a song by American rock band Paramore , released as the fourth single from their self @-@ titled fourth studio album Paramore ( 2013 ) . Produced by musician Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen , the song was recorded in Los Angeles . Development for it began with a keyboard loop recorded by its guitarist , Taylor York . Instruments including xylophone and bass guitar were later brought , along with a six @-@ member gospel choir . York and the band 's vocalist , Hayley Williams , wrote the song based on her experience of relocating and the latter 's subsequent attitude .
The song received critical acclaim from music critics , who hailed its musical diversity . It was serviced to mainstream radio in the United States and Italy ; a 12 @-@ inch vinyl of the single was released for Record Store Day 2014 . The song became Paramore 's highest peaking single on the US Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 10 and received ' double platinum ' certification from the RIAA having sold over two million singles . Internationally , the song garnered moderate commercial outcomes , reaching the top 40 of Australian , Canadian and Venezuelan charts . On February 8 , 2015 , the song won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Song at the 57th ceremony , becoming Paramore 's first Grammy win , and making Williams the first woman to score that honor since Alanis Morissette in 1999 .
" Ain 't It Fun " was performed on television several times , including on The Voice , Late Night with Seth Meyers and American Idol . It was also included in the band 's The Self @-@ Titled Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . After the original music video directed by Jonathan Desbiens was cancelled , a second visual was directed by Sophia Peer . The latter , released in January 2014 , documents the band attempting to break a series of world records .
= = Recording and development = =
The first song completed in Los Angeles for Paramore , " Ain 't It Fun " was produced by musician Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen . Development for the song started in a hotel room , where Taylor York created an audio loop with his keyboard , which Williams likened to works by Siouxsie and the Banshees and Paula Abdul . Upon hearing it , Hayley Williams proposed that they should write lyrics to it . Later , Williams and York started layering their voices to imitate those of gospel choir members . Six months later , they recorded with a gospel choir composed of six individuals : Brandon Hampton , Joslyn James , Katherine and Sean Dancy , Talitha Manor and Yolanda Harris @-@ Dancy . Williams , who was familiarized with gospel music , linked the inclusion of a gospel choir in the song to her upbringing , in which she frequently went to churches . Williams stated that the song was inspired by the band 's " roots " , explaining that she had grown up with " pop , funk and soul " .
Jeremy Davis — the band 's bassist — expounded on what they felt before releasing the song , " After we started writing weird stuff like ' Ain 't It Fun ' , we got nervous . But that was a comfort . We 've grown and we don 't like the same music we liked , so why would [ our fans ] not ? That idea kept us pushing ourselves . " York considered that the decision to bring a gospel choir would have been difficult to approve if the original lineup of the band had remained . The track was mixed by Ken Andrews , and mastered by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound Studios .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
Written in the key of E major , " Ain 't It Fun " paces at a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute . The song features instrumentation from a " happy " xylophone and a " rubbery " bass guitar . An editor of the Corvallis Gazette @-@ Times described its melody as " cheery " and " propulsive " , while Sean Adams from Drowned in Sound called it " infectious " . Although its main genre is pop rock , Adams and Rebecca Nicholson of The Guardian denoted the song as delving into pop , more than the band 's previous material . The former also compared it to the works of Incubus , while Nicholson stated , " [ it ] sounds as if Alexander O 'Neal has just discovered Refused 's back catalogue " . Theon Weber of Spin labeled it as " bouncy " while denoting it as a new wave song . Writing for The A.V. Club , Annie Zaleski described the song as a mixture of rhythm and blues and pop ; Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone characterized it as " soul @-@ powered " . Cameron Adams from News.com.au described it as a funk rock song , while Scott Heisel from Alternative Press classified it as a " blast of new jack swing " . Barbara Schultz at Common Sense Media categorized it as a " funky alt @-@ rock arrangement " .
The gospel choir first appears in the song during its bridge . Referencing the choir 's feature , David Renshaw of NME commented that the song " pull [ s ] a Sister Act 2 . " The vocal ranges of Williams and the gospel choir spans from B3 to C ♯ 5 . The former 's vocal performance was described by Stereogum 's Chris DeVille as having influences of Michael Jackson , whereas Zaleski compared Williams ' vocal style in " Ain 't It Fun " to that of Mariah Carey . Heisel considered that the participation of the choir helped Williams sing " some of her most soulful vocals ever . " Joseph R. Atilano of the Philippine Daily Inquirer further analyzed Williams ' vocal performance in the song :
[ ... ] lead vocalist Hayley Williams is starting to show more of her musical chops – from her crooning to the soulful “ touches ” in her singing style , particularly in this single . These nuances in her voice signify to me that , vocally , she has entered her prime already . You can hear these changes specifically in the chorus and refrain sections of this single wherein she sings with greater confidence . Here , the versatility of her voice takes shape and we begin to take serious notice of what she can do more behind the mic .
The track 's lyrics , structured in verse – chorus form and written in second person narrative , predominantly feature a sarcastic tone . They were inspired by Williams ' decision to move from Nashville to Los Angeles . She considered this idea after feeling overwhelmed by the repercussion , in Nashville , of Josh and Zac Farro 's departure from Paramore . Williams said , " I took off for L.A. as if it was going to be some kind of paradise or saving grace . I got there and realized that my problems were following me . Okay , so I was having a bad six months ? Get over it . [ sic ] " The song was penned as a message regarding her behavior , in order for her to cope with her decision . She stated , " No one else was saying that to me , so I had to say it to myself . " musicOMH 's Thomas Ingham interpreted its lyrics as focusing on a " serious ' all alone in the world ' " theme , while Corvallis Gazette @-@ Times 's journalist called them " blunt " and wrote that they discuss " growing up " . The writer also believed that its theme would make the song a prominent track at graduation ceremonies . Atilano viewed a contrast between the song 's melody and lyrical content . However , he noted that its " sunny " sonority made it " pleasant " to hear .
= = Release and live performances = =
" Ain 't It Fun " was issued as a promotional CD single in the United Kingdom on August 26 , 2013 . The track was serviced to American mainstream stations on February 4 , 2014 , serving as Paramore 's fourth single . In the following month , it was announced that Paramore would participate in the 2014 Record Store Day with the release of a 12 @-@ inch single for " Ain 't It Fun " . The single , designed by Williams to look like a broken vinyl , was released on April 19 . It contains the original version of the song , along with a Dutch Uncles @-@ produced remix of it . In Italy , the song was serviced to contemporary hit radio on March 30 , 2014 by Atlantic . On June 24 , 2014 , Atlantic released an extended play ( EP ) featuring the song 's radio edit as well as three remixes of the song .
The song was included in the setlist of the band 's third worldwide tour , The Self @-@ Titled Tour . For each performance of the song , the band was accompanied by a gospel choir , who sang alongside Williams . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard commented , " Williams kept conjuring the refrain [ of " Ain 't It Fun " ] , appearing as if she never wanted the moment to end . Could you really blame her ? " The New Zealand Herald 's Rachel Bache stated that the track " had everyone dancing " .
The inaugural televised performance of the song was done on the 2013 iHeartRadio Jingle Ball , wherein it was selected as second song on the band 's setlist . [ a ] The band played the track on the season finale of The Voice 's fifth season , which aired on December 17 of that year . On April 23 , 2014 , they sang it on the Late Night with Seth Meyers program . On May 21 , 2014 , the band performed the song on the American Idol season 13 finale . During the performance , Williams was dressed in a white crop tank , floral @-@ printed pants and platform shoes . Finalist Jena Irene , who preceded Paramore with a live cover of the band 's single " Decode " , sang the second verse of " Ain 't It Fun " alone . She also sang the chorus and bridge of the song with Paramore . The band hosted a concert on Good Morning America , on June 13 , 2014 , in which they performed " Ain 't It Fun " as well .
= = Critical reception = =
" Ain 't It Fun " garnered critical acclaim from music critics . Writing for Alternative Press , Scott Heisel felt the song was one of the " moments of diversity that really make Paramore shine " . Billboard 's Brad Wete remarked that the song 's instrumentation helped it pass an " average rock song " status . Matt Collar of AllMusic billed the song as an " immediate classic " . For Stereogum , Chris DeVille opined that the song was " crack " . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone commented that , on " Ain 't It Fun " , Williams transitions to a new musical genre on Paramore with an " I @-@ will @-@ survive warrior priestess " attitude . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly , Brian Mansfield from the USA Today newspaper and Consequence of Sound 's Amanda Koellner selected " Ain 't It Fun " as a standout from the album . Koellner commented that " when the band allows each track a little more breathing room , they show some growth and have a good time doing it . " On behalf of The Arts Desk , Lisa @-@ Marie Ferla classified it as Paramore 's " strongest moment " .
Melissa Locker of Time described it as having potential for the " perfect summer anthem " . Writing for Drowned in Sound , Sean Adams joked that he would eat his modem if the song did not top " all the major charts worldwide " , receive a Grammy Award and amount a high number of views on YouTube . In contrast , Thomas Ingham of musicOMH criticized its lyrics , deeming it inferior to the track 's composition ; The Observer 's Phil Mongredien wrote that the song 's gospel influences did it " no favours " . Sputnikmusic 's Channing Freeman quipped that previous band members Josh and Zac Farro had left the band upon hearing a demo of " Ain 't It Fun " . Freeman also described the song 's lyrics as " ridiculous " and denounced the inclusion of the gospel choir . The Irish Times ' Tony Clayton @-@ Lea dubbed the song " woefully generic " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Ain 't It Fun " debuted at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated March 15 , 2014 . On its fifth week of charting , the song entered the top 40 of the Hot 100 , at number 34 . In doing so , Paramore became the band 's first album to yield two top 40 hits , after " Still Into You " peaked at number 24 . The song reached its peak of number 10 on the issue of May 24 , 2014 , becoming Paramore 's highest @-@ peaking song on the chart . According to Billboard , it is Williams ' sixth biggest US commercial success . On the magazine 's component charts , " Ain 't It Fun " reached higher positions — except for its peak of number 23 on the Adult Contemporary chart . For the week ending May 15 , the song topped the Hot Rock Songs chart , displacing " Pompeii " by Bastille — which had remained at the top for 12 weeks . The track also topped the Adult Top 40 , while peaking at number two on the Mainstream Top 40 , only behind " Fancy " by Iggy Azalea and Charli XCX . The song has sold over a million copies in the US as of June 2014 .
Internationally , the song attained moderate success . The song entered the ARIA Singles Chart at number 41 , on the week of September 8 , 2013 . Two weeks later , the track reached its peak of number 32 , having left the chart three weeks later . " Ain 't It Fun " spent nine weeks on the Canadian chart , where it reached a peak of number 15 . Not having been released as a single in the United Kingdom , the song became Paramore 's second lowest @-@ peaking track there — reaching number 147 . The song reached the top five on the country 's Rock Chart . In Ireland , the song peaked at number 61 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
Pre @-@ production for the first version of the " Ain 't It Fun " music video started in early July 2013 . Alternative Press reported that Jonathan Desbiens , also known as Jodeb , was commissioned to direct the video . The video shoot continued into August , when Williams posted a picture of the band in the set . Two months later , however , the band posted a statement where they revealed that the video had been cancelled . Williams cited " unhappiness with the direction the video was headed " as an explanatory factor ; in replacement , a video for " Daydreaming " was filmed .
A new visual for the song , directed by Sophia Peer , was shot on December 2 of that year in Franklin , Tennessee . Peer stated that she wanted the video to " reflect " the message she retained from the song — " you had to push yourself out of your comfort zone and challenge yourself " . She began by brainstorming ideas for the visual , and she talked to Alexandra Young and the video 's editor Winston Case , who suggested her the concept of breaking world records . Peer selected 30 records for the band to break , nonetheless , they reduced the number due to the short length of the video shoot . The records selected were picked to match " different sections of the song " and were based on other already @-@ existent records .
To promote the video , Paramore associated with RecordSetter , convincing fans to create their own world records . No partnerships were established with Guinness World Records ; Peer commented , " RecordSetter is much more inclusive than Guinness , therefore cooler . [ The former 's CEO ] , Dan Rollman , is an inspired individual who has dedicated himself to helping people legitimize their talents and specialties . It is definitely the right place for Paramore fans to play along . " The video was released on January 29 , 2014 ; a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clip was released on March 3 of that year .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts with Paramore holding electric guitars , heading towards the side of a bridge . They begin smashing clock guitars on a roadside , and a title screen appears , announcing that the band broke the record of smashing 30 clocks with guitars — [ b ] at a time of 31 @.@ 33 seconds . The camera shifts to a room where the group attempts to catch flying feathers ; Davis breaks the record of catching the most ( 18 ) feathers in 30 s . The next scene shows the group wearing eye goggles , in a room with white walls , destroying vinyl records in several ways — such as ripping them , stepping on them or punching them . The band breaks another record , after smashing 58 vinyl records in a minute , the highest number of broken records for that time . While the band is destroying more records , York makes a record as an individual by spinning a record on his finger for 32 @.@ 81 s — the least time ever for that accomplishment .
As the second rendition of the chorus begins , they go to an open field where they run through 10 banners in the quickest time ever of 9 @.@ 19 s . Quickly after breaking their sixth world record , Williams breaks her only individual record , of doing the " most cartwheels while wearing boots for 20 seconds " by doing 7 . The band members reunite and start walking backwards for 30 feet , while blindfolded and holding stuffed animals . This achievement is done by York in the fastest time ever of 6 @.@ 14 seconds . For the penultimate record , Davis and York break the record of unwrapping a " mummy " in the least time ; they unwrap Williams , who is covered in toilet paper , in 9 @.@ 75 s . During the closing scene , Williams , York and Davis stand on a moving convertible , with Williams breaking the last record of screaming for the maximum time while in a convertible — for 8 @.@ 48 s . The video concludes as it is revealed that " Ain 't It Fun " itself holds the world record of depicting the most world records — 10 — broken in a music video .
= = = Response = = =
MTV 's James Montgomery compared the video to the visual of " Still Into You " — the second single of Paramore . He wrote , " That clip was a revelation , the beginning of a bold new chapter for the band , and [ the video for " Ain 't It Fun " ] keeps that winning streak alive . Montgomery went on to call it " blissed out and buzzy , born of a brilliant concept , and an absolute blast to watch " . Fuse 's Nicole James surmised that the world records were " adorable " , while Steff Yotka of Nylon deemed them " crazy , funny , weird " and concluded that they " make for a truly excellent viewing experience " On the critical side , Mish Way — writing for Vice — opined that the video 's concept did not relate to the song 's theme . Way dubbed the clip a " major fuck @-@ up " but called Williams an " irresistible charm " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = = Additional information = = =
^ a The iHeart Radio Jingle Ball 2013 occurred on December 14 , 2013 . However , it was not broadcast live — it was recorded and " highlights " of the performances were aired on a special program aired by The CW ( on December 18 ) .
^ b Once Paramore — being one of its members or the entire group — breaks a world record in the " Ain 't It Fun " video , a title screen appears stating the record they have established , as well as displaying the time it took .
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= Fishsticks ( South Park ) =
" Fishsticks " is the fifth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 186th overall episode of the series , it was originally broadcast on Comedy Central in the United States on April 8 , 2009 . In the episode , Jimmy writes a joke that becomes a national sensation , and Cartman tries to steal the credit while Rapper Kanye West is the only person in the country who fails to get the joke , but cannot admit that he does not get it because he believes himself to be a genius .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . The episode was conceived from a joke among Parker and fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone about a fish dressed as motorcycle daredevil Evel Knievel , which eventually turned into a joke about Kanye West not understanding a joke about why liking fishsticks made him a gay fish . The way Cartman tries to steal credit for the joke was inspired by real people Parker and Stone have worked with in the television business .
Parker provided the voice of West in the episode and during the song " Gay Fish " , a parody of West 's song " Heartless " . " Fishsticks " received largely positive reviews , and generated a great deal of media attention when West wrote in a blog that the episode hurt his feelings , although he said it was funny and admitted that he needed to work on his ego problem . The episode also spoofed comedian Carlos Mencia , who praised the episode after it was broadcast .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Fishsticks " was seen by more than 3 @.@ 1 million households in its original broadcast , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . The episode received even further attention after West famously interrupted Taylor Swift during her acceptance speech at the September 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , after which Comedy Central replayed the episode four times back @-@ to @-@ back . " Fishsticks " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray along with the rest of the thirteenth season on March 16 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
Jimmy works on writing jokes for his comedy routine while Cartman sits on his couch , eating potato chips . Jimmy comes up with a joke with almost no assistance from Cartman ( he only helped Jimmy originate the joke by telling Jimmy he was hungry for something more substantial than fruit , and Jimmy suggested there might be some fishsticks in the freezer ) :
Jimmy : Do you like fishsticks ? Cartman : Yeah.Jimmy : Do you like putting fishsticks in your mouth ? Cartman : Yeah.Jimmy : What are you , a gay fish ?
The joke , which plays on the similarity of the phrases " fishsticks " and " fish dicks " when spoken , becomes a hit throughout South Park . When Cartman begins taking half credit for the joke , Kyle tells Jimmy he should stand up to Cartman . When Jimmy tells Cartman he feels he wrote most of the joke , Cartman fears Jimmy will try to take full credit and asks Kyle for advice on how to deal with Jimmy . Kyle instead says he believes Jimmy wrote the entire joke , and suggests that Cartman 's ego is so big that he subconsciously remembers things incorrectly to make himself feel more important . This is supplemented by Cartman 's flashbacks to the creation of the joke , which become more overblown and ridiculous as the episode goes on , showing him to truly believe that he deserves credit .
Meanwhile , the joke becomes a national sensation . Comedian Carlos Mencia goes on Conan O 'Brien 's show claiming credit for the joke . The joke is played on rapper Kanye West , who does not understand it . West grows angry when others say he does not get it , and will not allow anyone to explain it to him , because he claims to be a genius and " the voice of a generation " . Kanye abducts Carlos Mencia , who admits he stole the joke to compensate for not being funny and claiming that his " dick don 't work " in a parody of Viggo Mortensen 's character Lalin in Carlito 's Way , but Kanye doesn 't believe him and beats him to death with the help of his hired thugs . Cartman and Jimmy go on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and claim they invented the joke , prompting Kanye to go after them . Jimmy confronts Cartman , asking how he can live with himself for taking credit for a joke he did not write . They are interrupted by Kanye , who threatens to kill them . By now , Cartman has not only convinced himself he wrote the whole joke without Jimmy 's help , but believes he also saved his life from a black widow , slew a dragon , defeated an army of Jew robots , and has powers similar to the Human Torch . Cartman thinks he realizes what Kyle was trying to tell him , but he gets it completely backwards : Cartman believes that Jimmy 's ego is the one that is twisted and Jimmy 's ego trying to convince itself that he wrote the joke , while not accepting that Cartman wrote the whole thing , and Jimmy believes him . Kanye has an epiphany about his own massive ego and believes he finally understands the joke . However , he incorrectly thinks it means he is , in fact , a gay fish . The episode ends with Kanye donning a wetsuit and diving off the Santa Monica Pier into the ocean to embrace his new identity as a gay fish in the form of a music video , in which he happily swims around the sea , kissing and humping random fish .
However , in a deleted scene , West drowns and his body is picked up and discovered by the US coast guards .
= = Production = =
" Fishsticks " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . The concept for " Fishsticks " began when Parker , fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone , and actor Bill Hader attended a writers ' retreat in Seattle , Washington and they visited a body of water where they could watch salmon jump . They started joking about a salmon wearing an outfit like the motorcycle daredevil Evel Knievel , which eventually reminded them of the music video for rapper Kanye West 's song " Touch the Sky " , in which West himself dresses like Knievel . This led to them picturing a scene with West on a news program , angrily denying reports that he is a fish , shouting " No , I am not a salmon ! " During a four @-@ hour ride in a car , Stone and Parker discussed the joke further , and eventually thought of the " fishsticks " joke that featured prominently in the final episode . The duo said they found it hilarious and told variations of the joke back and forth to each other for the rest of the ride . Stone said , " The van driver we hired was just so bummed because we just kept talking about fishsticks , ' You 're a gay fish ' , over and over . We thought it was so funny , and just the fact that he didn 't get it . "
Although the joke originally stemmed from Evel Knievel and not Kanye West , Parker and Stone said they realized West would probably be extremely humorless about the joke and not understand it , so they decided the episode should revolve mostly around him . After coming up with the idea , Parker and Stone waited a long time before they finally wrote the script because , Stone said , " It just seemed too dumb . Are we really going to do a whole episode about this ? " Stone said the jokes about Carlos Mencia were " just a complete afterthought " that came about during the writing process . During one scene in " Fishsticks " , Cartman steals credit from Jimmy for a joke he did not write . This was inspired by people Parker and Stone have worked with in the television business who were present for discussions the duo had , then later claimed credit for the idea even though they had nothing to do with it . Stone said , " They truly believe they did it . That 's the really sinister part . It 's not where they 're trying to steal part of the glory . ... They actually fully believe that they came up with it . "
Parker provided the voice of Kanye , both in the episode and in " Gay Fish " , a full @-@ length song featured at the end of the episode about West 's realization that he actually is a gay fish . Parker used a large amount of Auto @-@ Tune pitch audio processing , which he had never used before . Parker said he eventually discovered he had to sing off @-@ key on purpose in order to get the desired effect . Parker said , " You had to be a bad singer in order for that thing to actually sound the way it does . " The day after " Fishsticks " was broadcast , the full two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute version of the Kanye West spoof , " Gay Fish " , was made available for download on South Park Studios , the official South Park website . The site also featured T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode . One featured Jimmy asking , " Do you like fishsticks ? " The other features text from Kanye West 's whiteboard in the episode : " Fishsticks + Me = Gayfish " .
= = Cultural references = =
A Kanye West song in the episode about the fact that he is indeed a " gay fish " is a parody of the West song " Heartless " , from his 2008 recording 808s & Heartbreak and satirizes the rapper 's usage of Auto @-@ Tune pitch audio processing . When West first confronts Cartman and Jimmy , Cartman mistakes him for Puff Daddy , another rapper and record producer .
Carlos Mencia , host of the former Comedy Central show Mind of Mencia , is portrayed in " Fishsticks " as knowingly stealing credit for a joke he did not write ; this is a reference to accusations other comedians have made that Mencia plagiarizes jokes from other people . Mencia 's death scene in the episode , as well as his claims that he uses a catheter to relieve himself , are a reference to Lalin , a character who uses a wheelchair in the 1993 crime film Carlito 's Way .
Talk show hosts Jimmy Kimmel , David Letterman , Conan O 'Brien , Jay Leno and Ellen DeGeneres were featured in the episode . Kimmel is voiced by his real @-@ life brother Jonathan Kimmel , who previously served as a writer and voice actor on South Park .
During a fantasy sequence , Cartman says " flame on " and turns into a fiery , flying superhero ; this is a reference to the Human Torch , a superhero and member of the Fantastic Four .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Fishsticks " was watched by 3 @.@ 1 million overall households , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . It had over 1 @.@ 2 million more household viewers than the second most @-@ watched Comedy Central show that week , the April 8 episode of The Daily Show . In June 2009 , " Fishsticks " was announced to be the most watched South Park episode on South Park Studios , the official South Park website , which has all but 3 episodes of South Park to date available for viewing .
Both Kanye West and Carlos Mencia responded within one day of the episode 's original broadcast and said they enjoyed the parodies of themselves , although Kanye West said on his blog that his feelings were hurt . After the episode was broadcast , Mencia wrote on his Twitter feed , " They just made fun of me on South Park . I thought it was hysterical . Catch the rerun . " Dave Itzkoff , arts reporter for The New York Times , complimented Mencia for his response . West wrote on his blog , " South Park murdered me last night and it 's pretty damn funny . It hurts my feelings but what can you expect from South Park ! " West thanked the South Park writers in his blog entry and acknowledged he has a problem with his ego , but said he was trying to change . Parker and Stone said they were extremely surprised by West 's reaction , and felt Mencia was treated far more harshly in the episode than West . Parker said , " It was like , dude , we just said you were a gay fish . What are you talking about ? It was so dumb . "
Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly said the post was " a fascinating look at where Kanye 's head is at these days " , and complimented West for his " humility and honesty " . Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone said : " Many have tried , all have failed , but in the end it only took four animated children from Colorado to topple Kanye West 's ego . ... One day , we 'll all look back on this day and thank South Park for ushering in this historic moment in the life of Kanye . " Kerrie Mitchell of Entertainment Weekly suggested West 's modest response was actually a marketing stunt to help sell his upcoming personal fragrance and energy drink . Mitchell wrote , " Did he just get the last laugh on South Park ? Conspiracy ! " In response to the media coverage , West wrote another blog entry on April 10 claiming he had only seen part of the episode and found it funny , but he had been working on his arrogance problem for some time and that South Park did not lead to his " ego epiphany " . The next day , he said in another blog entry that while visiting The Cheesecake Factory restaurant , the manager brought him a plate of fishsticks as a joke .
The episode received positive , if slightly mixed reviews . Ramsey Isler of IGN declared it the best episode of the season , calling it a " beautiful Kanye West spoof that was so well @-@ timed , so hilarious and so spot @-@ on " that it became a " phenomenon " . Ryan Brockington of the New York Post said of the episode , " Best . ' South Park . ' Ever . " He particularly praised the West song parody and the fact that " a simple running joke can hold a full episode ; brilliant " . Carlos Delgado of If Magazine said the episode was " another South Park classic " which " takes full advantage of Cartman 's monumental ego " . Delgado , who gave the episode a B + grade , described the West parody as " awesome " and the final scene with the " gay fish " West song as " spell binding " . TV Guide listed the episode at number five on the top ten television moments of the week .
Travis Fickett of IGN said the episode included some good laughs but " never kicks into high gear " and said the themes might have worked better as subplots than a full episode : " ' Fishsticks ' is one of those episodes that typically occur around now in the South Park season . It 's not great , not bad – hovering somewhere around amusing towards forgettable . " Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club said he was disappointed by the episode and thought the message about celebrity self @-@ delusion might have been better if it focused on only West or Mencia , rather than both . Although O 'Neal liked the West song in the episode 's final scene , O 'Neal said " cramming ( West and Mencia ) together — even mixed in with Cartman 's very funny fantasy sequences — felt too cobbled to me , and the time limits imposed by cutting back and forth between it all made the respective digs start to feel a little too one @-@ note . "
= = Legacy = =
On September 13 , 2009 during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , Kanye West interrupted an acceptance speech from Taylor Swift by walking onto stage , grabbing the microphone and praising her fellow nominee , Beyoncé Knowles . The incident received considerable press attention and drew further attention to " Fishsticks " , which Comedy Central re @-@ broadcast for two straight hours on September 15 , 2009 .
Kanye West referenced this episode in his song " Gorgeous " from the 2010 album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy where he says " choke a South Park writer with a fishstick " . He similarly referenced the episode on his album Watch the Throne in the song " Made in America " when he says " South Park had them all laughin ' / Now all my niggas designing and we all swaggin ' . "
Following a controversial 2008 performance at music festival Bonnaroo , many concertgoers have since sprayed graffiti around the festival grounds , as well as making signs , deriding the rapper as a " gay fish . "
= = = Coinye = = =
A cryptocurrency called Coinye was created in January 2014 . Under legal pressure , the developers had to change the logo from resembling West to resembling " a half @-@ man @-@ half @-@ fish hybrid " instead .
= = Home release = =
" Fishsticks " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
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= Beatriz Michelena =
Beatriz Michelena ( February 22 , 1890 – October 10 , 1942 ) was a Venezuelan American actress during the silent film era , known at the time for her operatic soprano voice and appearances in musical theatre . She was one of the few Latina stars visible on the silver screen in the United States in the 1910s . She was the leading lady in each film project she was involved in , and co @-@ founded a production company with her husband , producing four of her own movies .
She wrote popular articles for newspapers , including an advice column for girls , describing what it was like to be an actress , and answering questions from readers . For adult readers , Michelena wrote other pieces such as a history of the moving picture industry . In 1920 when she stopped making films , she returned to her career as a singer .
Michelena faded from historiography for many years , but her place in history has recently been re @-@ examined ; she was mentioned in 2002 in a presidential proclamation and her 1914 film Salomy Jane is enjoying a limited re @-@ release .
= = Early life = =
Beatriz Michelena was reportedly born in New York City in 1890 , six years after her sister Vera Michelena , and around the same time that her father , Fernando Michelena ( 1858 @-@ 1921 ) , a noted Venezuelan @-@ born tenor , was singing the title role of the opera Ernani with a traveling theatre company that performed famous operas translated to English for American audiences . ( She listed her birthplace as New York in the 1920 US Census , but in the 1930 census she said California . ) Over much of her childhood , Michelena ’ s parents toured with the Emma Abbott Grand Opera Company . Beatriz 's father in later life taught music and worked as a vocal coach and , at the time of his death , was serving as president of Arrillaga Musical College , San Francisco . Beatriz and her sister Vera were trained by their father in classical voice and drama studies , and they followed in his footsteps by beginning singing careers of their own . Vera first appeared onstage in the Princess Chic Opera company ( 1901 ) at 17 , taking a leading role in The Man from China ( 1904 ) . Beatriz , too , performed with Princess Chic in 1901 , taking chorus roles suitable for a child of 11 . By mid @-@ 1904 , with Vera busy pursuing her career in New York , Fernando Michelena settled in San Francisco , California to teach voice . There , he raised Beatriz and continued to train her , a soprano , in operatic vocal techniques . He passed his stage experience to his daughter : the way to move as another person , the way to make simple but authoritative gestures , and the way to build intensity over the span of a performance . Maria Antonia Field , a Californian writer , would later chronicle her time as a student of Michelena ’ s father in her book , Five Years of Vocal Study under Fernando Michelena .
= = Marriage and stage career = =
On Sunday , March 3 , 1907 , Michelena married George E. Middleton , a prominent San Francisco automobile dealer , the " happy culmination " of a romance that had begun in their school days . The private wedding took place at 232 Divisadero Street , the home of the parents of bridesmaid Margaret McGovern , " a lifelong friend of the bride " . Judge Thomas F. Graham performed the ceremony . The couple spent a few weeks in Los Angeles for their honeymoon .
Middleton was the manager of the local Middleton Motor Car Company and the son of a California timber baron . He introduced Michelena to his society friends and business partners , including the trustees of Charles Crocker 's estate who had rebuilt the St. Francis Hotel after the 1906 earthquake and fire .
After two years spent absent from the stage , in October 1910 , " Beatriz Michelena Middleton " received a " full ovation " at the Garrick Theater for her role in The White Hen , a musical comedy set in Austria . Rotund comedian Max Dill , leader of the acting company , was the star of the show , given 14 minutes of applause upon entering the stage . For her performance , Michelena was sent flowers worth " a small fortune " , according to the San Francisco Call 's theater writer , Walter Anthony . Starring actress Lora Lieb , native to San Francisco but unknown as a performer , took less applause .
Middleton and Michelena gave an interview to Anthony after The White Hen was an established hit . Middleton said that he had kept his wife off the stage , that he " didn 't like the idea of musical comedy " , but would not have objected to her appearance in " grand opera " . Nonetheless , he agreed to an offer from Max Dill . Michelena said that she had so far spent her married life studying to perform three operatic roles : Carmen and Micaëla in Carmen , and Violetta Valéry in La traviata . She said that prior to appearing at the Garrick Theater , she had been afraid that her stage training had been lost . Michelena said she had to overcome her own fears as well as her husband 's objections .
At the end of November , Michelena quit Dill 's company , reporting that she had been billed underneath Lora Lieb in theater publicity , against the arrangement she had made with company manager Nat A. Magner . She said she refused to put her famous family name in second place .
On December 6 , 1910 , a story in the Call talked about Michelena and her sister having been " discovered " seven years previously by John Slocum , the manager who worked with the girls in the Princess Chic company . According to the story , Slocum had been trying to get Michelena to sign a long @-@ term contract , but was beaten out in that regard by Middleton , " the athlete and clubman about town " , whom she had married . A week earlier , Michelena had " caused a sensation " by resigning from the Max Dill company , but subsequently agreed to appear for four performances in Slocum 's traveling production of The Kissing Girl , normally featuring Michelena 's good friend , the actress Texas Guinan , who was willing to step down for a few days while Michelena covered the starring role of Christina . Michelena was quoted as saying ,
" Leo Cooper , seven years ago , insisted that Mr. Slocum should hear two youngsters sing . The youngsters were Vera and myself . He was good enough to have confidence in us and gave us positions in his ' Princess Chic ' company , where we rose afterward , through his encouragement and help , to prima donna posts . In memory of these kindnesses of the past and because I love the work , I have been happy to say ' yes ' to his request that I appear with his company a few times for auld lang syne before ' The Kissing Girl ' goes on her osculatory way . "
Following the three performances in San Francisco and one in Oakland , Michelena and her husband took seats in the audience to watch Guinan perform the play 's title role in San Jose 's Victory Theater on December 15 .
Michelena excelled in a singing role in The Tik @-@ Tok Man of Oz in 1913 . That year , during the autumn season , Michelena was a featured star of the Mechanics ' Fair , an engineering and auto show in San Francisco . Following that , she sang at the inauguration of the Lincoln Highway , the nation 's first transcontinental road . The western terminus celebration at the Valencia Theatre in San Francisco was organized by the Motor Car Dealers ' Association , October 31 , 1913 .
= = California Motion Picture Company = =
Middleton set up the California Motion Picture Company ( CMPC ) in San Rafael in 1912 for the purpose of shooting promotional footage of the automobiles he was selling . He determined that his pretty wife could star in movies made by his company . By 1914 , Middleton and Michelena were making three major films at the same time .
The first feature completed by CMPC was Salomy Jane , screened initially at the St. Francis Hotel by invitation only . Michelena 's role was Bret Harte 's Salomy Jane Clay , an energetic daughter of an emigrant miner . She is wooed by four men but prefers a fifth played by British heartthrob House Peters . The movie saw limited nationwide distribution and was judged a hit by viewers who were impressed by the wild California scenery : giant redwood trees , winding roads hugging rocky bluffs and the Russian River Michelena 's dominant portrayal of the title role was also an appeal . Journalist Josephine Clifford McCracken wrote of her in the June 1915 issue of Overland Monthly :
" Daughter of a renowned tenor of San Francisco 's pioneer days , herself a prima donna with an assured place on the modern operatic stage , a girl with a wealth of artistic tradition behind her , Miss Michelena 's gifts do not stop there . She has rare beauty , vivacity , wit , intellectual attainments and athletic grace . "
One CMPC shooting location was on family property near Boulder Creek , California where Middleton 's father had established a timber holding now known as the Middleton Tract . Other filming locations included undeveloped portions of Sonoma , Santa Cruz and Marin counties . In San Rafael , the studio boasted a large glass @-@ walled and -roofed building that let in light but not wind so that shooting for indoor scenes could take place in full light without the telltale flapping of tablecloths and clothing blown by gusts . Considered expensive at the time , the company used a US $ 1 @,@ 250 Bell & Howell movie camera , worth about $ 29 @,@ 200 in current value . The camera held two reels of film so that two negatives were made of each scene . A second $ 700 camera provided a third reel of the same scene , from another perspective .
Even though Salomy Jane didn 't return a profit ( likely due to second @-@ string distribution channels ) , its favorable reception convinced Middleton that his wife could challenge the world 's top movie star , Mary Pickford . Every CMPC movie was from that time forward intended to be a star vehicle for Michelena . Unfortunately , Michelena 's ego expanded with the glowing reviews of her skill , and her demands for star treatment brought heavier expenses to productions that continued to lose money . Mignon , The Lily of Poverty Flat , A Phyllis of the Sierras , Salvation Nell and The Rose of the Misty Pool all failed to turn a profit , and a lavish production of Faust which was in production in 1915 was given until the end of the year to be completed . Faust wasn 't done by January 1916 , and CMPC president Herbert Payne shut the film company down and filed for bankruptcy . Faust was never released .
= = Writer = =
In 1915 and 1916 , Michelena wrote the regular newspaper column " Talks with Screen @-@ struck Girls " , carried at first by the San Rafael Independent on Tuesdays but then appeared on Sundays in other newspapers : San Francisco Examiner and the Prescott Journal @-@ Miner ( Arizona ) . She wrote about the ideal qualities found in an actress , and what girls might do to develop them . She received a torrent of letters from readers — many were from girls asking " Must I be able to ride " and " Must I be able to swim " . In response , Michelena described in the column how those skills were helpful to a movie actress , but not absolutely necessary ; she said they " are accessories to , rather than the substance of the thing ... I would advise every girl entering motion pictures to learn to ride and swim and do all the rest of it , but I would have her realize their subordination to the really artistic side of the profession . " '
On May 7 , 1916 , Michelena wrote to caution girls wishing for fame on the silver screen that many like themselves ended up " broken in spirit " , with shattered expectations . She advised them to stay home and avoid " bitter disappointment " in movie making . In July , she discussed some of the specifics of the mental challenges of acting :
" There are a hundred little peculiarities that index the character of practically every type of person , and it is the effectiveness with which one grasps , understands and utilizes these peculiarities that makes him or her a great dramatic artist ... The truly great actress ... must not only recognize the traits as she sees them outwardly manifested , but she must also get beneath the skin and recognize the conditions of thought or emotion that give rise to them . Then , and this is the really great test of her talents , she must so lose herself in those conditions of thought and emotion , and feel through them , that her mimicry of their outward manifestations comes naturally and without conscious endeavor . "
In addition to her column , Michelena wrote occasional articles intended for a wider readership . She wrote in October 1916 about the history of the moving picture industry in a multiple @-@ article series , beginning her account with a retelling of Eadweard Muybridge 's action photograph of Governor Leland Stanford 's racehorse named Occident . She defined this high @-@ speed image as essential to the development of moving pictures .
= = Michelena Studios = =
Middleton and Michelena bought their bankrupt film company for " a few thousand dollars " in 1917 and renamed it Michelena Studios . Their new company was called Beatriz Michelena Features , and shooting began on their next feature @-@ length film , Just Squaw . Michelena 's lead character was a white woman raised by American Indians , a woman who does not realize her racial heritage until after she falls into forbidden love with a white man . The movie played for only a week in San Francisco in 1919 , and did not return a profit .
The moviemakers ' new distributor , Robertson @-@ Cole , was unable to find the right market for Heart of Juanita and The Flame of Hellgate in 1920 . American audiences had grown more sophisticated , yet Michelena Studios was still employing their earlier production techniques . After shooting The Flame of Hellgate , Middleton and Michelena stopped making movies altogether . She returned to her singing performances and he returned to his car sales . They reportedly divorced in the mid @-@ 1920s , though Middleton told the 1930 US Census that they were married . The union produced no children .
= = Retirement = =
After leaving film work , Michelena continued with her singing career , and toured Latin America ( 1927 ) where she was warmly received as part of a 30 @-@ person troupe of singers and dancers performing the operas Carmen and Madama Butterfly . The San Francisco Chronicle reported that this was " the first invasion of those countries by an American operatic star in repertoire performances " . Afterward , she retired from singing , and returned to San Rafael to live near her old film studio . Between 1937 and 1941 , she sold 10 of the 26 real estate parcels that together had formed her studio lot . On October 10 , 1942 , after a surgical operation in San Francisco , she died at the age of 52 . Her sister Vera Michelena and her ex @-@ husband George Middleton survived her .
= = Legacy = =
The Michelena Features studio facility in San Rafael sat empty through the 1920s with its solitary metal @-@ clad brick vault housing all the company 's nitrate films , including the earlier ones shot by CMPC . In 1931 , boys playing with a firecracker at the deserted lot set the vault and all of its flammable contents spectacularly on fire . Every known copy of Michelena 's movies was destroyed , a loss that Middleton estimated at $ 200 @,@ 000 ; worth about $ 3 @.@ 1 million today . In 1996 , an 82 @-@ year @-@ old nitrate copy of Salomy Jane was found in Australia ; it was sent to the Library of Congress for preservation . Awareness of Michelena 's contribution to early film , and her role as a groundbreaking Hispanic star , rose in 2002 with a proclamation made by President George W. Bush upon the occasion of National Hispanic Heritage Month in which he listed her as one of America 's influential Latino actors . In 2008 , a new print of Salomy Jane was released for limited distribution .
= = Filmography = =
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= Lou Groza =
Louis Roy Groza ( January 25 , 1924 – November 29 , 2000 ) , nicknamed " The Toe " , was an American football placekicker and offensive tackle who played his entire career for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . Groza was professional football 's career kicking and points leader when he retired after the 1967 season . He played in 21 seasons for the Browns , helping the team to win eight league championships in that span . Groza 's accuracy and strength as a kicker influenced the development of place @-@ kicking as a specialty ; he could kick field goals from beyond 50 yards ( 46 m ) at a time when attempts from that distance were a rarity . He set numerous records for distance and number of field goals kicked during his career .
Groza grew up in an athletic family in Martins Ferry , Ohio . He enrolled at Ohio State University on a scholarship in 1942 , but enlisted in the U.S. Army and was sent to serve in World War II after just one year in college . Groza deployed as an army surgical technician in the Pacific theater , where he stayed until returning in 1946 to play for the Browns . Helped by Groza 's kicking and play at offensive tackle , the Browns won the AAFC championship every year between 1946 and 1949 , when the league disbanded and the Browns were absorbed by the more established NFL . Cleveland won the NFL championship in its first year in the league on a last @-@ minute field goal by Groza . Groza set NFL records for field goals made in 1950 , 1952 and 1953 . Sporting News named him the league 's Most Valuable Player in 1954 , when the Browns won another championship . The team repeated as NFL champions in 1955 .
Groza retired briefly after the 1959 season due to a back injury , but returned in 1961 . He was part of a 1964 team that won another NFL championship . Groza retired for good after the 1967 season . Later in life , he ran an insurance business and served as a team ambassador for the Browns . He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1974 . In 1992 , the Palm Beach County Sports Commission named the Lou Groza Award after him . The award is given annually to the country 's best college placekicker . Groza died in 2000 of a heart attack .
= = Early life = =
Born in eastern Ohio in Martins Ferry , just north and across the Ohio River from Wheeling , West Virginia , Groza 's parents were immigrants from Transylvania , part of modern @-@ day Romania . His Hungarian mother Mary and Romanian father John ( Ioan ) Groza owned and ran Groza 's Tavern on Main Street . Lou was the smallest in stature of four boys in an athletic family ; his brother Alex became a star basketball player at the University of Kentucky , a member of two national championship teams .
Groza lettered in football , basketball , and baseball at Martins Ferry High School . The Purple Riders won the state basketball championship in 1941 , when Groza was its captain . He was also captain of the baseball team . Groza learned placekicking from his older brother Frank , and practiced by trying to kick balls over telephone wires when he and his friends played touch football in the street .
= = College career and military service = =
Groza graduated from high school in 1942 and enrolled on an athletic scholarship at Ohio State University in Columbus , where he played as a tackle and placekicker on the Buckeyes ' freshman team . Groza played in three games and kicked five field goals , including one from 45 yards ( 41 m ) away . In 1943 , he enlisted in the U.S. Army as World War II intensified . He first went for basic training to Abilene , Texas , and then to Brooks General Hospital in San Antonio .
After a stint with the short @-@ lived Army Service Training Program , Groza was sent with the 96th Infantry Division to serve as a surgical technician in Leyte , Okinawa , and other places in the Pacific theater in 1945 . The day he landed in the Philippines , Groza saw a soldier shot in the face . He was stationed in a bank of tents about five miles from the front lines and helped doctors tend to the wounded . " I saw a lot of men wounded with severe injuries , " he later said . " Lose legs , guts hanging out , stuff like that . It 's a tough thing , but you get hardened to it , and you accept it as part of your being there . "
While he was in the Army , he received a package from Paul Brown , the Ohio State football coach . It contained footballs and a contract for him to sign to play on a team Brown was coaching in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . He signed the contract in May 1945 and agreed to join the team , called the Cleveland Browns , after the war ended in 1946 . Groza got $ 500 a month stipend until the end of the war and a $ 7 @,@ 500 annual salary .
= = Professional career = =
Following his discharge from military service , Groza reported to the Browns ' training camp in Bowling Green , Ohio . He showed up in army fatigues carrying all his clothes in a duffel bag . There , he joined quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and receivers Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie to form the core of the new team 's offense . Groza was mainly a placekicker in his first two years with the Browns , but he played a big part in the team 's early success . In his first season , he set a professional football record for both field goals and extra points . The Browns , meanwhile , advanced to the AAFC championship against the New York Yankees . Groza sprained his ankle in the game and missed three field goals , but Cleveland won 14 – 9 . Behind a powerful offense led by Graham , Motley and Lavelli , the Browns finished the 1947 season with a 12 – 1 – 1 record and made it back to the championship game . Groza , however , was injured and could only watch as the team won its second championship in a row .
Further success followed for the Browns and Groza , who was nicknamed " The Toe " by a sportswriter for his kicking abilities . Groza led the league in field goals and the team won all of its games in 1948 , recording professional football 's first perfect season . As he grew into a star placekicker , Groza began playing regularly at offensive tackle beginning in 1948 . One highlight of that year for Groza was a 53 @-@ yard field goal against the AAFC 's Brooklyn Dodgers that was then the longest kick in pro football history . With Groza , the Browns could attempt field goals at a range many other teams could not . " Anywhere from 40 to 50 yards ( 37 to 46 m ) , he was a weapon , " Tommy James , Groza 's holder for eight years , later said . Another championship win followed in 1949 , but the AAFC dissolved after the season , and the Browns were among three teams absorbed by the more established National Football League ( NFL ) .
The war had shortened Groza 's college career , so he continued to study at Ohio State in the offseason in his early years with the Browns . He graduated with a degree in business in 1949 . Groza married that year , to Jackie Lou Robbins , a girl from Martins Ferry who was working as a model in New York City when they first dated .
The Browns ' debut in the NFL in the 1950 season was closely watched ; while the team dominated the AAFC in its short existence , some sportswriters , NFL owners and coaches considered the league inferior . Cleveland put all doubts to rest in its first game against the two @-@ time defending champion Philadelphia Eagles , winning 35 – 10 . In a game against the Washington Redskins later in the season , Groza broke a 24 @-@ year @-@ old NFL record by kicking his 13th field goal of the season . He also scored the only touchdown of his career in that game on a reception from Graham . The Browns ended the regular season with a 10 – 2 record in the American Conference , tied with the New York Giants . That forced a playoff against the Giants in which Groza kicked the winning field goal for the Browns with under a minute to play .
The Browns next faced the Los Angeles Rams in the championship game . Groza came into the game as the NFL 's leading kicker , both in terms of points scored and accuracy . He had a success rate of 68 @.@ 4 % in an era when most teams made fewer than half of their attempts . The Rams went ahead early in the game on a touchdown pass from star quarterback Bob Waterfield and a scoring run by Dick Hoerner . But Graham and the Browns came back with four touchdowns , two to receiver Dante Lavelli . As time wound down in the fourth quarter , however , the Rams were ahead 28 – 27 , and Cleveland had a final chance to win the game . Graham drove the offense to the Rams ' nine @-@ yard line and set up a Groza field goal attempt . The 16 @-@ yard try sailed through the uprights with 28 seconds left , giving the Browns a 30 – 28 victory . It was the biggest kick of Groza 's career . " I never thought I would miss , " he said later . After the season , Groza was named to the first @-@ ever Pro Bowl , the NFL 's all @-@ star game .
Cleveland again reached the championship game in 1951 , but lost this time in a rematch against the Rams . Groza had a 52 @-@ yard field goal in the game , a record for a championship or Super Bowl that stood for 42 years . He was again named to the Pro Bowl after the season . The same scenario was repeated in 1952 and 1953 : the Browns reached the championship both years , but lost both times to the Detroit Lions . Groza was playing with cracked ribs in the 1952 championship loss , and he missed three field goals . Groza set a record in 1953 when he made 23 field goals and had an 88 @.@ 5 % success rate , a single @-@ season mark that stood for 28 years . He made the Pro Bowl again in 1952 and 1953 , and was a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection both years .
The Browns came back in 1954 to win another championship . That year , Groza was named the NFL 's Most Valuable Player by Sporting News . Cleveland won the championship again in 1955 , beating the Rams 38 – 14 . Groza was named to the Pro Bowl and sportswriters ' All @-@ Pro teams in 1954 and 1955 .
Hurt by Graham 's retirement before the season , Cleveland had its first @-@ ever losing season in 1956 . Groza 's kicking continued to be a strength through the ensuing three years : he reached the Pro Bowl in 1957 , 1958 and 1959 , and tied Sam Baker for league leader in points scored in 1957 . Cleveland reached the championship game in 1957 but lost to the Lions . The Browns lost to the New York Giants in a single @-@ elimination playoff in 1958 , and failed to reach the postseason in 1959 . Groza sat out after the 1959 season due to a back injury and was presumed to be retired . While his kicking was his most visible contribution to the team , Groza was also an offensive tackle up until his injury , when Brown replaced him with Dick Schafrath . " Lou never got all the credit he deserved for his tackle play , probably because his great kicking skills got him more notoriety , " Andy Robustelli , a defensive end who played against Groza , later said .
Groza took 1960 off and did some scouting for the team . He also focused on an insurance business he started . " I was 36 and I thought I had retired , " he said . The following year , however , he came back to the team at the urging of Art Modell , who bought the Browns that year . Not wanting to use a roster spot on a kicking specialist ( Groza 's back injury prevented him from playing on the line ) , Brown had signed Sam Baker to kick and play halfback . But Groza was eager to return and Modell insisted . Groza stayed with the team as a placekicker until 1967 , and was on a Browns team that won the 1964 championship . Groza scored the first points in that game on a third @-@ quarter field goal . He also kicked four kickoffs more than 70 yards ( 64 m ) and out of the Baltimore Colts end zone , preventing a return . Cleveland won 27 – 0 .
When Groza retired for good in 1968 after 21 seasons in professional football , he held NFL career records for points scored , field goals made and extra points made . He had 234 field goals , 641 extra points and 1 @,@ 349 total points in the NFL . Counting his AAFC years , his career point total was 1 @,@ 603 . He was the last of the original Browns still on the team . Groza , who was 44 years old when he quit the game , said in his memoir that retiring was " the saddest day of my football life . " His top salary was $ 50 @,@ 000 in his final year .
= = Later life and death = =
After Groza retired , he entertained an offer to play for the San Francisco 49ers , but was reluctant to do so because he did not want to move his family and insurance business to the West Coast . He was offered a spot with the Browns as a kicking coach , helping mentor the young Don Cockroft , but he declined . Later in life , he became an ambassador and father figure for the Browns , inviting rookies over for dinner and helping them find apartments . He continued to run a successful insurance business and lived in Berea , Ohio near the Browns ' headquarters and training facility . He and his wife Jackie were known as the team 's First Family .
Modell relocated the Browns to Baltimore in 1995 and renamed the team the Ravens , provoking a wave of anger and disbelief from fans and former players . Groza was a leading critic of the move , saying it was " like some man walking off with your wife . " In 1996 , Groza wrote a memoir titled The Toe : The Lou Groza Story . The Browns restarted as an expansion team in 1999 .
Groza was hobbled in the late 1990s by back and hip surgeries and Parkinson 's disease . He suffered a heart attack in 2000 after dinner with his wife at Columbia Hills Country Club in Columbia Station , Ohio . He was taken to a hospital in Middleburg Heights , Ohio , where he died . He was buried in Sunset Memorial Park in North Olmsted , Ohio . Groza and his wife had three sons and a daughter . Following Groza 's death , the Browns wore his number 76 on their helmets for the 2001 season .
= = Legacy and kicking style = =
While field goals had long been viewed as an important part of football strategy , kicking specialists were a rarity before Groza 's time . Groza 's success from distances of 40 yards ( 37 m ) and beyond raised the bar for kickers across the league . He set single @-@ season NFL records for accuracy , distance and number of field goals in his first three years in the league , marks that went unbeaten until kicking specialists became a common feature of the game in the early 1970s . Groza 's kicking was the difference in 15 % of the Browns ' games during the AAFC years , and teams began to take notice when his field goals made the difference in both the NFL playoffs and the championship game in 1950 . " Everybody started to pay attention to field goals when the Browns started to win games with them , " Pat Summerall said . Groza led the NFL in field goals made five times in his career .
Groza was a straight @-@ ahead kicker . He approached the football in a straight line and booted it with the top of his foot , aiming for the middle of the ball . Early in his career , Groza scraped the ground with his cleats in a straight line to help guide his kicks . Later he put down a piece of one @-@ inch adhesive tape rolled up inside his helmet . The " Lou Groza Rule " in 1950 banned the use of artificial kicking aids , including the tape . The straight @-@ ahead style used by Groza and other kickers of his era has since been supplanted by soccer @-@ style kicking with the side of the foot . " I don 't know why all the kids kick soccer @-@ style , " he said in 1997 . " They kick the ball with the side of their foot , which is supposed to give them better control . I don 't know , I never tried it . "
Groza was named to the National Football League 1950s All @-@ Decade Team in 1969 and inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1974 . The Browns retired his number 76 ; he is also in the team 's Ring of Honor , a grouping of the best players in the club 's history whose names are displayed below upper @-@ deck seats at FirstEnergy Stadium . In 1992 , the Palm Beach County Sports Commission established the Lou Groza Award , given to the best National Collegiate Athletic Association Football Bowl Subdivision ( formerly Division I @-@ A ) kicker . The Browns ' training facility in Berea , Ohio is located at 76 Lou Groza Boulevard . One of his kicking shoes is part of the collection of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C ..
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= O 'Brien Schofield =
O 'Brien Schofield ( born April 3 , 1987 ) is an American football outside linebacker who is currently a free agent . He was drafted by the Arizona Cardinals in the fourth round of the 2010 NFL Draft and played for them for three seasons . He was also a member of the Seattle Seahawks during their Super Bowl XLVIII championship season and the Atlanta Falcons . He played college football at Wisconsin .
As a fifth year redshirt senior defensive end for the 2009 Wisconsin Badgers he ranked second in the nation in tackles for a loss ( TFLs ) and second in the Big Ten Conference in quarterback sacks . For the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season , he earned several second team and honorable mention All @-@ American recognitions by various publications . He was a first @-@ team 2009 All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection . He earned the defensive MVP award at the 2010 East – West Shrine Game , but was injured during practice for the 2010 Senior Bowl the subsequent week .
= = High School = =
Schofield attended North Chicago Community High School . In high school Schofield was a Lake County , Illinois 2003 All @-@ county second team selection and 2004 first team selection in football . He was also a special mention All @-@ state selection in 2004 . In basketball , he was an All @-@ county honorable mention for 2004 – 05 . In high school he played wide receiver as a sophomore , defensive end as a junior and end , linebacker , receiver , fullback , placekicker , kick returner and punt returner as a senior . He also ran track . Scout.com rated him as the 55th best high school football linebacker in the country . Rivals.com ranked him as the 24th best defensive end in the country and the 24th best football prosepect in Illinois .
= = College career = =
Schofield did not appear in any games for the 2005 Badgers and recorded no statistics although he appeared in five games for the 2006 Badgers . He recorded his first tackle on September 15 for the 2007 Badgers against The Citadel Bulldogs and his first sack and TFL on August 30 for the 2008 team against the Akron Zips . He concluded his career with a total of 17 sacks and 33 TFLs . He also accumulated 4 forced fumbles . On June 7 , 2007 , 20 @-@ year @-@ old Schofield lost his 19 @-@ year @-@ old brother , Joshua , who drowned on a beach in Zion , IL .
He was the 2009 Big Ten Conference runner @-@ up in sacks with 12 to Ryan Kerrigan and runner @-@ up in TFLs with 24 @.@ 5 to Brandon Graham . He ranked second in the nation in TFLs / game . At the conclusion of the 2009 Big Ten Conference football season he was a 2009 First @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and media .
He concluded his career for Wisconsin Badgers football with the 2009 team in the December 29 , 2009 Champs Sports Bowl . For the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season , he was a second team All @-@ American selection by Scout.com and an honorable mention by College Football News , Sports Illustrated , and Pro Football Weekly . During the season he was the October 4 , 2009 Big Ten Defensive Player of the Week for his October 3 performance against the Minnesota Golden Gophers . He was selected as a midseason semifinalists for the Bednarik Award .
The January 23 , 2010 East – West Shrine Game , in which he earned defensive MVP , was his last game . He recorded an interception on a Max Hall pass and made three solo tackles in the game . Schofield was projected to play linebacker in the NFL . During the week of practice at the Shrine Game , he performed with the linebackers in order to demonstrate his NFL potential for scouts . However , in the subsequent week of practice for the January 30 , 2010 Senior Bowl , Schofield tore his anterior cruciate ligament .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Arizona Cardinals = = =
Schofield was drafted in the 4th round of the 2010 NFL Draft , 130th overall , by the Arizona Cardinals . Since Schofield was injured , he was considered a good value because his talent level was near first round draft choice level . He was expected to begin the 2010 NFL season on the physically unable to perform list but return late in the year as an outside linebacker . Although he played on the defensive line in college , he was projected to play outside linebacker for the Cardinals who had Joey Porter and Will Davis on their roster . Schofield signed a 4 @-@ year contract on July 27 , 2010 . On August 31 , he was placed on the reserve / non @-@ football injury list .
He made his NFL debut on October 31 , 2010 in Week 8 , against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Schofield forced a fumble against the Minnesota Vikings on November 7 on kick coverage that was recovered for a touchdown . Schofield recorded his first NFL sack on December 25 , 2010 , when he sacked QB Stephen McGee for an 11 @-@ yard loss in a 27 @-@ 26 Arizona win over the Dallas Cowboys . In the Cardinals January 2 , 2011 regular season finale against the San Francisco 49ers , Schofield sacked QB Alex Smith for a 5 @-@ yard loss .
He had his first two @-@ sack game on December 18 , 2011 , against Seneca Wallace on back @-@ to @-@ back fourth quarter plays of an overtime victory over the Cleveland Browns . He became a starter during the 2012 NFL season .
On July 25 , 2013 , he was released by the Arizona Cardinals .
= = = Seattle Seahawks = = =
On July 27 , 2013 , Schofield was claimed off waivers by the Seattle Seahawks . He posted a sack of Cam Newton in his debut with the 2013 Seahawks against the Carolina Panthers . After helping the Seahawks win Super Bowl XLVIII , he became a free agent . On March 11 , 2014 , Schofield and the New York Giants agreed on a two @-@ year , $ 8 million contract . However the deal was called off due to a problem with his physical . He re @-@ signed with the Seahawks on May 2 , 2014 .
= = = Atlanta Falcons = = =
On March 12 , 2015 , Schofield signed with the Atlanta Falcons .
= = Personal = =
Schofield is the eldest of five children of Anthony and Dawn Schofield . Younger brother Admiral Schofield plays basketball at the University of Tennessee . His uncle Andre Carter played safety at Clemson . Schofield is a cousin of both Vonnie Holliday and Bobby Engram who both have had long National Football League careers .
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= Paralympic Games =
The Paralympic Games is a major international multi @-@ sport event , involving athletes with a range of physical disabilities , including impaired muscle power ( e.g. paraplegia and quadriplegia , muscular dystrophy , post @-@ polio syndrome , spina bifida ) , impaired passive range of movement , limb deficiency ( e.g. amputation or dysmelia ) , leg length difference , short stature , hypertonia , ataxia , athetosis , vision impairment and intellectual impairment . There are Winter and Summer Paralympic Games , which since the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul , South Korea , are held almost immediately following the respective Olympic Games . All Paralympic Games are governed by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) .
The Paralympics has grown from a small gathering of British World War II veterans in 1948 to become one of the largest international sporting events by the early 21st century . Paralympians strive for equal treatment with non @-@ disabled Olympic athletes , but there is a large funding gap between Olympic and Paralympic athletes .
The Paralympic Games are organized in parallel with the Olympic Games , while the IOC @-@ recognized Special Olympics World Games include athletes with intellectual disabilities , and the Deaflympics include deaf athletes .
Given the wide variety of disabilities that Paralympic athletes have , there are several categories in which the athletes compete . The allowable disabilities are broken down into ten eligible impairment types . The categories are impaired muscle power , impaired passive range of movement , limb deficiency , leg length difference , short stature , hypertonia , ataxia , athetosis , vision impairment and intellectual impairment . These categories are further broken down into classifications , which vary from sport to sport . The classification system has led to cheating controversies revolving around athletes who over @-@ stated their disabilities , in addition to the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs seen in other events .
= = History = =
= = = Forerunners = = =
Athletes with disabilities did compete in the Olympic Games prior to the advent of the Paralympics . The first athlete to do so was German American gymnast George Eyser in 1904 , who had one artificial leg . Hungarian Karoly Takacs competed in shooting events in both the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics . He was a right @-@ arm amputee and could shoot left @-@ handed . Another disabled athlete to appear in the Olympics prior to the Paralympic Games was Lis Hartel , a Danish equestrian athlete who had contracted polio in 1943 and won a silver medal in the dressage event .
The first organized athletic day for disabled athletes that coincided with the Olympic Games took place on the day of the opening of the 1948 Summer Olympics in London , United Kingdom . German born Dr. Ludwig Guttmann of Stoke Mandeville Hospital , who had been helped to flee Nazi Germany by the Council for Assisting Refugee Academics ( CARA ) in 1939 , hosted a sports competition for British World War II veteran patients with spinal cord injuries . The first games were called the 1948 International Wheelchair Games , and were intended to coincide with the 1948 Olympics . Dr. Guttman 's aim was to create an elite sports competition for people with disabilities that would be equivalent to the Olympic Games . The games were held again at the same location in 1952 , and Dutch veterans took part alongside the British , making it the first international competition of its kind . These early competitions , also known as the Stoke Mandeville Games , have been described as the precursors of the Paralympic Games .
= = = Milestones = = =
There have been several milestones in the Paralympic movement . The first official Paralympic Games , no longer open solely to war veterans , was held in Rome in 1960 . 400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games . Since 1960 , the Paralympic Games have taken place in the same year as the Olympic Games . The Games were initially open only to athletes in wheelchairs ; at the 1976 Summer Games , athletes with different disabilities were included for the first time at a Summer Paralympics . With the inclusion of more disability classifications the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1 @,@ 600 athletes from 40 countries . The 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , South Korea , was another milestone for the Paralympic movement . It was in Seoul that the Paralympic Summer Games were held directly after the Olympic Summer Games , in the same host city , and using the same facilities . This set a precedent that was followed in 1992 , 1996 and 2000 . It was eventually formalized in an agreement between the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) and the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) in 2001 , and was recently extended through 2020 . The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics .
= = = Winter Games = = =
The first Winter Paralympic Games were held in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik , Sweden . This was the first Paralympics in which multiple categories of athletes with disabilities could compete . The Winter Games were celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart , just as the Olympics were . This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville , France ; after that , beginning with the 1994 Games , the Winter Paralympics and the Winter Olympics have been held in those even numbered years separate from the Summer Games .
= = = Recent games = = =
The Paralympic games were designed to emphasize the participants ' athletic achievements and not their disability . Recent games have emphasized that these games are about ability and not disability . The movement has grown dramatically since its early days – for example , the number of athletes participating in the Summer Paralympic games has increased from 400 athletes in Rome in 1960 to over 3 @,@ 900 athletes from 146 countries in Beijing in 2008 . Both the Paralympic Summer and Winter Games are recognized on the world stage . The Paralympics is no longer held solely for British war veterans or just for athletes in wheelchairs , but for elite athletes with a wide variety of disabilities from all over the world . The paralympics allow people with special needs a chance to heal their injuries and take part in the games .
= = International Paralympic Committee = =
= = = Forerunners ( 1964 – 1989 ) = = =
The first organization dedicated to advancement of athletic opportunities for people with a disability was the International Sports Organization for the Disabled ( ISOD ) , founded in 1964 . The founders of this organization intended it to be a governing body to disability sports what the IOC was to the Olympic Games . This committee eventually became the International Coordinating Committee of World Sports Organizations for the Disabled ( ICC ) , which was established in 1982 . The ICC was tasked with advocating for the rights of athletes with a disability in front of the IOC . After the success of the cooperative effort between the ICC and the IOC , which resulted in the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , the ICC determined the need to expand and include representatives from all nations that had disability sports programs . They also deemed it necessary to include athletes in the decisions of the Paralympic governing body . Consequently , this body was reorganized as the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) in 1989 .
= = = IPC ( since 1989 ) = = =
The IPC is the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement . It comprises 176 National Paralympic Committees ( NPC ) and four disability @-@ specific international sports federations . The president of the IPC is Philip Craven , a former Paralympian from Great Britain . In his capacity as head of the IPC , Craven is also a member of the International Olympic Committee . The IPC 's international headquarters are in Bonn , Germany . The IPC is responsible for organizing the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games . It also serves as the International Federation for nine sports ( Paralympic athletics , Paralympic swimming , Paralympic shooting , Paralympic powerlifting , Para @-@ alpine skiing , Paralympic biathlon , Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing , ice sledge hockey and Wheelchair DanceSport ) . This requires the IPC to supervise and coordinate the World Championships and other competitions for each of the nine sports it regulates . IPC membership also includes National Paralympic Committees and international sporting federations . International Federations are independent sport federations recognized by the IPC as the sole representative of a Paralympic Sport . International Federations responsibilities include technical jurisdiction and guidance over the competition and training venues of their respective sports during the Paralympic Games . The IPC also recognizes media partners , certifies officials , judges , and is responsible for enforcing the bylaws of the Paralympic Charter .
The IPC has a cooperative relationship with the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . Delegates of the IPC are also members of the IOC and participate on IOC committees and commissions . The two governing bodies remain distinct , with separate Games , despite the close working relationship .
= = Name and symbols = =
Although the name was originally coined as a portmanteau combining " paraplegic " ( due to its origins as games for people with spinal injuries ) and " Olympic , " the inclusion of other disability groups meant that this was no longer considered very accurate . The present formal explanation for the name is that it derives from the Greek preposition παρά , pará ( " beside " or " alongside " ) and thus refers to a competition held in parallel with the Olympic Games . The Summer Games of 1988 held in Seoul was the first time the term " Paralympic " came into official use .
“ Spirit in Motion ” is the motto for the Paralympic movement . The symbol for the Paralympics contains three colours , red , blue , and green , which are the colours most widely represented in the flags of nations . The colours are each in the shape of an Agito ( which is Latin for " I move " ) , which is the name given to an asymmetrical crescent specially designed for the Paralympic movement . The three Agitos circle a central point , which is a symbol for the athletes congregating from all points of the globe . The motto and symbol of the IPC were changed in 2003 to their current versions . The change was intended to convey the idea that Paralympians have a spirit of competition and that the IPC as an organization realizes its potential and is moving forward to achieve it . The vision of the IPC is , " To enable Paralympic athletes to achieve sporting excellence and to inspire and excite the world . " The Paralympic anthem is " Hymn de l 'Avenir " or " Anthem of the Future " . It was composed by Thierry Darnis and adopted as the official anthem in March 1996 .
= = Ceremonies = =
= = = Opening = = =
As mandated by the Paralympic Charter , various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Paralympic Games . Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp . The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem . Unlike the Olympic Games , after the national anthem , the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation.Since the 1994 Winter Paralympics.The nations enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country 's chosen language , though with the host country 's athletes being the last to enter . Since the 1988 Summer Paralympics , the host nation presents artistic displays of music , singing , dance , and theatre representative of its culture .
Speeches are given , formally opening the games . Finally , the Paralympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier — often a Paralympic athlete from the host nation — who lights the Paralympic flame in the stadium 's cauldron .
= = = Closing = = =
The closing ceremony of the Paralympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded . Flag @-@ bearers from each participating country enter , followed by the athletes who enter together , without any national distinction . The Paralympic flag is taken down . Since the 2002 Winter Paralympics the national flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Paralympic Games is hoisted while the corresponding national anthem is played . The games are officially closed , and the Paralympic flame is extinguished . After these compulsory elements , the next host nation briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture .
= = = Medal presentation = = =
A medal ceremony is held after each Paralympic event is concluded . The winner , second and third @-@ place competitors or teams stand on top of a three @-@ tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals . After the medals are given out by an IPC member , the national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallists country plays . Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies , as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag @-@ bearers . For every Paralympic event , the respective medal ceremony is held , at most , one day after the event 's final .
= = Equality = =
= = = Relationship with the Olympics = = =
In 2001 the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) signed an agreement which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games . This agreement was to remain in effect until the 2012 Summer Olympics , but was extended , encompassing all Summer and Winter games up until the 2020 Summer Olympics .
The IOC has written its commitment to equal access to athletics for all people into its charter , which states ,
While the charter is silent on discrimination specifically related to disability ; given the language in the charter regarding discrimination it is reasonable to infer that discrimination on the basis of disability would be against the ideals of the Olympic Charter and the IOC . This is also consistent with the Paralympic Charter , which forbids discrimination on the basis of political , religious , economic , disability , gender , sexual orientation or racial reasons .
Chairman of the London organising committee , Sebastian Coe , said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and 2012 Summer Olympics in London , England , that
The 2014 Winter Paralympic Games is the first such Paralympics hosted by Russia . Russia ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities during that period . Notably at 2010 Vancouver their Paralympic team topped the medal table at the Winter Paralympics , while their Olympic team performed well below expectations at the Winter Olympics . This led the media to highlight the contrast between the achievements of the country 's Olympic and Paralympic delegations , despite the greater attention and funding awarded to the Olympic athletes . The Russian Federation organizers of the 2014 Winter Paralympic Games have , since 2007 , made efforts to make the host city Sochi more accessible .
= = = = Paralympians at the Olympics = = = =
Paralympic athletes have sought equal opportunities to compete at the Olympic Games . The precedent was set by Neroli Fairhall , a Paralympic archer from New Zealand , who competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles .
In 2008 Oscar Pistorius , a South African sprinter , attempted to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics . Pistorius had both his legs amputated below the knee and races with two carbon fibre blades manufactured by Ossur . He holds Paralympic world record in the 400 meter event . Pistorius missed qualifying for the 2008 Summer Olympics in the 400 meter race , by 0 @.@ 70 seconds . He qualified for the 2008 Summer Paralympics where he won gold medals in the 100 , 200 , and 400 meter sprints . In 2011 , Pistorius qualified for the 2012 Summer Olympics and competed in two events : he made the semi @-@ final in the 400 metres race ; and his team came 8th in the final of the 4 × 400 metres relay race .
Some athletes without a disability also compete at the Paralympics ; The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team , and both athletes are medal candidates .
= = = = Funding = = = =
There has been criticism for not providing equal funding to Paralympic athletes as compared to Olympic athletes . An example of this criticism was a lawsuit filed by Paralympic athletes Tony Iniguez , Scot Hollonbeck and Jacob Heilveil of the United States , in 2003 . They alleged that the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) , which also include the USOC Paralympic Division ( the National Paralympic Committee ) , was underfunding American Paralympic athletes . Iniguez cited the fact that the USOC made healthcare benefits available to a smaller percentage of Paralympians , the USOC provided smaller quarterly training stipends and paid smaller financial awards for medals won at a Paralympics . US Paralympians saw this as a disadvantage for the US Paralympic athletes , as nations such as Canada and Britain supported Paralympians and Olympians virtually equally . The USOC did not deny the discrepancy in funding and contended that this was due to the fact that it did not receive any government financial support . As a result , it had to rely on revenue generated by the media exposure of its athletes . Olympic athletic success resulted in greater exposure for the USOC than Paralympic athletic achievements . The case was heard by lower courts , who ruled that the USOC has the right to allocate its finances to athletes at different rates . The case was appealed to the Supreme Court , where on September 6 , 2008 it announced that it would not hear the appeal . However , during the time the lawsuit lasted ( from 2003 to 2008 ) , the funding from the USOC had nearly tripled . In 2008 $ 11 @.@ 4 million was earmarked for Paralympic athletes , up from $ 3 million in 2004 .
As with the Olympics , recent Paralympics have also been supported by contributions from major sponsors . Unlike the Olympics , where the IOC mandates that arenas be clean of sponsor logos , the Paralympics do allow the logos of official sponsors to be displayed inside arenas and on uniforms .
= = = Media coverage = = =
While the Olympic Games have experienced tremendous growth in global media coverage since the 1984 Summer Olympics , the Paralympics have been unable to maintain a consistent international media presence .
Television broadcasts of Paralympic Games began in 1976 , but this early coverage was confined to taped @-@ delay releases to one nation or region . At the 1992 Summer Paralympics there were 45 hours of live coverage but it was available only in Europe . Other countries broadcast highlight packages during the Games . No meaningful improvements in coverage occurred until the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney .
The 2000 Paralympics represented a significant increase in global media exposure for the Paralympic Games . A deal was reached between the Sydney Paralympic Organizing Committee ( SPOC ) and All Media Sports ( AMS ) to broadcast the Games internationally . Deals were reached with Asian , South American , and European broadcast companies to distribute coverage to as many markets as possible . The Games were also webcast for the first time . Because of these efforts the Sydney Paralympics reached a global audience estimated at 300 million people . Also significant was the fact that the organizers did not have to pay networks to televise the Games as had been done at the 1992 and 1996 Games . Despite these advances consistent media attention has been a challenge , which was evidenced in the coverage in Great Britain of the 2010 Winter Paralympics .
The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) was criticized for its minimal coverage of the 2010 Winter Paralympics as compared to its coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics . The BBC announced it would stream some content on its website and show a one @-@ hour highlight program after the Games ended . For the Winter Olympics the BBC aired 160 hours of coverage . The response from the BBC was that budget constraints and the " time zone factor " necessitated a limited broadcast schedule . The reduction in coverage was done in spite of increased ratings for the 2008 Summer Paralympics , which was watched by 23 % of the population of Great Britain . In Norway , the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation ( NRK ) broadcast 30 hours of the 2010 Winter Games live . NRK @-@ sport were critical of parts of the TV production from Vancouver , and notified the EBU of issues such as the biathlon coverage excluding the shooting , and cross @-@ country skiing with skiers in the distance , making it hard to follow the progress of the competition . NRK were far more pleased with the production of the ice sledge hockey and wheelchair curling events , which they felt reached the same level as the Olympic Games .
Commercial broadcaster Channel 4 acquired the rights to the Paralympics in the United Kingdom for the 2012 Summer Paralympics , and planned to air extensive coverage of the games ; Channel 4 aired 150 hours of coverage , and also offered mobile apps , and three dedicated streaming channels of additional coverage on Sky , Freesat , Virgin Media and Channel 4 's website . " Channel 4 also made a push to heighten the profile of the Paralympics in the country by producing a 2 minute trailer for its coverage , " Meet the Superhumans " ; which premièred simultaneously on over 70 commercial channels in the UK on 17 July 2012 . Channel 4 have also acquired the rights to the 2014 Winter Paralympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics .
American broadcaster NBC Sports , who also owns the broadcast rights to the Olympics , has been criticised by athletes and IPC officials for airing only a bare minimum of coverage from the Paralympics ; the lack of coverage from NBC in Athens was a cause for concern from senior IPC officials , especially given that the United States was bidding for the 2012 Games . In 2012 NBC only produced around 5 hours of tape delayed highlights from the Games , airing on the pay TV channel NBC Sports Network , and did not cover the ceremonies at all .
IPC president Philip Craven was vocal about NBC 's reluctance to air coverage in 2012 , expressing his disappointment for American athletes and viewers who would miss the " amazing images " the games would bring , and remarking that " some people think that North America always lead [ s ] on everything , and on this they don 't . It 's about time they caught up . " Following the closing ceremonies , Craven hinted that the IPC might put greater scrutiny on broadcasters at future editions of the Paralympics ( or may strip NBC of its broadcast rights ) , by stating that " if we find our values don ’ t fit , we ’ ll have to go somewhere else . " NBC would pick up broadcast rights to the 2014 and 2016 Paralympics , promising a significantly larger amount of coverage than before .
= = = Outside the games = = =
A 2010 study by the University of British Columbia ( UBC ) on the Olympic Games Impact ( OGI ) , showed that of roughly 1 @,@ 600 Canadian respondents , 41 – 50 percent believed the 2010 Paralympic and Olympic Games in Vancouver , Canada triggered additional accessibility of buildings , sidewalks and public spaces . 23 percent of employers said the Games had increased their willingness to hire people with disabilities .
Chief Executive Officer for the International Paralympic Committee , Xavier Gonzalez , said about the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , China , that
= = Classification = =
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) has established ten disability categories . Athletes are divided within each category according to their level of impairment , in a functional classification system which differs from sport to sport .
= = = Categories = = =
The IPC has established ten disability categories , including physical , visual , and intellectual impairment . Athletes with one of these disabilities can compete in the Paralympics though not every sport can allow for every disability category . These categories apply to both Summer and Winter Paralympics .
Physical Impairment - There are eight different types of physical impairment :
Impaired muscle power - With impairments in this category , the force generated by muscles , such as the muscles of one limb , one side of the body or the lower half of the body is reduced , e.g. due to spinal @-@ cord injury , spina bifida or polio .
Impaired passive range of movement - Range of movement in one or more joints is reduced in a systematic way . Acute conditions such as arthritis are not included .
Loss of limb or limb deficiency - A total or partial absence of bones or joints from partial or total loss due to illness , trauma , or congenital limb deficiency ( e.g. dysmelia ) .
Leg @-@ length difference - Significant bone shortening occurs in one leg due to congenital deficiency or trauma .
Short stature - Standing height is reduced due to shortened legs , arms and trunk , which are due to a musculoskeletal deficit of bone or cartilage structures .
Hypertonia - Hypertonia is marked by an abnormal increase in muscle tension and reduced ability of a muscle to stretch . Hypertonia may result from injury , disease , or conditions which involve damage to the central nervous system ( e.g. cerebral palsy ) .
Ataxia - Ataxia is an impairment that consists of a lack of coordination of muscle movements ( e.g. cerebral palsy , Friedreich ’ s ataxia ) .
Athetosis - Athetosis is generally characterized by unbalanced , involuntary movements and a difficulty maintaining a symmetrical posture ( e.g. cerebral palsy , choreoathetosis ) .
Visual Impairment - Athletes with visual impairment ranging from partial vision , sufficient to be judged legally blind , to total blindness . This includes impairment of one or more component of the visual system ( eye structure , receptors , optic nerve pathway , and visual cortex ) . The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team . Beginning in 2012 , these guides ( along with sighted goalkeepers in 5 @-@ a @-@ side football became eligible to receive medals of their own .
Intellectual Disability - Athletes with a significant impairment in intellectual functioning and associated limitations in adaptive behaviour . The IPC primarily serves athletes with physical disabilities , but the disability group Intellectual Disability has been added to some Paralympic Games . This includes only elite athletes with intellectual disabilities diagnosed before the age of 18 . However , the IOC @-@ recognized Special Olympics World Games are open to all people with intellectual disabilities .
= = = Classification system = = =
Within the disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to level of impairment . The classification systems differ from sport to sport and are intended to open up sports to as many athletes as possible who can participate in fair competitions against athletes with similar levels of ability . The biggest challenge in the classification system is how to account for the wide variety and severity of disabilities . Consequently , there is a range of impairment within most classifications .
= = = = Medical classification ( until 1980s ) = = = =
From its inception until the 1980s , the Paralympic system for classifying athletes consisted of a medical evaluation and diagnosis of impairment . An athlete 's medical condition was the only factor used to determine what class they competed in . For example , an athlete who had a spinal cord injury that resulted in lower limb paresis , would not compete in the same wheelchair race as an athlete with a double above @-@ knee amputation . The fact that their disability caused the same impairment did not factor into classification determination , the only consideration was their medical diagnosis . It was not until views on disabled athletics shifted from just a form of rehabilitation to an end in itself , that the classification system changed from medical diagnosis to a focus on the functional abilities of the athlete .
= = = = Functional classification ( since 1980s ) = = = =
While there is no clear date when the shift occurred , a functional classification system became the norm for disabled athletic classification in the 1980s . In a functional system the focus is on what effect the athlete 's impairment has on his or her athletic performance . Under this system , athletes with total loss of function in their legs will compete together in most sports , because their functional loss is the same and the reason for the loss is immaterial . The only exception to the functional system is the classification format used by International Blind Sport Federation ( IBSF0 ) , which still uses a medically based system .
Some sports are only held for certain disability types . For example , goalball is only for visually impaired athletes . The Paralympics recognizes three different grades of visual impairment , consequently all competitors in goalball must wear a visor or " black out mask " so that athletes with less visual impairment will not have an advantage . Other sports , like athletics , are open to athletes with a wide variety of impairments . In athletics participants are broken down into a range of classes based on the disability they have and then they are placed in a classification within that range based on their level of impairment . For example : classes 11 – 13 are for visually impaired athletes , which class they are in depends on their level of visual impairment . There are also team competitions such as wheelchair rugby . Members of the team are each given a point value based on their activity limitation . A lower score indicates a more severe activity limitation than a higher score . A team cannot have more than a certain maximum total of points on the field of play at the same time to ensure equal competition . For example , in wheelchair rugby the five players ' combined disability number must total no more than eight points .
= = Sports = =
There are twenty @-@ two sports on the Summer Paralympic program and five sports on the Winter Paralympics program . Within some of the sports are several events . For example , alpine skiing has downhill , super combined , super @-@ G , slalom , giant slalom . The IPC has governance over several of the sports but not all of them . Other international organizations , known as International Sports Federations ( IF ) , notably the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation ( IWAS ) , the International Blind Sports Federation ( IBSA ) , and the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) , govern some sports that are specific to certain disability groups . There are national chapters for these International Sport Federations including National Paralympic Committees , which are responsible for recruitment of athletes and governance of sports at the national level .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Cheating = = =
After the 2000 Sydney Games , a Spanish basketball player alleged that several members of the gold @-@ medal winning Spanish basketball intellectually disabled ( ID ) team were not disabled . He claimed that only two athletes out of the twelve @-@ member team met the qualifications of an intellectually disabled athlete . A controversy ensued and the IPC called on the Spanish National Paralympic Committee to launch an investigation . The investigation uncovered several Spanish athletes who had flouted the ID rules . In an interview with the president of the federation that oversees ID competition , Fernando Martin Vicente admitted that athletes around the world were breaking the ID eligibility rules . The IPC responded by starting an investigation of its own . The results of the IPC 's investigation confirmed the Spanish athlete 's allegations and also determined that the incident was not isolated to the basketball ID event or to Spanish athletes . As a result , all ID competitions were suspended indefinitely . The ban was lifted after the 2008 Games after work had been done to tighten the criteria and controls governing admission of athletes with intellectual disabilities . Four sports , swimming , athletics , table tennis and rowing , were anticipated to hold competitions for ID athletes at the 2012 Summer Paralympics .
The Paralympics have also been tainted by steroid use . At the 2008 Games in Beijing , three powerlifters and a German basketball player were banned after having tested positive for banned substances . This was a decrease in comparison to the ten powerlifters and one track athlete who were banned from the 2000 Games . German skier Thomas Oelsner became the first Winter Paralympian to test positive for steroids . He had won two gold medals at the 2002 Winter Paralympics , but his medals were stripped after his positive drug test . At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , Swedish curler Glenn Ikonen tested positive for a banned substance and was suspended for six months by the IPC . He was removed from the rest of the curling competition but his team was allowed to continue . The 54 @-@ year @-@ old curler said his doctor had prescribed a medication on the banned substances list .
Another concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of " boosting " . Athletes can artificially increase their blood pressure , often by self @-@ harming , which has been shown to improve performance by up to 15 % . This is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross @-@ country skiing . To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury . This trauma can include breaking bones , strapping extremities in too tightly , and using high @-@ pressured compression stockings . The injury is painless but it does affect the athlete 's blood pressure .
Another potential concern is the use of gene therapy among Paralympic athletes . All Paralympic athletes are banned from enhancing their abilities through gene doping , but it is extremely difficult to differentiate these concepts . The World Anti @-@ Doping Agency is currently researching both gene doping and gene therapy , in part to discern the boundary between the two closely related concepts .
The IPC have been working with the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency since 2003 , to ensure compliance with WADA 's anti @-@ doping code among its Paralympic athletes . The IPC has also promised to continue increasing the number of athletes tested at each of its Games , in order to further minimize the possible effect of doping in Paralympic sports . Mandatory in- and out @-@ of competition testing has also been implemented by the IPC to further ensure all of its athletes are performing in compliance with WADA regulations .
= = Notable champions and achievements = =
Trischa Zorn of the United States is the most decorated Paralympian in history . She competed in the blind swimming events and won a total of 55 medals , 41 of which are gold . Her Paralympic career spanned 24 years from 1980 to 2004 . She was also an alternate on the 1980 American Olympic swim team , but did not go to the Olympics due to a boycott by the United States and several of its allies . Ragnhild Myklebust of Norway holds the record for the most medals ever won at the Winter Paralympic Games . Competing in a variety of events in 1988 , 1992 , 1994 and 2002 , she won a total of 22 medals , of which 17 were gold . After winning five gold medals at the 2002 Games she retired at the age of 58 . Neroli Fairhall , a paraplegic archer from New Zealand , was the first paraplegic competitor , and the first Paralympian , to participate in the Olympic Games , when she competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . She placed thirty @-@ fourth in the Olympic archery competition , and won a Paralympic gold medal in the same event .
= = Host cities = =
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= Maya Lindholm =
Maya Lindholm ( born 20 December 1990 ) is a 2 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player , who played with the German national team that won a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . It also won a European title in 2011 and was runner @-@ up in 2013 . President Joachim Gauck awarded the team Germany 's highest sporting honour , the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) .
= = Biography = =
Maya Lindholm was born in Hamburg on 20 December 1990 . In 2004 , she awoke one morning with severe back pain , and within hours she could no longer move her legs . Doctors diagnosed spinal cord inflammation . She is studying to be an occupational therapist at the BG Trauma Hospital in Hamburg Boberg . She began playing wheelchair basketball for fun at the hospital in 2005 . In 2009 , she was selected as part of the national team .
Classified as a 2 @.@ 5 point player , Lindholm plays power forward . She was part of the team that won the European Championships in Nazareth , Israel , in 2011 , thereby qualifying for the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London . As part of the team 's preparation , they toured the United States and Australia . The German team went through the group stage undefeated , but started off slow in its games against the United States and China , winning these games by six @-@ point margins , and seemed to play its best basketball only in the final minutes of a game .
In the Gold Medal match in London , the team faced the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , which had defeated them 48 – 46 in Sydney just a few months before . In front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 985 at the North Greenwich Arena , they defeated the Australians 58 – 44 to win the gold medal , the first that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball since 1984 . They were awarded the Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , They were also named Team of the Year in Disability Sports for 2012 , an annual award voted for by 3 @,@ 000 members of the Association of German Sports Journalists .
Lindholm 's local team , Hamburger SV , which also included national teammates Mareike Adermann and Edina Müller ( and Australia 's Bridie Kean ) won the women 's national championship for the eighth time in 2013 . Lindholm was also part of the Hamburger SV team that had previously won it in 2010 .
The German national team was not so fortunate , losing the final of the European Championship to the Netherlands before a home town crowd in Frankfurt .
= = Achievements = =
2010 : German Women 's National League champion ( Hamburg SV )
2010 : Silver at the IWBF World Championships ( Birmingham , Great Britain )
2011 : Gold at the European Wheelchair Basketball Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold at the Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : German Women 's National League champion ( Hamburg SV )
2013 : Silver at the European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
= = Awards = =
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
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= Speechless ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Speechless " is a song by the American recording artist Michael Jackson , included on his tenth studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . It was only released as a promotional single in South Korea . The singer was inspired to write the ballad after a water balloon fight with children in Germany . Jackson collaborated on the production with musicians such as Jeremy Lubbock , Brad Buxer , Novi Novoq , Stuart Bradley and Bruce Swedien . Andraé Crouch and his gospel choir provided backing vocals .
Executives at Jackson 's record label , Epic Records , responded positively to the track when given a preview several months before Invincible 's release . " Speechless " was issued as a promotional single , receiving mixed reviews from music critics . Commentary focused on the track 's a cappellas , lyrics and music . A clip of Jackson singing " Speechless " was included in the 2009 documentary @-@ concert film Michael Jackson 's This Is It .
= = Writing and recording = =
Michael Jackson wrote " Speechless " after a water balloon fight with children in Germany . It took him 45 minutes . In an interview with Vibe magazine , the musician commented , " I was so happy after the fight that I ran upstairs in their house and wrote ' Speechless ' . Fun inspires me . I hate to say that , because it 's such a romantic song . " He added , " But it was the fight that did it . I was happy , and I wrote it in its entirety right there . I felt it would be good enough for the album . Out of the bliss comes magic , wonderment , and creativity . " Jackson would consider " Speechless " to be one of his favorite songs on Invincible .
" Speechless " was one of only two songs from Invincible to be written solely by Jackson ( the second song being " The Lost Children " ) . Jeremy Lubbock worked with the musician in arranging and conducting an orchestra . Instrumentalists on the track included Brad Buxer on keyboards , and Novi Novog and Thomas Tally on violas . The violinists consisted of Peter Kent , Gina Kronstadt , Robin Lorentz , Kirstin Fife and John Wittenberg . The track featured backing vocals from Andraé Crouch and his gospel choir , The Andraé Crouch Singers . " Speechless " was digitally edited by Buxer and Stuart Brawley , and was mixed by Bruce Swedien , who later said , " Everything with Michael is a stand @-@ out moment but an absolutely gorgeous piece of music called ' Speechless ' was really an event . Michael sings the first eight bars a cappella . At the end , he closes it off a cappella – it was Michael 's idea to add the a cappella parts . "
= = Composition = =
The lyrics to " Speechless " deal with being lost for words because of love . The song opens with Jackson 's singing a cappella : " Your love is magical , that 's how I feel , but I have not the words here to explain " , which Rick de Yampert of The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal felt the singer " [ crooned ] sweetly " . The chorus includes the lines , " Speechless , speechless , that 's how you make me feel . Though I 'm with you , I am far away and nothing is for real . " A second a cappella verse bookends the track .
" Speechless " is a ballad , and labeled it as " neo @-@ gospel " . According to Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing . It adds that the track was performed in common time , with a tempo of 80 beats per minute . The song starts in the key of B ♭ major and transitions to C major . After the bridge the song transitions to D Major as a choir starts singing , the last two choruses in E Major , ending with a solo a cappella ending by Jackson . The song 's vocal range is from F4 to B5 .
= = Post @-@ production and release = =
In June 2001 , several months before the release of Invincible , " Speechless " was among several songs showcased from the album exclusively to executives of Jackson 's music label , Epic Records ( a subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment ) . Other songs previewed included " Unbreakable " , " The Lost Children " , " Whatever Happens " , " Break of Dawn " , " Heaven Can Wait " and " Privacy " , all of which featured on Invincible 's track listing . Roger Friedman of Fox News reported that the executives who listened to the previews liked what they heard . Epic Records ' president , Dave Glew , said of the tracks , " It 's wonderful and amazing . Michael is singing better than ever . " He added , " The ballads ! The ballads are beautiful , and they 're all there . " " Speechless " was later released as a promotional single in 2001 . A remixed version of " You Rock My World " , featuring rapper Jay @-@ Z , served as the single 's B @-@ side . After Jackson 's death , a clip of the entertainer singing " Speechless " was included in Michael Jackson 's This Is It , a commercially successful documentary @-@ concert film of the singer 's rehearsals for his London concert series .
= = Critical reception = =
" Speechless " received a mixed reaction from music journalists . Craig Seymour of The Buffalo News felt that the song was the only one from the album in which Jackson successfully revisited his past . The journalist said the song was reminiscent of the 1995 chart @-@ topper " You Are Not Alone " , as it sounded to him like a track that could have been written by R. Kelly , who penned the number one hit . Writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Jim DeRogatis described " Speechless " as a " beautifully minimal , heartfelt romantic ballad " . Music journalist Roger Catlin stated that the song leaned toward " neo @-@ gospel " . The New York Post said that " Speechless " was " lullaby @-@ like " and the best song on Invincible , and Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised Jackson 's " long lines and creamy overdubbed choruses [ sailing ] weightlessly " in the ballad , that the journalist felt it was a love song to God .
Pop music critic Robert Hilburn described " Speechless " , and another song from Invincible ( " Butterflies " ) , as being " as woefully generic as their titles " . Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star contested that the a cappellas in " Speechless " were enough to make a person wish that Jackson actually was unable to make a sound . Michigan Daily writer Dustin J. Seibert wrote that the song was a " shining [ example ] of what happens when The Gloved One gets beside himself and writes smarmy crap that should be reserved for a CD changer somewhere in a preschool " . The Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram said that " Speechless " was one of the weaker tracks from Invincible . Elliot Sylvester of The Independent felt that the song was " pure Jackson – almost to a formulaic fault " . The Dallas Morning News ' Thor Christensen said that " Speechless " was " produced by Mr. Jackson in bombastic style à la Celine Dion " . He added that as the track ended with an emotional Jackson , it drew a parallel with the singer 's 1972 ode to a rat , " Ben " .
Vaughn Watson of The Providence Journal hailed " Speechless " as Invincible 's " best song , and one of Jackson 's finest of any album " . He added that with the song , the musician acknowledged the pain that accompanies isolation . In a review of Invincible , The Wichita Eagle stated that " Speechless " , " Don 't Walk Away " and " Cry " were among the " sincere ballads " in which Jackson was exemplary . Ada Anderson of The Ball State Daily News expressed the view that " Speechless " would become a popular song , and writers for the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel stated that the ballad would take time to get used to . The Dayton Daily News ' Ron Rollins described the track as a " pretty love song " . Music critic Kevin C. Johnson thought that " Speechless " was " one of [ Jackson 's ] typical , whispery ballads that swells as it moves along " . A journalist for The Olympian stated that the song was " gorgeous " .
= = Track listing = =
Promotional CD single :
" Speechless " – 3 : 18
" You Rock My World " ( Track Masters Mix ) ( featuring Jay @-@ Z ) – 3 : 28
= = Personnel = =
Written , composed , produced and lead vocal by Michael Jackson
Orchestra arranged and conducted by Michael Jackson and Jeremy Lubbock
Keyboards performed by Brad Buxer
Viola performed by Novi Novog and Thomas Tally
Violin performed by Peter Kent , Gina Kronstadt , Robin Lorentz , Kirstin Fife and John Wittenberg
= = Thriller – Live cast version = =
On June 21 , 2010 , six performers in the West End of London show Thriller – Live released " Speechless " as a single with the official name " Speechless – The Tribute to Michael Jackson " to commemorate the one @-@ year anniversary of Jackson 's death . All proceeds from the recording were donated to the charity War Child .
= = = Personnel = = =
Written and originally produced by Michael Jackson
Produced , edited and mixed by Dave Loughran
Executive producer : Adrian Grant for Key Concerts & Entertainment
Vocal arrangement by John Maher
Music arranged and performed by Dave Loughran
Hammond organ performed by John Maher
Lead vocals : James Anderson , Jean @-@ Mikhael Baque , Kieran Alleyne , Kuan Frye , Mitchell Zhangazha , MJ Mytton @-@ Sanneh
Choir : Britt Quentin , Hope Lyndsey Plumb , J Rome , Jenessa Qua , Linda John @-@ Pierre , Olamide Oshinowo , Paul Clancy , Terrence Ryan , Wayne Anthony @-@ Cole
Mastered by Steve Kitch
= = = Track listing = = =
Digital download :
" Speechless ( A Tribute to Michael Jackson ) " – single version – 4 : 25
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= North American XB @-@ 21 =
The North American XB @-@ 21 , also known by the manufacturer 's model designation NA @-@ 21 , and sometimes referred to by the name " Dragon " , was a prototype bomber aircraft developed by North American Aviation in the late 1930s , for evaluation by the United States Army Air Corps . Evaluated against the Douglas B @-@ 18 Bolo , it was found to be considerably more expensive than the rival aircraft , and despite the ordering of a small number of evaluation aircraft , only the prototype was ever built .
= = Design and development = =
North American Aviation 's first twin @-@ engined military aircraft , the NA @-@ 21 prototype was constructed at North American 's factory in Inglewood , California , where work on the aircraft began in early 1936 . The NA @-@ 21 was a mid @-@ wing monoplane of all @-@ metal construction , powered by two Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2180 @-@ A Twin Hornet radial engines , which were fitted with turbosuperchargers for increased high @-@ altitude performance .
Flown by a crew of six to eight men , the XB @-@ 21 featured a remarkably strong defensive armament for the time , including as many as five .30 @-@ calibre M1919 machine guns . These were planned to be fitted in hydraulically powered nose and dorsal turrets , in addition to manually operated weapons installed in waist and ventral positions . Up to 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) of bombs could be carried in an internal bomb bay , with 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs being able to be carried over a range of 1 @,@ 900 miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km ) .
= = Testing and evaluation = =
Undertaking its maiden flight on 22 December 1936 at Mines Field , company test flying indicated a number of minor problems . Modifications resolving these resulted in the aircraft being re @-@ designated NA @-@ 39 , and , accepted by the U.S. Army Air Corps as the XB @-@ 21 . The aircraft , which had been assigned the serial number 38 @-@ 485 , was evaluated early the following year in competition against a similar design by Douglas Aircraft , an improved version of the company 's successful B @-@ 18 Bolo .
During the course of the fly @-@ off , the gun turrets proved troublesome , their drive motors proving to be underpowered , and issues with wind blast through the gun slots were also encountered . As a result of these problems , the XB @-@ 21 's nose turret was faired over , while the dorsal turret was removed .
The XB @-@ 21 proved to have superior performance over its competitor , but price became the primary factor distinguishing the Bolo and the XB @-@ 21 . On this account , the modified B @-@ 18 was declared the winner of the competition , Douglas quoting a price per aircraft of $ 64 @,@ 000 USD , while North American 's estimate was $ 122 @,@ 000 USD per aircraft , and an order was placed for 177 of the Douglas aircraft , to be designated B @-@ 18A .
Despite this , the Army Air Corps found the performance of the XB @-@ 21 to have been favorable enough to order five pre @-@ production aircraft , to be designated YB @-@ 21 . However , soon after this contract was awarded , it was cancelled , and none of the YB @-@ 21s were ever built , leaving the XB @-@ 21 as the sole example of the type ever constructed . Operated by North American Aviation , the XB @-@ 21 served as a research aircraft until its retirement .
Although the XB @-@ 21 failed to win a production contract , it was the first of a long line of North American Aviation medium bomber aircraft , and provided experience and knowledge that assisted in the development of the North American NA @-@ 40 , which , developed into the B @-@ 25 Mitchell , would become one of the Army 's standard medium bombers of World War II .
= = Specifications ( XB @-@ 21 ) = =
Data from
General characteristics
Crew : Six to eight
Length : 61 ft 9 in ( 18 @.@ 82 m )
Wingspan : 95 ft 0 in ( 28 @.@ 96 m )
Height : 14 ft 9 in ( 4 @.@ 50 m )
Wing area : 1 @,@ 120 sq ft ( 104 m2 )
Empty weight : 19 @,@ 082 lb ( 8 @,@ 655 kg )
Gross weight : 27 @,@ 253 lb ( 12 @,@ 362 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 40 @,@ 000 lb ( 18 @,@ 144 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2180 @-@ A Twin Hornet turbosupercharged radial engines , 1 @,@ 200 hp ( 890 kW ) each
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed
Performance
Maximum speed : 220 mph ( 354 km / h ; 191 kn ) at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m )
Cruise speed : 190 mph ( 165 kn ; 306 km / h )
Range : 1 @,@ 960 mi ( 1 @,@ 703 nmi ; 3 @,@ 154 km ) with 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs
Combat range : 600 mi ( 521 nmi ; 966 km ) with 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) of bombs
Service ceiling : 25 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 620 m )
Time to altitude : 10 minutes to 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m )
Armament
Guns : Five .30 @-@ calibre machine guns , mounted in single turrets in the nose and dorsal positions , and single manually operated mounts in the waist and ventral positions .
Bombs : Up to 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) in an internal bay .
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= Janee Michelle =
Janee Michelle ( born Geneva Leona Mercadel ; 1946 ) , also known as Gee Tucker , is an American actor , model , dancer , and businessperson , best known for her role in the 1974 horror film The House on Skull Mountain .
= = Career = =
Her acting and modeling career has included appearances in a variety of media , including films , television programs and advertisements , theatrical productions , and print advertisements . Meradel made her first film appearance in the 1964 short film The Legend of Jimmy Blue Eyes . She adopted the stage name Janee Michelle because her talent agent and the film studio both believed her birth name would be poorly received . Michelle 's acting in the television series The Outcasts in 1968 was critically acclaimed , which led to several offers of film roles . Both in a 1969 episode of The Governor & J.J. and in the 1970 film Soul Soldier , Michelle acted alongside her then @-@ husband Robert DoQui .
In 1977 , Michelle was the queen in the New Orleans Mardi Gras Zulu parade . She was the first Zulu queen to wear two different gowns , both of which were designed by Bob Mackie , who had designed outfits for Cher . She divorced DoQui in 1978 and married New Orleans politician Robert H. Tucker , Jr. the following year ; she changed her name to Gee Tucker and became a businessperson .
In 1980 , the couple founded Tucker and Associates , a management consulting company that , in 1990 , received a US $ 26 million contract with the Strategic Petroleum Reserve , representing the largest contract that had ever been received by a minority @-@ owned company in Louisiana . While working on this contract , Michelle and Tucker started a second company called Integrated Logistical Support . The couple divorced and Michelle retained ownership of Tucker and Associates while Tucker retained ownership of Integrated Logistical Support . When Tucker retired in 2008 , the couple 's daughter Iam Tucker replaced him as president of Integrated Logistical Support . After Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans , Michelle purchased Sophie 's Gelato , an ice cream parlor on Magazine Street where she makes gelato in @-@ house .
= = Early life = =
Janee Michelle was born Geneva Leona Mercadel in New Orleans , Louisiana . Her paternal great @-@ grandfather was a shoemaker who immigrated to New York from Champagne , France before moving to New Orleans in pursuit of a warmer climate . Michelle 's extended family was large and had lived in the 7th Ward of New Orleans for many years . Michelle is related to Sidney Barthelemy , former Mayor of New Orleans .
Traditionally , the Mercadels had worked in construction , and some of Michelle 's cousins continued this tradition . Michelle 's mother 's surname was Mathieu and her family background included people from Africa , France , Germany , and Italy , as well as Choctaw people . Michelle grew up in a religious home in which her father , Walter F. Mercadel , was a barber and her mother was a beautician . She had three siblings : an older brother named Walbert and two younger sisters named Zernell and Zona .
At age 13 , Michelle created , produced , designed , and directed a dance show at the YWCA in New Orleans . She was named Miss New Orleans in 1960 . She attended Rivers Frederick Junior High School where her principal , Leah McKenna , encouraged her to pursue a career in entertainment . While in high school , Michelle won fifteen certificates and medals for language proficiency . She started high school in New Orleans and then transferred to Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles , California , when her family moved there as a result of her mother 's illness , which was aggravated by the high humidity of New Orleans . Her father was unemployed at the time and her brother 's wife was pregnant , so she started working as a cook to support the family . She graduated from Manual Arts ranked 25th scholastically in her 500 @-@ student class , and then attended Los Angeles City College and Woodbury College , receiving her best grades in English studies . She took drama courses from Actors Studio West and the Columbia Film Workshop .
= = Career = =
= = = Entertainment = = =
Michelle 's acting , modeling , and dancing career has included appearances in a variety of media , including films , television programs and advertisements , theatrical productions , and print advertisements . She commuted to a job as a dancer in Las Vegas while she was still in high school . She has learned to perform both ballet and Cuban dance styles and has danced at the Hollywood Palladium and Tropicana Las Vegas . As a stage actor , she appeared in productions of MacBird ! , The Death of Daddy Hugs and Kisses , Ride a Wild Horse , The Vagina Monologues , In the Blink of an Eye , and other plays . One of her early television advertisement appearances was for Ultra Sheen hair products . In 1964 , Michelle — still known by her birth name Geneva Mercadel — received her first film role in the short film The Legend of Jimmy Blue Eyes , which was nominated for an Academy Award . Her contract did not allow her to receive residuals when the film later aired on television . Her talent agent and the film studio both believed her birth name would be received poorly , so she adopted the stage name Janee Michelle . She chose the name Janee ( pronounced Ja @-@ Nay , and sometimes spelled Janée ) to keep the first two syllables of her birth name . She chose the surname Michelle because she " thought it would be unique to have a name with two first names " . When she found people had difficulty pronouncing the name Janee , she considered changing it again , but decided against it because she believed this pronunciation difficulty caused people to remember her .
In 1967 , an article in The Chicago Defender predicted that Michelle 's career in American cinema would be successful . Also that year , she appeared on the cover of an issue of the magazine Jet alongside Ronnie Eckstine in recognition of their appearance together in Eckstine 's debut film The Love @-@ Ins ; it was Michelle 's most prominent film role until that point . A Variety reviewer wrote that Michelle was cast well in the role . Michelle 's acting in the television series The Outcasts was critically acclaimed , leading to several offers of film roles . The Outcasts reviews also led to her appearance in an episode of Love , American Style alongside Greg Morris , known for his role in the Mission : Impossible television series .
Michelle was included in the magazine Ebony 's list of Fifty Eligible Girls for 1969 . Also in 1969 , Michelle again appeared on the cover of Jet , which called her " one of Hollywood 's most attractive actresses " . The article declares Michelle to be one of several up @-@ and @-@ coming African @-@ American actresses , along with Gloria Foster , Gail Fisher , and Denise Nicholas . In the corresponding interview with Jet , Michelle said although racial inequality in the United States may have been a career obstacle for African @-@ American women in the past , " that 's not it today — and that 's for sure " . Michelle argued that her success as an actor proved the falsehood of the idea that African @-@ American women need to have sexual intercourse with certain people to become successful in the cinema of the United States .
Michelle starred alongside her husband Robert DoQui in a 1969 episode of The Governor & J.J. The couple acted together again the following year in Soul Soldier , a film in which Michelle is the leading lady ; she appears with DoQui in nude sex scenes . Michelle 's and DoQui 's characters form a love triangle with Lincoln Kilpatrick 's character . In a New York Times review of the film , Howard Thompson called all three actors ' performances " plain painful " .
In 1973 , Michelle collaborated with actors Judy Pace and Lillian Lehman to found Kwanza , a Hollywood , California @-@ based nonprofit organization named after the African diaspora celebration Kwanzaa . Run entirely by African American actresses on a volunteer basis , Kwanza initially provided food to people in need at Christmas . Michelle and the other two co @-@ founders each enlisted five other African American actresses to volunteer with the organization and , together , they raised enough funds to provide food to 75 families that first Christmas . By 1976 , the organization had fed more than 2000 individuals and had expanded to function year @-@ round .
Michelle is best known for her role in the 1974 horror film The House on Skull Mountain , which was once an obscure film but became better known when it was released on DVD . She portrays Lorena Christophe , who is summoned to the house of a recently @-@ dead distant relative who was a voodoo queen . Christophe is the love interest of the main character , who is portrayed by Victor French . In the Encyclopedia of African American Actresses in Film and Television , Bob McCann writes that Michelle " is quite pretty and gives a charming performance in her undemanding role " . A Variety reviewer provided a similar appraisal of Michelle 's appearance , calling her attractive and her role chic . In 2014 , she appeared in a health insurance television advertisement for AARP .
= = = New Orleans Mardi Gras = = =
In 1977 , Michelle 's cousin , Anthony " Chuck " Mercadel , was chosen to be that year 's king of the Zulu parade , part of New Orleans Mardi Gras . He and Michelle had not seen each other since before her film and television career when she was living in New Orleans . Michelle was volunteering with Kwanza in Shreveport , Louisiana with 25 other actresses , including Isabel Sanford , when Chuck and New Orleans politician Robert H. Tucker , Jr. visited Michelle at her hotel . Chuck said he was looking for Sanford so he could ask her to be his queen . Michelle asked him , " Why don 't you ask me to be your queen ? " , and he did so . Michelle refused the offer because she did not wish to be his second choice . Sanford was unable to appear in the parade due to a prior engagement and Chuck asked Michelle again . This time , she accepted , despite having to rearrange her schedule .
Until the time of the parade , Michelle was working in Hollywood . She flew to New Orleans to be ceremoniously greeted at the airport by a band and some Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club members . Michelle was the first Zulu queen to wear two different gowns : one for the parade and the other for the ball . Bob Mackie designed both of these gowns . Mackie had designed outfits for Cher , from whom Michelle borrowed a beige turkey feather boa and headdress for the parade . Michelle 's parade gown was sleeveless , had a turtleneck , and was composed of a gold @-@ and @-@ cinnamon brocade decorated with topaz gemstones . The ball gown was a white , form @-@ fitting garment with a see @-@ through front , and was decorated with crystals and white bugle beads . She rejected the traditional tiara and instead wore a headpiece covered in pearls . Of her promenade around the ballroom , during which she swayed her shoulders and hips , Michelle later said " high @-@ school girls were imitating it for a year after that : the ' Zulu queen ' walk " .
= = = Business = = =
After divorcing DoQui in 1978 , Michelle married Robert H. Tucker , Jr. the following year , changed her name to Gee Tucker , moved back to New Orleans , and became a businessperson . After Tucker had repeatedly been unsuccessful in being elected to public office , he convinced Michelle to go into business with him and stop working for Copeland . In 1980 , Tucker and Michelle founded Tucker and Associates , a management consulting company . The company did not generate much revenue at first , and Michelle worked elsewhere in management and marketing . For the first few years , Michelle and Tucker did not apply for assistance from the Small Business Administration ( SBA ) 8 ( a ) Business Development Program , which offers support to businesses run by members of minority groups . Michelle said they made this decision because " we had seen other businesses start out strongly , graduate from the SBA 8 @-@ A program and fail [ and ] we wanted to be able to know that we could compete without it " . Michelle had no formal business education , which made her feel inadequate as an entrepreneur . Of these early years in business , she later said , " I learned the hard way , on the job , things I could never have learned in school . But I think the formal training in school would have made it easier . "
Eventually , Tucker and Associates began receiving contracts requiring a variety of services , including personnel , data processing , finance , and marketing . By 1990 , the company employed 225 people and had a revenue of approximately $ 11 million . That year , the company received a $ 26 million contract with the Strategic Petroleum Reserve , representing the largest contract that had ever been received by a minority @-@ owned company in Louisiana . This contract was awarded through the SBA 8 ( a ) program and lasted seven years . While working on this contract , Michelle and Tucker started a second company called Integrated Logistical Support , of which Michelle became the vice president . The couple divorced before the Strategic Petroleum Reserve contract ended , and Michelle went back to using her maiden name . Michelle retained ownership of Tucker and Associates , remaining its president and chief executive officer , while Tucker retained ownership of Integrated Logistical Support .
Michelle was a director of Hibernia National Bank while it was a Forbes 500 company , and as of 2002 , she is the chief operating officer of Tucker and Associates . In 2003 , Ray Nagin , Mayor of New Orleans , ended contracts with eleven companies that had ties to the previous mayor , Marc Morial ; both Tucker and Associates and Integrated Logistical Support were among these companies . Michelle has sat on the board of the Louisiana Children 's Museum and has volunteered with the Drugs Off the Street program .
Michelle purchased Sophie 's Gelato in New Orleans , which she operates .
= = Awards = =
In 1991 , Michelle was recognized as a YWCA Role Model . The National Council of Negro Women named her one of five community leaders of the year in 1995 . Michelle has been named New Orleans Woman Business Owner of the Year and has received the Best of Black Business Award . The Business and Professional Women 's Foundation has named her Employer of the Year . The American Council for Career Women has granted her their Achiever 's Award .
= = Personal life = =
On July 22 , 1966 , at the age of twenty , Michelle married 33 @-@ year @-@ old Albert S. Hubbard in Marin County , California . They divorced in January 1968 . On April 25 of the following year , she married 35 @-@ year @-@ old Robert DoQui in San Francisco . DoQui , whose term of endearment for Michelle was " crazy Creole chick " , already had four children from a previous marriage to a woman who had died , and Michelle developed a relationship with these children , who were aged five , six , eight , and eleven . In a 1969 interview with the magazine Tan , Michelle indicated that DoQui 's fashion preferences were an important factor in her clothing purchase decisions , saying , " I think a girl should dress for her husband " . She also expressed her support for the breadwinner model in which men are expected to make the most income for their families and women are expected to be housewives , although Michelle argued that women should work outside the home if they want to . She went on to say that women no longer worked hard enough to retain the respect and love of their husbands , and the interviewer describes Michelle as following her own advice : " She dotes so much on her man , invests so much of herself in him , his well @-@ being " . Michelle gave birth to a son , Robert Diago DoQui , in 1971 , and he later became an actor and writer . Michelle and DoQui divorced in June 1978 .
Having met Robert Tucker when her cousin Chuck asked her to appear in the 1977 Zulu parade , Michelle eventually started dating Tucker and they married in 1979 . Their daughter , Iam Christian Tucker , in 1983 . Michelle and Tucker divorced after nineteen years of marriage .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
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= Interstate 95 in Delaware =
Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) is an Interstate highway running along the East Coast of the United States from Miami , Florida north to the Canadian border in Houlton , Maine . In the state of Delaware , the route runs for 23 @.@ 43 mi ( 37 @.@ 71 km ) across the Wilmington area in northern New Castle County from the Maryland state line near Newark northeast to the Pennsylvania state line in Claymont . I @-@ 95 is the only primary ( 2 @-@ digit ) Interstate highway that enters Delaware , although it also has two auxiliary routes within the state ( I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 ) . Between the Maryland border and Newport , I @-@ 95 follows the Delaware Turnpike or John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway , a toll road with a toll plaza near the state line . In Newport , the interstate has a large interchange with Delaware Route 141 ( DE 141 ) and the southern termini of I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 , the latter interstate providing a bypass of Wilmington . I @-@ 95 heads north through the heart of Wilmington concurrent with U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) on the Wilmington Expressway . Past Wilmington , I @-@ 95 continues northeast to Claymont , where I @-@ 495 rejoins the route right before the Pennsylvania state line .
Plans for a road along the I @-@ 95 corridor through Wilmington to the Pennsylvania border predate the Interstate Highway System . After the Delaware Memorial Bridge was built in 1951 , the Delaware Turnpike was proposed between the bridge approach in Farnhurst and the Maryland border near Newark in order to alleviate traffic congestion on parallel US 40 . With the creation of the Interstate Highway System in 1956 , both these roads were incorporated into I @-@ 95 . Construction on the Delaware Turnpike began in 1957 and ended in 1963 . Construction on building I @-@ 95 through Wilmington began in the early 1960s . I @-@ 95 was completed north from Newport to downtown Wilmington in 1966 and north to the Pennsylvania border in 1968 . Between 1978 and 1980 , I @-@ 95 was temporarily rerouted along the I @-@ 495 bypass route while the South Wilmington Viaduct was reconstructed ; during this time the route through Wilmington was designated as I @-@ 895 . Improvements continue to be made to the highway including widening projects and reconstruction of sections of the road and interchanges .
= = Route description = =
= = = Delaware Turnpike = = =
I @-@ 95 enters Delaware from Maryland southwest of Newark in New Castle County . From the state line , the highway heads east as the six @-@ lane Delaware Turnpike ( John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) through wooded areas . Not far from the Maryland border , the road comes to a toll plaza . I @-@ 95 widens to eight lanes and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with DE 896 , which heads north to Newark and the University of Delaware and south to US 301 . Following this interchange , the interstate highway runs between industrial areas to the north and farm fields to the south , coming to bridges over Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and DE 72 . The road heads through more woodland with nearby suburban development as it curves northeast , with the median widening for the Delaware Welcome Center service plaza accessible from both directions . A short distance later , I @-@ 95 reaches the DE 273 interchange west of Christiana . The freeway continues northeast and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with the DE 1 / DE 7 freeway to the northwest of the Christiana Mall . This interchange has flyover ramps between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound I @-@ 95 ; the northbound ramp splits onto both sides of the northbound lanes of I @-@ 95 .
Past this interchange , I @-@ 95 widens to ten lanes and passes under DE 58 , with a ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to westbound DE 58 that provides the missing connection between southbound I @-@ 95 and northbound DE 7 . The highway continues through woods before passing through Churchman 's Marsh , where it crosses the Christina River . After this bridge , I @-@ 95 has a northbound ramp to Airport Road that serves to provide access to southbound US 202 / DE 141 . At this point , the lanes of the interstate split further apart and the northbound ramp for I @-@ 295 and northbound DE 141 splits off to parallel the northbound lanes of I @-@ 95 . The ramp to northbound I @-@ 295 has two lanes while northbound I @-@ 95 carries four lanes . After this , I @-@ 95 crosses US 202 / DE 141 , at which point US 202 becomes concurrent with the interstate . Upon crossing DE 141 , the ramp to northbound DE 141 from the northbound I @-@ 295 ramp splits off while the ramp from DE 141 to northbound I @-@ 95 merges in from the left . Southbound , a collector / distributor ramp serves to provide access between I @-@ 95 and DE 141 . Not far after encountering DE 141 , I @-@ 295 splits off to the southeast , with the northbound entrance from I @-@ 295 and the southbound exit to I @-@ 295 and southbound entrance from I @-@ 295 on the left side of the road . At this point , the Delaware Turnpike splits from I @-@ 95 and follows I @-@ 295 southeast to an interchange with US 13 / US 40 in Farnhurst , where the turnpike ends and I @-@ 295 continues east as the Delaware Memorial Bridge approach . After I @-@ 295 , I @-@ 95 / US 202 turns north and comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with the southern terminus of I @-@ 495 , which bypasses Wilmington to the east .
= = = Wilmington Expressway = = =
Following the I @-@ 495 interchange , the median narrows and I @-@ 95 / US 202 heads northeast through marshland as the six @-@ lane Wilmington Expressway , crossing the Christina River . The freeway comes to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch and continues through more wetlands , with Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor running a short distance to the northwest . The road heads into Wilmington and curves to the north , passing to the west of Frawley Stadium , home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks baseball team . I @-@ 95 / US 202 heads towards downtown Wilmington and crosses onto a viaduct , passing over the Northeast Corridor and coming to an interchange that provides access to the downtown area by way of DE 4 and DE 48 . At this point , the four @-@ lane freeway continues northeast , with one @-@ way northbound North Adams Street to the east and one @-@ way southbound North Jackson Street to the west serving as frontage roads . I @-@ 95 / US 202 continues through residential areas to the west of downtown Wilmington , passing over DE 9 , with a southbound exit . Farther northeast , the freeway heads into an alignment below street level and comes to an interchange with DE 52 . Past this interchange , the road heads to the north and crosses Brandywine Creek , heading through Brandywine Park , which is a part of the Wilmington State Parks complex . The freeway curves northeast again and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision before reaching an interchange with the northern terminus of DE 202 at the northern edge of Wilmington , at which point US 202 splits from I @-@ 95 .
Past US 202 , I @-@ 95 leaves Wilmington for the suburban Brandywine Hundred area and heads northeast as a four @-@ lane road , passing southeast of the Rock Manor Golf Club and running along the northwest side of the CSX line . The freeway curves east to pass over the railroad tracks and continues through wooded areas to the south of the CSX tracks , coming to a diamond interchange with DE 3 near Bellefonte . After this exit , I @-@ 95 and the rail line curve to the northeast and continue through woodland with nearby residential areas , passing northwest of Bellevue State Park . The highway comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with Harvey Road near the villages of Arden , Ardentown , and Ardencroft . Past this interchange , the freeway curves east away from the CSX tracks and winds northeast near suburban neighborhoods in Claymont . In Claymont , the interstate comes to a diamond interchange with DE 92 , at which point I @-@ 495 also merges onto the northbound direction of the interstate . Following the interchange , I @-@ 95 passes to the west of the Tri @-@ State Mall before it crosses the state line into Pennsylvania . The southbound exit from I @-@ 95 to I @-@ 495 is located in Pennsylvania 132 feet ( 40 m ) before the Delaware state line .
I @-@ 95 in Delaware has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 169 @,@ 865 vehicles at the DE 1 / DE 7 interchange in Christiana to a low of 48 @,@ 906 vehicles at the DE 92 interchange in Claymont . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire length of I @-@ 95 in Delaware is a part of the National Highway System .
= = Tolls = =
I @-@ 95 has a toll plaza along the Delaware Turnpike near the Maryland border in Newark that charges $ 4 @.@ 00 for cars . Cash or E @-@ ZPass is accepted for payment of tolls .
When the highway first opened in 1963 , the toll at the state line was 30 cents . Prior to 1976 , ramp tolls were collected at the DE 896 , DE 273 , and DE 7 interchanges . The ramp tolls required exact change , and many motorists were caught by police evading the tolls because they did not have the proper change . In 1970 , an attempt was made to use the honor system for motorists without the proper change at the tollbooth to pay the tolls by mailing them . However , it was discontinued after a month because most motorists did not mail in their tolls . In 1976 , Governor Sherman W. Tribbitt signed House Bill 1278 , which was sponsored by Representative Gerard A. Cain . This bill called for the elimination of the three ramp tolls while keeping the mainline toll plaza near the Maryland border . The ramp tolls stopped being collected on October 1 , 1976 .
In 1981 , plans were announced to demolish the former toll booths at the DE 273 and DE 7 interchanges ; however , the DE 896 interchange toll booths were to remain to collect tolls from trucks . The mainline toll plaza was planned to be closed on July 1 , 1981 after the bonds to construct the road were paid off , but was kept by " Operation Overhaul " , a $ 93 million project by Governor Pierre S. du Pont IV that would use the tolls collected at the toll plaza to fund improvements to the turnpike along with other roads in the state of Delaware . In the summer of 2011 , reconstruction of the Delaware Turnpike toll plaza was completed in a $ 32 @.@ 6 million project , adding high @-@ speed E @-@ ZPass lanes . As of 2011 , the Delaware Turnpike was the third most expensive toll road in the United States based on a cost @-@ per @-@ mile average , at a rate of 23 cents per mile ( 14 ¢ / km ) .
= = Services = =
The Delaware Welcome Center service plaza is located in the median of I @-@ 95 between the DE 896 and DE 273 interchanges east of Newark . The service plaza offers a Sunoco gas station , a convenience store , multiple fast @-@ food restaurants , a Delaware Visitor Center offering tourist information , and retail options including a store called Postcards from Delaware that sells Delaware @-@ related merchandise . The Delaware Welcome Center is run by HMSHost .
When the Delaware Turnpike opened in 1963 , a Hot Shoppes restaurant and an Esso service station was located along the road in the median . In 1964 , a proposal was made to build a truck stop and motel next to the existing facilities . The truck stop proposal was off and on for several years until a truck stop was built just over the border in Maryland in 1975 . In 1983 , Hot Shoppes was replaced by Roy Rogers and Bob 's Big Boy in order to offer both sit @-@ down dining and fast food . This was the largest Roy Rogers and Bob 's Big Boy location at the time and restaurant namesake Roy Rogers and Lieutenant Governor Michael Castle were in attendance for the opening . In September 2009 , the Delaware Welcome Center was closed for a reconstruction project that would construct a new service plaza building , new gas pumps , new truck parking , and an improved visitor center . The renovated service plaza opened in June 2010 at a cost of $ 35 million .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and construction = = =
In 1948 , the Wilmington Transportation Study proposed two new roads running between the southern end of Wilmington and the Pennsylvania border to improve traffic flow in the Wilmington area . Route A followed the current alignment of I @-@ 95 while Route B bypassed the city to the east along the current alignment of I @-@ 495 . Plans for building Route A were made in 1950 but were deferred a year later due to opposition .
Following the completion of the Delaware Memorial Bridge and the connecting New Jersey Turnpike in 1951 , through traffic coming from the bridge led to significant congestion on US 13 and US 40 . As a result of this , suggestions were made in 1954 for a limited @-@ access road to be constructed leading to the bridge that would alleviate congestion on US 40 . In 1956 , the Interstate Highway System was created , with two routes proposed along the current alignment of I @-@ 95 . FAI @-@ 1 was proposed to run from the Maryland state line east to an interchange west of Farnhurst while FAI @-@ 2 was proposed between this interchange and the Pennsylvania border through the western part of Wilmington . The corridor following FAI @-@ 1 and FAI @-@ 2 would become designated as part of I @-@ 95 , an Interstate Highway running along the East Coast of the United States . FAI @-@ 1 was originally planned as a free Interstate Highway using federal funds ; however , the road would not have been completed until 1967 under this plan . As a result , the state of Delaware financed the road with bond issues and would build it as a toll road called the Delaware Turnpike .
The first construction contracts for the Delaware Turnpike were awarded in 1957 , with construction soon following that year . Construction began on building a new bridge over US 13 / US 40 at the Farnhurst interchange in 1958 that would connect the Delaware Turnpike to the I @-@ 295 / US 40 approach to the Delaware Memorial Bridge . The same year , plans were made for several bridges along I @-@ 95 . In 1959 , work began on rebuilding the Farnhurst interchange to Interstate Highway standards . The same year , recommendations were made for the design and right @-@ of @-@ way acquisition along the planned route of I @-@ 95 as well as the construction of several contracts between the Maryland border and Farnhurst along the Delaware Turnpike , including the interchange with DE 41 / DE 141 and between I @-@ 95 , I @-@ 295 , and I @-@ 495 near the Christina River . The proposed routing for I @-@ 95 through Wilmington would take it through the central core between Adams and Jackson streets . Locals tried to fight routing I @-@ 95 through the central core and instead suggested routing it along Bancroft Parkway to the west or the present @-@ day route of I @-@ 495 to the east . However , the lame @-@ duck Republican @-@ controlled city council approved routing I @-@ 95 along Adams and Jackson streets in 1957 . The demolition of homes began in January 1959 .
A year later , construction began on overpasses and ramps at the Farnhurst interchange . The same year , suggestions were made to build I @-@ 95 across the Christina Marsh as well as construct the bridges over the Christina River and the Pennsylvania Railroad in Wilmington . A contract was awarded for the Christina River interchange in 1961 . By 1961 , all construction contracts along the Delaware Turnpike had been completed except for the DE 41 / DE 141 interchange and the Christina River interchange . In 1962 , the I @-@ 95 bridges over the Christina River , the Pennsylvania Railroad , and Little Mill Creek were finished while plans were made for the South Wilmington Viaduct that would cross over several railroad tracks belonging to the Pennsylvania Railroad , Baltimore and Ohio Railroad , and the Reading Railroad . The same year , the roadway was built between the Christina River interchange and the South Wilmington Viaduct . The new northbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 through the I @-@ 95 interchange opened in November 1962 . The southbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 opened in June 1964 , enabling directional flow of DE 41 / DE 141 through the interchange . In September 1963 , construction work on the turnpike was halted by picketing workers .
The Delaware Turnpike , along with the connecting Northeast Expressway in Maryland , was dedicated by President John F. Kennedy , Delaware Governor Elbert N. Carvel , and Maryland Governor J. Millard Tawes in a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony at the state line on November 14 , 1963 . The Delaware Turnpike was opened to traffic at midnight on November 15 , 1963 . The first motorist to pay a toll on the turnpike was Omero C. Catan , also known as " Mr. First " , of Teaneck , New Jersey , who marked this occasion as the 517th first moment he achieved . The completion of the Delaware Turnpike allowed motorists to travel from Washington , D.C. to Boston without having to stop at a traffic light . Construction of the Delaware Turnpike cost $ 30 million . Following the opening of the turnpike , traffic levels on US 40 and US 301 fell by 40 to 50 percent . The rerouting of traffic to the Delaware Turnpike led to the reduction in profits for businesses along US 13 and US 40 , with several businesses forced to close . Meanwhile , the Delaware Turnpike saw more traffic volume than originally projected . Eight days after dedicating the toll road , President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas . As a result , both the Delaware Turnpike and the Northeast Expressway were renamed the John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway in his honor in December 1963 . On the one year anniversary of the dedication of the Delaware Turnpike on November 14 , 1964 , a memorial service and wreath laying in honor of Kennedy was held at the state line , with Governor Carvel in attendance .
The remainder of I @-@ 95 between the Christina River interchange and the Pennsylvania border would be built as a non @-@ tolled freeway . In April 1964 , construction contracts were awarded for bridges at the Christina River interchange that would carry I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 traffic over I @-@ 295 . In late spring of 1964 , construction on the South Wilmington Viaduct began . In June of that year , the substructure of the I @-@ 95 bridge over the Brandywine Creek was completed . In August 1964 , construction began on the I @-@ 95 interchange with Naamans Road and the northern terminus of I @-@ 495 in Claymont . In 1965 , construction was underway to build the below @-@ surface alignment of I @-@ 95 between Fourth Street and the Brandywine Creek in Wilmington . The construction of I @-@ 95 through Wilmington led to demolition of 360 to 370 homes in the West Side neighborhood between Adams and Jackson streets . The construction of the highway led to the decline of the residential and commercial base in Wilmington . Work was also underway on the portion of I @-@ 95 northeast of Wilmington , which would parallel the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . In 1966 , I @-@ 95 was completed and opened to traffic between the Christina River interchange with I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 and downtown Wilmington , where ramps connected the highway to Maryland Avenue and Lancaster Avenue . The completion of this section of I @-@ 95 provided an uninterrupted freeway connection between Wilmington and Baltimore . The ramps to downtown Wilmington were added as a compromise of building the freeway through the city and would bring economic development to the Wilmington Riverfront . In August 1968 , I @-@ 95 between the South Wilmington Viaduct and US 202 was completed and opened to traffic . On November 1 , 1968 , the freeway was opened between US 202 and the Pennsylvania border . With this , the entire length of I @-@ 95 in Delaware was constructed , making Delaware the third state to complete its section of I @-@ 95 .
= = = Improvements = = =
In November 1968 , work began to widen the Delaware Turnpike from four to six lanes to handle increasing traffic volumes . The widening project was completed in December 1969 , one year ahead of schedule . In 1969 , a plan was made to widen the turnpike between DE 896 and DE 273 to ten lanes and between DE 273 and DE 141 to 12 lanes in a 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 local @-@ express lane configuration . This was later scaled down to a proposal to widen the road to eight lanes total . The widening of the Delaware Turnpike to eight lanes occurred in the 1980s . From 1971 to 1978 , a north @-@ south extension of the Delaware Turnpike running south to Dover was studied . This extension of the turnpike evolved into a " Relief Route " for US 13 and was built as DE 1 between 1987 and 2003 .
On June 28 , 1978 , the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved rerouting I @-@ 95 along the I @-@ 495 alignment . However , AASHTO disapproved renumbering the alignment of I @-@ 95 through Wilmington as I @-@ 595 . On October 27 of that year , AASHTO gave conditional approval for I @-@ 95 through Wilmington to be designated as I @-@ 195 from I @-@ 95 near Newport north to US 202 while the route from US 202 to I @-@ 95 in Claymont would become I @-@ 395 . I @-@ 895 was designated along the conditionally approved route of I @-@ 195 and I @-@ 395 on June 25 , 1979 . In 1980 , the South Wilmington Viaduct was reconstructed . On November 14 , 1980 , I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 were returned to their original alignments , with I @-@ 895 decommissioned . US 202 was designated concurrent with I @-@ 95 through Wilmington in 1984 .
In 2000 , I @-@ 95 was completely rebuilt between US 202 and the Pennsylvania border . The reconstruction completely tore apart the concrete pavement and replaced it with asphalt and also improved drainage and rebuilt bridges . In April 2000 , the southbound lanes were closed , with the lanes between DE 3 and US 202 reopening in May and the remainder reopening in mid @-@ summer . In July , the northbound lanes were closed , with the lanes reopening between US 202 and DE 3 in September and the remainder reopening in October . During the closure , through traffic was detoured to I @-@ 495 .
In 2003 , work began on rebuilding the bridge carrying DE 58 over the highway to allow for future improvements to I @-@ 95 , with completion in fall 2006 , a year behind schedule . In May 2007 , construction began to widen I @-@ 95 between the DE 1 / DE 7 and DE 141 interchanges from eight to ten lanes due to rising traffic levels and increased development . The widening project was completed in November 2008 . Traffic congestion at the cloverleaf interchange with DE 1 / DE 7 in Christiana led to DelDOT to improve the interchange . The project included adding flyover connecting ramps from northbound DE 1 to northbound I @-@ 95 and from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 which allowed for easier merging patterns and the elimination of lengthy backups on the former ramp design . Construction of a new " ring access road " around Christiana Mall began in February 2011 and was completed in March 2012 , with a newly built bridge over DE 1 , just south of the I @-@ 95 interchange . The ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 / DE 7 opened on August 27 , 2013 and the ramp from northbound DE 1 / DE 7 to northbound I @-@ 95 opened on October 17 , 2013 , with a ribbon cutting ceremony attended by Governor Jack Markell and DelDOT secretary Shailen Bhatt .
In December 2011 , a project began to improve the interchange between I @-@ 95 and US 202 / DE 202 in order to reduce congestion . The project widened the ramp between northbound I @-@ 95 and northbound US 202 to two lanes , the ramp between southbound US 202 and southbound I @-@ 95 was extended to modern standards , and the ramp between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 202 was relocated from a cloverleaf loop to a directional ramp that intersects DE 202 at a signalized intersection . In addition , the interchange ramps were repaved and bridges were rehabilitated . The project was finished in July 2015 , months behind schedule due to the closure of I @-@ 495 in 2014 . On August 7 , 2015 , a dedication ceremony to mark the completion of the project was held , with Governor Markell , Senator Tom Carper , and DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan in attendance . The project , which cost over $ 33 million , was 80 @-@ percent funded by the federal government .
On June 2 , 2014 , the I @-@ 495 bridge over the Christina River was closed after it was discovered that four support columns were tilting . During this closure , traffic from I @-@ 495 was detoured onto I @-@ 95 , and several major roads in the Wilmington area experienced increased traffic congestion . The southbound lanes of I @-@ 495 reopened on July 31 , a month earlier than expected , and the northbound lanes of I @-@ 495 reopened on August 23 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
I @-@ 95 has two auxiliary routes that are located within the state of Delaware . I @-@ 295 runs from I @-@ 95 near Newport east to the Delaware Memorial Bridge , where it crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey . Once in New Jersey , I @-@ 295 intersects the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and continues northeast a bypass route of Philadelphia . I @-@ 295 reaches its northern terminus at I @-@ 95 near Trenton , New Jersey . I @-@ 495 is a bypass of Wilmington to the east . I @-@ 495 runs from I @-@ 95 south of Wilmington near Newport , passing through the Port of Wilmington and running along the Delaware River , before merging back in with I @-@ 95 at the Pennsylvania state border in Claymont .
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= Vengeance ( 2005 ) =
Vengeance ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by THQ 's Juiced , which took place on June 26 , 2005 , at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas , Nevada . It was the fifth annual Vengeance event . Professional wrestling is a type of sports entertainment in which theatrical events are combined with a competitive sport . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event were planned by WWE 's script writers . The event starred wrestlers from the Raw brand : storyline expansions of the promotion where employees are assigned to wrestling brands under the WWE banner .
The main event was a Hell in a Cell match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Batista and Triple H , which Batista won by pinfall after executing a Batista Bomb . One of the predominant matches on the card was John Cena versus Chris Jericho versus Christian in a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship . Cena won the match and retained the title after pinning Christian . Another primary match on the undercard was Kurt Angle versus Shawn Michaels in a rematch of their bout at WrestleMania 21 . Michaels won the match by pinfall after executing Sweet Chin Music .
Many of the existing feuds were settled following the event . Notably , Batista was drafted to the SmackDown ! brand , thus ending his feud with Triple H. The feud between Kane and Edge also concluded after the event , as Edge entered an angle with Matt Hardy . The feud between Cena and Jericho , however , continued and led to a match at SummerSlam , which Cena won .
= = Background = =
The event featured six professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match . The name of a wrestler 's character was not always the person 's birth name , as wrestlers often use a stage name to portray their character . All wrestlers were from the Raw brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being SmackDown ! .
The main feud heading into Vengeance was between Batista and Triple H , with the two battling over the World Heavyweight Championship . After Batista defeated Triple H at WrestleMania 21 , they continued to fight over the World title at the next Raw pay @-@ per @-@ view , Backlash , which saw Batista retain the title . Following Backlash , a series of Gold Rush Tournament matches to determine a number one contender to face Batista for the World title took place with Kane , Shawn Michaels , Edge , and Chris Benoit winning in the first round of the tournament . In this round , Benoit forced Triple H to submit to the Crippler Crossface , Benoit 's submission finisher . On the May 23 , 2005 episode of Raw , Batista faced Edge , who had beat out Michaels and Kane for an opportunity at the World title . Batista retained the title after he pinned Edge following a Batista Bomb . Following the match , Triple H attacked Batista with a sledgehammer and challenged him to a Hell in a Cell match . After making the challenge , Triple H performed a Pedigree to Batista on the World title . Batista accepted Triple H 's challenge , which led to a contract signing for their scheduled match at Vengeance , which would be for the World Heavyweight title in a Hell in a Cell match at Vengeance .
The other main feud heading into the event was between John Cena , Chris Jericho and Christian , with the three battling over the WWE Championship . On the June 6 episode of Raw , John Cena 's SmackDown ! tenure came to an end when he became the first wrestler selected by the Raw brand General Manager , Eric Bischoff , in the draft lottery . Cena was introduced as Raw 's newest member in Chris Jericho 's segment , the Highlight Reel , but Christian interrupted and called Cena a poser . This built on their existing rivalry , as Cena and Christian had an encounter at the Royal Rumble , in which Christian claimed that he was a better rapper than Cena . At the time , Cena was a member of the SmackDown ! brand and Christian was part of the Raw brand . Over the next months , Christian began cutting promos denouncing Cena as a ' poser ' . Cena rebutted Christian 's comments by performing a freestyle rap about Christian , which quickly led to the two brawling in the ring . The same evening , Cena entered a feud with Bischoff by refusing to participate in Bischoff 's " war " against the upcoming Extreme Championship Wrestling reunion show . On the June 13 episode of Raw , Bischoff booked a WWE title match between Christian and Cena at Vengeance , although Jericho protested the idea of Christian being the contender to face Cena for the title . Later that night , Cena and Jericho were placed in a tag team match and faced off against Christian and Tyson Tomko . Cena and Jericho won the match after Cena got the pinfall . After the match , Jericho turned on Cena and attacked him . Bischoff then changed the original match between Cena and Christan to a Triple Threat match at Vengeance that also included Jericho .
One of the main matches on the undercard was between Kurt Angle and Shawn Michaels . At the start of the year , Angle and Michaels both participated in the Royal Rumble match at the 2005 Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view event . During the match , Michaels eliminated Angle . In retaliation , Angle returned to the match and eliminated Michaels and then attacked him outside the ring . The two engaged in a feud , which led to an Interpromotional match at WrestleMania 21 , as Angle was part of the SmackDown ! roster and Michaels belonged to the Raw roster . At WrestleMania 21 , Angle got the win over Michaels by forcing him to submit to the Ankle Lock . On the June 13 episode of Raw , Angle was revealed to be the second draft pick for the Raw brand . That same evening , Michaels challenged Angle to a rematch at Vengeance , which Angle accepted .
The Divas match set for Vengeance was between Victoria and Christy Hemme . On the May 30 edition of Raw , Christy Hemme won a bikini contest ; defeating Victoria , Candice Michelle , Maria , and Lilian Garcia . After the contest ended , Victoria turned into a villainess by attacking all of the participants , saving Hemme for last . In a backstage interview following her heel turn , the evil Victoria expressed jealousy of Hemme , stating that she was tired of Hemme getting all of the attention . On the June 20 episode of Raw , it was announced in a backstage interview that Hemme and Victoria would face each other at Vengeance . Hemme stated that she couldn 't wait to get her hands on Victoria , but during the segment , Victoria interrupted the interview by smashing a glass jar on the back of Hemme 's head .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rosey and The Hurricane ( with Super Stacy ) defeated The Heart Throbs ( Antonio and Romeo ) in a match taped for Sunday Night Heat . The first match that aired was between Carlito and Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship . After back and forth action , Carlito removed the padding from one of the turnbuckles . Benjamin then hit his head on the exposed metal while performing a Stinger splash . Carlito pinned Benjamin with a roll @-@ up , allowing Carlito to retain the Intercontinental Championship .
Next was a match between Victoria and Christy Hemme . The match saw Victoria lift Hemme in the air and drop her down with force . Control of the match went back and forth , but the bout came to an end when Victoria countered Hemme 's sunset flip . Victoria got the pinfall by using the ring ropes for leverage .
The third match of the night saw Kane in a match with Edge , during which both men took the upper hand . Snitsky interfered in the match , hitting Kane with a big boot . Moments later , Snitsky was quickly taken out by Edge after he hit him with his Money in the Bank briefcase . Following the events in the match , Kane performed a chokeslam and pinned Edge .
This bout was followed by a WrestleMania 21 rematch that involved Shawn Michaels and Kurt Angle . In a brawling match , Angle had an Ankle Lock hold applied on Michaels . Moments later , however , Michaels recuperated and performed Sweet Chin Music on Angle before pinning Angle for the win . After the match , both men were given a standing ovation . An in @-@ ring segment took place next between Raw 's ring announcer , Lilian Garcia and Viscera . During the segment , Garcia proposed to Viscera . Before Viscera could have given an answer , he was interrupted by The Godfather . The Godfather gave Viscera advice about the life he would miss out on if he got married . This led to Viscera rejecting Garcia 's marriage proposal and leaving the ring with the Godfather 's hos and abandoning a crying Garcia in the ring .
The fifth match was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between champion John Cena , Christian , and Chris Jericho . The match saw all three wrestlers take the advantage over one another . A spot in the match included Jericho applying the Walls of Jericho on Cena , but he released the move and performed a springboard dropkick on Christian , after Christian got up on the ring apron . Late in the match , Jericho reversed an Unprettier attempt by Christian by tossing Christian directly to Cena . Cena hoisted Christian onto his shoulders , performed an FU , and pinned Christian to retain the WWE title .
The final match of the event was a Hell in a Cell bout between Batista and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship . During the match , Triple H choked Batista with a chain and hit him in the back with a steel chair wrapped with barbed wire . Batista regained the momentum by grabbing Triple H 's sledgehammer and hitting him in the mouth . Batista retained the World title after he performed a spinebuster on Triple H onto the steel steps , which was followed with a Batista Bomb and a cover for the win . After the Hell in a Cell match , Triple H stood to his feet and was given a standing ovation by the audience .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after their Hell in a Cell match as an exclusive to WWE Home Video , Triple H ( with Ric Flair ) and Batista encountered backstage to put their differences aside and embraced with Triple H quipping " This is Evolution , baby " , referring to their past as a stable , which had disbanded until 2014 .
In June 2005 , the 2005 WWE Draft Lottery took place , in which wrestlers were drafted and traded between the Raw and SmackDown ! brands . On the June 30 episode of SmackDown ! , Batista 's tenure on the Raw brand ended , when he was SmackDown ! ' s final pick in the draft lottery . SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long scheduled a six @-@ man elimination match between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) , The Undertaker , Muhammad Hassan , Chris Benoit , Booker T and Christian , in which the winner would receive the SmackDown ! Championship , as the WWE Championship had been moved to the Raw brand . JBL won the match , but Teddy Long informed JBL that he did not win the SmackDown ! championship . As the winner of the match , however , he would face Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 7 episode of SmackDown ! , it was revealed that the match between JBL and Batista would take place at The Great American Bash . At The Great American Bash , Batista was disqualified for attacking JBL with a chair . JBL won the match , but did not win the title because a title never changes hands by countout or disqualification .
Following Vengeance , Eric Bischoff vowed to make John Cena 's stint on Raw difficult , he " hand picked " Chris Jericho to take the WWE title off Cena by booking a match between Cena and Jericho at SummerSlam . During their feud , even though Cena was portrayed as the face and Jericho as the heel , a vocal section of live crowds nonetheless chose to boo Cena during their matches , including at SummerSlam where Cena retained the title after executing an FU .
After a successful tag team win at Backlash , in which Shawn Michaels and Hulk Hogan defeated Muhammad Hassan and Daivari . Michaels and Hogan were placed in tag team match against Kurt Angle and Carlito on an episode of Raw . The match saw Hogan and Michaels get the victory . During the post @-@ match pose , Michaels superkicked Hogan , which knocked Hogan to the ground and turning Michaels heel for the first time since returning to the company in 2002 . The following week , Michaels challenged Hogan to a match at SummerSlam , which Hogan accepted . In this match , Hogan maintained his perfect record at SummerSlam by defeating Michaels .
The feud between Edge and Kane came to an end when Edge was put in an angle with Matt Hardy . On the July 11 episode of Raw , Hardy , who at the time was unemployed by WWE , made a surprise appearance , interfering in a match between Edge and Kane . The following week , as both Edge and Lita were walking towards the ring before a scheduled Steel cage match against Kane , Hardy attacked Edge from behind . On the August 1 episode of Raw , Vince McMahon officially announced Hardy 's return to WWE , adding that Hardy would face Edge at SummerSlam . The following week , Hardy made his in @-@ ring return , defeating Snitsky . After the victory , Hardy was attacked by Edge , and was carried backstage . In retaliation , Hardy counterattacked Edge in the locker room . At SummerSlam , Edge was given the win in the match after Hardy hit the ring post and began to bleed profusely , which caused the referee to stop the match .
After a four @-@ month hiatus , Triple H returned on the WWE Homecoming episode of Raw on October 3 . He took part in a match , teaming up with Ric Flair , who was wrestling as a face , to take on Chris Masters and Carlito . The duo defeated Masters and Carlito ; after the match , Triple H turned on Flair and hit him with a sledgehammer . This led to an angle between Triple H and Flair . At Taboo Tuesday , Triple H and Flair met in a Steel cage match , a stipulation chosen by the fans , for the Intercontinental Championship . The match saw Flair retain the Intercontinental Championship , after escaping through the cage door .
= = Results = =
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= Elizabeth Rona =
Elizabeth Rona ( 20 March 1890 – 27 July 1981 ) was a Hungarian nuclear chemist , known for her work with radioactive isotopes . After developing an enhanced method of preparing polonium samples , she was internationally recognized as the leading expert in isotope separation and polonium preparation . Between 1914 and 1918 , during her postdoctoral study with George de Hevesy , she developed a theory that the velocity of diffusion depended on the mass of the nuclides . As only a few atomic elements had been identified , her confirmation of the existence of Uranium @-@ Y was a major contribution to nuclear chemistry . She was awarded the Haitinger Prize by the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1933 .
After emigrating to the United States in 1941 , she was granted a Carnegie Fellowship to continue her research and provided technical information on her polonium extraction methods to the Manhattan Project . Later in her career , she became a nuclear chemistry professor at the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies and after 15 years there transferred to the Institute of Marine Sciences at the University of Miami . At both Oak Ridge and Miami , she continued her work on the geochronology of seabed elements and radiometric dating . She was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Women 's Hall of Fame in 2015 .
= = Early life and education = =
Elizabeth Rona was born on 20 March 1890 in Budapest , Hungary , to Ida , ( née Mahler ) and Samuel Róna . Her father was a prosperous Jewish physician who worked with Louis Wickham and Henri @-@ August Dominici , founders of radium therapy , to introduce the techniques to Budapest , and installed one of the first x @-@ ray machines there . Elizabeth wanted to become a physician like her father , but Samuel believed that it would be too difficult for a woman to attain . Though he died when she was in her second year of university , Rona 's father had encouraged her and spurred her interest in science from a young age . She enrolled in the Philosophy Faculty at the University of Budapest , studying chemistry , geochemistry , and physics , receiving her PhD in 1912 .
= = Early career = =
Rona began her postdoctoral training in 1912 at the Animal Physiology Institute in Berlin and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute , studying yeast as a reagent . In 1913 she transferred to Karlsruhe University , working under the direction of Kasimir Fajans , the discoverer of isotopes , for the next eight months . During the summer of 1914 , she studied at University College London , but returned to Budapest at the outbreak of World War I. Taking a position at Budapest 's Chemical Institute , she completed a scientific paper on the " diffusion constant of radon in water " . Working with George de Hevesy , she was asked to verify a new element — at the time was termed Uranium @-@ Y , now known as Th @-@ 231 . Though others had failed to confirm the element , Rona was able to separate the Uranium @-@ Y from interfering elements , proving it was a beta emitter ( β @-@ emission ) with a half @-@ life of 25 hours . The Hungarian Academy of Sciences published her findings . Rona first coined the terms " isotope labels " and " tracers " during this study , noting that the velocity of diffusion depended on the mass of the nuclides . Though contained in a footnote , this was the basis for the development of the mass spectrographic and heavy water studies later performed by other scientists . In addition to her scientific proficiency , Rona spoke English , French , German , and Hungarian .
When Hevesy left Budapest , in 1918 Franz Tangl , a noted biochemist and physiologist of the University of Budapest , offered Rona a teaching position . She taught chemistry to selected students whom Tangl felt had insufficient knowledge to complete the course work , becoming the first woman to teach chemistry at university level in Hungary .
The apartment in which Rona and her mother were living was seized when the communists invaded Hungary in 1919 . Owing to political instability and the persecution of those with communist sympathies during the countering White Terror , an increasing amount of work at the Institute fell to Rona . When offered a position in 1921 to return to Dahlem and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute , by Otto Hahn , Rona resigned . She joined Hahn 's staff in Berlin to separate ionium ( now known as Th @-@ 230 ) from uranium . Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic forced her transfer to the Textile Fiber Institute of Kaiser Wilhelm , as practical research was the only work permitted at the time . Theoretical research with no essential application was not a priority . Her training allowed her to return to a more stable Hungary and accept a position in a textile factory there in 1923 . She did not care for the work and soon left , joining the staff of the Institute for Radium Research of Vienna in 1924 at the request of Stefan Meyer . Her research there focused on measuring the absorption and range of hydrogen rays , as well as on developing polonium as an alternative radioactive material to radium .
= = Austria = =
As early as 1926 , Meyer had written to Irène Joliot @-@ Curie suggesting that Rona work with her to learn how his laboratory could make their own polonium samples . Once Hans Pettersson was able to secure funds to pay Rona 's expenses , Joliot @-@ Curie allowed her to come and study polonium separation at the Curie Institute in Paris . Rona developed an enhanced method of preparing polonium sources and producing alpha @-@ emissions . ( α @-@ emission ) . Gaining recognition as an expert in the field , she took those skills back to the Radium Institute along with a small disc of polonium . This disc allowed Rona to create lab specimens of polonium , which were used in much of the Institute 's subsequent research .
Her skills were in high demand and she formed many collaborations in Vienna , working with Ewald Schmidt on the modification of Paul Bonét @-@ Maury 's method of vaporizing polonium ; with Marietta Blau on photographic emulsions of hydrogen rays ; and with Hans Pettersson . In 1928 , Pettersson asked her to analyze a sample of sea bottom sediment to determine its radium content . Because the lab she was working in was contaminated , she took the samples to the oceanographic laboratory at Bornö Marine Research Station on Stora Bornö in Gullmarsfjorden , Sweden , which would become her summer research destination for the next 12 years . Her analyses with Berta Karlik on the half @-@ lives of uranium , thorium , and actinium decay identified radiometric dating and elemental alpha particle ranges . In 1933 , Rona and Karlik won the Austrian Academy of Sciences Haitinger Prize .
In 1934 , Rona was back in Paris studying with Joliot @-@ Curie , who had discovered artificial radioactivity . Soon after , Curie died and Rona became ill , but she was able to return to Vienna late the following year to share what had been learned with a group of researchers made up of Pettersson , Elizabeth Kara @-@ Michailova , and Ernst Føyn , who was serving as an assistant to Ellen Gleditsch at that time . Their studies centered on research of the effect caused by bombarding radionuclides with neutrons . In 1935 Rona consolidated some of these relationships , working on Stora Bornö , then visiting Gleditsch in Oslo , then traveling to Copenhagen to see Hevesy , and later to Kålhuvudet , Sweden to meet with Karlik and Pettersson . One of the projects the group had been working on for several years was to determine if there was any correlation between water depth and radium content , and their seawater research evaluated the concentration of elements in seawater collected from different locations .
After the 1938 Anschluss , Rona and Marietta Blau left the Radium Institute because of their Jewish heritage and the antisemitic persecution they experienced in the laboratory . Rona first returned to Budapest and worked in an industrial laboratory , but within a few months , the position was eliminated . She worked from October to December 1938 in Sweden , and then accepted a temporary position for one year at the University of Oslo , which had been offered by Gleditsch . Reluctant to leave her home , at the end of her year in Oslo , Rona returned to Hungary . She was appointed to a position at the Radium @-@ Cancer Hospital in Budapest , preparing radium for medicinal purposes .
= = Emigration = =
Faced with encroaching Russians on one side and the Nazi involvement in Hungary during World War II on the other , in early 1941 Rona obtained a visitor 's visa and fled to the United States . For three months she was unemployed and suspected of being a spy , though she sought help from scientists she had worked with in Europe to find employment . At a meeting of the American Physical Society , she met Austrian physicist Karl Herzfeld , who helped her secure a teaching post at Trinity College in Washington , D.C. During this period , she was awarded a Carnegie Fellowship to research at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute , working on analysis of seawater and sediments . Between 1941 and 1942 , she conducted work at Carnegie in conjunction with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , measuring the amount of radium in seawater and river water . Her study , completed in 1942 , showed that the ratio of radium to uranium was lower in seawater and higher in river water .
After returning from a summer visit to Los Altos , California , Rona received a vague telegram from the Institute of Optics at the University of Rochester referencing war work and polonium , but no details of an assignment . When Rona responded that she would be interested in helping with the war effort but had immigration issues , a man identifying himself as Brian O 'Bryen appeared in her office and explained the nature of the confidential work for the Manhattan Project . They proposed buying her method of polonium extraction and gave specific instructions for the type of assistants she might use — someone unfamiliar with chemistry or physics . Her non @-@ citizen status did not preclude her from working for the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , to which she gave her methods without compensation . Before the Manhattan Project , polonium had been used only in small samples , but the project proposed to use both polonium and beryllium to create a reaction forcing neutrons to be ejected and ignite the fission reaction required for the atom bomb . Plutonium plants , based on her specifications for what was needed to process element , were built in the New Mexico desert at Los Alamos National Laboratory , but Rona was given no details .
Rona 's methods were also used as part of the experiments conducted by the Office of Human Radiation Experiments to determine the effects of human exposure to radiation . Early in her career , she had been exposed to the dangers of radium . Rona 's requests for protective gas masks were denied , as Stefan Meyer downplayed the hazards of exposure . She purchased protective gear with her own money , not believing there was no danger . When vials of radioactive material exploded and the laboratory became contaminated , Rona was convinced her mask had saved her . Gleditsch had also warned her of the dangers the year Rona was sick and living in Paris , when Joliot @-@ Curie died , emphasizing the risk of radium @-@ related anemia . In her 1978 book about her experiences , Rona wrote about the damage to bones , hands , and lungs of the scientists studying radioactivity . Since they wore no gloves and frequently poured substances between vials without protection , she noted that their thumbs , forefingers , and ring fingers were often damaged . The secrecy surrounding the project makes it difficult to know if any of the scientists not directly working on any project knew specifically what their contributions were being used for .
= = Later career = =
Rona continued teaching until 1946 at Trinity . In 1947 , she began working at the Argonne National Laboratory . Her work there focused on ion exchange reactions and she published several works for the United States Atomic Energy Commission . In 1948 , she became a naturalized U.S. citizen . In 1950 , she began research work at the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies as a chemist and senior scientist in nuclear studies . During this period , she collaborated with Texas A & M University on the geochronology of seabed sediments , dating core samples by estimating their radioactive decay . She retired from Oak Ridge in 1965 and then went to work at the University of Miami , teaching at the Institute of Marine Sciences where she worked for a decade . Rona retired for a second time in 1976 and returned to Tennessee in the late 1970s , publishing a book in 1978 on her radioactive tracer methods .
Rona died on 27 July 1981 in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . She was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Women 's Hall of Fame in 2015 .
= = Selected works = =
Róna , Erzsébet ( 1912 ) . A bróm és az egyértékű aliphás alkoholok ( PhD ) ( in Hungarian ) . Budapest , Hungary : Budapesti Tudományegyetem .
Róna , E. ( 1914 ) . " Az urán átalakulásairól " . Mathematikai és Természettudományi Értesítő ( in Hungarian ) ( Budapest , Hungary ) 35 : 350 .
Róna , E. ( 1914 ) . " I. Über die Reduktion des Zimtaldehyds durch Hefe . II . Vergärung von Benzylbrenztraubensäure " . Biochemische Zeirschrift ( in German ) 67 : 137 – 142 .
Róna , E. ( 1917 ) . " A rádium @-@ emanáczió diffúzióállandója és atomátmérője " . Magyar Chemiai Folyóirat ( in Hungarian ) ( Budapest , Hungary ) 23 : 156 .
Róna , Elisabeth ( 11 February 1922 ) . " Über den Ionium @-@ Gehalt in Radium @-@ Rückständen " . Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft ( A and B Series ) ( in German ) 55 ( 2 ) : 294 – 301 .
Róna , Elisabeth ( 1926 ) . Absorptions- und Reichweitenbestimmungen an " natürlichen " H @-@ Strahlen ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698422 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Schmidt , Ewald A W ( 1927 ) . Untersuchungen über das Eindringen des Poloniums in Metalle ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698433 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Schmidt , Ewald A. W. ( 1928 ) . " Eine Methode zur Herstellung von hochkonzentrierten Poloniumpräparaten " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 137 ) : 103 – 115 .
Róna , Elisabeth ( 1928 ) . " Zur Herstellung von Polonium aus Radiumverbindungen und aktiven Bleisalzen ( Mitteilungen des Institutes für Radiumforschung 217 " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 137 ) : 227 – 234 .
Blau , Marietta ; Róna , Elisabeth ( 1930 ) . " Anwendung der Chamié ’ schen photographischen Methode zur Prüfung des chemischen Verhaltens von Polonium " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 139 ) : 276 – 279 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Rieder , Fritz ( 1932 ) . Untersuchungen über Reichweiten von Alpha @-@ Strahlen der Actinium @-@ Folgeprodukte ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky . OCLC 457925762 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Hoffer , Margarete ( 1935 ) . Verdampfungsversuche an Polonium in Sauerstoff und Stickstoff ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698437 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Neuninger , Elisabeth ( 1936 ) . Beiträge zur Frage der künstlichen Aktivität des Thoriums ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698423 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Scheichenberger , Herta ; Stangl , Robert ( 1938 ) . Weitere Beiträge zur Frage der künstlichen Aktivität des Thoriums ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698425 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Föyn , Ernst ; Karlik , Berta ; Pettersson , Hans ( 1939 ) . The Radioactivity of seawater . Göteborg , Sweden : Elanders boktryck . OCLC 459915451 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( 1948 ) . Argonne National Laboratory , ed . Exchange reactions of uranium ions in solution . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : U.S. Atomic Energy Commission . OCLC 702211487 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( 1949 ) . Argonne National Laboratory , ed . Some aspects of isotopic exchange reactions . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : U.S. Atomic Energy Commission . OCLC 794877518 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Gilpatrick , L O ; Jeffrey , Lela M , et. al . ( December 1956 ) . " Uranium determination in sea water " . Eos : Transactions American Geophysical Union ( Washington , D.C. : American Geophysical Union ) 37 ( 6 ) : 697 – 701 . ISSN 0002 @-@ 8606 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( October 1957 ) . " A method to determine the isotopic ratio of Thorium @-@ 232 to Thorium @-@ 230 in minerals " . Eos : Transactions American Geophysical Union ( Washington , D.C. : American Geophysical Union ) 38 ( 5 ) : 754 – 759 . ISSN 0002 @-@ 8606 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Hood , Donald W ; Muse , Lowell ; Buglio , Benjamin ( April 1962 ) . " Activation Analysis of Manganese and Zinc in Sea Water " . Limnology and Oceanography ( Washington , D.C. : Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography , Inc . ) 7 ( 2 ) : 201 – 206 . ISSN 1939 @-@ 5590 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Akers , L K ; Noakes , John E ; Supernaw , Irwin ( 1963 ) . " Geochronology in the Gulf of Mexico . Part I " . Progress in Oceanography ( Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : Elsevier ) 3 : 289 – 295 . ISSN 0079 @-@ 6611 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( 26 June 1964 ) . " Geochronology of Marine and Fluvial Sediments " . Science ( Washington , D.C. : American Association for the Advancement of Science ) 144 ( 3626 ) : 1595 – 1597 . ISSN 0036 @-@ 8075 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( July 1967 ) . Natural radioactive elements in marine environment ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : Atomic Energy Commission .
Rona , Elizabeth ( 1978 ) . How it came about : radioactivity , nuclear physics , atomic energy . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : Oak Ridge Associated Universities . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 930 @-@ 78003 @-@ 6 .
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= Interstate 94 in Michigan =
Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Billings , Montana , to the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . In Michigan , it is a state trunkline highway that enters the state south of New Buffalo and runs eastward through several metropolitan areas in the southern section of the state . The highway serves Benton Harbor , Kalamazoo , Battle Creek on the west side of the peninsula . From there it also runs through Jackson and Ann Arbor , and portions of Metro Detroit , before angling northeasterly to Port Huron , where it terminates on the Blue Water Bridge at the Canadian border .
The first segment of what later became I @-@ 94 within the state , the Willow Run Expressway , was built near Ypsilanti and Belleville in 1941 , with an easterly extension to Detroit in 1945 . This expressway was initially numbered M @-@ 112 . By 1960 , the length of I @-@ 94 was completed from Detroit to New Buffalo . Subsequent extensions in the 1960s completed most of the rest of the route . The last segment opened to the public in 1972 when Indiana completed their connection across the state line . The routing of I @-@ 94 is notable for containing the first full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange in the United States , connecting to the Lodge Freeway ( M @-@ 10 ) , and for comprising the first complete border @-@ to @-@ border toll @-@ free freeway in a state in the United States . The highway has one auxiliary route , Interstate 194 , which serves downtown Battle Creek , and eight business routes .
= = Route description = =
The entire length of I @-@ 94 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The freeway carries 154 @,@ 800 vehicles on average between I @-@ 75 and Chene Street in Detroit and 15 @,@ 370 vehicles immediately east of the Blue Water Bridge in Port Huron ; the highest and lowest traffic counts in 2013 , respectively . As the state trunkline highway closest to the lake shore in these areas , I @-@ 94 carries the Lake Michigan Circle Tour south of Benton Harbor – St. Joseph and the Lake Huron Circle Tour in the Port Huron area . Sections through the Detroit area are named the Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford freeways . I @-@ 94 in the state is either a four- or six @-@ lane freeway for most of its length ; one segment in the Detroit area has up to ten lanes total near the airport .
= = = Southwestern Michigan = = =
I @-@ 94 crosses into Michigan south of New Buffalo and parallels the Lake Michigan shoreline about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) inland . The freeway runs northeasterly through rural Michiana farmland in the southwestern corner of the Lower Peninsula . I @-@ 94 traverses an area just east of the Warren Dunes State Park as the freeway runs parallel to the Red Arrow Highway . I @-@ 94 crosses its companion highway south of St. Joseph ; Red Arrow turns northward carrying the business loop for Benton Harbor and St. Joseph . The freeway curves further inland to cross the St. Joseph River near Riverview Park . East of Benton Harbor , I @-@ 94 meets the Napier Avenue where US 31 merges onto the freeway . East of the Southwest Michigan Regional Airport , I @-@ 94 / US 31 meets the southern end of I @-@ 196 ; US 31 departs the I @-@ 94 freeway to follow I @-@ 196 , and I @-@ 94 continues its course away from Lake Michigan .
South of Coloma , I @-@ 94 turns eastward and roughly follows the Paw Paw River on a course that takes it south of Watervliet and Hartford . Between the latter two cities , the freeway crosses from northeastern Berrien County into western Van Buren County . It curves around and between Lake Cora and Threemile Lake near the junction with the northern end of M @-@ 51 . About four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) further east , I @-@ 94 crosses M @-@ 40 south of Paw Paw . Continuing eastward , I @-@ 94 runs south of Mattawan before crossing into western Kalamazoo County .
In Texas Township , the freeway enters the western edges of the Kalamazoo suburbs . South of the campus for Western Michigan University 's College of Engineering & Applied Sciences in Portage , I @-@ 94 intersects US 131 . That freeway also carries Kalamazoo 's business loop northward . Near the Kalamazoo / Battle Creek International Airport , I @-@ 94 crosses into the southeastern corner of Kalamazoo before entering Comstock Township . The freeway intersects the eastern end of the business loop at a partial interchange near Morrow Lake in the township . I @-@ 94 continues eastward out of the eastern Kalamazoo suburbs . It parallels the Kalamazoo River through the Galesburg area . Before crossing into Calhoun County on the east side of Battle Creek , I @-@ 94 has the only driveway on any of Michigan 's Interstate Highways for a gate providing access for military vehicles into the Fort Custer Training Center .
I @-@ 94 crosses into Calhoun County southwest of the W. K. Kellogg Airport and enters the city of Battle Creek . Immediately east of the county line , the freeway has an interchange with the western end of Battle Creek 's business loop . Next to the Lakeview Square Mall , I @-@ 94 meets its own auxiliary Interstate in Michigan : I @-@ 194 . I @-@ 94 turns to the northwest to round Beadle Lake , intersecting M @-@ 294 before crossing the Kalamazoo River . East of the river crossing , the freeway meets an interchange for M @-@ 96 , M @-@ 311 and the eastern end of the Battle Creek business loop near the FireKeepers Casino in Emmett Township . Turning back eastward , I @-@ 94 exits the eastern Battle Creek suburbs and continues to an interchange with I @-@ 69 near Marshall ; the business loop for Marshall follows I @-@ 69 southward .
= = = Into Metro Detroit = = =
Continuing eastward I @-@ 94 traverses rural land on the north side of Marshall . The freeway runs north of , and parallel to , the Kalamazoo River through eastern Calhoun County . It angles southeasterly toward Albion before returning to an easterly course on the north side of town . I @-@ 94 crosses into western Jackson County before intersecting M @-@ 99 . From there , it runs generally due east with a jog around Parma on a course to Jackson . West of the Jackson County Airport , the Jackson business loop follows M @-@ 60 southward and I @-@ 94 travels through the north side of Jackson . North of downtown , US 127 merges in from the north and runs concurrently with I @-@ 94 around the city . Southeast of the Michigan State Prison , US 127 departs to the south , and I @-@ 94 continues eastward through eastern Jackson County .
The freeway runs north of a racetrack complex in Chelsea next to the M @-@ 52 interchange . As I @-@ 94 continues easterly , it passes into the western edge of the Ann Arbor area . West of downtown , the M @-@ 14 freeway splits off to the northeast , and I @-@ 94 turns to the south and southeast to curve around the south side of the city . The freeway passes between the Briarwood Mall and the Ann Arbor Municipal Airport . On the southeastern corner of Ann Arbor , I @-@ 94 intersects US 23 and continues around the south side of Ypsilanti . South of that city , the freeway also carries US 12 and crosses the Huron River north of its entry into Ford Lake . I @-@ 94 jogs southeasterly around the south side of the Willow Run Airport complex and crosses into Wayne County .
South of Willow Run , I @-@ 94 parallels Belleville Lake . East of the lake , it intersects I @-@ 275 near the northwest corner of Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport and angles northeasterly through the southwestern Detroit suburbs along the Detroit Industrial Freeway . I @-@ 94 used the Gateway Bridge over the single @-@ point interchange at US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) in Taylor ; these bridges were inspired by Super Bowl XL and provide a western gateway to the city . Further east , the freeway intersects M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) and passes the Uniroyal Giant Tire in Allen Park . I @-@ 94 then turns to the northeast through the Ford River Rouge Complex in Dearborn before turning back easterly on the Edsel Ford Freeway into Detroit .
I @-@ 94 crosses Detroit in an east – west direction well inland of , and parallel to , the Detroit River . The freeway intersects I @-@ 96 ( Jeffries Freeway ) and M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) on the West Side , passing the main campus of Wayne State University before crossing onto the East Side at M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) . Immediately east of the interchange with I @-@ 75 ( Chrysler Freeway ) , I @-@ 94 forms the southern border of the Milwaukee Junction district . The Edsel Ford Freeway continues through residential neighborhoods of Detroit 's East Side . I @-@ 94 turns more northerly , mimicking the shoreline of Lake St. Clair , and exits Detroit for Harper Woods . Just north of the interchange for M @-@ 102 ( Vernier Road ) , the freeway crosses 8 Mile Road and enters Macomb County .
= = = North to Canada = = =
Running northward through Macomb County , I @-@ 94 meets the eastern end of I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of the county line in St. Clair Shores . The freeway continues to parallel the lakeshore , and travels to the west of Selfridge Air National Guard Base in Harrison Township . I @-@ 94 turns back to the northwest at 23 Mile Road at the interchange with M @-@ 3 and M @-@ 29 . North of 26 Mile Road , the freeway exits the northern suburbs and crosses into farmland in The Thumb region .
South of Michigan Meadows Golf Course , I @-@ 94 crosses County Line Road and enters St. Clair County . The freeway continues northeasterly as far as Marysville before turning northward near the St. Clair County International Airport . From there , it runs roughly parallel to the St. Clair River . I @-@ 94 runs along the western edge of residential areas for Marysville and Port Huron as it continues northward . Immediately west of downtown Port Huron , I @-@ 94 intersects with I @-@ 69 ; the two freeways merge and turn first east and then north through an interchange that also features connections to BL I @-@ 69 .
I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 turns back to the east about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of their confluence to cross the Black River north of downtown . On the eastern bank of the river , there is one final interchange for M @-@ 25 and BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 before the freeway reaches the toll and customs plazas for the twin @-@ span Blue Water Bridge . Past these plazas , I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 ascends the approach to the bridge which cross the St. Clair River to Point Edward ( Sarnia ) , Ontario . At the international boundary at the center of the river , the I @-@ 94 designation jointly terminates with I @-@ 69 .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessor highways = = =
The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . One of these , the St. Joseph Trail , followed the path of the modern I @-@ 94 . The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , Division 6 corresponded to the rough path of today 's I @-@ 94 . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and three different highways followed sections of the modern I @-@ 69 corridor . The original M @-@ 11 ran from the Indiana state line north to Coloma where M @-@ 17 connected easterly to Detroit . The third highway was M @-@ 19 from Detroit northeast to Port Huron .
On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and the original route of US 12 replaced the highways from the state line northeasterly to Detroit ; US 31 overlapped the highway between St. Joseph and Watervliet . The remainder of the future I @-@ 94 corridor was served by US 25 between Detroit and Port Huron . The first span of the Blue Water Bridge opened between Port Huron and Point Edward , Ontario , in 1938 .
= = = Early conversions to freeways = = =
The first segments of upgraded highways along the future route of I @-@ 94 were added during World War II . Construction on the Willow Run Expressway started in 1941 before the US entered the war . It was opened on September 12 , 1942 , to provide improved access to Ford 's Willow Run bomber plants . The highway was given the M @-@ 112 designation at the time . The expressway was extended eastward as the Detroit Industrial Expressway into Detroit ; the first section opened in 1943 and the remainder was completed in March 1945 . Land acquisition for the Edsel Ford Freeway started in 1945 . Originally referred to as the Crosstown Freeway , the freeway became known as the Edsel Ford Freeway following an April 1946 petition . The interchange between the Lodge Freeway and the Edsel Ford Freeway was built in 1953 as the first full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange in the United States . In mid @-@ 1956 , the M @-@ 112 designation was decommissioned and replaced by a rerouted US 12 . During the mid @-@ 1950s , the Detroit Streets and Rails campaign proposed a high @-@ speed rail line in the median of the Willow Run , Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford freeways ; instead of building the rail line , special boarding stations adjacent to dedicated bus lanes in the interchanges along the highway were used .
In other parts of the state , other segments of highway were built to bypass the cities along the future I @-@ 94 corridor . In 1940 , a southern bypass of Battle Creek opened along Columbia Avenue , and the former routing through downtown on Michigan Avenue became a Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . In late 1951 or early 1952 , a northerly bypass of Jackson opened , and the former route through downtown on Michigan Avenue became another Bus . US 12 . By the next year , the western half of the Jackson bypass opened , including a bypass of Parma . In 1954 , a new bypass of Kalamazoo and Galesburg opened ; US 12 was rerouted to follow the new highway while M @-@ 96 replaced part of the old route and US 12A in the area .
The first planning maps from 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System included a highway along I @-@ 94 's route in Michigan . This highway was included on the 1955 plan for the " National System of Interstate and Defense Highways " with a proposed spur in the Battle Creek area . The modern I @-@ 94 was numbered I @-@ 92 between Benton Harbor – St. Joseph and Detroit with I @-@ 77 from Detroit to Port Huron in the August 1957 plans .
In April 1958 , the MSHD wanted to provide a single number for a more direct routing of a Detroit @-@ to – Chicago freeway ; the state proposed rerouting I @-@ 94 to replace I @-@ 92 in the state , but retained the I @-@ 77 designation . On June 27 , 1958 , AASHO adopted their original numbering plan for Michigan , minus the state 's proposed changes . Around the same time , a section of M @-@ 146 near Port Huron was converted into an approach freeway for the Blue Water Bridge .
= = = Interstate Highway era = = =
In January 1959 , officials announced that sections of US 12 , the Willow Run , Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford expressways were to be given the I @-@ 94 designation , temporarily co @-@ designated with US 12 . These sections connected Ann Arbor to Detroit , along with a bypass of Kalamazoo to Galesburg and a bypass of Jackson . Later that year , additional segments of I @-@ 94 were opened , starting with a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) section from Hartford to Coloma , then another from Paw Paw to Kalamazoo which connected with a segment between Galesburg to Battle Creek . The overall 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) section from Paw Paw to Battle Creek was dedicated on December 7 , 1959 . In addition , a new northwest – southeast section of freeway was built east of Ypsilanti to create a more gradual curve in the routing between present @-@ day exits 185 and 186 , the original routing of the Willow Run Expressway having followed present @-@ day Wiard Road . Signage for the state 's Interstate Highways was placed on hold pending finalization of the numbering scheme , and by late 1959 that signage was being added starting with I @-@ 75 and followed by the other open segments of freeway in the state .
Sections of freeway opened in southwestern Michigan in 1960 between the Benton Harbor – St Joseph area and between Jackson and Ann Arbor ; the latter was built over existing portions of US 12 . In this year Michigan became the first state to complete a border @-@ to @-@ border toll @-@ free Interstate within their state , running for 205 miles ( 330 km ) from Detroit toward New Buffalo , the longest toll @-@ free freeway in the country at the time .
In January 1962 , the US 12 designation was removed from the I @-@ 94 freeway . In the process , the designation was transferred to replace the US 112 designation in its entirety . After this transfer , I @-@ 94 was no longer concurrent with US 12 , except for the Ypsilanti bypass . In 1963 the freeway was extended south of New Buffalo to end at M @-@ 239 . Traffic was diverted down M @-@ 239 into Indiana where State Road 39 carried traffic the rest of the way to the Indiana Toll Road . By the end of the year , a section of highway opened between Mount Clemens and Marysville , and US 25 was rerouted to run concurrently along the freeway from the New Baltimore area northward .
The eastern terminus of I @-@ 94 in the Port Huron area was dedicated on October 14 , 1964 , signaling the completion of the highway between Marysville and the Blue Water Bridge . Two years later , the gap between the Wayne – Macomb county line and the end of the freeway near Mount Clemens was filled in when another section of freeway opened . North of Albion , the route of the freeway previously crossed a branch of the New York Central Railroad at @-@ grade ; the crossing was eliminated when the tracks were removed in 1968 .
The sections originally designated as the Willow Run Expressway were rebuilt from Rawsonville Road in Belleville to Ozga Road in Romulus starting in 1972 . As part of this reconstruction , the segment between Haggerty Road and Ozga Road was widened from four to six lanes , and the eastbound lanes were realigned to facilitate construction of an interchange with I @-@ 275 , a western bypass of Detroit which was under construction at the time . The Willow Run segment was also resurfaced at this point , as the old road bed did not contain steel mesh . Construction of this interchange also obliterated a partial interchange with Huron River Drive .
The final section of I @-@ 94 in Michigan opened to traffic on November 2 , 1972 , when the connection across the state line into Indiana was dedicated . This last segment in Michigan between M @-@ 239 and the state line opened when Indiana completed an 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) segment of freeway in their state .
= = = Since completion = = =
On August 16 , 1987 , Northwest Airlines Flight 255 crashed after attempting to take off from Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport , killing all but one passenger , Cecilia Cichan , upon exploding at an overpass at Middlebelt Road . A decade later , in July 1997 , the second span of the Blue Water Bridge opened between Port Huron and Point Edward , Ontario .
The original interchange with US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) had only two bridges and left hand exits were used throughout . This interchange was reconfigured in 2005 to a single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ) design that was completed in December of that year . A pair of bridges called the Gateway Arch Bridges ( alternately " Gateway to Detroit " ) was incorporated in the new interchange .
In 2011 , construction was started to widen I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 approaching the Blue Water Bridge allowing for dedicated lanes for local traffic and for Blue Water Bridge traffic . The lane configuration changes have confused drivers in the area , especially motorists with outdated GPS devices ; because of this , MDOT installed updated signs complete with American and Canadian flags to help prevent drivers from heading to Canada by mistake .
Additional construction in the Port Huron area started in late 2013 to rebuild and reconfigure the I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 interchange outside the city . The project improved 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) of freeway , replaced several bridges and ramps and cost $ 76 million . In June 2014 , MDOT closed the ramps from I @-@ 69 eastbound to BL I @-@ 69 through the interchange until later in the year . The project is slated to be completed in 2015 .
= = Memorial highway names = =
As the original expressway through the center of Detroit was being planned in the 1940s , it was unofficially named the Harper – McGraw Expressway after the streets along which it was to run . Some initial support surfaced to name it after Roy Chapin , the late president of the Hudson Motor Car Company and a former United States Secretary of Commerce under President Herbert Hoover . On April 23 , 1946 , the Detroit Common Council voted instead to name the highway after Edsel Ford , the son of Henry Ford and president of the Ford Motor Company from 1918 until his death in 1943 .
Two other original sections of I @-@ 94 's predecessor highways in the Detroit area were given early names . The westernmost of these is the Willow Run Expressway , named for the Willow Run complex . The plants at Willow Run produced B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers by Ford Motor Company during World War II . The second , the Detroit Industrial Expressway , continued the route of the Willow Run Expressway eastward into Detroit . Both highways were built to move workers from Detroit to the industrial plants at Willow Run during the war and were later incorporated into I @-@ 94 in the 1950s as part of a Detroit – Chicago highway .
The section of I @-@ 94 northeast of Detroit was named after former Congressman James G. O 'Hara by the Michigan Legislature . O 'Hara was a World War II veteran who served in the United States House from 1959 until 1977 . During his tenure in Congress , he procured federal funds for the construction of I @-@ 94 through his district . The first attempt to name the highway after him failed in 1991 , but the honor was included in a budget bill passed in 1997 . The section of I @-@ 94 was dedicated on October 16 , 1998 , after donors privately raised nearly $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 16 @,@ 945 in 2015 ) to pay for the highway signs .
A segment of I @-@ 94 in Battle Creek between the exits for Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 194 was named the 94th Combat Infantry Division Memorial Highway by the Michigan Legislature in 2002 . The name honors a unit of the US Army which was activated at the nearby Fort Custer in 1942 and served with distinction in the European theatre of World War II . Because the unit originated in Battle Creek , and its number matched that of the freeway , the Legislature thought it only fitting to name the section of highway for the unit . The name was dedicated in ceremonies at a rest stop along the section of I @-@ 94 on September 28 , 2002 .
Another piece of I @-@ 94 in Calhoun County was designated in 2004 as part of the Underground Railroad Memorial Highway . Starting in 1990 , the National Park Service started working to identify routes of the Underground Railroad . The Battle Creek area was active in the railroad during the Civil War , and the section of I @-@ 94 between exits 98 and 110 east of Battle Creek was included in the memorial designation .
In June 2012 , after a resolution passed by the Michigan Legislature was signed by Gov. Rick Snyder , a portion of I @-@ 94 in Taylor between Inkster and Pelham roads was named the " Auxiliary Lt. Dan Kromer Memorial Highway " after a 20 @-@ year veteran of the Taylor Police Department , who was killed in 2010 while helping motorists who had car trouble .
= = Exit list = =
= = Related trunklines = =
There are nine highways related to I @-@ 94 in Michigan . The first is the spur into downtown Battle Creek numbered I @-@ 194 and nicknamed " The Penetrator " and officially called the " Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway " . This auxiliary Interstate Highway runs for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to connect I @-@ 94 northward into downtown . The other eight highways are business loops of I @-@ 94 that connect various cities ' downtowns with the main freeway . Unlike I @-@ 194 , these loops are not freeways . Located from west to east along I @-@ 94 's routing in Michigan , they serve Benton Harbor – St. Joseph , Kalamazoo , Battle Creek , Marshall , Albion , Jackson , Ann Arbor , and Port Huron .
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= SMS Karlsruhe =
SMS Karlsruhe was a light cruiser of the Karlsruhe class built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . She had one sister ship , SMS Rostock ; the ships were very similar to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers . The ship was laid down in 1911 , launched in November 1912 , and completed by January 1914 . Armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns , Karlsruhe had a top speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) , which allowed her to escape from British cruisers during her career .
After her commissioning , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duties in the Caribbean . She arrived in the area in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm , but while the ships were transferring equipment , British ships located them and pursued Karlsruhe . Her superior speed allowed her to escape , after which she operated off the northeastern coast of Brazil . Here , she captured or sank sixteen ships . While en route to attack the shipping lanes to Barbados on 4 November 1914 , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship and killed the majority of the crew . The survivors used one of Karlsruhe 's colliers to return to Germany in December 1914 .
= = Construction = =
Karlsruhe was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Seeadler " and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel on 21 September 1911 . She was christened by Karl Siegrist , the mayor of Karlsruhe , and launched on 11 November 1912 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 15 January 1914 . The ship was 142 @.@ 2 meters ( 467 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 38 m ( 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 191 t ( 6 @,@ 093 long tons ; 6 @,@ 824 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 37 @,@ 885 shp ( 28 @,@ 251 kW ) in service . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) . Karlsruhe carried 1 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 300 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 200 tonnes ( 200 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Karlsruhe had a crew of 18 officers and 355 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Karlsruhe 's first commanding officer was Fregattenkapitän Fritz Lüdecke . Following her commissioning in January 1914 , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas service , under the command of Fregattenkapitän Erich Köhler . At the outbreak of World War I the following August , the ship was based in the Caribbean , along with the cruiser Dresden . She had anchored in Cay Sal Bank in the Florida Strait when she received warnings that war in Europe was imminent . Karlsruhe 's standing orders in the event of war saw the ship conducting a commerce raiding campaign against British merchant traffic . To hunt down Karlsruhe and any merchant ships she might arm as auxiliary cruisers , the Royal Navy deployed five cruiser squadrons , the most powerful were those commanded by Rear Admiral Christopher Craddock and Rear Admiral Archibald Stoddart . The British were forced to disperse their ships to cover the areas in which the two German cruisers , and any auxiliary cruisers they might arm , could operate .
On 6 August , Karlsruhe rendezvoused with the passenger ship SS Kronprinz Wilhelm about 120 nmi ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) north of Watling Island . Karlsruhe was in the process of transferring guns and equipment to the liner when Craddock , in his flagship HMS Suffolk , appeared to the south . The Germans had only managed to transfer two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , a machine gun , and some sailors by the time Suffolk arrived . The two ships quickly departed in different directions ; Suffolk followed Karlsruhe and other cruisers were ordered to intercept her . Karlsruhe 's faster speed allowed her to quickly outpace Craddock , but at 20 : 15 , Bristol joined the pursuit and briefly fired on the German cruiser . The German gunners scored two hits on Bristol during the short engagement . Karlsruhe turned east and again used her high speed to evade the British ships . The British failed to relocate her , and by 9 August , Karlsruhe reached Puerto Rico with only 12 tons of coal in her bunkers .
With limited options for coal in the Caribbean , Köhler took his ship down to the northeast coast of Brazil , off Pernambuco . The area was not as heavily patrolled by the British . Here , Karlsruhe had easy access to coal supplies , either from chartered colliers or captured vessels . Köhler frequently kept one or two prizes to assist in the search for targets . In the course of her patrols off the Brazilian coast , Karlsruhe sank or captured sixteen merchant ships . These merchantmen , fifteen British ships and one Dutch vessel , totaled 72 @,@ 805 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Köhler then decided to move to another area , as remaining in one area would increase his chances of being tracked down by the British . He turned his ship toward the West Indies to attack Barbados and Fort @-@ de @-@ France and the shipping lanes between Barbados and Trinidad .
As Karlsruhe steamed to Barbados on the night of 4 November , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship . The hull was split in half ; the bow section quickly sank and took with it Köhler and most of the crew . The stern remained afloat long enough for 140 of the ship 's crew to escape onto the attending colliers . Commander Studt , the senior surviving officer , took charge and placed all of his men aboard the liner Rio Negro . He scuttled the second collier and steamed north for Iceland . The ship used the cover of a major storm to slip through the British blockade of the North Sea , and put in at Ålesund , Norway . Rio Negro then returned to Germany by early December . The Admiralstab , unaware of the loss of Karlsruhe , coincidentally radioed the ship to order her to return to Germany . Germany kept the loss of the ship a secret , and the British continued searching for her until they learned of her fate in March 1915 . Köhler 's widow christened the cruiser Karlsruhe , the third to bear the name , at her launching in August 1927 .
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= Hurricane Guillermo ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Guillermo was the ninth most intense Pacific hurricane on record , attaining peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 919 hPa ( 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) . Forming out of a tropical wave on July 30 , 1997 , roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of Salina Cruz , Mexico , Guillermo tracked in a steady west @-@ northwestward direction while intensifying . The system reached hurricane status by August 1 before undergoing rapid intensification the following day . At the end of this phase , the storm attained its peak intensity as a powerful Category 5 hurricane . The storm began to weaken during the afternoon of August 5 and was downgraded to a tropical storm on August 8 . Once entering the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , Guillermo briefly weakened to a tropical depression before re @-@ attaining tropical storm status . On August 15 , the storm reached an unusually high latitude of 41 @.@ 8 ° N before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants persisted for more than a week as they tracked towards the northeast and later south and east before being absorbed by a larger extratropical system off the coast of California on August 24 .
Throughout Guillermo 's track , the storm never threatened any major landmass , resulting in little impact on land . However , because of its extreme intensity , it produced large swells across the Pacific Ocean , affecting areas from Hawaii to coastal Mexico . Along the American Pacific coast , three people drowned amid high waves , two in Baja California and one in California . At its peak , Guillermo was the second strongest known Pacific hurricane on record ; however , it has since been surpassed by five other storms , including Linda later that year . The effects of Guillermo were not deemed severe enough to justify retirement of its name .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Guillermo began its extensive track as a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on July 16 , 1997 . Initially disorganized and weak , the system tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean for several weeks . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) stated that they had issues monitoring the system as it moved through the Caribbean ; however , they interpreted through satellite data that the wave crossed Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean between July 27 and 28 . Once in the Pacific , convection , areas of thunderstorm activity , and banding features began to form . Additionally , a low pressure system developed within the disturbance by July 29 . The following day , the system became sufficiently organized for the NHC to classify it as Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E ; at this time the depression was situated roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of Salina Cruz , Mexico . In response to a deep @-@ layer ridge to the north , the depression tracked at a steady pace towards the west @-@ northwest , and this motion persisted through the first week of August . Within a day of being classified , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Guillermo , the seventh named storm of the 1997 season .
By the afternoon of August 1 , a strong central dense overcast , an area of high , thick clouds , developed over the center of circulation , prompting the NHC to upgrade it to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Throughout the next day , the system gradually developed an eye within the central dense overcast , leading to further strengthening . Operationally , Guillermo was thought to have briefly leveled out in intensity on August 2 ; however , in post @-@ storm analysis , the NHC discovered that a steady period of rapid intensification took place . Unlike most hurricanes in the eastern Pacific , Guillermo was investigated by Hurricane Hunters reconnaissance aircraft during its rapid intensification stage . The aircraft released several dropsondes into the storm to gather meteorological data . This mission marked the first time the Hurricane Hunters recorded high @-@ resolution wind data from flight level to within several meters of the ocean surface inside the eyewall of a major hurricane .
Radar was also employed to determine the size of the hurricane 's eye , stated to be roughly 13 mi ( 20 km ) in diameter , following a 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) decrease due to the strengthening . Light wind shear surrounding the hurricane allowed further strengthening to take place . Late on August 2 , the system attained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , making it a Category 4 storm . During the afternoon of August 3 , Guillermo nearly attained Category 5 intensity as it reached its initial peak intensity with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) along with a barometric pressure estimated at 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 32 inHg ) . A brief period of weakening took place later that day before further strengthening ensued . Late on August 4 , Guillermo intensified into a Category 5 hurricane , attaining peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . Operational analysis of satellite information indicated a minimum pressure of 921 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 2 inHg ) ; however , post @-@ storm studies stated that the pressure was more likely around 919 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) .
At its peak , cloud temperatures within the eyewall were estimated to be as low as − 79 ° C ( − 110 ° F ) . Using the Dvorak technique , a method used to estimate the intensity of tropical cyclones , a value of 7 @.@ 6 was obtained . This indicated that maximum winds at the surface could have been as high as 181 mph ( 291 km / h ) ; however , this was not used as the reported intensity as six- to twelve @-@ hour averages indicated sustained winds around 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . After maintaining this intensity for roughly 18 hours , the system began to weaken as it moved into a less favorable environment with moderate wind shear . Cloud temperatures within the eyewall also began to increase , indicating that the hurricane was losing intensity .
Steady weakening took place over the following several days , and the storm dropped below major hurricane status on August 6 . By August 8 , Guillermo moved over colder waters and was downgraded to a tropical storm as sustained winds dropped below 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Around this time , the storm started to move along the western edge of the ridge that previously steered it towards the west @-@ northwest , causing Guillermo to turn northwest . On August 9 , the storm crossed longitude 140 ° W , denoting a shift in warning responsibility from the NHC to the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . Not long after crossing into the CPHC 's area of responsibility , the storm further weakened to a tropical depression as it moved over 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) waters .
Although most tropical cyclones generally weaken as they increase in latitude , warm waters of 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) allowed Guillermo to re @-@ intensify into a tropical storm on August 11 . Gradually , the storm attained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) before succumbing to cooler waters further north . The storm weakened to a tropical depression once more on August 15 , situated well to the north of the Hawaiian islands . Later that day , Guillermo transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at an unusually high latitude of 41 @.@ 8 ° N , roughly 850 mi ( 1 @,@ 370 km ) south @-@ southeast of Unalaska , Alaska . Over the following days , the remnants of the hurricane turned northeastward towards the Pacific coast of North America . On August 19 , the system moved within 575 mi ( 925 km ) of Vancouver Island , British Columbia before Guillermo tracked southward . Over the following few days , the system slowed significantly and turned towards the east . By August 20 , moisture from the remnants of Tropical Storm Ignacio were entrained into the eastern portion of Guillermo 's circulation . On August 24 , the low was finally absorbed by a larger extratropical system while situated roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) off of the northern California coastline .
= = Impact and records = =
Along the Pacific coast of Mexico , 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) surf produced by Hurricane Guillermo affected numerous beaches . From Cabo San Lucas to San José del Cabo , the storm sent waves from the Gulf of California over the grounds of beachside resorts . Tourists were driven off some of Cabo 's most popular beaches by the rough ocean conditions which flooded homes situated along the coast . Two sightseers were killed after being swept out to sea .
Due to accurate forecasts , emergency officials across California were able to close off swimming zones and warn the public about dangerous rip currents prior to their arrival . Guillermo generated heavy surf across the beaches of Southern California . Heights from the surf averaged 6 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) with local areas reaching above 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , favorable to around 500 surfers at an annual competition at Huntington Beach . According to the Los Angeles Times , some waves reached heights of 15 to 18 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) . Over 100 rescues were reported by local lifeguards . Waves ranging from 6 to 12 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) also affected Orange County . Hundreds of people were rescued , but rip currents were blamed for three injuries and one death . On August 5 , about a mile north of Huntington Beach pier , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old man was swept away . His body was recovered several days later . On August 6 , a teenage boy and girl were injured on a beach in Corona Del Mar , while an 18 @-@ year @-@ old was pulled ashore and sent to the hospital with neck injuries . In Newport Beach , lifeguards made nearly 300 rescues on August 5 and 6 alone .
In addition to coastal impacts , the system brought a surge of warm , moist air into southern California , bringing temperatures in some areas as high as 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) . Between August 15 and 17 , large waves generated while it was at peak intensity came ashore in Hawaii . The swells caused no damage and reached heights of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in eastern @-@ facing shores of the state .
Hurricane Guillermo 's central pressure of 919 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) established it as the second most intense Pacific hurricane on record behind Hurricane Ava of 1973 . However , later in the 1997 season , Hurricane Linda set a new intensity record , and in subsequent years hurricanes Kenna , Ioke , Rick , Marie , Odile and Patricia all achieved lower pressures , leaving Guillermo in ninth place . Guillermo persisted for 16 @.@ 5 days from its classification as a tropical depression to its transition into an extratropical storm , making it the sixth longest @-@ lasting storm in the basin .
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= 1st Army Group ( Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) =
The 1st Army Group was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation commanded by Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović during the German @-@ led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 during World War II . It consisted of the 4th Army , 7th Army , and the 1st Cavalry Division , which was the army group reserve . It was responsible for the defence of northwestern Yugoslavia , with the 4th Army defending the western sector along the Yugoslav @-@ Hungarian border , and the 7th Army defending the eastern sector along the Reich and Italian borders .
The 1st Army Group was weakened by fifth column activities within its major units , and the chief @-@ of @-@ staff and chief of operations of the headquarters of 1st Army Group aided both Croat Ustaše and Slovene separatists in the 4th and 7th Army sectors respectively . The Germans seized bridges over the Drava river in both sectors and several mountain passes in the 7th Army sector on the first day . In the 4th Army sector , the formation and expansion of German bridgeheads across the Drava were facilitated by fifth column elements of the Ustaše and sympathetic units of the paramilitary Civic and Peasant Guards of the Croatian Peasant Party . Revolts of Croat soldiers broke out in all three divisions of the 4th Army in the first few days , causing significant disruption to mobilisation and deployment . The revolts within the 4th Army were of great concern to the commander of the 7th Army , but Petrović did not permit him to withdraw from border areas until the night of 7 / 8 April , which was followed by the German capture of Maribor as they continued to expand their bridgeheads .
The 4th Army also began to withdraw southwards on 9 April , and on 10 April it quickly ceased to exist as an operational formation in the face of two determined armoured thrusts by the XLVI Motorised Corps , one of which captured Zagreb that evening . Italian offensive operations also began , with thrusts towards Ljubljana and down the Adriatic coast , capturing over 30 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops near Delnice . On 12 April , a German armoured column linked up with the Italians near the Adriatic coast , encircling the remnants of the withdrawing 7th Army . When fifth column elements arrested the staffs of 1st Army Group , 4th Army and 7th Army at Petrinja , the 1st Army Group effectively ceased to exist . Remnants of the 4th Army attempted to establish defensive positions in northeastern Bosnia , but were quickly brushed aside by German armour as it drove towards Sarajevo . The Yugoslav High Command unconditionally surrendered on 18 April .
= = Background = =
The Royal Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VKJ ) was formed after World War I as the army of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( Kingdom of SCS ) , when that country was created on 1 December 1918 . To defend the new kingdom , an army was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army combined with armed formations raised in the former parts of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire that joined with the Kingdom of Serbia to form the new state . Many former Austro @-@ Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army . From its beginning , the army , like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom , was dominated by ethnic Serbs , who saw the army as a means by which to secure Serb hegemony in the new kingdom .
The development of the army was hampered by the poor economy of the kingdom , and this continued through the 1920s . In 1929 , King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , at which time the army became the VKJ . The army budget remained tight , and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s , it became hard to secure weapons and munitions from other countries . Consequently , at the time World War II broke out in September 1939 , the VKJ had several serious weaknesses , which included reliance on draught animals for transport , and the large size of its formations . For example , infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26 @,@ 000 – 27 @,@ 000 men , as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength . These characteristics resulted in slow , unwieldy formations , and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower . Older generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I , were combined with an army that was not equipped or trained to resist the fast @-@ moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in Poland and France .
The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy , structure , equipment , mobility and supply were exacerbated to a significant degree by the lack of unity across Yugoslavia which had resulted from two decades of Serb hegemony , and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government . Attempts to address the lack of unity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force . Fifth column activity was also a serious concern , not only from the Croatian nationalist Ustaše , but from the Slovene and ethnic German minorities in the country .
= = Structure = =
The 1st Army Group was commanded by Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović , and consisted of the 4th Army , commanded by Armijski đeneral Petar Nedeljković , the 7th Army , commanded by Diviziski General Dušan Trifunović , and the 1st Cavalry Division . The 4th Army consisted of three divisions , a brigade @-@ strength infantry detachment , one horsed cavalry regiment and one infantry regiment , and was supported by artillery , anti @-@ aircraft artillery , border guards , and air reconnaissance elements of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force . The troops of the 4th Army included a high percentage of Croats . The 7th Army consisted of two divisions , one divisional @-@ strength mountain detachment , one brigade @-@ strength mountain detachment and a brigade @-@ strength infantry detachment , which was supported by artillery and anti @-@ aircraft artillery , and also had air reconnaissance support . The 1st Army Group did not control any additional support units .
= = Planned deployment = =
The deployment plan for 1st Army Group saw the 4th Army deployed in a cordon behind the Drava between Varaždin and Slatina , with formations centred around the towns of Ivanec , Varaždin , Koprivnica and Virovitica . The 7th Army deployment plan saw its formations placed in a cordon along the border region from the Adriatic coast near Senj north into the Julian Alps and along the Reich border to Maribor . Of the formations of the 1st Army Group , the mountain detachments and infantry detachment of the 7th Army were largely mobilised , one infantry division of the 4th Army was partly mobilised , and the remaining four infantry divisions and the 1st Cavalry Division had only commenced mobilisation . To the right of the 4th Army was the 2nd Army Group . On the right flank of the 1st Army Group was the 2nd Army of the 2nd Army Group , with the army group boundary running from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka . On the left flank , the Adriatic coast was defended by Coastal Defence Command .
= = Operations = =
= = = 6 – 9 April = = =
= = = = 4th Army sector = = = =
German Army headquarters wanted to capture the bridges over the Drava intact , and from 1 April had issued orders to the German 2nd Army to conduct preliminary operations aimed at seizing the bridge at Barcs and the railway bridge northeast of Koprivnica by coup de main . As a result , limited objective attacks were launched along the line of the Drava by the XLVI Motorised Corps , despite the fact that they were not expected to launch offensive operations until 10 April . Similar operations occurred on the extreme left flank of the 4th Army , where raiding parties and patrols from LI Infantry Corps seized the high ground on the south side of the Drava .
In the early hours of 6 April 1941 , units of the 4th Army were located in their mobilisation region or were marching toward the Hungarian border . LI Infantry Corps seized the intact bridge over the Drava at Gornja Radgona , and a bicycle @-@ mounted detachment of the 183rd Infantry Division captured Murska Sobota without encountering resistance . By the evening it had become clear to the Germans that the Yugoslavs would not be resisting stubbornly at the border . XLVI Motorised Corps was then ordered to begin seizing bridges over the Drava at Mursko Središće , Letenye , Zákány and Barcs . These local attacks were sufficient to inflame dissent within the largely Croat 4th Army , who refused to resist Germans they considered their liberators from Serbian oppression during the interwar period . On 7 April , reconnaissance units of XLVI Motorised Corps crossed the Drava and attacked towards Koprivnica . In the afternoon , German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters caught the Breguet 19s of the 4th Air Reconnaissance Group on the ground at Velika Gorica , destroying most of them . Elements of the 27th Infantry Division Savska unsuccessfully attacked the bridgehead throughout the day , and by nightfall had resolved to counter @-@ attack on the morning of 8 April . Also on 7 April , the few remaining Breguet 19s of 4th Air Reconnaissance Group mounted attacks on a bridge over the Drava at Gyékényes .
On the afternoon of 7 April , further German units began to cross the Drava near Barcs and established a second bridgehead there . Fifth column activities within units of the 4th Army were fomented by the Croatian fascist organisation , the Ustaše , which facilitated German establishment of the bridgehead at Barcs , and resulted in a number of significant revolts within units . Of two regiments of the 42nd Infantry Division Murska , all but two battalions revolted and refused to deploy into their allocated positions . Similarly , the 108th Infantry Regiment of the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska , which had mobilised in Bjelovar , was marching towards Virovitica to take up positions . On the night of 7 / 8 April , the Croats of the 108th Regiment revolted , arrested their Serb officers , non @-@ commissioned officers and soldiers . The regiment then marched back to Bjelovar , where it joined up with other rebellious units about noon on 8 April .
On 8 April , Josip Broz Tito and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia , then located in Zagreb , along with the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Croatia , sent a delegation to the headquarters of the 4th Army urging them to issue arms to workers to help defend Zagreb . Pavle Gregorić , who was a member of both Central Committees , went to 4th Army headquarters twice , and was able to speak briefly with Nedeljković , but could not convince him to do so . On that same day , the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party , Vladko Maček who had returned to Zagreb after briefly joining the post @-@ Yugoslav coup d 'état government of Dušan Simović , agreed to send an emissary to the 108th Infantry Regiment of the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska urging them to obey their officers , but they did not respond to his appeal .
When the Germans began to expand their bridgehead at Barcs , the rebel Croat troops at Bjelovar made contact with them , and the 4th Army began to withdraw southwards on 9 April . On the night of 9 / 10 April , those Croats that had remained with their units began to desert or turn on their commanders . The 27th Infantry Division Savska suffered from similar revolts , which eased the German capture of Koprivnica .
= = = = 7th Army sector = = = =
The border between the Reich and Yugoslavia was unsuitable for motorised operations . Due to the short notice of the invasion , the elements of the invading 2nd Army that would make up LI Infantry Corps and XLIX Mountain Corps had to be assembled from France , Germany and the Slovak Republic , and nearly all encountered difficulties in reaching their assembly areas . In the interim , the Germans formed a special force under the code name Feuerzauber ( Magic Fire ) . This force was initially intended to merely reinforce the 538th Frontier Guard Division , who were manning the border . On the evening of 5 April , one of the aggressive Feuerzauber detachment commanders , Hauptmann Palten led his Kampfgruppe Palten across the Mura from Spielfeld and , having secured the bridge , began attacking bunkers and other Yugoslav positions on the high ground , and sent patrols deep into the Yugoslav border fortification system . Due to a lack of Yugoslav counter @-@ attacks , many of these positions remained in German hands into 6 April .
LI Infantry Corps were tasked with attacking towards Maribor then driving towards Zagreb , while the XLIX Mountain Corps was to capture Dravograd then force a crossing on the Sava . On the first day of the invasion , LI Infantry Corps captured the Drava bridges at Mureck and Radkersburg ( opposite Radgon ) undamaged , and the 183rd Infantry Division captured 300 prisoners . A bicycle @-@ mounted detachment of the 183rd Infantry Division reached the extreme left flank of the Yugoslav 4th Army at Murska Sobota without striking any resistance . The 132nd Infantry Division also pushed south along the Sejanski valley towards Savci .
Late that day , mountain pioneers destroyed some isolated Yugoslav bunkers in the area penetrated by Kampfgruppe Palten . On that day , the governor of the Drava Banovina , Marko Natlačen met with representatives of the major Slovene political parties , and created the National Council of Slovenia , whose aim was to establish a Slovenia independent of Yugoslavia . When he heard the news of fifth column @-@ led revolts within the 4th Army , Trifunović was alarmed , and proposed withdrawal from the border areas , but this was rejected by Petrović . The front along the border with Italy was relatively quiet , with only patrol clashes occurring . The Yugoslav High Command ordered that the 7th Army capture Fiume , across the Rječina river from Sušak , but the order was soon rescinded .
Over the next three days , LI Corps held the lead elements of its two divisions back while the rest of each division detrained in Graz and made their way to the border . All elements of both divisions had unloaded by 9 April . On the afternoon of 7 April , German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters also caught the Breguet 19s of the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group on the ground at Cerklje , destroying most of them . As a result of the revolts in the 4th Army , on the night of 7 / 8 April , Petrović ordered the 7th Army to begin to withdraw , first to a line through the Dravinja river , Zidani Most bridge and the right bank of the Krka river . This was subsequently moved back to the line of the Kupa river . On 8 April , disregarding orders from above , Palten led his Kampfgruppe south towards Maribor , and crossed the Pesnica river in pneumatic boats , leaving his unit vehicles behind . In the evening , Palten and his force entered Maribor unopposed , taking 100 prisoners . Kampfgruppe Palten was ordered to return to Spielfeld , and spent the rest of the invasion guarding the border . In the meantime , the forward elements of the two divisions consolidated their bridgeheads , with the 132nd Infantry Division securing Maribor , and the 183rd Infantry Division pushing past Murska Sobota .
The activities of Natlačen and his council continued from the day the invasion commenced , and the Yugoslav High Command soon ordered their arrest . However , the chief of staff of the headquarters of the 1st Army Group , Armiski General Leon Rupnik and the head of the operations staff , Pukovnik Franjo Nikolić did not carry out the orders . On 9 April , the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group airfield at Cerklje was again attacked by German aircraft .
= = = 10 – 11 April = = =
= = = = 4th Army sector = = = =
Early on 10 April , Nikolić left his post and visited the senior Ustaše leader Slavko Kvaternik in Zagreb . He then returned to the headquarters and redirected 4th Army units around Zagreb to either cease operations or to deploy to innocuous positions . These actions reduced or eliminated armed resistance to the German advance .
On the same day , the Germans broke out of the bridgeheads they had established , with the 14th Panzer Division , supported by dive bombers , crossing the Drava and driving southwest towards Zagreb on snow @-@ covered roads in extremely cold conditions . Initial air reconnaissance indicated large concentrations of Yugoslav troops on the divisional axis of advance , but these troops proved to be withdrawing towards Zagreb . Ustaše and their sympathisers in the paramilitary Civic and Peasant Guards of the Croatian Peasant Party disarmed and captured the staff of several 4th Army units , including the 1st Army Group , and 4th and 7th Armies at Petrinja , and the 4th Army effectively ceased to exist as a formation . Soon after the 14th Panzer Division commenced its attack , the main thrust of the XLVI Motorised Corps , consisting of the 8th Panzer Division leading the 16th Motorised Infantry Division crossed the Drava at Barcs . The 8th Panzer Division turned southeast between the Drava and Sava rivers , and meeting almost no resistance , had reached Slatina by evening .
About 17 : 45 on 10 April , Kvaternik and SS @-@ Standartenführer ( Colonel ) Edmund Veesenmayer went to the radio station in Zagreb and Kvaternik proclaimed the creation of the Independent State of Croatia . By 19 : 30 on 10 April , despite initial resistance , lead elements of the 14th Panzer Division had reached the outskirts of Zagreb , having covered nearly 160 kilometres ( 99 miles ) in a single day . By the time it entered Zagreb , the 14th Panzer Division was met by cheering crowds , and had captured 15 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops , and 22 generals , including both Petrović and Trifunović . Held up by freezing weather and snow storms , on 10 April , on the following day LI Corps was approaching Zagreb from the north , and bicycle @-@ mounted troops of the 183rd Infantry Division had turned east to capture Varaždin , along with an entire Yugoslav brigade including its commanding general . On the same day , the German @-@ installed interim Croatian government called on all Croats to stop fighting , and in the evening , LI Infantry Corps entered Zagreb and relieved the 14th Panzer Division . In the face of the assault by the 14th Panzer Division , the 4th Army quickly ceased to exist as an operational formation . The disintegration of the 4th Army was caused largely by fifth column activity , as it was involved in little fighting .
= = = = 7th Army sector = = = =
During the night of 9 / 10 April , lead elements of the XLIX Mountain Corps , consisting of the 1st Mountain Division de @-@ trained and crossed the border near Bleiburg and advanced southeast towards Celje , reaching a point about 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the town by evening . Luftwaffe reconnaissance sorties revealed that the main body of the 7th Army was withdrawing towards Zagreb , leaving behind light forces to maintain contact with the German bridgeheads . When it received this information , 2nd Army headquarters ordered LI Corps to form motorised columns to pursue the 7th Army south , but extreme weather conditions and flooding of the Drava at Maribor on 10 April slowed the German pursuit .
About 06 : 00 on 11 April , LI Corps recommenced its push south towards Zagreb , with lead elements exiting the mountains northwest of the city in the evening of the same day , while the 1st Mountain Division captured Celje after some hard marching and difficult fighting . Emissaries from the newly formed National Council of Slovenia approached the commander of XLIX Mountain Corps , General der Infanterie Ludwig Kübler to ask for a ceasefire . Also on 11 April , the Italian 2nd Army commenced offensive operations around 12 : 00 , with the XI Corps pushing through Logatec towards Ljubljana , VI Corps advancing in the direction of Prezid , while strong formations attacked south through Fiume towards Kraljevica and towards Lokve . By this stage , the 7th Army was withdrawing , although some units took advantage of existing fortifications to resist . To assist the Italian advance , the Luftwaffe attacked Yugoslav troops in the Ljubljana region , and the 14th Panzer Division , which had captured Zagreb on 10 April , drove west to encircle the withdrawing 7th Army . The Italians faced little resistance , and captured about 30 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops waiting to surrender near Delnice .
= = = Fate = = =
On 10 April , as the situation had become increasingly desperate throughout the country , Dušan Simović , who was both the Prime Minister and Yugoslav Chief of the General Staff , had broadcast the following message :
All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal . Don 't wait for direct orders from above , but act on your own and be guided by your judgement , initiative , and conscience .
On 12 April , the 14th Panzer Division linked up with the Italians at Vrbovsko , closing the ring around the remnants of the 7th Army , before thrusting southeast towards Sarajevo . The remaining elements of the 4th Army had organised defences around the towns of Kostajnica , Bosanski Novi , Bihać and Prijedor , but the 14th Panzer Division quickly broke through at Bosanski Novi and captured Banja Luka , and by 14 April it had captured Jajce . In the wake of the panzers , the 183rd Infantry Division pushed through Zagreb and Sisak to capture Kostajnica and Bosanska Gradiška . On 15 April , the 14th Panzer Division was closing on Sarajevo . The Ustaše arrested the staffs of the 1st Army Group , and 4th and 7th Armies at Petrinja , and the 1st Army Group effectively ceased to exist as a formation . After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document , the Yugoslav High Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12 : 00 on 18 April .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals and papers = = =
= = = Web = = =
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= Open Your Heart ( Madonna song ) =
" Open Your Heart " is a song by American singer Madonna from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . It was released as the album 's fourth single in November 12 , 1986 by Sire Records . It has since appeared remixed on the compilation albums The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) . Originally a rock ' n roll song with the title " Follow Your Heart " , it was written for singer Cyndi Lauper by songwriters Gardner Cole and Peter Rafelson , although it was never played to her . Since Madonna 's management was looking for new songs for True Blue , she accepted it . Madonna altered some of the lyrics and changed the composition to suit the dance @-@ pop genre , giving her a co @-@ writer credit for the song . Lyrically " Open Your Heart " is a love song , talking about innocent feelings of boy @-@ meets @-@ girl romance and Madonna expressing her sexual desire .
The song was well received by critics who commended it for being a simple love song . It was also successful commercially , reaching the top @-@ ten of the charts in Belgium , Canada , Ireland , Italy , Netherlands , and the United Kingdom , also reaching the top of Billboard Hot 100 in the United States , thus making it Madonna 's fifth US number @-@ one single . The music video , however , portrayed a different concept of the song . Madonna played an exotic dancer in a peep @-@ show club , who befriends a little boy and subsequently escapes . It was critically acclaimed for portraying a completely opposite perspective of " voyeuristic male gaze and object " , and depicting innocence rather than sexual overtones , although the entry of a child in a strip club was negatively criticized . The video was an homage to actresses Liza Minnelli and Marlene Dietrich .
" Open Your Heart " has been performed by Madonna in three of her world tours – 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour , 1990 's Blond Ambition World Tour , where Madonna wore her infamous conical bra during the song , and 2012 's The MDNA Tour . The performances were included in the respective video release of the tours . " Open Your Heart " has been covered a number of times by different artists , and appeared in the Britney Spears film , Crossroads ( 2002 ) .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Open Your Heart " was originally a rock ' n roll song with the title " Follow Your Heart " and had been written for singer Cyndi Lauper by songwriters Gardner Cole and Peter Rafelson , although it was never played to her . The Temptations were also considered for the song . Their manager Benny Medina decided that they wanted to record the song after all , but upon hearing that Madonna had already recorded it , changed their mind . The original title according to Cole , was from a local health food restaurant called Follow Your Heart in Canoga Park , California , where he was in love with a waitress named Lisa and she was the original inspiration for the lyrics . In Fred Bronson 's book The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits , Cole explained ,
" Peter and I usually write very quickly . It 's usually a day or two a song , but for some reason this didn 't really hit us as a hit song . We didn 't give up on it . We just kept working on it over the course of a year . Thank God we did . [ ... ] It was the first song that was cut on the True Blue album . It made me nervous as a writer , because a lot of times the very first song that gets cut doesn 't make it in the long run . But the song ended up making the album , which really opened up a lot of doors for me . "
Cole 's manager Bennett Freed was working with Madonna 's management and they were looking for new material for her album . Three of Cole 's songs were chosen for reviewing , including " Open Your Heart " . Madonna 's manager Freddy DeMann overheard the song and thought it would be a hit for Madonna and he asked Cole to re @-@ demo a female demo version . Her female backup singer , Donna De Lory was Cole 's girlfriend and he immediately asked her to sing the demo . Despite the fact that it did not fit exactly with the choice and genre of songs Madonna was singing at that time , she nevertheless accepted it . Madonna recorded " Open Your Heart " , altered the lyrics thus earning a co @-@ writing credit , and along with Patrick Leonard added a bassline underneath the song which turned it into a rock @-@ dance track rather than the original rock ' n roll genre . The song was the first recorded cut for the True Blue album in late 1985 and ultimately made it to the final released tracklist .
= = Composition = =
" Open Your Heart " has a continuous percussion filled structure and a chorus sounding like Belinda Carlisle , according to author Rikky Rooksby in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna . Lyrically , " Open Your Heart " is a simple love song . The song speaks of earnest innocent notions of boy meets girl kind of feelings . According to Professor Mavis Tsai , the phrase " Open Your Heart " is a metaphor for the act of being vulnerable that corresponds to the behavior involved in developing an intimate or close relationship . The following lines in the song , " Open Your Heart , I 'll make you love me ; It 's not that hard , if you just turn the key " illustrate this metaphor vividly . The concept of the song places Madonna as a victim of love .
The lyrics puts Madonna in a more direct position expressing her sexual desires for her man according to author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández in the line " If you gave me half a chance you 'd see ; My desire burning inside of me . " According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , " Open Your Heart " is written in the time signature of common time with a medium funk tempo of 112 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F major with Madonna 's voice spanning from A3 to B ♭ 4 . The song follows a basic sequence of F – E ♭ 9 – E ♭ / G – Gm7 – F as its chord progression .
= = Critical response = =
Author Susan McClary in Culture / power / history reviewed the song saying that , it was more upbeat than previous single " Live to Tell " and " the play with closure in ' Open Your Heart ' creates the image of open ended jouissance — an erotic energy that continually escapes containment " . Author Taraborrelli called it as one of her most " earnest " songs and compared it with Aretha Franklin 's song " Respect " as well as Barbra Streisand 's " A House is Not a Home " . According to him " it was a tune people could understand and latch on to , which is what makes a pop song memorable " . The New York Times writer Stephen Holden compared the song with sweeter post @-@ Motown valentine songs . Houston Chronicle writer Joey Guerra called the song " perfect " for dancefloor strut . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called it a perfect dance song with deepened dance grooves . Slant Magazine named the song as one of Madonna 's most " robust " songs . Robert Christgau said of the song , " I 'm not saying her flair is pleasureless — the generosity she demands in the inexhaustible ' Open Your Heart ' is a two @-@ way street and then some . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Open Your Heart " debuted at number 51 the week ending December 6 , 1986 , on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It had a gradual rise and subsequently topped the chart on February 7 , 1987 , becoming Madonna 's fifth number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single also had success on Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , reaching number @-@ one on February 14 , 1987 . It also became Madonna 's sixth entry on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart where it reached a peak of number 12 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 83 on the RPM chart on December 13 , 1986 , and reached a peak position of number eight for the chart dated February 21 , 1987 . It placed at number 68 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1987 .
Internationally , it became a top ten hit in several European countries including the United Kingdom , Italy , Ireland , Netherlands , and Belgium . In the United Kingdom , the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number eight and subsequently reached a peak of number four on December 13 , 1986 . The single was on the chart for nine weeks in total , and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on December 1 , 1986 . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 195 @,@ 000 copies there . It also peaked at number four in Europe , thus becoming the only single from True Blue not to top the Eurochart Hot 100 . In Australia , it only reached a peak of number 16 , breaking a run of nine consecutive top ten singles for Madonna in that country . Elsewhere like in Switzerland , Austria , Germany and France , it reached within the top 40 of the singles chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video was shot at Echo Park in Los Angeles , California . Madonna portrays an exotic dancer who befriends a young boy , played by child actor Felix Howard . This video was originally set to be directed by Madonna 's then @-@ husband Sean Penn , but in the end the final honors went to Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , who went on to work with Madonna on her videos for " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) , " Human Nature " ( 1995 ) , " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " ( 1996 ) , " Don 't Tell Me " ( 2000 ) and " Hollywood " ( 2003 ) . The video was shot in July 1986 and was released in December 1986 . It was produced by David Naylor . The video was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards in 1987 . In the Best Female Video category , " Open Your Heart " lost to another Madonna video , when the music video for " Papa Don 't Preach " won the award . The video has been ranked at number 35 on VH1 's " 50 Sexiest Video Moments " of all time .
The video is structured as a cinematic peep show and voyeurism that portrays Madonna as a stripper . According to Mondino , the peep show was his idea since at that time , " we were into a period where we were experimenting [ with ] some kind of freedom about the body , about sexuality and stuff " . He wanted to have a " naive and sweet " feel with the portrayal of a boy waiting outside for Madonna . They built the set from scratch , including the frontal part with the ticket booth . Although it looked fake , Mondino liked it saying " I like the fakeness of it . I haven 't seen it for a long time , but when I saw it once again , I said , ' It 's so naïve ' . It 's kind of badly done , which I like , compared to today . We didn 't have the same equipment , people are more skillful today , but there 's something sweet about it . " Madonna was initially asked by him to wear a black wig , and the initial reaction to the whole wardrobe was positive . But Madonna wanted Mondino 's opinion on the whole ensemble , who replied that she would look better as a blonde . So the wig was kept for the initial scenes of the video only .
= = = Synopsis and analysis = = =
The " Open Your Heart " music video presents an early version of Madonna 's musings about her Italian @-@ American heritage and focus on her feminocentric street theology , which was also explicitly brought out by 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour . It starts with the little boy trying to go inside a peep show , where Madonna is the star performer , but gets rebuffed by an old man at the ticket booth . Inside Madonna starts singing the song from the center of a carousel that revolves to display her to the gaze of the customers who are sitting safely in their cubicles . Madonna is dressed in a black bustier , spike heels , fishnets , revealing her new slimmed down body at that time . She begins the video wearing a black wig which she subsequently removes , revealing her short bleached hair . The bluish and dark lighting reveals her look as a mix of actresses Marlene Dietrich in the movie The Blue Angel as well as Liza Minnelli as the character Sally Bowles in the Bob Fosse @-@ directed musical film , Cabaret .
The dancing is restrained with a single prop : that of a solitary chair . At one point in the first segment of the video , she is filmed dancing but the camera is almost still and the motions of the dance are confined within the small range of the camera . As the screens inside the viewing booths open and close , the camera slices the shots of Madonna each with its own angle and duration . The same imagery is exhibited by the little boy outside who tries to frame Madonna 's playbill image into different angles . There are four other men in the booths who are made of wood with paintings of artist Tamara de Lempicka on them . Madonna at one point takes off her gloves like Rita Hayworth in Gilda and points towards one of the wooden paintings . It collapses and she blows on her finger .
The video is similar in thematic content to Mötley Crüe 's video for the single " Girls , Girls , Girls " . But in contrast , this video tells the story from Madonna 's point of view . She looks down into the cubicles to make eye contact with the men but they are unable to return it . She also looks assertively into the camera , making eye contact with the viewer . With these scenes Madonna portrays her holding power over the men and the ability to pursue them . Madonna represents an assertive woman searching for a lover who can accept her as a human being . Author Bruce Forbes notes that the men in the cubicles are proved unworthy of her and there is an undertone of mockery when Madonna addresses them as ' baby ' while shaking her body .
By the end of the video the isolated and sad men depart with the doors closing on them . As the final chorus breaks into dance grooves , Madonna comes out of the theater and gives the boy a quick kiss on his lips . Both are clad in loose @-@ fitting gray suits , which gives Madonna an androgynous look . They stroll away playfully in the sunrise , reminiscent of Charlie Chaplin and Jack Coogan in The Kid with the old boss pursuing them and shouting " Come back , come back , we still need you " in Italian . The tension between the visual and the musical dimensions of the video is extremely unsettling according to author Nicholas B. Dirks . Only when she disappears from the carousel and reappears to run away from her patriarchal boss with the young boy , then the music and visuals become comparable .
= = = Reception = = =
Feminist writer Susan Bordo gave a negative review of the video , saying that the leering and pathetic men in the cubicles and Madonna 's escape with the boy is " cynically and mechanically tacked on [ as ] a way of claiming trendy status for what is just cheesecake – or , perhaps , pornography " . MTV also had some reservations initially before airing the video , which was later resolved after a meeting with Warner Officials . However socio @-@ critic Mary Harron in her book McRock : Pop as Commodity said that the underlying message in the video is that though Madonna sells sexuality , she is free . There is no overt representation of anything besides friendship with the boy . Their escape together avoids Madonna the sexual overtones that would have been stronger if she would have escaped with an adult male . This , according to author Richard Dienst , seems to suggest a repudiation of the adult labor of the stage in favor of childhood , androgyny , authenticity and nomadic play . The video is also acclaimed for reviving and re @-@ creating the hard glamor of the studio @-@ era of Hollywood stars and also for representing women as the dominant sex . Author Donn Welton pointed out that the usual power relationship between the " voyeuristic male gaze and object " is destabilized by the portrayal of the male patrons of the peep show as leering and pathetic . At the same time , the portrayal of Madonna as " porno queen object " is deconstructed by the escape at the end of the video . Maura Johnston from Rolling Stone found influences of the work of Italian film director Federico Fellini and American musical theater chroeographer Bob Fosse . Johnston added , " ' Open Your Heart ' was gorgeous , from the paintings of art deco artist Tamara de Lempicka on the club exterior , to the colorfully cold cast of characters . " She noticed that at one point in the video , Madonna titled her head to re @-@ create the Herb Ritts shot album cover for True Blue .
= = Live performances = =
" Open Your Heart " has been featured as a full song in the set lists of three Madonna tours – 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour , 1990 's Blond Ambition World Tour , and 2012 's The MDNA Tour . It served as the opening song on 1987 Who 's That Girl Tour . It started off with then young dancer Chris Finch , imitating Felix Howard from the video . Howard did not receive a working license for the tour hence Finch was taken for his part . He went on to become an integral part of most of the songs performed on the tour . After Finch , two other dancers are introduced , before Madonna herself appears on stage . She wore the same black pointy corset and fishnets as in the music video . She first sings the song alone , then Finch joins her again and they dance together till the song ends . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 .
On the Blond Ambition World Tour , " Open Your Heart " follows the opening number " Express Yourself " . This time , it included a hunky dancer watching from a distance as Madonna entered the stage with her hair stretched into a topknot and fake blond ponytail , which was replaced by short peroxide tangles in the European leg of the tour . She wore a double breasted suit with the outer jacket cut in slits so that the conical bra underneath could point through . Showing off the satin pink bodysuit and her monocle chain , Madonna performed the song on a chair . Playing a dominatrix role , Madonna got on top of one of the dancers before carrying off an exhibitionist dance routine with the chair as a prop . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
The opening musical introduction of the song served as a brief twenty @-@ six seconds musical interlude on the Drowned World Tour in 2001 . As Madonna finished a performance of " Frozen " in the Geisha inspired segment of the show , she sat in a cross @-@ legged position in front of the stage . The musical intro for " Open Your Heart " would start with a dancer in a Japanese costume dancing behind her on a raised podium . As the music ends , Madonna starts singing " Nobody 's Perfect " from her 2000 album Music . In 2008 , Madonna sang the first verse and chorus at two dates — Las Vegas and East Rutherford — of her Sticky & Sweet Tour . Madonna forgot the lyrics at the Vegas show and refused to sing the song in Boston ; she performed " Express Yourself " instead .
Madonna also performed an excerpt of the song at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show in 2012 , where she was joined by Cee Lo Green and by a large marching band . The same year , the song was included on The MDNA Tour . Following an 8 @-@ minute monologue against intolerance , the song was reinvented and performed in a Basque , folk acoustic version , relying only on drums , which were played by the Basque band Kalakan , and Madonna 's vocal harmony . Madonna 's outfit during the performance consisted of an all @-@ leather look , a custom design by Hervé Léger and Max Azria , with knee @-@ high boots and a mini fur bolero , while her dancers were dressed as soldiers . Towards the end of the performance Madonna proceeded to dance and engage in a sing @-@ along with the members of the audience . On certain shows , her son Rocco Ritchie joined her onstage . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that the performances of " Open Your Heart " and " Like a Prayer " were a reminder that " ... for both Madonna and her fans , it always comes back to the music " . The performance of the song at the November 19 – 20 , 2012 shows in Miami , at the American Airlines Arena , were recorded and released in Madonna 's fourth live album , MDNA World Tour . On January 26 , 2014 , Madonna performed " Open Your Heart " and " Same Love " at the 56th Grammy Awards along with Macklemore , Ryan Lewis and Mary Lambert , in support of gay and lesbian rights . During the Rebel Heart Tour in Manchester , in December 2015 , Madonna performed an a cappella version of " Open Your Heart " .
= = Cover versions = =
Despite being originally written in English , a Spanish version of the song titled " Abre Tu Corazón " was recorded by Venezuelan rock singer Melissa , who released it in March 1986 on her " Melissa III " album . Considering Madonna first released the song on the " True Blue " album three months afterwards , Melissa 's " Abre Tu Corazón " can be considered the first released version of the song , although it is possible that Madonna 's version ( for which she received a co @-@ writer 's credit ) was recorded first . The Madonna tribute compilation Virgin Voices : A Tribute To Madonna , Vol . 2 contained a cover by the late Israeli singer Ofra Haza . A eurodance version was recorded by the group Mad 'House for the album " Absolutely Mad " . A hi @-@ NRG dance version was recorded by Who 's That Girl for the album Exposed , released through Almighty Records . In 2004 Platinum Blonde NRG , Vol . 2 : Nrgised Madonna Classics , a hi @-@ NRG cover is performed by In @-@ Deep . The song appears in the opening of the 2002 film Crossroads . Britney Spears ' character lip syncs to the song in her room with a brush in her hand , pretending its a microphone . A Madonna poster is visible during the scene . In 2010 , the TV show Glee covered it in the episode " The Power of Madonna " as a mash @-@ up with the song " Borderline " , performed by Cory Monteith and Lea Michele .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lead vocals , background vocals , songwriter
Jonathan Moffett – drums
Paulinho da Costa – percussion
David Williams – guitar
Patrick Leonard – keyboards
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Red Rackham 's Treasure =
Red Rackham 's Treasure ( French : Le Trésor de Rackham le Rouge ) is the twelfth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised daily in Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from February to September 1943 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . Completing an arc begun in The Secret of the Unicorn , the story tells of young reporter Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock as they launch an expedition to the Caribbean to locate the treasure of the pirate Red Rackham .
Red Rackham 's Treasure was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman the year following its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Seven Crystal Balls , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Red Rackham 's Treasure has been cited as one of the most important installments in the series for marking the first appearance of eccentric scientist Cuthbert Calculus , who subsequently became a core character . The story has been variously adapted for both the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana , as well as for the feature film The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn ( 2011 ) .
= = Synopsis = =
The synopsis continues a plot begun in The Secret of the Unicorn .
Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock plan an expedition to the West Indies aboard a fishing trawler , the Sirius , to search for the treasure of the pirate Red Rackham . Having previously read three parchments authored by Haddock 's ancestor , Sir Francis Haddock , the duo had discovered the coordinates to what they believe is the treasure aboard the sunken 17th century vessel , the Unicorn . An eccentric , hard @-@ of @-@ hearing inventor named Professor Cuthbert Calculus offers to aid them with the use of his shark @-@ shaped one @-@ man submarine , but they decline his assistance . Setting sail , they are joined by the police detectives Thomson and Thompson and soon discover that Calculus has stowed away on board , bringing his submarine with him .
When they reach the coordinates shown on the parchments , there is no wreckage in sight . Frustrated , Haddock ponders turning back , but Tintin soon realizes the problem : If Sir Francis had used a French instead of an English chart to calculate the position , the coordinates would have been measured on the Paris Meridian rather than the Greenwich Meridian . As they have been using the Greenwich Meridian , they realise that they are too far west .
After traveling to the correct position , they discover an unknown island . There , they find a statue of Sir Francis Haddock and other evidence ; Tintin deduces that Francis Haddock had taken refuge on the island and that the wreck of the Unicorn must be nearby . They locate the wreck using Calculus ' submarine and recover various artefacts from it , but do not find the treasure . Among the artefacts is a strongbox containing old documents revealing that Sir Francis Haddock had been the owner of the country estate Marlinspike Hall . Back in Belgium , Calculus purchases the Hall using funds from the sale of his submarine design , and gives it to Haddock . Tintin and Haddock search the house 's cellars , where Tintin spots a statue of Saint John the Evangelist holding a cross with a globe and eagle at its feet . Tintin suddenly remembers that Francis Haddock 's original three parchments said , " For ' tis from the light that light will dawn , and then shines forth the Eagle 's cross " and realises that this message referred , not to the location of the Unicorn , but to Saint John " the eagle " : his traditional symbol . Tintin locates the island on the globe , presses a secret button he finds there , and discovers Red Rackham 's treasure hidden inside .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II , Hergé had accepted a position working for Le Soir , Belgian 's largest French @-@ language daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , Le Soir was permitted by the German authorities to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . After joining Le Soir on 15 October 1940 , Hergé became editor of its new children 's supplement Le Soir Jeunesse , with the help of an old friend , Paul Jamin , and the cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke , before paper shortages forced Tintin to be serialised daily in the main pages of Le Soir . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration , although he was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which numbered some 600 @,@ 000 . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson observed that , without the need to satirise political types , " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "
Red Rackham 's Treasure was to be the second half of a series of connected events in two parts which had begun with the previous adventure , The Secret of the Unicorn . This two @-@ part series was the first that Hergé had produced since Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus ( 1934 – 36 ) . However , as Tintin expert Michael Farr related , whereas Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus had been largely " self @-@ sufficient and self @-@ contained " , the connection between The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure was to be far closer .
= = = Influences = = =
Red Rackham 's Treasure introduced Professor Cuthbert Calculus to The Adventures of Tintin , who became a recurring character . Hergé had made use of various eccentric professors in earlier volumes of the series , such as Sophocles Sarcophagus in Cigars of the Pharaoh , Hector Alembick in King Ottokar 's Sceptre , and Decimus Phostle in The Shooting Star , all of whom prefigure the arrival of Calculus . The character 's deafness had been inspired by a colleague whom Hergé had worked with years earlier at Le Vingtième Siècle . Visually , Calculus was based on a real scientist , the Swiss inventor Auguste Piccard , who had been the first man to explore the stratosphere in a hot air balloon in 1931 . Hergé had observed Piccard walking about Brussels on a number of occasions , however the character of Calculus would be notably much shorter than Piccard . Hergé named this character Tryphon Tournesol ; while the surname meant " sunflower " , the forename was adopted from a carpenter named Tryphon Beckaert whom Hergé had encountered in Boitsfort . Tryphon Tournesol was later renamed Cuthbert Calculus in the English translation and Balduin Bienlein ( meaning " Little Bee " ) for the German translation .
Calculus ' shark @-@ shaped submarine was visually based on a real American submarine ; Hergé had seen a picture of this in a German newspaper . The diving suit worn in the story was also based on clippings that Hergé had accumulated . Similarly , the dockside bar depicted by the cartoonist was based on an illustration that he had collected . The shop where Haddock and Tintin buy the diving equipment , including the suit , was inspired from a picture of a bar which was featured in the German magazine , Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung . The tribal effigy found on a Caribbean island by Sir Francis Haddock was based on a Bamileke tribal statue from Cameroon that Hergé saw in a museum . The Sirius , which had appeared before in The Shooting Star , was named after the SS Sirius , the first ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean solely under steam power , but was visually based upon the design of a trawler , the John @-@ O.88. Hergé had sketched this ship in Ostend docks before obtaining both detailed plans of the trawler from the builders , Jos Boel & Son , and a small @-@ scale model of it from a collector . The undersea wreck of the Unicorn was loosely inspired by images of the wreck of a 17th @-@ century Swedish vessel , the Vasa , which Hergé had collected . The instance in the story in which a shark swallows a large box ( that the characters hope contains the treasure ) is based on a real account of a shark that swallowed a camera from the American underwater photographer Otis Barton , which Hergé had encountered in a French illustrated magazine .
The brief appearance of Dr. Daumière , who warns Haddock to cease drinking alcohol , was an allusion to Hergé 's own physician , Dr. Daumerie . Hergé made a comical reference to the French comedian Sacha Guitry in the story by advertising a play by Guitry titled Me in which Guitry himself plays every role . The adventure was the first to depict Tintin wearing a white shirt under a blue sweater ; this would go on to become the character 's iconic costume .
= = = Publication = = =
Le Trésor De Rackham Le Rouge began serialisation as a daily strip in Le Soir from 19 February 1943 . The title of the new adventure had been announced in an advertisement in the newspaper two days previously . In Belgium , it was then published in a 62 @-@ page book format by Editions Casterman in 1944 . Red Rackham 's Treasure contained one of Hergé 's two favourite illustrations from The Adventures of Tintin . It combines three actions encapsulating a sequence of events into one drawing : Haddock striding up the beach in the foreground , the rowboat being brought ashore in the middle ground , and the Sirius weighing anchor in the background .
Rather than immediately embark on the creation of a new Tintin adventure , Hergé agreed to a proposal that Le Soir 's crime writer , Paul Kinnet , would author a detective story featuring Thomson and Thompson . The story was titled Dupont et Dupond , détectives ( Thomson and Thompson , Detectives ) , and was illustrated by Hergé .
The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure were the first two Adventures of Tintin to be published in English @-@ language translations for the British market . Published by Casterman , these two editions did not sell well , and have since become rare collector 's items . They would be republished for the British market seven years later , this time by Methuen with translations provided by Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper . Farr reported that Red Rackham 's Treasure is the best @-@ selling story in The Adventures of Tintin , while Harry Thompson referred to The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc as " the most successful of all Tintin 's adventures " .
= = Critical analysis = =
Harry Thompson stated that the Secrets of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc marked the beginning of the third and central stage of " Tintin 's career " . He furthermore stated that in these two stories , Tintin has been converted from a reporter into an explorer to cope with the new political climate . He stated that in this story , Hergé " abandons the complex plotting of The Secret of the Unicorn in favour of an episodic style of adventure not seen since the early books " . Thompson further draws attention to the arrival of Calculus in the story , describing him as the " third and final member " of Tintin 's " family " . Thompson was critical of the use of colour in the story , stating that much of it looks better in black @-@ and @-@ white , as it was originally printed in Le Soir .
Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters observed that both The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure " hold a crucial position " in The Adventures of Tintin as it establishes the " Tintin universe " with its core set of characters . He felt that while religious elements had been present in previous stories , they were even stronger in The Secret of the Unicorn and its sequel , something which he attributed to Van Melkebeke 's influence . Peeters believed that Red Rackham 's Treasure was " an unforgettable book " because it is the volume in which the " family " — meaning Tintin , Snowy , Haddock , and Calculus — all come together . Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline echoed this idea , noting that Hergé had " settled " the three characters in their new home . Focusing on the character of Calculus , he noted that the idea of the eccentric professor was " so universal that it would be inaccurate to point to any one source " , suggesting possible influences from Charlie Chaplin and Hergé 's own father . For Assouline , the professor embodies " the gentle madness and subtle humour in comic strips " . He added that both Red Rackham 's Treasure and its predecessor " reveal Hergé at a new level in his art " , and suggested that the reason for their popularity lay in the fact that they were " the visual continuation of a literary universe that stretches from Jules Verne to Pierre Benoit " .
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier opined that The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc represents " a turning point " for the series as it shifts the reader 's attention from Tintin to Haddock , who has become " by far , the most interesting character " . They claim that the introduction of Calculus " completes the indispensable triangle that imbues Tintin with its mythic quality . " Asserting that here , Hergé 's " art has reached a degree of near @-@ perfection " , they awarded it five stars out of five .
Michael Farr said that the scene introducing Calculus was " a comic tour de force " marking the start of the " rich vein of humour " that the character brought to the series . Noting that unlike The Shooting Star , this two @-@ book story arc contains " scarcely an allusion to occupation and war " , he praised the arc 's narrative as " perfectly paced , without that feeling of haste " present in some of Hergé 's earlier work .
In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the academic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès characterised the Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc as being about the characters going on a " treasure hunt that turns out to be at the same time a search for their roots . " He stated that the arc revolves around Haddock 's ancestry , and in doing so " deals with the meanings of symbolic relations within personal life " . Highlighting that Calculus was one of many eccentric scientists to have appeared in the series , he nonetheless emphasises his difference by noting that Calculus approaches Tintin , rather than Tintin approaching him , as the young reporter had done with previous scientists . Commenting on the introduction of Calculus ' shark submarine , he states that it " allows them to cross a boundary previously restricting human beings and to penetrate into another universe , the one beneath the seas that holds secrets hitherto unknown . " Ultimately , he believes that by the end of the story , " the family structure is in place " , with Calculus representing a father figure with financial control , and Haddock and Tintin , who have become brothers through their joint adventure , adding that with the aid of Francis Haddock , " the ancestor " , they are given a home at Marlinspike Hall .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy highlighted what he perceived as scenes in Red Rackham 's Treasure which reflected common themes in The Adventures of Tintin . He pointed out that in being a stowaway aboard the ship , Calculus was one of many stowaways in the series , and that the treasure represented the theme of jewels and precious stones which also cropped up in The Broken Ear , Tintin in the Congo , and The Castafiore Emerald . He noted Tintin 's misreading of the parchments and stated this was one of a number of calculation mistakes that the character makes in the series . He suggested that a scene in which the shark submarine pushes between Haddock 's buttocks was a form of sexual innuendo referencing anal sex , highlighting similar innuendo in The Broken Ear and The Crab with the Golden Claws .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , a series of daily five @-@ minute colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics . Red Rackham 's Treasure was the fifth story to be adapted in the second series ( and the eighth to be adapted overall ) , being directed by Ray Goossens and written by the cartoonist Greg . In later years , Greg would become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long . Red Rackham 's Treasure was the tenth episode of The Adventures of Tintin to be produced , although it ran half as long as most of the others . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .
The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn , a motion capture feature film directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson , was released in most of the world October – November 2011 , and in the US on 21 December 2011 . The film is based partly upon The Secret of the Unicorn and partly on both Red Rackham 's Treasure and The Crab with the Golden Claws . A video @-@ game tie @-@ in to the movie was released October 2011 .
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= God Put a Smile upon Your Face =
" God Put a Smile upon Your Face " is a song by British alternative rock band Coldplay . It was written by all members of the band for their second studio album , A Rush of Blood to the Head ( 2002 ) . The song is built around prominent acoustic and electric guitar riffs with accompanying up @-@ tempo drumming . The song was released on 14 July 2003 as the fourth and final single from the album .
Regional singles were released for Canada , Europe , Australia , and an enhanced version for Taiwan . Promo singles were released for the United Kingdom and United States . Since only promo copies were released , the single reached only number 100 in the UK Singles Chart .
= = Background = =
Coldplay vocalist Chris Martin said , about the writing of the song , " That came out of playing live and wanting to have something with a bit more bounce . We were really getting into things like PJ Harvey and Muse – things with a bit more energy . "
When asked about the development of the song , during a track @-@ by @-@ track reveal , bassist Guy Berryman said :
When we came to record it in the studio we struggled because there was something just not quite right about it and I wasn 't happy about where we 'd left it and where we were happy to leave it and we couldn 't put our finger on what it was and so it was a really nice day one day , me and Chris were just trying , I was actually just trying to record bass at the time and me and Chris were just sitting down trying to brainstorm it and work out what was wrong and so I started trying to just do a few different bass lines and stuff . Between the two of us we came up with just this kind of groove , which stays on the same note as opposed to change , it 's quite technical but it kind of added a bit of bounce to the song and it made it roll along in a much more fluid way . It was a bit mechanical before and it 's just interesting how something small like that can really change the whole vibe of a song . It was just nice because from there on it was one of our favourite tracks and it almost didn 't get on the record but it 's now one of our favourite tracks .
= = Composition = =
The song features an acoustic and electric guitar sound . The song starts with a hushed acoustic ballad , the song then builds into a roar of an electric guitar and soaring with vocals . The song also includes an uptempo metronomic drumming rhythm .
The first line of the third verse allude to a definitive moment with the cryptic reference to God : " Now when you work it out , I 'm worse than you / Yeah , when you work it out I wanted to / Now , when you work out where to draw the line / Your guess is as good as mine . " Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune commented that the lyric " God gave you style and gave you grace , " Martin sings as if " cataloguing the attributes he only wishes he had " . When the song is performed live , guitarist Jonny Buckland begins a long ripping off guitar riff while Chris Martin plays an acoustic guitar .
= = Release = =
Coldplay released " God Put a Smile upon Your Face " in the UK on 7 July 2003 . This was followed with releases in the US and Canada on 14 July 2003 . The song was later released on 21 July 2003 in Australia and Taiwan . When the song was released , it featured the B @-@ side " Murder " . The single cover features bassist Guy Berryman , art @-@ directed by Sølve Sundsbø . Regional singles were released for Canada , Europe , Australia , and an enhanced version for Taiwan . Promotional singles were released in the UK and US .
= = Reception = =
Critics were positive towards the song . In the Rolling Stone review of the album , critic Rob Sheffield wrote : " ' God Put a Smile Upon Your Face ' is the slinkiest and best thing Coldplay have ever done . " Adrien Begrand of PopMatters wrote : " Buckland 's lead fills highlight the wondrous ' God Put a Smile on Your Face ' , as the song 's chorus reaches heights that rival those of their fellow countrymen Doves . " Ted Kessler of NME wrote : " Over a pounding garage tattoo Martin poses a deep , mortality @-@ based teaser ( ' where do we go from here ? ' ) , asserts some self @-@ belief ( ' God gave me style , God gave me grace ' ) and then hits upon the bottom line as the song 's mood suddenly improves with another fat and glorious chorus : ' Yeah , when you work it out I 'm the same as you .... your guess is as good as mine . ' "
" God Put a Smile upon Your Face " was featured in the band 's live album , Live 2003 . The song is available on Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock video game as a downloadable song . The game also includes other Coldplay songs such as " Yellow " and " Violet Hill " . Plan B sampled the track on his 2007 mixtape Paint it Blacker . The song was also covered by Mark Ronson on his album Version , which he performed live with Adele at the 2008 Brit Awards .
The song was also covered by Matt Jorgensen + 451 on their album Hope release on Origin Records .
= = Music video = =
The music video , released in October 2003 , is shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and has a narrative theme . The video is directed by Jamie Thraves , who had previously directed the band 's third video for " The Scientist " .
The video intercuts footage of the band performing the song with the story of a businessman , who is humiliated and horrified to find that he is gradually disappearing , after bumping into a mysterious stranger with no shoes . The businessman is played by actor Paddy Considine .
= = Personnel = =
Chris Martin – vocals , acoustic guitar
Jonny Buckland – electric lead and rhythm guitar
Guy Berryman – bass guitar
Will Champion – drums
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
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= M @-@ 66 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 66 is a north – south state trunkline highway on the Lower Peninsula ( LP ) of the US state of Michigan . It runs from the Indiana state line in the south to Charlevoix in the north . M @-@ 66 is the only state highway to traverse almost the entire north – south distance of the LP . It starts as a continuation of State Road 9 ( SR 9 ) which provides access to the Indiana Toll Road . The total length is 272 @.@ 898 miles ( 439 @.@ 187 km ) , which includes 3 @.@ 374 miles ( 5 @.@ 430 km ) of freeway between Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and downtown Battle Creek designated as I @-@ 194 . One section of the highway is an expressway , a type of divided limited access highway , while the section along I @-@ 194 is a full freeway , otherwise M @-@ 66 is a two @-@ lane rural highway . Two sections are listed on the National Highway System .
The first usage of the M @-@ 66 designation dates back to around July 1 , 1919 with the rest of the original state highway system . At the time , the highway only extended between Lowell and Lakeview , a route now covered by M @-@ 91 . The highway has been lengthened in a series of extensions north and south starting in 1925 . A rerouting in 1944 – 45 removed M @-@ 66 from its original 1919 routing to replace another highway south of Six Lakes , the change that spawned M @-@ 91 . The last big extension in 1965 resulted in the modern trans @-@ peninsular highway route . The last modifications were shorter reroutings in the 1970s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 66 runs for 266 @.@ 399 miles ( 428 @.@ 728 km ) as an almost entirely a north – south undivided surface highway in western Michigan from the Indiana state line north to Lake Michigan at Charlevoix . Most of the highway is two @-@ lane undivided rural highway . There is a section south of Battle Creek that is a four @-@ lane expressway . Running north into the Cereal City , M @-@ 66 is concurrent with I @-@ 194 , which is a full freeway . This section along I @-@ 194 is listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . Another section of M @-@ 66 is included on the NHS where it is concurrent with either M @-@ 72 or U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) in Kalkaska or Antrim counties .
= = = Indiana to Ionia = = =
M @-@ 66 is a four @-@ lane highway that connects with State Road 9 ( SR 9 ) at the Indiana state line in southern St. Joseph County . The highway runs north to Sturgis through farm land where it turns east through town running concurrently with US 12 on Chicago Road . As it leaves Sturgis to the north it crosses a branch of the Michigan Southern Railroad , and it becomes a two @-@ lane surface highway along Nottawa Street . The highway runs near several small lakes and crosses the Nottawa Creek before meeting M @-@ 86 . The two highways run north – south concurrently for about 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) along the Nottawa – Colon township line . Farther north , M @-@ 66 crosses the St. Joseph River and meets M @-@ 60 . M @-@ 60 / M @-@ 66 run together to the east , turning northeasterly in Leonidas running parallel to Nottawa Creek and crossing into the northwest corner of Branch County . M @-@ 60 and M @-@ 66 separate west of Union City , and M @-@ 66 turns north into Calhoun County .
Running through woodland terrain in southern Calhoun County , M @-@ 66 passes through Athens , along Graham Lake and continues to the outskirts of Battle Creek . The highway widens first to a four @-@ lane , limited access expressway south of the Lakeview Square Mall before becoming a full freeway at the interchange with I @-@ 94 . It is at the transition to freeway that M @-@ 66 starts its concurrency with I @-@ 194 . I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 is known as the Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway , but the locals still use the former semi @-@ official nickname , " The Penetrator " . The southern section of the freeway has the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 66 as measured by average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) in the survey conducted in 2009 . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculates the AADT value as a tally of the average number of vehicles using a given stretch of roadway . I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 carried 25 @,@ 200 vehicles on the average day during the year ; 980 trucks were included in that traffic . The freeway continues 3 @.@ 374 miles ( 5 @.@ 430 km ) north into downtown Battle Creek along part of the Kalamazoo River and crossing a branch of the Canadian National Railway and Norfolk Southern Railway before ending at the at @-@ grade intersection with Hamblin Avenue . I @-@ 194 ends , and M @-@ 66 continues northeast out of the Cereal City on Division Street and then northeast on Capital Avenue along the Battle Creek River .
M @-@ 66 continues northward through Barry County on Capital Avenue which becomes 9 Mile Road north of Baseline Road . The highway passes through Assyria before meeting M @-@ 79 , with which it has a short concurrency , in Nashville . On the north side of the village , M @-@ 66 crosses the Thornapple River and continues north through mixed rural forest land and farm fields . Near Woodland , M @-@ 66 joins M @-@ 43 and the two run to the northeast and along the Barry – Eaton county line . M @-@ 43 / M @-@ 66 meets M @-@ 50 at a four @-@ way intersection southwest of Lake Odessa near Woodbury , and M @-@ 43 turns east leaving M @-@ 66 in favor of a concurrency with M @-@ 50 . M @-@ 66 crosses a rail line of CSX Transportation and the county line on State Road . It meets I @-@ 96 in a rural southern part of the Ionia County south of Ionia . On the south edge of town , the highway passes the county airport and curves to the northeast becoming Dexter Street . While entering downtown Ionia , the trunkline crosses the Grand River and the mainline of the Grand Rapids Eastern Railroad near the county fairgrounds . M @-@ 66 turns west along M @-@ 21 ( Lincoln Avenue ) for two blocks before turning back to the north along State Street . The trunkline runs through the northern part of the county and meets M @-@ 44 's eastern terminus near Woodard Lake .
= = = Montcalm County and northward = = =
In Montcalm County , M @-@ 66 intersects M @-@ 57 in a rural area south of Sheridan before running north on Sheridan Road through Stanton . The highway jogs west along Main Street in Stanton before returning to a northerly course on a discontinuous section of Sheridan Road . The roadway curves around the west end of Hemmingway Lake near Cannonsville Road . West of Edmore , M @-@ 66 turns northwesterly along M @-@ 46 on Edmore – Howard City Road to Six Lakes . M @-@ 66 separates there and returns to its northerly journey along Six Lakes Road between Little Bass Lake and First Lake . The road crosses into Mecosta County as 30th Avenue north of Six Lakes . The highway intersects M @-@ 20 at the intersection with 9 Mile Road in Remus . This area of rural Mecosta County is more heavily forested with rolling hills and sporadic farms . In Barryton , the roadway crosses the Chippewa River . M @-@ 66 continues north passing Merrill Lake before crossing into rural eastern Osceola County at Mesceola Road .
The highway meets US 10 near Sears after crossing the Pere Marquette State Trail . M @-@ 66 crosses the Muskegon River near a separate 9 Mile Road in Osceola County . It meets both M @-@ 115 and M @-@ 61 ( 16 Mile Road ) south of Marion . The highway continues north and crosses the Great Lakes Central Railroad for the first time in Marion , before entering Missaukee County . The trunkline then turns westward on Stoney Corners Road toward McBain through farm land . In town it runs along Maple Street and then runs north toward Lake City on Morey Road . South of the Lake City , M @-@ 55 runs concurrently with M @-@ 66 by Missaukee Golf Course and into town along the eastern shore of Lake Missaukee . North of town , M @-@ 55 splits off to the east on Houghton Lake Road , and M @-@ 66 continues north to an intersection with the eastern terminus of M @-@ 42 in a rural forest . M @-@ 66 leaves Morey Road and follows Pioneer Road to the county line .
As the highway crosses into Kalkaska County it crosses the Manistee River . M @-@ 66 runs through rolling hills in woodlands through the unincorporated farming community of Lodi north to an intersection with M @-@ 72 . The two highways travel west together over the Great Lakes Central Railroad before turning north and merging with US 131 on a route parallel to the rail line . US 131 / M @-@ 66 / M @-@ 72 follows and crosses a branch of the Boardman River along Cedar Street through downtown Kalkaska . North of the central business district , M @-@ 72 separates to the west and US 131 / M @-@ 66 crosses through the Pere Marquette State Forest on the way to Antrim and Mancelona in Antrim County . The highway follows Williams Street through the twin towns , meeting the southern terminus of M @-@ 88 and western terminus of C @-@ 38 at the intersection with State Street in Mancelona . M @-@ 66 separates from US 131 and follows Mancelona – East Jordan Road out of town .
The section of M @-@ 66 north of the US 131 split had the highway 's lowest AADT levels in the 2009 survey . MDOT reported that only 1 @,@ 500 vehicles use this stretch of road in 2009 . Of these vehicles , only were 140 trucks that used the segment of highway in 2009 . The highway meanders through more forest lands through the community of Green River to East Jordan . M @-@ 66 follows Lake Street and turns to follow the western shore of the South Arm of Lake Charlevoix . The roadway turns inland through Ironton before returning to the lakeshore the rest of the way to Charlevoix . M @-@ 66 ends at an intersection with US 31 south of downtown next to Lake Michigan .
= = = Services = = =
MDOT provides a number of different services to motorists traveling along the state trunkline highway system . Along M @-@ 66 , there are six different carpool lots located near Nashville , Woodland , Belding , Sheridan , Sears and Marion . There are additional services provided to travelers in the form of roadside parks and rest areas . There are two roadside parks along the highway , one is between Woodland and Woodbury , and the second is in Sheridan . The roadway also provides access to the Ionia State Recreation Area and a state harbor on Lake Charlevoix .
= = History = =
M @-@ 66 was first signed along a roadway by July 1 , 1919 between M @-@ 16 ( now M @-@ 21 ) at Lowell and M @-@ 46 near Lakeview . The designation was extended in 1925 along M @-@ 46 to Six Lakes and then north to M @-@ 13 ( now US 131 ) in Lodi . A further extension north from Lodi in 1929 or 1930 along M @-@ 131 to Mancelona , a short segment of M @-@ 88 and north to US 31 in Charlevoix . The southern end was extended to US 16 south of Lowell by 1931 . A section of the northern extension was marked on maps through 1933 as " under construction " . That section was cancelled in favor of another routing near Mancelona . A short bypass of Six Lakes added about a mile to the length of the roadway in 1936 . The M @-@ 131 concurrency was switched to a US 131 concurrency when the latter was extended in 1939 . This concurrency was shortened just before World War II when the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) rerouted US 131 along a new road between South Boardman and Kalkaska .
The MSHD completed a major rerouting of M @-@ 66 around 1944 – 45 . The M @-@ 14 designation of the time was decommissioned and replaced with M @-@ 66 . Starting at Six Lakes , M @-@ 66 turned west along M @-@ 46 instead of east and then turned south through Stanton and Ionia ending north of Battle Creek . The highway between Lowell and Lakeview was redesignated as M @-@ 91 . A minor realignment in late 1950 removed two 90 ° curves near the Osceola – Missaukee county line and replaced them with a pair of sweeping curves .
The MSHD rerouted M @-@ 66 between Maple Grove and Nashville in mid @-@ 1953 . In the changes , M @-@ 79 was extended along the new route of M @-@ 66 and then over M @-@ 214 to Hastings . M @-@ 66 was shifted off Assyria Road which was turned back to local control . Another realignment in 1954 shifted M @-@ 66 to the modern routing between the M @-@ 43 concurrency termini , removing M @-@ 43 / M @-@ 66 from a section of M @-@ 50 in the process . The final section gravel section of M @-@ 66 , approximately 11 miles ( 18 km ) in length , was paved near Nashville in 1957 . M @-@ 32 was extended along the northernmost section of M @-@ 66 in 1963 .
M @-@ 66 was extended southerly from Assyria through Battle Creek to the Indiana state line replacing sections of M @-@ 78 in 1965 . M @-@ 66 turned south and west along M @-@ 60 and new highway to Colon . The segment of former M @-@ 78 not used by M @-@ 66 was transferred to local control . The final section of M @-@ 78 's roadway given to M @-@ 66 extended it all the way to the state line , resulting in a north – south trans @-@ peninsular highway from Lake Michigan near Charlevoix to Indiana . M @-@ 66 is the only such highway to run the length of the Lower Peninsula . The extension allowed the Green Arrow Association to promote the whole length of the Green Arrow Route with a single highway number . The next year , M @-@ 66 was rerouted through Battle Creek to use the completed I @-@ 194 freeway .
A 90 ° turn in Missaukee County was removed north of Lake City in 1972 . In late 1973 or early 1974 , M @-@ 66 and M @-@ 72 were shifted around the south side of Kalkaska . Later in 1974 , the M @-@ 32 concurrency was removed when M @-@ 32 was scaled back to its former terminus . A project in 1981 furthered the 1972 realignment in Missaukee County . About 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) were shortened from the routing when the new alignment was built between Smithville and Phelps Road .
= = Memorial designations = =
To capitalize on the opening of the Mackinac Bridge in 1957 , local leaders in Battle Creek wanted to promote M @-@ 66 as a route north from Indiana to the bridge . They named the highway the Green Arrow Route as part of this marketing strategy . The color was to evoke the forests in the area , and arrow was meant to play on several historical connections . One of these was the Pennsylvania Railroad 's Northern Arrow passenger train that once operated in the area . The official explanation was to tie into the history of Native Americans in the area , but the route was also " straight as an arrow " . The backers also promoted the highway as a direct and scenic route to vacation country in the northern Lower Peninsula , avoiding most of the larger cities in the area . M @-@ 66 was given the Green Arrow Route name in Public Act 170 of 1959 between the Indiana state line and Kalkaska . Despite these efforts , M @-@ 66 failed to attract much traffic . When the Michigan Legislature recodified the memorial highway names in Public Act 142 of 2001 , the Green Arrow Route was truncated to the northern border of Calhoun County , a change confirmed by Public Act 138 of 2004 .
Born Isabella Baumfree in 1797 , Sojourner Truth settled in the Battle Creek area in the 1840s . She travelled through the Midwest and New England speaking against slavery and for women 's rights . She lived in the area until her death in 1883 . Her connection to the state of Michigan was honored by the state American Revolution Bicentennial Commission in 1976 which urged the Michigan Legislature to name a highway in her honor . Public Act 93 of 1976 named all of M @-@ 66 in Calhoun County , including the segment that runs concurrently with I @-@ 194 , as the Sojourner Truth Memorial Highway . The highway was dedicated to her on May 21 , 1976 .
The Cereal City Development Corporation ( CCDC ) asked the Legislature to amend the memorial designation in 1993 . They felt that I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 was better known to locals as The Penetrator , and they wished to restore emphasis to Truth . They asked for the " Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway " name to be applied to " M @-@ 66 between Interstate 94 and Hamblin " . The Legislature passed Public Act 208 of 1993 to affect the change , restoring " the link between Sojourner Truth and the City of Battle Creek , which was once the center of abolitionist sentiment in the state . "
= = Major intersections = =
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= 15th Sustainment Brigade =
The 15th Sustainment Brigade was a sustainment brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Bliss , Texas . It provided logistics support to other units of the United States Army , and was subordinate to the 13th Sustainment Command ( Expeditionary ) . It previously had provided support to the 1st Cavalry Division , but now did so for the 1st Armored Division until 12 May 2015 when the 15th Sustainment Brigade became part of the 1st Armored Division and was renamed 1st Armored Division Sustainment Brigade .
The brigade 's lineage dates back to 1919 , and it had a long and decorated history when designated as the supply command of the 1st Cavalry Division . Having seen service in every major conflict of the 20th century in support of its parent division , the unit was not designated as the 15th Sustainment Brigade permanently until 2005 . In February 2008 , the brigade was reassigned to the 13th Sustainment Command , ending almost a century of association with the 1st Cavalry Division .
The 15th Sustainment Brigade 's extensive lineage also carries many honors for the unit . What is now the 15th Sustainment Brigade , and its previous incarnations , have earned 17 campaign streamers , as well as numerous awards , mostly for service during the Vietnam War . These decorations include the Presidential Unit Citation , the Valorous Unit Award , and five Meritorious Unit Commendations .
= = Organization = =
The 15th Sustainment Brigade was permanently attached to the 1st Cavalry Division , though it could operate independently when needed . Currently , it falls under the organization of the 1st Armored Division , having relocated as part of the Base Realignment and Closure 2005 . This assignment allows the unit maximum flexibility when deployed , as it can provide any support function needed , without being permanently attached to any particular unit or area of operations .
The unit has two permanently assigned battalions along with its Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) . They consist of the 15th Special Troops Battalion , and the 142nd Combat Sustainment Support Battalion which are also headquartered at Fort Bliss , Texas . 72nd Brigade Support Battalion inactivated in November 2014 , in conjunction with inactivation of 212th Fires Brigade ( United States ) in July 2014 . In addition , Company A , 125th Brigade Support Battalion ( formerly with 3rd BCT ) , in conjunction with the inactivation of 3rd BCT , completed a high @-@ visibility project : Company A produced the first Redistribution Property Accountability Team ( RPAT ) yard in the continental US , which gives commanders a clear picture of property redistribution , especially during a unit 's closure . The brigade command is modular in design , allowing it to assume command of additional units when deployed . The command is preparing for deployment to Southwest Asia in 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The 15th Sustainment Brigade was originally constituted on 4 May 1966 in the Regular Army as a Headquarters and Headquarters Company . It was first activated on 1 July 1966 .
On 20 October 1967 , the Brigade was inactivated after providing support to units in Vietnam , only to be reactivated on 21 September 1968 at Fort Lewis , Washington . The Brigade later inactivated at Fort Lewis on 21 March 1973 having received campaign credits for its support for Counteroffensive Operations ( Phase II and III ) in Vietnam .
As mentioned above , the 15th Sustainment Brigade replaced the “ Division Support Command ” of the 1st Cavalry Division . The history of the organization can be traced back to 1919 when one of its present units , the 15th Forward Support Battalion , existed as the 615th Motor Transport Company . The Division Support Command ( DISCOM ) thus predated the 1st Cavalry Division itself , which was not established until 1921 .
In the years before World War II , most of the units of the 1st Cavalry Division that were not assigned to larger unit commands were under the control of the Headquarters , Division Special Troops of the division ; an independent unit for various supporting units for a division . These included the service and support elements of the division . After World War II , however , the Special Troops Headquarters was reorganized into Headquarters , Division Trains . This designation immediately predates the " Division Support Command " ( DISCOM ) designation . The division trains were activated 1 November 1957 in Korea . Although a new organization , 1st Cavalry Division 's Division Trains employed concepts and tactics similar to those of U.S. armored division trains that were originated in World War I.
= = = Vietnam War = = =
On 1 September 1963 , Headquarters , Division Trains was reorganized under the " R.O.A.D. " ( Reorganization of the Army Divisions ) plan and redesignated as Headquarters , Headquarters Company and Band , 1st Cavalry Division , 1st Cavalry Division Support Command . Accompanying the division to Vietnam in August 1965 , the Support Command participated in all of the same campaigns that the division did , providing logistics support for the 1st Cavalry Division throughout the entire conflict .
The unit 's first major operation was the Pleiku Campaign . During this action , the command supported the division during 35 days of continuous airmobile operations . The opening battle of the campaign , the Battle of Ia Drang Valley , was described in the book We Were Soldiers Once ... And Young which was also the basis of the subsequent Mel Gibson film We Were Soldiers .
For most of 1967 and early 1968 , the formation supported the 1st Cavalry Division through Operation Pershing . This was a large scale search of areas under the jurisdiction of the US II Corps which , according to the US Army , saw 5 @,@ 400 enemy killed and 2 @,@ 000 captured . The division re @-@ deployed to Camp Evans , north of Hue in the I Corps Tactical Zone , during the 1968 Tet Offensive It was involved in recapturing Quang Tri and Hue regions . After intense fighting in Hue , the division then moved to relieve US Marine Corps units besieged at the Khe Sanh combat base in Operation Pegasus through March 1968 . The 1st Cavalry Division next conducted major clearing operations in the Ashau Valley from mid @-@ April through mid @-@ May 1968 . From May until September 1968 , the division participated in local pacification missions , as well as Medical outreach programs intended to offer medical support to the Vietnamese local population . During this time , the division and support command were assigned to I Corps .
In the autumn of 1968 , the 1st Cavalry Division relocated south to the III Corps Tactical Zone northwest of Saigon , adjacent to a Cambodian region commonly referred to as the " Parrots Beak " , due to its shape . In May 1970 , the division was among U.S. units participating in the Cambodian Incursion , withdrawing from Cambodia on 29 June . The division thereafter took a defensive posture while the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam continued . The bulk of the division was withdrawn on 29 April 1971 .
The Division Support Command received all of the same honors as the division headquarters throughout the conflict . These awards included the Presidential Unit Citation for the actions in Pleiku Province and the Valorous Unit Award for action in the “ Parrots Beak ” area of Cambodia ( referred to as the " Fish Hook " area in the unit 's award streamer ) . In addition , Support Command received three Meritorious Unit Commendations and four Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry awards throughout the deployments .
On 15 May 1971 , the DISCOM was reorganized and designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 1st Cavalry Division Support Command . Most major subordinate units of the DISCOM had returned from Vietnam in 1971 and were stationed at Fort Hood . By the end of June 1971 , the DISCOM was a large command composed of HHC , Support Command , 15th Adjutant General Company / Band , 15th Medical Battalion , 15th Supply and Transport Battalion , 27th Maintenance Battalion , 8th Engineer Battalion , 315th Composite Support Battalion , 15th Finance Company ( the latter two units had been transferred from the 1st Armored Division ) , and the 15th Data Processing Unit .
= = = Reorganizations & The Gulf War = = =
During the early 1980s , the DISCOM consisted of a Headquarters Company , a Division Materiel Management Center , a Division Data Center , the 15th Medical Battalion , 15th Adjutant General Battalion , 15th Finance Company , 15th Supply and Transport Battalion , 27th Maintenance Battalion and the 68th Chemical Company . In October 1984 , the 1st and 2nd Forward Support Battalions were activated from elements of the three functional battalions attached to the unit . The following year saw the Army of Excellence Reorganization ( AOE ) transform the remaining elements of the three functional battalions ( maintenance , medical , and supply and transport ) into the 4th Main Support Battalion . The AOE reorganization also added the 493rd Transportation Company ( Aircraft Maintenance ) to the Division Support Command . The forward and main support battalions , along with the Aviation Maintenance Company , were redesignated in 1987 , becoming the 15th and 115th Forward Support Battalions , 27th Main Support Battalion , and 227th Transportation Company ( Aviation Maintenance ) .
On 28 September 1990 , the Division Support Command deployed to the Middle East in support of Operation Desert Shield . In January 1991 , Division Support Command provided support to the 1st Cavalry Division throughout Operation Desert Storm , leading to a quick liberation of Kuwait . On 16 December 1991 , the 215th Forward Support Battalion was activated at Fort Hood bringing the number of active duty forward support battalions to three . On 8 July 1996 , the 615th Support Battalion ( Aviation ) was provisionally organized . The battalion was formally activated on 17 September 1996 .
= = = Activation & Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =
On 6 July 2005 , the Division Support Command ( DISCOM ) of the 1st Cavalry Division was inactivated and redesignated the 15th Sustainment Brigade . DISCOM ’ s previously subordinate Forward Support Battalions were redesignated Brigade Support Battalions and task organized under their supported maneuver brigade .
The 15th Sustainment Brigade was the first element of the 1st Cavalry Division to return to Iraq and assumed control for logistics in the Baghdad area of operations in July 2006 . The Brigade provided command and control for numerous units not normally associated with the 1st Cavalry Division . It had sustained several casualties during its tour in the country , including a mortar attack that killed two soldiers and injured five more in October 2007 . Tasks the unit completed during its 2006 – 2007 tour in Iraq included construction and maintenance of sustainment facilities , and maintaining vehicles , including adding additional armor to Humvee vehicles for other US units operating in the country .
The Brigade changed its higher command for the first time in its history on 15 February 2008 . It was reassigned from the 1st Cavalry Division to the 13th Sustainment Command ( Expeditionary ) , holding a mock cavalry charge to celebrate the occasion . This would also mark the first time that the brigade served independently from the 1st Cavalry Division . Since returning from Iraq , the brigade has undertaken a number of duties around Fort Hood . These activities include testing new systems for use during deployments , remodeling infrastructure around the fort , and training on personal safety .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit Decorations = = =
= = = Campaign Streamers = = =
= = Legacy = =
The Sustainment Brigade and its soldiers have been the subject of numerous army publications during its tours in Iraq , most of which having to do with the culture and lifestyle of soldiers serving the unit . Among these have been feature stories by the Multi @-@ National Force : Iraq public affairs office , on married soldiers who deploy together . The Army Logistician , an Army publication for soldiers serving in support units , published a feature story on the stories of soldiers serving in Iraq for their September – October 2007 issue . This story was intended to display the versatility of sustainment brigades overall . Another story was written for defenselink.mil , the press service for the United States Armed Forces in March 2007 about soldiers of the brigade and how they react to the desert climate of the country , having to cope with sandstorms and other issues .
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= Codex Carolinus =
Codex Carolinus is a Gothic @-@ Latin diglot uncial manuscript of the New Testament on parchment , dated to the 6th or 7th century . The Gothic text is designated by siglum Car , the Latin text is designated by siglum gue ( traditional system ) or by 79 ( on the list of Beuron ) , it represents the Old Latin translation of the New Testament . It is housed in the Herzog August Bibliothek .
It is one of very few manuscripts of Wulfilas Gothic Bible . The manuscript is fragmentary . The four leaves of the codex were used as raw material for the production of another manuscript – Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis . It is a palimpsest , and its text was reconstructed several times . Franz Anton Knittel was the first to examine it and decipher its text .
= = Description = =
The codex has survived to the present day in a very fragmentary condition . It contains only the text of the Epistle to the Romans 11 @-@ 15 on four parchment leaves ( size 26 @.@ 5 cm by 21 @.@ 5 cm ) . The text is written in two parallel columns , 27 lines per column . The left column is in Gothic , the right in Latin .
Contents
Romans 11 : 33 @-@ 12 : 5 ; 12 : 17 @-@ 13 : 5 ; 14 : 9 @-@ 20 ; 15 : 3 @-@ 13 .
The text of the codex is not divided into chapters . The nomina sacra are used both in Gothic and Latin texts ( ihm and ihu for " Iesum " and " Iesu " ) . All the abbreviations are marked with the superscript bar . Its text has some value in Romans 14 : 14 for Textual Criticism .
It is a palimpsest , the whole book is known as Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis . The upper text is in Latin , it contains Isidore of Seville 's Origines and his six letters . The lower text of the codex belongs to several much earlier manuscripts , such as Codex Guelferbytanus A , Codex Guelferbytanus B , and Codex Carolinus .
= = History = =
The manuscript is dated palaeographically to the 6th century or 7th century . According to Tischendorf it was written in the 6th century . Probably it was written in Italy . Nothing is known about its early history . In the 12th or 13th century four of its leaves were used as material for another book and they were overwritten by Latin text . Its later story is linked with the codices Guelferbytanus A and B.
Formerly the manuscript was held in Bobbio , Weissenburg , Mainz , and Prague . The Duke of Brunswick bought it in 1689 .
The manuscript became known to the scholars in the half of the 18th century , where it was found in the Ducal Library of Wolfenbüttel . The first description of the codex was made by Heusinger . Franz Anton Knittel ( 1721 – 1792 ) recognized two lower Greek texts of the New Testament in this palimpsest codex , and designated them by A and B , he recognized also the Gothic @-@ Latin text ( known later as Codex Carolinus ) . F. A. Knittel deciphered Gothic @-@ Latin text of the Codex Carolinus and published it in 1762 at Brunswick . In his edition all abbreviated forms , Gothic and Latin , are written in full . It was published in Uppsala in 1763 . It was published again by Theodor Zahn .
Knittel made many errors , especially in Latin text , he also did not decipher every word and left several lacunae in the reconstructed text ( e.g. Romans 11 : 35 ; 12 : 2 ; 15 : 8 ) . Tischendorf made a new and more accurate collation for the Latin text and edited in 1855 . Tischendorf used abbreviations for the nomina sacra , he did not leave any lacunae . The new collation of the Gothic text was given by Carla Falluomini in 1999 .
The codex is located at the Herzog August Bibliothek ( no . 4148 ) in Wolfenbüttel .
= = Samples of reconstructed text ( Romans 11 : 33 @-@ 12 : 2 ) = =
= = = Gothic text ( folio 277 recto , 1 col . ) = = =
= = = Latin text ( folio 277 recto , 2 col . ) = = =
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= Mont Aiguille =
Mont Aiguille ( 2 @,@ 085 m ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) ) is a mountain in the Vercors Plateau of the French Prealps , located 58 km ( 36 mi ) south of Grenoble , in the commune of Chichilianne , and the département of Isère . The mountain , known as one of the Seven Wonders of Dauphiné , is a relatively flat limestone mesa surrounded by steep cliffs . The mountain lies within an area designated in 1985 as the Vercors Regional Natural Park . Mont Aiguille 's limestone cliffs , especially on the northwest side , are popular with climbers . Its first climb in 1492 was said to mark the birth of mountaineering .
= = Topography and geography = =
Mont Aiguille is a mesa eroded from the Vercors Plateau in the drainage basin of the Rhône . It is surrounded by steep cliffs and has a height of 2 @,@ 085 metres ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) and a clean prominence of 465 m ( 1 @,@ 526 ft ) . The surrounding terrain is difficult enough to warrant a technical climb as the easiest method of ascent . The mountain is capped with meadows botanically similar to those on the Vercors High Plateau , but beneath the cliffs there are extensive forests . The mountain lies within the Vercors Regional Natural Park and is in the département of Isère . The nearest access by rail is in the village of Saint @-@ Martin @-@ de @-@ Clelles and by road is from the north via the Col de La Bâtie .
= = Geomorphology and geology = =
Geomorphologically , the mountain is a mesa @-@ like outlier , that is to say , the remains of a plateau that has been otherwise eroded to leave only a single pillar of rock - weaker or fractured rocks ( the so @-@ called Jasneuf fault ) between the current summit and the Vercors high plateau were eroded over time by over 400 metres , leaving the peak standing on its own . This has resulted in several unique features of Mont Aiguille , including the cliffs , which are almost identical to those on the eastern edge of the Vercors Plateau such as those on the edge of the Grand Veymont , which is the highest point of the range . Another feature resulting from this is the presence of meadows on the summit plateau , which are similar to those to the west on the rest of the Vercors plateau .
Mont Aiguille is a limestone mesa , previously connected to the main body of the high plateau of the Vercors Massif . The summit is made up of lower Barremian strata , deposited during the Cretaceous period . This is the same as the plateau to the west , but not as the immediate environs : the lower slopes are composed of older Hauterivian strata . As easily observed , the bedding planes are all roughly level , although there is some inclination down to the north @-@ east .
= = History = =
According to Roman legend , the mountain was torn from the rest of the Vercors when a hunter named Ibicus saw naked goddesses on the mountain and was changed into an ibex as punishment . In the medieval period , Mont Aiguille was traditionally called " Mount Inaccessible " , and typically depicted as an " inverted pyramid " or " mushroom " . Since at least the thirteenth century , the mountain has been regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of Dauphiné . The mountain is most noted for its first ascent in 1492 . Charles VIII ordered that the peak be climbed , so one of his servants , Antoine de Ville , made the ascent using a combination of ladders , ropes and other artificial aids . He was visited in the following days by many local members of the nobility and aristocracy . The team bivouacked on the summit for eight days , erecting small crosses and a stone shelter . The ascent is described by François Rabelais in his Quart Livre . This was the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty , and has been said to mark the beginning of mountaineering . The mountain was not climbed again until 1834 , nearly 350 years later , when it was ascended barefoot by Jean Liotard , accompanied for one @-@ quarter of the way by local explorers . Less than a month later , it was climbed by seven people at the same time , who reportedly danced and sang La Marseillaise on the summit . In 1940 , the top 11 m ( 36 ft ) of the mountain collapsed , reducing the height to 2 @,@ 085 m ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) . Seventeen years later , on 27 August 1957 , the stunt pilot Henri Giraud landed a Piper J @-@ 3 Cub on the summit , utilising an 80 m ( 260 ft ) -long , 20 m ( 66 ft ) -wide runway which had been built earlier that day using materials and men lifted to the summit by helicopters . In the following 18 years , he staged a further 51 landings on the summit before his final landing in 1975 , many carrying paying passengers , and often made using skis . The mountain was in 1970 designated as part of the Parc naturel régional du Vercors .
= = Gallery = =
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= German submarine U @-@ 111 ( 1940 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 111 was a Type IXB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II .
She had a short career , sinking four enemy vessels and damaging one other . These victories took place over a period of two war patrols . During her first sortie , the boat sank two enemy vessels and damaged a further one . On her second patrol , U @-@ 111 sank two more enemy ships before she herself was sunk on 4 October 1941 southwest of Tenerife , by depth charges from a British warship . Out of a crew of 52 officers and men , eight died in the attack ; 44 survived .
= = Construction and design = =
= = = Construction = = =
U @-@ 111 was ordered to be built by the Kriegsmarine on 8 August 1939 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . Her keel was laid down on 20 February 1940 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 976 . Following about seven months of construction , she was launched on 15 September and commissioned on 19 December under the command of Kapitänleutnant Wilhelm Kleinschmidt .
= = = Design = = =
German Type IXB submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA . U @-@ 111 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 051 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 034 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 178 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 159 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 76 m ( 22 ft 2 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles ( 119 km ; 74 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 111 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
= = = First patrol = = =
U @-@ 111 went to sea on a war patrol for the first time on 5 May 1941 . For a period of 64 days , she roamed the North Sea and eventually the North Atlantic as far west as Nova Scotia in search of any Allied convoys heading to Great Britain . During that time she encountered three enemy vessels . The first confrontation took place on the 13th , just eight days after leaving port , when she came across the British merchant vessel SS Somersby and sank her just south of Iceland . On 20 May , the submarine came across the tanker San Felix and fired a torpedo at her , causing damage to her hull but failing to sink her . Two days later , U @-@ 111 sank the second and last enemy vessel of her patrol , the Barnby , south of Greenland . After these victories , the boat returned to port . However , instead of returning to Wilhelmshaven , she entered the port of Lorient in occupied France on 7 July .
= = = Second patrol and loss = = =
U @-@ 111 left Lorient on 14 August 1941 and travelled south off the west coast of Africa and into the South Atlantic . She then turned west towards the eastern coast of Brazil . It was in these waters that the boat sank her last two enemy merchant ships . The first was the Dutch Motor merchant vessel Marken . She was torpedoed on 10 September just north of Ceará in Brazil . All of her crew survived the attack and boarded life boats . They were questioned by the crew of the U @-@ boat , given food and released . Marken 's crew were later safely picked up by a Spanish merchant vessel . Ten days later , U @-@ 111 sank her fourth and last enemy vessel , the British motor merchant ship Cingalese Prince also off Brazil . On 28 September she was involved in an action in Tarafal Bay , in the Cape Verde islands ; having been ordered to rendezvous there with two other U @-@ boats , U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 68 . She was struck by the British submarine HMS Clyde which had accidentally dived onto her after unsuccessfully attacking U – 67 . U @-@ 111 was so badly damaged she was left unable to dive , and was obliged to head for home . On 4 October 1941 , she was hunted down and sunk by depth charges from the British anti @-@ submarine trawler HMS Lady Shirley southwest of Tenerife . Of a crew of 52 men , eight died ; including Meki Smith 44 survived . They were subsequently interrogated ; it was the first time prisoners of war were captured from a U @-@ boat operating in the South Atlantic .
= = = Wolfpacks = = =
U @-@ 111 took part in one wolfpack , namely .
West ( 13 May - 5 June 1941 )
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= Waxy ( horse ) =
Waxy ( 1790 – 18 April 1818 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse that won the 1793 Epsom Derby and was an influential sire in the late eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century . Waxy was bred by Sir Ferdinando Poole and was foaled at Lewes in 1790 . He was sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , a son of the foundation stallion Eclipse , whose genetic lineage traced to the Darley Arabian . Waxy 's dam , Maria , was sired by the influential stallion Herod and produced one full @-@ brother to Waxy , who was named Worthy . Waxy derived his name from a variety of potato , a choice that was inspired by his sire 's name . Trained by Robert Robson , Waxy won nine races out of 15 starts during his four @-@ year racing career , retiring from racing at the age of seven in 1797 after sustaining an injury during his last start .
Beginning in 1798 , Waxy stood at stud at Sir Poole 's estate in Lewes and remained there until Poole 's death in 1804 . After Poole 's death , Waxy was acquired by the 3rd Duke of Grafton and stood at his Euston Hall stud . Waxy remained at Euston Hall for the remainder of his life and was used as a breeding stallion until his death on 18 April 1818 . His most notable offspring were produced under the ownership of the 3rd Duke of Grafton and his son . Waxy produced 190 winners of races during his stud career , siring four Epsom Derby and three Epsom Oaks winners , becoming a leading sire in 1810 . His most notable sons that achieved success in the stud were Whalebone and Whisker . Through the produce of these two sons , Waxy became the paternal ancestor of most of the world 's male Thoroughbreds by the mid @-@ twentieth century .
= = Background = =
Waxy was bred by Sir Ferdinando Poole , a baronet whose family seat was in Poole , Cheshire . Sir Ferdinando leased an extensive estate in Lewes that was built on land once owned by the Grey Friars and was called " The Friary . " Waxy was foaled in 1790 at Poole 's stable at The Friary .
The colt was named " Waxy " to distinguish him from Poole 's other colt sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os out of the mare Macaria , which was subsequently named " Mealy . " Waxy and mealy were two types of potatoes available at the time and are a play on the name of the colts ' sire Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , which is itself a pun on the name " Potatoes . " A variant spelling , " Waxey , " is mentioned in some publications .
= = = Ancestry = = =
Waxy 's sire , Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , was a successful sire of racehorses that had won 34 races during his seven @-@ year racing career . In addition to Waxy , Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os produced the mare Parasol ( the dam of Partisan ) and the colt Lottery . Waxy was Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os most successful son in the breeding shed , with Waxy 's sons carrying on the direct @-@ male line well into the 20th century .
Waxy 's dam , Maria , was bred by Lord Bolingbroke and was sired by the Thoroughbred foundation sire Herod . She produced ten foals between 1784 and 1797 , with Waxy being her sixth foal and one of two by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os . Waxy 's full @-@ brother , Worthy ( foaled in 1795 ) , was a moderately successful racer and was later a breeding stallion for the East India Company . Maria died in 1797 , about two weeks after foaling the filly Wowski , later the dam of Derby winner Smolensko , Sir Charles and Thunderbolt .
= = = Description = = =
In the words of jockey Sam Chifney , Waxy was a " handsome , rich bay , with a white stocking on the off @-@ hind [ right ] leg , good length , and especially beautiful quarters . " In the words of his exercise rider ( who wrote an anonymous letter to The Sporting Magazine in 1828 ) , Waxy was " one of the finest formed horses , perfect in symmetry , beautiful in colour , admirable in all his paces , and of the finest temper when in work . " However , when Waxy was confined to a stall during the winter months , his temperament became unruly and unpredictable leading the anonymous writer to remark that , " Oft has he kicked the lappets of my coat over my head . " One of the few , possibly only , surviving portraits of Waxy was painted by Francis Sartorius in 1794 or 1795 , and the depiction was praised in commentary for Sporting Magazine for its " neatness " and for " the truth of representation it so evidently display [ ed ] . " While most breeding stallions and racehorses of the era had stable companions , Waxy reportedly was fond of rabbits in his later years and " was never happy without a rabbit in his paddock " with one female rabbit making her nest in the middle of his stall and raising generations of rabbits at the site that were never harmed by Waxy .
= = Racing career = =
Waxy did not race at the age of two years , and his first turf appearance was at the spring meeting at Newmarket . Waxy was trained by Robert Robson , who worked for Sir Ferdinando Poole in Lewes for several years from about 1792 . Waxy 's main and most celebrated racing rival was Lord Egremont 's colt Gohanna ( first described as " Brother to Precipitate " ) who was called the " Pride of Petworth . " Waxy raced Gohanna five times in his career , beating him in all but one race , a match race at Newmarket in 1794 where Waxy carried two more pounds than Gohanna and lost by half a head . Waxy was perceived as an excellent racehorse during his racing career . So much so that in one alleged incident , Waxy was mistakenly seized as a heriot after the proprietor of a Godstone inn where he was staying suddenly died . Being the finest horse in the stable , and assuming he was owned by the stablemaster he was briefly taken by the landowner . Waxy raced until he was seven years old and retired from racing after he was injured in his last start . He was then used as a breeding stallion by Poole at Lewes .
= = = 1793 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
The Epsom Derby occurred on 18 May and was attended by " as numerous a company as ever appeared on the course . " Eleven horses lined up for the start , seven of them sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os . The starting odds for Waxy to win the Derby were 100 to 7 and 100 to 10 ( depending on the bookmaking operation ) and at the Tattersalls betting room he " was so little thought of , that he had never been mentioned " in the betting . The race favorite was Lord Egremont 's colt " Brother to Precipitate " ( later named Gohanna in 1795 ) with this horse taking the lead in the initial strides of the race . Waxy pushed Brother to Precipitate ( a " bump " in modern racing terms ) at the track 's first turn , taking and maintaining the lead to become an " easy winner " of the Derby . Three of the top four finishers were sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , with second place finisher Brother to Precipitate being the exception . The meeting was also notable for a " dreadful accident , " a collision between a servant on horseback with the colt Exiseman , the winner of the race after the Derby , and for the antics of John Lade dressed in a " loose undress of blue and white striped trowsers " asking the crowd to determine whether he was " the captain of a privateer or an ambassador from the Great Mogul . "
At Lewes on 1 August , Waxy won an 80 @-@ guinea sweepstakes race against Lord Egremont 's colt Mercury while carrying seven pounds more than the other horses in the race as a handicap for his win in the Derby . At Abingdon on 11 September , Waxy won a two @-@ mile 40 @-@ guinea sweepstakes race against the colt Rockingham .
= = = 1794 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Waxy won the Jockey Club Plate at the Second Spring meeting at Newmarket in May . At the same meeting a few days later , Waxy was beaten by Lord Egremont 's colt Brother to Precipitate in a match race . On At Ipswich on 1 July , Waxy won a match race against Charles Bunbury 's colt Robin Gray . At Lewes in July , Waxy ran against his previous rival , Brother to Precipitate , and won both heats in the four @-@ mile Duke of Richmond 's Plate for horses bred in Suffolk . On the same day , Waxy was the only horse that presented for the 60 @-@ guinea Ladies ' Plate and won by default ( termed as a " walk over " ) .
= = = 1795 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
At Oxford on 18 August , Waxy was second in a 100 @-@ guinea cup race to Mr. Durand 's filly Hermione . At Lewes on 6 August , Waxy was third in the four @-@ mile Ladies ' Plate to the colt Guildford and Lord Egremont 's horse Gohanna . On 19 September at Salisbury , Waxy won two heats to win the 100 @-@ guinea His Majesty 's Plate against the five @-@ year @-@ old horse Guatimozin .
= = = 1796 : six @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
At the First Spring meeting , Waxy was second in the 100 @-@ guinea King 's Plate to the colt Gabriel . In March at Newmarket , Waxy was third in the first class of the Oatland Stakes to the colts Viret and Pecker . In May , Waxy won His Majesty 's Plate at Guildford against Gohanna and Guildford . On 31 August at Salisbury , Waxy won two four @-@ mile heats against Gohanna for the 100 @-@ guinea His Majesty 's Plate .
= = = 1797 : seven @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
On 18 July at Oxford in the running for the Gold Cup , Waxy did not place and was noted to have " broke down " during the running . This was his last appearance on the turf and he was retired to stud the following season in 1798 .
= = Stud career = =
Waxy first stood at Lewes for a fee of 10 guineas per mare and a groom fee of 10 shillings . In September 1803 , Sir Ferdinando Poole offered to sell Waxy for 700 guineas to William Lightfoot , an agent sent to buy horses for Virginian turfman John Tayloe . Lightfoot refused to buy Waxy , writing to Tayloe , " he has lost an eye , and is thirteen years old , and I think his health bad . " Instead Lightfoot purchased Waxy 's half @-@ sister Keren Happuch who was covered by Waxy that year . It is unclear how Waxy lost his eye , its loss occurring sometime between 1797 and 1803 . Sir Ferdinando Poole died on 8 June 1804 , and Waxy was then acquired by the Duke of Grafton and relocated to the Euston Hall stud near Newmarket . Under the Duke 's ownership , his fee increased to 25 guineas per mare and he covered 40 mares per season .
Waxy died on 18 April 1818 at the advanced age ( for a Thoroughbred ) of 28 , having gone completely blind a few years before his death . He was buried at Newmarket , close to All Saints Church .
= = = Legacy = = =
Waxy produced 190 winners in his stud career , including four winners of the Epsom Derby and three winners of the Epsom Oaks . His first Derby winner , Waxy Pope , was foaled when Waxy was 16 years old and most of his notable offspring were produced in the last nine years of his life under the ownership of the Duke of Grafton and his son . Waxy was the leading sire in 1810 , mostly due to the racing success of Pope and Whalebone . His importance to Thoroughbred genetics and prevalence in the General Stud Book led him to be likened to " the ace of trumps , " the most powerful card in bridge , due in part to the success of his sons Whisker and Whalebone . In the mid @-@ 20th century , the paternal line of most of the world 's male Thoroughbreds traced to the Darley Arabian through Waxy , and Waxy 's line was one of only three male lines tracing to Eclipse that persisted into the 20th century ( the others tracing through Hambletonian and Joe Andrews ) . In the words of 20th @-@ century Thoroughbred pedigree analyst John Furman Wall , " with his advent , superb quality was a reality . "
= = = Notable offspring = = =
Waxy produced four Epsom Derby winners : Waxy Pope ( 1809 ) , Whalebone ( 1810 ) , Blucher ( 1814 ) and Whisker ( 1815 ) . He also sired three fillies that won the Epsom Oaks : Music ( 1813 ) , Minuet ( 1815 ) and Corinne ( 1818 ) . Corinne also won the 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes in 1818 . His most productive offspring were produced by the mare Penelope ( by Trumpator ) and include Whalebone , Whisker , Web , Woful , Wire and Wilful . Penelope was bred and owned by the Duke of Grafton , and all of her foals were foaled at Euston Hall . Whisker was more notable for siring broodmares , and Whalebone was a good producer of colts . Waxy Pope was a leading sire in Ireland and Blucher was a marginally successful sire .
= = = = Colts = = = =
Pope ( also called Waxy Pope and Lord Sligo 's Waxy ) was foaled in 1806 out of the mare Prunella by Highflyer . Pope won the 1809 Derby in a close finish from the colt Wizard and won seven races in his career on the turf . He was later exported to Ireland and was a leading sire nine times .
Whalebone was foaled in 1807 out of the mare Penelope , who was a daughter of Prunella . He raced for six years and won the Derby in 1810 . He later sired two Derby winners , Lap @-@ dog and Spaniel and Caroline , winner of the Oaks . He might have been the sire of Derby winner Moses , but Moses ' parentage is uncertain due to his dam being covered by two stallions .
Woful was full @-@ brother to Whalebone and Whisker and was foaled in 1809 . He won 12 races in his turf career and was a successful sire , especially of broodmares , for the Euston Hall stud , producing winners of the Epsom Oaks , 1 @,@ 000 Guineas and St. Leger Stakes .
Blucher was foaled in 1811 from the mare Pantina by Buzzard . Blucher won the Derby in 1814 and was a marginally successful sire , producing the third dam of Pretender .
Whisker was foaled in 1812 and was a full @-@ brother to Woful and Whalebone . Whisker won the Derby in 1815 and 11 other races in his career . He sired Economist ( the grandsire of King Tom ) and the filly Poetess ( the dam of Monarque ) .
= = = = Fillies = = = =
Web was foaled in 1808 out of Penelope and was the grandam of the influential stallion Glencoe through her daughter Trampoline .
Music was a full @-@ sister to Minuet out of the mare Woodbine and was foaled in 1810 . She won the Oaks in 1813 and was second in the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes , but did not produce any offspring of note .
Minuet was a full @-@ sister of Music and was foaled in 1812 . She won the 1815 Oaks , July Stakes and several sweepstakes and produced several winners at stud , but her line did not endure .
Corinne was foaled in 1815 out of the Oaks winner Briseis . She won the 1818 Epsom Oaks and 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes but was an unsuccessful broodmare .
= = Tabulated pedigree = =
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= Battle of Antioch ( 218 ) =
The Battle of Antioch ( 8 June 218 ) was fought between the Roman armies of the Emperor Macrinus and his contender Elagabalus , whose troops were commanded by General Gannys . Gannys ' victory over Macrinus led to the downfall of the emperor and his replacement by Elagabalus . After a short reign of four years , Elagabalus was also killed , after which a short period of stability followed .
The battle itself is not particularity notable , and even the ancient scholars , Dio and Herodian , only briefly consider the battle itself . However , it is historically notable as the ultimate action in a series of events that led the Army to select the emperor over the objections of the Senate . This further eroded one of the few official powers remaining in the Senate .
= = Background = =
= = = Death of Caracalla and rise of Macrinus = = =
Macrinus ' predecessor Caracalla was murdered while traveling to visit a temple by Justin Martialus , a soldier who was incensed at being declined the rank of centurion , during a period of war with the Parthians . Macrinus , a Praetorian prefect at the time , was involved in the assassination . Macrinus may have plotted against Caracalla because of fear for his own life , based on a story mentioned by Herodian and supported by Gibbons : Macrinus would often read dispatches sent to Caracalla , and one such dispatch delivered from Materianus , a friend of Caracalla , detailed a prophecy , perhaps fabricated , from the oracle at Delphi , suggesting that Macrinus was plotting against Caracalla and that Macrinus was destined to become the next emperor .
In the immediate aftermath of Caracalla 's death , Adventus was selected to serve as emperor , but he declined the position due to his old age . The army then chose Macrinus ; they had no feelings of ' love or esteem ' towards him , but there was no one else competing for the position . The army proclaimed Macrinus as emperor three days after the death of Caracalla , and named him Augustus .
The results were applauded by the Senate at first , who were glad to be rid of the former emperor . But tradition held that the emperor could only be selected from among the Senate , causing some concern . Macrinus was a member of the equestrian class , the lower of the two aristocratic classes , which led to further concern . This led the Senate to severely scrutinize his every action . The Senate , however , was powerless to do anything about it , the military was at the time so concentrated at Edessa that there was no force anywhere else in the Empire that could contest the action .
As the new emperor , Macrinus had to deal with the major threat of the Parthians , with whom Rome were currently at war . An indecisive battle at Nisibis is cited as a reason for the opening of peace negotiations . Negotiations may have been favourable for both sides ; Rome was being threatened by Armenia and Dacia , and the Parthians were far from home and low on supplies . The settlement , however , was viewed by many people as being unfavourable to Rome ; Dio quotes that a payout of 200 million Sesterces was paid to the Parthians in exchange for peace . The sum was called into question by Scott due to its sheer enormity and because Dio is known for being unreliable when discussing finances . Regardless , the general opinion on the negotiations was one of contempt , with Macrinus being accused of being cowardly and weak .
With the peace treaty concluded , Macrinus took measures to control the expenditures of Rome , reinstating the fiscal policies of Septimius Severus . This included a reduction in pay and benefits for Legionnaires , which was not popular with the Army who had placed him in command . These policies would only apply to new recruits , but the enlisted soldiers saw this as setting precedent for further changes to the fiscal policies brought in by Caracalla . The sullen behaviour of new recruits , who entered service committing to greater labour for less payment , only furthered discontent among the soldiers . Gibbon suggests that from here only a small spark would be required to ignite a rebellion .
= = = Rise of Elagabalus = = =
Following the death of Caracalla , Macrinus allowed Caracalla 's mother , Julia Domna , and his aunt Julia Maesa , to settle in their home town of Emesa . Julia Domna , who was at Antioch at the time of Caracalla 's death , attempted suicide and eventually succeeded by starving herself . Julia Maesa , however , returned to Emesa with her finances intact .
Julia 's suspicions regarding Macrinus ' involvement in the death of Caracalla led to her championing the case of her grandson , Elagabalus , as the rightful emperor . At the time Elagabalus was the chief priest of the Phoenician god Elagabal in Emesa . The soldiers stationed there frequently visited the temple where Elagabalus was chief priest , and enjoyed watching him perform rituals and ceremonies there . On one such occasion , Julia Maesa took the opportunity to inform the soldiers , either truthfully or not , that Elagabalus was Caracalla 's son . Simultaneously , she may have seen the opportunity to use her family 's wealth and prestige to set in motion her plot .
On the night of 15 May 218 , Elagabalus was taken , by either Julia Maesa or Gannys , to the camp of the Legio III Gallica at Raphanaea and presented to the soldiers stationed there . Some accounts claim that upon being presented to them , Elagabalus was immediately hailed Antoninus after Caracalla . Enhanced by Julia 's monetary contributions , the legion proclaimed Elagabalus emperor on 16 May 218 .
Macrinus might have been able to stop the rebellion in this early stage , but could not decide on a course of action and remained at Antioch .
= = = Rebellion = = =
Now that Elagabalus had the support of an entire legion , other legionnaires , prompted by discontent over pay , moved to join Elagabalus ' ranks as well . In response , Macrinus sent a cavalry force led under the command of Ulpinus Julianus to regain control of the rebels . Instead , the cavalry killed Ulpinus and joined Elagabalus .
Following these events , Macrinus traveled to Apamea to ensure the loyalty of Legio II Parthica before setting off to march against Emesa . Macrinus appointed his son Diadumenian the position of Imperator , and promised the soldiers 20 @,@ 000 Sesterces each , with 4 @,@ 000 of these to be paid on the spot . Macrinus also hosted a dinner for the residents of Apamea in honour of Diadumenian . At the dinner , Macrinus was presented with the head of Ulpinus Julianus who had been killed by his defecting soldiers . This forced Macrinus to leave , according to Dio in retreat , while Downey asserts that Macrinus left in order to launch an attack .
Macrinus ' and Elagabalus ' troops met somewhere near the border of Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice , Macrinus ' efforts here , however , were in vain and the whole legion defected to the challenger , forcing him to retire to Antioch . This allowed Elagabus to take the offensive and march on Antioch .
= = = Senatorial response = = =
During and after Caracalla 's reign the position of the Senate had been considerably weakened . The balance of power had been transferred from the Senate to the army ; as such the emperor of Rome was decided by the soldier while the Senate existed solely to officiate state affairs without any real authority . Thus , both Macrinus and later Elagabalus would attempt to secure the favour of the military while generally disregarding the opinion of the Senate . Macrinus , now in dire circumstances , would have no choice but to turn to the Senate . Thus , while at Antioch , Macrinus would make one more attempt at securing support , this time from Rome . However , a combination of distrust from the Senate , the impeding approach of Elagabalus 's legions and insufficient funds meant that Macrinus would have to face the approaching Elagabalus with only his Praetorian Guard . Had time been available , Marius Maximus , prefect of Rome , would have been able to muster troops and send reinforcements to Macrinus . Despite all of this , the Senate would still declare war against the usurper and his family , regardless of their relative powerlessness .
= = Battle = =
The battle took place on 8 June 218 at a defile outside of a village , believed to be Immae , approximately twenty @-@ four miles or so by road between Antioch and Beroea . Herodian challenges this assertion , suggesting that the battle took place closer to the border at Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice , possibly near Emesa . Other sources either agree with Dio that the battle took place near Antioch , with one source , Downey , suggesting that both battles occurred separately or make no claim as to where the battle occurred .
The armies of Elagabalus , led by Gannys , a novice but determined commander , met with the Praetorian Guard of Macrinus in a narrowly fought pitched battle . Prior to battle Macrinus had the Praetorian Guard set aside their scaled armour breastplates and grooved shields in favour of lighter oval shields , thus making them lighter and more manoeuvrable and also negating the advantage of light Parthian lancers ( lanciarii ) . Despite the numerical superiority of Gannys ' army of at least two full legions , faced with what levies Macrinus was able to accrue , the engagement had begun in Macrinus ' favour with the soldiers led by Gannys turning to flee after the Praetorian Guards had managed to break through the enemy line . At some point during the retreat , Julia Maesa and Soaemias Bassiana ( Elagabalus ' mother ) joined the fray , rallying the forces while Gannys , who was on horseback , charged headlong at the enemy thus ending the retreat and renewing the assault . At this point Macrinus , fearing defeat , fled back to the city of Antioch . Had Macrinus remained in battle it is plausible that he might have won the battle and thus secured his position as emperor .
= = Aftermath = =
Having been defeated in battle , Macrinus sent his son along with attendants to Artabanus V of Parthia , while he himself returned to Antioch , proclaiming victory over Elagabalus in battle . News of Macrinus ' defeat broke out and many civilians in the city and on the roads were slain because they had favoured Macrinus . Macrinus shaved off his beard and hair to disguise himself as a member of the military police and fled the city at night on horseback . He reached Cilicia along with a few companions ; while masquerading as a military courier he successfully secured a carriage , which he subsequently drove to Eribolon , near Nicomedia , before setting sail for Chalcedon .
In Chalcedon , Macrinus was arrested after revealing his whereabouts by making a request for money to a Procurator . While being transported back to Antioch , " like the commonest criminal " according to Dio , he injured himself in an escape attempt . He was beheaded in Cappadocia by the centurion Marcianus Taurus . His body remained unburied until Elagabalus had the chance to inspect it . Macrinus ' son Diadumenian faced a similar fate after being captured at Zeugma by the centurion Cladius Pollio . Dio concludes that Macrinus might have been praised for his deeds , rather than ridiculed and later slain , had he shown temperance and passed the title of emperor onto somebody else . He further concludes that Macrinus was the master of his own demise , which he felt was truly deserved .
In the interim period between the battle and the capture of Macrinus , Elagabalus declared himself emperor with the support of the military , though he would not return to Rome for several months . This news , upon reaching Rome , was met with dismay by both the Senate and the Roman people , though both submitted through necessity . Elagabalus ' reputation would not improve during his reign ; his worship of Elagabal and the sacrilegious performance of religious rituals would generate anger among the Romans . In an attempt to prevent disaster , his cousin would be elevated to the position of caesar , co @-@ ruler . This appeased the Romans for a time , however envy caused further problems culminating in the death of Elagabalus at the hands of the Praetorian Guard . This was followed by a short period of stability for Rome .
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= Asmara Moerni =
Asmara Moerni ( [ asˈmara mʊrˈni ] ; Perfected Spelling : Asmara Murni ; Indonesian for True Love ) is a 1941 romance film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed by Rd Ariffien and produced by Ang Hock Liem for Union Films . Written by Saeroen , the film followed a doctor who falls in love with his maid , as well as her failed romance with a fellow villager . Starring Adnan Kapau Gani , Djoewariah , and S. Joesoef , the black @-@ and @-@ white film was cast and advertised to cater to the growing native intelligentsia . Despite mixed reviews , it was a commercial success . As with most films of the Indies , Asmara Moerni may be lost .
= = Plot = =
After four years of doing his residency in Singkawang , Borneo , Dr. Pardi ( Adnan Kapau Gani ) returns to Java to open a practice . Before then , he goes to Cigading to visit his family and give them souvenirs . Upon arrival he is stunned to find that his family 's maid Tati ( Djoewariah ) , who had been his childhood playmate , is now a grown and beautiful woman . He secretly begins to fawn over Tati , although he does not tell her the reason . When Pardi 's mother tells him he should marry quickly , he refuses all of her suggested brides . He says only that he already has someone in mind , aware that his mother would never approve an inter @-@ class marriage with the maid .
Tati 's fiancé , Amir ( S. Joesoef ) , is jealous of all the attention that Tati is receiving , which leaves her no time for him . He plans to leave Cigading for the capital , Batavia ( today Jakarta ) , where he will find work . Tati , upon learning this , joins him . She lives at her aunt 's home in the city , making a living by washing clothes , while he finds lodging with a local man and learns to drive a becak ( pedicab ) . Together they begin saving for their wedding . Unknown to them , Pardi has cut short his time in Cigading to move to Batavia , both to begin his new job and to find Tati .
Days before the wedding , Amir is playing his flute when he is approached by a singer known as Miss Omi , who asks him to join her troupe on an international tour . Amir refuses , even after Omi hires him to drive her around the city in an attempt to convince him . After dropping Omi off , Amir is approached by a man who asks him to deliver a package ; however , before he can deliver the package Amir is arrested and charged with smuggling opium .
When Amir does not return , Tati and her aunt are worried : as Tati saw Amir with Omi , she fears that the two have run away together . Heartbroken , she intends to return to Cigading . When she and her aunt visit their boss , Abdul Sidik , they unknowingly pass Pardi – Abdul Sidik 's doctor . Upon returning home , Pardi calls Abdul Sidik and asks him to take Tati in as if she were his daughter and educate her . Tati is a fast learner , and is soon comparable to any woman from a wealthy family .
After being held eighteen months without trial , Amir is released and returned to Batavia . He is unable to find Tati , leaving him to wander the streets . Omi spots him , and again she asks him to play with her troupe . Amir agrees , and soon newspapers are filled with advertisements touting his name . Spotting one , Tati and Abdul Sidik go to a performance , only to learn that Amir was the victim of a car accident . At the hospital , where Amir is being treated by Pardi , Tati learns the truth behind Amir 's absence . On his deathbed , Amir asks Pardi to take care of Tati ; the two are later married .
= = Production = =
Asmara Moerni was directed by Rd Ariffien , a former journalist who had been active in the nationalist and labour movements before turning to theatre . He had joined Union Films – the company behind Asmara Moerni – in 1940 , making his debut with Harta Berdarah ( Bloody Treasure ) . Union 's head Ang Hock Liem produced , while the story was written by journalist Saeroen , who had joined Union after commercial success on Albert Balink 's Terang Boelan ( Full Moon , 1937 ) and with the production house Tan 's Film .
The black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Adnan Kapau Gani , Djoewariah , and S. Joesoef . It was the feature film debut of Gani and Joesoef , while Djoewariah had been on Union 's payroll since Bajar dengan Djiwa ( Pay with Your Soul ) the preceding year .
At the time there was a growing movement to attract native intelligentsia , educated at schools run by the Dutch colonial government , and convince them to view domestic films , which were generally considered to be of much lower quality than imported Hollywood productions . This was blamed , in part , on the dominance of theatrically trained actors and crew . As such , Ariffien invited Gani , at the time a medical doctor and a prominent member of the nationalist movement , to join the cast . Although some nationalists considered Gani 's involvement in Asmara Moerni as besmirching the independence movement , Gani considered it necessary : he believed audiences needed to have higher opinions of domestic film productions .
= = Release and reception = =
Asmara Moerni was premiered on 29 April 1941 at Orion Theatre in Batavia ; the crowds were mostly natives and ethnic Chinese . Rated for all ages , advertising for the film emphasised Gani 's education and Joesoef 's upper @-@ class background . It was also advertised as breaking away from the conventional standards of stage theatre , such as music , which were omnipresent in the contemporary film industry . By August 1941 it was screened in Singapore , then part of the Straits Settlements , and billed as a " modern Malay drama " . A novelisation was published later in 1941 by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning .
The film was a commercial success , though reviews were mixed . An anonymous review for the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad found the film " fascinating " , with good acting , though another review for the same paper found that , though the film was better than contemporary works such as Pantjawarna and Sorga Ka Toedjoe , its claim to abandon stage standards was to be taken " with a pinch of salt " . A review from the Surabaya @-@ based Soerabaijasch Handelsblad found the film full of drama , describing it as " Western motifs , played in the native environment , with a specifically Sundanese situation " .
= = Legacy = =
After Asmara Moerni , Union produced a further three films ; only one , Wanita dan Satria , was by Rd Ariffien , who left the company soon after , as did Saeroen . Gani did not act in any further films , but instead returned to the nationalist movement . During the Indonesian National Revolution ( 1945 – 49 ) he became known as a smuggler , and after independence became a government minister . In November 2007 Gani was made a National Hero of Indonesia . Djoewariah continued to act until the 1950s , when she migrated to theatre after receiving a series of increasingly minor roles .
Asmara Moerni was screened as late as November 1945 . The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= London Country North East =
London Country North East was a bus operator in South East England and London . It was formed from the split of London Country Bus Services in 1986 and operated a fleet of around 350 buses from six garages , with its headquarters located in Hatfield .
The company was the last subsidiary of National Bus Company to be privatised , being sold to the AJS Group on 22 April 1988 . Later in the same year it was split into County Bus & Coach and Sovereign Bus & Coach .
= = Formation and early history = =
In the run @-@ up to deregulation , London Country Bus Services ( LCBS ) was broken into four smaller companies on 7 September 1986 . Three hundred and fifty buses , the garages at Hatfield , Hertford , Stevenage , Harlow , St Albans and the isolated base at Grays formed the new London Country North East ( LCNE ) company .
Early difficulties with staff conditions and wages , which the company was attempting to simplify from the complex contracts arranged by LCBS , led to strike action by staff in February 1988 . Performance levels on contracted routes were already below those expected by the local councils who had awarded LCNE the contracts , and by London Regional Transport . Following the strike three of the company 's London contracts ( routes 292 , 298 and 313 ) were terminated and awarded to independents .
On 22 April 1988 , London Country North East was sold by the National Bus Company , the last of 72 subsidiaries to be privatised . The buyer was Alan Stephenson 's AJS Group , which had been formed by the management buyout of West Yorkshire Road Car Company . As part of the sale LCNE 's property was bought by Parkdale Holdings and leased back to the company ; some was sold for redevelopment , while the remainder was later sold back to LCNE . Parkdale Holdings later went out of business having changed their name to Pavilion Leisure .
A month later LCNE was banned from registering new services for six months by the Traffic Commissioner for failing to operate service in accordance with registrations made . Following poor financial results , AJS decided to split the company in two .
= = Division = =
In 20 months of existence London Country North East had lost £ 5 @.@ 5 million , on a turnover of £ 14 million . Two operating subsidiaries were created to help improve the situation , under the control of a single holding company , initially called the London Country Travel Group and later renamed to South of England Travel Group . Its chief executive , Bob Howells , had previously been West Yorkshire Road Car Company 's traffic manager . A third company , Cambridge based Premier Travel Services , was added to the group in 1989 but was sold to Cambus in 1991 . Both subsidiaries continued to be owned by AJS until 1991 , when they were sold to new owners .
= = County Bus & Coach = =
County Bus & Coach took over the former London Country North East garages at Harlow , Grays and Hertford . Under AJS 's ownership it was managed by Graham Willet , previously London Country Bus Services ' chief engineer . The company enjoyed some expansion : small independent Sampson Coaches and its garage at Hoddesdon were bought in February 1989 ; however , as a result of this , Hertford garage was vacated and sold for redevelopment by its owners Parkdale Holdings . The Debden and Wyatts Green depots and some local routes of the former East Midland owned Frontrunner operation were acquired in July 1989 . County Bus & Coach 's fleet policy was to use Mercedes @-@ Benz minibuses on most routes , including in Grays when Lakeside Shopping Centre opened and when two London contracted routes were run ; there is some evidence that passengers did not like these vehicles , and their use is thought to have reduced patronage in the area .
AJS group was wound up in 1991 , and the company 's director Bob Howells bought County Bus & Coach through a new holding company , Lynton Travel Group . County Bus & Coach was relaunched with three new local identities : Grays garage became ThameSide , Harlow became TownLink , and Hoddesdon became Lea Valley . One small operator , Davian Coaches of Upper Edmonton , was acquired a few months after and merged with County Bus & Coach .
The company was one of the beneficiaries of the collapse of London Forest , gaining three routes in Walthamstow . The services of Golden Boy were also taken over , in September 1992 , although this deal involved no vehicles and no garage . In July 1993 , Lynton Travel purchased 41 @-@ vehicle independent Citibus Tours , based in Chadderton near Oldham . Other changes made in 1993 included the opening of a new garage in Grays to replace the previous building , and a totally new garage at Ware which replaced that at Hoddesdon . Two more operators were taken over in 1994 , namely coach operators Airport Coaches of Stansted Airport and Biss Bros of Bishops Stortford .
However , on 7 October 1994 County Bus & Coach was sold to West Midlands Travel , who had also acquired the former London Buses subsidiary Westlink . In November 1994 County Bus & Coach became only the tenth operator in the UK to introduce low @-@ floor vehicles into service , when four Dennis Lance SLFs with Wright Pathfinder bodywork were introduced to route 502 Harlow to Romford . West Midlands Travel was taken over by National Express in 1995 , and the new owners decided not to keep their London companies . Westlink was the first to be sold , to London United in September 1995 . One year later , County Bus & Coach was sold to the rapidly expanding Cowie Group .
After also taking over British Bus on 1 August 1996 , who owned most of the other former London Country Bus Services company , in November 1997 the Cowie Group was rebranded as Arriva .
County Bus & Coach 's garage at Grays was transferred to Arriva Southend in 2000 , with that company becoming part of the Arriva Southern Counties operation in 2002 . The rest of County Bus & Coach 's routes , garages and vehicles became Arriva East Herts & Essex . This was later combined with the former Luton & District and London Country North West operations to form Arriva Shires & Essex , in which form County Bus & Coach continues to trade .
= = Sovereign Bus & Coach = =
Sovereign Bus & Coach took over three former London Country North East depots in the 1989 split , namely Hatfield , Stevenage and St Albans . These were quickly joined by the operations and Stevenage depot of Jubilee Coaches , an independent which had previously taken several contracted routes from LCNE , but found it had bid too low for the routes and could no longer fulfil its operations . Hatfield garage was closed in 1989 , and a new site established at Welwyn Garden City . Another operator , competitor Welwyn Hatfield Line , was taken over in January 1990 and retained as a separate subsidiary for several years . Most of Sovereign 's Stevenage operation was sold to Luton & District ( successors to London Country North West ) in 1990 . In 1991 the owning AJS Group was wound up . Two directors formed the Blazefield Group , and purchased Sovereign Bus & Coach and most of AJS Group 's other operations . At the time Sovereign operated 76 vehicles .
Some expansion followed . In October 1991 a new offshoot , Sovereign Buses ( Harrow ) , was formed to operate a number of London Regional Transport contracts won by the company . In August 1994 , the company 's position in London strengthened with the acquisition of the 43 @-@ vehicle Borehamwood Travel Services , which brought tendered route 13 run with AEC Routemasters , under Sovereign operation . BTS was renamed Sovereign London and merged with the Harrow operation .
The company 's fleet and operations remained largely static until 3 November 2002 , when Blazefield sold Sovereign London to Transdev .
Sovereign contracted further in 2002 with the sale of the St Albans operation to Centrebus . Centrebus sold the depot to Uno in March 2008 .
By 2002 , Sovereign 's fleet amounted to just 45 vehicles . Stevenage depot was closed and a smaller garage in the same town acquired , with Arriva Shires & Essex taking over the old site . Finally , in January 2005 , the remainder of Sovereign was sold to Arriva Shires & Essex . Having previously acquired the successors to the former London Country North West , London Country South West and London Country South East companies as well as County Bus & Coach , Arriva now owned all of the former London Country Bus Services apart from the St Albans operation .
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= Badlaa =
" Badlaa " is the tenth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 21 , 2001 . The episode was written by John Shiban and directed by Tony Wharmby . " Badlaa " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 3 and was viewed by 11 @.@ 8 million viewers . Overall , the episode received mostly negative reviews from critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When a mystic smuggles himself out of India , Scully and Doggett give chase as his murderous spree starts terrorising two families in suburban Washington , D.C. But Scully soon comes upon a crisis of faith when she realises how dissimilar her techniques are from those of Mulder , even as she tries to be the believer .
" Badlaa " was inspired by stories of Indian fakirs as well as the idea of someone asking for money actually being " a bad guy . " Gurdeep Roy , a noted stuntman better known as Deep Roy , was chosen to play the part of the antagonistic beggar . The episode 's title means " retort " or " revenge " in Hindi .
= = Plot = =
At the Sahar International Airport in Mumbai , India , an American businessman dismissively makes his way past a paraplegic beggar . Later , while using the airport 's toilet , the businessman is pulled out of the stall violently by the beggar that he passed earlier . Later , the man checks into a Washington , D.C. hotel and sits down on his bed . Soon , blood streams out of his bodily orifices .
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrives late to the crime scene and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) tells her that the man 's blood all drained abruptly in the hotel . A child ’ s bloody print is found , but Scully doesn ’ t believe that a child did this . Meanwhile , the beggar , somehow disguised as an ordinary looking Caucasian man , applies for a janitorial job at a Cheverly , Maryland elementary school . In the morgue , Scully describes the massive stomach damage done to the body which leads Doggett to the idea of drugs being forcibly cut out of him . However , the man showed no sign of drugs in the blood tests and Scully tells Doggett that his time of death was 24 to 36 hours prior , long before he left India . Due to a discrepancy in weight , she begins to believe that there was a passenger in the corpse .
Quinton , a student at the school mentioned before , calls his father after he sees the legless beggar man in his room at night . His father tells him that it was his imagination , goes back downstairs , but then screams . Quinton rushes down to find his father dead and his eyes turned red with blood . Doggett and Scully investigate this latest death after the police told them about the strange man the boy saw . While discussing the lack of any damage to the body except the broken blood vessels in the eyes , Scully comes to the conclusion that the man is still inside the latest victim . She rushes to the morgue and finds the boy ’ s father with a distended belly . She cuts into him and then sees a hand emerge from the scalpel incision . After being temporarily knocked over , she follows a bloody trail , opens a door at the end of the trail , and finds no one there . Unbeknownst to her , however , the beggar is watching her , unnoticed .
At the school , the principal tells the legless man ’ s janitor guise that she was very worried when he did not show up that morning . Trevor , a bully who had earlier tormented Quinton , sees partially through the beggar 's forms for a moment . Trevor later shows up at Quinton ’ s home to say he is sorry and says he thinks he knows who killed his father .
Scully and Doggett consult Chuck Burks , an old friend of Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) , who tells the two that Siddhi mystics could do the things Scully described ; the mystics have powers of the mind and can alter people ’ s perceptions of reality . Scully theorizes that a mystic is acting out of revenge since an American plant inadvertently released a gas cloud that killed 118 people in Vishi , outside of Mumbai . One of the victims was the 11 @-@ year @-@ old son of a holy man of the beggar caste .
Trevor runs home after hearing the squeaking wheels and goes outside after encountering his mother . She follows him outside to find him face @-@ down in the middle of a pool . She dives down to get him but his form turns into the legless man . At the scene of the crime , the real Trevor tells Scully that it was the " little man " who killed his mother . Later , Quinton and Trevor , after realizing that the janitor is actually the beggar , hunt the legless man in the school . Eventually , the beggar takes the form of Trevor . At that moment , Scully enters the school and opens fire , wounding the beggar and reverting him back to his true form . Two weeks later in Sahar International Airport , the beggar , unharmed , watches another obese American man pass by .
= = Production = =
" Badlaa " was written by John Shiban and inspired by stories of Indian fakirs . In fact , the episode 's title means " to retort " or " to revenge " in Urdu . Further inspiration came " from a little bit of desperation " according to Shiban . He later recalled that he was walking through the Vancouver airport and suddenly had the thought , " What if someone who came up to me and asked me for money was actually a bad guy . " Shiban later noted that his early drafts of the episode featured the antagonist with a different power . He explained , " My original idea was a beggar with no legs who can actually shrink himself and climb inside your ear , and Chris Carter – and this is why he 's Chris Carter – said ' No , no , no ! I know what 's even better . ' " Shiban later said that " ... one thing about this episode that I 'm sort of proud is that people often have told me that it is the most disgusting thought that they ever had , that this little man would actually enter your body and travel around inside you . "
The scenes featuring the Indian airport were filmed at a cruise line terminal in Long Beach , California . Ilt Jones , the location manager for the series , felt that the " dated feel " of the terminal added to the scene . He noted , " if you look at newsreel footage of India , they always have old English cars from the sixties , the cruise line terminal in Long Beach was perfect . "
Casting director Rick Millikan was tasked with finding a suitable actor to play the part of the beggar . Millikan 's only instructions were to look for " a small all @-@ Indian man with no legs . " Eventually , Gurdeep Roy , better known as Deep Roy was chosen to play the part . Deep Roy was a noted stunt man who had notably played Droopy McCool of the Max Rebo Band in Return of the Jedi . Deep Roy , however , is not an amputee and so a cart with a false bottom was created . Anytime there was a scene where the beggar had to move , blue screen technology was used to add the background in during post @-@ production . The cart featured a distinct " squeak " that Paul Rabwin described as " creepy " . He noted , " There was a squeak that had to let us know that it was him . It had to scare us [ ... ] Finally we came up with what we thought was just the right squeak and John [ Shiban ] said ' Okay , that 's the one . ' "
Producer Paul Rabwin was displeased with the final episode , noting , " ' Badlaa ' was the one episode I did not like the most [ ... ] I think if I had done it different , I would have had John Shiban change the method of transportation . I don 't think it ever worked on any level for me . It was just weird and creepy , but I think the whole idea was distasteful to me . " He later bluntly concluded that " it 's the only episode that I kind of wish we hadn 't done . "
= = Reception = =
" Badlaa " first aired on Fox on 21 January 2001 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 3 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 3 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 46 million households and 11 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 50th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending January 21 . The episode subsequently debuted in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on May 12 , 2002 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Imagine a man who can squeeze into a shoebox ... a suitcase ... or a victim . "
Critical reception to the episode was mostly negative . Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a " C " and criticized the episode 's plot holes , such as how the beggar escaped back to India after being shot by Scully . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two noted that the episode was " best " when " it 's at its most tasteless " , citing the beggar " crawling up the bottom of an obese man " as " pretty tasteless " . Shearman and Pearson , however , noted that it suffered from the fact that " it doesn 't have the courage of its convictions " .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " , calling it " a messy episode " . He argued that it is an example of " magnificently bad television " . This in turn , makes it somewhat entertaining ; VanDerWerff argued that he would " rather watch this episode several times than I would some of those season seven outings where everybody seemed like they would rather be just about anywhere else . " However , he did compliment the episode 's gross @-@ out scares , noting that the beginning was " a pretty great cold open " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , was extremely critical of the episode . Referring to it as the series ' " nadir " , he ridiculed the plot and sarcastically labeled the main villain " Butt Munch " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one star out of four . Vitaris , sardonically referring to the episode as " The X ( enophobic ) -Files " , noted that while " the butt @-@ crawler is new , the plot is pure " X @-@ Files generic Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week . " Matt Hurwitz and Chris Knowles noted in their book The Complete X @-@ Files that the episode soon became known as the " ' Butt Genie ' episode " among fans .
Despite the negativity , several reviews wrote positively of the episode 's antagonistic beggar . Both TV Guide and UGO Networks listed him amongst the greatest monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week characters in The X @-@ Files . The UGO review , in particular , noted that the character was " One of the series ' more blatant allegories [ ... ] , as a legless Indian Mystic [ ... ] literally climbs into his victims to travel where he will . [ ... ] Scully and Doggett investigate the bloody goings @-@ on [ ... ] and a gut @-@ wrenching climax , though not entirely successful , still opens up some thorny issues over how we view weakness , deformity , race , and ' otherness.'
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= Jonathan Jennings =
Jonathan Jennings ( March 27 , 1784 – July 26 , 1834 ) was the first governor of Indiana and a nine @-@ term congressman from Indiana . Born in either Hunterdon County , New Jersey , or Rockbridge County , Virginia , he studied law before immigrating to the Indiana Territory in 1806 . Jennings initially intended to practice law , but took jobs as an assistant at the federal land office at Vincennes and assistant to the clerk of the territorial legislature to support himself , and pursued interests in land speculation and politics . Jennings became involved in a dispute with the territorial governor , William Henry Harrison , that soon led him to enter politics and set the tone for his early political career . In 1808 Jennings moved to the eastern part of the Indiana Territory and settled near Charlestown , in Clark County . He was elected as the Indiana Territory 's delegate to the U.S. Congress by dividing the pro @-@ Harrison supporters and running as an anti @-@ Harrison candidate . By 1812 he was the leader of the anti @-@ slavery and pro @-@ statehood faction of the territorial government . Jennings and his political allies took control of the territorial assembly and dominated governmental affairs after the resignation of Governor Harrison in 1812 . As a congressional delegate Jennings aided passage of the Enabling Act in 1816 , which authorized the organization of Indiana 's state government and state constitution . He was elected president of the Indiana constitutional convention , held in Corydon in June 1816 , where he helped draft the state 's first constitution . Jennings supported the effort to ban slavery in the state and favored a strong legislative branch of government .
In August 1816 Jennings was elected to serve as the first governor of Indiana at age 32 , and re @-@ elected for an additional term . He pressed for the construction of roads and schools , and negotiated the Treaty of St. Mary 's to open up central Indiana to American settlement . His opponents attacked his participation in the treaty negotiations as unconstitutional and brought impeachment proceedings against him , a measure that was narrowly defeated by a vote of 15 to 13 after a month @-@ long investigation and the resignation of the lieutenant governor . During his second term and following the panic of 1819 , Jennings encountered financial problems , a situation exacerbated by his inability to keep up with his business interests and run the state government simultaneously . Ineligible for another term as Indiana governor under the state constitution , Jennings looked for other means of financial support . Shortly before completion of his second term as governor in 1822 , Jennings was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives , before retiring from public service in 1831 . In Congress Jennings promoted federal spending on internal improvements .
Jennings had been a heavy drinker of alcohol for much of his life . His addiction worsened after the death of his first wife , Ann , and his development of rheumatism . Jennings 's alcoholism led to defeat in his reelection campaign in 1830 . In retirement his condition worsened and he was unable to work his farm . When his finances collapsed , his creditors sought to take his land holdings and Charlestown farm . To protect his friend , U.S. Senator John Tipton purchased Jennings 's farm and permitted him to continue living there . After Jennings 's death , his estate was sold , but it left no funds to purchase a headstone for his grave , which remained unmarked for fifty @-@ seven years .
Historians have offered varied interpretations of Jennings 's life and impact on the development of Indiana . Early state historians , Jacob Piatt Dunn Jr. and William Wesley Woollen , gave Jennings high praise and credited him with the defeat of the pro @-@ slavery forces in Indiana and with laying the foundation of the state . More critical historians during the prohibition era , such as Logan Eseray , described Jennings as a crafty and self @-@ promoting politician and focused on his alcoholism . Among the modern historians , Randy Mills places Jennings 's importance between the two extremes , but agreed with Woolen 's assessment that the state " owes him more than she can compute . "
= = Early life = =
= = = Family background = = =
Jonathan Jennings , the son of Jacob and Mary Kennedy Jennings , was born in either Readington Township , Hunterdon County , New Jersey , or Rockbridge County , Virginia , on March 27 , 1784 . He was the sixth of the Jennings 's eight children . His father was a doctor , Presbyterian missionary , and an ordained minister in the Dutch Reformed Church . His mother , who was well educated and practiced medicine , was the daughter of Samuel Kennedy , a Presbyterian minister at Basking Ridge , New Jersey . Mary , who may have had a medical degree , assisted her husband in his practice . Around 1790 Jennings 's father moved the family to Dunlap Creek in Fayette County , Pennsylvania , where Jennings remained until his adulthood . After his mother 's death in 1792 , Jennings was raised by his older sister , Sarah , and his brother , Ebenezer . Jennings was particularly close to Ebenezer and his younger sister , Ann , and her husband , David G. Mitchell , who was a physician . Jennings was schooled at home , then attended the nearby grammar school in Canonsburg , Pennsylvania , where he received a basic education . Two of his classmates , William Hendricks and William W. Wick , would later become his political allies . Jennings studied law in Washington , Pennsylvania . By 1806 Jennings had left Pennsylvania and moved to Steubenville , Ohio , where his brother , Obadiah , had a law office . Jennings helped Obadiah in cases before the Ohio Supreme Court .
In 1806 Jennings headed west to Jeffersonville in the Indiana Territory , but stayed only briefly . He moved to Vincennes , the capital of the Indiana Territory , in early 1807 to open his own law practice and was admitted to the bar in April . Jennings had difficulty earning an income as a lawyer , finding there were too few clients in the territory to keep him busy . In July 1807 Nathaniel Ewing , the federal land receiver at Vincennes and a friend from Pennsylvania , invited Jennings to take a job as assistant to John Badollet , the registrar at the federal land office in Vincennes . Along with Badollet , Jennings engaged in land speculation . He obtained significant land holdings and made substantial profits . In 1807 Jennings became an assistant to the clerk of the territorial legislature and continued to speculate on the sale of public lands .
= = = Confrontation with Harrison = = =
In August 1807 Jennings was appointed clerk of the Vincennes University board of trustees and began to be drawn into ongoing political disputes going on territory . The territorial governor , William Henry Harrison , was a member and president of the board . As governor of the Indiana Territory , Harrison wielded considerable influence through his political appointments and veto powers . Jennings received the university appointment after General Washington Johnston resigned as clerk of the board following a dispute over Harrison 's proposal to ban the French residents of Vincennes from using the university 's commons . The board defeated Harrison 's proposal , but Johnston resigned as its clerk and Jennings was selected as his replacement over Henry Hurst , one of Harrison 's loyal supporters . Harrison was outraged and promptly resigned from the board , but later reconsidered his decision . In September 1807 Harrison was easily reelected to the board and selected as its president . In the meantime , Johnston wrote a pamphlet describing the board 's proceedings , which Jennings certified without the board 's knowledge or approval . Jennings further angered Harrison when he attempted to secure a clerkship in the territorial legislature . Jennings 's opponent for the clerkship was the anti @-@ slavery candidate Davis Floyd , an enemy of Harrison . After Jennings dropped out of the race , Floyd was selected for the position and became an important political ally to Jennings . In April 1808 , with Harrison reelected as president of the Vincennes University board , a commission was appointed to investigate Jennings 's conduct . The committee 's inquiry concerned Jennings 's certification of Johnston 's pamphlet dealing with board proceedings without their knowledge . The incident led to Jennings 's resignation in 1808 and created a considerable amount of animosity between the two that prevailed for many years .
By March 1808 , Jennings believed that his future in the Harrison @-@ dominated western part of the territory was bleak . By November he had left Vincennes and moved to Jeffersonville , in Clark County , Indiana Territory , before settling in nearby Charlestown . Jennings may have believed his political future would have more success in the eastern part of the territory . Settlements in the southeast and eastern portion of the territory opposed slavery and Harrison 's aristocratic manner , which were similar to Jennings 's beliefs , while the western portion of the territory and Vincennes area remained proslavery . Although petitions to allow slavery were received before the formation of the Indiana Territory , the issue attracted widespread attention in 1807 when Harrison and his supporters in the territorial legislature revived efforts to allow slavery in the territory . Jennings and his supporters who opposed slavery wrote writing articles appearing in the Vincennes Western Sun newspaper attacking Harrison 's administration , its pro @-@ slavery sentiments , and aristocratic policies .
In 1808 , when Congressman Benjamin Parke resigned from office , Harrison ordered a special election to fill the vacancy . Jennings entered the race against Harrison 's candidate , Thomas Randolph , the attorney general for the territory , and John Johnson , a Vincennes native who had the support of the antislavery group . Randolph promised not to introduce slavery into the territory unless the majority of his constituents agreed , while Johnson remained silent on the issue . Jennings , an antislavery candidate from the eastern portion of the territory , rode from settlement to settlement to give speeches against slavery . Jennings spoke against what he believed to be Randolph 's aristocratic tendencies , ties to Harrison 's territorial government , and the issue of slavery in the territory . Jennings found his greatest support among the growing Quaker community in the eastern part of the territory .
On November 27 , 1809 , Jennings was elected as a delegate to the Eleventh Congress . The election was close . Jennings beat Randolph , 428 votes to 402 , with Johnson taking 81 votes . Randolph challenged the election results and traveled to Washington D.C. to take his case to the U.S. House of Representatives . Randolph claimed that election officials in Dearborn County did not follow proper procedures for certifying ninety @-@ one votes in the county 's seventh district and argued that the votes should be deducted from the vote totals . Once discarded , the revised totals would make Randolph the winner . A House committee took up the case , issued a resolution in Randolph 's favor , and recommended that a new election be held . Randolph immediately left for the Indiana Territory to launch a new campaign for the seat , but the House defeated the committee 's recommendation by an 83 to 30 vote margin and Jennings was permitted to take his seat . As a territorial delegate in Congress , Jennings learned the legislative process , served on House committees , introduced legislation , debated issues , and continued his ongoing crusade against Governor Harrison . Jennings did not play a major role in congressional discussions , but he did make an effort to represent the interests of his constituents . He was reelected in 1811 , 1812 , and 1814 .
= = = Courtship and marriage = = =
During his first session in Congress , Jennings had a small portrait of himself made , which he later gave to Ann Gilmore Hay , the daughter of a prominent Charlestown politician , whom he had recently begun courting . Hay was born in Harrodsburg , Kentucky , in 1792 . Her family moved to Clark County in Indiana Territory , and settled in Charlestown . Jennings first met her when he was campaigning for Congress in 1809 . After his first session in Congress ended , Jennings returned to Indiana Territory and married eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Ann on August 8 , 1811 . Ann 's father had just died leaving her with no family or means of support . Following his reelection to Congress in 1811 , the couple returned to Washington , where she remained briefly , before traveling to Pennsylvania to live with Jennings 's sister , Ann Mitchell , for the remainder of the session . Jennings 's wife suffered from ill health , which deteriorated after he became governor of Indiana in 1816 , and she died after a protected illness in 1826 . Later that year Jennings married Clarissa Barbee , who had come from Kentucky to teach at the Charlestown seminary . Jennings had no children from either marriage .
= = Congressman = =
= = = Battle with Harrison = = =
Angered over his electoral loss , Randolph harangued anti @-@ Harrison supporters , even challenging one to a duel . He was stabbed three times , but recovered and challenged Jennings in his bid for reelection in 1810 . Harrison came out to personally stump on Randolph 's behalf . Jennings focused on the slavery issue and tied Randolph to Harrison 's continued attempts to legalize the institution . The congressional election coincided with the first popular election of delegates to the territorial legislature . In 1809 , a year prior to the election , the territory 's pro @-@ slavery faction suffered a significant setback when Illinois was separated from the Indiana Territory , cutting Harrison off from his supporters in the western portion of the territory . Harrison suggested that Jennings further expanded his political base by stumping among the disaffected French residents of the territory . Jennings 's defeat of Randolph in 1810 repudiated Harrison 's pro @-@ slavery policies . Following his triumph in the election , Jennings 's and his anti @-@ slavery allies were successful in enacting a legislative agenda that limited the territorial governor 's authority and repealed an 1805 act regarding indentured service .
In his first full term in Congress , Jennings stepped up his attacks on Harrison , accusing him of using his office for personal gain , of taking part in questionable land speculation deals , and needlessly raising tensions with the Native American tribes on the frontier . Jennings presented a congressional resolution that intended to reduce Harrison 's authority to make political appointments and opposed his policy of purchasing lands from the Indians . When Harrison was up for reappointment as territorial governor in 1810 , Jennings sent a scathing letter to President James Madison that argued against his reappointment . Harrison 's allies in Washington argued on his behalf and aided in securing his reappointment .
After hostilities broke out on the frontier between the Americans and the native tribes , culminating in the Battle of Tippecanoe in November 1811 , Jennings successfully promoted passage of a bill to grant compensation to veterans of the battle and to give pensions for five years to the widows and orphans of those who were killed . Privately , Jennings lamented the battle , while his friends in the territory faulted Harrison for agitating the situation and causing the needless loss of life . As calls for war with Great Britain increased , Jennings was not among the war hawks , but ultimately accepted the arrival of the War of 1812 . Early in the war , Harrison was commissioned as a military general and dispatched to defend the frontier and invade Canada , which caused him to resign from his post as territorial governor in 1812 . Prior to Harrison 's resignation , Jennings and his allies moved quickly to take advantage of the situation and initiated efforts to weaken the governor 's authority . In 1811 the territorial legislature voted to move the capital away from Vincennes , a pro @-@ Harrison stronghold , and began a shift in political power from the territorial governor to the delegates in the territorial legislature and its elected officials . John Gibson , the elderly , acting governor , whose territorial duties largely dealt with military affairs , did not challenge the territorial legislature . When Harrison 's successor , Thomas Posey , was confirmed on March 3 , 1813 , Jennings 's party in the territorial legislature had become entrenched and began to advance their request for statehood .
Jennings ran for reelection to Congress in 1811 against another pro @-@ slavery candidate , Waller Taylor . The campaign was the most divisive in Jennings 's career . Taylor derided Jennings as a " pitiful coward " and went so far as to challenge Jennings to a duel , but he refused . Jennings ran on the slavery issue again , fielding his new motto , " No slavery in Indiana " . Jennings 's supporters tied Taylor , a territorial judge , to the pro @-@ slavery movement . Jennings easily won reelection , thanks to an expanding base of support that included the growing community of Harmonists . Following his reelection , Jennings developed jaundice , an illness often caused by alcoholism , but he recovered . During his third term in Congress , Jennings began advocating that statehood be granted to Indiana , but held off formally introducing legislation until the end of the War of 1812 . Jennings ran against Elijah Sparks in his 1814 reelection campaign and easily won .
= = = Push for statehood = = =
By 1815 Jennings and the territorial legislature were ready to embark on a course for statehood . In December 1815 Jennings 's introduced a petition from the territorial legislature to Congress that requested statehood for Indiana . The 1815 census showed the territory had a population exceeding 63 @,@ 000 , more than the minimum requirement for statehood under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 . The House began a debate on the measure and passed the Enabling Act on April 11 , 1816 . The act granted Indiana the right to form a government and elect delegates to a constitutional convention that would create a state constitution . The territorial governor , Thomas Posey , expressed concern that the territory was too under @-@ populated to provide sufficient tax revenue to fund a state government . In a letter to President Madison , he recommended that the president veto the bill and delay statehood for another three years , which would allow him to finish his term as governor . Madison signed the bill , ignoring Posey 's plea .
Dennis Pennington , a leading member of the territorial legislature , was able to secure the election of many anti @-@ slavery delegates to the constitutional convention . Jennings was a delegate from Clark County . At the convention , held in June 1816 in the new territorial capital of Corydon , Jennings was elected president of the assembly , which permitted him to appoint the convention 's committee chairmen . Although the delegates drafted a new constitution for Indiana , the majority of the content was copied from other state constitutions , most notably Ohio and Kentucky . A few items were new and unique to Indiana . Slavery , which was already prohibited in territorial legislation , was banned in the Indiana constitution ; however , contracts for indentured servants , if they were already in existence , were preserved . The new state government , divided into legislative , executive , and judicial branches , gave the governor limited powers and concentrated authority in the hands of the Indiana General Assembly and county officials . Shortly after the convention , Jennings publicly announced his candidacy for governor .
= = Governor = =
= = = Campaign and election = = =
At the state convention in June 1816 Jennings may have informed some of the delegates that he intended to run for governor and by early July 1816 he had publicly announced his candidacy . Thomas Posey , Indiana 's last territorial governor , was Jennings 's opponent . Posey announced his own candidacy for governor prior to the convention 's adjournment on June 29 , 1816 . With just five weeks before the August 5 election , there was little active campaigning . Posey , who thought Indiana statehood was premature , was not a popular candidate and suffered from health issues . Jennings won by a large majority , 5 @,@ 211 votes to 3 @,@ 934 . Most of Jennings 's votes probably came from the eastern portion of the state , where his support was particularly strong , while Posey 's probably came from the western portion . Jennings moved to the new state capital at Corydon , where he served the duration of his term as governor .
Jennings 's salary as governor , which was the highest for an elected official in the state , was $ 1 @,@ 000 . Under the constitution , the governor served a three @-@ year term and was prohibited from serving more that six years in a nine @-@ year period . Jennings 's agenda called for establishing court proceedings to secure justice , organizing a state @-@ funded educational systems , creating a state banking system , preventing unlawful seizure and enslavement of free blacks , organizing a state library , and planning internal improvements . His efforts had limited success , due , in part , to the state 's limited financial resources and Jennings 's limited powers as governor .
Jennings strongly condemned slavery in his inauguration speech and as governor , he refined his stance on the institution . On November 7 , 1816 , Jennings encouraged the state legislature to enact laws to prevent " unlawful attempts to seize and carry into bondage persons of color legally entitled to their freedom " while preventing " those who rightfully owe service to the citizens of any other State or Territory , from seeking , within the limits of this state , a refuge from the possession of their lawful owners . " In 1817 Jennings acknowledged a moderation of his earlier position regarding fugitive slaves by claiming it was needed to " preserve harmony " among the states . Jennings agreed to allow citizens " the means of reclaiming any slave escaping to this State that may rightfully belong to them … with as little delay as possible " after citizens of Kentucky had difficulty reclaiming their slaves who had escaped to Indiana .
= = = Internal improvements = = =
In 1818 , Jennings began promoting a large @-@ scale plan for internal improvements in the state . Most of the projects were directed toward construction of roads , canals , and other projects to enhance the commercial appeal and economic viability of the state . During Jennings 's second term the state government continued to support public improvements , with new road construction and expanded settlement into central Indiana . After Indianapolis became the site for the state 's permanent capital in 1821 and new settlers arrived in the area , the Indiana General Assembly appropriated $ 100 @,@ 000 for new road construction and improvements to some of the more important routes , but it was considerably short of the amount needed .
The state experienced budget shortages because of low tax revenues , which forced Jennings to pursue other means of financing the projects . The main sources of funds came from issuing government bonds to the state bank and sales of public lands . The state 's spending and borrowing led to short @-@ term budget problems , but despite early setbacks ( poor access to capital eventually halted improvement programs and caused the Indiana Canal Company to fold because of lack of funds ) , the infrastructure improvements initiated by Jennings attracted new settlers to the state . By 1810 the Indiana Territory 's population within the boundaries of the new state was 24 , 520 . In the decades following his governorship , Indiana 's population grew from sixty @-@ five thousand in 1816 to 147 @,@ 178 in 1820 and surpassed one million by 1850 .
In his first inaugural speech in August 1816 , Jennings called attention to the need for an educational plan . In his 1817 annual message to the state legislature , he encouraged the establishment of a free , state @-@ funded education system , as called for in the state constitution , but few of the state 's citizens were willing to impose taxes to fund public schools . The state legislature believed priority should be given to creating government infrastructure . Lack of public funds postponed creation of a state library system until Governor James B. Ray 's administration in 1826 .
From the beginning the state 's banking institutions were closely tied to the state government 's fiscal affairs , made even more challenging due to the state 's " extremely limited economic and population base " , the economic depression of the late teens and early twenties , a lack of experience in banking on the part of state politicians and citizens , and other factors . " Indiana banking rested on shaky foundation even in the prosperous years preceding the Panic of 1819 . " To remedy the problem , Jennings signed legislation in 1817 to create the First State Bank of Indiana by converting the Bank of Vincennes , established under a territorial charter in 1814 , into the new bank 's main headquarters and established three new branches at Corydon , Brookville , and Vevay . The First State Bank soon became a depository of federal funds and was involved in land speculation . The Farmers and Mechanics Bank of Madison , established in 1814 , chose to remain separate from the state bank under a territorial charter that was valid until 1835 .
When state expenditures exceeded its revenues , Jennings preferred to secure the state 's debts with bank loans to cover the shortfall rather than issuing treasury notes . Although taxes were levied and the state borrowed from the First State Bank of Indiana , the state 's fiscal status remained bleak , worsened by the economic depression of 1819 . Around 1820 federal deposits at the First State Bank were suspended and the bank 's notes were no longer accepted for purchases from federal land offices . Numerous reports of corruption at the Bank of Vincennes and the collapse of land values , brought on by the panic of 1819 , put the bank in further financial distress . By 1821 the bank was insolvent . In June 1822 the Knox County circuit court declared the First State Bank had forfeited its charter . In November 1823 the Indiana Supreme Court upheld the termination of the bank 's charter and concluded that the First State Bank had " embezzled " $ 250 @,@ 000 of federal deposits , issued more paper than it could redeem , had debt exceeding the limited allowed under its charter , established more branches than its capital and specie could support , paid shareholders large dividends , and took steps to dissolve without paying debts owed . For several years after the First State Bank 's failure , Indiana citizens depended on the Bank of the United States , with a branch in Louisville , and the Farmers and Mechanics Bank of Madison for financial services . Farmers and Mechanics Banks fared better than the First State Bank of Indiana , but its charter expired on January 1 , 1835 , and its paper passed at depreciated rates for several years . Jennings was criticized for not monitoring the state 's banks more carefully and investigating bank officials for potential wrongdoing .
Most of Jennings second term was spent grappling with the state 's continuing financial difficulties . When tax revenues and land sales remained low , the state 's revenue was not sufficient to repay the bonds it used to finance internal improvements . The Indiana General Assembly was forced to significantly depreciate the value of its bonds , harming the state 's credit and making it difficult to secure new loans .
During his tenure as governor Jennings nominated three candidates to the Indiana Supreme Court : John Johnson , James Scott , and Jesse Lynch Holman . All three were quickly confirmed by the state legislature .
= = = Treaty of St. Mary 's = = =
In late 1818 , Jennings was appointed as a federal commissioner , along with Lewis Cass and Benjamin Parke , to negotiate a treaty with the Native Americans ( Potawatomi , Wea , Miami , and Delaware ) , who lived in the northern and central parts of Indiana . The Treaty of St. Mary 's allowed the State of Indiana to purchase millions of acres of land north of an 1809 treaty line and extending west to the Wabash River and two more parcels of land , which opened most of central Indiana to American settlement . The appointment created a crisis in Jennings 's political career . Because the state constitution prohibited a person from holding a federal government position while exercising duties as the state 's governor , Jennings 's political enemies seized the opportunity to force him from office by arguing that he had vacated the governor 's office when he accepted the federal appointment .
Lieutenant Governor Christopher Harrison claimed that Jennings had " abandoned " his elected office and took over as the state 's acting governor in Jennings 's absence . In the meantime the Indiana House of Representatives launched an investigation . When Jennings learned of the situation , he was " mortified " that his actions were being questioned and burned the documents he received from the federal government that related to his assignment . The legislature called Jennings and Harrison to appear for questioning ; however , Jennings declined , stating the assembly did not have the authority to interrogate him , and Harrison refused to appear unless the assembly recognized him as the acting governor . Because neither of the two men would meet with the legislature , the assembly demanded copies of the documents that Jennings received from the federal government to prove he was not acting as its agent . Jennings responded :
If I were in possession of any public documents calculated to advance the public interest , it would give me pleasure to furnish them , and I shall at all times be prepared to afford you any information which the constitution or laws of the State may require .... If the difficulty , real or supposed , has grown out of the circumstances of my having been connected with the negotiation at St Mary 's , I feel it my duty to state to the committee that I acted from an entire conviction of its propriety and an anxious desire , on my part , to promote the welfare and accomplish the wishes of the whole people of the State in assisting to add a large and fertile tract of country to that which we already possess .
The legislature summoned everyone in the surrounding area who had any knowledge of the events at Saint Mary 's , but found that no one was certain of Jennings 's role in the commission . After a short debate , the House passed a resolution , voting 15 to 13 , to recognize Jennings as governor and dropped it proceedings against him . The House votes opposing Jennings came largely from the state 's western counties . Harrison was outraged by the decision and resigned as lieutenant governor .
In 1820 Harrison ran against Jennings in his reelection bid . Jennings won the election by a large majority , 11 @,@ 256 votes to Harrison 's 2 @,@ 008 . Jennings 's win by a three @-@ to @-@ one margin suggests he remained a popular politician and the state 's voters were not overly concerned by attacks on the governor 's character .
= = = Personal financial problems = = =
Jennings 's personal finances suffered from the panic of 1819 , while the Indiana governorship continued to increase his financial burden . Jennings was never able to recover from his debts . One historian suggests that Jennings 's financial situation may arisen from the expenses incurred during his political campaigns , his long @-@ time service in state government , and being too busy to adequately manage his farm . Jennings and his wife frequently entertained visitors , legislators , and other dignitaries at their Corydon home . At a high @-@ profile dinner in 1819 , he hosted President James Monroe and General Andrew Jackson at a dinner held in their honor in Jeffersonville , when the two leaders were making a tour of the frontier states . In 1822 Jennings solicited a $ 1 @,@ 000 personal loan from the Harmonists in a letter to his political ally , George Rapp , but his request was denied . Jennings was able to secure personal loans from friends by granting mortgages on his land . Earlier in his career as a land speculator at Vincennes , when land prices decreased significantly , he was forced to sell several tracts of land at a loss .
By the late 1820s Jennings was critically short of cash . He depended on income from political office to pay his expenses . His farm was not likely to provide sufficient financial support . Because the thirty @-@ eight @-@ year @-@ old Jennings was prohibited by law from running for reelection to a third term as Indiana governor in 1823 , he was forced to consider other political options . Jennings decided to return to Congress .
= = = Return to Congress = = =
In September 1822 , shortly before his second term as governor expired , Jennings became a candidate for Congress after William Hendricks resigned his seat to run for Indiana governor . A special election was held on August 5 , 1822 , to fill Hendricks 's vacant seat in Congress . At the same time , the state 's increased population gave Indiana three congressional seats . A regular congressional election was held on the same day to elect three Indiana congressmen . Jennings and Davis Floyd were the principal candidates in the special election , which Jennings won . In the regular election to fill the seat for Indiana 's Second Congressional District , Jennings easily won , defeating James Scott by a wide margin . Jennings became a Democratic @-@ Republican to the 17th Congress and Lieutenant Governor Ratliff Boon succeeded him as governor . Hendricks ran unopposed and was subsequently elected as governor to succeed Boon . Jennings won reelection to Congress and represented Indiana 's Second District until in 1830 . He became a Jacksonian Republican in the 18th Congress , but switched his allegiance , becoming an Adams Republican in the 19th and 20th Congresses , and then aligned with the Anti @-@ Jacksonians in the 21st Congress .
Jennings continued to promote internal infrastructure improvements throughout his term in Congress . He introduced legislation to build more forts in the northwest , to grant federal funding for improvement projects in Indiana and Ohio , and led the debate in support of using federal funds to build the nations longest canal , Wabash and Erie Canal , through Indiana . He introduced a legislative amendment that made a provision to locate and survey the National Road to the west , toward the Mississippi River , so the people living in Indiana and Illinois would have some assurance that the road 's large federal appropriation would benefit them directly . Jennings helped secure appropriation of funds to survey the Wabash River and make it more accessible to year @-@ round steamboat travel .
In his reelection as the Second District congressman , Jennings supported tariff protection and internal improvements and vowed to support the presidential candidate that his constituents preferred if the election went to the House to decide the winner . Jennings won reelection to Congress in a close race , beating Jeremiah Sullivan of Madison . In the presidential election of 1824 American political parties organized around three candidates : Andrew Jackson running against John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay . Jennings favored Adams , and later , Clay ; however , when the contested presidential election passed to the House in 1825 , Jennings voted with the majority and gave his political support to Jackson , but he was defeated in the House and Adams became president . Indiana voters who supported Jackson hoped for a victory in the next election .
Jennings , seeking to advance his political career , ran for the Senate twice , but was defeated in both attempts . In 1825 he was a senate candidate at a time when the Indiana General Assembly elected the state 's senators to Congress . On the first ballot Isaac Blackford came in first , the incumbent governor , William Hendricks , came in second , and Jennings was third . On the fourth ballot Hendricks won the senate seat . In his second attempt Jennings lost to James Noble .
Jennings 's wife died in 1826 after a protected illness ; the couple had no children . Jennings was deeply saddened by her loss and began to drink liquor more heavily . Later that year he married Clarissa Barbee , but his drinking condition only worsened and he was frequently inebriated .
While serving in Congress , Jennings 's health continued to decline as he struggled with alcohol addiction and suffered from severe rheumatism . In 1827 ceiling plaster from Jennings 's Washington D.C. boarding room fell on his head , severely injuring him , and ill health limited his ability to visit his constituents , but he continued to remain a popular politician in Indiana . In the congressional election of 1826 , Jennings ran unopposed . He won reelection in 1828 , soundly defeating his opponent , Indiana 's lieutenant governor , John H. Thompson . Jennings did not publicly favor a presidential candidate and won the Second District seat with support from voters who favored Jackson and Adams . During Jennings 's final term in office House journals show that he introduced no legislation , was frequently not present to vote on matters , and only once delivered a speech . Jennings 's friends , led by Senator John Tipton , took note of his situation and took action to block Jennings 's reelection bid when his drinking became a political liability . John Carr , anti @-@ Jackson man , opposed Jennings in a six @-@ way race for the congressional seat and won the election . Tipton had arranged for others to enter the race and divide Jennings 's supporters . Jennings left office on March 3 , 1831 .
= = Later years = =
Jennings was twice @-@ elected Grand Master of the Indiana Grand Lodge of Freemasons , serving in 1824 and 1825 . He declined reelection in 1825 .
= = = Retirement = = =
Jennings retired with his wife , Clarissa , to his home in Charlestown . Tipton may have felt it had been mistake to force Jennings out of public service and hoped that work would force him to give up alcohol . In 1831 Tipton secured Jennings an appointment to negotiate a treaty with native tribes in northern Indiana . Jennings attended the negotiations of the Treaty of Tippecanoe , but the delegation failed in their attempt . Afterwards , Jennings returned to his farm , where his health steadily declined . He continued drinking alcohol , spending considerable time a local tavern , and was frequently discovered sleeping in streets or in roadside ditches . Jenning 's alcoholism worsened to the point where he was no longer able to tend his farm . Without a steady income Jennings 's creditors began moving to seize his estate . In 1832 Tipton acquired the mortgage on Jennings 's farm and enlisted the help of a local financier , James Lanier , to acquire the debts on Jennings 's other holdings . Tipton allowed Jennings to remain on his mortgaged farm for the remainder of Jennings 's life and encouraged Lanier to grant the same permission .
Jennings died of a heart attack , most likely brought on by another bout with jaundice , on July 26 , 1834 , at his farm near Charlestown . He was fifty years old . Jennings was buried after a brief ceremony in an unmarked grave . His estate lacked the funds to purchase a headstone . Jennings 's creditors , many of whom were his neighbors , were left unpaid and disgruntled . Following Jennings 's death , Tipton sold the Jennings farm to Joseph Carr and gave Jennings 's widow a $ 100 gift from the proceeds .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Memorials = = =
In the late nineteenth century several attempts were made to erect a monument honoring Jennings 's public service . On three separate occasions , in 1861 , 1869 and 1889 , petitions were brought before the Indiana General Assembly to erect a marker for Jennings 's grave , but each attempt failed . In 1892 the state legislature finally granted the petition to erect a monument in his honor . Around the same time , after Jennings 's unmarked gravesite was independently verified by three witnesses to his burial , his body was exhumed and reinterred at a new site at the Charlestown cemetery .
Jonathan Jennings Elementary School in Charlestown and Jennings County are both named in his honor .
= = = Political impact = = =
Historians have offered varied interpretations of Jennings 's life and his impact on the development of Indiana . The state 's early historians , William Wesley Woollen and Jacob Piatt Dunn Jr . , wrote of Jennings in an almost mythical manner , focusing on the strong positive leadership he provided Indiana in its formative years . Dunn referred to Jennings as the " young Hercules " , praising his crusade against Harrison and slavery . Woolen 's assessment was also positive : " Indiana owes him a debt more than she can compute . " During the prohibition era in the early twentieth century , historians Logan Esarey and Arthur Blythe were more critical of Jennings . Esarey , who wrote about Jennings during the height of Prohibition , when attitudes towards alcohol consumption was particularly harsh , was highly critical of Jennings 's alcoholism and destitution . Blythe described Jennings 's abilities as " mediocre . " Esarey argued that Jennings " took no decisive stand " on the important issues and dismissed his importance and impact on Indiana , saying the legislature and its leading men set the tone of the era . In 1954 John Barnhart and Donald Carmony described Jennings as a " shrewd politician rather than a statesman " , whose leadership was " not evident " at the 1816 convention . Carmony argued that Jennings 's " intemperance and poverty , should not obscure his significant contributions as territorial delegate to Congress , president of the Corydon Constitutional Convention , first state governor , and congressman . "
Modern historians , Howard Peckham , Randy Mills , Andrew R. L. Cayton , and Dorothy Riker , argue that Jennings 's legacy may lie " somewhere between the two extremes " of Dunn 's and Esarey 's assessments . Mills agrees with Woollen that Indiana owes Jennings a debt of gratitude . Although Jennings 's accomplishments were not extensive , he did a " commendable " job for his stewardship of a state in " transition to a more democratic form of government " . Cayton describes Jennings as " ambitious " , " passionate " , " hot @-@ tempered " , and " moody " . He argues that Jennings was a successful campaigner , but an " indifferent " statesman and governor who was " not very good at laying out an agenda and achieving its implementation " .
Jennings believed in popular democracy , opposed slavery , and despised aristocrats , especially William Henry Harrison , for " trampling on the rights of his fellow Americans . " His service as Indiana 's governor and representative to Congress came at the end of one political era and the beginning of another , when governmental power and authority shifted from the governor and his patronage appointments to the state legislature and elected officials .
= = Electoral history = =
= = = Territorial delegate = = =
= = = Gubernatorial elections = = =
= = = Indiana 's 2nd Congressional district = = =
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= A More Perfect Union : Advancing New American Rights =
A More Perfect Union : Advancing New American Rights or simply A More Perfect Union is non @-@ fiction political analysis written by United States Congressman Jesse Jackson , Jr. in collaboration with Frank E.Watkins. Watkins is a political theorist , activist and was the press secretary to Jackson at the time . It was released in hardcover format on October 15 , 2001 and in paperback format on April 25 , 2008 . The material for Jackson 's book , his third , came from three trips he took in 1997 – 98 to American Civil War battlefields . Although Watkins is credited , the biographical content of the book is written as a first person narrative as if written solely by Jackson .
The National Park Service has twenty @-@ eight national Civil War historic sites . Jackson and White visited approximately twenty battlefields in August 1997 , December 1997 and the spring of 1998 . Jackson 's wife , Sandi Jackson , participated in the third trip . The trips heightened a belief of Jackson 's that race as it relates to African Americans has been the focal point of social and political existence in American history . Since Jackson is not the first to present such a realization , he presents a North @-@ South schism lens through which to view the congressional politics of race .
The book contains about 75 pages of biographical / autobiographical content which provide context for the subsequent political analysis . Critical reviews do not analyze the biographical content . Instead , the reviews focus on the political analysis of race , economic issues , geographical divide , and states ' rights as well as the constitutional amendments proposed in this book .
= = Summary = =
The title of the book comes from the Preamble to the United States Constitution . The preamble includes the phrase " in Order to form a more perfect Union " as the first specifically mentioned purpose of the United States Constitution .
The book has several sections . The first four chapters relate autobiographical details to his experience in touring the Civil War battle sites . In the subsequent section , he discusses federalism . In the third section he describes his economic plan . Then , Jackson outlines eight constitutional amendments . In the final section , he discusses achieving these policy goals set forth in the third and fourth sections . On March 4 , 2003 , Jackson proposed these eight amendments . The book includes full chapters for each amendment . The eight amendments are as follows :
the right to public education of equal high quality ;
the right to health care of equal high quality ;
equal rights for women ;
the right to decent , safe , sanitary and affordable housing ;
the right to a clean , safe and sustainable environment ;
the right . . . to full employment and balanced economic growth ;
the explicit fundamental right of citizens to vote ; and
an amendment regarding taxing the people of the United States progressively .
The Education Amendment which reads " ( 1 ) All persons shall enjoy the right to a public education of equal high quality ; and ( 2 ) The Congress shall have the power to enforce and implement this article by appropriate legislation , " has received public attention for several years . Jackson feels that his amendment is a natural response to San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez , 411 U.S. 1 ( 1973 ) , which determined that an education is not a constitutionally protected fundamental right .
An important theme of the book is the North @-@ South relationship as it influences the extent of federalism in the United States . The book describes how from before the Civil War to well after the Civil Rights Movement the balance of power between protectors of state 's rights and defenders of the federal government have battled over resources and power along North @-@ South alliances . Jackson is a detractor of state 's rights and feels that the extensive power given to states has slowed our broad distribution of social goods by perpetuating inequality and thus unrest . Dyson also notes that Jackson attempts to bring class to the forefront of the discourse in an effort to offer a political vision toward social equity and equality . He says Jackson views race as the lens to optimally view American history and views economic issues as the hearing aid through which the politics of today can best be heard .
= = Reviews = =
In a review for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Michael Eric Dyson described the book as " intellectually accomplished and remarkably insightful " . He views Jackson 's eight new amendments as " the political backbone and intellectual infrastructure for the expression of a new politics of race and class that strengthen the status of all suffering Americans . " He encourages understanding the book because it provides a fresh social perspective to addresses current fundamental American political and racial problems .
Writing for the Chicago Tribune , Playboy editor John Thomas described the amendments as sensible , but pointed out that some view them as an attempt to legislate policy decisions . Thomas perceived the benefit of the plan to be the fact that the force of the constitution would uphold the amendments , and that this would compel actions to support both political promises and the constitutional tenets .
At one stop on the book tour associated with the publication and release of the book at the David A. Clarke School of Law of the University of the District of Columbia , Jackson 's message was perceived as saying that American history can be studied as an analysis of race , but that economics and the tension between states ’ rights and federal rights are the true basis of a domestic history revolving around pursuit of economic development , political power , and personal freedom . He then advanced the theory that these pursuits would most be most readily attained by adopting a set of new constitutional amendments , guaranteeing rights primarily grounded in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , which the U.S. has ratified . Each is discussed in a separate chapter : the rights to quality health care , housing , education , a clean environment , fair taxes , full employment , equality for women , and the right to vote .
= = Related issues = =
During the promotion of the book there was a controversy when a book @-@ signing party in Dolton , Illinois morphed into a fundraiser without Jackson 's knowledge . When Jackson realized what happened he wrote to the Federal Election Commission and the House Ethics Committee to explain what happened and seek their advice . Jackson decided to return the entire $ 1300 that was raised .
An outgrowth of Jackson 's trip was the realization that the National Park Service does not represent the underlying issue of slavery contextually in its battlefield displays and presentations . Instead of presenting the battles as political and moral issues , Jackson felt racial context and relevance needed to be presented in a more forward way . As a result , in 2000 , he recrafted the United States Department of the Interior 's appropriation to include a directive to have United States Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt use his influence over the superintendents of the national parks to encourage greater inclusion of slavery and social issues in Civil War presentations .
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= Typhoon Nangka ( 2015 ) =
Typhoon Nangka was a large and strong tropical cyclone that impacted central Japan in July 2015 . Nangka started its long @-@ living journey as a tropical disturbance over the Marshall Islands and west of the International Dateline , becoming the eleventh named storm of the annual typhoon season on July 3 . It quickly intensified while moving to the west @-@ northwest , attaining typhoon status on July 6 . Nangka moved through the Northern Marianas Islands , passing directly over the uninhabited island of Alamagan . Shortly thereafter , the typhoon attained peak winds ; the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , while the unofficial Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , making it a super typhoon . Nangka later weakened as it curved to the north , moving across central Japan on July 16 as a minimal typhoon . The storm weakened soon after , dissipating in the Sea of Japan on July 18 .
The storm first affected the Marshall Islands , bringing strong winds to the capital Majuro . Half of the city lost power , and several boats were sunk . Minimal effects were reported in the Northern Marianas Islands , and later the storm 's flow enhanced the monsoon over the Philippines . Effects were worst in Japan , where rainfall reached 740 mm ( 29 in ) in Kamikitayama , Nara Prefecture . Total damage across the Kansai region reached ¥ 18 billion ( US $ 150 million ) . Nangka killed two people in Japan , injured 55 , and damaged or flooded 220 houses .
= = Meteorological history = =
A westerly wind burst spawned Typhoon Chan @-@ hom and Tropical Storm Linfa across the western Pacific Ocean , as well as the system that would become Typhoon Nangka . On July 1 , an area of pulsing convection persisted east of the Marshall Islands , associated with a poorly @-@ defined circulation . Low wind shear , water sea surface temperatures , and good outflow favored further development . The circulation gradually became more defined as the convection organized more . At 18 : 00 UTC on July 2 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression , about 80 km ( 50 mi ) east of Aur Atoll . Based on the increasing organization , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 11W at 12 : 00 UTC on July 3 . About six hours later , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Nangka .
When Nangka was upgraded to a tropical storm by the JTWC early on July 4 , convective bands were wrapping into the center , but limited by dry air to the west . By that time , the storm was moving to the west @-@ northwest , steered by the subtropical ridge to the north . On July 5 , the JMA upgraded the storm to a severe tropical storm . By that time , the circulation had become exposed due to moderate wind shear , although the outflow had improved . On July 6 after shear diminished , Nangka began to quickly intensify as it developed an eye in the center of the blossoming convection . As a result , the JTWC upgraded the storm to typhoon status at 06 : 00 UTC , followed by the JMA at 12 : 00 UTC . Nangka reached its first peak intensity at 12 : 00 UTC on July 7 , when JMA estimated 10 minute sustained winds 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The typhoon was aided by excellent radial outflow enhanced by a TUTT cell to the northwest , and it developed a well @-@ defined eye 48 km ( 30 mi ) in diameter .
After its first peak in intensity , Nangka slightly weakened as convection along the west side of the system was restricted due to the TUTT cell , and the eye became cloud @-@ filled . Decreasing wind shear and increasing sea surface temperatures allowed the intensification trend to resume , and the structure became more symmetric late on July 8 as it moved toward the Northern Marianas Islands . A well @-@ defined inner eye re @-@ developed inside of an outer eyewall . On July 9 , the JTWC upgraded Nangka to a super typhoon , estimating peak 1 minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) . The JMA also assessed a 10 minute peak of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . At 06 : 00 UTC on July 9 , the eye of Nangka passed over the uninhabited island of Alamagan . The typhoon later weakened while turning more to the west due to increased wind shear . The eye became cloud @-@ filled and was no longer visible by July 11 , although the organization was sustained by good outflow to the south . However , the convection reorganized the next day and the eye reformed . By that time , Nangka was slowing and nearly stationary as the subtropical ridge receded to the east .
On July 13 , Typhoon Nangka began moving northward toward Japan through a break in the ridge . The typhoon completed an eyewall replacement cycle , and according to the JTWC attained a secondary peak of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . The re @-@ intensification was also aided by a decrease in wind shear , but was short @-@ lived due to drier air from the north and west . As the eye became more ragged , the winds continued to decrease . At 14 : 00 UTC on July 16 , Nangka made landfall along the Japanese island of Shikoku near Muroto , Kōchi , still at typhoon status . Four hours later , the typhoon weakened into a severe tropical storm , and after crossing the Seto Inland Sea , Nangka made a second landfall on Honshu near Kurashiki , Okayama at 21 : 00 UTC . The convection greatly weakened as it crossed Honshu into the Sea of Japan , and the storm deteriorated further due to lower water temperatures . At 12 : 00 UTC on July 17 , the JMA downgraded Nangka to a tropical depression , and early the next day the JTWC discontinued advisories . On July 18 , Nangka dissipated in the central Sea of Japan .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On Majuro atoll in the Marshall Islands , the developing Nangka produced strong westerly winds near gale force , producing high waves and flooding along the lagoon . At least 25 vessels in the island 's lagoon broke loose from or were dragged by their moorings . High winds from Nangka tore roofs from homes and downed trees and power lines . Nearly half of the nation 's capital , Majuro , was left without power . Tony deBrum , the Marshall Island 's foreign minister , stated " Majuro [ is ] like a war zone . " Some coastal flooding was also noted , which resulted in crop damage .
Ahead of the storm , the Guam National Weather Service issued a typhoon watch for Agrihan , Pagan , and Alamagan , as well as a high surf advisory for Guam . The watch was later upgraded to a warning , and was canceled after the typhoon exited the region . Flights were delayed or canceled to the region due to the storm and problems with the local aircraft communication system . During the storm , there were minor power outages on Saipan in two villages that were quickly restored . On Alamagan where the storm struck , six people rode out the storm in a concrete bunker .
In the Philippines , the flow from the storm increased the southwest monsoon , causing flash floods and landslides in some areas . The outskirts of the storm later brushed the east coast of South Korea , producing 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in rainfall , and wind gusts of 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) .
= = = Japan = = =
Due to the threat of the storm , nine airlines canceled 214 flights across Japan . Meanwhile , rail service and highways were disrupted , with a portion of the Chūō Expressway closed , and ferry rides were canceled . The Shikoku Railway Company canceled service during the storm and limited rides along the West Japan Railway Company . About 860 @,@ 000 people were advised or ordered to evacuate their homes , including 88 @,@ 100 people from 15 @,@ 400 homes who were forced to leave . After the storm passed , residents were allowed to return home .
While moving through Japan , Nangka produced peak wind gusts of 153 km / h ( 95 mph ) in Muroto , Kōchi . Heavy rains impacted much of central Japan , peaking at 740 mm ( 29 in ) in Kamikitayama , Nara Prefecture . Owase , Mie recorded 357 @.@ 5 mm ( 14 @.@ 07 in ) over 24 hours . The highest hourly rainfall was 84 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) in Saijō , Ehime . Kawauchi , Fukushima recorded 77 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 05 in ) over one hour , setting a record for the month of July .
The rains from Nangka caused rivers to exceed their banks . In Tokushima Prefecture , the Naka River flooded to the second story of nearby school buildings . Flooding stranded 1 @,@ 600 passengers on a train for four hours , which had been traveling from Tsuruga , Fukui to Himeji , Hyōgo . Across Japan , strong waves and high winds killed over 11 @,@ 000 bluefin tuna on a fish farm in Kushimoto , accounting for ¥ 1 @.@ 29 billion ( $ 10 @.@ 4 million ) in losses . About 15 @,@ 000 people lost power across the country . The storm damaged 30 homes and flooded another 190 , and also damaged farming equipment . There were 55 injuries and two deaths related to the typhoon , including an elderly man who drowned after falling into a ditch . Total damage in the Kansai region reached ¥ 18 billion ( US $ 150 million ) , including ¥ 7 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 58 @.@ 9 million ) in Wakayama Prefecture and ¥ 4 @.@ 9 billion ( US $ 40 @.@ 7 million ) in Hyogo Prefecture . Total economic losses are estimated to be in excess of ¥ 24 billion ( US $ 200 million ) .
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= River Rother , West Sussex =
The River Rother flows from Empshott in Hampshire , England , to Stopham in West Sussex , where it joins the River Arun . The upper river , from its source to Midhurst , has been used to power watermills , with the earliest recorded use being in 1086 , when the Domesday survey was conducted . Although none are still operational , many of the buildings which housed the mills still exist , and in some cases , still retain their milling machinery . This upper section is also noted for a number of early bridges , which have survived since their construction in the fifteenth , sixteenth and seventeenth centuries .
The lower river , from Midhurst to its junction with the River Arun , has been used for navigation . Boats used the section from the Arun to Fittleworth following improvements made to the Arun in 1615 , and after the Arun Navigation was completed in 1790 , the Earl of Egremont made the river navigable up to Midhurst by constructing eight locks and some small cuts . The work was completed in 1794 , and many of the bridges built at that time still survive . With the opening of the Mid @-@ Sussex Railway branch to Midhurst in 1859 , traffic declined , and commercial use of the river had ceased by the 1880s . Pleasure boats continued to be used on the river for many years , and published accounts of journeys along the decaying navigation appeared in 1914 and 1920 . The navigation was officially abandoned in 1936 , after an undergraduate pointed out that it was still a public right of way .
The river flows through the South Downs National Park , and is a designated Site of Nature Conservation Importance , in recognition of its value for wildlife . It supports a wide range of fish , and its upper reaches are the only location in Sussex where native white clawed crayfish can be found . The quality of the water is generally good , and the river is measured at four gauging stations , three on the main channel , and one of the River Lod , just before its junction with the Rother . Water from the underlying Lower Greensand aquifer and the adjacent chalk aquifer helps to maintain the flows during the summer months , despite the fact that large volumes are abstracted from both the aquifers and the river for the public water supply .
= = History = =
Following improvements to the River Arun in 1615 , which allowed boats to reach Pallingham , they could also navigate part of the Rother , as far upstream as Fittleworth . The canal engineer William Jessop was asked to survey the river below Petworth Mills in 1783 , and was recalled in 1790 , when he surveyed it below Midhurst . In the same year , the construction of the Arun Navigation was finished , and in 1791 , George Wyndham , 3rd Earl of Egremont , who was based at Petworth House , obtained an Act of Parliament which would enable him to improve the Rother . The Act also authorised a branch canal to Petworth . Since he owned most of the land adjacent to the river , the precise route of the navigation was not specified , and he was free to improve the channel or make cuts as he saw fit . The only restriction was that cuts could not be made through gardens or enclosed grounds . Compared to most other canals at the time , the charges for using the navigation were low , as the Earl wanted to develop the region rather than make a profit .
The river 's lower section , below Midhurst , was made navigable by the construction of the Western Rother Navigation in 1794 . The length of the navigation was 11 @.@ 25 miles ( 18 @.@ 11 km ) of which less than 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) consisted of new cuts , with the rest following the existing channel . It rose through 54 feet ( 16 m ) from Stopham to Midhurst by a series of eight locks , and cost £ 13 @,@ 300 to build . Traffic consisted of coal transported up @-@ river , with cargoes of timber , corn and Petworth marble in the other direction . A branch connected it to Petworth by the short Petworth Canal , which was 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) long with two locks , and terminated at Haslingbourne to the south of the town . It was opened in 1793 , having cost the Earl £ 5 @,@ 000 to build , but only lasted for a few years , until a turnpike road was diverted . This made access to Petworth easier , and the canal ceased to be used .
Unlike many canals , where navvies were brought into the neighbourhood to carry out the work , the Earl employed local men on the project , most of them already employed by him , and a clergyman praised him for this when writing in 1808 , as it led to much less disruption , but provided increased income for those who worked on the scheme . Wages rose from 8 or 9 shillings ( 40 @-@ 45p ) per week to 14 or 15 shillings ( 70 @-@ 75p ) . During his life , the Earl invested some £ 100 @,@ 000 in waterways , some in his native county of Sussex , but also in attempts to build a canal from London to Portsmouth . Between 1802 and 1831 , the average income from the canal was around £ 550 per year . Competition arrived in 1859 , when the Mid @-@ Sussex Railway opened a line from Horsham through Pulborough to Petworth . Traffic declined , and by the 1880s , the navigation was no longer used by commercial boats , although it was not officially abandoned until 1936 .
= = = Closure = = =
Despite the navigation being closed , a guide to Midhurst published in 1895 advertised that skiffs could be hired , and fishing could be enjoyed . The boats were hired out by a plumber called William Port , and his business continued to prosper until 1912 , when his boathouse burned down . Rowing boats were also available for hire at Coultershaw and Fittleworth . Another book called A New Oarsman 's Guide , published in 1896 , suggested that the river could be canoed from Iping to the Arun , a distance of 19 miles ( 31 km ) , when there was sufficient water . By that time , none of the locks were workable , and boats had to be carried around them .
In 1887 , part of the river bank near Todham Lock , which bordered the Cowdray estate of the Earl of Egmont , had collapsed , and the Earl suggested that Lord Leconfield of Petworth , a successor to the Earl of Egremont , should pay for its repair . After some disagreement , a compromise was reached , under which the bank was repaired and a floodgate was fitted at the upper end of the lock , with both men paying half of the cost . Lord Leconfield assumed that when the Arun Navigation finally obtained an Act of Abandonment in 1896 , his responsibilities for the maintenance of the River Rother had ended . However , in 1903 heavy rain and floods destroyed the floodgate and part of the adjacent weir , resulting in river levels though the 8th Earl of Egmont 's estate dropping by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) . The Earl , Augustus Arthur Perceval , issued a writ against Lord Leconfield for damages . The case was heard in the High Court , at which it was agreed that the navigation was now useless , but that the two men would share the costs of rebuilding the floodgate , after which responsibility for its maintenance would pass to the Earl , who could also dredge the river above the lock .
P Bonthron , who published a book entitled My Holidays on Inland Waterways in 1916 , described a journey down the river that he had made with friends in 1908 , in a boat hired from William Port at Midhurst . They reached Arundel on the River Arun after two days , from where the boat was sent back to Midhurst by train . Another account of a similar journey made in 1914 by Eleanor Barnes and a friend appeared in As the Water Flows , first published in 1920 , which described canoe journeys on the rivers of southern England made by her over a period of seven or eight years . The warrant of abandonment was obtained jointly by the estates at Petworth and Cowdray after an Oxford undergraduate called Roger Sellman pointed out that the river was still officially a right of way , and that anyone could therefore offer to pay the appropriate tolls to use a boat on it , and expect the owners to rebuild the locks . The powers of the Railway & Canal Traffic Act 1888 were invoked to declare that the navigation was no longer necessary , and despite objections from the River Arun Catchment Board and a canoe club , the warrant was granted on 15 April 1936 . However , the Environment Agency noted in 2003 that although there used to be navigation rights on the river , " the existing status of the navigation is unknown . "
= = Hydrology = =
The river flows through the South Downs , an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and since 2011 , a designated national park . There are two large aquifers in the area , one consisting of chalk , to the south of the river valley , and the other the Lower Greensand Group , underlying the whole of the river . The aquifers are separated by a Gault Formation , which consists of clay . At the western edge of the region , both the chalk and the gault turn to the north , creating a scarp slope . The base flow of the river consists of water from the Lower Greensand aquifer , and from springs along the bottom of the chalk scarp slope . These help to maintain the flows in the river during the summer months , although there have been significant periods where flows have been low , notably in the drought of the early 1990s , and again in 1995 / 96 . These led to declines in the populations of the macro @-@ invertebrates which are used to measure the health of a river , but these have subsequently recovered . In order to monitor the hydrology , the Environment Agency has a series of observation boreholes along the valley , and maintains gauging stations at Princes Marsh , close to the source , at Iping Mill , at Halfway Bridge on the River Lod just above its junction with the Rother , and at Hardham , just before the river joins the Arun .
Flows in the river are swelled by discharges from several sewage treatment works . The three largest are at Princes Marsh , Petersfield and Ambersham , all of which have outflows between 0 @.@ 22 and 1 @.@ 10 million imperial gallons ( 1 and 5 Ml ) per day , with another three discharging between 0 @.@ 022 and 0 @.@ 220 million imperial gallons ( 0 @.@ 1 and 1 Ml ) per day at Rogate , Coultershaw and Fittleworth . The entire river , including parts of some of its tributaries , is designated as a Site of Nature Conservation Importance by the local authorities through which it flows , in recognition of its value for wildlife . The upper reaches of the Rother are important for their fish populations of brown trout , grayling , juvenile sea trout , and the spawning and early development of salmonids . There are also populations of bullhead , eel , lamprey , minnow and stone loach . There has been some concern about declining fish stocks , thought to be partly caused by soil erosion , leading to silt and sediments being deposited on the river bed , which has been exacerbated by low flows in the river . Parts of the lower river support the same types of fish , but there are areas , particularly immediately upstream of weirs , where the major species are bream , pike and roach , with chubb , dace and perch on the lowest reaches . In order to assist the movement of fish along the river , particularly those that migrate to the headwaters to spawn , fish passes have been constructed around the gauging stations . The only known population of native white clawed crayfish in Sussex is located in the upper reaches of the Rother .
The quality of the water is generally good , helped by the fact that the groundwater in the chalk aquifer is of very high quality . However , some of the small streams in the upper reaches are polluted by discharges of effluent which are not licensed , and there are areas where the water in the aquifer , and hence the river , has raised levels of nitrates , largely caused by agricultural fertilisers . The Environment Agency has produced improvement plans to address a number of sources of both agricultural and urban pollution . Natural flows in the river are affected by the abstraction of water for the public water supply . There are many locations at which water is abstracted along the course of the river , including a site in the upper reaches where more than 1 @.@ 1 million imperial gallons ( 5 Ml ) per day is abstacted from the aquifer , and another where the volume exceeds 2 @.@ 2 million imperial gallons ( 10 Ml ) . Just above the junction with the River Arun , the Hardham Water Treatment Works removes more than 2 @.@ 2 million imperial gallons ( 10 Ml ) per day from the river .
= = Etymology = =
The river takes its name from Rotherbridge , not the other way round . Rotherbridge is derived from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Redrebruge , meaning cattle bridge , which was also the name of the Saxon Hundred or administrative group of parishes . Before this the river was known as the Scir .
= = Route = =
The route description has been split into two sections . From its source to Midhurst , the river has powered several mills , but has never been navigable . Below Midhurst , it was navigable until the navigation closed in the 1880s . There were eight locks on this section , some of which bypassed additional water mills .
= = = Source to Midhurst = = =
The River Rother rises from several springs near Empshott in Hampshire . The main one supplies watercress beds , before passing under Mill Lane , to the south of the village . It continues eastwards , to reach Greatham Mill . The mill , together with the mill house and an attached barn , date from the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries , and are built of brick . Now Grade II listed . All of the original machinery of the mill is still in situ , but is not operational , as the water supply has been diverted . The stream turns to the south @-@ east , and passes under the A3 West Liss bypass , and Greatham Bridge , on the old route . It is joined by other streams , and turns south to reach Liss railway station . The railway and the river follow the same general route , and the river crosses under the railway five times before reaching Sheet . At the northern edge of the village , the river is joined by the Ashford Stream , and there is another mill . After passing under the A272 road , to the east of the village , it reaches Sheet Mill .
Tillmore Brook joins from the west , and the course turns to the east . At Durleighmarsh , a hamlet which forms part of the civil parish of Rogate , it passes the ruins of Durford Abbey , a Premonstratensian monastery situated on the north bank . It is a scheduled ancient monument , and the site includes a threshing barn with a water wheel and associated drive shafts . On the south bank is Durford Mill . This mill house is a grade II listed structure , and was built of clunch in 1770 . The mill itself has been modernised and enlarged , and is not listed . A little further downstream , Harting Road crosses the river at Durford Bridge , build in the early 1600s with four semi @-@ circular arches . It was restored in 1924 . To the north of Habin , another hamlet in Rogate , North Lane crosses the river on Habin Bridge , which has four round @-@ headed arches , and was probably built in the seventeenth century , but might be earlier . It is built of stone , and was restored in the eighteenth century .
To the north of Dumpford , a hamlet in the civil parish of Trotton with Chithurst , is Terwick Mill . It is a grade II * listed structure , and consists of two mills , side by side . They were operational until 1966 . The north mill is a timber @-@ framed building , clad with weatherboarding , dating from the sixteenth century . The south mill was built of coursed stone rubble around 1750 . Although it has been converted into a house , it still contains two iron waterwheels , one for each mill , and its machinery . The earliest documentary evidence for the mill dates from 1635 . The adjacent mill house , parts of which date from the eighteenth century , is also a listed building . The river turns to the north to pass to the east of Trotton , and is crossed by Trotton Bridge , dating from the early 1600s , which has five ribbed arches . The river then turns to the east again at Chithurst , where Abbey House , an L @-@ shaped timber @-@ framed building dating from the fifteenth century , and the parish church , much of which dates from the eleventh century , are located on the north bank . An eighteenth century stone and brick bridge with two arches carries Chithurst Lane over the river .
Continuing eastwards , the river is crossed by Iping Bridge at Iping , a narrow stone bridge with five arches dating from the seventeenth century . To the west of the bridge is the site of Iping watermill . A mill was recorded there in the Domesday survey , completed in 1086 . By 1665 , there were the remains of a fulling mill at the site , and a wheat @-@ mill and malt @-@ mill , both part of the same building . It became a paper mill in the eighteenth century , and continued to operate until it was destroyed by fire in 1930 . At Stedham , part of the civil parish of Stedham with Iping , Stedham Lane crosses the river on a stone bridge with six segmental arches . Five of them date from the seventeenth century , with one later addition . The river then makes a large loop to the north , where Stedham Mill was situated . The mill building has been demolished , but the mill house is a listed structure . After the loop , Woolbeding Bridge , on the northern Edge of Midhurst , dates from the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries . It has four segmental arches , was restored in 1919 , and is a grade II * listed structure .
After another loop to the north , the river passes between Easebourne to the north east and Midhurst to the south west . The bridge which carries the A272 road has two wide arches , and was of ashlar construction . Although this structure is still in situ , it is difficult to see , as a pedestrian bridge has been built on the north west side , attached to the original bridge by cantilevers , and one of the two arches was widened in 1912 by the addition of another arch outside it . Below the bridge is the mill house and adjoining water mill of North Mill . The mill carries the date 1840 , and the house is of a similar age , although built in two stages . The river flows briefly to the south , passing Cowdray on the east bank , which is a scheduled ancient monument . It consists of a medieval fortified house , which is partly ruined , although some of it has been reused . It is situated within Cowdray Park , a grade II * listed landscaped park , which forms the grounds for Cowdray House , a nineteenth @-@ century mansion some 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) further east . On the opposite bank is a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle , dating from the twelfth century . Below this point , the river was navigable .
= = = Midhurst to mouth = = =
The terminus of the Rother Navigation was on a side stream , at the southern edge of Midhurst . There was a wharf and basin , close to a road which is still called The Wharf , and an ashlar bridge crosses the navigation between the wharf and the junction with the main river . It was built in 1794 , and was restored in 1977 to commemorate the silver jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II . The first lock was near Little Topham farm . There was a lock cut across a loop to the north . Costers Brook , which flows north from springs near Cocking , and then alongside the river for a short distance , joins below the site of the lock . The bridge at South Ambersham was built of stone rubble in 1791 , with a main arch across the navigation and a smaller arch to the north , which has been repaired with brick . Moorland Lock was on a straight cut across a large meander to the south , close to Moorlands Farm . Lodsbridge Lock also bypasses a meander to the south , which fed Lodsbridge Mill . The mill building dates from the eighteenth century , and has been converted into a house . The seventeenth @-@ century timber @-@ framed mill house is also a listed building . There was a motte castle immediately to the south of the mill . A modern timber yard and saw mill is located to the north of the lock site , and Lods Bridge , which carries a minor road over the river , dates from the construction of the navigation . The River Lod joins on the north bank just below the bridge .
A widening in the modern river , close to the dismantled Midhurst branch of the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway , marks the site of Ladymead Lock , with a weir to the south and the lock structure to the north . The fourth lock was Coultershaw Lock . The river at this point runs to the south , and there was a large meander to the west with a weir at its head . The mill stream ran to the east , and the lock was built just to the west of the mill . Coultershaw Bridge now carries the A285 road over the mill stream , near which is Coultershaw Beam Pump ; it was built in 1782 to provide a better water supply to Petworth House . The pump is powered by a water wheel , cast at Cocking Foundry , which is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in diameter . There were two corn mills and a malt mill recorded on the site in 1534 . The mill was modernised in 1910 , when turbines replaced the wheels , and standby engines were installed in 1919 . It was destroyed by fire in 1923 , and a steel @-@ framed concrete building replaced it . When it ceased to operate in 1972 , the building was demolished , but the beam pump , which was located beneath the building , was rescued and has been restored . The pump no longer performs its original function , but supplies a fountain near the visitor centre .
Shopham Lock was another where the lock cut was built across a large meander to the north . The bridge at the tail of the lock is built from red and grey brick , and has a single , round @-@ headed arch . It dates from the construction of the navigation , and is virtually unaltered . Nearby , the Petworth Canal headed northwards to Haslingbourne Bridge . Below the end of the cut , the river is joined by the stream from Burton Mill Pond , which supplied an iron forge built in 1789 . It is crossed by Shopham Bridge , built in the nineteenth century from red brick with grey headers and a parapet in stone , with three segmental arches . At Lower Fittleworth , there is another mill building , although it is unused and in poor condition . It was built in 1628 and enlarged in 1742 . It stands in the grounds of the mill house , which was rebuilt in 1913 . The lock cut ran along the south @-@ western edge of the site . Fittleworth Bridge consists of a southern section , originally built in the sixteenth century , which was rebuilt between 1717 and 1739 , and modified when the navigation was built , to enable boats to pass through the centre arch . A north section , adjacent to the millpond , dates from 1811 @-@ 12 .
Near its junction with the River Arun , the river loops to the south in a large meander . A cut ran from the start of the meander to join the Arun above the original junction , with a lock towards the downstream end . The meander fed Hardham Corn Mill . A lock bypassed the mill and the millstream , to enable boats to reach the Hardham Tunnel cut , which headed south from a junction above the mill . The Tunnel Branch was destroyed by the construction of a water treatment works , and the modern weir near the mouth is much closer to the junction than the lock was .
= = Conservation = =
The Arun & Rother Rivers Trust ( ARRT ) was set up in 2011 with the objective of enhancing and protecting the river and other connected waterways . It is a charity with further objectives concerning education , fisheries , biodiversity , access and pollution . The organisation is registered as a limited company , and has been asked to produce a Catchment Management plan by the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs . It is working with the Arun and Rother Connections ( ARC ) Partnership and the South Downs National Park Authority to ensure that local opinion is adequately represented in the document .
= = Points of interest = =
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= I Hear You , I See You =
" I Hear You , I See You " is the second season premiere of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Parenthood , and the fourteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 14 , 2010 . In the episode , Sarah feels Adam has stolen one of her ideas , Julia and Joel try to talk to their daughter about sex , and Crosby tries to cope with missing Jasmine and Jabbar .
The episode was written by Jason Katims and directed by Lawrence Trilling , and featured the first of several appearances by William Baldwin as Adam 's boss , Gordon Flint . Minka Kelly , who previously appeared in the first season , also returned to her recurring role as Gaby , Max 's therapist . " I Hear You , I See You " received generally positive reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was seen by an average 7 @.@ 69 million viewers , a decline from the first season premiere in March 2010 .
= = Plot = =
Adam ( Peter Krause ) is stressed about work because his boss Gordon ( William Baldwin ) feels he is too distracted by family issues . Sarah ( Lauren Graham ) , frustrated with her children for losing their shoes , off @-@ handedly remarks to Adam about her desire for a LoJack to help locate missing shoes . Put on the spot for new ideas at work , Adam pitches the LoJack idea and Gordon loves it , insisting Adam start developing it . When Sarah learns this later she is excited , but feels upset she is not given credit . When Zeek ( Craig T. Nelson ) encouraged her to stand up for herself , Sarah confronts Adam , but claims he has made many sacrifices for Sarah in the past and never asked for anything in return . Later , however , Adam tells Gordon it was Sarah 's idea . That night , Adam apologizes to Sarah and offers her an internship at the company 's design department , which she happily accepts .
Kristina ( Monica Potter ) is teaching Haddie ( Sarah Ramos ) how to drive , but is so over @-@ worried she stresses her daughter out . Haddies tries to convince Adam to teach her instead , but he refuses . Later , during another lesson , Kristina distresses Haddie so much she crashes into a garbage can , damaging a side mirror . The two later argue , but they eventually reconcile , and Kristina explains she dreads the idea of her daughter dying in an accident . Meanwhile , Crosby ( Dax Shepard ) meets and seems attracted to Gaby ( Minka Kelly ) , the therapist helping Max ( Max Burkholder ) . Crosby is trying to cope with missing his son Jabbar ( Tyree Brown ) and girlfriend Jasmine ( Joy Bryant ) , who is in New York City pursuing her dancing career . Jabbar plans to visit Crosby , who promises Max the two boys can have a sleepover , much to Max 's excitement . However , Jasmine later tells Crosby she cannot visit after all due to an audition . When Crosby tells Max , he grows hysterical due to his Asperger syndrome . He is calmed by Gaby while Crosby watches , realizing the extent of Max 's problems . Haddie later has a sleepover with a now @-@ happy Max .
Zeek is in therapy with his wife Camille ( Bonnie Bedelia ) , and whenever he starts to speak disrespectfully , he stops himself and tells her , " I hear you and I see you . " The roof in Zeek 's barn is leaking and he tries to fix it , but only makes it worse due to his poor handyman skills . Sarah recruits Joel ( Sam Jaeger ) , a licensed contractor , to help Zeek , but tells him he must let Zeek believe he is doing all the work . Joel tries to help , but Zeek constantly interferes and declares himself in charge . Eventually , Joel loses his temper and yells at Zeek , who is impressed with the usually timid Joel . Meanwhile , Sydney ( Savannah Paige Rae ) asks her parents if she came " out of a vagina " . Joel is uncomfortable discussing sex with her child , but Julia ( Erika Christensen ) insists on telling her the truth . The topic eventually leads Julia to conclude she wants another child and , in her excitement , she does not notice Joel seems conflicted about the idea .
= = Production = =
" I Hear You , I See You " was directed by Lawrence Trilling and written by Jason Katims , one of the executive directors of Parenthood . It marked the first appearance of William Baldwin , who is set to appear in at least eight episodes in the first half of the second season in his recurring role as Gordon Flint . Trilling said the characters will serve not only as Adam 's boss , but also an eventual love interest for Sarah , so they wanted an actor with both stature and comedic talent . Baldwin previously starred in the drama television series Dirty Sexy Money along with Parenthood co @-@ star Peter Krause , and Trilling felt their past experience working together helped Krause and Baldwin develop a quick rapport on Parenthood . " I Hear You , I See You " also included the return of Minka Kelly , who previously appeared in first season episodes as Gaby , Max 's therapist .
= = Cultural references = =
Crosby and Jasmine communicate long distance via Skype , a software application that allows users to make voice calls and video chat over the Internet . At one point , they attempt to have cybersex using Skype , but are interrupted when the software freezes . In preparing for his sleepover , Max talks excitedly about his Sun Chips , a brand of potato chips by Frito @-@ Lay , and goes so far as to count each chip out individually . Several songs were featured in " I Hear You , I See You " , including " Smile " by Evil Twins , " Well Runs Dry " by Peter Case , " Quick Canal " by Atlas Sound , " Older Guys " by The Flying Burrito Brothers , " It Takes a Muscle " by M.I.A. and " Take a Bow " by Greg Laswell .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " I Hear You , I See You " was seen by an estimated average 7 @.@ 69 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with 8 @.@ 45 million viewers during the first half hour . The second half hour 's viewership was 6 @.@ 93 million , which was considered a major mid @-@ episode drop . It received a 2 @.@ 7 rating among adults between age 18 and 49 , an eight percent viewership drop compared to the first season premiere on March 2 , 2010 . This was despite a boost Parenthood was expected as a result of debuting after the season finale of NBC 's America 's Got Talent . The episode received generally positive reviews . Entertainment Weekly television writer Ken Tucker praised Jason Katims ' script and felt the episode gave all the actors adequate screen @-@ time while contributing to the overall shape of the series . Tucker particularly praised the new link formed between Sarah and Adam , the infusion of comic relief into Julia and Joel , and Sarah Ramos , who he said gave " the best acting of the night " as Haddie .
Mandi Bierly , also of Entertainment Weekly , also praised the premiere and drew particular attention to the scene with Sarah confronting Adam about stealing her idea . She said the scene shows the writers and actors " are not people afraid of letting an awkward , tension @-@ filled scene breathe " , and that kind of realism illustrates the strength of the show 's writing and acting . Camille Wright Felton of CNN said she loved the show , and particularly praised the subplot about Haddie learning to drive , as well as Adam 's response when Haddie asked if whether he and his wife had an agreement to ignore each other 's flaws : " Yeah , it 's called marriage . " However , Felton criticized Baldwin 's character , which she described as a " single @-@ minded boss who apparently exists as an island and doesn 't get that people have families and need to tend to family crises " . HitFix television columnist Alan Sepinwall felt the first half of the episode was too uneven in its mix of comedy and drama , but that it was later redeemed mainly by the scenes featuring Max , who he said " is the one character on the show who never feels inauthentic , and he kind of pulls everyone toward him " . Sepinwall praised the performance of Max Burkholder as Max , but described William Baldwin 's character as a " caricatured playboy boss " .
Tood VanDerWerff , of The A.V. Club , also felt the first half was " a little too giggly and chaotic [ with ] every plotline devolving into the most obvious comedy possible " , and felt Baldwin 's boss character was too stereotypical . But he praised several later scenes , like the fight between Joel and Zeek , Crosby 's reaction to max 's tantrum , and Joel 's ambivalence about having another child . Not all reviews of " I Hear You , I See You " were positive . Movieline writer Julie Miller felt most of the episode 's subplots were unoriginal and uninteresting , including Sydney 's inquiries about where babies come from and Zeek making the roof worse by trying to repair it . Miller sarcastically wrote , " The show proved that it is not screwing around in its sophomore year by immediately tackling completely original family issues . "
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= William Blake 's illustrations of On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity =
William Blake drew and painted illustrations for John Milton 's nativity ode On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity between 1803 and 1815 . A total of 16 illustrations are extant : two sets of six watercolours each , and an additional four drawings in pencil .
The dating of the sets is unknown , as is Blake 's intended sequence for the illustrations . The two sets of watercolours are known as the " Butts set " and the " Thomas set " , after their respective patrons , or as the " Huntington set " and the " Whitworth set " after the Huntington Library and the Whitworth Art Gallery , which now hold the sets in their collections .
= = Provenance = =
There is little record of the provenance of the Thomas set or the Butts set before 1852 and 1872 , which has led to disputes about the dating . What is known is that the " Thomas set " was commissioned by the Reverend Joseph Thomas , who had also commissioned illustrations to Milton 's Comus and Paradise Lost from Blake . No contract for the commission is extant , but the commissioning probably took place in 1809 , which is the year in which the illustrations were completed . Blake was eager to accept the commission , according to G. E. Bentley , because " Milton illustrations were a kind of work which Blake could not resist . " They presumably stayed in the Revd Thomas 's family until they were bought at Sotheby 's from an anonymous seller in 1872 . By 1876 they were in the collection of J.E. Taylor , who gave them to the Whitworth in 1892 .
Even less is known about the dates of composition for the " Butts set " - between 1811 and 1820 , Blake created at least thirty three designs for Thomas Butts , which included the illustrations of " On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity " . Later , they passed from Butts to his son , who sold them at Sotheby 's in 1852 , passed through several more hands , were sold at Christie 's in 1912 , and in 1916 were sold to Henry Huntington .
= = Dating and sequence = =
The illustrations themselves do not make the dating any easier- the edges of the " Thomas set " were trimmed before sale at Sotheby 's , leaving " 18 " or " 180 " on most of the sheets . Only The Night of Peace bears the full date of 1809 . The Butts set is entirely undated- dates from 1803 to 1817 have been proposed for it . Behrendt argues that the Butts set predates the Thomas set by six years , and Collins Baker and R.R. Wark place it in 1809 , but earlier than the Thomas set .
The sequence of the illustrations is also a topic of scholarly dispute : the mountings of the Thomas set were inscribed on their backs with numbers 1 @-@ 6 , but these were added during or after the 1872 Sotheby 's sale , and so are unlikely to follow Blake 's intended order . This " original " order ran thus :
The Descent of Peace
The Annunciation to the Shepherds
The Flight of Moloch
The Old Dragon
The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods
The Night of Peace
Geoffrey Keynes placed them in 1 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 order , so that The Night of Peace followed The Descent of Peace , because of their similar subjects . Butlin , and nearly all subsequent scholars , have rejected this , as much commentary has centered upon Blake 's use of similar images to frame the sequence . Butlin instead rearranges the " original " sequence as 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 6 , moving The Flight of Moloch to second to last , so that it matches the order of corresponding verses in Milton 's poem . Dunbar also follows Butlin 's order . Behrendt adopts a 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 6 order , seeing a thematic progression from the destruction of classical aesthetics , to the old testament cruelty of Moloch ( who resembles Blake 's Urizen ) , to Satan himself . This order is followed by Werner in her Blake 's Vision of the Poetry of Milton .
= = Analysis = =
Blake 's literary debt to Milton is key to understanding his illustrations of the earlier poet 's writings . In general , Milton : a Poem is a guide to Blake 's idea of Milton : that he possessed true spiritual vision , but fell by his adherence to the moralistic and repressive tenets of puritanism and by his preference for the cruel and distant Jehovah of the Old testament over the redemptive figure of Christ . In that regard the Nativity Ode is to Blake the rebirth of Milton 's poetry into the creative imagination of Christ . Blake also sees a return to prophetic , Christian ideals of poetry , rather than the " pagan " classical aesthetic represented in The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods by the figure of Apollo , who is modeled on the Apollo Belvedere .
Blake 's prophetic book Europe : a Prophecy was especially influenced by On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity . In that poem , the messianic Orc , a symbol of pure creative energy , rises against the repressive institutions of Church and state . Orc is part of a doomed cycle- his rebellion is inevitably countered by the increased institutional repression of Urizen . Europe in that light is seen as a pessimistic parody of Milton 's poem . Orc is often associated with fire , and the closest parallel with him is found in The Flight of Moloch , where a child is about to be given to the god of sacrifice . The similarity of the orifice that frames the child to the shape of the stable in the other illustrations underscores the purpose of Christ 's birth , and foreshadows the harrowing of hell .
The illustrations emphasize the simultaneous occurrence of the events they depict by the presence of the stable in almost every image , and by framing the set with two very similar images that focus on the peaceful victory of Christ over darkness . The Descent of Peace also has neo @-@ platonic implications- it represents the descent of the soul into the body , which is symbolized by the cramped stable .
= = Table of Illustrations = =
The order followed here is that given by Butlin .
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= L 'Hermite 's expedition =
L 'Hermite 's expedition was a French naval operation launched in 1805 during the Napoleonic Wars . The operation was intended as both a commerce raiding operation against the British trading posts of West Africa and as a diversion to the Trafalgar campaign . Sailing from Lorient in October 1805 with one ship of the line , two frigates and a corvette , Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite was under orders to intercept and destroy British traders and slave ships off the West African coast and await reinforcements under Jérôme Bonaparte which were to be used in the invasion and capture of one of the British trading forts for use as a permanent French naval base from which further raiding operations could be conducted . It was also hoped by the French naval command that L 'Hermite might draw some of the large British fleet maintained off Cadiz away from the blockade to allow the French and Spanish allied fleet trapped in the harbour to escape .
Although L 'Hermite achieved minor successes against individual British shipping , his force was too small to have a serious impact on British trade in the region and the promised reinforcements failed to materialise in the aftermath of the destruction of the Cadiz fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805 , ten days before L 'Hermite sailed although before news of the battle had reached Lorient . In early January 1806 , L 'Hermite managed to capture a small British naval brig but was still unable to make any significant impact on British trade operations . In the spring of 1806 L 'Hermite withdrew across the Atlantic , taking on supplies and effecting repairs in neutral Brazil . During the return journey to France in August 1806 , the squadron was caught in a major hurricane and one frigate was severely damaged , limping to a port in the United States for repairs . The rest of the squadron continued on to France , L 'Hermite reaching Brest in his flagship Régulus . The other frigate was intercepted by a British blockade squadron on 27 September 1806 and captured in the Bay of Biscay .
= = Background = =
By the summer of 1806 , the Napoleonic Wars were two years old and the first major campaign at sea , the Trafalgar campaign , was nearing its climax . A French fleet had departed Toulon in March 1805 under Vice @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve , gathered Spanish ships from the Spanish Mediterranean ports and then crossed the Atlantic , under orders to disrupt British trade in the region and seize British colonies . Closely pursuing the Allied fleet was an equivalent British Royal Navy force under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson , which reached the Caribbean on 11 June and found that Villeneuve had already begun the return journey to Europe . On 22 July 1805 the Allied fleet had fought the Battle of Cape Finisterre against a British force under Sir Robert Calder and been forced to divert south , seeking shelter in the Spanish fleet anchorage of Cadiz . Appearing off Cadiz a few days after Villeneuve 's arrival , Nelson began a blockade of the Allied fleet , awaiting their emergence and preparing for battle .
Although the French Atlantic Fleet , principally based at the major seaport of Brest , had played no significant part in the campaign , it was decided that in order to relieve some of the pressure on the fleet in Cadiz , minor squadrons would be sent to prey on British trade in the Atlantic , hopefully drawing off some of Nelson 's ships in pursuit . One such squadron was a force under Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , consisting of five ships of the line , two frigates and two corvettes , which sailed from Brest for operations in the North Atlantic on 12 July . A second squadron was placed under Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite , with the ship of the line Régulus , frigates Président and Cybèle and corvette Surveillant . L 'Hermite was ordered to sail to West Africa , raiding merchant vessels and slave ships that operated among the numerous British trading posts along the coastline . At an undetermined point in the cruise , L 'Hermite would be joined by a larger squadron under Captain Jérôme Bonaparte , Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte 's brother . The reinforced squadron would include over 1 @,@ 000 French soldiers who would be used in an attack on one of the British West African trading posts . If the post could be successfully captured , it could be turned into a naval base for use by French commerce raiders and would force the British to deploy a full squadron from the Channel Fleet in response , at a time when every ship of the line was needed for the Trafalgar campaign .
= = Expedition = =
L 'Hermite 's squadron sailed from Lorient on 31 October , avoiding contact with the British blockading squadron and heading for the West African coast . Although the news had not yet reached Brittany , Villeneuve 's fleet had already been destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar ten days earlier and L 'Hermite 's role as a diversion to the main campaign was no longer required . Cruising in the Gulf of Guinea during November and December , L 'Hermite succeeded in capturing and burning a number of small merchant vessels and slave ships . The intended reinforcements never appeared however — in the aftermath of Trafalgar Napoleon diverted resources to the Atlantic campaign of 1806 , a major raiding operation to the Caribbean and South Atlantic launched in December 1805 . Among the vessels detailed for this operation was Jérôme Bonaparte 's ship Vétéran , which cruised as part of the squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez .
Without reinforcements , L 'Hermite could not make any significant impact on British trade off West Africa or make any attempt to capture a British trading fort . On 6 January , he achieved a minor success when he seized the 18 @-@ gun British sloop HMS Favourite under Commander John Davie . The prize was fitted out as part of the squadron and Surveillant was sent back to France with despatches . In the spring of 1806 , with supplies running low , L 'Hermite left the African coast and crossed the Atlantic , seeking fresh supplies in Brazil , a colony of neutral Portugal . After several months refitting and taking on stores , L 'Hermite crossed the Caribbean Sea in July 1806 , unknowingly passing though the same area that Willaumez was operating in but meeting only a handful of small merchant ships before passing into the Atlantic in early August . Favourite was left behind in the West Indies , and on 27 January 1807 was recaptured by the British frigate HMS Jason off Surinam . On 20 August , L 'Hermite was caught in a hurricane at 22 ° 26 ′ N 55 ° 00 ′ W , the same storm that had dispersed and badly damaged Willaumez 's squadron two days earlier . The damage was severe , with Cybèle suffering the most with the loss of her topmasts , rendering her slower than the rest of the squadron . Concerned by the frigate 's weakness , L 'Hermite ordered her to separate and sail for a harbour in the neutral United States , arriving at Hampton Roads on 1 September . Cybèle was later repaired and returned to France in 1807 , joining the squadron based at Rochefort .
= = Capture of Président = =
L 'Hermite 's three other ships all survived the hurricane relatively intact and were able to continue their journey to Europe unimpeded , the British squadrons in the area also dispersed by the summer storms . In late September the squadron broke up , Régulus sailing for Brest and arriving on 5 October , the only French ship of the line to enter or leave the port all year . Président was less successful : at 03 : 30 on 27 September , while sailing in the Bay of Biscay at 47 ° 17 ′ N 06 ° 52 ′ W , Captain Labrosse sighted six ships of the line . This overwhelming force was a squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Thomas Louis , which had been sent to the Bay of Biscay to await the return of Willaumez from the Caribbean . Immediately giving chase , Louis found that his ships of the line were not fast enough to catch the French frigate , which began to outdistance the main body of the squadron . However one of the small 18 @-@ gun sloops attached to the squadron , HMS Despatch under Captain Edward Hawkins was able to keep pace with the frigate , coming within firing range at 18 : 45 .
Although Hawkins only had two small guns that would bear on the frigate he kept up a steady rate of fire during the next hour , avoiding fire from the frigate 's bow guns during the chase . By 19 : 45 it was obvious that Despatch 's fire was successfully delaying the frigate and Labrosse turned towards the approaching squadron , moving as if to attack the nearest British frigate HMS Blanche under Sir Thomas Lavie . Seeing the French ship change direction , Louis ordered his flagship HMS Canopus to fire a gun at extreme range . This alerted Labrosse to the rapidly approaching squadron and he decided to surrender rather than be destroyed by the combined firepower of the British ships . No man had been hurt in the exchange of fire but Despatch had suffered severe damage to her rigging and one shot through her hull . The French ship had suffered minor damage in the engagement and was subsequently taken into the Royal Navy as HMS Presidente , renamed in 1815 to HMS Piemontaise . The frigate was much admired in the Royal Navy and a number of later frigates were built to a similar design .
= = Order of battle = =
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= Biblical Hebrew =
Biblical Hebrew ( Hebrew : עִבְרִית מִקְרָאִית Ivrit Miqra 'it or לְשׁוֹן הַמִּקְרָא Leshon ha @-@ Miqra ) , also called Classical Hebrew , is an archaic form of Hebrew , a Canaanite Semitic language spoken by the Israelites in the area known as Israel , roughly west of the Jordan River and east of the Mediterranean Sea . The term " Hebrew " was not used for the language in the Bible , which referred to Canaanite or Judahite , but the name was used in Greek and Mishnaic Hebrew texts . Biblical Hebrew is attested from about the 10th century BCE , and persisted through and beyond the Second Temple period ( which ended in the siege of Jerusalem ( AD 70 ) ) .
Biblical Hebrew eventually developed into Mishnaic Hebrew , which was spoken until the second century CE .
Biblical Hebrew is best @-@ attested in the Hebrew Bible , the collection of Judaic religious and historical texts which reflect various stages of the Hebrew language in its consonantal skeleton , as well as a vocalic system which was added in the Middle Ages by the Masoretes . There is also some evidence of regional dialectal variation , including differences between Biblical Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel and in the southern Kingdom of Judah .
Biblical Hebrew has been written with a number of different writing systems . The Hebrews adopted the Phoenician alphabet around the 12th century BCE , which developed into the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet . This was retained by the Samaritans , who use the descendent Samaritan alphabet to this day . However , the Aramaic alphabet gradually displaced the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet for the Jews , and it became the source for the modern Hebrew alphabet . All of these scripts were lacking letters to represent all of the sounds of Biblical Hebrew , though these sounds are reflected in Greek and Latin transcriptions / translations of the time . These scripts originally only indicated consonants , but certain letters , known by the Latin term matres lectionis , became increasingly used to mark vowels . In the Middle Ages , various systems of diacritics were developed to mark the vowels in Hebrew manuscripts ; of these , only the Tiberian vocalization is still in wide use .
Biblical Hebrew possessed a series of " emphatic " consonants whose precise articulation is disputed , likely ejective or pharyngealized . Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants which did not have their own letters in the writing system , but over time they merged with other consonants . The stop consonants developed fricative allophones under the influence of Aramaic , and these sounds eventually became marginally phonemic . The pharyngeal and glottal consonants underwent weakening in some regional dialects , as reflected in the modern Samaritan Hebrew reading tradition . The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew changed dramatically over time and is reflected differently in the ancient Greek and Latin transcriptions , medieval vocalization systems , and modern reading traditions .
Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic morphology with nonconcatenative morphology , arranging Semitic roots into patterns to form words . Biblical Hebrew distinguished two genders ( masculine , feminine ) , three numbers ( singular , plural , and uncommonly , dual ) . Verbs were marked for voice and mood , and had two conjugations which may have indicated aspect and / or tense ( a matter of debate ) . The tense or aspect of verbs was also influenced by the conjugation ו , in the so @-@ called waw @-@ consecutive construction . Default word order was verb – subject – object , and verbs inflected for the number , gender , and person of their subject . Pronominal suffixes could be appended to verbs ( to indicate object ) or nouns ( to indicate possession ) , and nouns had special construct states for use in possessive constructions .
= = Nomenclature = =
The earliest written sources refer to Biblical Hebrew by the name of the land in which it was spoken : שפת כנען ' the language of Canaan ' ( see Isaiah 19 : 18 ) . The Hebrew Bible also shows that the language was called יהודית ' Judaean , Judahite ' ( see , for example , 2 Kings 18 : 26 @,@ 28 ) . In the Hellenistic period Greek writings use the names Hebraios , Hebraïsti ( Josephus , Antiquities I , 1 : 2 , etc . ) , and in Mishnaic Hebrew we find עברית ' Hebrew ' and לשון עברית ' Hebrew language ' ( Mishnah Gittin 9 : 8 , etc . ) . The origin of this term is obscure ; suggested origins include the biblical Eber , the ethnonyms Ḫabiru , Ḫapiru , and ˁApiru found in sources from Egypt and the near east , and a derivation from the root עבר " to pass " alluding to crossing over the Jordan River . Jews also began referring to Hebrew as לשון הקדש " the Holy Tongue " in Mishnaic Hebrew .
The term Classical Hebrew may include all pre @-@ medieval dialects of Hebrew , including Mishnaic Hebrew , or it may be limited to Hebrew contemporaneous with the Hebrew Bible . The term Biblical Hebrew refers to pre @-@ Mishnaic dialects ( sometimes excluding Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew ) . The term ' Biblical Hebrew ' may or may not include extra @-@ biblical texts , such as inscriptions ( e.g. the Siloam inscription ) , and generally also includes later vocalization traditions for the Hebrew Bible 's consonantal text , most commonly the early medieval Tiberian vocalization .
= = History = =
The archeological record for the prehistory of Biblical Hebrew is far more complete than the record of Biblical Hebrew itself . Early Northwest Semitic ( ENWS ) materials are attested from 2350 BCE to 1200 BCE , the end of the Bronze Age . The Northwest Semitic languages , including Hebrew , differentiated noticeably during the Iron Age ( 1200 – 540 BCE ) , although in its earliest stages Biblical Hebrew was not highly differentiated from Ugaritic and the Canaanite of the Amarna letters .
Hebrew developed during the latter half of the second millennium BCE between the Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea , an area known as Canaan . The Israelite tribes established a kingdom in Canaan at the beginning of the first millennium BCE , which later split into the kingdom of Israel in the north and the kingdom of Judah in the south after a dispute of succession . The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered was found at Khirbet Qeiyafa and dates to the 10th century BCE .
The kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BCE . The kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE , its higher classes were exiled into the Babylonian captivity and Solomon 's Temple was destroyed . Later the Persians made Judah a province and permitted Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple . According to the Gemara , Hebrew of this period was similar to Imperial Aramaic ; in Pesahim , Tractate 87b , Hanina bar Hama said that God sent the exiled Jews to Babylon because " [ the Babylonian ] language is akin to the Leshon Hakodesh " .
Aramaic became the common language in the north , in Galilee and Samaria . Hebrew remained in use in Judah ; however the returning exiles brought back Aramaic influence , and Aramaic was used for communicating with other ethnic groups during the Persian period . Alexander conquered Judah in 332 BCE , beginning the period of Hellenistic ( Greek ) domination . During the Hellenistic period Judea became independent under the Hasmonean dynasty , but later the Romans ended their independence , making Herod the Great their governor . One Jewish revolt against the Romans led to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE , and the second Bar Kokhba revolt in 132 – 135 led to a large departure of the Jewish population of Judea .
Biblical Hebrew after the Second Temple period evolved into Mishnaic Hebrew , which ceased being spoken and developed into a literary language around 200 CE . Hebrew continued to be used as a literary and liturgical language in the form of Medieval Hebrew , and Hebrew began a revival process in the 19th century , culminating in Modern Hebrew becoming the official language of Israel . Currently , Classical Hebrew is generally taught in public schools in Israel , and Biblical Hebrew forms are sometimes used in Modern Hebrew literature , much as archaic and biblical constructions are used in Modern English literature . Since Modern Hebrew contains many biblical elements , Biblical Hebrew is fairly intelligible to Modern Hebrew speakers .
The primary source of Biblical Hebrew material is the Hebrew Bible. epigraphic materials from the area of Israelite territory are written a form of Hebrew called Inscriptional Hebrew , although this is meagerly attested . According to Waltke & O 'Connor , Inscriptional Hebrew " is not strikingly different from the Hebrew preserved in the Masoretic text . " The damp climate of Israel caused the rapid deterioration of papyrus and parchment documents , in contrast to the dry environment of Egypt , and the survival of the Hebrew Bible may be attributed to scribal determination in preserving the text through copying . No manuscript of the Hebrew Bible dates to before 400 BCE , although two silver rolls ( the Ketef Hinnom scrolls ) from the seventh or sixth century BCE show a version of the Priestly Blessing . Vowel and cantillation marks were added to the older consonantal layer of the Bible between 600 CE and the beginning of the 10th century . The scholars who preserved the pronunciation of the Bibles were known as the Masoretes . The most well @-@ preserved system that was developed , and the only one still in religious use , is the Tiberian vocalization , but both Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations are also attested . The Palestinian system was preserved mainly in piyyutim , which contain biblical quotations .
= = Classification = =
Biblical Hebrew is a Northwest Semitic language from the Canaanite subgroup .
As Biblical Hebrew evolved from the Proto @-@ Semitic language it underwent a number of consonantal mergers parallel with those in other Canaanite languages . There is no evidence that these mergers occurred after the adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet .
As a Northwest Semitic language , Hebrew shows the shift of initial * / w / to / j / , a similar independent pronoun system to the other Northwest Semitic languages ( with third person pronouns never containing / ʃ / ) , some archaic forms , such as / naħnu / ' we ' , first person singular pronominal suffix -i or -ya , and / n / commonly preceding pronominal suffixes . Case endings are found in Northwest Semitic languages in the second millennium BCE , but disappear almost totally afterwards . Mimation is absent in singular nouns , but is often retained in the plural , as in Hebrew .
The Northwest Semitic languages formed a dialect continuum in the Iron Age ( 1200 – 540 BCE ) , with Phoenician and Aramaic on each extreme . Hebrew is classed with Phoenician in the Canaanite subgroup , which also includes Ammonite , Edomite , and Moabite . Moabite might be considered a Hebrew dialect , though it possessed distinctive Aramaic features . Although Ugaritic shows a large degree of affinity to Hebrew in poetic structure , vocabulary , and some grammar , it lacks some Canaanite features ( like the Canaanite shift and the shift * / ð / > / z / ) , and its similarities are more likely a result of either contact or preserved archaism .
Hebrew underwent the Canaanite shift , where Proto @-@ Semitic / aː / tended to shift to / oː / , perhaps when stressed . Hebrew also shares with the Canaanite languages the shifts * / ð / > / z / , * / θʼ / and * / ɬʼ / > / sʼ / , widespread reduction of diphthongs , and full assimilation of non @-@ final / n / to the following consonant if word final , i.e. בת / bat / from * bant . There is also evidence of an rule of assimilation of / y / to the following coronal consonant in pre @-@ tonic position , shared by Hebrew , Phoenician and Aramic .
Typical Canaanite words in Hebrew include : גג " roof " שלחן " table " חלון " window " ישן " old ( thing ) " זקן " old ( person ) " and גרש " expel " . Morphological Canaanite features in Hebrew include the masculine plural marker -ם , first person singular pronoun אנכי , interrogative pronoun מי , definite article ה- ( appearing in the first millennium BCE ) , and third person plural feminine verbal marker ת- .
= = Eras = =
Biblical Hebrew as preserved in the Hebrew Bible is composed of multiple linguistic layers . The consonantal skeleton of the text is the most ancient , while the vocalization and cantillation are later additions reflecting a later stage of the language . These additions were added after 600 CE ; Hebrew had already ceased being used as a spoken language around 200 CE . Biblical Hebrew as reflected in the consonantal text of the Bible and in extra @-@ biblical inscriptions may be subdivided by era .
The oldest form of Biblical Hebrew , Archaic Hebrew , is found in poetic sections of the Bible and inscriptions dating to around 1000 BCE , the early Monarchic Period . This stage is also known as Old Hebrew or Paleo @-@ Hebrew , and is the oldest stratum of Biblical Hebrew . The oldest known artifacts of Archaic Biblical Hebrew are various sections of the Tanakh , including the Song of Moses ( Exodus 15 ) and the Song of Deborah ( Judges 5 ) . Biblical poetry uses a number of distinct lexical items , for example חזה for prose ראה ' see ' , כביר for גדול ' great ' . Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages , for example פעל ' do ' and חָרוּץ ' gold ' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic . Grammatical differences include the use of זה , זוֹ , and זוּ as relative particles , negative בל , and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax .
Later pre @-@ exilic Biblical Hebrew ( such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch , Nevi 'im , and some Ketuvim ) is known as ' Biblical Hebrew proper ' or ' Standard Biblical Hebrew ' . This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE . In contrast to Archaic Hebrew , Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article ה- , the accusative marker את , distinguishing between simple and waw @-@ consecutive verb forms , and in using particles like אשר and כי rather than asyndeton .
Biblical Hebrew from after the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE is known as ' Late Biblical Hebrew ' . Late Biblical Hebrew shows Aramaic influence in phonology , morphology , and lexicon , and this trend is also evident in the later @-@ developed Tiberian vocalization system .
Qumran Hebrew , attested in the Dead Sea Scrolls from ca . 200 BCE to 70 CE , is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew . Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew , though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features .
= = Dialects = =
Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well @-@ known shibboleth incident of Judges 12 : 6 , where Jephthah 's forces from Gilead caught Ephraimites trying to cross the Jordan river by making them say שִׁבֹּ ֤ לֶת ( ' ear of corn ' ) The Ephraimites ' identity was given away by their pronunciation : סִבֹּ ֤ לֶת . The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had / s / for standard / ʃ / . As an alternative explanation , it has been suggested that the proto @-@ Semitic phoneme * / θ / , which shifted to / ʃ / in most dialects of Hebrew , may have been retained in the Hebrew of the trans @-@ Jordan . However , there is evidence that the word שִׁבֹּ ֤ לֶת had initial consonant * / ʃ / in proto @-@ Semitic , contradicting this theory .
Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel , known also as Israelian Hebrew , shows phonological , lexical , and grammatical differences from southern dialects . The Northern dialect spoken around Samaria shows more frequent simplification of / aj / into / eː / as attested by the Samaria ostraca ( 8th century BCE ) , e.g. ין ( |
= / jeːn / < * / jajn / ' wine ' ) , while the Southern ( Judean ) dialect instead adds in an epenthetic vowel / i / , added halfway through the first millennium BCE ( יין =
/ ˈjajin / ) . The word play in Amos 8 : 1 – 2 כְּלוּב קַ ֫ יִץ ... בָּא הַקֵּץ may reflect this : given that Amos was addressing the population of the Northern Kingdom , the vocalization * קֵיץ would be more forceful . Other possible Northern features include use of שֶ- ' who , that ' , forms like דֵעָה ' to know ' rather than דַעַת and infinitives of certain verbs of the form עֲשוֹ ' to do ' rather than עֲשוֹת . The Samaria ostraca also show שת for standard שנה ' year ' , as in Aramaic .
The guttural phonemes / ħ ʕ h ʔ / merged over time in some dialects . This was found in Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew , but Jerome attested to the existence of contemporaneous Hebrew speakers who still distinguished pharyngeals . Samaritan Hebrew also shows a general attrition of these phonemes , though / ʕ ħ / are occasionally preserved as [ ʕ ] .
= = Orthography = =
The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered , found at Khirbet Qeiyafa , dates to the 10th century BCE . The 15 cm x 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in x 6 @.@ 5 in ) trapezoid pottery sherd ( ostracon ) has five lines of text written in ink written in the Proto @-@ Canaanite alphabet ( the old form of the Phoenician alphabet ) . The tablet is written from left to right , indicating that Hebrew writing was still in the formative stage .
The Israelite tribes who settled in the land of Israel adopted the Phoenician script around the 12th century BCE , as found in the Gezer calendar ( c . 10th century BCE ) . This script developed into the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script in the 10th or 9th centuries BCE . The Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet 's main differences from the Phoenician script were " a curving to the left of the downstrokes in the " long @-@ legged " letter @-@ signs ... the consistent use of a Waw with a concave top , [ and an ] x @-@ shaped Taw . " The oldest inscriptions in Paleo @-@ Hebrew script are dated to around the middle of the 9th century BCE , the most famous being the Mesha Stele in the Moabite language ( which might be considered a dialect of Hebrew ) . The ancient Hebrew script was in continuous use until the early 6th century BCE , the end of the First Temple period . In the Second Temple Period the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script gradually fell into disuse , and was completely abandoned among the Jews after the failed Bar Kochba revolt . The Samaritans retained the ancient Hebrew alphabet , which evolved into the modern Samaritan alphabet .
By the end of the First Temple period the Aramaic script , a separate descendant of the Phoenician script , became widespread throughout the region , gradually displacing Paleo @-@ Hebrew . The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus , Samuel , and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls , dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE . It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script , while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script . Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the tetragrammaton and some other divine names in Paleo @-@ Hebrew , and this practice is also found in several Jewish @-@ Greek biblical translations . While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into Mishnaic Hebrew , the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed . A number of regional " book @-@ hand " styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works , distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes . The Mizrahi and Ashkenazi book @-@ hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press . The modern Hebrew alphabet , also known as the Assyrian or Square script , is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet .
The Phoenician script had dropped five characters by the 12th century BCE , reflecting the language 's twenty @-@ two consonantal phonemes . As a result , the 22 letters of the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet numbered less than the consonant phonemes of ancient Biblical Hebrew ; in particular , the letters 〈 ח , ע , ש 〉 could each mark two different phonemes . After a sound shift the letters ח , ע could only mark one phoneme , but ( except in Samaritan Hebrew ) ש still marked two . The old Babylonian vocalization system wrote a superscript ס above the ש to indicate it took the value / s / , while the Masoretes added the shin dot to distinguish between the two varieties of the letter .
The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants , but gradually the letters א , ה , ו , י , also became used to indicate vowels , known as matres lectionis when used in this function . It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development : for instance , * bayt ( ' house ' ) shifted to בֵּית in construct state but retained its spelling . While no examples of early Hebrew orthography have been found , older Phoenician and Moabite texts show how First Temple period Hebrew would have been written . Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word , for example לפנ and ז for later לפני and זה , similarly to the Hebrew Gezer Calendar , which has for instance שערמ for שעורים and possibly ירח for ירחו . Matres lectionis were later added word @-@ finally , for instance the Mesha inscription has בללה , בנתי for later בלילה , בניתי ; however at this stage they were not yet used word @-@ medially , compare Siloam inscription זדה versus אש ( for later איש ) . The relative terms defective and full / plene are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis , respectively .
The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today . Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible , the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis , with the Samaritan Pentateuch and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters . The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels , showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word @-@ internal / aː / . In the Qumran tradition , back vowels are usually represented by 〈 ו 〉 whether short or long . 〈 י 〉 is generally used for both long [ iː ] and [ eː ] ( אבילים , מית ) , and final [ iː ] is often written as יא- in analogy to words like היא , הביא , e.g. כיא , sometimes מיא . 〈 ה 〉 is found finally in forms like חוטה ( Tiberian חוטא ) , קורה ( Tiberian קורא ) while 〈 א 〉 may be used for an a @-@ quality vowel in final position ( e.g. עליהא ) and in medial position ( e.g. יאתום ) . Pre @-@ Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories ( e.g. כוחי vs. Masoretic כחי in Genesis 49 : 3 ) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type .
In general the vowels of Biblical Hebrew were not indicated in the original text , but various sources attest them at various stages of development . Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels . In particular , there is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the Koine Greek Septuagint ( 3rd – 2nd centuries BCE ) and the Greek alphabet transcription of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the Secunda ( 3rd century CE , likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE ) . In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the biblical text . The most prominent , best preserved , and the only system still in use , is the Tiberian vocalization system , created by scholars known as Masoretes around 850 CE . There are also various extant manuscripts making use of less common vocalization systems ( Babylonian and Palestinian ) , known as superlinear vocalizations because their vocalization marks are placed above the letters . In addition , the Samaritan reading tradition is independent of these systems , and was occasionally notated with a separate vocalization system . These systems often record vowels at different stages of historical development ; for example , the name of the Judge Samson is recorded in Greek as Σαμψών Sampsōn with the first vowel as / a / , while Tiberian שִמְשוֹן / ʃimʃon / with / i / shows the effect of the law of attenuation whereby / a / in closed unstressed syllables became / i / . All of these systems together are used to reconstruct the original vocalization of Biblical Hebrew .
At an early stage , in documents written in the paleo @-@ Hebrew script , words were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots , as reflected by the Mesha Stone , the Siloam inscription , the Ophel inscription , and paleo @-@ Hebrew script documents from Qumran . Word division was not used in Phoenician inscriptions ; however , there is not direct evidence for biblical texts being written without word division , as suggested by Nahmanides in his introduction to the Torah . Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script . In addition to marking vowels , the Tiberian system also uses cantillation marks , which serve to mark word stress , semantic structure , and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text .
While the Tiberian , Babylonian , and Palestinian reading traditions are extinct , various other systems of pronunciation have evolved over time , notably the Yemenite , Sephardi , Ashkenazi , and Samaritan traditions . Modern Hebrew pronunciation is also used by some to read biblical texts . The modern reading traditions do not stem solely from the Tiberian system ; for instance , the Sephardic tradition 's distinction between qamatz gadol and qatan is pre @-@ Tiberian . However , the only orthographic system used to mark vowels is the Tiberian vocalization .
= = Phonology = =
The phonology as reconstructed for Biblical Hebrew is as follows :
= = = Consonants = = =
Consonants lost and gained during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew are color @-@ coded respectively .
The phonetic nature of some Biblical Hebrew consonants is disputed . The so @-@ called " emphatics " were likely ejective , but possibly pharyngealized or velarized . Some argue that / s , z , sʼ / were affricated ( / ts , dz , tsʼ / ) .
Originally , the Hebrew letters 〈 ח 〉 and 〈 ע 〉 each represented two possible phonemes , uvular and pharyngeal , with the distinction unmarked in Hebrew orthography . However the uvular phonemes / χ / ח and / ʁ / ע merged with their pharyngeal ones / ħ / ח and / ʕ / ע respectively c . 200 BCE .
This is observed by noting that these phonemes are distinguished consistently in the Septuagint of the Pentateuch ( e.g. Isaac יצחק |
= Ἰσαάκ versus Rachel רחל =
Ῥαχήλ ) , but this becomes more sporadic in later books and is generally absent in Ezra and Nehemiah .
The phoneme / ɬ / , is also not directly indicated by Hebrew orthography but is clearly attested by later developments : It is written with 〈 ש 〉 ( also used for / ʃ / ) but later merged with / s / ( normally indicated with 〈 ס 〉 ) . As a result , three etymologically distinct phonemes can be distinguished through a combination of spelling and pronunciation : / s / written 〈 ס 〉 , / ʃ / written 〈 ש 〉 , and / ś / ( pronounced / s / but written 〈 ש 〉 ) . The specific pronunciation of / ś / as [ ɬ ] is based on comparative evidence ( / ɬ / is the corresponding Proto @-@ Semitic phoneme and still attested in Modern South Arabian dialects ) as well as early borrowings ( e.g. balsam < Greek balsamon < Hebrew baśam ) . / ɬ / began merging with / s / in Late Biblical Hebrew , as indicated by interchange of orthographic 〈 ש 〉 and 〈 ס 〉 , possibly under the influence of Aramaic , and this became the rule in Mishnaic Hebrew . In all Jewish reading traditions / ɬ / and / s / have merged completely ; however in Samaritan Hebrew / ɬ / has instead merged with / ʃ / .
Allophonic spirantization of / b ɡ d k p t / to [ v ɣ ð x f θ ] ( known as begadkefat spirantization ) developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic . This probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes / θ , ð / disappeared in the 7th century BCE , and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew / χ , ʁ / c . 200 BCE . It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE . After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word @-@ medial and final position ( though bearing low functional load ) , but in word @-@ initial position they remained allophonic . This is evidenced both by the Tiberian vocalization 's consistent use of word @-@ initial spirants after a vowel in sandhi , as well as Rabbi Saadia Gaon 's attestation to the use of this alternation in Tiberian Aramaic at the beginning of the 10th century CE .
The Dead Sea scrolls show evidence of confusion of the phonemes / ħ ʕ h ʔ / , e.g. חמר ħmr for Masoretic אָמַר / ʔɔˈmar / ' he said ' . However the testimony of Jerome indicates that this was a regionalism and not universal . Confusion of gutturals was also attested in later Mishnaic Hebrew and Aramaic ( see Eruvin 53b ) . In Samaritan Hebrew , / ʔ ħ h ʕ / have generally all merged , either into / ʔ / , a glide / w / or / j / , or by vanishing completely ( often creating a long vowel ) , except that original / ʕ ħ / sometimes have reflex / ʕ / before / a ɒ / .
Geminate consonants are phonemically contrastive in Biblical Hebrew . In the Secunda / w j z / are never geminate . In the Tiberian tradition / ħ ʕ h ʔ r / cannot be geminate ; historically first / r ʔ / degeminated , followed by / ʕ / , / h / , and finally / ħ / , as evidenced by changes in the quality of the preceding vowel .
= = = Vowels = = =
The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew has changed considerably over time . The following vowels are those reconstructed for the earliest stage of Hebrew , those attested by the Secunda , those of the various vocalization traditions ( Tiberian and varieties of Babylonian and Palestinian ) , and those of the Samaritan tradition , with vowels absent in some traditions color @-@ coded .
= = = = Sound changes = = = =
The following sections present the vowel changes that Biblical Hebrew underwent , in approximate chronological order .
= = = = = Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic = = = = =
Proto @-@ Semitic is the ancestral language of all the Semitic languages , and in traditional reconstructions possessed 29 consonants ; 6 monophthong vowels , consisting of three qualities and two lengths , * / a aː i iː u uː / , in which the long vowels occurred only in open syllables ; and two diphthongs * / aj aw / . The stress system of Proto @-@ Semitic is unknown but it is commonly described as being much like the system of Classical Latin or the modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic : If the penultimate ( second last ) syllable is light ( has a short vowel followed by a single consonant ) , stress goes on the antepenultimate ( third last ) ; otherwise , it goes on the penultimate .
Various changes , mostly in morphology , took place between Proto @-@ Semitic and Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic , the language at the root of the Central Semitic languages . The phonemic system was inherited essentially unchanged , but the emphatic consonants may have changed their realization in Central Semitic from ejectives to pharyngealized consonants .
The morphology of Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic shows significant changes compared with Proto @-@ Semitic , especially in its verbs , and is much like in Classical Arabic . Nouns in the singular were usually declined in three cases : / -u / ( nominative ) , / -a / ( accusative ) or / -i / ( genitive ) . In some circumstances ( but never in the construct state ) , nouns also took a final nasal after the case ending : nunation ( final / -n / ) occurred in some languages , mimation ( final / -m / ) in others . The original meaning of this marker is uncertain . In Classical Arabic , final / -n / on nouns indicates indefiniteness and disappears when the noun is preceded by a definite article or otherwise becomes definite in meaning . In other languages , final / -n / may be present whenever a noun is not in the construct state . Very Early Biblical Hebrew ( pre @-@ 1500 BCE ) had mimation , of uncertain meaning , in an occurrence of the word urušalemim ( Jerusalem ) .
Broken plural forms in Arabic are declined like singulars , and often take singular agreement as well . Dual and " strong plural " forms use endings with a long vowel or diphthong , declined in only two cases : nominative and objective ( combination accusative / genitive ) , with the objective form often becoming the default one after the loss of case endings . Both Hebrew and Arabic had a special form of nunation / mimation that co @-@ occurred with the dual and masculine sound plural endings whenever the noun was not in the construct state . The endings were evidently felt as an inherent part of the ending and , as a result , are still used . Examples are Arabic strong masculine plural -ūna ( nominative ) , -īna ( objective ) , and dual endings -āni ( nominative ) , -ayni ( objective ) ; corresponding construct @-@ state endings are -ū , -ī ( strong masculine plural ) , -ā , -ay ( dual ) . ( The strong feminine endings in Classical Arabic are -ātu nominative , -āti objective , marked with a singular @-@ style -n nunation in the indefinite state only . )
Hebrew has almost lost the broken plural ( if it ever had it ) , and any vestigial forms that may remain have been extended with the strong plural endings . The dual and strong plural endings were likely much like the Arabic forms given above at one point , with only the objective @-@ case forms ultimately surviving . Dor example , dual -ayim is probably from * -aymi with an extended mimation ending ( cf . Arabic -ayni above ) , while dual construct -ē is from * -ay without mimation . Similarly , -īm < * -īma , -ōt < * -āti . ( Note that expected plural construct state * -ī was replaced by dual -ē . )
Feminine nouns at this point ended in a suffix / -at- / or / -t- / and took normal case endings . ( When the ending / -at- / became final because of loss or non @-@ presence of the case ending , both Hebrew and Arabic show a later shift to / -ah / and then / -aː / . )
= = = = = Canaanite shift = = = = =
Hebrew shows the Canaanite shift whereby * / aː / often shifted to / oː / ; the conditions of this shift are disputed . This shift had occurred by the 14th century BCE , as demonstrated by its presence in the Amarna letters ( c . 1365 BCE ) .
= = = = = Proto @-@ Hebrew = = = = =
As a result of the Canaanite shift , the Proto @-@ Hebrew vowel system is reconstructed as * / a aː oː i iː u uː / ( and possibly rare * / eː / ) . Furthermore , stress at this point appears to have shifted so that it was consistently on the penultimate ( next to last ) syllable , and was still non @-@ phonemic . The predominant final stress of Biblical Hebrew was a result of loss of final unstressed vowels and a shift away from remaining open syllables ( see below ) .
= = = = = Loss of final unstressed vowels = = = = =
Final unstressed short vowels dropped out in most words , making it possible for long vowels to occur in closed syllables . This appears to have proceeded in two steps :
Final short mood , etc. markers dropped in verbal forms .
Final short case markers dropped in nominal forms .
Vowel lengthening in stressed , open syllables occurred between the two steps , with the result that short vowels at the beginning of a -VCV ending lengthened in nouns but not verbs . This is most noticeable with short / a / : e.g. * kataba ( ' he wrote ' ) > / kɔˈθav / but * dabara ( ' word ' acc . ' ) > / dɔˈvɔr / .
The dropping of final short vowels in verb forms tended to erase mood distinctions , but also some gender distinctions ; however , unexpected vowel lengthening occurred in many situations to preserve the distinctions . For example , in the suffix conjugation , first @-@ singular * -tu appears to have been remade into * -tī already by Proto @-@ Hebrew on the basis of possessive -ī ( likewise first singular personal pronoun * ʔana became * ʔanī ) .
Similarly , in the second @-@ singular , inherited * -ta -ti competed with lengthened * -tā -tī for masculine and feminine forms . The expected result would be -t or -tā for masculine , -t or -tī for feminine , and in fact both variants of both forms are found in the Bible ( with -h marking the long -ā and -y marking the long -ī ) . The situation appears to have been quite fluid for several centuries , with -t and -tā / tī forms found in competition both in writing and in speech ( cf. the Secunda ( Hexapla ) of Origen , which records both pronunciations , although quite often in disagreement with the written form as passed down to us ) . Ultimately , writing stabilized on the shorter -t for both genders , while speech choose feminine -t but masculine tā . This is the reason for the unexpected qamatz vowel written under the final letter of such words .
The exact same process affected possessive * -ka ( ' your ' masc. sing . ) and * -ki ( ' your ' fem. sing . ) , and personal pronouns * ʔanta , * ʔanti , with the same split into shorter and longer forms and the same ultimate resolution .
= = = = = Short vowel lengthening ( esp. pretonic ) , lowering = = = = =
The short vowels * / a i u / tended to lengthen in various positions .
First , short vowels lengthened in an open syllable in pretonic position ( i.e. directly before the stressed syllable ) .
Later , short vowels lengthened in stressed open syllables .
In the process of lengthening , the high vowels were lowered . In the Secunda , the lengthened reflexes of / a i u / are / aː eː oː / ; when kept short they generally have reflexes / a e o / .
= = = = = Reduction of short open stressed syllables = = = = =
Stressed open syllables with a short vowel ( i.e. syllables consisting of a short vowel followed by a consonant and another vowel ) had the vowel reduced to / ǝ / and the stressed moved one syllable later in the word ( usually to the last syllable of the word ) . Stress was originally penultimate and loss of final short vowels made many words have final stress . However , words whose final syllable had a long vowel or ended with a consonant were unaffected and still had penultimate stress at this point . This change did not happen in pausal position , where the penultimate stress is preserved , and vowel lengthening rather than reduction occurs .
The previous three changes occurred in a complex , interlocking fashion :
Shift of stress to be universally penultimate .
Loss of final short vowels in verbs , pre @-@ stress lengthening in open syllables . Pre @-@ stress lengthening / lowering becomes a surface filter that remains as a rule in the language , automatically affected any new short vowels in open syllables as they appear ( but ultra @-@ short vowels are unaffected ) .
Stress movement from light syllable to following heavy syllable when not in pausa , with newly unstressed light syllable reducing the schwa .
Tonic lengthening / lowering in open syllables .
Loss of final short vowels in nouns .
Examples :
Note that many , perhaps most , Hebrew words with a schwa directly before a final stress are due to this stress shift .
This sound change shifted many more originally penultimate @-@ stressed words to have final stress . The above changes can be seen to divide words into a number of main classes based on stress and syllable properties :
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open penult and short @-@ vowel ending : Become final @-@ stressed ( e.g. / qɔˈṭal / ( ' he killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭala / ) .
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an closed penult and short @-@ vowel ending : Become penultimate due to segholate rule ( e.g. / ˈmɛlɛx / ( ' king ' ) < * / malku / ) .
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open short penult and longer ending : Become final @-@ stressed due to sress shift ( e.g. / qɔṭǝˈlu / ( ' they killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭaluː / ) .
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with a closed penult and longer ending : Remain penultimate ( e.g. / qɔˈṭalti / ( ' I killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭaltiː / ) .
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open long penult and longer ending : ? ? ?
= = = = = Pre @-@ stress reduction of short vowel = = = = =
* / a i u / were reduced to / ə / in the second syllable before the stress , and occasionally reduced rather than lengthened in pretonic position , especially when initial ( e.g. σεμω = שמו / ʃəˈmo / ' his name ' ) . Thus the vowel system of the Secunda was / a e eː iː o oː uː ə / .
= = = = = Later developments = = = = =
The later Jewish traditions ( Tiberian , Babylonian , Palestinian ) show similar vowel developments . By the Tiberian time , all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened , making vowel length allophonic . Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length ( e.g. / a / in יְרַחֵם / jǝraˈħem / [ jǝraːˈħeːm ] ( ' he will have mercy ' ) < previously short [ jǝraˈħeːm ] < [ jǝraħˈħeːm ] by Tiberian degemination of / ħ / < PSem * / juraħˈħimu / ) . The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length . In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems , * / aː / and lengthened * / a / become the back vowel / ɔ / . In unaccented closed syllables , * / i u / become / ɛ ~ i ɔ ~ u / ( Tiberian ) , / a ~ i u / ( Babylonian ) , or / e ~ i o ~ u / ( Palestinian ) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates ( e.g. לִבִּי ) and the first otherwise . In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda . It does not occur for / * a / , but is occasional for / * i / ( e.g. מסמְרים / masmǝˈrim / ' nails ' < * / masmiriːm / ) , and is common for / * u / ( e.g. רְחוֹב / rǝˈħoβ ' open place ' < * / ruħaːb / ) . In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic / * u / is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant , e.g. אדֻמּים / ăðumˈmim / ( ' red ' pl . ) ( cf . / ăˈðom / ' red ' sg . ) ; this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like אַסִּיר ~ אָסִיר / ɔˈsir / ~ / asˈsir / ( ' prisoner ' ) .
The Babylonian and Palestinian systems have only one reduced vowel phoneme / ə / like the Secunda , though in Palestinian Hebrew it developed the pronunciation [ ɛ ] . However the Tiberian tradition possesses three reduced vowels / ă ɔ ̆ ɛ ̆ / of which / ɛ ̆ / has questionable phonemicity . / ă / under a non @-@ guttural letter was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel before a guttural , e.g. וּבָקְעָה [ uvɔqɔ ̆ ˈʕɔ ] , and as [ ĭ ] preceding / j / , e.g. תְדֵמְּיוּ ֫ נִי [ θăðamːĭˈjuni ] , but was always pronounced as [ ă ] under gutturals , e.g. שָחֲחו , חֲיִי . When reduced , etymological * / a i u / become / ă ɛ ̆ ~ ă ɔ ̆ / under gutturals ( e.g. אֲמרתם ' you [ mp . ] said ' cf . אָמר ' he said ' ) , and generally / ă / under non @-@ gutturals , but * / u / > / ɔ ̆ / ( and rarely * / i / > / ɛ ̆ / ) may still occur , especially after stops ( or their spirantized counterparts ) and / sʼ ʃ / ( e.g. דֳּמִי / dɔ ̆ ˈmi / ) . Samaritan and Qumran Hebrew have full vowels in place of the reduced vowels of Tiberian Hebrew .
Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length ; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length , e.g. / rɒb / רב ( ' great ' ) vs. / rɒːb / רחב ( ' wide ' ) . Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened ( to a lesser degree ) in open syllables , e.g. המצרי [ ammisˤriˑ ] , היא [ iˑ ] , though this is less strong in post @-@ tonic vowels . Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew , but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew , e.g. גמלים TH / ɡămalːim / SH / ɡɒmɒləm / ; שלמים TH / ʃălɔmim / SH / ʃelamːəm / . While Proto @-@ Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew , in Samaritan Hebrew * / iː / may have reflex / e / in closed stressed syllables , e.g. דין / den / , * / aː / may become either / a / or / ɒ / , and * / oː / > / u / . The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels , though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction . Samaritan / ə / results from the neutralization of the distinction between / i / and / e / in closed post @-@ tonic syllables , e.g. / bit / בית ( ' house ' ) / abbət / הבית ( ' the house ' ) / ɡer / גר / aɡɡər / הגר .
Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred . Diphthongs were frequently monopthongized , but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects . In particular , the Samaria ostraca show / jeːn / < * / jajn / < * / wajn / for Southern / jajin / ( ' wine ' ) , and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift * / aj / > / iː / . Original * / u / tended to shift to / i / ( e.g. אֹמֶר and אִמְרָה ' word ' ; חוץ ' outside ' and חיצון ' outer ' ) beginning in the second half of the second millennium BC . This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions . Philippi 's law is the process by which original * / i / in closed stressed syllables shifts to / a / ( e , g , / * bint / > בַּת / bat / ' daughter ' ) , or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition / ɛ / ( e.g. / * ʔamint / > אֱמֶת / ɛ ̆ mɛt / ' truth ' ) . This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda , but there is evidence that the law 's onset predates the Secunda . In the Samaritan tradition Philippi 's law is applied consistently , e.g. * / libː @-@ u / > / lab / ( ' heart ' ) . In some traditions the short vowel / * a / tended to shift to / i / in unstressed closed syllables : this is known as the law of attenuation . It is common in the Tiberian tradition , e.g. * / ʃabʕat / > Tiberian שִבְעָה / ʃivˈʕɔ / ( ' seven ' ) , but exceptions are frequent . It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization , e.g. / ʃabʕɔ / ( ' seven ' ) , and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late . Attenuation generally did not occur before / i ~ e / , e.g. Tiberian מַפְתֵּחַ / mafˈteaħ / ( ' key ' ) versus מִפְתַּח / mifˈtaħ / ( ' opening [ construct ] ' ) , and often was blocked before a geminate , e.g. מתנה ( ' gift ' ) . Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew , e.g. מקדש / maqdaʃ / . In the Tiberian tradition / e i o u / take offglide / a / before / h ħ ʕ / . This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome . In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort echo vowel is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural , e.g. יַאֲזִין / jaʔăzin / ( ' he will listen ' ) פָּעֳלוֹ / pɔʕɔ ̆ lo / ( ' his work ' ) but יַאְדִּיר / jaʔdið / ( ' he will make glorious ' ) רָחְבּוֹ / ʀɔħbo / ' its breadth ' .
The following charts summarize the most common reflexes of the Proto @-@ Semitic vowels in the various stages of Hebrew :
= = = Stress = = =
Proto @-@ Hebrew generally had penultimate stress . The ultimate stress of later traditions of Hebrew usually resulted from the loss of final vowels in many words , preserving the location of proto @-@ Semitic stress . Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress , e.g. בָּנוּ ֫ / bɔˈnu / ( ' they built ' ) vs. בָּ ֫ נוּ / ˈbɔnu / ( ' in us ' ) ; stress is most commonly ultimate , less commonly penultimate , and antipenultimate stress exists marginally , e.g. הָאֹ ֫ הֱלָה / hɔˈʔohɛ ̆ lɔ / ( ' into the tent ' ) . There does not seem to be evidence for stress in the Secunda varying from that of the Tiberian tradition . Despite sharing the loss of final vowels with Tiberian Hebrew , Samaritan Hebrew has generally not preserved Proto @-@ Semitic stress , and has predominantly penultimate stress , with occasional ultimate stress . There is evidence that Qumran Hebrew had a similar stress pattern to Samaritan Hebrew .
= = Grammar = =
Medieval grammarians of Arabic and Hebrew classified words as belonging to three parts of speech : Arabic ism ( ' noun ' ) , fiʻl ( ' verb ' ) , and ḥarf ( ' particle ' ) ; other grammarians have included more categories . In particular , adjectives and nouns show more affinity to each other than in most European languages . Biblical Hebrew has a typical Semitic morphology , characterized by the use of roots . Most words in Biblical Hebrew are formed from a root , a sequence of consonants with a general associated meaning . Roots are usually triconsonantal , with biconsonantal roots less common ( depending on how some words are analyzed ) and rare cases of quadri- and quinquiconsonantal roots . Roots are modified by affixation to form words . Verbal patterns are more productive and consistent , while noun patterns are less predictable .
= = = Nouns and adjectives = = =
The most common nominal prefix used is / m / , used for substantives of location ( מושב ' assembly ' ) , instruments ( מפתח ' key ' ) , and abstractions ( משפט ' judgement ' ) . The vowel after / m / is normally / a / , but appears sometimes as / i / , or in the case of מושב as / o / ( contracted from * / aw / ) . The prefix / t / is used to denote the action of the verb it is derived from , more common for initial- / w / verbs , e.g. תודה ( ' thanksgiving ' ; < ydy ) . Prefixed / ʔ / is used in adjectives , e.g. אכזב ( ' deceptive ' ) , and also occurs in nouns with initial sibilants , e.g. אצבע ( ' finger ' ) . In the latter case this prefix was added for phonetic reasons , and the א prefix is called either " prothetic " or " prosthetic " . Prefixed ע often occurs in quadriliteral animal names , perhaps as a prefix , e.g. עֳטלף ( ' bat ' ) , עכבר ( ' mouse ' ) , עקרב ( ' scorpion ' ) .
In proto @-@ Semitic nouns were marked for case : in the singular the markers were * / -u / in the nominative , * / -a / in the accusative ( used also for adverbials ) , and * / -i / in the genitive , as evidenced in Akkadian , Ugaritic , and Arabic . The Amarna letters show that this was probably still present in Hebrew c . 1350 BCE . In the development of Hebrew , final * / -u , -i / were dropped first , and later * / -a / was elided as well . Mimation , a nominal suffix * / -m / of unclear meaning , was found in early Canaanite , as shown by early Egyptian transcriptions ( c . 1800 BCE ) of Jerusalem as Urušalimim , but there is no indication of its presence after 1800 BCE . Final * / -a / is preserved in לַ ֫ יְלָה / ˈlajlɔ / , originally meaning ' at night ' but in prose replacing לַ ֫ יִל / ˈlajil / ( ' night ' ) , and in the " connective vowels " of some prepositions ( originally adverbials ) , e.g. עִמָּ ֫ נוּ ( ' with us ' ) ; nouns preserve * / -i / in forms like יָדֵ ֫ נוּ . Construct state nouns lost case vowels at an early period ( similar to Akkadian ) , as shown by the reflexes of * / ɬadaju / ( שָֹדֶה in absolute but שְׂדֵה in construct ) and the reflexes of * / jadu / ( יָד and יַד ) However forms like יָדֵ ֫ נוּ show that this was not yet a feature of Proto @-@ Hebrew .
Biblical Hebrew has two genders , masculine and feminine , which are reflected in nouns , adjectives , pronouns , and verbs . Hebrew distinguishes between singular and plural numbers , and plural forms may also be used for collectives and honorifics . Hebrew has a morphological dual form for nouns that naturally occur in pairs , and for units of measurement and time this contrasts with the plural ( יום ' day ' יומים ' two days ' ימים ' days ' ) . A widespread misconception is that Hebrew plural denotes three or more objects . In truth , Hebrew plural denotes two or more objects . However adjectives , pronouns , and verbs do not have dual forms , and most nominal dual forms can function as plurals ( שש כנפַים ' six wings ' from Isaiah 6 : 2 ) . Finite verbs are marked for subject person , number , and gender . Nouns also have a construct form which is used in genitive constructions .
Nouns are marked as definite with the prefix / ha- / followed by gemination of the initial consonant of the noun . In Tiberian Hebrew the vowel of the article may become / ɛ / or / ɔ / in certain phonetic environments , for example החכם / hɛħɔˈxɔm / ( ' the wise man ' ) , האיש / hɔˈʔiʃ / ( ' the man ' ) .
The traditions differ on the form of segolate nouns , nouns stemming from roots with two final consonants . The anaptyctic / ɛ / of the Tiberian tradition in segolates appears in the Septuagint ( 3rd century BCE ) but not the Hexapla ( 2nd century CE ) , e.g. גֶּתֶר / ˈɡɛθɛr / |
= Γαθερ versus כֵּסֶל / ˈkesɛl / =
Χεσλ ( Psalms 49 : 14 ) . This may reflect dialectal variation or phonetic versus phonemic transcriptions . Both the Palestinian and Babylonian traditions have an anaptyctic vowel in segolates , / e / in the Palestinian tradition ( e.g. / ʔeresʼ / ' land' |
= Tiberian אֶרֶץ Deuteronomy 26 : 15 ) and / a / in Babylonian ( e.g. / ħepasʼ / ' item ' =
Tiberian חֵפֶץ Jeremiah 22 : 28 ) . The Qumran tradition sometimes shows some type of back epenthetic vowel when the first vowel is back , e.g. 〈 אוהול 〉 for Tiberian 〈 אֹהֶל 〉 / ˈʔohɛl / ( ' tent ' ) .
Biblical Hebrew has two sets of personal pronouns : the free @-@ standing independent pronouns have a nominative function , while the pronominal suffixes are genitive or accusative . Only the first person suffix has different possessive and objective forms ( -י and -ני ) .
= = = Verbs = = =
Verbal consonantal roots are placed into verbal conjugations patterns , known as בנינים binyanim in Hebrew ; the binyanim mainly serve to indicate grammatical voice . This includes various distinctions of reflexivity , passivity , and causativity . Verbs of all binyanim have three non @-@ finite forms ( one participle , two infinitives ) , three modal forms ( cohortative , imperative , jussive ) , and two major conjugations ( prefixing , suffixing ) . The meaning of the prefixing and suffixing conjugations are also affected by the conjugation ו , and their meaning with respect to tense and aspect is a matter of debate .
= = = Word order = = =
The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is commonly thought to be VSO , though one scholar has argued that this is due to the prevalence of clauses with a wayyiqtol verb form compared to other less marked forms that use SVO either more often or at least to a comparable degree . Attributive adjectives normally follow the noun they modify . In Biblical Hebrew , possession is normally expressed with status constructus , a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced , " construct " form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal , " absolute " form . Pronominal direct objects are either suffixed to the verb or alternatively expressed on the object @-@ marking pronoun את .
= = Sample text = =
The following is a sample from Psalm 18 as appears in the Masoretic text with medieval Tiberian niqqud and cantillation and the Greek transcription of the Secunda of the Hexapla along with its reconstructed pronunciation .
|
= Carl Tanzler =
Carl Tanzler , or sometimes Count Carl von Cosel ( February 8 , 1877 – July 3 , 1952 ) , was a German @-@ born radiologic technologist at the United States Marine Hospital in Key West , Florida who developed a morbid obsession for a young Cuban @-@ American tuberculosis patient , Elena Milagro " Helen " de Hoyos ( July 31 , 1909 – October 25 , 1931 ) , that carried on well after the disease had caused her death . In 1933 , almost two years after her death , Tanzler removed Hoyos 's body from its tomb , and lived with the corpse at his home for seven years until its discovery by Hoyos 's relatives and authorities in 1940 .
= = Name = =
Tanzler went by many names ; he was listed as Georg Karl Tänzler on his German marriage certificate . He was listed as Carl Tanzler von Cosel on his United States citizenship papers , and he was listed as Carl Tanzler on his Florida death certificate . Some of his hospital records were signed Count Carl Tanzler von Cosel .
= = Early life = =
He was born as Karl Tänzler or Georg Karl Tänzler on February 8 , 1877 in Dresden , Germany . Around 1920 he married Doris Anna Shafer ( 1889 – 1977 ) and he was listed as " Georg Karl Tänzler " on the marriage certificate . Together they had two children : Ayesha Tanzler ( 1922 – 1998 ) , and Crystal Tanzler ( 1924 – 1934 ) , who died of diphtheria .
Tanzler grew up in Germany . The following “ Editorial Note “ accompanying the autobiographical account “ The Trial Bay Organ : A Product of Wit and Ingenuity ” by “ Carl von Cosel , “ in the Rosicrucian Digest of March and April 1939 , gives details about his stay in Australia before and during World War I and his return to Germany after the war :
Many years ago , Carl von Cosel travelled from India to Australia with the intention of proceeding to the South Seas Islands . He paused in Australia to collect equipment and suitable boats , and to become acquainted with prevailing weather and sea conditions . However , he became interested in engineering and electrical work there , bought property , boats , an organ , an island in the Pacific — so that he was still in Australia at the end of ten years . He had just begun to build a trans @-@ ocean flyer when the war broke out and the British military authorities placed him in a concentration camp for ' safe @-@ keeping ' along with many officers India and China who were prisoners of war . Later he was removed to Trial Bay to a castle @-@ like prison on the cliffs , and there the work in this narrative was accomplished . At the end of the war no prisoner was permitted to return to his former residence , but all were shipped to the prisoner 's exchange in Holland . When Carl von Cosel was released he set out to find his mother from whom he had not heard since the beginning of the war . Finding her safe , he remained with her for three years , witnessing the chaos that followed in the wake of the war . ... Finally , she suggested that her son return to his sister in the United States ...
Tanzler 's account of Trial Bay Gaol , his secret building of a sailing boat , etc . , is confirmed by Nyanatiloka Thera , who mentions that he planned to escape from the Gaol with ” Count Carl von Cosel ” in a sailing boat , and provides other information about the interment of Germans in Australia during WWI .
Tanzler emigrated to the United States in 1926 , sailing from Rotterdam on February 6 , 1926 to Havana , Cuba . From Cuba he settled in Zephyrhills , Florida , to where his sister had already emigrated , and was later joined by his wife and two daughters . Leaving his family behind in Zephyrhills in 1927 , he took a job as a radiologic technologist at the U.S. Marine Hospital in Key West , Florida under the name Carl von Cosel .
During his childhood in Germany , and later while traveling briefly in Genoa , Italy , Tanzler claimed to have been visited by visions of a dead ancestor , Countess Anna Constantia von Cosel , who revealed the face of his true love , an exotic dark @-@ haired woman , to him .
= = Maria Elena Milagro de Hoyos = =
On April 22 , 1930 , while working at the Marine Hospital in Key West , Tanzler met Maria Elena " Helen " Milagro de Hoyos ( 1909 – 1931 ) , a local Cuban @-@ American woman who had been brought to the hospital by her mother for an examination . Tanzler immediately recognized her as the beautiful dark @-@ haired woman that had been revealed to him in his earlier " visions . " By all accounts , Hoyos was viewed as a local beauty in Key West .
Elena was the daughter of local cigar maker Francisco " Pancho " Hoyos ( 1883 – 1934 ) and Aurora Milagro ( 1881 – 1940 ) . She had two sisters , Florinda " Nana " Milagro Hoyos ( 1906 – 1944 ) , who married Mario Medina ( c.1905 – 1944 ) and also succumbed to tuberculosis ; and Celia Milagro Hoyos ( 1913 – ? ) . Medina , Nana 's husband , was electrocuted trying to rescue a coworker who hit a powerline with his crane at a construction site .
On February 18 , 1926 , Hoyos married Luis Mesa ( 1908 – ? ) , the son of Caridad and Isaac Mesa . Luis left Hoyos shortly after Hoyos miscarried the couple 's child , and moved to Miami . Hoyos was legally married to Mesa at the time of her death .
Hoyos was eventually diagnosed with tuberculosis , a typically fatal disease at the time , that eventually claimed the lives of almost all of her entire immediate family . Tanzler , with his self @-@ professed medical knowledge , attempted to treat and cure Hoyos with a variety of medicines , as well as x @-@ ray and electrical equipment , that were brought to the Hoyoses ' home . Tanzler showered Hoyos with gifts of jewelry and clothing , and allegedly professed his love to her , but no evidence has surfaced to show that any of his affection was reciprocated by Hoyos .
= = Morbid obsession = =
Despite Tanzler 's best efforts , Hoyos died of terminal tuberculosis at her parents ' home in Key West on October 25 , 1931 . Tanzler paid for her funeral , and with the permission of her family he then commissioned the construction of an above ground mausoleum in the Key West Cemetery , which he visited almost every night .
One evening in April , 1933 , Tanzler crept through the cemetery where Hoyos was buried and removed her body from the mausoleum , carting it through the cemetery after dark on a toy wagon , and transporting it to his home . He reportedly said that Elena 's spirit would come to him when he would sit by her grave and serenade her corpse with a favorite Spanish song . He also said that she would often tell him to take her from the grave . Tanzler attached the corpse 's bones together with wire and coat hangers , and fitted the face with glass eyes . As the skin of the corpse decomposed , Tanzler replaced it with silk cloth soaked in wax and plaster of paris . As the hair fell out of the decomposing scalp , Tanzler fashioned a wig from Hoyos 's hair that had been collected by her mother and given to Tanzler not long after her burial in 1931 . Tanzler filled the corpse 's abdominal and chest cavity with rags to keep the original form , dressed Hoyos 's remains in stockings , jewelry , and gloves , and kept the body in his bed . Tanzler also used copious amounts of perfume , disinfectants , and preserving agents , to mask the odor and forestall the effects of the corpse 's decomposition .
In October , 1940 , Elena 's sister Florinda heard rumors of Tanzler sleeping with the disinterred body of her sister , and confronted Tanzler at his home , where Hoyos 's body was eventually discovered . Florinda notified the authorities , and Tanzler was arrested and detained . Tanzler was psychiatrically examined , and found mentally competent to stand trial on the charge of " wantonly and maliciously destroying a grave and removing a body without authorization . " After a preliminary hearing on October 9 , 1940 at the Monroe County Courthouse in Key West , Tanzler was held to answer on the charge , but the case was eventually dropped and he was released , as the statute of limitations for the crime had expired .
Shortly after the corpse 's discovery by authorities , Hoyos 's body was examined by physicians and pathologists , and put on public display at the Dean @-@ Lopez Funeral Home , where it was viewed by as many as 6 @,@ 800 people . Hoyos 's body was eventually returned to the Key West Cemetery where the remains were buried in an unmarked grave , in a secret location , to prevent further tampering .
The facts underlying the case and the preliminary hearing drew much interest from the media at the time ( most notably , from the Key West Citizen and Miami Herald ) , and created a sensation among the public , both regionally and nationwide . The public mood was generally sympathetic to Tanzler , whom many viewed as an eccentric " romantic " .
Though not reported contemporaneously , research ( most notably by authors Harrison and Swicegood ) has revealed evidence of Tanzler 's necrophilia with Hoyos 's corpse . Two physicians ( Dr. DePoo and Dr. Foraker ) who attended the 1940 autopsy of Hoyos 's remains recalled in 1972 that a paper tube had been inserted in the vaginal area of the corpse that allowed for intercourse . Others contend that since no evidence of necrophilia was presented at the 1940 preliminary hearing , and because the physicians ' " proof " surfaced in 1972 , over 30 years after the case had been dismissed , the necrophilia allegation is questionable . While no existing contemporary photographs of the autopsy or photographs taken at the public display show a tube , the necrophilia claim was repeated by the HBO Autopsy program in 2005 .
= = Later life and death = =
In 1944 , Tanzler moved to Pasco County , Florida close to Zephyrhills , Florida , where he wrote an autobiography that appeared in the Pulp publication , Fantastic Adventures , in 1947 . His home was near his wife Doris , who apparently helped to support Tanzler in his later years . Tanzler received United States citizenship in 1950 in Tampa .
Separated from his obsession , Tanzler used a death mask to create a life @-@ sized effigy of Hoyos , and lived with it until his death on July 3 , 1952 . His body was discovered on the floor of his home three weeks after his death . He died under the name " Carl Tanzler " .
It has been recounted that Tanzler was found in the arms of the Hoyos effigy upon discovery of his corpse , but his obituary reported that he died on the floor behind one of his organs . The obituary recounted : " a metal cylinder on a shelf above a table in it wrapped in silken cloth and a robe was a waxen image " .
It has been written ( most notably by Swicegood ) that Tanzler had the bodies switched ( or that Hoyos 's remains were secretly returned to him ) , and that he died with the real body of Elena .
= = In popular culture = =
Several bands have released musical interpretations of the Tanzler story , such as And You Will Know Us By the Trail of Dead 's The Secret of Elena 's Tomb album , and Sleep Station 's Von Cosel album , both released in 2003 .
In 2010 , the electroindie band Fiordmoss released a song titled Cold Night which is sung from Tanzler 's perspective .
The band " Through The Strip " released a song called " One Moment In Time ( Carl Von Cosels Requiem ) " Which featured sound clips from documentaries in the intro . The song is told from the points of view of both Elena and Carl Tanzler .
The band The Black Dahlia Murder released a song titled Deathmask Divine which tells the story .
The band Loch Lomond 's song Wax & Wires tells the story of Tanzler 's love for Elena .
In 2008 , ChansoNoir released the single Count Von Cosels Obsession , with the b @-@ side A Cemetery Serenade presenting an instrumental piece reenacting Carl Tanzler 's organ playing in the tomb .
The Ripley 's Believe It or Not museum In Key West , Florida , has an exhibit recreating Elena 's body being cared for by Tanzler .
Portions of the original memorial plaque that was commissioned by Tanzler and affixed to Elena Hoyos 's mausoleum have been reassembled and are on display at the Martello Gallery @-@ Key West Art and Historical Museum in Key West .
Sharon Needles wrote " Dead Girls Never Say No " inspired by Tanzler on her album PG @-@ 13
The novel Buried by Tom Baker , is a fictionalized horror novel based on Carl Tanzler .
The story of Dr. Von Cosel and Elena Hoyos was featured in an episode Investigation Discovery series " True Nightmares " entitled " Overstay Your Welcome " .
" It Happened in Key West " , the musical , co @-@ written by Jill Santoriello , Jason Huza and Jeremiah James , is currently in production for 2017 . < http : / / www.keywestmusical.com / # ! story / cfvg >
= = Timeline = =
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= You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home =
" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " is a country pop song written for the 2009 film Hannah Montana : The Movie . The song is performed by Hannah Montana , a character Miley Cyrus portrays in the film . A karaoke version of the song is available in the soundtrack 's karaoke series . The song is musically country pop and pop rock . Lyrically , the track is about staying grounded and going back to one 's roots .
The song received critical success for its use in the film . " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " was met with average @-@ to @-@ low commercial outcomes for Cyrus in several countries , compared to those of her previous efforts as Montana . It reached its highest international peak in the Canadian Hot 100 , at number thirty @-@ six . The song received a music video to coincide with the home release of Hannah Montana : The Movie .
= = Development = =
Singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift became involved with Hannah Montana : The Movie when filmmakers emailed her specifically to request the use of her music in the film . Swift agreed to make a cameo appearance in the film to sing " Crazier " as well as to co @-@ write a song with Boys Like Girls lead singer Martin Johnson . In an interview with MTV , Johnson described working with Swift :
" She 's awesome . She 's one of the most talented songwriters to work with , if not , the best . For such a young girl , she 's so creative and spot @-@ on . She knows the audience , she truly understands the kind of pop music that is from the heart and done in a tasteful way . She knows ways to make things pop and also make you feel it at the same time . We wrote a bunch of songs together and it was a lot of fun . "
" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " is used as the closing number of Hannah Montana : The Movie . In the film , Cyrus performs as popstar Hannah Montana onstage at an outdoor fundraiser to save her hometown 's treasured park from developers . More than 2 @,@ 000 extras were used to film the scene .
= = Composition = =
" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " , according to Allmusic , embodies the album 's theme of merging country and pop music . It is set in common time with a fast rock tempo of 160 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of E ♭ major . Cyrus ' vocals span one octave , from B ♭ 3 to B4 . The song has the following chord progression , E ♭ 5 — D5 — E ♭ 5 . Like the film , the lyrics discuss importance of one 's roots . Warren Truitt of About.com believed it conveyed " the sentiment that even pop stars find safe haven in their home town " . The first few lyrics of the song 's chorus are almost identical to the opening verse in Hilary Duff 's song So Yesterday , which was released in 2003 .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received positive reviews from critics . Simon Weaving of Screenwize.com said the film 's conflicts are " mostly expressed in the simple , sugared lyrics of a series of pop hits that seamlessly find their way into the story – including ' The Best of Both Worlds ' and ' You ’ ll Always Find a Way Back Home ' . " James Plath of Dvdtown.com described the song as being " integrated pretty well into the narrative " . Peter Canavese of Grouncho Reviews said " the story makes way for [ ... ] ' You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home ' " , which would attract " the film 's target audience of pre @-@ teen girls " . Warren of Truitt of About.com listed the song as the third best song by Hannah Montana . The song was included on the short list for Best Original Song at the 82nd Academy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
The song made its debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ seven on the week ending April 11 , 2009 . " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " fell one spot to number eighty @-@ eight in the following week , but on the week ending May 2 , 2009 it reached its peak on the Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ one due to digital downloads that placed it at number fifty @-@ two on Hot Digital Songs . In the Canadian Hot 100 , " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " debuted at eighty @-@ eight on the week ending April 11 , 2009 and reached its peak at number seventy @-@ six on the week ending May 2 , 2009 .
= = Music video = =
A promotional music video for " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " was filmed in correlation to the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack . The video , part of a series of promotional videos titled The Miley Sessions , was released in March 2009 on Disney.com and features Cyrus singing in a vacant recording studio .
An excerpt from Hannah Montana : The Movie premiered as the song 's music video in August 2009 on Disney Channel to promote the home release of the film . The video begins with Cyrus and her backup dancers atop a stage in a crowded outdoor concert . Cyrus is dressed as Hannah Montana and is wearing a business suit . As Cyrus begins singing , she and the dancers engage in intricate choreography . The video then transitions to a clip from Hannah Montana : The Movie in which Cyrus ' character is getting down from a private airplane . The video continues to alternate between Cyrus performing and more film clips ; scenes include Stewart taking off her Hannah Montana wig and interacting with Travis Body , her love interest in the film , portrayed by actor Lucas Till . Midway through the video , Cyrus and her dancers exit the stage through a back door and instantly enter sporting western clothing with Cyrus in a western teal button up shirt , a checkered red and white table cloth with purple ruffles pettiskirt or a petticoat , and cowboy boots .
= = Charts = =
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= Marjory Stoneman Douglas =
Marjory Stoneman Douglas ( April 7 , 1890 – May 14 , 1998 ) was an American journalist , writer , feminist , and environmentalist known for her staunch defense of the Everglades against efforts to drain it and reclaim land for development . Moving to Miami as a young woman to work for The Miami Herald , Douglas became a freelance writer , producing over a hundred short stories that were published in popular magazines . Her most influential work was the book The Everglades : River of Grass ( 1947 ) , which redefined the popular conception of the Everglades as a treasured river instead of a worthless swamp ; its impact has been compared to that of Rachel Carson 's influential book Silent Spring ( 1962 ) . Her books , stories , and journalism career brought her influence in Miami , which she used to advance her causes .
Even as a young woman Douglas was outspoken and politically conscious of many issues that included women 's suffrage and civil rights . She was called upon to take a central role in the protection of the Everglades when she was 79 years old . For the remaining 29 years of her life she was " a relentless reporter and fearless crusader " for the natural preservation and restoration of the nature of South Florida . Her tireless efforts earned her several variations of the nickname " Grande Dame of the Everglades " as well as the hostility of agricultural and business interests looking to benefit from land development in Florida . Numerous awards were given to her , including the Presidential Medal of Freedom , and she was inducted into several halls of fame .
Douglas lived until age 108 , working until nearly the end of her life for Everglades restoration . Upon her death , an obituary in The Independent in London stated , " In the history of the American environmental movement , there have been few more remarkable figures than Marjory Stoneman Douglas . "
= = Early life = =
Marjory Stoneman was born on April 7 , 1890 , in Minneapolis , Minnesota , the only child of Frank Bryant Stoneman ( 1857 – 1941 ) and Lillian Trefethen ( 1859 – 1912 ) , a concert violinist . One of her earliest memories was her father reading to her The Song of Hiawatha , at which she burst into sobs upon hearing that the tree had to give its life in order to provide Hiawatha the wood for a canoe . She was an early and voracious reader . Her first book was Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , which she kept well into adulthood until " some fiend in human form must have borrowed it and not brought it back " . She visited Florida when she was four years old , and her most vivid memory of the trip was picking an orange from a tree at the Tampa Bay Hotel . From there she and her parents embarked on a cruise from Tampa to Havana .
When she was six years old , Marjory 's parents separated . Her father endured a series of failed entrepreneurial ventures and the instability caused her mother to move them abruptly to the Trefethen family house in Taunton , Massachusetts . She lived there with her mother , aunt , and grandparents who did not get along well and consistently spoke ill of her father , to her dismay . Her mother , whom Marjory characterized as " high strung " , was committed to a mental sanitarium in Providence several times . Her parents ' separation and the contentious life with her mother 's family caused her to suffer from night terrors . She credited her tenuous upbringing with making her " a skeptic and a dissenter " for the rest of her life .
As a youth , Marjory found solace in reading , and eventually she began to write . At sixteen years old she contributed to the most popular children 's publication of the day , St. Nicholas Magazine — also the first publisher of 20th century writers F. Scott Fitzgerald , Rachel Carson , and William Faulkner — with a puzzle titled " Double Headings and Curtailings " . In 1907 , she was awarded a prize from the Boston Herald for a story titled " An Early Morning Paddle " , about a boy who watches a sunrise from a canoe . However , as her mother 's mental health deteriorated , Marjory took on more responsibilities , eventually managing some of the family finances and gaining a maturity imposed upon her by circumstance .
= = = Education and marriage = = =
Marjory left for college in 1908 , despite having grave misgivings about her mother 's mental state . Her aunt and grandmother shared her concerns , but recognized that she needed to leave in order to begin her own life . She was a good student without having to study too much . She attended Wellesley College , graduating with a BA in English in 1912 . She found particular gifts in a class on elocution , and joined the first suffrage club with six of her classmates . She was elected as " Class Orator " at Wellesley , but was unable to fulfill the office since she was already involved in other activities . During her senior year while visiting home , her mother showed her a lump on her breast . Marjory arranged the surgery to have it removed . After the graduation ceremony , her aunt informed her it had metastasized , and within months her mother was dead . The family left making the funeral arrangements up to Marjory .
After drifting with college friends through a few jobs for which she did not feel she was well @-@ suited , Marjory Stoneman met Kenneth Douglas in 1914 . She was so impressed with his manners and surprised at the attention he showed her that she married him within three months . He portrayed himself as a newspaper editor , and was 30 years her senior , but the marriage quickly failed when it became apparent he was a con artist . The true extent of his duplicity Marjory did not entirely reveal , despite her honesty in all other manners . Marjory may have unwittingly married Douglas while he was already married to another woman . While he spent six months in jail for passing a bad check , she remained faithful to him . However , his scheme to scam her absent father out of money worked in Marjory 's favor when it attracted Frank Stoneman 's attention . Marjory 's uncle persuaded her to move to Miami and for the marriage to end . In the fall of 1915 , Marjory Stoneman Douglas left New England to be reunited with her father , whom she had not seen since her parents ' separation when she was six years old . Shortly before that time , her father had remarried Lillius ( " Lilla " ) Eleanor Shine , whose great @-@ great grandfather was Thomas Jefferson . ( Her grandfather was Francis W. Eppes . ) Marjory later wrote that Lilla Shine " remained my first and best friend all my life in Florida . "
= = Writing career = =
= = = The Miami Herald = = =
Douglas arrived in South Florida when fewer than 5 @,@ 000 people were recorded on the census in Miami and it was " no more than a glorified railroad terminal " . Her father , Frank Stoneman , was the first publisher of the paper that later became The Miami Herald . Stoneman passionately opposed the governor of Florida , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward , and his attempts to drain the Everglades . He infuriated Broward so much that when Stoneman won an election for circuit judge , Governor Broward refused to validate the election , so Stoneman was referred to as " Judge " for the rest of his life without performing the duties of one .
She joined the staff of the newspaper in 1915 , originally as a society columnist writing about tea parties and society events , but news was so slow she later admitted to making up some of her stories : " Somebody would say , ' Who 's that Mrs. T.Y. Washrag you 've got in your column ? ' And I would say , ' Oh , you know , I don 't think she 's been here very long ' " . When her father went on vacation less than a year after her appearance in Miami , he left her the responsibility of the editorial page . She developed a rivalry with an editor at The Miami Metropolis whose greater familiarity with the history of Miami gave her cause to make fun of Douglas in writing . Her father scolded her to check her facts better .
Douglas was given an assignment in 1916 to write a story on the first woman to join the US Naval Reserve from Miami . When the woman did not show up for the interview , Douglas found herself joining the Navy as a Yeoman ( F ) first class . It did not suit her ; she disliked rising early and her superiors did not appreciate her correcting their grammar as a typist , so she requested a discharge and joined the American Red Cross , where she was stationed in Paris . She witnessed the tumultuous celebrations on the Rue de Rivoli when the Armistice was signed , and she cared for war refugees ; seeing them displaced and in a state of shock , she wrote , " helped me understand the plight of refugees in Miami sixty years later " .
Following the war , Douglas took on duties as assistant editor at The Miami Herald . She gained some renown through her daily column entitled " The Galley " , and had enough influence through the newspaper that she became somewhat of a local celebrity . She amassed a devoted readership and attempted to begin each column with a poem . " The Galley " was topical and went in any direction Douglas chose . She promoted responsible urban planning when Miami saw a population boom of 100 @,@ 000 people in a decade . She wrote supporting women 's suffrage , civil rights , and better sanitation while opposing Prohibition and foreign trade tariffs .
Some of the stories she wrote spoke of the wealth of the region being in its " inevitable development " , and she supplemented her income with $ 100 a week from writing copy advertisements that praised the development of South Florida , something she would reconsider later in her life . She wrote a ballad in the 1920s lamenting the death of a 22 @-@ year @-@ old vagrant who was beaten to death in a labor camp , titled " Martin Tabert of North Dakota is Walking Florida Now " . It was printed in The Miami Herald , and read aloud during a session of the Florida Legislature , which passed a law banning convict leasing , in large part due to her writing . " I think that 's the single most important thing I was ever able to accomplish as a result of something I 've written " , she wrote in her autobiography .
= = = Freelance writer = = =
After quitting the newspaper in 1923 , Douglas worked as a freelance writer . From 1920 to 1990 , Douglas published 109 fiction articles and stories . One of her first stories was sold to the pulp fiction magazine Black Mask for $ 600 ( equivalent to $ 8 @,@ 330 in 2015 ) . Forty of her stories were published in The Saturday Evening Post ; one titled " Story of a Homely Woman " was reprinted in 1937 in the Post 's best short stories compilation . Recurring motifs in her fiction were their settings in South Florida , the Caribbean , or Europe during World War I. Her protagonists were often independent , quirky women or youthful underdogs who encountered social or natural injustices . The people and animals of the Everglades served as subjects for some of her earliest writings . " Plumes " , originally published in the Saturday Evening Post in 1930 , was based on the murder of Guy Bradley , an Audubon Society game warden , by poachers . " Wings " was a nonfiction story , also first appearing in the Post in 1931 , that addressed the slaughter of Everglades wading birds for their feathers . Her story " Peculiar Treasure of a King " was a second @-@ place finalist in the O. Henry Award competition in 1928 .
During the 1930s , Douglas was commissioned to write a pamphlet supporting a botanical garden called " An argument for the establishment of a tropical botanical garden in South Florida . " Its success caused her to be in demand at garden clubs where she delivered speeches throughout the area , then to serve on the board to support the Fairchild Garden . She called the garden " one of the greatest achievements for the entire area " .
Douglas became involved with the Miami Theater , and wrote some one @-@ act plays that were fashionable in the 1930s . One , entitled " The Gallows Gate " , was about an argument between a mother and father regarding the character of their son who is sentenced to hang . She got the idea from her father , who had witnessed hangings when he lived in the West and was unnerved by the creaking sound of the rope bearing the weight of the hanging body . The play won a state competition , and eventually $ 500 in a national competition after it was written into three acts . With William W. Muir , husband of reporter Helen Muir , she authored a play called " Storm Warnings " loosely based on the life of mobster Al Capone . Some of Capone ’ s henchmen showed up at the theater , “ add [ ing ] an extra tingle for the audience that night ” , though no actual problems arose . Douglas wrote the foreword to the Work Projects Administration 's guide to Miami and environs , published in 1941 as part of the Federal Writers ' Project 's American Guide Series .
Douglas served as the book review editor of The Miami Herald from 1942 to 1949 , and as editor for the University of Miami Press from 1960 to 1963 . She released her first novel , entitled Road to the Sun , in 1952 . She wrote four novels , and several non @-@ fiction books on regional topics including Florida birdwatching and David Fairchild , the entomologist turned biologist who imagined a botanical park in Miami . Her autobiography entitled Marjory Stoneman Douglas : Voice of the River was written with John Rothchild in 1987 . She had been working on a book about W. H. Hudson for years , traveling to Argentina and England several times . It was incomplete when she died in 1998 .
= = = The Everglades : River of Grass = = =
Early in the 1940s Douglas was approached by a publisher to contribute to the Rivers of America Series by writing about the Miami River . Unimpressed with it , she called the Miami River about " an inch long " , but in researching it became more interested in the Everglades and persuaded the publisher instead to allow her to write about them . She spent five years researching what little scientific knowledge was recorded about the ecology and history of the Everglades and South Florida . Douglas spent time with geologist Garald Parker , who discovered that all of South Florida 's fresh water source was the Biscayne Aquifer , and it was filled by the Everglades . Parker confirmed the name of the book that has since become the nickname for the Everglades when Douglas , trying to capture the essence of the Everglades , asked if she could safely call the fresh water flowing from Lake Okeechobee a river of grass .
The Everglades : River of Grass was published in 1947 and sold out of its first printing a month after being released . The first line of the book , " There are no other Everglades in the world " , has been called the " most famous passage ever written about the Everglades " , and the statement welcomes visitors to the Everglades National Park website . Douglas characterized the Everglades as ecosystems surrounding a river worthy of protecting , that was inescapably connected to the people and cultures of South Florida . She outlined its imminent disappearance in the last chapter titled " The Eleventh Hour " :
Cattlemen 's grass fires roared uncontrolled . Cane @-@ field fires spread crackling and hissing in the saw grass in vast waves and pillars and billowing mountains of heavy , cream @-@ colored , purple @-@ shadowed smoke . Training planes flying over the Glades dropped bombs or cigarette butts , and the fires exploded in the hearts of the drying hammocks and raced on before every wind leaving only blackness ... There was no water in the canals with which to fight [ the fires ] ... The sweet water the rock had held was gone or had shrunk far down into its strange holes and cleavages .
The Everglades : River of Grass galvanized people to protect the Everglades and is compared to Rachel Carson 's 1962 exposé of the harmful effects of DDT , Silent Spring , as both books are " groundbreaking calls to action that made citizens and politicians take notice " . Its impact is still relevant as it is claimed to be a major reason Florida receives so many tourists , and " remains the definitive reference on the plight of the Florida Everglades " . It has gone through numerous editions , selling 500 @,@ 000 copies since its original publication . The Christian Science Monitor wrote of it in 1997 , " Today her book is not only a classic of environmental literature , it also reads like a blueprint for what conservationists are hailing as the most extensive environmental restoration project ever undertaken anywhere in the world " . The downside to the book 's impact , according to one writer addressing restoration of the Everglades , is that her metaphor is so prevailingly dominant that it is inaccurate in describing the complex web of ecosystems within the Everglades : " River of Grass " describes one . David McCally wrote that despite Douglas ' " appreciation of the complexity of the environmental system " she described , popular conception of the Everglades shared by people who have not read the book overshadows her detailed explanations .
= = Activism = =
Women 's suffrage was an early interest of Douglas , and although she tended to shy away from polemics in her early work at The Miami Herald , on her third day as a society columnist , she chose suffrage and began to focus on writing about women in leadership positions . In 1917 , she traveled with Mary Baird Bryan , William Jennings Bryan 's wife , and two other women to Tallahassee to speak in support of women 's right to vote . Douglas was not impressed with the reception the group got from the Florida Legislature . She wrote about her experience later : " All four of us spoke to a joint committee wearing our best hats . Talking to them was like talking to graven images . They never paid attention to us at all . " Douglas was able to vote for the first time after she returned from Europe in 1920 .
Using her influence at The Miami Herald , Douglas wrote columns about poverty :
You can have the most beautiful city in the world as appearance goes , the streets may be clean and shining , the avenues broad and tree lined , the public buildings dignified , adequate and well kept ... but if you have a weak or inadequate health department , or a public opinion lax on the subject , all the splendors of your city will have not value .
In 1948 Douglas served on the Coconut Grove Slum Clearance Committee , with a friend of hers named Elizabeth Virrick , who was horrified to learn that no running water or sewers were connected to the racially segregated part of Coconut Grove . They helped pass a law requiring all homes in Miami to have toilets and bathtubs . In the two years it took them to get the referendum passed , they worked to set up a loan operation for the black residents of Coconut Grove , who borrowed the money interest @-@ free to pay for the plumbing work . Douglas noted that all of the money loaned was repaid .
= = = Everglades work = = =
Douglas became involved in the Everglades in the 1920s , when she joined the board of the Everglades Tropical National Park Committee , a group led by Ernest F. Coe and dedicated to the idea of making a national park in the Everglades . By the 1960s , the Everglades were in imminent danger of disappearing forever because of gross mismanagement in the name of progress and real estate and agricultural development . Encouraged to get involved by the leaders of environmental groups , in 1969 — at the age of 79 — Douglas founded Friends of the Everglades to protest the construction of a jetport in the Big Cypress portion of the Everglades . She justified her involvement saying , " It is a woman 's business to be interested in the environment . It 's an extended form of housekeeping . "
She toured the state giving " hundreds of ringing denunciations " of the airport project , and increased membership of Friends of the Everglades to 3 @,@ 000 within three years . She ran the public information operation full @-@ time from her home and encountered hostility from the jetport 's developers and backers , who called her a " damn butterfly chaser " . President Richard Nixon , however , scrapped funding for the project due to the efforts of many Everglades watchdog groups .
Douglas continued her activism and focused her efforts on restoring the Everglades after declaring that " Conservation is now a dead word ... You can 't conserve what you haven 't got . " Her criticism was directed at two entities she considered were doing the most damage to the Everglades . A coalition of sugarcane growers , named Big Sugar , she accused of polluting Lake Okeechobee by pumping water tainted with chemicals , human waste , and garbage back into the lake , which served as the fresh water source for the Miami metropolitan area . She compared Florida sugarcane agriculture to sugarcane grown in the West Indies , which , she claimed , was more environmentally sound , had a longer harvest cycle less harmful to soil nutrients , and was less expensive for consumers due to the higher sugar content .
Besides Big Sugar , Douglas spoke about the damage the Army Corps of Engineers was doing to the Everglades by diverting the natural flow of water . The Corps was responsible for constructing more than 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 300 km ) of canals to divert water away from the Everglades after 1947 . When the Central & South Florida Project ( C & SF ) , run by former members of the Corps of Engineers , was proposed to assist the Everglades , Douglas initially gave it her approval , as it promised to deliver much @-@ needed water to the shrinking Everglades . However , in application , the project instead diverted more water away from the Everglades , changed water schedules to meet sugarcane farmers ' irrigation needs , and flat @-@ out refused to release water to Everglades National Park , until much of the land was unrecognizable . " What a liar I turned out to be ! " remarked Douglas , then suggested the motivation behind all the digging and diversion in saying , " Their mommies obviously never let them play with mud pies , so now they take it out on us by playing with cement " .
Douglas was giving a speech addressing the harmful practices of the Army Corps of Engineers when the colonel in attendance dropped his pen on the floor . As he was stooping to pick it up , Douglas stopped her speech and said to him , " Colonel ! You can crawl under that table and hide , but you can 't get away from me ! "
In 1973 , Douglas attended a meeting addressing conservation of the Everglades in Everglades City , and was observed by John Rothchild :
Mrs. Douglas was half the size of her fellow speakers and she wore huge dark glasses , which along with the huge floppy hat made her look like Scarlett O 'Hara as played by Igor Stravinsky . When she spoke , everybody stopped slapping mosquitoes and more or less came to order . She reminded us all of our responsibility to nature and I don 't remember what else . Her voice had the sobering effect of a one @-@ room schoolmarm 's . The tone itself seemed to tame the rowdiest of the local stone crabbers , plus the developers , and the lawyers on both sides . I wonder if it didn 't also intimidate the mosquitoes ... The request for a Corps of Engineers permit was eventually turned down . This was no surprise to those of us who 'd heard her speak .
Douglas was not well received by some audiences . She opposed the drainage of a suburb in Dade County named East Everglades . After the county approved building permits in the Everglades , the land flooded as it had for centuries . When homeowners demanded the Army Corps of Engineers drain their neighborhoods , she was the only opposing voice . At the hearing in 1983 , she was booed , jeered , and shouted at by the audience of residents . " Can 't you boo any louder than that ? " she chided , eventually making them laugh . " Look . I 'm an old lady . I 've been here since eight o 'clock . It 's now eleven . I 've got all night , and I 'm used to the heat , " she told them . Later , she wrote , " They 're all good souls — they just shouldn 't be out there . " Dade County commissioners eventually decided not to drain .
Florida Governor Lawton Chiles explained her impact , saying , " Marjory was the first voice to really wake a lot of us up to what we were doing to our quality of life . She was not just a pioneer of the environmental movement , she was a prophet , calling out to us to save the environment for our children and our grandchildren . "
= = = Other causes = = =
Douglas also served as a charter member of the first American Civil Liberties Union chapter organized in the South in the 1950s . She lent her support to the Equal Rights Amendment , speaking to the legislature in Tallahassee urging them to ratify it . In the 1980s Douglas lent her support to the Florida Rural Legal Services , a group that worked to protect migrant farm workers who were centered on Belle Glade , and who were primarily employed by the sugarcane industry . She wrote to Governor Bob Graham in 1985 to encourage him to assess the conditions the migrant workers endured . The same year , Douglas approached the Dade County School Board and insisted that the Biscayne Nature Center , which had been housed in hot dog stands , needed a building of its own . The center received a portable building until 1991 when the Florida Department of Education endowed $ 1 @.@ 8 million for the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Biscayne Nature Center in Crandon Park . Douglas co @-@ founded the Friends of the Miami @-@ Dade Public Libraries with her longtime friend Helen Muir , and served as its first president .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Religious views = = =
Although Douglas grew up in an Episcopalian household , she described herself as agnostic throughout her life , and forbade any religious ceremony at her memorial . Douglas tied her agnosticism to her unanswered prayers when her mother was dying . However , she credited the motivation for her support of women 's suffrage to her Quaker paternal grandparents whose dedication to the abolition of slavery she admired , and proudly claimed Levi Coffin , an organizer of the Underground Railroad , was her great @-@ great @-@ uncle . She wrote that his wife was a friend of Harriet Beecher Stowe , and had provided Stowe with the story of Eliza in Uncle Tom 's Cabin fleeing slavery because Douglas ' great @-@ great @-@ aunt took care of Eliza and her infant after their escape . Frank Stoneman grew up in a Quaker colony , and Douglas maintained he kept touches of his upbringing throughout his life , even after converting to Episcopalianism . Writer Jack Davis and neighbor Helen Muir suggest this Quaker influence was behind Douglas ' use of " Friends " in naming the organizations Friends of the Everglades and Friends of the Miami @-@ Dade Public Libraries .
= = = Mental health = = =
As a child , Douglas was very close with her mother after her parents ' separation . She witnessed her mother 's emotional unraveling that caused her to be institutionalized , and even long after her mother returned to live with her , she exhibited bizarre , childlike behaviors . Following her mother 's death , her relocation to Miami , and her displeasure in working as the assistant editor at The Miami Herald , in the 1920s , she suffered the first of three nervous breakdowns .
Douglas suggested she had had " blank periods " before starting during her marriage , but they were brief . She connected these lapses to her mother 's insanity . She eventually quit the newspaper , but after her father 's death in 1941 she suffered a third and final breakdown , when her neighbors found her roaming the neighborhood one night screaming . She admitted she had a " father complex " , explaining it by saying , " Having been brought up without him and then coming back and finding him so sympathetic had a powerful effect " .
= = = Personal habits = = =
Regardless of her dedication to the preservation of the Everglades , Douglas admitted the time she spent actually there was sporadic , driving there for occasional picnics . " To be a friend of the Everglades is not necessarily to spend time wandering around out there ... It 's too buggy , too wet , too generally inhospitable " , she wrote . Instead , she understood that the health of the environment indicated the general well @-@ being of humanity .
Despite Douglas ' demure appearance — she stood at 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) and weighed 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) , and was always immaculately dressed in pearls , a floppy straw hat and gloves — she had an uncanny ability to get her point across . She was known for speaking in perfect , precise paragraphs , and was respected for her dedication and knowledge of her subjects ; even her critics admitted her authority on the Everglades . Jeff Klinkenberg , a reporter for the St. Petersburg Times who interviewed and wrote several stories about Douglas , wrote of her , " She had a tongue like a switchblade and the moral authority to embarrass bureaucrats and politicians and make things happen . " Douglas was known for haughtily dismissing reporters who had not read her books and asked uninformed questions .
She enjoyed drinking Scotch and sherry ; as friend and neighbor Helen Muir remembered her , " She would come up and have a sherry , and then I would walk her home , and then she 'd walk me back , and we would have another sherry . What fun she was . " Novelist Hervey Allen called Marjory Stoneman Douglas and Muir , " the Stewart Avenue Gang " . The two were fond of having sherry together and gossiping , but those moments were followed by serious talk of the future of libraries , and the role of women in South Florida . They were confidants , and often shared their work with one another . Douglas never learned to drive and never owned a car . Her house also had no air conditioning , electric stove , or dishwasher .
She was attached to several men after her divorce , counting one of them as the reason she enlisted in the Red Cross , as he had already gone to France as a soldier . However , she said she did not believe in extramarital sex and would not have dishonored her father by being promiscuous . She told Klinkenberg in 1992 , frankly , that she had not had sex since her divorce , saying " I wasn 't a wild woman " . However , she was fond of saying she used the emotion and energy instead on her work . " People don 't seem to realize that the energy that goes into sex , all the emotion that surrounds it , can be well employed in other ways " , she wrote in her autobiography .
= = Awards , death , and legacy = =
= = = Honors = = =
Douglas began accruing honors since her early days writing for The Miami Herald . In the 1980s , however , the awards became more prestigious , and her reactions to them mixed . The Florida Department of Natural Resources ( now the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ) named its headquarters in Tallahassee after her in 1980 , which she considered a dubious honor . She told a friend she would have rather seen the Everglades restored than her name on a building . During her polite acceptance speech , she railed against Ronald Reagan and the then @-@ Secretary of the Interior James Watt for their lackluster approach to environmental conservation . The National Parks Conservation Association established the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Award in 1986 , that " honor ( s ) individuals who often must go to great lengths to advocate and fight for the protection of the National Park System " . Despite blindness and diminished hearing , Douglas continued to be active into her second century , and was honored with a visit from Queen Elizabeth II , to whom Douglas gave a signed copy of The Everglades : River of Grass in 1991 . Instead of gifts and celebrations , Douglas asked that trees be planted on her birthday , resulting in over 100 @,@ 000 planted trees across the state and a bald cypress on the lawn of the governor 's mansion . The South Florida Water Management District began removing exotic plants that had taken hold in the Everglades when Douglas turned 102 .
In 1993 , President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest honor given to a civilian . The citation for the medal read , " Marjory Stoneman Douglas personifies passionate commitment . Her crusade to preserve and restore the Everglades has enhanced our Nation 's respect for our precious environment , reminding all of us of nature 's delicate balance . Grateful Americans honor the ' Grandmother of the Glades ' by following her splendid example in safeguarding America 's beauty and splendor for generations to come . " Douglas donated her medal to Wellesley College . Most of the others she received she stored on the floor of her home .
Douglas was inducted into the National Wildlife Federation Hall of Fame in 1999 , and the National Women 's Hall of Fame in 2000 . John Rothchild declared her a feminist before the word existed , but not entirely . Upon hearing that she was to be inducted , she questioned , " Why should they have a Women 's Hall of Fame , as I heard they wanted to put me in the other day ? Why not a Citizen 's Hall of Fame ? " Douglas was included in a tribute to pioneering women when television character Lisa Simpson made a papier @-@ mâché bust of her with Georgia O 'Keeffe and Susan B. Anthony in an early episode of The Simpsons .
Some of Douglas ' stories were collected by University of Florida professor Kevin McCarthy in two edited collections : Nine Florida Stories in 1990 and A River In Flood in 1998 . McCarthy wrote that he collected Douglas ' short stories because most people in the 1990s were well aware of her fame as an environmentalist , but many did not know about her career as a freelance writer . " Probably no other person has been as important to the environmental well @-@ being of Florida than this little lady from Coconut Grove " , McCarthy wrote in the introduction of A River in Flood .
= = = Remembrances = = =
Marjory Stoneman Douglas died at the age of 108 on May 14 , 1998 . John Rothchild , who helped write her autobiography , said that her death was the only thing that could " shut her up " but added , " The silence is terrible . " Carl Hiaasen eulogized her in The Miami Herald , writing that The Everglades : River of Grass was " monumental " , and praised her passion and her resolve ; even when politicians finally found value in the Everglades and visited her for a photo opportunity , she still provoked them to do more and do it faster .
The National Wildlife Federation described her as " a passionate , articulate , and tireless voice for the environment " . Chairman of the Florida Audubon Society Ed Davison remembered her , saying , " She kept a clear vision of the way things ought to be , and she didn 't give a lot of credibility to excuses about why they 're not like that . She would give these wonderful , curmudgeonly speeches to which there was no response . You can 't holler back to grandmotherly scolding . All you can do is shuffle your feet and say , ' Yes , Ma 'am . ' " She was aware of it ; she was reported saying , " People can 't be rude to me , this poor little old woman . But I can be rude to them , poor darlings , and nobody can stop me . " Her ashes were scattered over the 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 300 km2 ) of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area in Everglades National Park .
In 2000 , a Naples , Florida @-@ based composer named Steve Heitzeg wrote a 15 @-@ minute orchestra piece to be performed by the Naples Philharmonic entitled Voice of the Everglades ( Epitaph for Marjory Stoneman Douglas ) . Heitzeg explained his motivation for the piece , saying , " She was outspoken , she was direct , she had the energy and belief to make the world a better place . " Two South Florida public schools are named in her honor : Broward County Public Schools ' Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School and Miami @-@ Dade County Public Schools ' Marjory Stoneman Douglas Elementary School .
= = = Douglas home = = =
Douglas ' cottage , located in Coconut Grove at 3744 – 3754 Stewart Avenue , was built in 1924 . She wrote all of her major books and stories in the cottage , and the City of Miami designated it an historic site in 1995 , not only for its famous owner but also for its unique Masonry Vernacular architecture . After Douglas ' death , Friends of the Everglades proposed making the house part of an education center about Douglas and her life , but neighbors protested , citing issues with parking , traffic , and an influx of visitors to the quiet neighborhood . The house , which had an exterior floodwater line from the 1926 Miami Hurricane and some damage from an infestation of bees , had fallen further into disrepair . For a while , the idea of moving the house to Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Coral Gables , which Douglas helped to develop and where there is a life size bronze statue to commemorate her efforts , was considered . The State of Florida owns Douglas ' house and in April 2007 placed it in the care of the Florida Park Service , a division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection . Restoration of the floors and counters took place in the following months . Water service was reconnected to the house and the electrical system was updated for safety purposes . All work was approved by the Department of Historic Resources . A park ranger was placed as a resident in the Douglas house to help maintain the structure and property .
On April 22 , 2015 , while giving an Earth Day speech in the Everglades , President Barack Obama announced that Interior Secretary Sally Jewell had designated the house a National Historic Landmark .
= = Notable works = =
= = = Books = = =
The Everglades : River of Grass . Rinehart , 1947 .
Road to the Sun . Rinehart , 1952 .
Freedom River Florida 1845 . Charles Scribner 's Sons , 1953 .
Hurricane . Rinehart , 1958 .
Alligator crossing . John Day , 1959 .
The Key to Paris . Keys to the Cities Series . Lippincott , 1961 .
Florida the Long Frontier . Harper & Row , 1967 .
The Joys of Bird Watching in Florida . Hurricane House , 1969 .
Adventures in a Green World – the Story of David Fairchild and Barbour Lathrop . Field Research Projects . 1973 .
Marjory Stoneman Douglas : Voice of the River. with John Rothchild . Pineapple Press , Inc . 1987 .
= = = Short story collections = = =
Nine Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas . Ed . Kevin M. McCarthy . University of North Florida , 1990 .
" Pineland "
" A Bird Dog in the Hand "
" He Man "
" Twenty Minutes Late for Dinner "
" Plumes "
" By Violence "
" Bees in the Mango Bloom "
" September @-@ Remember "
" The Road to the Horizon "
A River in Flood and Other Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas . Ed . Kevin M. McCarthy . University Press of Florida , 1998 .
" At Home on the Marcel Waves "
" Solid Mahogany "
" Goodness Gracious , Agnes "
" A River in Flood "
" The Mayor of Flamingo "
" Stepmother "
" You Got to Go , But You Don 't Have to Come Back "
" High @-@ Goal Man "
" Wind Before Morning "
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= Icelanders =
Icelanders are a Germanic ethnic group and nation , native to Iceland .
On 17 June 1944 , when the Icelandic republic was founded , the Icelanders became independent from the Danish monarchy . The language spoken is Icelandic , a North Germanic language , and Lutheranism is the predominant religion . Historical and DNA records indicate that around 60 to 80 percent of the settlers were of Norse origin ( primarily from Western Norway ) and the rest were of Celtic stock from Ireland and peripheral Scotland .
= = Iceland = =
Icelanders have had a tumultuous history . Development of the island was slow due to a lack of interest from the countries controlling it for most of its history : Norway , Denmark – Norway , and ultimately Denmark . Through this time , Iceland had relatively little contact with the outside world . The island became independent in union with Denmark in 1918 . Since 1944 , Iceland has been a republic , and Icelandic society has undergone a rapid modernisation process in the post @-@ independence era .
= = History = =
Iceland is a geologically young land mass , having formed an estimated 20 million years ago due to volcanic eruptions on the Mid @-@ Atlantic ridge . One of the last larger islands to remain uninhabited , the first human settlement date is generally accepted to be 874 , although there is some evidence to suggest human activity prior to the Norse arrival .
= = = Initial migration and settlement = = =
The first Viking to sight Iceland was Gardar Svavarsson , who went off course due to harsh conditions when sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands . His reports led to the first efforts to settle the island . Flóki Vilgerðarson ( b . 9th century ) was the first Norseman to sail to Iceland intentionally . His story is documented in the Landnámabók manuscript , and he is said to have named the island Ísland ( Iceland ) . The first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfur Arnarson . He settled with his family in around 874 , at a place he named " Bay of Smokes " , or Reykjavík in Icelandic .
Following Ingólfur , and also in 874 , another group of Norwegians set sail across the North Atlantic Ocean with their families , livestock , slaves and possessions , escaping the domination of the first King of Norway , Haraldur Harfagri . They traveled 1 @,@ 000 km ( 600 mi ) in their Viking longships to the island of Iceland . These people were primarily of Norwegian , Irish or Gaelic Scottish origin . The Irish and the Scottish Gaels were either slaves or servants of the Norse chiefs , according to the Icelandic sagas , or descendants of a " group of Norsemen who had settled in Scotland and Ireland and intermarried with Gaelic @-@ speaking people " . Genetic evidence suggests that approximately 62 % of the Icelandic maternal gene pool is derived from Ireland and Scotland , which is much higher than other Scandinavian countries , although comparable to the Faroese , while 37 % is of Nordic origin . About 20 @-@ 25 % of the Icelandic paternal gene pool is of Gaelic origin , with the rest being Nordic .
The Icelandic Age of Settlement ( Icelandic : Landnámsöld ) is considered to have lasted from 874 to 930 , at which point most of the island had been claimed and the Alþingi ( English : Althing ) , the assembly of the Icelandic Commonwealth , was founded at Þingvellir .
= = = Hardship and conflict = = =
In 930 , on the Þingvellir ( English : Thingvellir ) plain near Reykjavík , the chieftains and their families met and established the Alþingi , Iceland 's first national assembly . However , the Alþingi lacked the power to enforce the laws it made . In 1262 , struggles between rival chieftains left Iceland so divided that King Haakon IV of Norway was asked to step in as a final arbitrator for all disputes , as part of the Old Covenant . This is known as the Age of the Sturlungs .
Iceland was under Norwegian leadership until 1380 , when the Royal House of Norway died out . At this point , both Iceland and Norway came under the control of the Danish Crown . With the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark , the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the crown , including the right to initiate and consent to legislation . This meant a loss of independence for Iceland , which led to nearly 300 years of decline : perhaps largely because Denmark and its Crown did not consider Iceland to be a colony to be supported and assisted . In particular , the lack of help in defense led to constant raids by marauding pirates along the Icelandic coasts .
Unlike Norway , Denmark did not need Iceland 's fish and homespun wool . This created a dramatic deficit in Iceland 's trade , and no new ships were built as a result . In 1602 Iceland was forbidden to trade with other countries by order of the Danish Government , and in the 18th century climatic conditions had reached an all @-@ time low since Settlement .
In 1783 – 84 Laki , a volcanic fissure in the south of the island , erupted . The eruption produced about 15 km ³ ( 3 @.@ 6 mi ³ ) of basalt lava , and the total volume of tephra emitted was 0 @.@ 91 km ³ . The aerosols built up caused a cooling effect in the Northern Hemisphere . The consequences for Iceland were catastrophic , with approximately 25 @-@ 33 % of the population dying in the famine of 1783 and 1784 . Around 80 % of sheep , 50 % of cattle , and 50 % of horses died of fluorosis from the 8 million tons of fluorine that were released . This disaster is known as the Mist Hardship ( Icelandic : Móðuharðindin ) .
In 1798 – 99 the Alþingi was discontinued for several decades , eventually being restored in 1844 . It was moved to Reykjavík , the capital , after being held at Þingvellir for over nine centuries .
= = = Independence and prosperity = = =
The 19th century brought significant improvement in the Icelanders ' situation . A protest movement was led by Jón Sigurðsson , a statesman , historian , and authority on Icelandic literature . Inspired by the romantic and nationalist currents from mainland Europe , Jón protested strongly , through political journals and self @-@ publications , for ' a return to national consciousness ' and for political and social changes to be made to help speed up Iceland 's development .
In 1854 , the Danish government relaxed the trade ban that had been imposed in 1602 , and Iceland gradually began to rejoin Western Europe economically and socially . With this return of contact with other peoples came a reawakening of Iceland 's arts , especially its literature . Twenty years later in 1874 , Iceland was granted a constitution . Icelanders today recognize Jón 's efforts as largely responsible for their economic and social resurgence .
Iceland gained near @-@ full independence in 1918 after World War I , and retained only formal ties with the Danish Crown . This move to independence was completed on 17 June 1944 on what would have been Jón Sigurðsson 's 133rd birthday . After a national referendum , Iceland broke all ties with Denmark , after nearly six centuries of Danish rule , and declared itself independent .
= = Demographics and society = =
= = = Genetics = = =
Most mitochondrial DNA lineages found today in contemporary Icelanders can be traced to the native populations in Ireland and Scotland and Scandinavia . Another study shows that a tiny proportion of samples of contemporary Icelanders carry a more distant lineage , which belongs to the haplogroup C1 , which can possibly be traced to the settlement of the Americas around 14 @,@ 000 years ago . The same study used preliminary genealogical analyses which revealed that C1 lineage was present in the Icelandic mtDNA pool at least 300 years ago . Due to their small founding population and considerable history of relative isolation , Icelanders have often been considered highly genetically homogeneous as compared to other European populations . For this reason , along with the extensive genealogical records for much of the population that reach back to the settlement of Iceland , Icelanders have been the focus of considerable genomics research by both biotechnology companies and academic and medical researchers . However , one study of mitochondrial DNA , blood groups , and isozymes revealed a more variable population than expected from these genetic standpoints , comparable to the diversity of some other Europeans . Another study shows that quite a big group of Scandinavian males , in particular Norwegians and Icelanders ( up to 31 % of samples ) , carry Haplogroup R1a1a ( Y @-@ DNA ) .
Results of the mitochondrial DNA studies have been consistent with the genealogical records that trace the ancestry of most Icelanders to Scandinavia , Ireland and Scotland , though there may have been a minor contribution from other European groups . Founder effects and the effects of genetic drift are more pronounced for the Icelandic gene pool than other nearby populations , supporting the assumed genetic isolation of the population .
= = = Emigration = = =
= = = = Greenland = = = =
Greenland was first settled by some 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red in the late 10th century , CE . Isolated fjords in this harsh land offered sufficient grazing to support cattle and sheep , though the climate was too cold for cereal crops . Royal trade ships from Norway occasionally went to Greenland to trade for walrus tusks and falcons . The population eventually reached a high point of perhaps 3 @,@ 000 in two communities and developed independent institutions before fading away during the 15th century . A papal legation was sent there as late as 1492 , the year Columbus attempted to find a shorter spice route but instead found the Americas .
= = = = North America = = = =
According to the Saga of Eric the Red , Icelandic immigration to North America dates back to 1006 , when Icelandic Snorri was born in Vinland . This colony was short @-@ lived though and by the 1020s the Icelanders abandoned it . Icelandic immigration to North America would not resume for some 800 years .
One of the first new instances of Icelandic immigration to North America occurred in 1855 , when a small group settled in Spanish Fork , Utah . Another Icelandic colony is Washington Island , Wisconsin . Immigration to the United States and Canada began in earnest in the 1870s , with most migrants initially settling in the Great Lakes area . These settlers were fleeing famine and overcrowding on Iceland . Today , there are sizable communities of Icelandic descent in both the United States and Canada . Gimli , in Manitoba , Canada , is home to the largest population of Icelanders outside of the main island of Iceland .
= = Culture = =
= = = Language and literature = = =
Icelandic , a North Germanic language , is the official language of Iceland ( de facto ; the laws are silent about the issue ) . Icelandic has inflectional grammar comparable to Latin , Ancient Greek , more closely to Old English and practically identical to Old Norse .
Old Icelandic literature can be divided into several categories , of which three are best known to foreigners : Eddic poetry , skaldic poetry , and saga literature , if saga literature is understood broadly . Eddic poetry is made up of heroic and mythological poems . Poetry that praises someone is considered skaldic poetry or court poetry . Finally Saga literature is prose , ranging from pure fiction to fairly factual history .
Written Icelandic has changed little since the 13th century . Because of this , modern readers can understand the Icelanders ' sagas . The sagas tell of events in Iceland in the 10th and early 11th centuries . They are considered to be the best @-@ known pieces of Icelandic literature .
The elder or Poetic Edda , the younger or Prose Edda , and the sagas are the major pieces of Icelandic literature . The Poetic Edda is a collection of poems and stories from the late 10th century , whereas the younger or Prose Edda is a manual of poetry that contains many stories of Norse mythology .
= = = Religion = = =
Iceland embraced Christianity in c . AD 1000 , in what is called the kristnitaka , and the country , while mostly secular in observance , is still predominantly Christian culturally . The Lutheran church claims some 84 % of the total population . While early Icelandic Christianity was more lax in its observances than traditional Catholicism , Pietism , a religious movement imported from Denmark in the 18th century , had a marked effect on the island . By discouraging all but religious leisure activities , it fostered a certain dourness , which was for a long time considered an Icelandic stereotype . At the same time , it also led to a boom in printing , and Iceland today is one of the most literate societies in the world .
While Catholicism was supplanted by Protestantism during the Reformation , most other world religions are now represented on the island : there are small Protestant Free Churches and Catholic communities , and even a nascent Muslim community , composed of both immigrants and local converts . Perhaps unique to Iceland is the fast @-@ growing Ásatrúarfélag , a legally recognized revival of the pre @-@ Christian Nordic religion of the original settlers . According to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Reykjavík , there were only approximately 30 Jews in Iceland as of 2001 . The First Lady of Iceland Dorrit Moussaieff is an Israeli @-@ born Bukharian Jew .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Icelandic cuisine consists mainly of fish , lamb , and dairy . Fish was once the main part of an Icelander 's diet but has recently given way to meats such as beef , pork , and poultry .
Iceland has many traditional foods called Þorramatur . These foods include smoked and salted lamb , singed sheep heads , dried fish , smoked and pickled salmon , and cured shark . Andrew Zimmern , a chef who has traveled the world on his show Bizarre Foods with Andrew Zimmern , responded to the question " What 's the most disgusting thing you 've ever eaten ? " with the response " That would have to be the fermented shark fin I had in Iceland . " Fermented shark fin is a form of Þorramatur .
= = = Performance art = = =
The earliest indigenous Icelandic music was the rímur , epic tales from the Viking era that were often performed a cappella . Christianity played a major role in the development of Icelandic music , with many hymns being written in the local idiom . Hallgrímur Pétursson , a poet and priest , is noted for writing many of these hymns in the 17th century . The island 's relative isolation ensured that the music maintained its regional flavor . It was only in the 19th century that the first pipe organs , prevalent in European religious music , first appeared on the island .
Many singers , groups , and forms of music have come from Iceland . Most Icelandic music contains vibrant folk and pop traditions . Some more recent groups and singers are Voces Thules , The Sugarcubes , Björk , Sigur Rós , and Of Monsters and Men .
The national anthem is " Ó Guð vors lands " ( English : " Our Country 's God " ) , written by Matthías Jochumsson , with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson . The song was written in 1874 , when Iceland celebrated its one thousandth anniversary of settlement on the island . It was originally published with the title A Hymn in Commemoration of Iceland 's Thousand Years .
= = = Sports = = =
Iceland 's national football team has yet to participate in the FIFA World Cup . However they have qualified for the finals of the 2016 European Championship . Their first Olympic participation was in the 1912 Summer Olympics ; however , they did not participate again until the 1936 Summer Olympics . Their first appearance at the winter games was at the 1948 Winter Olympics . In 1956 , Vilhjálmur Einarsson won the Olympic silver medal for the triple jump . The Icelandic national handball team has enjoyed relative success . The team received a silver medal at the 2008 Olympic Games and a 3rd place at the 2010 European Men 's Handball Championship .
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= Canadian federal election , 1957 =
The Canadian federal election of 1957 was held June 10 , 1957 , to select the 265 members of the House of Commons of Canada . In one of the great upsets in Canadian political history , the Progressive Conservative Party ( also known as " PCs " or " Tories " ) , led by John Diefenbaker , brought an end to 22 years of Liberal rule , as the Tories were able to form a minority government .
The Liberal Party had governed Canada since 1935 , winning five consecutive elections . Under Prime Ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent , the government gradually built a welfare state . During the Liberals 's fifth term in office , the opposition parties depicted them as arrogant and unresponsive to Canadians ' needs . Controversial events , such as the 1956 " Pipeline Debate " over the construction of the Trans @-@ Canada Pipeline , had hurt the government . St. Laurent , nicknamed ' Uncle Louis ' , remained popular , but exercised little supervision over his cabinet ministers .
In 1956 , Tory leader George A. Drew unexpectedly resigned due to ill health . In his place , the PC party elected the fiery and charismatic Diefenbaker . The Tories ran a campaign centred on their new leader , who attracted large crowds to rallies and made a strong impression on television . The Liberals ran a lacklustre campaign , and St. Laurent made few television appearances . Uncomfortable with the medium , the Prime Minister read his speeches from a script and refused to wear makeup .
Abandoning their usual strategy of trying to make major inroads in Liberal @-@ dominated Quebec , the Tories focused on winning seats in the other provinces . They were successful ; though they gained few seats in Quebec , they won 112 seats overall to the Liberals ' 105 . With the remaining seats won by other parties , the PC party only had a plurality in the House of Commons , but the margin was sufficient to make John Diefenbaker Canada 's first Tory Prime Minister since 1935 .
= = Background = =
= = = Liberal domination = = =
The Tories had last governed Canada under R.B. Bennett , who had been elected in 1930 . Bennett 's government had limited success in dealing with the Depression , and was defeated in 1935 , as Liberal William Lyon Mackenzie King , who had previously served two times as Prime Minister , was restored to power . The Liberals won five consecutive majorities between 1935 and 1953 . The Liberals worked closely with the civil service ( drawing several of their ministers from those ranks ) and their years of dominance saw prosperity .
When Mackenzie King retired in 1948 , he was succeeded by his Minister of Justice , Louis St. Laurent , a bilingual Quebecer who took office at the age of 66 . An adept politician , St. Laurent projected a gentle persona and was affectionately known to many Canadians as Uncle Louis ( or , among francophones , Oncle Louis ) . In actuality , St. Laurent was uncomfortable away from Ottawa , was subject to fits of depression ( especially after 1953 ) , and on political trips was carefully managed by advertising men from the firm of Cockfield Brown . St. Laurent led the Liberals to an overwhelming triumph in the 1949 election , campaigning under the slogan " You never had it so good " . The Liberals won a fifth successive mandate in 1953 , with St. Laurent content to exercise a highly relaxed leadership style .
With over twenty years of parliamentary majorities , Liberal ministers did as they wished with little regard for the opposition parties . The Mackenzie King and St. Laurent governments laid the groundwork for the welfare state , a development initially opposed by many Tories . C.D. Howe , considered one of the leading forces of the St. Laurent government , told his Tory opponents when they alleged that the Liberals would abolish tariffs if the people would let them , " Who would stop us ? ... Don 't take yourselves too seriously . If we wanted to get away with it , who would stop us ? "
= = = Tory struggles = = =
At the start of 1956 , the Tories were led by former Ontario premier George A. Drew , who had been elected PC leader in 1948 over Saskatchewan MP John Diefenbaker . Drew was the fifth man to lead the Tories in their 21 years out of power . None had come close to defeating the Liberals ; the best performance was in 1945 , when John Bracken secured 67 seats for the Tories . The Liberals , though , had won 125 seats , and maintained their majority . In the 1953 election , the PC party won 51 seats out of the 265 in the House of Commons . Subsequently the Tories picked up two seats from the Liberals in by @-@ elections , and the Liberals ( who had won 169 seats in 1953 ) lost an additional seat to the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF , the predecessor of the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) ) .
After over two decades in opposition , the Tories were closely associated with that role in the public eye . The Tories were seen as the party of the wealthy and of English @-@ speaking Canada and drew about 30 % of the vote in federal elections . The Tories had enjoyed little success in Quebec in the past forty years . By 1956 , the Social Credit Party was becoming a potential rival to the Tories as Canada 's main right @-@ wing party . Canadian journalist and author Bruce Hutchison discussed the state of the Tories in 1956 :
When a party calling itself Conservative can think of nothing better than to outbid the Government 's election promises ; when it demands economy in one breath and increased spending in the next ; when it proposes an immediate tax cut regardless of inflationary results ... when in short , the Conservative party no longer gives us a conservative alternative after twenty @-@ one years ... then our political system desperately requires an opposition prepared to stand for something more than the improbable chance of quick victory .
= = = Run @-@ up to the campaign = = =
In 1955 , the Tories , through a determined filibuster , were able to defeat amendments to the Defence Procurement Act , which would have made temporary , extraordinary powers granted to the government permanent . Drew led the Tories in a second battle with the government the following year : in the so @-@ called " Pipeline Debate " , the government invoked closure repeatedly in a weeks @-@ long debate which ended with the Speaker ignoring points of order as he had the division bells rung . Both measures were closely associated with Howe , which , in combination with his earlier comments , led to Tory claims that Howe was indifferent to the democratic process .
Tory preparations for an upcoming election campaign were thrown into disarray in August 1956 when Drew fell ill . Tory leaders felt that the party needed vigorous leadership with a federal election likely to be called within a year . In September , Drew resigned . Diefenbaker , who had failed in two prior bids for the leadership , announced his candidacy , as did Tory frontbenchers Davie Fulton and Donald Fleming . Diefenbaker , a criminal defence lawyer from Prince Albert , Saskatchewan , was on the populist left of the PC party . Those Tory leaders who disliked Diefenbaker and his views , and hoped to find a candidate from Drew 's conservative wing of the party , wooed University of Toronto president Sidney Smith as a candidate . However , Smith refused to run .
Tory leaders scheduled a leadership convention for December . In early November , the Suez crisis erupted . Minister of External Affairs Lester Pearson played a major part in the settlement of that dispute , and was later awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role . Diefenbaker , as the Tories ' foreign policy critic and as the favourite in the leadership race , gained considerable attention for his speeches on Suez . The Tories attacked Pearson for , as they said , being an errand boy for the United States government ; he responded that it was better to be such a lackey than to be an obedient colonial doing Britain 's will unquestioningly . While Suez would come to be regarded by many as one of the finest moments in Canadian foreign policy , at the time it cost the Liberals support outside of Quebec .
Diefenbaker was the favourite throughout the leadership campaign . At the convention in Ottawa in December , he refused to abide by the custom of having a Quebecer be either the proposer or seconder of his candidacy , and instead selected an Easterner ( from New Brunswick ) and a Westerner to put his name in nomination . With most Quebec delegates backing his opponents , Diefenbaker felt that having a Quebecer as a nominator would not increase his support . Diefenbaker was elected on the first ballot , and a number of Quebec delegates walked out of the convention after his victory . Other Diefenbaker opponents , such as those who had urged Smith to run , believed that the 61 @-@ year @-@ old Diefenbaker would be merely a caretaker , who would serve a few years and then step down in favour of a younger man , and that the upcoming election would be lost to the Liberals regardless of who led the Tories .
When Parliament convened in January , the Liberals introduced no major proposals , and proposed nothing controversial . Diefenbaker turned over his parliamentary duties to British Columbia MP Howard Green and spent much of his time on the road making speeches across the country . Diefenbaker toured a nation in which Liberal support at the provincial level had slowly been eroding . When the Liberals gained Federal power in 1935 , they controlled eight of the nine provincial governments , all except Alberta . By early 1957 , the Liberals controlled the legislatures only in the tenth province , Newfoundland , and in Prince Edward Island and Manitoba .
In March , Finance Minister Walter Harris , who was believed to be St. Laurent 's heir apparent , introduced his budget . The budget anticipated a surplus of $ 258 million , of which $ 100 million was to be returned in the form of increased welfare payments , with an increase of $ 6 per month ( to a total of $ 46 ) for old age pensioners — effective after the election . Harris indicated that no more could be returned for fear of increasing inflation . Diefenbaker attacked the budget , calling for higher old age pensions and welfare payments , more aid to the poorer provinces , and aid to farmers .
St. Laurent had informed Diefenbaker that Parliament would be dissolved in April , for an election on June 10 . A final parliamentary conflict was sparked by the suicide of Canadian Ambassador to Egypt E.H. Norman in the midst of allegations made by a United States Senate subcommittee that Norman had communist links . Pearson had defended Norman when the allegations became public , and defended him again after his death , suggesting to the Commons that the allegations were false . It quickly became apparent that the information released by the Americans might have come from Canadian intelligence sources , and after severe questioning of Pearson by Diefenbaker and the other parties ' foreign policy critics , Pearson made a statement announcing that Norman had had communist associations in his youth , but had passed a security review . The minister evaded further questions regarding what information had been provided , and the discussion was cut short when Parliament was dissolved on April 12 .
Peter Regenstreif , who studied the four elections between 1957 and 1963 , wrote of the situation at the start of the election campaign , " In 1957 , there was no tangible indication that the Liberals would be beaten or , even in the opposition 's darkest moment of reflection , could be . All the hindsight and post hoc gazing at entrails cannot change that objective fact . "
= = Issues = =
The Liberals and PC party differed considerably on fiscal and tax policies . In his opening campaign speech at Massey Hall in Toronto , Diefenbaker contended that Canadians were overtaxed in the amount of $ 120 per family of four . Diefenbaker pledged to reduce taxes and castigated the Liberals for not reducing taxes despite the government surplus . St. Laurent also addressed tax policy in his opening speech , in Winnipeg . St. Laurent noted that since 1953 , tax rates had declined , as had the national debt , and that Canada had a reputation as a good place for investments . The Prime Minister argued that the cost of campaign promises made by the Progressive Conservatives would inevitably drive up the tax rate . Diefenbaker also assailed tight @-@ money monetary policies which kept interest rates high , complaining that they were hitting Atlantic and Western Canada hard .
The Tories promised changes in agricultural policies . Many Canadian farmers were unable to find buyers for their wheat ; the PC party promised generous cash advances on unsold wheat and promised a protectionist policy regarding foreign agricultural products . The Liberals argued that such tariffs were not worth the loss of bargaining position in efforts to seek foreign markets for Canadian agricultural products .
The institution of the welfare state was by 1957 accepted by both major parties . Diefenbaker promised to expand the national health insurance scheme to cover tubercular and mental health patients . He characterized the old age pension increase which the Liberal government was instituting as a mere pittance , not even enough to keep up with the cost of living . Diefenbaker noted that the increase only amounted to twenty cents a day , using that figure to ridicule Liberal contentions that an increase would add to the rate of inflation . All three opposition parties promised to increase the pension , with the Social Crediters and CCF even stating the specific amounts it would be raised by .
The Liberals were content to rest on their record in foreign affairs , and doubted that the Tories could better them . In a radio address on May 30 , Minister of Transport George Marler commented , " You will wonder as I do who in the Conservative Party would take the place of the Honourable Lester Pearson , whose knowledge and experience of world affairs has been put to such good use in recent years . " Diefenbaker , however , refused to concede the point and in a televised address stated that Canadians were " asking Pearson to explain his bumbling of External Affairs " . Though they were reluctant to discuss the Norman affair , the Tories suggested that the government had irresponsibly allowed gossip to be transmitted to United States congressional committees . They also attacked the government over Pearson 's role in the Suez settlement , suggesting that Canada had let Britain down .
Some members of the Tories ' campaign committee had urged Diefenbaker not to build his campaign around the Pipeline Debate , contending that the episode was now a year in the past and forgotten by the voters , who did not particularly care what went on in Parliament anyway . Diefenbaker replied , " That 's the issue , and I 'm making it . " Diefenbaker referred to the conduct of the government in the Pipeline Debate more frequently than he did any other issue during the campaign . St. Laurent initially dealt with the question flippantly , suggesting in his opening campaign address that the debate had been " nearly as long as the pipeline itself and quite as full of another kind of natural gas " . As the issue gained resonance with the voters , the Liberals devoted more time to it , and St. Laurent devoted a major part of his final English television address to the question . The Liberals defended their conduct , and contended that a minority should not be allowed to impose its will on an elected majority . St. Laurent suggested that the Tories had performed badly as an opposition in the debate , and suggested that the public give them more practice at being an opposition .
Finally , the Tories contended that the Liberals had been in power too long , and that it was time for a change . The PC party stated that the Liberals were arrogant , inflexible , and not capable of looking at problems from a new point of view . Liberals responded that with the country prosperous , there was no point to a change .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Progressive Conservative = = =
In 1953 , almost half of the Tories ' campaign funds were spent in Quebec , a province in which the party won only four of seventy @-@ five seats . After the 1953 election , Tory MP Gordon Churchill studied the Canadian federal elections since Confederation . He concluded that the Progressive Conservatives were ill @-@ advised to continue pouring money into Quebec in an effort to win seats in the province ; the Tories could win at least a minority government by maximizing their opportunities in English @-@ speaking Canada , and if the party could also manage to win twenty seats in Quebec , it could attain a majority . Churchill 's conclusions were ignored by most leading Tories — except Diefenbaker .
Diefenbaker 's successful leadership race had been run by Allister Grosart , an executive for McKim Advertising Ltd . Soon after taking the leadership , Diefenbaker got Grosart to help out at Tory headquarters , and soon appointed him national director of the party and national campaign manager . Grosart appointed a national campaign committee , something which had not been done previously by the Tories , but which , according to Grosart , provided the organizational key to success in 1957 . The party was ill @-@ financed , having only $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to wage the campaign — half what it had in 1953 . Grosart divided most of that money equally by constituency , to the disgruntlement of Quebec Tories , who were used to receiving a disproportionate share of the national party 's financing .
The Tory campaign opened at Massey Hall in Toronto on April 25 , where Diefenbaker addressed a crowd of 2 @,@ 600 , about 200 short of capacity . At the Massey Hall rally , a large banner hung behind Diefenbaker , which did not mention the name of his party , but which instead stated , " It 's Time for a Diefenbaker Government . " The slogan , coined by Grosart , sought to blur Canadian memories of the old Tory party of Bennett and Drew and instead focus attention on the party 's new leader . Posters for election rallies contained Diefenbaker 's name in large type ; only the small print contained the name of the party . When St. Laurent complained that the Tories were not campaigning under their own name , Grosart sent copies of the Prime Minister 's remarks in a plain envelope to every Liberal candidate , and was gratified when they began inserting the allegation into their own speeches . According to Professor J. Murray Beck in his history of Canadian general elections , " His political enemies were led to make the very point he was striving to drive home : Diefenbaker was , in effect , leading a new party , not an old one with a repellent image . " Grosart later stated that he structured the entire campaign around the personality of John Diefenbaker , and threw away the Tory party and its policies .
Diefenbaker began his campaign with a week of local campaigning in his riding , after which he went to Toronto for the Massey Hall speech . After two days in Ontario , he spoke at a rally in Quebec City , before spending the remainder of the first week in the Maritimes . The next week saw Diefenbaker spend two days in Quebec , after which he campaigned in Ontario . The next two weeks included a Western tour , with brief returns to Ontario , the most populous province . The final two weeks saw Diefenbaker spend much of the time in Ontario , though with brief journeys east to the Maritimes and Quebec and twice west to Saskatchewan . He returned to his riding for the final weekend before the Monday election . He spent 39 days on the campaign trail , eleven more than the Prime Minister .
According to Professor John Meisel , who wrote a book about the 1957 campaign , Diefenbaker 's speaking style was " reminiscent of the fiery orators so popular in the nineteenth century . Indeed , Mr. Diefenbaker 's oratory has been likened to that of the revivalist preacher . " As a new face on the national scene given to outspoken attacks on the government , he began to attract unexpectedly large crowds early in the campaign . When reduced to the written word , however , Diefenbaker 's rhetoric sometimes proved to be without much meaning . According to journalist and author Peter C. Newman , " On the printed page , it makes little sense . But from the platform , its effect was far different . " Both Newman and Meisel cite as an example of this the conclusion to the leader 's Massey Hall speech :
If we are dedicated to this — and to this we are — you , my fellow Canadians , will require all the wisdom , all the power that comes from those spiritual springs that make freedom possible — all the wisdom , all the faith and all the vision which the Conservative Party gave but yesterday under Macdonald , change to meet changing conditions , today having the responsibility of this party to lay the foundations of this nation for a great and glorious future .
Diefenbaker 's speeches contained words which evoked powerful emotions in his listeners . His theme was that Canada was on the edge of greatness — if it could only get rid of its incompetent and arrogant government . He stressed that the only alternative to the Liberals was a " Diefenbaker government " . According to Newman , Diefenbaker successfully drew on the discontent both of those who had prospered in the 1950s , and sought some deeper personal and national purpose , as well as those who had been left out of the prosperity . However , Diefenbaker spoke French badly and the excitement generated by his campaign had little effect in francophone Quebec , where apathy prevailed and Le Devoir spoke of " une campaigne électorale au chloroforme " .
The Tories had performed badly in British Columbia in 1953 , finishing a weak fourth . However , the province responded to Diefenbaker , and 3 @,@ 800 turned out for his Victoria speech on May 21 , his largest crowd yet . This was bettered two days later in Vancouver with a crowd of 6 @,@ 000 , with even the street outside the Georgia Street Auditorium packed with Tory partisans . Diefenbaker responded to this by delivering what Dick Spencer ( who wrote a book on Diefenbaker 's campaigns ) considered his greatest speech of the 1957 race , and which Newman considered the turning point of Diefenbaker 's campaign . Diefenbaker stated , " I give this assurance to Canadians — that the government shall be the servant and not the master of the people ... The road of the Liberal party , unless it is stopped — and Howe has said , " Who 's going to stop us ? " — will lead to the virtual extinction of parliamentary government . You will have the form , but the substance will be gone . "
The Liberal @-@ leaning Winnipeg Free Press , writing shortly after Diefenbaker 's speeches in British Columbia , commented on them :
Facts were overwhelmed with sound , passion substituted for arithmetic , moral indignation pumped up to the bursting point . But Mr. Diefenbaker provided the liveliest show of the election ... and many listeners undoubtedly failed to notice that he was saying even less than the Prime Minister , though saying it more shrilly and with evangelistic fervour ... Mr. Diefenbaker has chosen instead to cast himself as the humble man in a mood of protest , the common Canadian outraged by Liberal prosperity , the little guy fighting for his rights .
So far as the crowds mean anything , that posture is a brilliant success at one @-@ night stands .
On June 6 , the two major party campaigns crossed paths in Woodstock , Ontario . Speaking in the afternoon , St. Laurent drew a crowd of 200 . To the shock of St. Laurent staffers , who remained for the Diefenbaker appearance , the PC leader drew an overflow crowd of over a thousand that evening , even though he was an hour late , with announcements made to the excited crowd that he was slowed by voters who wanted only to see him or shake his hand .
Diefenbaker 's intensive campaign exhausted the handful of national reporters who followed him . Clark Davey of The Globe and Mail stated , " We did not know how he did it . " Reporters thought the Progressive Conservatives might , at best , gain 30 or 35 seats over the 53 they had at dissolution , and when Diefenbaker , off the record , told the reporters that the Tories would win 97 seats ( which would still allow the Liberals to form the government ) , they concluded he was guilty of wishful thinking . Diefenbaker was even more confident in public ; after he concluded his national tour and returned to his constituency , he addressed his final rally in Nipawin , Saskatchewan : " On Monday , I 'll be Prime Minister . "
= = = Liberal = = =
St. Laurent was utterly confident of an election victory , so much so that he did not even bother to fill the sixteen vacancies in the Senate . He had been confident of re @-@ election when Drew led the Tories , and , according to Liberal minister Lionel Chevrier , Diefenbaker 's victory in the party leadership race increased his confidence by a factor of ten . At his press conference detailing his election tour , St. Laurent stated , " I have no doubt about the election outcome . " He indicated that his campaign would open April 29 in Winnipeg , and that the Prime Minister would spend ten days in Western Canada before moving east . However , he indicated he would first go home to Quebec City for several days around Easter ( April 21 in 1957 ) . This break kept him out of the limelight for ten days at a time when Diefenbaker was already actively campaigning and making daily headlines . At a campaign stop in Jarvis , Ontario , St. Laurent told an aide that he was afraid the right @-@ wing , anti @-@ Catholic Social Credit Party would be the next Opposition . St. Laurent denied Opposition claims that he would resign after an election victory , and the 75 @-@ year @-@ old indicated that he planned to run again in 1961 , if he was still around .
The Liberals made no new , radical proposals during their campaign , but instead ran a quiet campaign with occasional attacks on the opposition parties . They were convinced that the public still supported their party , and that no expensive promises need be made to voters . St. Laurent was made the image of the nation 's prosperity , and the Liberals refused to admit any reason for discontent existed . When Minister of Finance Harris proposed raising the upcoming increase in old age pension by an additional four dollars a month , St. Laurent refused to consider it , feeling that the increase had been calculated on the basis of the available facts , and those facts had not changed .
During the Prime Minister 's Western swing , St. Laurent made formal speeches only in major cities . In contrast to Diefenbaker 's whistle @-@ stop train touring , with a hasty speech in each town as the train passed through , the Liberals allowed ample time for " Uncle Louis " to shake hands with voters , pat their children on the head , and kiss their babies . In British Columbia , St. Laurent took the position that there were hardly any national issues worth discussing — the Liberals had brought Canada prosperity and all that was needed for more of the same was to return the party to office . After touring Western Canada , St. Laurent spent the remainder of the second week of the campaign returning to , and in , Ottawa . The third week opened with a major speech in Quebec City , followed by intensive campaigning in Ontario . The fifth week was devoted to the Maritime provinces and Eastern Quebec . The sixth week opened with a major rally in Ottawa , before St. Laurent returned to the Maritimes and Quebec , and the final week was spent in Ontario before St. Laurent returned to his hometown of Quebec City for the election .
St. Laurent tried to project an image as a family man , and to that end often addressed schoolchildren . As he had in previous elections , he spoke to small groups of children regarding Canadian history or civics . The strategy backfired while addressing children in Port Hope , Ontario . With the children inattentive , some playing tag or sticking cameras in his face , St. Laurent angrily told them that it was their loss if they did not pay attention , as the country would be theirs to worry about far longer than it would be his .
St. Laurent and the Liberals suffered other problems during the campaign . According to Newman , St. Laurent sometimes seemed unaware of what was happening around him , and at one campaign stop , shook hands with the reporters who were following him , under the apparent impression they were local voters . On the evening of Diefenbaker 's Vancouver speech , St. Laurent drew 400 voters to a rally in Sherbrooke , Quebec , where he had once lived . C.D. Howe , under heavy pressure from the campaign of CCF candidate Doug Fisher in his Ontario riding , intimated that Fisher had communist links . At a rally in Manitoba , Howe offended a voter who told him the farmers were starving to death , poking the voter in the stomach and saying " Looks like you 've been eating pretty well under a Liberal government . " At another rally , Howe dismissed a persistent Liberal questioner , saying " Look here , my good man , when the election comes , why don 't you just go away and vote for the party you support ? In fact , why don 't you just go away ? "
The Liberals concluded their campaign with a large rally at Toronto 's Maple Leaf Gardens on June 7 . Entertainment at the event was provided by the Leslie Bell singers , and according to Grosart , many in the audience were Tory supporters who had turned out to hear them . St. Laurent 's speech at the rally was interrupted when William Hatton , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy from Malton , Ontario , climbed onto the platform . Hatton carried a banner reading , " This Can 't Be Canada " with a Liberal placard bearing St. Laurent 's photograph , and moved to face the Prime Minister . Meisel describes Hatton as an " otherwise politically apathetic boy who ... slowly and deliberately tore up a photograph of the Prime Minister as the latter was speaking " and states that Hatton engaged in " intensely provocative behavior " . Liberal partisans interceded , and in the ensuing fracas , Hatton fell from the platform , audibly hitting his head on the concrete floor . St. Laurent watched in apparent shock , according to his biographer Dale Tompson , as officials aided the boy and took him from the hall . According to Tompson , the crowd " turned its indignation on the men on the platform " and spent the remainder of the evening wondering about the boy 's possible injuries rather than listening to the Prime Minister 's speech . Hatton was not seriously injured , but , according to Newman , " the accident added to the image of the Liberal Party as an unrepentant arrogant group of old men , willing to ride roughshod over voters " . Grosart later described the incident as " the turning point " of the campaign . Professor Meisel speculated that the Hatton incident might have been part of an organized campaign to annoy St. Laurent out of his pleasant " Uncle Louis " persona , and Grosart later related that Liberal frontbencher Jack Pickersgill always accused him of being behind the boy 's actions , but that the incident was " a sheer accident " . Hatton 's mother described his actions as " [ j ] ust a schoolboy prank , " and a reaction to reading an article about how the art of heckling was dying . According to public relations executive J.G. Johnston in a letter to Diefenbaker on June 10 , Hatton had come to the rally with several other boys , including Johnston 's son , but had gone off on his own while the other boys paraded with Diefenbaker posters which had been smuggled inside . According to Johnston , Hatton was caught on CBC tape saying to St. Laurent , " I can no longer stand your hypocrisy , Sir " before tearing the St. Laurent poster . Attempts by Johnston to have the Liberal activist who pushed Hatton off the platform arrested failed , according to Johnston , on the ground that the police could find no witnesses .
= = = CCF = = =
The CCF was a socialist party , which had much of its strength in Saskatchewan , though it ran candidates in several other provinces . At Parliament 's dissolution in April 1957 , it had 23 MPs , from five different provinces . Aside from the Liberals and the Tories , it was the only party to nominate a candidate in a majority of the ridings . In 1957 , the party was led by Saskatchewan MP M.J. Coldwell .
In 1956 , the party adopted the Winnipeg Declaration , a far more moderate proposal than its previous governing document , the 1933 Regina Manifesto . For example , the Regina Manifesto pledged the CCF to the eradication of capitalism ; the Winnipeg Declaration recognized the utility of private ownership of business , and stated that the government should own business only when it was in the public interest . In its election campaign , the CCF did not promise to nationalize any industries . It promised changes in the tax code in order to increase the redistribution of wealth in Canada . It pledged to increase exemptions from income tax , to allow medical expenses to be considered deductions from income for tax purposes , and to eliminate sales tax on food , clothing , and other necessities of life . It also promised to raise taxes on the higher income brackets and to eliminate the favourable tax treatment of corporate dividends .
The CCF represented many agricultural areas in the Commons , and it proposed several measures to assure financial security for farmers . It proposed national growers ' cooperatives for agricultural products which were exported . It proposed cash advances for farm @-@ stored wheat , short and long term loans for farmers at low interest rates , and government support of prices , to assure the farmer a full income even in bad years . For the Atlantic fisherman , the CCF proposed cash advances at the start of the fishing season and government @-@ owned depots which would sell fishing equipment and supplies to fishermen at much lower than market prices .
Coldwell suffered from a heart condition , and undertook a much less ambitious schedule than the major party leaders . The party leader left Ottawa for his riding , Rosetown — Biggar in Saskatchewan , on April 26 , and remained there until May 10 . He spent three days campaigning in Ontario , then moved west to the major cities of the prairie provinces and British Columbia , before returning to his riding for the final days before the June 10 election . Other CCF leaders took charge of campaigning in Quebec and the Maritimes .
= = = Social Credit = = =
By 1957 , the Social Credit Party of Canada had moved far afield from the theories of social credit economics , which its candidates rarely mentioned . Canada 's far @-@ right party , the Socreds were led by Solon Low , though its Alberta leader , Premier Ernest Manning , was highly influential in the party . The Socreds ' election programme was based on the demand " that Government get out of business and make way for private enterprise " and on their hatred of " all government @-@ inspired schemes to degrade man and make him subservient to the state or any monopoly " .
The Socreds proposed an increase in the old age pension to $ 100 per month . They called for the reversal of the government 's tight money policies , and for low income loans for small business and farmers . It asked for income tax exemptions to be increased to meet the cost of living , and a national housing programme to make home ownership possible for every Canadian family . The party called for a national security policy based on the need for defence , rather than " aggression " , and for a foreign policy which would include food aid to the less @-@ developed nations .
The Socreds also objected to the CBC and other spending in the arts and broadcasting . The party felt that the government should solve economic problems before spending money on the arts .
Low challenged the Prime Minister over the Suez issue , accusing him of sending a threatening telegram that caused British Prime Minister Anthony Eden to back off the invasion and so gave the Soviets the opportunity for a military buildup in Egypt . St. Laurent angrily denied the charge and offered to open his correspondence to any of the fifty privy councillors who could then announce whether St. Laurent was telling the truth . Low took St. Laurent up on his challenge , and selected the only living former Prime Minister , Tory Arthur Meighen , but the matter was not resolved before the election , and Meighen was not called upon to examine the correspondence in the election 's aftermath .
The Social Credit Party was weakened by considerable conflict between its organizations in the two provinces it controlled , Alberta and British Columbia . It failed to establish a strong national office to run the campaign due to infighting between the two groups . However , it was better financed than the CCF , due to its popularity among business groups in the West .
The Socreds hoped to establish themselves in Ontario , and scheduled their opening rally for Massey Hall in Toronto . The rally was a failure , and even though it ran 40 candidates in Ontario ( up from 9 in 1953 ) , the party won no seats in the province .
= = = Use of television = = =
In 1957 , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation gave the four recognized parties free air time for political statements . The television broadcasts 's audio tracks served also for use on radio . The three opposition parties gave their party leader all of the broadcast time , though Diefenbaker , who did not speak French well , played only a limited role in the Tories ' French @-@ language broadcasts . In one , he introduced party president Léon Balcer , a Quebecer , who gave the speech . Diefenbaker had no objection to makeup and , according to Meisel , was prepared to adopt any technique which would make his presentation more effective . A survey in populous southwestern Ontario showed that Diefenbaker made the strongest impression of the four leaders .
According to Liberal minister Paul Martin Sr. ( the father of the future Prime Minister ) , St. Laurent had the potential to be quite good on television , but disliked the medium . He was prejudiced against television appearances , considering such speeches the equivalent of carefully planned performances , such as stage shows . He refused to be made up for the telecasts , and insisted on reading his speech from a script . His advisers switched him to a teleprompter , but this failed to make his performances more relaxed . When reading , he would rarely look at the camera . However , St. Laurent made only occasional television appearances ( three in each language ) , letting his ministers make the remainder . Only one cabinet member , Minister of National Defence Ralph Campney took advantage of the course in television techniques offered by the Liberal Party in a dummy studio in its Ottawa headquarters . This lack of preparation , according to Meisel , led to " a fiasco " during a television address by Minister of Justice Stuart Garson in early June when the teleprompter stopped working during the speech and Garson " was unable to cope effectively with the failure " .
= = Election = =
Most predictions had the Tories picking up seats , but the Liberals maintaining a majority . The New York Times reported that Liberals expected to lose a majority of Ontario 's seats , but retain a narrow majority in the House of Commons . Time magazine predicted a Tory gain of 20 to 40 seats and stated that any result which denied the Liberals 133 seats and a majority " would rank as a major upset " . Beck indicates that many journalists , including those sympathetic to the Tories , saw signs of the coming upset , but disregarded them , convinced that the government was invulnerable . Maclean 's , which printed its postelection issue before the election to go on sale the morning after , ran an editorial noting that Canadians had freely chosen to reelect the Liberal Party .
On Election Night , the first returns came in from Sable Island , Nova Scotia . Usually a Liberal stronghold , the handful of residents there favoured the Tories by two votes . St. Laurent listened to the election returns on a radio in the living room of his home on Grande Allée in Quebec City , and when the radio broke , moved to an upstairs television set . Diefenbaker began the evening at his house in Prince Albert , and once his re @-@ election to the Commons was certain , moved to his local campaign headquarters .
The Conservatives did well in Atlantic Canada , gaining two seats in Newfoundland and nine in Nova Scotia , and sweeping Prince Edward Island 's four seats . However , in Quebec , they gained only five seats as the province returned 62 Liberals . The Tories gained 29 seats in Ontario . Howe was defeated by Fisher , and told the media that some strange disease was sweeping the country , but as for him , he was going to bed . The Liberals still led by a narrow margin as the returns began to come in from Manitoba , and St. Laurent told Liberal minister Pickersgill that he hoped that the Tories would get at least one more seat than the Liberals so they could get out of an appalling situation . As the Tories forged ahead in Western Canada , Diefenbaker flew from Prince Albert to Regina to deliver a television address and shouted to Grosart as yet another cabinet minister was defeated , " Allister , how does the architect feel ? " Late that evening , St. Laurent went to the Château Frontenac hotel for a televised speech , delivered before fifty supporters .
The Tories finished with 112 seats to the Liberals ' 105 , while both the CCF and Social Credit gained seats in Western Canada and finished with 25 and 19 seats respectively . Nine cabinet ministers , including Howe , Marler , Garson , Campney and Harris were defeated . Though the Liberals outpolled the Tories by over 100 @,@ 000 votes , most of those votes were wasted running up huge margins in Quebec . St. Laurent could have constitutionally hung onto power until defeated in the House , but he chose not to , and John Diefenbaker took office as Prime Minister of Canada on June 21 , 1957 .
= = = Irregularities = = =
After the election , the Chief Electoral Officer reported to the Speaker of the House of Commons that " the general election appears to have been satisfactorily conducted in accordance with the procedure in the Canada Elections Act " .
There were , however , a number of irregularities . In the Toronto riding of St. Paul 's , four Liberal workers were convicted of various offences for adding almost five hundred names to the electoral register . One of the four was also convicted for two counts of perjury . While the unsuccessful Liberal candidate , former MP James Rooney , was not charged , Ontario Chief Justice James Chalmers McRuer , who investigated the matter , doubted that this could have been done without the candidate 's knowledge .
Various violations of law , including illicitly opening ballot boxes , illegal possession of ballots , and adding names to the electoral register , took place in twelve Quebec ridings . The RCMP felt it had enough evidence to prosecute in five ridings , and a total of twelve people were convicted . The offences did not affect the outcome of any races .
The election of the Liberal candidate in Yukon was contested by the losing Tory candidate . After a trial before the Yukon Territorial Court , that court voided the election , holding that enough ineligible people had been permitted to vote to affect the outcome , though the court noted that it was not the fault of the Liberal candidate that these irregularities had occurred . The Tory , Erik Nielsen , won the new election in December 1957 .
The election in one Ontario riding , Wellington South was postponed pursuant to statute after the death of the Liberal candidate and MP , Henry Alfred Hosking during the campaign . The Tory candidate , Alfred Hales , defeated Liberal David Tolton and CCF candidate Thomas Withers on July 15 , 1957 .
= = Impact = =
The unexpected defeat of the Liberals was ascribed to various causes . The Ottawa Citizen stated that the defeat could be attributed to " the uneasy talk ... that the Liberals have been in too long . " Tom Kent of the Winnipeg Free Press , a future Liberal deputy minister , wrote that though the Liberal record had been the best in the democratic world , the party had failed miserably to explain it . Author and political scientist H.S. Ferns disagreed with Kent , stating that Kent 's view reflected the Liberal " assumption that ' Nobody 's going to shoot Santa Claus ' " and that Canadians in the 1957 election were motivated by things other than material interests . Peter Regenstreif cited the Progressive Conservative strategy in the 1957 and 1958 elections " as classics of ingenuity unequalled in Canadian political history . Much of the credit belongs to Diefenbaker himself ; at least some must go to Allister Grosart " . A survey taken of those who abandoned the Liberals in 1957 showed that 5 @.@ 1 % did so because of Suez , 38 @.@ 2 % because of the Pipeline Debate , 26 @.@ 7 % because of what they considered an inadequate increase in the old age pension , and 30 % because it was time for a change .
The results of the election surprised the civil service as much as it did the rest of the public . Civil servant and future Liberal minister Mitchell Sharp asked C.D. Howe 's replacement as Minister of Trade and Commerce , Gordon Churchill , not to come to the Ministry 's offices for several days as they were redecorating . Churchill later learned that the staff were moving files out . When Churchill finally came to the Ministry 's offices , he was met with what he termed " the coldest reception that I have ever received in my life " . The new Minister of Labour , Michael Starr , was ticketed three days in a row for parking in the minister 's spot .
St. Laurent resigned as leader of the Liberal Party on September 5 , 1957 , but agreed to stay on until a successor was elected . With a lame @-@ duck leader , the Liberals were ineffective in opposition . Paul Martin stated that " I 'm sure I never thought the day would come when [ Diefenbaker ] would ever be a member of a government , let alone head of it . When that happened , the world had come to an end as far as I was concerned . " In January 1958 , St. Laurent was succeeded by Lester Pearson .
Even in reporting the election result , newspapers suggested that Diefenbaker would soon call another election and seek a majority . Quebec Tory MP William Hamilton ( who would soon become Postmaster General under Diefenbaker ) predicted on the evening of June 10 that there would soon be another election , in which the Tories would do much better in Quebec . The Tory government initially proved popular among the Canadian people , and Diefenbaker called a snap election . On March 31 , 1958 , the Tories won the greatest landslide in Canadian federal electoral history in terms of the percentage of seats , taking 208 seats ( including fifty in Quebec ) to the Liberals ' 48 , with the CCF winning eight and none for Social Credit .
Michael Bliss , who wrote a survey of the Canadian Prime Ministers , alluded to Howe 's dismissive comments regarding the Tories as he summed up the 1957 election :
The pipeline debate of 1956 sparked a dramatic opposition stand on the importance of free parliamentary debate . Their arrogance did the Grits [ Liberals ] enormous damage , contributing heavily to the government 's problems in the 1957 general election . Under the glare of television cameras in that campaign , St. Laurent , Howe , and company now appeared to be a lot of wooden , tired old men who had lost touch with Canada . The voters decided to stop them .
= = National results = =
Turnout : 74 @.@ 1 % of eligible voters voted .
The Other 4 seats were ( 2 ) Independent , ( 1 ) Independent Liberal , ( 1 ) Independent PC . One Liberal @-@ Labour candidate was elected and sat with the Liberal caucus , as happened after the 1953 election .
= = Vote and seat summaries = =
= = Results by province = =
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= The X @-@ Files : The Album =
The X @-@ Files : The Album is a 1998 soundtrack album released to accompany the film The X @-@ Files . Released on June 2 , 1998 , the album features songs by various artists , including several who had contributed to the earlier album Songs in the Key of X : Music from and Inspired by the X @-@ Files , and consists mostly of cover versions or reworkings of earlier material .
The X @-@ Files : The Album received mostly positive criticism upon its release , and charted in several countries worldwide , recording a peak position of number 5 in New Zealand .
= = Production = =
Although The X @-@ Files : The Album is the soundtrack to the 1998 film The X @-@ Files , only one of the album 's songs — " Crystal Ship " by X — is actually heard during the film , briefly playing on a jukebox during a brief scene . The album 's producer , David Was , intended to match the film 's tone rather than using the songs as content , leading to several of the artists involved contributing material which would seem " uncharacteristically eerie " compared to their usual work .
Many of the songs on The X @-@ Files : The Album are cover versions or reworkings of earlier material — singer Sting collaborated with the group Aswad to perform a reggae cover of " Invisible Sun " , which he had earlier recorded with The Police ; Filter 's " One " is a rearrangement of a song made famous by Three Dog Night ; while Foo Fighters contributed a new version of their song " Walking After You " . All but one of the album 's tracks are exclusive to the soundtrack , with Björk 's " Hunter " having been previously released on the 1997 album Homogenic . Several of the artists on the album 's roster — Foo Fighters , Filter and Soul Coughing — had previously contributed material to Songs in the Key of X : Music from and Inspired by the X @-@ Files , the soundtrack album which accompanied the television series ; however , Chris Carter , creator of The X @-@ Files , stated before the album 's release that although " there are some similarities " between the records , " there are different artists and a different flavor " .
The inclusion of a track by the group Ween was spurred by fact that The X @-@ Files star David Duchovny had first met then @-@ wife Téa Leoni through their mutual appreciation for the group ; while The Cranberries were approached about contributing material after Carter saw them performing on a tour of the United States . The Filter cover of " One " was deliberately constructed by Was once he realized that Duchovny had ad @-@ libbed the song 's opening line during one of the film 's scenes . The album 's final track — a cover by Dust Brothers of Mark Snow 's opening theme for the television series — features a hidden track which plays after a period of silence . The track features a spoken word segment by Carter which explains the series ' overarching mythology up to the film 's release .
The European and Japanese releases include an extra track , " Tubular X " by Mike Oldfield . This is a variation of Mark Snow 's " The X @-@ Files Theme " incorporating elements of Oldfield 's Tubular Bells .
= = Track listing = =
= = Release = =
The X @-@ Files : The Album was first released on June 2 , 1998 , with international releases occurring between July and October that same year . The soundtrack appeared in several charts upon its release , reaching a peak position of 26 in the United States ' Billboard 200 albums chart , 21 in Austria 's Ö3 Austria Top 40 , 27 in Australia 's ARIA Charts , and 5 — its highest chart position — in the Official New Zealand Music Chart .
= = Reception = =
The X @-@ Files : The Album has received generally positive reviews . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine awarded the soundtrack four stars out of five , calling it " the best alt @-@ rock soundtrack of the summer of 1998 " . Erlewine felt that the album was more polished and well @-@ produced than Songs in the Key of X ; however , he noted that this came at the expense of the earlier record 's " quirky " and " off @-@ kilter " aesthetic . Erlewine singled out " Beacon Light " and " Hunter " as particular highlights of the album . Jim Rogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times rated the album one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , finding the album to be predictable and " phone [ d ] in " ; he highlighted the songs by Filter , Foo Fighters , Björk and Ween to be particular low points for him .
Writing for Entertainment Weekly , David Brown rated the album a B − , finding that it " isn ’ t eccentric enough " compared to the film or series . Browne found that the contributions by Noel Gallagher and Ween matched the tone of The X @-@ Files , but felt that Tonic , Filter , Sting and Aswad had been included out of commercial rather than artistic interest . Keith Phipps of the The A.V. Club considered the soundtrack to be less interesting than the accompanying film score , finding the album 's roster to be formulaic and several of its tracks to not be particularly " revelatory " or " radical " .
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= Planets beyond Neptune =
Following the discovery of the planet Neptune in 1846 , there was considerable speculation that another planet might exist beyond its orbit . The search began in the mid @-@ 19th century and culminated at the start of the 20th with Percival Lowell 's quest for Planet X. Lowell proposed the Planet X hypothesis to explain apparent discrepancies in the orbits of the giant planets , particularly Uranus and Neptune , speculating that the gravity of a large unseen ninth planet could have perturbed Uranus enough to account for the irregularities .
Clyde Tombaugh 's discovery of Pluto in 1930 appeared to validate Lowell 's hypothesis , and Pluto was officially named the ninth planet . In 1978 , Pluto was conclusively determined to be too small for its gravity to affect the giant planets , resulting in a brief search for a tenth planet . The search was largely abandoned in the early 1990s , when a study of measurements made by the Voyager 2 spacecraft found that the irregularities observed in Uranus 's orbit were due to a slight overestimation of Neptune 's mass . After 1992 , the discovery of numerous small icy objects with similar or even wider orbits than Pluto led to a debate over whether Pluto should remain a planet , or whether it and its neighbours should , like the asteroids , be given their own separate classification . Although a number of the larger members of this group were initially described as planets , in 2006 the International Astronomical Union reclassified Pluto and its largest neighbours as dwarf planets , leaving Neptune the farthest known planet in the Solar System .
While today the astronomical community widely agrees that Planet X , as originally envisioned , does not exist , the concept of an as @-@ yet @-@ unobserved planet has been revived by a number of astronomers to explain other anomalies observed in the outer Solar System . As of March 2014 , observations with the WISE telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn @-@ sized object ( 95 Earth mass ) out to 10 @,@ 000 AU , and a Jupiter @-@ sized or larger object out to 26 @,@ 000 AU .
In 2014 , based on similarities of the orbits of a group of recently discovered extreme trans @-@ Neptunian objects , astronomers hypothesized the existence of a super @-@ Earth planet , 2 to 15 times the mass of the Earth and beyond 200 AU with possibly a high inclined orbit at some 1500 AU . In 2016 further work showed this unknown distant planet is likely on an inclined , eccentric orbit that goes no closer than about 200 AU and no further than about 1600 AU from the Sun . The orbit is predicted to be anti @-@ aligned to the clustered extreme trans @-@ Neptunian objects . Because Pluto is no longer considered a planet by the International Astronomical Union , this new hypothetical object has become known as Planet Nine .
= = Early speculation = =
In the 1840s , the French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to analyse perturbations in the orbit of Uranus , and hypothesised that they were caused by the gravitational pull of a yet @-@ undiscovered planet . Le Verrier predicted the position of this new planet and sent his calculations to German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle . On 23 September 1846 , the night following his receipt of the letter , Galle and his student Heinrich d 'Arrest discovered Neptune , exactly where Le Verrier had predicted . There remained some slight discrepancies in the giant planets ' orbits . These were taken to indicate the existence of yet another planet orbiting beyond Neptune .
Even before Neptune 's discovery , some speculated that one planet alone was not enough to explain the discrepancy . On 17 November 1834 , the British amateur astronomer the Reverend Thomas John Hussey reported a conversation he had had with French astronomer Alexis Bouvard to George Biddell Airy , the British Astronomer Royal . Hussey reported that when he suggested to Bouvard that the unusual motion of Uranus might be due to the gravitational influence of an undiscovered planet , Bouvard replied that the idea had occurred to him , and that he had corresponded with Peter Andreas Hansen , director of the Seeberg Observatory in Gotha , about the subject . Hansen 's opinion was that a single body could not adequately explain the motion of Uranus , and postulated that two planets lay beyond Uranus .
In 1848 , Jacques Babinet raised an objection to Le Verrier 's calculations , claiming that Neptune 's observed mass was smaller and its orbit larger than Le Verrier had initially predicted . He postulated , based largely on simple subtraction from Le Verrier 's calculations , that another planet of roughly 12 Earth masses , which he named " Hyperion " , must exist beyond Neptune . Le Verrier denounced Babinet 's hypothesis , saying , " [ There is ] absolutely nothing by which one could determine the position of another planet , barring hypotheses in which imagination played too large a part . "
In 1850 James Ferguson , Assistant Astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory , noted that he had " lost " a star he had observed , GR1719k , which Lt. Matthew Maury , the superintendent of the Observatory , claimed was evidence that it must be a new planet . Subsequent searches failed to recover the " planet " in a different position , and in 1878 , CHF Peters , director of the Hamilton College Observatory in New York , showed that the star had not in fact vanished , and that the previous results had been due to human error .
In 1879 , Camille Flammarion noted that the comets 1862 III and 1889 III had aphelia of 47 and 49 AU , respectively , suggesting that they might mark the orbital radius of an unknown planet that had dragged them into an elliptical orbit . Astronomer Georges Forbes concluded on the basis of this evidence that two planets must exist beyond Neptune . He calculated , based on the fact that four comets possessed aphelia at around 100 AU and a further six with aphelia clustered at around 300 AU , the orbital elements of a pair of hypothetical trans @-@ Neptunian planets . These elements concorded suggestively with those made independently by another astronomer named David Peck Todd , suggesting to many that they might be valid . However , sceptics argued that the orbits of the comets involved were still too uncertain to produce meaningful results .
In 1900 and 1901 , Harvard College Observatory director William Henry Pickering led two searches for trans @-@ Neptunian planets . The first was begun by Danish astronomer Hans Emil Lau who , after studying the data on the orbit of Uranus from 1690 to 1895 , concluded that one trans @-@ Neptunian planet alone could not account for the discrepancies in its orbit , and postulated the position of two planets he believed were responsible . The second was launched when Gabriel Dallet suggested that a single trans @-@ Neptunian planet lying at 47 AU could account for the motion of Uranus . Pickering agreed to examine plates for any suspected planets . In neither case were any found .
In 1909 , Thomas Jefferson Jackson See , an astronomer with a reputation as an egocentric contrarian , opined " that there is certainly one , most likely two and possibly three planets beyond Neptune " . Tentatively naming the first planet " Oceanus " , he placed their respective distances at 42 , 56 and 72 AU from the Sun . He gave no indication as to how he determined their existence , and no known searches were mounted to locate them .
In 1911 , Indian astronomer Venkatesh P. Ketakar suggested the existence of two trans @-@ Neptunian planets , which he named Brahma and Vishnu , by reworking the patterns observed by Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace in the planetary satellites of Jupiter and applying them to the outer planets . The three inner Galilean moons of Jupiter , Io , Europa and Ganymede , are locked in a complicated 1 : 2 : 4 resonance called a Laplace resonance . Ketakar suggested that Uranus , Neptune and his hypothetical trans @-@ Neptunian planets were locked in Laplace @-@ like resonances . His calculations predicted a mean distance for Brahma of 38 @.@ 95 AU and an orbital period of 242 @.@ 28 Earth years ( 3 : 4 resonance with Neptune ) . When Pluto was discovered 19 years later , its mean distance of 39 @.@ 48 AU and orbital period of 248 Earth years were close to Ketakar 's prediction ( Pluto in fact has a 2 : 3 resonance with Neptune ) . Ketakar made no predictions for the orbital elements other than mean distance and period . It is not clear how Ketakar arrived at these figures , and his second planet , Vishnu , was never located .
= = Planet X = =
In 1894 , with the help of William Pickering , Percival Lowell , a wealthy Bostonian , founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff , Arizona . In 1906 , convinced he could resolve the conundrum of Uranus 's orbit , he began an extensive project to search for a trans @-@ Neptunian planet , which he named Planet X. The X in the name represents an unknown and is pronounced as the letter , as opposed to the Roman numeral for 10 ( at the time , Planet X would have been the ninth planet ) . Lowell 's hope in tracking down Planet X was to establish his scientific credibility , which had eluded him thanks to his widely derided belief that channel @-@ like features visible on the surface of Mars were canals constructed by an intelligent civilization .
Lowell 's first search focused on the ecliptic , the plane encompassed by the zodiac where the other planets in the Solar System lie . Using a 5 @-@ inch photographic camera , he manually examined over 200 three @-@ hour exposures with a magnifying glass , and found no planets . At that time Pluto was too far above the ecliptic to be imaged by the survey . After revising his predicted possible locations , Lowell conducted a second search from 1914 to 1916 . In 1915 , he published his Memoir of a Trans @-@ Neptunian Planet , in which he concluded that Planet X had a mass roughly seven times that of Earth — about half that of Neptune — and a mean distance from the Sun of 43 AU . He assumed Planet X would be a large , low @-@ density object with a high albedo , like the giant planets . As a result , it would show a disc with diameter of about one arcsecond and an apparent magnitude of between 12 and 13 — bright enough to be spotted .
Separately , in 1908 , Pickering announced that , by analysing irregularities in Uranus 's orbit , he had found evidence for a ninth planet . His hypothetical planet , which he termed " Planet O " ( because it came after " N " , i.e. Neptune ) , possessed a mean orbital radius of 51 @.@ 9 AU and an orbital period of 373 @.@ 5 years . Plates taken at his observatory in Arequipa , Peru , showed no evidence for the predicted planet , and British astronomer P. H. Cowell showed that the irregularities observed in Uranus 's orbit virtually disappeared once the planet 's displacement of longitude was taken into account . Lowell himself , despite his close association with Pickering , dismissed Planet O out of hand , saying , " This planet is very properly designated " O " , [ for it ] is nothing at all . " Unbeknownst to Pickering , four of the photographic plates taken in the search for " Planet O " by astronomers at the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1919 captured images of Pluto , though this was only recognised years later . Pickering went on to suggest many other possible trans @-@ Neptunian planets up to the year 1932 , which he named P , Q , R , S , T and U ; none were ever detected .
= = = Discovery of Pluto = = =
Lowell 's sudden death in 1916 temporarily halted the search for Planet X. Failing to find the planet , according to one friend , " virtually killed him " . Lowell 's widow , Constance , engaged in a legal battle with the observatory over Lowell 's legacy which halted the search for Planet X for several years . In 1925 , the observatory obtained glass discs for a new 13 in ( 33 cm ) wide @-@ field telescope to continue the search , constructed with funds from Abbott Lawrence Lowell , Percival 's brother . In 1929 the observatory 's director , Vesto Melvin Slipher , summarily handed the job of locating the planet to Clyde Tombaugh , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Kansas farm boy who had only just arrived at the Lowell Observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings .
Tombaugh 's task was to systematically capture sections of the night sky in pairs of images . Each image in a pair was taken two weeks apart . He then placed both images of each section in a machine called a blink comparator , which by exchanging images quickly created a time lapse illusion of the movement of any planetary body . To reduce the chances that a faster @-@ moving ( and thus closer ) object be mistaken for the new planet , Tombaugh imaged each region near its opposition point , 180 degrees from the Sun , where the apparent retrograde motion for objects beyond Earth 's orbit is at its strongest . He also took a third image as a control to eliminate any false results caused by defects in an individual plate . Tombaugh decided to image the entire zodiac , rather than focus on those regions suggested by Lowell .
By the beginning of 1930 , Tombaugh 's search had reached the constellation of Gemini . On 18 February 1930 , after searching for nearly a year and examining nearly 2 million stars , Tombaugh discovered a moving object on photographic plates taken on 23 January and 29 January of that year . A lesser @-@ quality photograph taken on January 21 confirmed the movement . Upon confirmation , Tombaugh walked into Slipher 's office and declared , " Doctor Slipher , I have found your Planet X. " The object lay just six degrees from one of two locations for Planet X Lowell had suggested ; thus it seemed he had at last been vindicated . After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs , news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13 , 1930 . The new object was later precovered on photographs dating back to 19 March 1915 . The decision to name the object Pluto was intended in part to honour Percival Lowell , as his initials made up the word 's first two letters . After discovering Pluto , Tombaugh continued to search the ecliptic for other distant objects . He found hundreds of variable stars and asteroids , as well as two comets , but no further planets .
= = = Pluto loses Planet X title = = =
To the observatory 's disappointment and surprise , Pluto showed no visible disc ; it appeared as a point , no different from a star , and , at only 15th magnitude , was six times dimmer than Lowell had predicted , which meant it was either very small , or very dark . Because Lowell astronomers thought Pluto was massive enough to perturb planets , they assumed that it should have an albedo of 0 @.@ 07 ( meaning that it reflected only 7 % of the light that hit it ) ; about as dark as asphalt and similar to that of Mercury , the least reflective planet known . This would give Pluto an assumed diameter of about 8 @,@ 000 km , or about 60 % that of Earth . Observations also revealed that Pluto 's orbit was very elliptical , far more than that of any other planet .
Almost immediately , some astronomers questioned Pluto 's status as a planet . Barely a month after its discovery was announced , on 14 April 1930 , in an article in the New York Times , Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto 's dimness and high orbital eccentricity made it more similar to an asteroid or comet : " The Lowell result confirms the possible high eccentricity announced by us on April 5 . Among the possibilities are a large asteroid greatly disturbed in its orbit by close approach to a major planet such as Jupiter , or it may be one of many long @-@ period planetary objects yet to be discovered , or a bright cometary object . " In that same article , Harvard Observatory director Harlow Shapley wrote that Pluto was a " member of the Solar System not comparable with known asteroids and comets , and perhaps of greater importance to cosmogony than would be another major planet beyond Neptune . " In 1931 , using a mathematical formula , Ernest W. Brown asserted ( in agreement with E. C. Bower ) , that the presumed irregularities in the orbit of Uranus could not be due to the gravitational effect of a more distant planet , and thus that Lowell 's supposed prediction was " purely accidental " .
Throughout the mid @-@ 20th century , estimates of Pluto 's mass were revised downward . In 1931 , Nicholson and Mayall calculated its mass , based on its supposed effect on the giant planets , as roughly that of Earth ; a value somewhat in accord with the 0 @.@ 91 Earth mass calculated in 1942 by Lloyd R. Wylie at the US Naval Observatory , using the same assumptions . In 1949 , Gerard Kuiper 's measurements of Pluto 's diameter with the 200 inch telescope at Mount Palomar Observatory led him to the conclusion that it was midway in size between Mercury and Mars and that its mass was most probably about 0 @.@ 1 Earth mass .
In 1973 , Dennis Rawlins conjectured , based on the similarities in the periodicity and amplitude of brightness variation between Pluto and Neptune 's moon Triton , that Pluto 's mass must be similar to Triton 's . This is , in fact , true , and had been argued by astronomers Walter Baade and E. C. Bower as early as 1934 . However , because Triton 's mass was then believed to be roughly 2 @.@ 5 % that of the Earth – Moon system ( more than ten times its actual value ) , Rawlins 's determination for Pluto 's mass was similarly incorrect . It was nonetheless a meagre enough value for him to conclude that Pluto was not Planet X. In 1976 , Dale Cruikshank , Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii analysed spectra from Pluto 's surface and determined that it must contain methane ice , which is highly reflective . This meant that Pluto , far from being dark , was in fact exceptionally bright , and thus was probably no more than 0 @.@ 01 Earth mass .
Pluto 's size was finally determined conclusively in 1978 , when American astronomer James W. Christy discovered its moon Charon . This enabled him , together with Robert Sutton Harrington of the U.S. Naval Observatory , to measure the mass of the Pluto – Charon system directly by observing the moon 's orbital motion around Pluto . They determined Pluto 's mass to be 1 @.@ 31 × 1022 kg ; roughly one five @-@ hundredth that of Earth or one @-@ sixth that of the Moon , and far too small to account for the observed discrepancies in the orbits of the outer planets . Lowell 's " prediction " had been a coincidence : If there was a Planet X , it was not Pluto .
= = = Further searches for Planet X = = =
After 1978 , a number of astronomers kept up the search for Lowell 's Planet X , convinced that , because Pluto was no longer a viable candidate , an unseen tenth planet must have been perturbing the outer planets .
In the 1980s and 1990s , Robert Harrington led a search to determine the real cause of the apparent irregularities . He calculated that any Planet X would be at roughly three times the distance of Neptune from the Sun ; its orbit would be highly eccentric , and strongly inclined to the ecliptic — the planet 's orbit would be at roughly a 32 @-@ degree angle from the orbital plane of the other known planets . This hypothesis was met with a mixed reception . Noted Planet X sceptic Brian G. Marsden of the Minor Planet Center pointed out that these discrepancies were a hundredth the size of those noticed by Le Verrier , and could easily be due to observational error .
In 1972 , Joseph Brady of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory studied irregularities in the motion of Halley 's Comet . Brady claimed that they could have been caused by a Jupiter @-@ sized planet beyond Neptune at 59 AU that is in a retrograde orbit around the Sun . However , both Marsden and Planet X proponent P. Kenneth Seidelmann attacked the hypothesis , showing that Halley 's Comet randomly and irregularly ejects jets of material , causing changes to its own orbital trajectory , and that such a massive object as Brady 's Planet X would have severely affected the orbits of known outer planets .
Although its mission did not involve a search for Planet X , the IRAS space observatory made headlines briefly in 1983 due to an " unknown object " that was at first described as " possibly as large as the giant planet Jupiter and possibly so close to Earth that it would be part of this Solar System " . Further analysis revealed that of several unidentified objects , nine were distant galaxies and the tenth was " interstellar cirrus " ; none were found to be Solar System bodies .
In 1988 , A. A. Jackson and R. M. Killen studied the stability of Pluto 's resonance with Neptune by placing test " Planet X @-@ es " with various masses and at various distances from Pluto . Pluto and Neptune 's orbits are in a 3 : 2 resonance , which prevents their collision or even any close approaches , regardless of their separation in the z axis . It was found that the hypothetical object 's mass had to exceed 5 Earth masses to break the resonance , and the parameter space is quite large and a large variety of objects could have existed beyond Pluto without disturbing the resonance . Four test orbits of a trans @-@ Plutonian planet have been integrated forward for four million years in order to determine the effects of such a body on the stability of the Neptune – Pluto 3 : 2 resonance . Planets beyond Pluto with masses of 0 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 0 Earth masses in orbits at 48 @.@ 3 and 75 @.@ 5 AU , respectively , do not disturb the 3 : 2 resonance . Test planets of 5 Earth masses with semi @-@ major axes of 52 @.@ 5 and 62 @.@ 5 AU disrupt the four @-@ million @-@ year libration of Pluto 's argument of perihelion .
= = = Planet X disproved = = =
Harrington died in January 1993 , without having found Planet X. Six months before , E. Myles Standish had used data from Voyager 2 's 1989 flyby of Neptune , which had revised the planet 's total mass downward by 0 @.@ 5 % — an amount comparable to the mass of Mars — to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus . When Neptune 's newly determined mass was used in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Developmental Ephemeris ( JPL DE ) , the supposed discrepancies in the Uranian orbit , and with them the need for a Planet X , vanished . There are no discrepancies in the trajectories of any space probes such as Pioneer 10 , Pioneer 11 , Voyager 1 , and Voyager 2 that can be attributed to the gravitational pull of a large undiscovered object in the outer Solar System . Today , most astronomers agree that Planet X , as Lowell defined it , does not exist .
= = Discovery of further trans @-@ Neptunian objects = =
After the discovery of Pluto and Charon , no more trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) were found until ( 15760 ) 1992 QB1 in 1992 . Since then , thousands of such objects have been discovered . Most are now recognized as part of the Kuiper belt , a swarm of icy bodies left over from the Solar System 's formation that orbit near the ecliptic plane just beyond Neptune . Though none were as large as Pluto , some of these distant trans @-@ Neptunian objects , such as Sedna , were initially described in the media as " new planets " .
In 2005 , astronomer Mike Brown and his team announced the discovery of 2003 UB313 ( later named Eris after the Greek goddess of discord and strife ) , a trans @-@ Neptunian object then thought to be just barely larger than Pluto . Soon afterwards , a NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory press release described the object as the " tenth planet " .
Eris was never officially classified as a planet , and the 2006 definition of planet defined both Eris and Pluto not as planets but as dwarf planets because they have not cleared their neighbourhoods . They do not orbit the Sun alone , but as part of a population of similarly sized objects . Pluto itself is now recognized as being a member of the Kuiper belt and the largest dwarf planet , larger than the more @-@ massive Eris .
A number of astronomers , most notably Alan Stern , the head of NASA 's New Horizons mission to Pluto , contend that the IAU 's definition is flawed , and that Pluto and Eris , and all large trans @-@ Neptunian objects , such as Makemake , Sedna , Quaoar , Varuna and Haumea , should be considered planets in their own right . However , the discovery of Eris did not rehabilitate the Planet X theory because it is far too small to have significant effects on the outer planets ' orbits .
= = Subsequently proposed trans @-@ Neptunian planets = =
Although most astronomers accept that Lowell 's Planet X does not exist , a number have revived the idea that a large unseen planet could create observable gravitational effects in the outer Solar System . These hypothetical objects are often referred to as " Planet X " , although the conception of these objects may differ considerably from that proposed by Lowell .
= = = Orbits of distant objects = = =
Sedna 's orbit
When Sedna was discovered , its extreme orbit raised questions about its origin . Its perihelion is so distant ( approximately 75 AU ) that no currently observed mechanism can explain Sedna 's eccentric distant orbit . It is too far from the planets to have been affected by the gravity of Neptune or the other giant planets and too bound to the Sun to be affected by outside forces such as the galactic tides . Hypotheses to explain its orbit include that it was affected by a passing star , that it was captured from another planetary system , or that it was tugged into its current position by a trans @-@ Neptunian planet . The most obvious solution to determining Sedna 's peculiar orbit would be to locate a number of objects in a similar region , whose various orbital configurations would provide an indication as to their past history . If Sedna had been pulled into its orbit by a trans @-@ Neptunian planet , any other objects found in its region would have a similar perihelion to Sedna ( around 80 AU ) .
Elongated orbits of group of Kuiper belt objects
In 2012 , Rodney Gomes modelled the orbits of 92 Kuiper belt objects and found that six of those orbits were far more elongated than the model predicted . He concluded that the simplest explanation was the gravitational pull of a distant planetary companion , such as a Neptune @-@ sized object at 1500 AU or a Mars @-@ sized object at around 53 AU .
Discovery of 2012 VP113 and the orbital clustering of Kuiper belt objects
In 2014 , astronomers announced the discovery of 2012 VP113 , a large object with a Sedna @-@ like 4200 @-@ year orbit and a perihelion of roughly 80 AU , which led them to suggest that it offered evidence of a potential trans @-@ Neptunian planet . Trujillo and Sheppard argued that the orbital clustering of arguments of perihelia for VP113 and other extremely distant TNOs suggests the existence of a " super @-@ Earth " of between 2 and 15 Earth masses beyond 200 AU and possibly on an inclined orbit at 1500 AU .
In 2014 astronomers at the Universidad Complutense in Madrid suggested that the available data actually indicate more than one trans @-@ Neptunian planet .
Further analysis & Planet Nine hypothesis
On January 20 , 2016 , Brown and Konstantin Batygin published an article corroborating Trujillo and Sheppard 's initial findings ; proposing a super @-@ Earth ( dubbed Planet Nine ) based on a statistical clustering of the arguments of perihelia ( noted before ) near zero and also ascending nodes near 113 ° of six distant trans @-@ Neptunian objects . They estimated it to be ten times the mass of Earth ( about 60 % the mass of Neptune ) with a semimajor axis of approximately 400 – 1500 AU .
= = = Probability = = =
Even without gravitational evidence , Mike Brown , the discoverer of Sedna , has argued that Sedna 's 12 @,@ 000 @-@ year orbit means that probability alone suggests that an Earth @-@ sized object exists beyond Neptune . Sedna 's orbit is so eccentric that it spends only a small fraction of its orbital period near the Sun , where it can be easily observed . This means that unless its discovery was a freak accident , there is probably a substantial population of objects roughly Sedna 's diameter yet to be observed in its orbital region . Mike Brown noted that " Sedna is about three @-@ quarters the size of Pluto . If there are sixty objects three @-@ quarters the size of Pluto [ out there ] then there are probably forty objects the size of Pluto ... If there are forty objects the size of Pluto , then there are probably ten that are twice the size of Pluto . There are probably three or four that are three times the size of Pluto , and the biggest of these objects ... is probably the size of Mars or the size of the Earth . " However , he notes that , should such an object be found , even though it might approach Earth in size , it would still be a dwarf planet by the current definition , because it would not have cleared its neighbourhood sufficiently .
= = = Kuiper cliff = = =
Additionally , speculation of a possible trans @-@ Neptunian planet has revolved around the so @-@ called " Kuiper cliff " . The Kuiper belt terminates suddenly at a distance of 48 AU from the Sun . Brunini and Melita have speculated that this sudden drop @-@ off may be attributed to the presence of an object with a mass between that of Mars and Earth located beyond 48 AU . The presence of an object with a mass similar to that of Mars in a circular orbit at 60 AU leads to a trans @-@ Neptunian object population incompatible with observations . For instance , it would severely deplete the plutino population . Astronomers have not excluded the possibility of an object with a mass similar to that of Earth located further than 100 AU with an eccentric and inclined orbit . Computer simulations by Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University have suggested that an object with a mass between 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 7 Earth masses , ejected outward by Neptune early in the Solar System 's formation and currently in an elongated orbit between 101 and 200 AU from the Sun , could explain the Kuiper cliff and the peculiar detached objects such as Sedna and 2012 VP113 . Although some astronomers , such as Renu Malhotra and David Jewitt , have cautiously supported these claims , others , such as Alessandro Morbidelli , have dismissed them as " contrived " .
= = = Other proposed planets = = =
Tyche was a proposed gas giant to be located in the Solar System 's Oort cloud . It was first proposed in 1999 by astrophysicists John Matese , Patrick Whitman and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette . They argued that evidence of Tyche 's existence could be seen in a supposed bias in the points of origin for long @-@ period comets . In 2013 , Matese and Whitmire re @-@ evaluated the comet data and noted that Tyche , if it existed , would be detectable in the archive of data that was collected by NASA 's Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) telescope . In 2014 , NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object with Tyche 's characteristics , indicating that Tyche as hypothesized by Matese , Whitman , and Whitmire does not exist .
The oligarch theory of planet formation states that there were hundreds of planet @-@ sized objects , known as oligarchs , in the early stages of the Solar System 's evolution . In 2005 , astronomer Eugene Chiang speculated that although some of these oligarchs became the planets we know today , most would have been flung outward by gravitational interactions . Some may have escaped the Solar System altogether to become free @-@ floating planets , whereas others would be orbiting in a halo around the Solar System , with orbital periods of millions of years . This halo would lie at between 1 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 AU from the Sun , or between a third and a thirtieth the distance to the Oort cloud .
In December 2015 , astronomers at the Atacama Large Millimeter Array ( ALMA ) detected a brief series of 350 GHz pulses that they concluded must either be a series of independent sources , or a single , fast moving source . Deciding that the latter was the most likely , they calculated based on its speed that , were it bound to the Sun , the object , which they named " Gna " after a fast @-@ moving messenger goddess in Norse mythology , would be about 12 – 25 AU distant and have a dwarf planet @-@ sized diameter of 220 to 880 km . However , if it were a rogue planet not gravitationally bound to the Sun , and as far away as 4000 AU , it could be much larger . The paper was never formally accepted , and has been withdrawn until the detection is confirmed . Scientists ' reactions to the notice were largely sceptical ; Mike Brown commented that , " If it is true that ALMA accidentally discovered a massive outer solar system object in its tiny , tiny , tiny , field of view , that would suggest that there are something like 200 @,@ 000 Earth @-@ sized planets in the outer solar system . Which , um , no ... Even better , I just realized that this many Earth @-@ sized planets existing would destabilize the entire solar system and we would all die . "
= = Constraints on additional planets = =
As of 2016 the following observations severely constrain the mass and distance of any possible additional Solar System planet :
An analysis of mid @-@ infrared observations with the WISE telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn @-@ sized object ( 95 Earth masses ) out to 10 @,@ 000 AU , and a Jupiter @-@ sized or larger object out to 26 @,@ 000 AU .
Using modern data on the anomalous precession of the perihelia of Saturn , Earth , and Mars , Lorenzo Iorio concluded that any unknown planet with a mass of 0 @.@ 7 times that of Earth must be further than 350 – 400 AU ; one with a mass of 2 times that of Earth , further than 496 – 570 AU ; and finally one with a mass of 15 times that of Earth , further than 970 – 1111 AU . Moreover , Iorio stated that the modern ephemerides of the Solar System outer planets has provided even tighter constraints : no celestial body with a mass of 15 times that of Earth can exist closer than 1100 – 1300 AU . However , work by another group of astronomers using a more comprehensive model of the Solar System found that Iorio 's conclusion was only partially correct . Their analysis of Cassini data on Saturn 's orbital residuals found that observations were inconsistent with a planetary body with the orbit and mass similar to those of Batygin and Brown 's Planet Nine having a true anomaly of − 130 ° to − 110 ° or − 65 ° to 85 ° . Furthermore , the analysis found that Saturn 's orbit is slightly better explained if such a body is located at a true anomaly of 117 @.@ 8 ° + 11 °
− 10 ° . At this location , it would be approximately 630 AU from the Sun .
= = = Survey telescopes = = =
Large Synoptic Survey Telescope ( LSST )
Pan @-@ STARRS
Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE )
|
= Redshift =
In physics , redshift happens when light or other electromagnetic radiation from an object is increased in wavelength , or shifted to the red end of the spectrum . In general , whether or not the radiation is within the visible spectrum , " redder " means an increase in wavelength – equivalent to a lower frequency and a lower photon energy , in accordance with , respectively , the wave and quantum theories of light .
Some redshifts are an example of the Doppler effect , familiar in the change of apparent pitches of sirens and frequency of the sound waves emitted by speeding vehicles . A redshift occurs whenever a light source moves away from an observer . Another kind of redshift is cosmological redshift , which is due to the expansion of the universe , and sufficiently distant light sources ( generally more than a few million light years away ) show redshift corresponding to the rate of increase in their distance from Earth . Finally , gravitational redshift is a relativistic effect observed in electromagnetic radiation moving out of gravitational fields . Conversely , a decrease in wavelength is called blueshift and is generally seen when a light @-@ emitting object moves toward an observer or when electromagnetic radiation moves into a gravitational field . However , redshift is a more common term and sometimes blueshift is referred to as negative redshift .
Knowledge of redshifts and blueshifts has been applied to develop several terrestrial technologies such as Doppler radar and radar guns . Redshifts are also seen in the spectroscopic observations of astronomical objects . Its value is represented by the letter z .
A special relativistic redshift formula ( and its classical approximation ) can be used to calculate the redshift of a nearby object when spacetime is flat . However , in many contexts , such as black holes and Big Bang cosmology , redshifts must be calculated using general relativity . Special relativistic , gravitational , and cosmological redshifts can be understood under the umbrella of frame transformation laws . There exist other physical processes that can lead to a shift in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation , including scattering and optical effects ; however , the resulting changes are distinguishable from true redshift and are not generally referred to as such ( see section on physical optics and radiative transfer ) .
= = History = =
The history of the subject began with the development in the 19th century of wave mechanics and the exploration of phenomena associated with the Doppler effect . The effect is named after Christian Doppler , who offered the first known physical explanation for the phenomenon in 1842 . The hypothesis was tested and confirmed for sound waves by the Dutch scientist Christophorus Buys Ballot in 1845 . Doppler correctly predicted that the phenomenon should apply to all waves , and in particular suggested that the varying colors of stars could be attributed to their motion with respect to the Earth . Before this was verified , however , it was found that stellar colors were primarily due to a star 's temperature , not motion . Only later was Doppler vindicated by verified redshift observations .
The first Doppler redshift was described by French physicist Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848 , who pointed to the shift in spectral lines seen in stars as being due to the Doppler effect . The effect is sometimes called the " Doppler – Fizeau effect " . In 1868 , British astronomer William Huggins was the first to determine the velocity of a star moving away from the Earth by this method . In 1871 , optical redshift was confirmed when the phenomenon was observed in Fraunhofer lines using solar rotation , about 0 @.@ 1 Å in the red . In 1887 , Vogel and Scheiner discovered the annual Doppler effect , the yearly change in the Doppler shift of stars located near the ecliptic due to the orbital velocity of the Earth . In 1901 , Aristarkh Belopolsky verified optical redshift in the laboratory using a system of rotating mirrors .
The earliest occurrence of the term " red @-@ shift " in print ( in this hyphenated form ) appears to be by American astronomer Walter S. Adams in 1908 , in which he mentions " Two methods of investigating that nature of the nebular red @-@ shift " . The word does not appear unhyphenated until about 1934 by Willem de Sitter , perhaps indicating that up to that point its German equivalent , Rotverschiebung , was more commonly used .
Beginning with observations in 1912 , Vesto Slipher discovered that most spiral galaxies , then mostly thought to be spiral nebulae , had considerable redshifts . Slipher first reports on his measurement in the inaugural volume of the Lowell Observatory Bulletin . Three years later , he wrote a review in the journal Popular Astronomy . In it he states , " [ ... ] the early discovery that the great Andromeda spiral had the quite exceptional velocity of – 300 km ( / s ) showed the means then available , capable of investigating not only the spectra of the spirals but their velocities as well . " Slipher reported the velocities for 15 spiral nebulae spread across the entire celestial sphere , all but three having observable " positive " ( that is recessional ) velocities . Subsequently , Edwin Hubble discovered an approximate relationship between the redshifts of such " nebulae " and the distances to them with the formulation of his eponymous Hubble 's law . These observations corroborated Alexander Friedmann 's 1922 work , in which he derived the famous Friedmann @-@ Lemaître equations . They are today considered strong evidence for an expanding universe and the Big Bang theory .
= = Measurement , characterization , and interpretation = =
The spectrum of light that comes from a single source ( see idealized spectrum illustration top @-@ right ) can be measured . To determine the redshift , one searches for features in the spectrum such as absorption lines , emission lines , or other variations in light intensity . If found , these features can be compared with known features in the spectrum of various chemical compounds found in experiments where that compound is located on Earth . A very common atomic element in space is hydrogen . The spectrum of originally featureless light shone through hydrogen will show a signature spectrum specific to hydrogen that has features at regular intervals . If restricted to absorption lines it would look similar to the illustration ( top right ) . If the same pattern of intervals is seen in an observed spectrum from a distant source but occurring at shifted wavelengths , it can be identified as hydrogen too . If the same spectral line is identified in both spectra — but at different wavelengths — then the redshift can be calculated using the table below . Determining the redshift of an object in this way requires a frequency- or wavelength @-@ range . In order to calculate the redshift one has to know the wavelength of the emitted light in the rest frame of the source , in other words , the wavelength that would be measured by an observer located adjacent to and comoving with the source . Since in astronomical applications this measurement cannot be done directly , because that would require travelling to the distant star of interest , the method using spectral lines described here is used instead . Redshifts cannot be calculated by looking at unidentified features whose rest @-@ frame frequency is unknown , or with a spectrum that is featureless or white noise ( random fluctuations in a spectrum ) .
Redshift ( and blueshift ) may be characterized by the relative difference between the observed and emitted wavelengths ( or frequency ) of an object . In astronomy , it is customary to refer to this change using a dimensionless quantity called z . If λ represents wavelength and f represents frequency ( note , λf = c where c is the speed of light ) , then z is defined by the equations :
After z is measured , the distinction between redshift and blueshift is simply a matter of whether z is positive or negative . See the formula section below for some basic interpretations that follow when either a redshift or blueshift is observed . For example , Doppler effect blueshifts ( z < 0 ) are associated with objects approaching ( moving closer to ) the observer with the light shifting to greater energies . Conversely , Doppler effect redshifts ( z > 0 ) are associated with objects receding ( moving away ) from the observer with the light shifting to lower energies . Likewise , gravitational blueshifts are associated with light emitted from a source residing within a weaker gravitational field as observed from within a stronger gravitational field , while gravitational redshifting implies the opposite conditions .
= = Redshift formulae = =
In general relativity one can derive several important special @-@ case formulae for redshift in certain special spacetime geometries , as summarized in the following table . In all cases the magnitude of the shift ( the value of z ) is independent of the wavelength .
= = = Doppler effect = = =
If a source of the light is moving away from an observer , then redshift ( z > 0 ) occurs ; if the source moves towards the observer , then blueshift ( z < 0 ) occurs . This is true for all electromagnetic waves and is explained by the Doppler effect . Consequently , this type of redshift is called the Doppler redshift . If the source moves away from the observer with velocity v , which is much less than the speed of light ( v ≪ c ) , the redshift is given by
<formula> ( since <formula> )
where c is the speed of light . In the classical Doppler effect , the frequency of the source is not modified , but the recessional motion causes the illusion of a lower frequency .
A more complete treatment of the Doppler redshift requires considering relativistic effects associated with motion of sources close to the speed of light . A complete derivation of the effect can be found in the article on the relativistic Doppler effect . In brief , objects moving close to the speed of light will experience deviations from the above formula due to the time dilation of special relativity which can be corrected for by introducing the Lorentz factor γ into the classical Doppler formula as follows ( for motion solely in the line of sight ) :
<formula>
This phenomenon was first observed in a 1938 experiment performed by Herbert E. Ives and G.R. Stilwell , called the Ives – Stilwell experiment .
Since the Lorentz factor is dependent only on the magnitude of the velocity , this causes the redshift associated with the relativistic correction to be independent of the orientation of the source movement . In contrast , the classical part of the formula is dependent on the projection of the movement of the source into the line @-@ of @-@ sight which yields different results for different orientations . If θ is the angle between the direction of relative motion and the direction of emission in the observer 's frame ( zero angle is directly away from the observer ) , the full form for the relativistic Doppler effect becomes :
<formula>
and for motion solely in the line of sight ( θ
= 0 ° ) , this equation reduces to :
<formula>
For the special case that the light is approaching at right angles ( θ =
90 ° ) to the direction of relative motion in the observer 's frame , the relativistic redshift is known as the transverse redshift , and a redshift :
<formula>
is measured , even though the object is not moving away from the observer . Even when the source is moving towards the observer , if there is a transverse component to the motion then there is some speed at which the dilation just cancels the expected blueshift and at higher speed the approaching source will be redshifted .
= = = Expansion of space = = =
In the early part of the twentieth century , Slipher , Hubble and others made the first measurements of the redshifts and blueshifts of galaxies beyond the Milky Way . They initially interpreted these redshifts and blueshifts as due solely to the Doppler effect , but later Hubble discovered a rough correlation between the increasing redshifts and the increasing distance of galaxies . Theorists almost immediately realized that these observations could be explained by a different mechanism for producing redshifts . Hubble 's law of the correlation between redshifts and distances is required by models of cosmology derived from general relativity that have a metric expansion of space . As a result , photons propagating through the expanding space are stretched , creating the cosmological redshift .
There is a distinction between a redshift in cosmological context as compared to that witnessed when nearby objects exhibit a local Doppler @-@ effect redshift . Rather than cosmological redshifts being a consequence of relative velocities , the photons instead increase in wavelength and redshift because of a feature of the spacetime through which they are traveling that causes space to expand . Due to the expansion increasing as distances increase , the distance between two remote galaxies can increase at more than 3 × 108 m / s , but this does not imply that the galaxies move faster than the speed of light at their present location ( which is forbidden by Lorentz covariance ) .
= = = = Mathematical derivation = = = =
The observational consequences of this effect can be derived using the equations from general relativity that describe a homogeneous and isotropic universe .
To derive the redshift effect , use the geodesic equation for a light wave , which is
<formula>
where
ds is the spacetime interval
dt is the time interval
dr is the spatial interval
c is the speed of light
a is the time @-@ dependent cosmic scale factor
k is the curvature per unit area .
For an observer observing the crest of a light wave at a position r |
= 0 and time t =
tnow , the crest of the light wave was emitted at a time t |
= tthen in the past and a distant position r =
R. Integrating over the path in both space and time that the light wave travels yields :
<formula>
In general , the wavelength of light is not the same for the two positions and times considered due to the changing properties of the metric . When the wave was emitted , it had a wavelength λthen . The next crest of the light wave was emitted at a time
<formula>
The observer sees the next crest of the observed light wave with a wavelength λnow to arrive at a time
<formula>
Since the subsequent crest is again emitted from r |
= R and is observed at r =
0 , the following equation can be written :
<formula>
The right @-@ hand side of the two integral equations above are identical which means
<formula>
Using the following manipulation :
<formula>
we find that :
<formula>
For very small variations in time ( over the period of one cycle of a light wave ) the scale factor is essentially a constant ( a |
= anow today and a =
athen previously ) . This yields
<formula>
which can be rewritten as
<formula>
Using the definition of redshift provided above , the equation
<formula>
is obtained . In an expanding universe such as the one we inhabit , the scale factor is monotonically increasing as time passes , thus , z is positive and distant galaxies appear redshifted .
Using a model of the expansion of the Universe , redshift can be related to the age of an observed object , the so @-@ called cosmic time – redshift relation . Denote a density ratio as Ω0 :
<formula>
with ρcrit the critical density demarcating a universe that eventually crunches from one that simply expands . This density is about three hydrogen atoms per thousand liters of space . At large redshifts one finds :
<formula>
where H0 is the present @-@ day Hubble constant , and z is the redshift .
= = = = Distinguishing between cosmological and local effects = = = =
For cosmological redshifts of z < 0 @.@ 01 additional Doppler redshifts and blueshifts due to the peculiar motions of the galaxies relative to one another cause a wide scatter from the standard Hubble Law . The resulting situation can be illustrated by the Expanding Rubber Sheet Universe , a common cosmological analogy used to describe the expansion of space . If two objects are represented by ball bearings and spacetime by a stretching rubber sheet , the Doppler effect is caused by rolling the balls across the sheet to create peculiar motion . The cosmological redshift occurs when the ball bearings are stuck to the sheet and the sheet is stretched .
The redshifts of galaxies include both a component related to recessional velocity from expansion of the Universe , and a component related to peculiar motion ( Doppler shift ) . The redshift due to expansion of the Universe depends upon the recessional velocity in a fashion determined by the cosmological model chosen to describe the expansion of the Universe , which is very different from how Doppler redshift depends upon local velocity . Describing the cosmological expansion origin of redshift , cosmologist Edward Robert Harrison said , " Light leaves a galaxy , which is stationary in its local region of space , and is eventually received by observers who are stationary in their own local region of space . Between the galaxy and the observer , light travels through vast regions of expanding space . As a result , all wavelengths of the light are stretched by the expansion of space . It is as simple as that ... " Steven Weinberg clarified , " The increase of wavelength from emission to absorption of light does not depend on the rate of change of a ( t ) [ here a ( t ) is the Robertson @-@ Walker scale factor ] at the times of emission or absorption , but on the increase of a ( t ) in the whole period from emission to absorption . "
Popular literature often uses the expression " Doppler redshift " instead of " cosmological redshift " to describe the redshift of galaxies dominated by the expansion of spacetime , but the cosmological redshift is not found using the relativistic Doppler equation which is instead characterized by special relativity ; thus v > c is impossible while , in contrast , v > c is possible for cosmological redshifts because the space which separates the objects ( for example , a quasar from the Earth ) can expand faster than the speed of light . More mathematically , the viewpoint that " distant galaxies are receding " and the viewpoint that " the space between galaxies is expanding " are related by changing coordinate systems . Expressing this precisely requires working with the mathematics of the Friedmann @-@ Robertson @-@ Walker metric .
If the Universe were contracting instead of expanding , we would see distant galaxies blueshifted by an amount proportional to their distance instead of redshifted .
= = = Gravitational redshift = = =
In the theory of general relativity , there is time dilation within a gravitational well . This is known as the gravitational redshift or Einstein Shift . The theoretical derivation of this effect follows from the Schwarzschild solution of the Einstein equations which yields the following formula for redshift associated with a photon traveling in the gravitational field of an uncharged , nonrotating , spherically symmetric mass :
<formula>
where
G is the gravitational constant ,
M is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field ,
r is the radial coordinate of the source ( which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object , but is actually a Schwarzschild coordinate ) , and
c is the speed of light .
This gravitational redshift result can be derived from the assumptions of special relativity and the equivalence principle ; the full theory of general relativity is not required .
The effect is very small but measurable on Earth using the Mössbauer effect and was first observed in the Pound – Rebka experiment . However , it is significant near a black hole , and as an object approaches the event horizon the red shift becomes infinite . It is also the dominant cause of large angular @-@ scale temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background radiation ( see Sachs @-@ Wolfe effect ) .
= = Observations in astronomy = =
The redshift observed in astronomy can be measured because the emission and absorption spectra for atoms are distinctive and well known , calibrated from spectroscopic experiments in laboratories on Earth . When the redshift of various absorption and emission lines from a single astronomical object is measured , z is found to be remarkably constant . Although distant objects may be slightly blurred and lines broadened , it is by no more than can be explained by thermal or mechanical motion of the source . For these reasons and others , the consensus among astronomers is that the redshifts they observe are due to some combination of the three established forms of Doppler @-@ like redshifts . Alternative hypotheses and explanations for redshift such as tired light are not generally considered plausible .
Spectroscopy , as a measurement , is considerably more difficult than simple photometry , which measures the brightness of astronomical objects through certain filters . When photometric data is all that is available ( for example , the Hubble Deep Field and the Hubble Ultra Deep Field ) , astronomers rely on a technique for measuring photometric redshifts . Due to the broad wavelength ranges in photometric filters and the necessary assumptions about the nature of the spectrum at the light @-@ source , errors for these sorts of measurements can range up to δz |
= 0 @.@ 5 , and are much less reliable than spectroscopic determinations . However , photometry does at least allow a qualitative characterization of a redshift . For example , if a Sun @-@ like spectrum had a redshift of z =
1 , it would be brightest in the infrared rather than at the yellow @-@ green color associated with the peak of its blackbody spectrum , and the light intensity will be reduced in the filter by a factor of four , ( 1 + z ) 2 . Both the photon count rate and the photon energy are redshifted . ( See K correction for more details on the photometric consequences of redshift . )
= = = Local observations = = =
In nearby objects ( within our Milky Way galaxy ) observed redshifts are almost always related to the line @-@ of @-@ sight velocities associated with the objects being observed . Observations of such redshifts and blueshifts have enabled astronomers to measure velocities and parametrize the masses of the orbiting stars in spectroscopic binaries , a method first employed in 1868 by British astronomer William Huggins . Similarly , small redshifts and blueshifts detected in the spectroscopic measurements of individual stars are one way astronomers have been able to diagnose and measure the presence and characteristics of planetary systems around other stars and have even made very detailed differential measurements of redshifts during planetary transits to determine precise orbital parameters . Finely detailed measurements of redshifts are used in helioseismology to determine the precise movements of the photosphere of the Sun . Redshifts have also been used to make the first measurements of the rotation rates of planets , velocities of interstellar clouds , the rotation of galaxies , and the dynamics of accretion onto neutron stars and black holes which exhibit both Doppler and gravitational redshifts . Additionally , the temperatures of various emitting and absorbing objects can be obtained by measuring Doppler broadening – effectively redshifts and blueshifts over a single emission or absorption line . By measuring the broadening and shifts of the 21 @-@ centimeter hydrogen line in different directions , astronomers have been able to measure the recessional velocities of interstellar gas , which in turn reveals the rotation curve of our Milky Way . Similar measurements have been performed on other galaxies , such as Andromeda . As a diagnostic tool , redshift measurements are one of the most important spectroscopic measurements made in astronomy .
= = = Extragalactic observations = = =
The most distant objects exhibit larger redshifts corresponding to the Hubble flow of the Universe . The largest observed redshift , corresponding to the greatest distance and furthest back in time , is that of the cosmic microwave background radiation ; the numerical value of its redshift is about z |
= 1089 ( z =
0 corresponds to present time ) , and it shows the state of the Universe about 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , and 379 @,@ 000 years after the initial moments of the Big Bang .
The luminous point @-@ like cores of quasars were the first " high @-@ redshift " ( z > 0 @.@ 1 ) objects discovered before the improvement of telescopes allowed for the discovery of other high @-@ redshift galaxies .
For galaxies more distant than the Local Group and the nearby Virgo Cluster , but within a thousand megaparsecs or so , the redshift is approximately proportional to the galaxy 's distance . This correlation was first observed by Edwin Hubble and has come to be known as Hubble 's law . Vesto Slipher was the first to discover galactic redshifts , in about the year 1912 , while Hubble correlated Slipher 's measurements with distances he measured by other means to formulate his Law . In the widely accepted cosmological model based on general relativity , redshift is mainly a result of the expansion of space : this means that the farther away a galaxy is from us , the more the space has expanded in the time since the light left that galaxy , so the more the light has been stretched , the more redshifted the light is , and so the faster it appears to be moving away from us . Hubble 's law follows in part from the Copernican principle . Because it is usually not known how luminous objects are , measuring the redshift is easier than more direct distance measurements , so redshift is sometimes in practice converted to a crude distance measurement using Hubble 's law .
Gravitational interactions of galaxies with each other and clusters cause a significant scatter in the normal plot of the Hubble diagram . The peculiar velocities associated with galaxies superimpose a rough trace of the mass of virialized objects in the Universe . This effect leads to such phenomena as nearby galaxies ( such as the Andromeda Galaxy ) exhibiting blueshifts as we fall towards a common barycenter , and redshift maps of clusters showing a Fingers of God effect due to the scatter of peculiar velocities in a roughly spherical distribution . This added component gives cosmologists a chance to measure the masses of objects independent of the mass to light ratio ( the ratio of a galaxy 's mass in solar masses to its brightness in solar luminosities ) , an important tool for measuring dark matter .
The Hubble law 's linear relationship between distance and redshift assumes that the rate of expansion of the Universe is constant . However , when the Universe was much younger , the expansion rate , and thus the Hubble " constant " , was larger than it is today . For more distant galaxies , then , whose light has been travelling to us for much longer times , the approximation of constant expansion rate fails , and the Hubble law becomes a non @-@ linear integral relationship and dependent on the history of the expansion rate since the emission of the light from the galaxy in question . Observations of the redshift @-@ distance relationship can be used , then , to determine the expansion history of the Universe and thus the matter and energy content .
While it was long believed that the expansion rate has been continuously decreasing since the Big Bang , recent observations of the redshift @-@ distance relationship using Type Ia supernovae have suggested that in comparatively recent times the expansion rate of the Universe has begun to accelerate .
= = = Highest redshifts = = =
Currently , the objects with the highest known redshifts are galaxies and the objects producing gamma ray bursts . The most reliable redshifts are from spectroscopic data , and the highest confirmed spectroscopic redshift of a galaxy is that of GN @-@ z11 , with a redshift of z |
= 11 @.@ 1 , corresponding to 400 million years after the Big Bang . The previous record was held by UDFy @-@ 38135539 at a redshift of z =
8 @.@ 6 , corresponding to 600 million years after the Big Bang . Slightly less reliable are Lyman @-@ break redshifts , the highest of which is the lensed galaxy A1689 @-@ zD1 at a redshift z |
= 7 @.@ 5 and the next highest being z =
7 @.@ 0 . The most distant observed gamma ray burst with a spectroscopic redshift measurement was GRB 090423 , which had a redshift of z |
= 8 @.@ 2 . The most distant known quasar , ULAS J1120 + 0641 , is at z =
7 @.@ 1 . The highest known redshift radio galaxy ( TN J0924 @-@ 2201 ) is at a redshift z |
= 5 @.@ 2 and the highest known redshift molecular material is the detection of emission from the CO molecule from the quasar SDSS J1148 + 5251 at z =
6 @.@ 42
Extremely red objects ( EROs ) are astronomical sources of radiation that radiate energy in the red and near infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . These may be starburst galaxies that have a high redshift accompanied by reddening from intervening dust , or they could be highly redshifted elliptical galaxies with an older ( and therefore redder ) stellar population . Objects that are even redder than EROs are termed hyper extremely red objects ( HEROs ) .
The cosmic microwave background has a redshift of z
= 1089 , corresponding to an age of approximately 379 @,@ 000 years after the Big Bang and a comoving distance of more than 46 billion light years . The yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ observed first light from the oldest Population III stars , not long after atoms first formed and the CMB ceased to be absorbed almost completely , may have redshifts in the range of 20 < z < 100 . Other high @-@ redshift events predicted by physics but not presently observable are the cosmic neutrino background from about two seconds after the Big Bang ( and a redshift in excess of z > 1010 ) and the cosmic gravitational wave background emitted directly from inflation at a redshift in excess of z > 1025 .
In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z =
6 @.@ 60 . Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe ( i.e. , at high redshift ) , and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it .
= = = Redshift surveys = = =
With advent of automated telescopes and improvements in spectroscopes , a number of collaborations have been made to map the Universe in redshift space . By combining redshift with angular position data , a redshift survey maps the 3D distribution of matter within a field of the sky . These observations are used to measure properties of the large @-@ scale structure of the Universe . The Great Wall , a vast supercluster of galaxies over 500 million light @-@ years wide , provides a dramatic example of a large @-@ scale structure that redshift surveys can detect .
The first redshift survey was the CfA Redshift Survey , started in 1977 with the initial data collection completed in 1982 . More recently , the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey determined the large @-@ scale structure of one section of the Universe , measuring redshifts for over 220 @,@ 000 galaxies ; data collection was completed in 2002 , and the final data set was released 30 June 2003 . The Sloan Digital Sky Survey ( SDSS ) , is ongoing as of 2013 and aims to measure the redshifts of around 3 million objects . SDSS has recorded redshifts for galaxies as high as 0 @.@ 8 , and has been involved in the detection of quasars beyond z = 6 . The DEEP2 Redshift Survey uses the Keck telescopes with the new " DEIMOS " spectrograph ; a follow @-@ up to the pilot program DEEP1 , DEEP2 is designed to measure faint galaxies with redshifts 0 @.@ 7 and above , and it is therefore planned to provide a high redshift complement to SDSS and 2dF .
= = Effects due to physical optics or radiative transfer = =
The interactions and phenomena summarized in the subjects of radiative transfer and physical optics can result in shifts in the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic radiation . In such cases the shifts correspond to a physical energy transfer to matter or other photons rather than being due to a transformation between reference frames . These shifts can be due to such physical phenomena as coherence effects or the scattering of electromagnetic radiation whether from charged elementary particles , from particulates , or from fluctuations of the index of refraction in a dielectric medium as occurs in the radio phenomenon of radio whistlers . While such phenomena are sometimes referred to as " redshifts " and " blueshifts " , in astrophysics light @-@ matter interactions that result in energy shifts in the radiation field are generally referred to as " reddening " rather than " redshifting " which , as a term , is normally reserved for the effects discussed above .
In many circumstances scattering causes radiation to redden because entropy results in the predominance of many low @-@ energy photons over few high @-@ energy ones ( while conserving total energy ) . Except possibly under carefully controlled conditions , scattering does not produce the same relative change in wavelength across the whole spectrum ; that is , any calculated z is generally a function of wavelength . Furthermore , scattering from random media generally occurs at many angles , and z is a function of the scattering angle . If multiple scattering occurs , or the scattering particles have relative motion , then there is generally distortion of spectral lines as well .
In interstellar astronomy , visible spectra can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as interstellar reddening – similarly Rayleigh scattering causes the atmospheric reddening of the Sun seen in the sunrise or sunset and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color . This phenomenon is distinct from redshifting because the spectroscopic lines are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional dimming and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the line @-@ of @-@ sight .
For a list of scattering processes , see Scattering .
= = = Articles = = =
Odenwald , S. & Fienberg , RT . 1993 ; " Galaxy Redshifts Reconsidered " in Sky & Telescope Feb. 2003 ; pp31 – 35 ( This article is useful further reading in distinguishing between the 3 types of redshift and their causes . )
Lineweaver , Charles H. and Tamara M. Davis , " Misconceptions about the Big Bang " , Scientific American , March 2005 . ( This article is useful for explaining the cosmological redshift mechanism as well as clearing up misconceptions regarding the physics of the expansion of space . )
= = = Book references = = =
Nussbaumer , Harry ; Lydia Bieri ( 2009 ) . Discovering the Expanding Universe . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 51484 @-@ 2 .
Binney , James ; Michael Merrifeld ( 1998 ) . Galactic Astronomy . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 02565 @-@ 7 .
Carroll , Bradley W. & Dale A. Ostlie ( 1996 ) . An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics . Addison @-@ Wesley Publishing Company , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 54730 @-@ 9 .
Feynman , Richard ; Leighton , Robert ; Sands , Matthew ( 1989 ) . Feynman Lectures on Physics . Vol . 1 . Addison @-@ Wesley . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 51003 @-@ 0 .
Grøn , Øyvind ; Hervik , Sigbjørn ( 2007 ) . Einstein 's General Theory of Relativity . New York : Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 69199 @-@ 2 .
Kutner , Marc ( 2003 ) . Astronomy : A Physical Perspective . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 52927 @-@ 1 .
Misner , Charles ; Thorne , Kip S. ; Wheeler , John Archibald ( 1973 ) . Gravitation . San Francisco : W. H. Freeman . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 0344 @-@ 0 .
Peebles , P. J. E. ( 1993 ) . Principles of Physical Cosmology . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 01933 @-@ 9 .
Taylor , Edwin F. ; Wheeler , John Archibald ( 1992 ) . Spacetime Physics : Introduction to Special Relativity ( 2nd ed . ) . W.H. Freeman . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 2327 @-@ 1 .
Weinberg , Steven ( 1971 ) . Gravitation and Cosmology . John Wiley . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 92567 @-@ 5 .
See also physical cosmology textbooks for applications of the cosmological and gravitational redshifts .
|
= Trans @-@ Europe Express ( album ) =
Trans @-@ Europe Express ( German : Trans Europa Express ) is the sixth studio album by German electronic music band Kraftwerk . Recorded in mid @-@ 1976 in Düsseldorf , Germany , the album was released in March 1977 on Kling Klang Records . The album 's themes were influenced by friends who suggested writing songs about the Trans Europ Express to reflect Kraftwerk 's electronic music style . Critics have described the album as having two specific themes : celebration of Europe and the disparities between reality and image . Musically , the songs on this album differ from the group 's earlier Krautrock style with a focus on electronic mechanized rhythms , minimalism , and occasional manipulated vocals .
Trans @-@ Europe Express charted at 119 on the American charts and was placed number 30 on the Village Voice 's 1977 Pazz & Jop critics poll . Two singles were released from Trans @-@ Europe Express : " Trans @-@ Europe Express " and " Showroom Dummies " . The album has been re @-@ released in several formats and continued to receive acclaim from modern critics .
= = Background = =
After the release and tour for the album Radio @-@ Activity , Kraftwerk continued to move further away from their earlier Krautrock style of improvised instrumental music , refining their work more into the format of melodic electronic songs . During the tour for Radio @-@ Activity the band began to make performance rules such as not to be drunk on stage or at parties . Karl Bartos wrote that about these rules , stating that " it 's not easy to turn knobs on a synthesizer if you are drunk or full of drugs . ... We always tried to keep very aware of what we were doing while acting in public . " During this tour , early melodies that would later evolve into the song " Showroom Dummies " were being performed .
In mid @-@ 1976 , Kraftwerk began to work on the album which was then called Europe Endless . Paul Alessandrini suggested that Kraftwerk write a song about the Trans @-@ Europ Express to reflect their electronic music style . Hütter and Schneider met with musicians David Bowie and Iggy Pop prior to recording which influenced song lyrics . Maxime Schmitt encouraged the group to record a French language version of the song " Showroom Dummies " which led the group to later record several songs in French . The album was recorded at Kling Klang Studio in Düsseldorf . Artistic control over the songs was strictly in the hands of members Ralf Hütter and Florian Schneider with Bartos and Wolfgang Flür contributing sequenced electronic percussion . Kraftwerk went to railway bridges to listen to the sounds the train would actually produce . The group found the sound the train made was not danceable and changed it slightly .
= = Recording = =
An important piece of new equipment used on the album was the Synthanorma Sequenzer , a customized 32 @-@ step 16 @-@ channel analogue sequencer made for the band by Matten & Wiechers . This allowed the construction of more elaborate sequenced synthesizer lines , which are featured prominently in the tracks " Europe Endless " , " Franz Schubert " and " Endless Endless " , and liberated the player from the chore of playing repetitive keyboard patterns .
Whereas Radio @-@ Activity had featured a mixture of German and English lyrics throughout the album , Trans @-@ Europe Express went further and was mixed as two entirely separate versions , one sung in English , the other in German . At the recommendation of Maxime Schmitt , a French version of the song " Showroom Dummies " , titled " Les Mannequins " , was also recorded . " Les Mannequins " was the group 's first song in French and would influence decisions to record songs in French on later albums . After recording the album in Düsseldorf , Hütter and Schneider visited Los Angeles to mix the tracks at the Record Plant Studio . Elements of the mixing sessions that were done in Los Angeles were dropped from the album , including the use of more upfront vocals in order to do more mixing in Düsseldorf and Hamburg later .
The artwork for the album cover of Trans @-@ Europe Express was originally going to be a monochrome picture of the group reflected in a series of mirrors . This idea was dropped for a photo by New York @-@ based celebrity photographer Maurice Seymour , with the group dressed in suits to resemble mannequins . J. Stara 's image of the group was taken in Paris and is a highly retouched photo @-@ montage of Kraftwerk from their shoulders up again posed as mannequins which is shown on the cover of the English version of the album . On the inside sleeve , a color collage of the group sitting at a small cafe table designed by Emil Schult was used . The photo for this scene was from the session by Maurice Seymour , taken on the group 's American tour . Other photos were taken by Schult that show the group laughing and smiling . These were not used for the album 's release .
= = Composition = =
Wolfgang Flür has stated Kraftwerk were influenced by music of the Weimar Germany era : " we were children who were born straight after World War Two ... we had no musical or pop culture of our own ... there was the war , and before the war we had only the German folk music . In the 1920s or 1930s melodies were developed and these became culture that we worked from " . Karl Bartos also spoke of post @-@ war influence as the group thought that they " had this development in the 1920s which was very , very strong and was audio visual . We had the Bauhaus school before the war and then after the war we had tremendous people like Karlheinz Stockhausen and the development of the classical and the electronic classical . This was very strong and it all happened very close to Düsseldorf in Cologne and all the great composers at that time came there . " Paul Alessandrini is credited for helping contribute to the album 's concept . Alessandrini told Hütter and Schneider that " with the kind of music you do , which is kind of like an electronic blues , railway stations and trains are very important in your universe , you should do a song about the Trans Europe Express " . Kraftwerk believed critics in the United Kingdom and United States associated them with Nazi Germany , with tracks such as " Autobahn " inextricably linked with the Nazis who built the high @-@ speed roads in the 1930s and 1940s . At the same time the band were keen to move away from their German heritage towards a new sense of European identity and felt that the Trans Europ Express could be used to symbolize this . Allmusic referred to Trans @-@ Europe Express as a concept album with two different themes . The first being the disparities between reality and image , represented by the songs " Hall of Mirrors " and " Showroom Dummies " , and the others about the glorification of Europe . Slant Magazine described the album as " a sonic poem to Europe " .
The musical style of Trans @-@ Europe Express was described by AllMusic as melodic themes which are " repeated often and occasionally interwoven over deliberate , chugging beats , sometimes with manipulated vocals " and " minimalism , mechanized rhythms , and crafted , catchy melodies " . Hütter has commented on the minimalist nature of the album , stating that " If we can convey an idea with one or two notes , it is better than to play a hundred or so notes " . The first side of Trans @-@ Europe Express has three songs . The song " Hall of Mirrors " has been described as containing deadpan vocals with lyrics that speculate how stars look at themselves in a looking glass . Hütter and Schneider have described the song as auto @-@ biographical . The third track " Showroom Dummies " was described by Allmusic as " bouncily melodic in a way that most of Trans @-@ Europe Express isn 't " and with lyrics which are " slightly paranoid " . The idea for the song came from Flür and Bartos being compared to showroom dummies in a British concert review . Some versions of the song contain a spoken introduction starting with a count @-@ in of " eins zwei drei vier " as a parody of the band Ramones who started some songs with a quick count @-@ in of " one two three four " . The second side of Trans @-@ Europe Express is a suite with " Trans @-@ Europe Express " continuing through to " Metal on Metal " and " Franz Schubert " before closing with a brief reiteration of the main theme from " Europe Endless " . Allmusic described the musical elements of the suite as having a haunting theme with " deadpan chanting of the title phrase " which is " slowly layered over that rhythmic base in much the same way that the earlier " Autobahn " was constructed " . The song 's lyrics reference the album Station to Station and meeting with musicians Iggy Pop and David Bowie . Hütter and Schneider had previously met up with Bowie in Germany and were flattered with the attention they received from him . Ralf Hütter was interested in Bowie 's work as he had been working with Iggy Pop , who was the former lead singer of The Stooges ; one of Hütter 's favorite groups .
= = Release = =
Trans @-@ Europe Express was originally released in March 1977 . With the help of Günther Fröhling , Kraftwerk made a promotional music video for the song " Trans @-@ Europe Express " . The video features the group wearing long coats on a train trip from Düsseldorf to nearby Duisburg . Photo stills from this video were later used on the single sleeve for " Showroom Dummies " . Fröhling would work with Kraftwerk again on their album The Man @-@ Machine doing the photography for the album cover . To promote the album to the press in France , EMI Records hired a train with old fashioned carriages from the 1930s to travel from Paris to Rheims while the songs from the album were played over the train 's announcement system for the critics .
In October 2009 , a remastered edition of the album was released by EMI Records in Germany , Mute Records in the European Union and Astralwerks Records in the United States . This re @-@ release was available on compact disc , digital download and vinyl and features a different album cover from previous versions of the album . This new version features a black background with white Trans Europ Express train in the center . The track listing on the 2009 re @-@ release amends the titles of the songs to match the original German release . This change has " Metal on Metal " being credited for two minutes of the music with the remainder being a track titled " Abzug " ( English : " Departure " ) .
= = Commercial performance = =
Trans @-@ Europe Express charted higher in the United States than Kraftwerk 's previous album Radio @-@ Activity by peaking at number 117 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart . " Trans @-@ Europe Express " and " Showroom Dummies " were released as singles from the album . " Trans @-@ Europe Express " charted in the Billboard Hot 100 in 1977 where it peaked at number 67 . Trans @-@ Europe Express began charting in the United Kingdom in the 1980s . The album entered the charts on February 6 , 1982 , staying in the charts for seven weeks and peaking at number 49 . The single for " Showroom Dummies " entered the charts on February 20 , 1982 , staying in the charts for five weeks and peaking at number 25 .
= = Critical reception = =
Initial reviews for the Trans @-@ Europe Express were positive . Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A- rating , stating that the album 's " textural effects sound like parodies by some cosmic schoolboy of every lush synthesizer surge that 's ever stuck in your gullet — yet also work the way those surges are supposed to work " . Trans @-@ Europe Express charted in the Village Voice 's 1977 Pazz & Jop critics poll , placing at number 30 .
Modern reception has been very favorable . Trans @-@ Europe Express has the highest possible ratings from publications including AllMusic , Mojo , Rolling Stone and Slant Magazine . Steve Huey of Allmusic wrote that the album " is often cited as perhaps the archetypal ( and most accessible ) Kraftwerk album ... Overall , Trans @-@ Europe Express offers the best blend of minimalism , mechanized rhythms , and crafted , catchy melodies in the group 's catalog " . The British press also looked favorably on the album . Q gave the album four stars out of five , stating that the album " changed the face of American dance music " and that it was one of the most compelling beats of this or any other era " . In 2009 Drowned in Sound gave the album a perfect rating of 10 out of 10 , stating that " Trans @-@ Europe Express is all at once antique , timeless , retro and contemporary . Its status as modern electronic music 's birth certificate is well @-@ earned , but its hallowed reputation should never be allowed to disguise its true value and power as a work of art . Nor should it obscure a longevity that , 32 years on , we might as well start calling by its real name : immortality " .
Trans @-@ Europe Express has also appeared on top album lists from a variety of sources . In 2001 , TV network VH1 placed Trans @-@ Europe Express at number 56 on their list of " 100 Greatest Albums ( of Rock & Roll ) of All Time " . In 2002 , Slant Magazine placed the album at number one on their list of the greatest electronic albums of the 20th century . In 2003 , Rolling Stone placed the album at number 253 on their list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Channel 4 placed the album at number 71 on their list of top 100 Greatest albums . In 2004 , the online music website Pitchfork Media listed Trans @-@ Europe Express as 6th best album of the 1970s , stating that " the day will soon come , if it hasn 't already , that Trans @-@ Europe Express joins the ranks of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Exile on Main Street as a record that simply cannot be written about " .
= = = Legacy = = =
Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the album 's influence as " unprecedented , reaching as wide as rock ( Radiohead 's Kid A ) , hip @-@ hop ( Afrika Bambaataa 's classic " Planet Rock " , Jay Dee 's recent " Big Booty Express " ) and pop ( Madonna 's Drowned World Tour , which incorporated samples of " Metal on Metal " ) " .
In the late 1970s , the album had an impact on post @-@ punk band Joy Division as bassist Peter Hook related it : " We were introduced to Kraftwerk by [ singer ] Ian Curtis , who insisted we play Trans Europe Express before we went on stage every time . The tape was played in the venue over the PA system , to be heard by everyone . The first time was Pips [ a Manchester club well known for its ‘ Bowie Room ’ ] . Ian got thrown out for kicking glass around the dance floor in time to the track . It took us ages of pleading to get him back in . " Drummer Stephen Morris also confirmed that Joy Division " used to play Trans @-@ Europe Express before we went on stage , to get us into the zone . It worked because it gets up a lot of momentum . Trans @-@ Europe Express just seemed to express an optimism - even if people see it as machine music " . Morris also said : " It reminds me of Cabaret , the film , with all of the 1920s singing . [ ... ] When you get that marriage between humans and machines , and you get it right , it 's fantastic . I have to say it 's my favourite Kraftwerk album . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to Trans @-@ Europe Express is adapted from Acclaimed Music , except where otherwise noted .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] While " Abzug " ( English meaning " trigger " or " departure " ) appeared originally as a separate track on all pressings of Trans Europa Express , later releases of Trans @-@ Europe Express combined " Abzug " and " Metal on Metal " together under the latter track 's title , at a running time of 6 : 52 . On both 2009 reissues of Trans Europa Express and Trans @-@ Europe Express , however , " Abzug " is presented as a separate track .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from Trans @-@ Europe Express liner notes .
= = Charts positions = =
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= Gabriel García Márquez =
Gabriel José de la Concordia García Márquez ( / ɡɑːrˈsiːə ˈmɑːrkɛs / ; American Spanish : [ ɡaˈβɾjel ɣarˈsi.a ˈmarkes ] ; 6 March 1927 – 17 April 2014 ) was a Colombian novelist , short @-@ story writer , screenwriter and journalist , known affectionately as Gabo or Gabito throughout Latin America . Considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century and one of the best in the Spanish language , he was awarded the 1972 Neustadt International Prize for Literature and the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature . He pursued a self @-@ directed education that resulted in his leaving law school for a career in journalism . From early on , he showed no inhibitions in his criticism of Colombian and foreign politics . In 1958 , he married Mercedes Barcha ; they had two sons , Rodrigo and Gonzalo .
García Márquez started as a journalist , and wrote many acclaimed non @-@ fiction works and short stories , but is best known for his novels , such as One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1967 ) , The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 ) , and Love in the Time of Cholera ( 1985 ) . His works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success , most notably for popularizing a literary style labeled as magic realism , which uses magical elements and events in otherwise ordinary and realistic situations . Some of his works are set in a fictional village called Macondo ( the town mainly inspired by his birthplace Aracataca ) , and most of them explore the theme of solitude .
On his death in April 2014 , Juan Manuel Santos , the President of Colombia , described him as " the greatest Colombian who ever lived . "
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Gabriel García Márquez was born on 6 March 1927 in Aracataca , Colombia , to Gabriel Eligio García and Luisa Santiaga Márquez Iguarán . Soon after García Márquez was born , his father became a pharmacist and moved , with his wife , to Barranquilla , leaving young Gabito in Aracataca . He was raised by his maternal grandparents , Doña Tranquilina Iguarán and Colonel Nicolás Ricardo Márquez Mejía . In December 1936 , his father took him and his brother to Sincé , while in March 1937 , his grandfather died ; the family then moved first ( back ) to Barranquilla and then on to Sucre , where his father started up a pharmacy .
When his parents fell in love , their relationship met with resistance from Luisa Santiaga Márquez 's father , the Colonel . Gabriel Eligio García was not the man the Colonel had envisioned winning the heart of his daughter : he ( Gabriel Eligio ) was a Conservative , and had the reputation of being a womanizer . Gabriel Eligio wooed Luisa with violin serenades , love poems , countless letters , and even telephone messages after her father sent her away with the intention of separating the young couple . Her parents tried everything to get rid of the man , but he kept coming back , and it was obvious their daughter was committed to him . Her family finally capitulated and gave her permission to marry him ( The tragicomic story of their courtship would later be adapted and recast as Love in the Time of Cholera . )
Since García Márquez 's parents were more or less strangers to him for the first few years of his life , his grandparents influenced his early development very strongly . His grandfather , whom he called " Papalelo " , was a Liberal veteran of the Thousand Days War . The Colonel was considered a hero by Colombian Liberals and was highly respected . He was well known for his refusal to remain silent about the banana massacres that took place the year after García Márquez was born . The Colonel , whom García Márquez described as his " umbilical cord with history and reality , " was also an excellent storyteller . He taught García Márquez lessons from the dictionary , took him to the circus each year , and was the first to introduce his grandson to ice — a " miracle " found at the United Fruit Company store . He would also occasionally tell his young grandson " You can 't imagine how much a dead man weighs " , reminding him that there was no greater burden than to have killed a man , a lesson that García Márquez would later integrate into his novels .
García Márquez 's political and ideological views were shaped by his grandfather 's stories . In an interview , García Márquez told his friend Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza , " my grandfather the Colonel was a Liberal . My political ideas probably came from him to begin with because , instead of telling me fairy tales when I was young , he would regale me with horrifying accounts of the last civil war that free @-@ thinkers and anti @-@ clerics waged against the Conservative government . " This influenced his political views and his literary technique so that " in the same way that his writing career initially took shape in conscious opposition to the Colombian literary status quo , García Márquez 's socialist and anti @-@ imperialist views are in principled opposition to the global status quo dominated by the United States . "
García Márquez 's grandmother , Doña Tranquilina Iguarán Cotes , played an equally influential role in his upbringing . He was inspired by the way she " treated the extraordinary as something perfectly natural . " The house was filled with stories of ghosts and premonitions , omens and portents , all of which were studiously ignored by her husband . According to García Márquez she was " the source of the magical , superstitious and supernatural view of reality " . He enjoyed his grandmother 's unique way of telling stories . No matter how fantastic or improbable her statements , she always delivered them as if they were the irrefutable truth . It was a deadpan style that , some thirty years later , heavily influenced her grandson 's most popular novel , One Hundred Years of Solitude .
= = = Journalism = = =
García Márquez began his career as a journalist while studying law at the National University of Colombia . In 1948 and 1949 he wrote for El Universal in Cartagena . Later , from 1950 until 1952 , he wrote a " whimsical " column under the name of " Septimus " for the local paper El Heraldo in Barranquilla . García Márquez noted of his time at El Heraldo , " I 'd write a piece and they 'd pay me three pesos for it , and maybe an editorial for another three . " During this time he became an active member of the informal group of writers and journalists known as the Barranquilla Group , an association that provided great motivation and inspiration for his literary career . He worked with inspirational figures such as Ramon Vinyes , whom García Márquez depicted as an Old Catalan who owns a bookstore in One Hundred Years of Solitude . At this time , García Márquez was also introduced to the works of writers such as Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner . Faulkner 's narrative techniques , historical themes and use of rural locations influenced many Latin American authors . The environment of Barranquilla gave García Márquez a world @-@ class literary education and provided him with a unique perspective on Caribbean culture . From 1954 to 1955 , García Márquez spent time in Bogotá and regularly wrote for Bogotá 's El Espectador . He was a regular film critic which drove his interest in film .
In December 1957 García Márquez accepted a position in Caracas in the newspaper El Momento . He arrived to the Venezuelan capital on 23 December 1957 , and began working right away at El Momento . García Márquez also assisted in the 1958 Venezuelan coup d 'état , leading to the exile of the president Marcos Pérez Jiménez . Following this event , García Márquez wrote an article , " The participation of the clergy in the struggle " , describing the Church of Venezuela opposition against Jiménez 's regime . In March 1958 he made a trip to Colombia , where he married Mercedes Barcha and together they came back to Caracas . In May 1958 , disagreeing with the owner of Momento , he resigned and became shortly afterwards editor of the newspaper Venezuela Gráfica .
= = = = The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor = = = =
Ending in controversy , his last domestically written editorial for El Espectador was a series of fourteen news articles in which he revealed the hidden story of how a Colombian Navy vessel 's shipwreck " occurred because the boat contained a badly stowed cargo of contraband goods that broke loose on the deck . " García Márquez compiled this story through interviews with a young sailor who survived the shipwreck . The publication of the articles resulted in public controversy , as they discredited the official account of the events , which had blamed a storm for the shipwreck , and glorified the surviving sailor .
In response to this controversy El Espectador sent García Márquez away to Europe to be a foreign correspondent . He wrote about his experiences for El Independiente , a newspaper which had briefly replaced El Espectador during the military government of General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla and was later shut down by Colombian authorities . García Márquez 's background in journalism provided a foundational base for his writing career . Literary critic Bell @-@ Villada noted , " Owing to his hands on experiences in journalism , García Márquez is , of all the great living authors , the one who is closest to everyday reality . "
= = = QAP = = =
García Márquez was one of the original founders of QAP , a newscast that aired between 1992 and 1997 . He was attracted to the project by the promise of editorial and journalistic independence .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
García Márquez met Mercedes Barcha while she was at school ; they decided to wait for her to finish before getting married . When he was sent to Europe as a foreign correspondent , Mercedes waited for him to return to Barranquilla . Finally they married in 1958 . The following year , their first son , Rodrigo García , now a television and film director , was born . In 1961 , the family traveled by Greyhound bus throughout the southern United States and eventually settled in Mexico City . García Márquez had always wanted to see the Southern United States because it inspired the writings of William Faulkner . Three years later the couple 's second son , Gonzalo , was born in Mexico . Gonzalo is currently a graphic designer in Mexico City .
= = = Leaf Storm = = =
Leaf Storm ( La Hojarasca ) is García Márquez 's first novella and took seven years to find a publisher , finally being published in 1955 . García Márquez notes that " of all that he had written ( as of 1973 ) , Leaf Storm was his favorite because he felt that it was the most sincere and spontaneous . " All the events of the novella take place in one room , during a half @-@ hour period on Wednesday 12 September 1928 . It is the story of an old colonel ( similar to García Márquez 's own grandfather ) who tries to give a proper Christian burial to an unpopular French doctor . The colonel is supported only by his daughter and grandson . The novella explores the child 's first experience with death by following his stream of consciousness . The book also reveals the perspective of Isabel , the Colonel 's daughter , which provides a feminine point of view .
= = = One Hundred Years of Solitude = = =
Since García Márquez was eighteen , he had wanted to write a novel based on his grandparents ' house where he grew up . However , he struggled with finding an appropriate tone and put off the idea until one day the answer hit him while driving his family to Acapulco . He turned the car around and the family returned home so he could begin writing . He sold his car so his family would have money to live on while he wrote , but writing the novel took far longer than he expected , and he wrote every day for eighteen months . His wife had to ask for food on credit from their butcher and their baker as well as nine months of rent on credit from their landlord . During the eighteen months of writing , García Márquez met with two couples , Eran Carmen and Álvaro Mutis , and María Luisa Elío and Jomí García Ascot , every night and discussed the progress of the novel , trying out different versions . Fortunately , when the book was finally published in 1967 it became his most commercially successful novel , One Hundred Years of Solitude , which sold more than 30 million copies ( Cien años de soledad ) ( 1967 ; English translation by Gregory Rabassa 1970 ) and was dedicated “ Para ( to ) Jomí García Ascot y María Luisa Elío ” . The story chronicles several generations of the Buendía family from the time they founded the fictional South American village of Macondo , through their trials and tribulations , instances of incest , births and deaths . The history of Macondo is often generalized by critics to represent rural towns throughout Latin America or at least near García Márquez 's native Aracataca .
This novel was widely popular and led to García Márquez 's Nobel Prize as well as the Rómulo Gallegos Prize in 1972 . William Kennedy has called it " the first piece of literature since the Book of Genesis that should be required reading for the entire human race , " and hundreds of articles and books of literary critique have been published in response to it . Despite the many accolades the book received , García Márquez tended to downplay its success . He once remarked : " Most critics don 't realize that a novel like One Hundred Years of Solitude is a bit of a joke , full of signals to close friends ; and so , with some pre @-@ ordained right to pontificate they take on the responsibility of decoding the book and risk making terrible fools of themselves . "
= = = Fame = = =
After writing One Hundred Years of Solitude García Márquez returned to Europe , this time bringing along his family , to live in Barcelona , Spain , for seven years . The international recognition García Márquez earned with the publication of the novel led to his ability to act as a facilitator in several negotiations between the Colombian government and the guerrillas , including the former 19th of April Movement ( M @-@ 19 ) , and the current FARC and ELN organizations . The popularity of his writing also led to friendships with powerful leaders , including one with former Cuban president Fidel Castro , which has been analyzed in Gabo and Fidel : Portrait of a Friendship . It was during this time that he was punched in the face by Mario Vargas Llosa in what became one of the largest feuds in modern literature . In an interview with Claudia Dreifus in 1982 García Márquez notes his relationship with Castro is mostly based on literature : “ Ours is an intellectual friendship . It may not be widely known that Fidel is a very cultured man . When we ’ re together , we talk a great deal about literature . ” This relationship was criticized by Cuban exile writer Reinaldo Arenas , in his 1992 memoir Antes de que Anochezca ( Before Night Falls ) .
Due to his newfound fame and his outspoken views on U.S. imperialism Garcia Márquez was labeled as a subversive and for many years was denied visas by U.S. immigration authorities . After Bill Clinton was elected U.S. president , he lifted the travel ban and cited One Hundred Years of Solitude as his favorite novel .
= = = Autumn of the Patriarch = = =
García Márquez was inspired to write a dictator novel when he witnessed the flight of Venezuelan dictator Marcos Pérez Jiménez . He shares , " it was the first time we had seen a dictator fall in Latin America . " García Márquez began writing Autumn of the Patriarch ( El otoño del patriarca ) in 1968 and said it was finished in 1971 ; however , he continued to embellish the dictator novel until 1975 when it was published in Spain . According to García Márquez , the novel is a " poem on the solitude of power " as it follows the life of an eternal dictator known as the General . The novel is developed through a series of anecdotes related to the life of the General , which do not appear in chronological order . Although the exact location of the story is not pin @-@ pointed in the novel , the imaginary country is situated somewhere in the Caribbean .
García Márquez gave his own explanation of the plot :
My intention was always to make a synthesis of all the Latin American dictators , but especially those from the Caribbean . Nevertheless , the personality of Juan Vicente Gomez [ of Venezuela ] was so strong , in addition to the fact that he exercised a special fascination over me , that undoubtedly the Patriarch has much more of him than anyone else .
After Autumn of the Patriarch was published García Márquez and his family moved from Barcelona to Mexico City and García Márquez pledged not to publish again until the Chilean Dictator Augusto Pinochet was deposed . However , he ultimately published Chronicle of a Death Foretold while Pinochet was still in power as he " could not remain silent in the face of injustice and repression . "
= = = Chronicle of a Death Foretold = = =
Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( Crónica de una muerte anunciada ) recreates a murder that took place in Sucre , Colombia in 1951 . The character named Santiago Nasar is based on a good friend from García Márquez 's childhood , Cayetano Gentile Chimento . Pelayo classifies this novel as a combination of journalism , realism and detective story .
The plot of the novel revolves around Santiago Nasar 's murder . The narrator acts as a detective , uncovering the events of the murder second by second . Literary critic Ruben Pelayo notes that the story " unfolds in an inverted fashion . Instead of moving forward ... the plot moves backwards . " In the first chapter , the narrator tells the reader exactly who killed Santiago Nasar and the rest of the book is left to unfold why .
Chronicle of a Death Foretold was published in 1981 , the year before García Márquez was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature . The novel was also adapted into a film by Italian director Francesco Rosi in 1987 .
= = = Love in the Time of Cholera = = =
Love in the Time of Cholera ( El amor en los tiempos del cólera ) was first published in 1985 . It is considered a non @-@ traditional love story as " lovers find love in their ' golden years ' — in their seventies , when death is all around them " .
Love in the Time of Cholera is based on the stories of two couples . The young love of Fermina Daza and Florentino Ariza is based on the love affair of García Márquez 's parents . However , as García Márquez explains in an interview : “ The only difference is [ my parents ] married . And as soon as they were married , they were no longer interesting as literary figures . " The love of old people is based on a newspaper story about the death of two Americans , who were almost 80 years old , who met every year in Acapulco . They were out in a boat one day and were murdered by the boatman with his oars . García Márquez notes , " Through their death , the story of their secret romance became known . I was fascinated by them . They were each married to other people . "
= = = News of a Kidnapping = = =
News of a Kidnapping ( Noticia de un secuestro ) was first published in 1996 . It is a non @-@ fiction book that examines a series of related kidnappings and Narco @-@ terrorist actions committed in the early 1990s in Colombia by the Medellín Cartel , a drug cartel founded and operated by Pablo Escobar . The text recounts the kidnapping , imprisonment , and eventual release of prominent figures in Colombia , including politicians and members of the press . The original idea of the book was proposed to García Márquez by the former minister for education Maruja Pachón Castro and Colombian diplomat Luis Alberto Villamizar Cárdenas , both of whom were among the many victims of a Pablo Escobar 's attempt to pressure the government to stop his extradition by committing a series of kidnappings , murders and terrorist actions .
= = = Living to Tell the Tale and Memories of My Melancholy Whores = = =
In 2002 , García Márquez published the memoir Vivir para contarla , the first of a projected three @-@ volume autobiography . Edith Grossman 's English translation , Living to Tell the Tale , was published in November 2003 . October 2004 brought the publication of a novel , Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( Memoria de mis putas tristes ) , a love story that follows the romance of a 90 @-@ year @-@ old man and a pubescent concubine . Memories of My Melancholy Whores caused controversy in Iran , where it was banned after an initial 5 @,@ 000 copies were printed and sold .
= = = Film and opera = = =
Critics often describe the language that García Márquez 's imagination produces as visual or graphic , and he himself explains each of his stories is inspired by " a visual image , " so it comes as no surprise that he had a long and involved history with film . He was a film critic , he founded and served as executive director of the Film Institute in Havana , was the head of the Latin American Film Foundation , and wrote several screenplays . For his first script he worked with Carlos Fuentes on Juan Rulfo 's El gallo de oro . His other screenplays include the films Tiempo de morir ( 1966 ) , ( 1985 ) and Un señor muy viejo con unas alas enormes ( 1988 ) , as well as the television series Amores difíciles ( 1991 ) .
García Márquez also originally wrote his Eréndira as a third screenplay . However , this version was lost and replaced by the novella . Nonetheless , he worked on rewriting the script in collaboration with Ruy Guerra and the film was released in Mexico in 1983 .
Several of his stories have inspired other writers and directors . In 1987 , the Italian director Francesco Rosi directed the movie Cronaca di una morte annunciata based on Chronicle of a Death Foretold . Several film adaptations have been made in Mexico , including Miguel Littin 's La Viuda de Montiel ( 1979 ) , Jaime Humberto Hermosillo 's Maria de mi corazón ( 1979 ) , and Arturo Ripstein 's El coronel no tiene quien le escriba ( 1998 ) .
British director Mike Newell ( Four Weddings and a Funeral ) filmed Love in the Time of Cholera in Cartagena , Colombia , with the screenplay written by Ronald Harwood ( The Pianist ) . The film was released in the U.S. on 16 November 2007 .
His novel Of Love and Other Demons was adapted and directed by a Costa Rican filmmaker , Hilda Hidalgo , who is a graduate of the Film Institute at Havana where García Márquez would frequently impart screenplay workshops . Hidalgo 's film was released in April 2010 . The same novel was adapted by Hungarian composer Péter Eötvös to form the opera Love and Other Demons , premiered in 2008 at Glyndebourne Festival .
= = = Later life and death = = =
= = = = Declining health = = = =
In 1999 , García Márquez was diagnosed with lymphatic cancer . Chemotherapy provided by a hospital in Los Angeles proved to be successful , and the illness went into remission . This event prompted García Márquez to begin writing his memoirs : " I reduced relations with my friends to a minimum , disconnected the telephone , canceled the trips and all sorts of current and future plans " , he told El Tiempo , the Colombian newspaper , " ... and locked myself in to write every day without interruption . " In 2002 , three years later , he published Living to Tell the Tale ( Vivir para Contarla ) , the first volume in a projected trilogy of memoirs .
In 2000 , his impending death was incorrectly reported by Peruvian daily newspaper La República . The next day other newspapers republished his alleged farewell poem , " La Marioneta , " but shortly afterwards García Márquez denied being the author of the poem , which was determined to be the work of a Mexican ventriloquist .
He stated that 2005 " was the first [ year ] in my life in which I haven 't written even a line . With my experience , I could write a new novel without any problems , but people would realise my heart wasn 't in it . "
In May 2008 , it was announced that García Márquez was finishing a new " novel of love " that had yet to be given a title , to be published by the end of the year . However , in April 2009 his agent , Carmen Balcells , told the Chilean newspaper La Tercera that García Márquez was unlikely to write again . This was disputed by Random House Mondadori editor Cristobal Pera , who stated that García Márquez was completing a new novel called We 'll Meet in August ( En agosto nos vemos ) .
In December 2008 , García Márquez told fans at the Guadalajara book fair that writing had worn him out . In 2009 , responding to claims by both his literary agent and his biographer that his writing career was over , he told Colombian newspaper El Tiempo : " Not only is it not true , but the only thing I do is write " .
In 2012 , his brother Jaime announced that García Márquez was suffering from dementia .
In April 2014 , García Márquez was hospitalized in Mexico . He had infections in his lungs and his urinary tract , and was suffering from dehydration . He was responding well to antibiotics . Mexican president Enrique Peña Nieto wrote on Twitter , " I wish him a speedy recovery " . Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos said his country was thinking of the author and said in a tweet " All of Colombia wishes a speedy recovery to the greatest of all time : Gabriel García Márquez " .
= = = = Death and funeral = = = =
García Márquez died of pneumonia at the age of 87 on 17 April 2014 in Mexico City . His death was confirmed by his relative Fernanda Familiar on Twitter , and by his former editor Cristóbal Pera .
The Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos mentioned : " One Hundred Years of Solitude and sadness for the death of the greatest Colombian of all time " . The former Colombian president Álvaro Uribe Vélez said : " Master García Márquez , thanks forever , millions of people in the planet fell in love with our nation fascinated with your lines " . At the time of his death , he had a wife and two sons .
Garcia Marquez was cremated at a private family ceremony in Mexico City . On 22 April , the presidents of Colombia and Mexico attended a formal ceremony in Mexico City , where Garcia Marquez had lived for more than three decades . A funeral cortege took the urn containing his ashes from his house to the Palacio de Bellas Artes , where the memorial ceremony was held . Earlier , residents in his home town of Aracataca in Colombia 's Caribbean region held a symbolic funeral .
= = Style = =
While there are certain aspects readers can almost always expect in García Márquez 's writing , like instances of humour , he did not stick to any clear and predetermined style template . In an interview with Marlise Simons , García Márquez noted :
In every book I try to make a different path [ ... ] . One doesn 't choose the style . You can investigate and try to discover what the best style would be for a theme . But the style is determined by the subject , by the mood of the times . If you try to use something that is not suitable , it just won 't work . Then the critics build theories around that and they see things I hadn 't seen . I only respond to our way of life , the life of the Caribbean .
García Márquez was also noted for leaving out seemingly important details and events so the reader is forced into a more participatory role in the story development . For example , in No One Writes to the Colonel , the main characters are not given names . This practice is influenced by Greek tragedies , such as Antigone and Oedipus Rex , in which important events occur off @-@ stage and are left to the audience 's imagination .
= = = Realism and magical realism = = =
Reality is an important theme in all of García Márquez 's works . He said of his early works ( with the exception of Leaf Storm ) , " Nobody Writes to the Colonel , In Evil Hour , and Big Mama 's Funeral all reflect the reality of life in Colombia and this theme determines the rational structure of the books . I don 't regret having written them , but they belong to a kind of premeditated literature that offers too static and exclusive a vision of reality . "
In his other works he experimented more with less traditional approaches to reality , so that " the most frightful , the most unusual things are told with the deadpan expression " . A commonly cited example is the physical and spiritual ascending into heaven of a character while she is hanging the laundry out to dry in One Hundred Years of Solitude . The style of these works fits in the " marvellous realm " described by the Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier and was labeled as magical realism . Literary critic Michael Bell proposes an alternative understanding for García Márquez 's style , as the category magic realism is criticized for being dichotomizing and exoticizing , " what is really at stake is a psychological suppleness which is able to inhabit unsentimentally the daytime world while remaining open to the promptings of those domains which modern culture has , by its own inner logic , necessarily marginalised or repressed . " García Márquez and his friend Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza discuss his work in a similar way ,
" The way you treat reality in your books ... has been called magical realism . I have the feeling your European readers are usually aware of the magic of your stories but fail to see the reality behind it ... . " " This is surely because their rationalism prevents them seeing that reality isn 't limited to the price of tomatoes and eggs . "
= = Motifs = =
= = = Solitude = = =
The theme of solitude runs through much of García Márquez 's works . As Pelayo notes , " Love in the Time of Cholera , like all of Gabriel García Márquez 's work , explores the solitude of the individual and of humankind ... portrayed through the solitude of love and of being in love " .
In response to Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza 's question , " If solitude is the theme of all your books , where should we look for the roots of this over @-@ riding emotion ? In your childhood perhaps ? " García Márquez replied , " I think it 's a problem everybody has . Everyone has his own way and means of expressing it . The feeling pervades the work of so many writers , although some of them may express it unconsciously . "
In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech , Solitude of Latin America , he relates this theme of solitude to the Latin American experience , " The interpretation of our reality through patterns not our own , serves only to make us ever more unknown , ever less free , ever more solitary . "
= = = Macondo = = =
Another important theme in many of García Márquez 's work is the setting of the village he calls Macondo . He uses his home town of Aracataca , Colombia as a cultural , historical and geographical reference to create this imaginary town , but the representation of the village is not limited to this specific area . García Márquez shares , " Macondo is not so much a place as a state of mind , which allows you to see what you want , and how you want to see it . " Even when his stories do not take place in Macondo , there is often still a consistent lack of specificity to the location . So while they are often set with " a Caribbean coastline and an Andean hinterland ... [ the settings are ] otherwise unspecified , in accordance with García Márquez 's evident attempt to capture a more general regional myth rather than give a specific political analysis . " This fictional town has become well known in the literary world . As Stavans notes of Macondo , " its geography and inhabitants constantly invoked by teachers , politicians , and tourist agents ... " makes it " ... hard to believe it is a sheer fabrication . " In Leaf Storm García Márquez depicts the realities of the Banana Boom in Macondo , which include a period of great wealth during the presence of the US companies and a period of depression upon the departure of the American banana companies . As well , One Hundred Years of Solitude takes place in Macondo and tells the complete history of the fictional town from its founding to its doom .
In his autobiography , García Márquez explains his fascination with the word and concept Macondo . He describes a trip he made with his mother back to Aracataca as a young man :
The train stopped at a station that had no town , and a short while later it passed the only banana plantation along the route that had its name written over the gate : Macondo . This word had attracted my attention ever since the first trips I had made with my grandfather , but I discovered only as an adult that I liked its poetic resonance . I never heard anyone say it and did not even ask myself what it meant ... I happened to read in an encyclopedia that it is a tropical tree resembling the Ceiba .
= = = Violence = = =
In several of García Márquez 's works , including No One Writes to the Colonel , In Evil Hour , and Leaf Storm , he referenced La Violencia ( the violence ) , " a brutal civil war between conservatives and liberals that lasted into the 1960s , causing the deaths of several hundred thousand Colombians " . Throughout all of his novels there are subtle references to la violencia . For example , characters live under various unjust situations like curfew , press censorship , and underground newspapers . In Evil Hour , while not one of García Márquez 's most famous novels , is notable for its portrayal of la violencia with its " fragmented portrayal of social disintegration provoked by la violencia " . Although García Márquez did portray the corrupt nature and the injustices of times like la violencia , he refused to use his work as a platform for political propaganda . " For him , the duty of the revolutionary writer is to write well , and the ideal novel is one that moves its reader by its political and social content , and , at the same time , by its power to penetrate reality and expose its other side .
= = Legacy = =
Whether in fiction or nonfiction , in the epic novel or the concentrated story , Márquez is now recognized in the words of Carlos Fuentes as " the most popular and perhaps the best writer in Spanish since Cervantes " . He is one of those very rare artists who succeed in chronicling not only a nation 's life , culture and history , but also those of an entire continent , and a master storyteller who , as The New York Review of Books once said , " forces upon us at every page the wonder and extravagance of life . "
García Márquez 's work is an important part of the Latin American Boom of literature . His work has challenged critics of Colombian literature to step out of the conservative criticism that had been dominant before the success of One Hundred Years of Solitude . In a review of literary criticism Robert Sims notes ,
García Márquez continues to cast a lengthy shadow in Colombia , Latin America , and the United States . Critical works on the 1982 Nobel laureate have reached industrial proportion and show no signs of abating . Moreover , García Márquez has galvanized Colombian literature in an unprecedented way by giving a tremendous impetus to Colombian literature . Indeed , he has become a touchstone for literature and criticism throughout the Americas as his work has created a certain attraction @-@ repulsion among critics and writers while readers continue to devour new publications . No one can deny that García Márquez has helped rejuvenate , reformulate , and recontextualize literature and criticism in Colombia and the rest of Latin America .
= = = Nobel Prize = = =
García Márquez received the Nobel Prize in Literature on 8 December 1982 " for his novels and short stories , in which the fantastic and the realistic are combined in a richly composed world of imagination , reflecting a continent 's life and conflicts " . His acceptance speech was entitled " The Solitude of Latin America " . García Márquez was the first Colombian and fourth Latin American to win a Nobel Prize for Literature . After becoming a Nobel laureate , García Márquez stated to a correspondent : " I have the impression that in giving me the prize , they have taken into account the literature of the sub @-@ continent and have awarded me as a way of awarding all of this literature " .
= = List of works = =
= = = Novels = = =
In Evil Hour ( 1962 )
One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1967 )
The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 )
Love in the Time of Cholera ( 1985 )
The General in His Labyrinth ( 1989 )
Of Love and Other Demons ( 1994 )
= = = Novellas = = =
Leaf Storm ( 1955 )
No One Writes to the Colonel ( 1961 )
Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( 1981 )
Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( 2004 )
= = = Short story collections = = =
Eyes of a Blue Dog ( 1947 )
Big Mama 's Funeral ( 1962 )
One of These Days ( 1962 )
The Incredible and Sad Tale of Innocent Eréndira and Her Heartless Grandmother ( 1978 )
Collected Stories ( 1984 )
Strange Pilgrims ( 1993 )
= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =
The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor ( 1970 )
The Solitude of Latin America ( 1982 )
The Fragrance of Guava ( 1982 , with Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza )
Clandestine in Chile ( 1986 )
News of a Kidnapping ( 1996 )
A Country for Children ( 1998 )
Living to Tell the Tale ( 2002 )
= = = Films = = =
= = = Adaptations based on his works = = =
There Are No Thieves in This Village ( 1965 , Alberto Isaac )
Patsy , My Love ( 1969 , Manuel Michel , based on a non @-@ published story )
The Widow of Montiel ( 1979 , Miguel Littín )
The Sea of Lost Time ( 1980 , Solveig Hoogesteijn )
One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1981 , Shūji Terayama )
Farewell to the Ark ( 1984 , Shūji Terayama )
Time to Die ( 1984 , Jorge Alí Triana )
Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( 1987 , Francesco Rosi )
The Summer of Miss Forbes ( 1989 , Jaime Humberto Hermosillo )
I 'm the One You 're Looking For ( 1989 , Jaime Chávarri )
Only Death Is Bound to Come ( 1992 , Marina Tsurtsumia )
Bloody Morning ( 1993 , Shaohong Li )
No One Writes to the Colonel ( 1999 , Arturo Ripstein )
In Evil Hour ( 2005 , Ruy Guerra )
Love in the Time of Cholera ( 2007 , Mike Newell )
Of Love and Other Demons ( 2009 , Hilda Hidalgo )
Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( 2011 , Henning Carlsen )
= = García Márquez in fiction = =
A year after his death , García Márquez appears as a notable character in Claudia Amengual 's novel Cartagena , set in Uruguay and Colombia
In Dexter ( season 3 ) , episode 10 ( " Go Your Own Way " ) , the title character gains access to Miguel Prado 's personal study by telling Prado 's housekeeper , Norma , he wants to give Prado a best man gift of a García Márquez limited edition book Prado doesn 't already have , that Dexter needs to see which books are already in Prado 's library , and Norma should keep the gift and visit a secret .
In John Green 's famous novel " Looking for Alaska " , Gabriel García Márquez is mentioned several times .
= = = Movies = = =
Interview with Gabriel García Márquez in 1998 .
Gabo – The Creation of Gabriel García Márquez . Documentary , Germany , 2015 , 90 min .
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= Lola ( song ) =
" Lola " is a song written by Ray Davies and performed by English rock band the Kinks on their album Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One . The song details a romantic encounter between a young man and a possible transvestite , whom he meets in a club in Soho , London . In the song , the narrator describes his confusion towards a person named Lola who " walked like a woman and talked like a man " . Although Ray Davies claims that the incident was inspired by a true encounter experienced by the band 's manager , alternate explanations for the song have been given by drummer Mick Avory .
The song was released in the United Kingdom on 12 June 1970 , while in the United States it was released on 28 June 1970 . Commercially , the single reached number two on the UK Singles Chart and number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 . Due to its controversial subject matter and use of the brand name Coca @-@ Cola , the single received backlash and even bans in Britain and Australia . The British version of the song uses the phrase " cherry cola " while the US version uses the name " Coca @-@ Cola . " The track has since become one of The Kinks ' most iconic and popular songs , later being ranked number 422 on " Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " as well as number 473 on the " NME 's 500 Greatest Songs Of All Time " list .
Since its release , " Lola " has appeared on multiple compilation and live albums . In 1980 , a live version of the song from the album One for the Road was released as a single in America and some European countries , becoming a minor hit . Other versions include live renditions from 1972 's Everybody 's in Show @-@ Biz and 1996 's To the Bone . The " Lola " character also made an appearance in the lyrics of the band 's 1981 song , " Destroyer " .
= = Background = =
Ray Davies has claimed that he was inspired to write " Lola " after Kinks manager Robert Wace spent a night in Paris dancing with a transgender woman . Davies said of the incident , " In his apartment , Robert had been dancing with this black woman , and he said , ' I 'm really onto a thing here . ' And it was okay until we left at six in the morning and then I said , ' Have you seen the stubble ? ' He said ' Yeah , ' but he was too pissed [ intoxicated ] to care , I think . "
Drummer Mick Avory has offered an alternate explanation for the song 's lyrics , claiming that " Lola " was partially inspired by Avory 's frequenting of transgender bars in west London . Avory said , " We used to know this character called Michael McGrath . He used to hound the group a bit , because being called The Kinks did attract these sorts of people . He used to come down to Top of the Pops , and he was publicist for John Stephen 's shop in Carnaby Street . He used to have this place in Earl 's Court , and he used to invite me to all these drag queen acts and transsexual pubs . They were like secret clubs . And that 's where Ray [ Davies ] got the idea for ' Lola . ' When he was invited too , he wrote it while I was getting drunk . "
Despite claims that the song was written about a supposed date between Ray Davies and trans woman actress Candy Darling , Davies has since claimed this rumour to be false , saying that the two only went out to dinner together and that he had known the whole time of Darling 's gender identity .
In his autobiography , Dave Davies said that he came up with the music for what would become " Lola " , noting that brother Ray added the lyrics after hearing it . In a 1990 interview , Dave Davies claimed that " Lola " was written in a similar fashion to ' You Really Got Me ' in that the two worked on Ray 's basic skeleton of the song , saying that the song was more of a collaborative effort than many believed .
= = Writing and recording = =
Written in April 1970 , " Lola " was cited by Ray Davies as the first song he wrote following a break he took to act in the 1970 Play for Today film The Long Distance Piano Player . Davies said that he had initially struggled with writing an opening that would sell the song , but the rest of the song " came naturally . "
Initial recordings of the song began in April 1970 , but , as the band 's bassist John Dalton remembered , recording for " Lola " took particularly long , stretching into the next month . During April , four to five versions were attempted , utilizing different keys as well as varying beginnings and styles . In May , new piano parts were added to the backing track by John Gosling , the band 's new piano player that had just been auditioned . Vocals were also added at this time . The song was then mixed during that month . Mick Avory remembered the recording sessions for the song positively , saying that it " was fun , as it was the Baptist 's [ John Gosling 's ] first recording with us . "
The guitar opening on the song was produced as a result of combining the sound of a Martin guitar and a vintage Dobro resonating guitar . Ray Davies cited this blend of guitar sounds for the song 's unique guitar sound .
= = Release and controversy = =
Despite the chart success " Lola " would achieve , its fellow Lola vs. Powerman track " Powerman " was initially considered to be the first single from the album . However , " Lola " , which Ray Davies later claimed was an attempt to write a hit , was eventually decided on as the debut single release .
" Lola " was released as a single in 1970 . In the UK , the B @-@ side to the single was the Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society outtake " Berkeley Mews " while the Dave Davies @-@ penned " Mindless Child of Motherhood " was used in the US . It became an unexpected chart smash for the Kinks , reaching number two in Britain and number nine in the United States . The single also saw success worldwide , reaching the top of the charts in Ireland , New Zealand , and South Africa , as well as the top 5 in Germany , Austria , Belgium , and Switzerland . The success of the single had important ramifications for the band 's career at a critical time , allowing them to negotiate a new contract with RCA Records , construct their own London Studio , and assume more creative and managerial control . In a 1970 interview , Dave Davies claimed that , if " Lola " had been a failure , the band would have " gone on making records for another year or so and then drifted apart . "
Although the track was a major hit for the band , Dave Davies did not enjoy the success of " Lola " , saying , " In fact , when ' Lola ' was a hit , it made me feel a bit uncomfortable . Because it was taking us out of a different sort of comfort zone , where we 'd been getting into the work , and the writing and the musicality was more thought about . It did have that smell of : ' Oh blimey , not that again . ' I found it a bit odd , that period . And then it got odder and weirder . " Mick Avory said that he " enjoyed the success " the band had with " Lola " and its follow @-@ up , " Apeman . "
= = = Censorship = = =
Originally , " Lola " received backlash for its controversial lyrics . Talks of censorship began to arise , with some radio stations fading the track out before Lola 's biological sex was revealed . On 18 November 1970 , the song was even banned in Australia because of " controversial subject matter . " In a then @-@ current Record Mirror article entitled " Sex Change Record : Kink Speaks " , Ray Davies refused to tell Lola 's biological sex , saying , " It really doesn 't matter what sex Lola is , I think she 's alright . "
Despite its subject matter , the BBC banned the track for a different reason . The original song recorded in stereo had the word " Coca @-@ Cola " in the lyrics , but because of BBC Radio 's policy against product placement , Ray Davies was forced to make a round @-@ trip flight from New York to London and back — interrupting the band 's American tour — to change those words to the generic " cherry cola " for the single release .
= = Reception and legacy = =
" Lola " received positive reviews from critics . Upon the single 's release , the NME praised the song as " an engaging and sparkling piece with a gay Latin flavour and a catchy hook chorus . " Billboard said of the song at the time of its US release , " Currently a top ten British chart winner , this infectious rhythm item has all the ingredients to put the Kinks right back up the Hot 100 here with solid impact . " Rolling Stone critic Paul Gambaccini called the song as " brilliant and a smash . " Music critic Robert Christgau , despite his mixed opinion on the Lola vs. Powerman album , praised the single as " astounding . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic lauded the song for " its crisp , muscular sound , pitched halfway between acoustic folk and hard rock . " Ultimate Classic Rock ranked " Lola " as The Kinks ' third best song , saying " the great guitar riff that feeds the song is one of Dave 's all @-@ time greatest . " Paste Magazine listed the track as the band 's fourth best song .
The song was also well @-@ liked by the band . Mick Avory , who noted the song as one of the songs he was most proud to be associated with , said " I always liked ' Lola ' , I liked the subject . It 's not like anything else . I liked it for that . We 'd always take a different path . " In a 1983 interview , Ray Davies said , " I 'm just very pleased I recorded it and more pleased I wrote it . " The band revisited the " Lola " character in the lyrics of their 1981 song , " Destroyer " , a minor chart hit in America .
Satirical artist " Weird Al " Yankovic created a parody of the song called " Yoda " , featuring lyrics about the Star Wars character of the same name , on his 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .
= = Live versions = =
Since its release , " Lola " became a mainstay in The Kinks ' live repertoire , appearing in the majority of the band 's subsequent set @-@ lists until the group 's break @-@ up . In 1972 , a live performance of the song recorded at Carnegie Hall in New York City appeared on the live half of the band 's 1972 album , Everybody 's in Show @-@ Biz , a double @-@ LP which contained half new studio compositions and half live versions of previously released songs .
A live version of " Lola " , recorded on 23 September 1979 in Providence , Rhode Island , was released as a single in the US in July 1980 to promote the live album One for the Road . The B @-@ side was the live version of " Celluloid Heroes " . The single was a moderate success , reaching number 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was also released in some countries in Europe ( although not the UK ) in April 1981 . It topped the charts in both the Netherlands , matching the number one peak of the original version , and in Belgium , where it exceeded the original 's peak of three . It also charted in Australia , peaking at number 69 and spending 22 weeks on the charts . Although not released as a stand @-@ alone single in the UK , it was included on a bonus single ( backed with a live version of " David Watts " from the same album ) with initial copies of " Better Things " in June 1981 . This live rendition , along with the live versions of " Celluloid Heroes " and " You Really Got Me " from the same album , also appeared on the 1986 compilation album Come Dancing with The Kinks : The Best of the Kinks 1977 – 1986 .
Although it did not appear on the original 1994 version , another live version of " Lola " was included on the 1996 US double @-@ album release of To the Bone , the band 's final release of new material before their dissolution .
= = Personnel = =
1970 studio version
Ray Davies – vocals , acoustic guitar
Dave Davies – electric guitar , backing vocals
Mick Avory – drums
John Dalton – bass
John Gosling – piano
Ken Jones – maracas
1980 live version
Ray Davies – vocals , acoustic guitar
Dave Davies – electric guitar , backing vocals
Mick Avory – drums
Jim Rodford – bass , backing vocals
Ian Gibbons – keyboards
= = Chart performance = =
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= South Forty @-@ Foot Drain =
The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , also known as the Black Sluice Navigation , is the main channel for the land @-@ drainage of the Black Sluice Level in the Lincolnshire Fens . It lies in eastern England between Guthram Gowt and the Black Sluice pumping station on The Haven , at Boston . The Drain has its origins in the 1630s , when the first scheme to make the Fen land available for agriculture was carried out by the Earl of Lindsey , and has been steadily improved since then . Water drained from the land entered The Haven by gravity at certain states of the tide until 1946 , when the Black Sluice pumping station was commissioned .
The Drain was navigable until 1971 , when improvements to the pumping station led to the entrance lock being removed . It is currently being upgraded to navigable status by the Environment Agency , as part of the Fens Waterways Link , with a new entrance lock being completed in December 2008 , giving access to the first 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the drain , and the upgrading of the southern section , including a link to the River Glen to allow navigation to Spalding forming phase 2 of the project .
= = History = =
The Lincolnshire Fens are an area of low @-@ lying land which have been subject to flooding and attempts to prevent it for centuries . In medieval times , the Midfen Dyke was built to drain the area , but by 1500 , this was regarded less as a drain for the land than as a boundary marker between the Parts of Holland and the Parts of Kesteven , two of the three medieval subdivisions of Lincolnshire which functioned as county councils until their abolition in 1974 . The first serious attempt to drain the area to the south west of Boston , now known as the Black Sluice Area but formerly known as the Lindsey Level , was from 1635 to 1638 , when the Earl of Lindsey agreed with the Commissioners of Sewers for Lincolnshire to carry out drainage works which would make 36 @,@ 000 acres ( 150 km2 ) of land available for agricultural use . The Earl and a group of Adventurers paid for the works , in return for land grants .
The cost of the work was £ 45 @,@ 000 , and involved the construction of a sluice near Boston , called Skirbeck Sluice , the construction of the first 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , from Boston to Great Hale , the construction of two drains from there to Guthram , which were called the Double Twelves , and the construction of the Clay Dyke Drain .. The scheme was not popular with the local fenmen , who made a living from fishing and wildfowling , or with the Commoners , who had a right to graze animals on the common land when it was not flooded . They attempted to get Parliament to rule in their favour , but after three years of trying , they abandoned the idea of legal redress , and took direct action . They destroyed much of the work , as well as buildings and crops , and burnt Skirbeck Sluice . The Earl of Lindsey 's contract with the Commissioners of Sewers was revoked by parliament , and it was another hundred years before the next attempt to drain the area .
In an attempt to drain Holland Fen , and prevent flooding from the River Witham , an adventurer called Earl Fitzwilliam constructed a drain in 1720 , which runs broadly parallel to the River Witham , and terminated at Lodewick 's Gowt , a sluice which he constructed on the Witham close to the location of the present Grand Sluice . The drain was for many years called Earl Fitzwilliam 's drain , but is now called the North Forty @-@ Foot Drain . The scheme was not entirely successful .
= = = Second Sluice = = =
In 1762 , the Witham Drainage Act was passed by Parliament , and among other things constituted the Commissioners of Sewers for the Second and Sixth District , which covered the area including Asgarby , Ewerby , Great Hale , Heckington , Holland Fen , Howell , Little Hale and South Kyme . Much of the area to the south and west of Boston , some 91 square miles ( 240 km2 ) , was inundated by the Great Flood of 1763 , and against this background , the Black Sluice Drainage and Navigation Act 1765 was obtained which created the Black Sluice Commissioners , giving them power to raise taxes and authority to carry out drainage works . The scheme largely revived the Earl of Lindsey 's original scheme . The initial design work was carried out by the civil engineer Langley Edwards , on loan from the Witham Commissioners . Some of the surveying was performed by John Landen , who was the steward of the estate of Earl Fitzwilliam at Peterborough , and a proficient amateur mathematician . The two men were jointly appointed Surveyors of the Works , acting as engineers for the scheme , while John Chapman and Richard Strattard were assistants . A new sluice , called the Black Sluice , was built at Boston as a direct replacement for the Skirbeck Sluice , having three openings with a total width of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . The 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the drain were scoured from Boston to Great Hale , beyond which the Main Drain was upgraded by cutting a new 14 @-@ mile ( 23 km ) channel , effectively extending the South Forth @-@ Foot Drain to Guthram , on the banks of the River Glen . A total of 65 miles ( 105 km ) of highland streams were improved by scouring and raising of the banks . The estimated cost of £ 16 @,@ 000 was raised by issuing bonds , but the project overran , and another Act of Parliament was obtained in 1770 to authorise the raising of the drainage taxes , to cover the difference . By mid @-@ 1769 , when Landen and Edwards left the project , because the work was largely complete , the scheme had cost £ 24 @,@ 000 . They were replaced by Edward Hare as Surveyor of Works , with Chapman and Strattard continuing as assistants . A historian called W. H. Wheeler , who chronicled the Lincolnshire fens , wrote that " the works were efficiently carried out and , being well @-@ designed , entirely answered expectation . "
On the River Witham , the Grand Sluice was constructed and opened on 15 October 1766 , and this prevented tidal water from entering the river , and hence flooding the Holland Fen . The Boston Harbour Commissioners were created by the Boston Port Act 1766 , and they carried out improvement works to The Haven , which resulted in lower water levels at the Black Sluice , and hence more efficient draining from the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . Water was pumped into the drain by a series of windmills driving scoop wheels . Maps of the area produced in 1783 by Edward Hare show 46 such mills , which provided drainage for 32 @,@ 000 acres ( 130 km2 ) of agricultural land . Extreme high tides in 1810 and again in 1820 resulted in widespread flooding , and further thought was given to improving the flood defences .
With the improvements to the River Witham , the final section of Earl Fitzwilliam 's drain to Lodewick Gowt was filled in , and the channel was diverted to join the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . Renamed the North Forty @-@ Foot Drain , it now supplies Cook 's Lock and Holland Fen pumping stations .
= = = Third Sluice = = =
Reports on improvements to the system were produced in 1843 by the surveyor Mr W Lewin and in 1845 by Sir John Rennie . Rennie 's scheme involved the provision of a catchwater drain to collect water draining from the higher ground to the west before it entered the fenlands , but an Act of Parliament to authorise its construction was defeated , and so in 1846 a report by Mr W Cubit which proposed improvements to the existing infrastructure was accepted by the Commissioners . A new Black Sluice , including a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide navigation lock , was constructed to the south of the original one , with the cill level 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) lower , which enabled the gradient of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain to be increased to 3 inches per mile ( 5 cm / km ) . Many of the tributary drains were also improved . 1846 also marked the beginning of the use of steam engines for pumping . Ten years later , a map covering 18 @,@ 000 acres ( 73 km2 ) of the Black Sluice area showed nine steam @-@ powered and eight wind @-@ powered drainage engines in use .
The River Witham Outfall Improvement Act 1880 authorised further improvements to the mouth of the Witham , to which the Black Sluice Commissioners contributed £ 65 @,@ 000 . This work led to a further drop of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in the low water level at the Black Sluice . Oil and paraffin engines began to replace steam and wind engines from 1910 , and by 1935 there were 15 such engines pumping water into the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . The passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 resulted in the Commissioners being replaced by the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board , while responsibility for the rivers in the area passed to the Witham and Steeping Rivers Catchment Board . With war imminent , the Rivers Board took over the Black Sluice and the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain in 1939 , and although progress was interrupted by the Second World War , a £ 374 @,@ 000 scheme to construct the Black Sluice pumping station and to widen 11 miles ( 18 km ) of the drain from Boston to Donington Bridge was completed in 1946 . The pumping station contained three 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) pumps , each powered by a 900 @-@ horsepower ( 670 kW ) 5 @-@ cylinder vertical diesel engine manufactured by Ruston .
= = = Modern era = = =
Paraffin and oil engines gave way to electrically powered pumping stations in the 1950s , with the Board constructing six electric and one diesel pumping station to improve drainage to an extra 11 @,@ 000 acres ( 45 km2 ) of land . In 1960 , the decision was taken to further improve drainage of an area of 70 @,@ 000 acres ( 280 km2 ) , as part of a £ 1 @.@ 4 million scheme which included the addition of two extra pumps at the Black Sluice , replacement of existing pumps elsewhere , and the widening of 7 miles ( 11 km ) of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington Bridge to Rippingale Running Dyke . Jurisdiction for the Drain and the sluice passed to the Lincolnshire River Board at this time . The work , which began in 1962 and was completed in 1968 , proved successful in preventing flooding during severe wet weather in the winter of 1968 / 9 . With three 900 @-@ horsepower ( 670 kW ) and two 925 @-@ horsepower ( 690 kW ) diesel engines , the upgraded pumping station can pump 800 thousand gallons per minute ( 60 m3 / s ) . Responsibility for the drain and the sluice passed to the National Rivers Authority in 1990 , and to the Environment Agency in 1995 .
Despite all the improvements , serious flooding occurred in 1999 when the bank of the drain was breached near Pinchbeck . Staff from the Environment Agency and the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board successfully repaired the breach before properties were flooded , and a review of the flood defences was then carried out . The report recommended improvements to some of the banks , but funding for the work was not available , and so no work was done at the time .
= = Functions = =
The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain serves as a district boundary over the length where it runs roughly south to north . South of Donington High Bridge , the Drain separates South Kesteven to the west from South Holland to the east . The boundary then continues southwards along the River Glen . North of Donington , the boundary between the borough of Boston to the east and North Kesteven to the west follows the line of the Drain . As the Drain crosses the line of the Midfen Dyke , just before the Nottingham to Boston railway joins it at Great Hale pumping station , the boundary turns northwards , following its medieval course .
The main job of the Drain is to gather the waters pumped from the Kesteven Fens , the Holland Fens and the Weir Dyke , a soak dike in Bourne North Fen , alongside the Bourne Eau and River Glen , northwards and eastwards to the Black Sluice at Boston , where they are discharged to the tidal waters of The Haven . The Weir Dyke takes its name from a weir in the bank of the Bourne Eau at Tongue End , which was constructed by the Black Sluice Commissioners , to allow water from the Bourne Eau to overflow the bank when excess water could not flow into the River Glen in times of flood . The overfall weir became redundant when the Tongue End pumping station was constructed in 1966 .
The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and the Black Sluice pumping station , together with most of the side channels which run into the drain are the responsibility of the Environment Agency . Management of the drainage ditches which drain the Fens are the responsibility of the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board , who maintain 34 pumping stations and three gravity stations in the region . Of these , 21 are situated on the banks of the Drain , and pump directly into it , while one , the Black Hole Drove pumping station , is constructed over the channel , and acts as a boundary between the part of the Drain managed by the Environment Agency , and that managed by the Drainage Board .
= = Navigation = =
Prior to 1971 , the Drain had been navigable , but this privilege was removed at that time . It is unclear whether there was ever a right of navigation , or whether the Black Sluice Commissioners simply allowed it . The entrance lock was 72 by 20 feet ( 21 @.@ 9 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and most trade was between Boston and Donnington Bridge , with pleasure boating not being allowed prior to 1962 . The lock was closed and removed in 1971 , with little protest being made . More recently , the East Anglian Waterways Association promoted the idea that the Drain could again be made navigable as part of a larger scheme to improve leisure facilities . The local authorities which were part of the Fens Tourism consortium conducted a feasibility study , and this report was formally adopted as the Fens Waterways Link by the Environment Agency in 2004 , with the support of the local authorities , the East Anglian Waterways Association and the Inland Waterways Association .
The scheme involved a total of 150 miles ( 240 km ) of waterway , of which 50 miles ( 80 km ) would be new cruiseway , while the rest would be existing waterways which could be upgraded or have their access improved . When completed , it would connect the Rivers Witham , Glen , Welland , Nene and Great Ouse , and was heralded as the biggest waterway enhancement project in Europe by the Environment Agency . In 2007 they obtained funding for the link between Boston and Spalding . Work on a new lock beside the Black Sluice pumping station at Boston - to connect The Haven and the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain - was formally started on 8 February 2008 , and was completed in December 2008 , with the official opening ceremony being held on 20 March 2009 . The lock project formed phase 1 of the scheme , and the cost of £ 8 @.@ 5 million was jointly funded by the European Regional Development Fund , the East Midlands Development Agency , and Lincolnshire County Council . The lock is designed to be used for a period either side of high tide , and so there is a rise from the Drain to the Haven . It has conventional mitre gates at one end , but uses rotating sector gates at the tidal end , each one weighing 12 @.@ 1 tonnes .
The lock opened up nearly 12 miles ( 19 km ) of waterway . As part of the upgrade , new 48 @-@ hour moorings were constructed on The Haven , for boats about to enter the Drain , and on the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain near the Black Sluice pumping station at Boston , at Swineshead Bridge and at Hubbert 's Bridge . The upper limit of navigation was initially Donington High Bridge , where the Swaton Eau joins the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and provides a wider section where boats can be turned . Beyond the bridge , the drain was officially only suitable for canoes and kayaks . However , eight narrow boats cruised on the waterway at Easter 2009 , and although the channel was narrower and not as deep after Donington Bridge , all of them successfully reached Kingston 's Bridge , some 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) further on , where the outlets from Dowsby Fen and Gosberton pumping stations provided enough width to turn a 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) boat . Further progress was blocked by scaffolding erected so that the bridge could be re @-@ decked , rather than by lack of water .
The drain has been renamed as the Black Sluice Navigation by the Environment Agency . In order to use the navigation , an Environment Agency licence is required , and as there are no permanent moorings available on the drain , these are available for one day or seven days . Water levels are maintained at a lower level during the winter months , when flows are high , and the Drain needs to be able to cope with higher volumes of rainfall , than during the summer months , when navigable levels are maintained . As on the neighbouring River Witham , the switch between winter and summer levels is normally made at the beginning of April .
= = = Development = = =
Phase 2 of the Fens Waterway project involves the link between Donington Bridge and Crowland and Cowbit Washes , which are located on the River Welland near Spalding . In order to make the financing of the phase more viable , it was split into two halves , with phase 2a covering the section from Donington to Surfleet Seas End on the River Glen , and phase 2b covering from there onwards . The initial technical assessment and obtaining of planning permission for phase 2 , which involved widening of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington to a new road crossing under the A151 , a new lock and a junction with the River Glen at Guthram Gowt was funded by the East Midlands Development Agency . This section would involve changes at Black Hole Drove pumping station , which has been built across the drain and hence would prevent navigation . Major contracts for this phase were expected to be awarded in April 2009 , but appraisal of the technical assessment revealed that more than one route needed to be considered before the best solution could be selected . While the obvious solution would be to connect the Glen and the drain where they are only a short distance apart , the Lincolnshire Waterways Partnership also considered the creation of new channels up to 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) long to form the link . In the meantime , the economic situation changed , so that sources of funding were not so freely available , and by the end of 2010 , no clear dates had been set for the next construction phase .
By late 2011 , there were ten different routes under consideration , and an assessment of them was expected to be delivered in spring 2012 . Halcrow Group , the engineering consultancy , were responsible for carrying out the assessment , which looked at the benefits that each route might provide , not only for navigation but also for water quality , water resources and habitat for wildlife . The study was expected to provide a short @-@ list of routes , which would then be the subject of further consultation . By mid @-@ 2012 , the merits of the ten routes had been considered , including the economic , environmental and technical issues involved , and a broad outline of the corridor for the link was scheduled to be published in September . After that , consultation with landowners and stakeholders took place , to establish the final route , for which design of the channel and the associated locks , bridges , moorings and pumping stations could then begin . By the end of the assessment process for the ten routes , two remained . One was route 1 , the original suggestion which used the existing course of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain for most of its length , while the second was a new route , designated as route 11 . Route 11 had become the preferred route by the summer of 2014 . It involves widening the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington to Surfleet , to a point near to the Black Hole Drove pumping station . A new lock would be needed at this location , but would connect to a new channel , rather than to the rest of the drain . It would pass under a new bridge on the A151 , and the connection to the River Glen would involve another new lock . An environmental survey of other watercourses near to the route revealed that several provide habitat for nationally important plants and invertebrates .
= = = Precursors = = =
The idea of a link between the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and the River Nene is not new , as the first plans for such a connection were proposed in 1809 . In that year , proposals for a new canal between the Oakham Canal at Oakham and the Stamford Canal at Stamford , which had been discussed in 1785 , were revived , as part of a larger plan for a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) link from Stamford to the River Nene at Peterborough , and a connection from near Market Deeping , where the Stamford Canal rejoined the River Welland , northwards to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . A bill for this , together with one for a rival scheme to link Stamford to the Grand Junction Canal , which also included a connection to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , were put before Parliament in 1811 , but neither met with any success . The idea was raised again in 1815 and 1828 , but no further action was taken .
= = Route = =
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= American Tragedy ( album ) =
American Tragedy is the second studio album by American rap rock band Hollywood Undead . Production for the album began following the induction of Daniel Murillo into the band in early 2010 and lasted until December . Don Gilmore and Ben Grosse , who helped produce the band 's debut album , Swan Songs ( 2008 ) , also returned to produce the album along with several other producers including Kevin Rudolf , Sam Hollander , Dave Katz , Griffin Boice , Jeff Halavacs , and Jacob Kasher . The album is musically heavier and features darker lyrical content than the band 's previous effort . Originally set to release in March , American Tragedy was released on April 5 , 2011 in the United States and was released on various other dates that month in other countries . A remix of the album , American Tragedy Redux , was released on November 21 , 2011 .
The album debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , selling approximately 67 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States , and ended up becoming the 142nd best selling album of 2011 in the US . It also charted in a few other countries , including Canada and the UK , a first for the band . The album also had five singles : " Hear Me Now " , " Been to Hell " , " Coming Back Down " , " Comin ' in Hot " , and " My Town " , with music videos being made for all of them except " Coming Back Down " as it was released on the same day as " Been to Hell " . The band participated in three headlining tours : the Revolt Tour , the Endless Summer Tour , and the World War III Tour , as well as other supporting tours throughout 2011 to promote the album . Upon release , American Tragedy received mixed reviews . Critics consistently noted the darker and more serious tone of the album , but to mixed reception . Lyrics were widely criticized while the energy and instruments were praised in most reviews .
= = Singles and promotion = =
To promote the album , the band participated in three headlining tours and several other supporting tours . The first headlining tour , the Revolt Tour , began on April 6 and spanned across the spring until May 27 , playing with Drive @-@ A , New Medicine , 10 Years , and others at various House of Blues venues across North America . The second headlining tour for the album was the Endless Summer Tour with All That Remains and Hyro Da Hero which began in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , and ended in Knoxville , Tennessee . The third tour was the World War III Tour , which the band called the biggest tour they had done yet . The tour was co @-@ headlined with Asking Alexandria with support acts We Came As Romans , D.R.U.G.S. , and Borgore , with different local openers for each location . For supporting tours , the band began with the Nightmare After Christmas Tour with headliners Avenged Sevenfold and supporters Stone Sour and New Medicine on January 20 , 2011 , which was the first supporting tour for the album . Outside of official tours , the band played several festivals throughout 2011 including UFEST in Mesa , Arizona , Rockfest , and Summerfest in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The band also played various holiday shows , such as a Cinco De Mayo show in Salt Lake City , Utah , with Flogging Molly and others .
The album spawned five singles in total . On December 8 , 2010 , the band released the artwork for the album 's first single , titled " Hear Me Now " . The track was released on December 13 for radio and was made available online a week later on December 21 . " Hear Me Now " was the album 's most successful single , charting variously on the Billboard Heatseeker charts , Alternative charts , and the Rock charts . On March 22 , the band appeared live on the late night talk show Lopez Tonight as a musical guest where they performed the single " Hear Me Now " to promote the album . The band reportedly almost drank the entire bar behind the Turner Broadcasting System set , with George Lopez saying to J @-@ Dog , " Drink all of it . Go ahead , I don ’ t care . But I 've never seen anyone drink that much . " The album 's second and third official singles , " Been to Hell " and " Coming Back Down " , were both released on March 15 , 2011 . " Been to Hell " was previously released as a promotional single with a lyric video on February 6 , but was then released as a single with a music video , leading to it chart on Billboard 's Heatseeker and Bubbling Under Hot 100 charts . Because " Coming Back Down " was released on the same day as " Been to Hell " , the track did not get a music video . " Coming Back Down " previously surfaced due to a leak on February 18 and was later confirmed to be on the album and was produced by Kevin Rudolf . Brian Voerding noted that the song showed the band 's strength in both singing and rapping while comparing the sound to Linkin Park . The album 's fourth single , " Comin ' in Hot " , was released on April 9 with a music video to celebrate the album 's release . Similar to " Been to Hell " , " Comin ' in Hot " was originally a free promotional single released on January 21 , but was later released as an album single following the release of American Tragedy . The track was reviewed by Evigshed along with " Hear Me Now " after it was released as a promotional single , who gave both " Comin ' in Hot " and " Hear Me Now " a perfect ten out of ten score , noting that " Comin ' in Hot " was much more upbeat and was extremely catchy . On July 8 , it was announced the fifth single for the album would be " My Town " . The band began shooting the music video in early July and announced that fans would be featured in the video if they recorded themselves performing the song in front of a famous landmark . The video has no release date yet .
= = Music and lyrical themes = =
American Tragedy opens with the single " Been to Hell " . J @-@ Dog said that the song is , " the truth about what really happens to people when they move to L.A. , to be actors or models or God knows what other delusions people have ... failure . It 's all too true , but most people aren 't there to see it first @-@ hand . But we are , so it 's our interpretation of it all . " The track is followed by " Apologize " , a track that directly addresses critics and states the band 's defiance in the face of negative opinions , as evident by the chorus , " We don 't apologize and that 's just the way it is , but we can harmonize even if we sound like shit . " Third is " Comin ’ in Hot " , a party song and the album 's fourth single that uses humor to describe what happens in night clubs . " My Town " is the fifth single and a mid @-@ tempo song talking about Los Angeles and Hollywood . Next is " I Don 't Wanna Die " , a song about the fear of death fueling the need to kill another person . " Hear Me Now " was the lead single from the album and is about the troubles each band member was going through at the time the song was written . The song 's lyrics tell the story of a person who is depressed and hopeless , taking a very somber tone to the track . Despite this , the instruments and melodies contrast to make an uptempo track . Next is " Gangsta Sexy " , a party anthem song about heading to nightclubs and pursuing women . The following track , " Glory " , is a metal @-@ inspired song which drew influence from war and fighting . " Lights Out " , the ninth song on the album , is about Deuce , ex @-@ vocalist of Hollywood Undead . It is a response to " Story of a Snitch " . " Coming Back Down " , the third single released from the album , is a rock ballad song with acoustic guitars on the track . The lyrics describes about a story of an unknown loved one who has recently died , with the narrator having difficulty trying to live without them . " Bullet " , the eleventh track from the album , is an uptempo pop song about suicide . It is played in an upbeat tempo with energetic vocals , which gives contrast to the dark lyrical content . Rick Florino called the track , " heart @-@ wrenching genius " . " Levitate " is an uptempo discothèque song about sex , while the verses of the song talk about suicide and alcoholism . It was also featured in the Need For Speed : Shift 2 Unleashed trailer , " Autolog Drift Challenge " , as well as on the game 's soundtrack , where it was ranked eighth on ProGamist 's list of " Top ten songs featured in racing games " .
" Pour Me " , the last soft song on the album , is a dark ballad that has been often compared to Eminem 's " Stan " . Johnny 3 Tears stated that , " We were messing around with chord progressions and that came out like a more major chord style than we were used to it . It 's melodic and poppy sounding . We 're talking about drinking obviously because all of us sometimes drink too much . It 's one of those basic every day things that people go through but they don 't know how to voice it or others around them don 't know to voice it . It 's almost like you 're looked down upon , but no one actually talks about it . " " Tendencies " , which is the closing track for the standard edition of the album , is a high tempo alternative metal song about murder . Johnny 3 Tears said , " When we wrote Tendencies , I wanted to make a song that kids would just go nuts to when we played it . Kids start moshpits at our shows . Not every song we have is the best mosh song , so I wanted to make a song kids could go crazy for . "
While the band was touring with Avenged Sevenfold , the guitarist Synyster Gates spoke about " S.C.A.V.A. " stating " Holy shit , that 's the craziest verse I 've ever heard ! The lyrics are insane . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Prior to release , American Tragedy was projected by several publications to sell about 65 @,@ 000 copies in the first week of release in the United States , and was expected to reach number three on the Billboard 200 . When the official sales week ended , the album exceeded expectations and sold about 67 @,@ 000 copies , but was outsold by Radiohead 's The King of Limbs and so debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 . Weekly sales topped albums such as Wiz Khalifa 's Rolling Papers and Chris Brown 's F.A.M.E. , and was right behind Adele 's 21 , Britney Spears 's Femme Fatale , and Radiohead 's The King of Limbs .
Upon learning of the album 's first @-@ week sales , Jordan Terrel , also known to fans of the band as " Charlie Scene . " jokingly remarked , " I gotta be honest with everyone : I was really looking forward to the opportunity to be on top of Britney this week , but being right behind her and Adele is a memory we ’ ll relish forever . " The album also debuted at number one on the US Hard Rock charts , number two on the US Rock , Digital , and Alternative charts , and number 11 on the Tastemaker Albums charts . Outside of the US , American Tragedy charted number five in Canadian albums charts and number 43 in the UK albums charts .
= = = Critical response = = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 59 , based on 6 reviews , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " .
Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave American Tragedy 5 out of 5 , particularly praising the band 's choice to avoid duplicating their debut album , Swan Songs , and instead choosing to create a , " darker , deeper , and far deadlier ride this time around . " Florino compared various elements of the album to the Wu Tang Clan and Nine Inch Nails , particularly comparing the album 's production ( which was done by various producers with executive producer Don Gilmore ) to Nine Inch Nails ' second album The Downward Spiral ( 1994 ) . He also lauded the irony of the quality singing on , " Apologize " , combined with the lyrics , " But we can harmonize , even if we sound like shit . " Florino concluded that , " Hollywood Undead 's genius lies — in that dangerous space between unforgettable and unsettling , " pointing this out in the track , " Bullet " , for it being the , " sunniest and catchiest tune on American Tragedy , " while still telling , " a potent and poignant tale of longing for suicide . " The other track Florino pointed out for being unforgettable is , " Pour Me " , calling it , " an evil power ballad that everyone who hears it will feel . "
Revolver magazine reviewer Jeremy Borjon gave the album four out of five in his review , calling American Tragedy , " one hell of an album that will leave fans ’ heads buzzing long after the clubs have let out and the hangover sets in . " Borjon complimented the shift in moods throughout the album and the lyrical quality compared to Swan Songs . He praised several tracks including " Been to Hell " , " Apologize " , " Comin ' in Hot " , " Bullet " , " Levitate " , and " Tendencies " as numerous outstanding points in the album . Borjon did criticize the slower songs , " Coming Back Down " and " Pour Me " but dismissed that that were , " easily forgotten among the album 's many undeniably addictive future hits . " Richard Solomon of The Minaret proclaimed that , " If you ’ re a Hollywood Undead fan , you 'll love American Tragedy . As for people who didn ’ t care for Swan Songs , you 'll probably still love American Tragedy . " Instrumentally , Solomon noted one of his only complaints of the album , being that , " At times , the synthesizer seems a little too heavy handed , but it succeeds more often than not . " Solomon complimented the album being different and further encouraged the Deluxe Edition tracks in addition to the album itself .
Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times was more critical in his review . He praised the energy of the album , pointing out the , " Booming groove , " of " Apologize " , and the " disco @-@ metal urgency , " of " Levitate " . Wood 's biggest complaint of the album was that the band has , " filtered out any sense of humor from its music , which makes American Tragedy virtually impossible to listen to for longer than a few songs at a time . " Alistair Lawrence of BBC Music said that the album is , " The result is that they ’ ve ditched some of the early , growling quirkiness that at least gave them an initial , oddball appeal . " Lawrence finishes his review noting , " Hollywood Undead are content to deliver clichés – more out of a lack of imagination than cynical opportunism , but it still smacks of both . That 's why to seasoned ears or any genre fan requiring more than more of the same , they ’ re very , very boring . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Track listing = =
All tracks are written and performed by Hollywood Undead , with specific writers detailed for each track .
= = = Production = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Karlsruhe @-@ class cruiser =
The Karlsruhe class of light cruisers was a pair of two ships built for the German Imperial Navy before the start of World War I. The ships — SMS Karlsruhe and Rostock — were very similar to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers , mounting the same armament and similar armor protection , though they were larger and faster than the earlier ships . Both vessels were laid down in 1911 , and launched one day apart , on 11 and 12 November 1912 . Karlsruhe joined the fleet in January 1914 , but fitting out work lasted slightly longer on her sister ; Rostock was commissioned the following month .
Both of the ships had short service careers . Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duty in the Caribbean , arriving on station in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm so it could raid British shipping . After a moderately successful commerce raiding career , during which Karlsruhe sank sixteen merchant ships and successfully evaded British cruisers , she sank after an accidental internal explosion on 4 November 1914 . Most of her crew were killed in the sinking , but the survivors returned to Germany on one of Karlsruhe 's attendant colliers by December .
Rostock served as a torpedo boat flotilla leader with the High Seas Fleet following her commissioning ; her flotilla frequently screened for the battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group , including during the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 and operations off the British coast in early 1916 . She saw heavy action during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 as part of the screen for the main battle fleet . In the ferocious night fighting that occurred as the German fleet punched through the British rear @-@ guard , Rostock was torpedoed by a British destroyer , which immobilized the ship . She was taken under tow by several torpedo boats , but early on the morning of 1 June , the cruiser HMS Dublin located the cruiser . To prevent her capture by the British , the Germans scuttled the ship after taking off her crew .
= = Design = =
The design for the Karlsruhe class was prepared in 1910 , and was an incremental improvement over the previous Magdeburg class . Karlsruhe and Rostock were faster and had a larger , more raked hull and greater displacement , but had the same armament and armor protection . Karlsruhe was ordered as Ersatz Seeadler and laid down in 1911 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , under construction number 181 . She was launched on 11 November 1912 and commissioned into the fleet on 15 January 1914 . Rostock was ordered as Ersatz Geier and laid down in 1911 at the Howaldtswerke dockyard in Kiel , under construction number 560 . Launching ceremonies took place on 12 November 1912 , a day after her sister . She was completed on 5 February 1914 , the date she joined the fleet .
= = = Dimensions and machinery = = =
The Karlsruhe class ships were 139 meters ( 456 ft ) long at the waterline and 142 @.@ 2 m ( 467 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 38 m ( 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 2 m ( 20 ft ) aft . They displaced 4 @,@ 900 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 800 long tons ; 5 @,@ 400 short tons ) at designed load and 6 @,@ 191 t ( 6 @,@ 093 long tons ; 6 @,@ 824 short tons ) at full combat loading . The hull was constructed with longitudinal steel frames and incorporated fifteen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for 45 percent of the length of the hull . The ships had a crew of eighteen officers and 355 enlisted men . Karlsruhe and Rostock carried a number of smaller vessels , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . After 1915 , Rostock had spotting tops installed on her masts . The German Navy regarded the two ships as good sea boats . They suffered from slight weather helm in a swell and made severe leeway . They were maneuverable but were slow steering into a turn . With the rudder hard over , they lost up to 60 percent speed . Their transverse metacentric height was .79 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
Karlsruhe and Rostock were powered by two sets of Marine @-@ type steam turbines , each of which drove a three @-@ bladed screw 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) in diameter . Each turbine was divided into its own engine room ; steam was supplied by twelve coal @-@ fired water tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended water tube boilers split into five boiler rooms . The propulsion system was rated at 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 27 @.@ 8 knots ( 51 @.@ 5 km / h ; 32 @.@ 0 mph ) , but both ships significantly exceeded these figures on speed trials . Karlsruhe made 37 @,@ 885 shp ( 28 @,@ 251 kW ) at 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) and Rostock reached 43 @,@ 628 shp ( 32 @,@ 533 kW ) and 29 @.@ 3 knots ( 54 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 7 mph ) . Designed coal and oil storage was 400 t ( 394 long tons ; 441 short tons ) and 70 t ( 69 long tons ; 77 short tons ) , respectively , though internal voids could accommodate up to 1 @,@ 300 t ( 1 @,@ 279 long tons ; 1 @,@ 433 short tons ) and 200 t ( 197 long tons ; 220 short tons ) , respectively . Electrical power was supplied by two turbo generators rated at 240 and 200 kilowatts , respectively , at 220 volts .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Karlsruhe and Rostock were armed identically to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers . They carried twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . The ships were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . They could also carry 120 mines .
The ships ' armor was also identical to the preceding class . They were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships ; the belt was reduced to 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) forward . The stern was not armored . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick roof . The deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) amidships , and 20 mm aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck to the belt armor .
= = Service history = =
= = = SMS Karlsruhe = = =
After her commissioning , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duties in the Caribbean , where she was to relieve the cruiser Dresden . She arrived in the area in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm so it could operate as a commerce raider , but while the ships were transferring equipment , British cruisers located them and pursued Karlsruhe . Her superior speed allowed her to escape , after which she operated off the northeastern coast of Brazil .
Karlsruhe refueled at Puerto Rico , a possession of the then neutral United States before steaming to Brazil . Off the Brazilian coast , she captured or sank sixteen ships totaling 72 @,@ 805 gross register tons ( GRT ) while eluding her pursuers . The ship 's captain then decided to operate against the shipping lanes to Barbados . While en route on 4 November 1914 , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship and killed the majority of the crew , including her captain . The survivors used one of Karlruhe 's colliers to return to Germany in December 1914 .
= = = SMS Rostock = = =
Rostock served with the High Seas Fleet as a leader of torpedo boat flotillas for the duration of her career . She served with the screens for both Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group on operations against the British coast and the Battle of Dogger Bank . During the battle , British battlecruisers ambushed the German squadron and sank the armored cruiser Blücher . In April 1916 , she again screened the battlecruisers during the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft , during which Rostock and five other cruisers briefly engaged the British Harwich Force .
She was assigned to the screen for the battle fleet during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She saw major action at Jutland and frequently engaged British light forces , including assisting in the destruction of the destroyers HMS Nomad and Nestor . Rostock 's participation in the battle culminated in her torpedoing by destroyers shortly after midnight . She was taken under tow by German torpedo boats , but the following morning the cruiser HMS Dublin came upon the retreating ships . To prevent Rostock 's capture , the Germans set scuttling charges aboard her and took off the crew before firing torpedoes into the disabled cruiser to ensure she sank .
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= Chakotay =
Chakotay / tʃəˈkoʊteɪ / is a fictional character who appears in each of the seven seasons of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Voyager . Portrayed by Robert Beltran , he is First Officer aboard the Starfleet starship USS Voyager . The character was suggested at an early stage of the development of the series . He is the first Native American main character in the Star Trek franchise . This was an intended move by the producers of the series , who sought to provide an inspiration as with Uhura in Star Trek : The Original Series for African Americans . To develop the character , the producers sought the assistance of Jamake Highwater . Despite first being named as a Sioux , and later a Hopi , Chakotay was given no tribal affiliation at the start of the series , something that was later resolved in the episode " Tattoo " .
The character first appeared in the pilot episode of the series , " Caretaker " . The character continued to appear throughout the series in a main cast role , with his final appearance in the finale , " Endgame " . He was featured in an ongoing storyline throughout the first and second seasons which featured the betrayal of his lover Seska ( Martha Hackett ) until her death in " Basics " . Following his experience with disconnected Borg in " Unity " , Chakotay was against an alliance with the Borg in " Scorpion " , nearly leading to the death of Seven of Nine ( Jeri Ryan ) . Despite this , by the end of the series , the two characters were in a romantic relationship together . In the Voyager relaunch novels set after the vessel 's return to the Alpha Quadrant , Chakotay is promoted to Captain of the ship but the relationship with Seven is ended .
Reviewers of Chakotay were critical of the stereotypical nature of Chakotay 's Native American heritage . This led to comparisons with Tonto from The Lone Ranger , and that the inclusion of " Hollywood " versions of vision quests and meditation techniques were contrary to the character 's in @-@ universe tribal background . However , he was praised as a role model for Native American science fiction and called " ground @-@ breaking " , as well as the most prominent example of a Native American character within this genre .
= = Concept and development = =
The inclusion of a Native American character in Star Trek : Voyager was suggested at an early stage in the development of the series . The producers were looking for an ethnic background which had not been seen before as a main character in the franchise . It was hoped that a Native American character would prove to be an inspiration in the same way that the appearance of Uhura in Star Trek : The Original Series later inspired Whoopi Goldberg and other African Americans . Executive producer Jeri Taylor said , " It seemed to us that Native Americans needed that same kind of role model and that same kind of boost ... the future looks good , you have purpose , you have worth , you have value , you will be leaders , you will be powerful . That was one character choice we had early on . " Taylor 's notes from the early production in July 1993 describe the character as " First Officer – a human native American male , a ' Queequeg ' person who has renounced Earth and lives as an expatriate on another planet . A mystical , mysterious man with whom the Captain has some prior connection , not explained . " A month later , this description was expanded with the line , " This man has made another choice – to re @-@ enter the world of Starfleet . " Chakotay was not the first Native American character to appear in the franchise , with " The Paradise Syndrome " in the third season of Star Trek : The Original Series showing a group of displaced humans following a Native @-@ American @-@ like culture .
The producers aimed to develop some conflict between the members of the crew to produce a scenario similar to the Bajoran / Starfleet relationship seen in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , but wanted the characters to share the same ideals . To do this , the Maquis were created – a group of Federation colonists from the Cardassian border in a disputed territory who were joined by some Starfleet officers who joined them to fight for their rights . The producers had the Maquis introduced in other Star Trek series before Voyager in four episodes ; two in Star Trek : The Next Generation and two in Deep Space Nine . It was a deliberate reference to the political situation in the West Bank .
In developing Chakotay , the producers sought the assistance of Jamake Highwater , a writer of more than 25 books of both fiction and nonfiction related to Native American myths and traditions . Highwater was a controversial choice of advisor , having been exposed by Hank Adams and Vine Deloria , Jr. as taking a fake Native American ancestry to sell books . Around September 21 , 1993 , Highwater gave seven pages of notes to producers regarding Chakotay 's backstory , but his tribal ancestry was unresolved . By the end of that month , Michael Piller drafted the first version of the writer 's bible for the series in which the character was named " Chakotoy " . By the time Piller wrote the first draft of the story that eventually became the Voyager pilot " Caretaker " , the character was known as " Chakotay " and been made a Sioux . By the third draft of the story , submitted at the start of November , he had become a Hopi , but by the following February , he once again had no tribal affiliation .
Winrich Kolbe , the director of " Caretaker " , was involved in casting the main cast for the series . He described the casting process for the part of Chakotay as difficult due to the lower numbers of Native Americans who were in the Screen Actors Guild . The casting process came down to two actors , and the producers decided on Robert Beltran , who until then was best known for appearing in the soap opera Models Inc. and was of Mexican heritage . Beltran was not familiar with Star Trek before auditioning , and went along on the strength of the " Caretaker " script which showed the character becoming the second in command of Voyager after both their vessels are stranded in the Delta quadrant . Beltran explained the audition experience , " I felt neutral about the audition , didn 't much care one way or the other . I went in the first time and wasn 't really trying to get the part . They asked to see me again , and they wanted to see more of an edge to the character . "
Chakotay was originally written as a " calm , stoic " character , but Beltran expanded on the character during the audition process , something that Kolbe credited him for . The writer 's bible described Chakotay as a very traditional Native American with an altar and traditional art in his quarters . It also mentioned his spirit guide , something which was picked up in the media report in TV Guide . Beltran wore a facial tattoo whilst playing Chakotay , which was applied with make @-@ up . This earned him comparisons to boxer Mike Tyson after the latter gained a facial tattoo . The design was created by Michael Westmore , who deliberately created it so it did not represent any particular tribal culture . The in @-@ universe story of the tattoo and Chakotay 's tribal origins were explained in the episode " Tattoo " .
Beltran gained the reputation on @-@ set as a comedian . Following the first season and during a group interview with The Washington Times , Beltran joked that he was asked to perform in Hamlet during the summer in Albuquerque , but had been asked to wear Chakotay 's facial tattoo . During that time he worked on the Oliver Stone film Nixon ( 1995 ) . During the period when Voyager was run by Taylor and Piller as the executive producers , Beltran gave feedback on the character which was taken into account . He later explained that this ended following the introduction of Jeri Ryan as Seven of Nine onto the cast and Brannon Braga taking over from Taylor and Piller . Beltran felt that Chakotay was one of the characters alongside Harry Kim , Tuvok , and Neelix who were left behind by the new writers , who tended to concentrate on Janeway , Seven , and The Doctor .
Beltran said that he was not aware of the effects of the interactions this was having with the crew , and described the situation , saying , " for me it was like , ' OK , you can fire me if you want to . Go ahead , and I 'll leave . ' " He compared his experience on Voyager to working in a car factory , and said that the repetitive scenes meant that it limited his creativity . Beltran explained that it did not affect his relationship with the other actors , and in the end , he felt the producers decided to keep him on the cast as it did not make " very much difference , except to a very , very small percentage of fans who maybe didn 't like what I said . "
In an interview to publicise the final episode of Voyager , " Endgame " , Beltran said , " We all had a great relationship with each other and we 've all said how much we enjoy our crew . We have a terrific crew . But at the same time , I 'm looking forward to what 's next . It 's exciting to know that something unknown is next . " The final episode introduced a romance between Seven of Nine and Chakotay . Ryan found this confusing for the characters , as although it had been suggested in the episode " Human Error " , the producers told the pair to forget about the relationship in the in @-@ between episodes until the finale .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Background = = =
Chakotay 's backstory was explained during the course of Star Trek : Voyager . He was born in 2329 on a Federation colony near Cardassian space in the demilitarized zone . While young , he was looked after by his grandfather . At the age of 15 , Chakotay visited Earth with his father , who sought to find his tribe 's ancestral home in Central America and the descendants of the Rubber Tree People . He was resistant to this , and instead dreamed of going into space and had heroes such as John Kelly , a pioneering astronaut in the early 21st century . He chose to enter Starfleet Academy against his father 's wishes , and his entry was sponsored by Captain Sulu . [ A ] He attended Starfleet Academy from 2344 to 2348 , where he engaged in the sport of boxing . After graduating , he was assigned to a starship . One of his earliest away missions resulted in a diplomatic incident on Ktaria VII , and he was also on the team that made first contact with the Tarkannans .
He was assigned as an instructor in Starfleet 's Advanced Tactical Training and achieved the rank of lieutenant commander . Following the death of his father in 2368 while defending his colony from the Cardassians , Chakotay resigned his Starfleet commission and joined the Maquis . At the time of his resignation , one of his students was Ro Laren . After he joined the Maquis , he became captain of a vessel named the Val Jean , with a crew which among others included his lover Seska ( Martha Hackett ) , B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) , and Tuvok ( Tim Russ ) .
= = = Star Trek : Voyager = = =
= = = = The Kazon and Seska = = = =
In the pilot episode of Voyager , while the crew on the Val Jean seek to evade a Cardassian vessel captained by Gul Evek ( Richard Poe ) in the Badlands , the vessel is transported some 70 @,@ 000 light years across the galaxy into the Delta Quadrant by the creature known as the Caretaker . After the Federation starship USS Voyager is also trapped in the Delta Quadrant and Tuvok was revealed to be a Starfleet agent , Chakotay agrees with Captain Kathryn Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) to work together to find two of their missing crew . Following an attack by the Kazon , Chakotay destroyed the Val Jean to save Voyager and the Maquis crew joined the Federation ship . Chakotay was given a provisional rank of commander and named executive officer , the second @-@ in @-@ command of the vessel and the crew seeks to return home to the Alpha Quadrant .
The Kazon continue to be a hindrance during Voyager 's initial period in the Delta Quadrant , with Chakotay dismayed in " State of Flux " when Seska is revealed as a Cardassian spy who has been providing technology to the Kazon to seek an alliance . She escapes Voyager and sides with the Kazon @-@ Nistrim , one of the factions within that species . Chakotay is rendered brain dead , but is made into a disembodied spirit able to possess other crewmembers in " Cathexis " . The incident occurs while Tuvok and he were investigating a dark matter nebula , and he sought to prevent the ship from returning there , as an alien species wants to feed on the crew 's neural energy . After Voyager enters the nebula , Chakotay possesses Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) and guides the ship out using a medicine wheel as a map . Shortly afterwards , The Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) is able to restore Chakotay 's mind into his body . At the end of the first season , Chakotay supported Tuvok 's aim of helping the former Maquis crew adapt better to life on Voyager in " Learning Curve " , by showing them the enforcement techniques of the Maquis .
In the second season episode " Tattoo " , Chakotay meets with an alien race who influenced the ancestors of his tribe . They perceived Voyager as a threat because they had thought his people had been wiped out . He was able to resolve the problem using the teachings of his father . The Kazon returned and attacked Voyager in " Maneuvers " , where they stole a transporter control module . Chakotay took it upon himself to retrieve the device , recognising that Seska was behind it . He managed to destroy it , but was captured and tortured by the Kazon in the process . He was rescued by Voyager , and shortly afterwards , he was contacted by Seska , who informed him that she had impregnated herself with his DNA . In " Resolutions " , Chakotay and Janeway are infected with a virus which requires them to quarantine themselves on a nearby planet . The two began to show signs of affection for each other , but their stay is short @-@ lived after Voyager under the captaincy of Tuvok agrees a deal with the Vidiians for a cure . The pair agree to return to the status quo on Voyager , but remain good friends .
Chakotay was contacted by Seska in " Basics " to say that his son had been born , and the Kazon were threatening to condemn her to the life of a slave . Voyager attempted to extract Seska and the child , but it was a trap and resulted in the Kazon boarding the vessel and stranding the Federation / Maquis crew on a nearby planet . While Tom Paris ( Robert Duncan McNeil ) , The Doctor , and Lon Suder ( Brad Dourif ) , along with allied Talaxian forces , sought to retake Voyager , Chakotay was instrumental in the crew 's survival on the planet . He saved Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) from a local tribe , and built an alliance with them . The crew retook Voyager , and in the process Seska was killed . The child was discovered not to be Chakotay 's , but instead a Cardassian / Kazon hybrid and the son of the Kazon @-@ Nistrim leader First Maje Culluh ( Anthony De Longis ) .
= = = = Entering Borg space = = = =
The first indication that Voyager was approaching Borg space was shown in the episode " Unity " . While investigating a Federation distress call in a shuttlecraft , Chakotay was injured by the natives of a planet . Another group saves him , and Chakotay discovers that the colonists are former Borg whose access to the main hive @-@ mind was disrupted . He is linked to a local hive @-@ mind to help him to heal , and after being returned to Voyager , he is forced against his will to reactivate the colonists ' former Borg Cube . Chakotay is released from the new " cooperative " after the Cube self @-@ destructs , leaving the planet with a hive @-@ mind separate from the main collective . Chakotay is captured by the Voth scientist Gegen ( Henry Woronicz ) in " Distant Origin " , who is seeking to prove his hypothesis that the Voth came from Earth . When Gegen is placed on trial by his people , Chakotay seeks to argue in his defense . Ultimately , Gegen is forced to back down to save Voyager after the Voth threaten to destroy the vessel . Before they depart , Chakotay gives a model globe of the Earth to Gegen as a present .
His experience with the disconnected Borg resulted in Chakotay being against a plan to ally with the Borg against Species 8472 in " Scorpion " , causing conflict between Captain Janeway and him . The alliance results in Seven of Nine and a number of other Borg drones being placed on Voyager and Janeway injured . Although he was ordered to continue with the alliance , Chakotay seeks to renegotiate the alliance , but Seven refuses any changes . When she opens a rift to Fluidic Space , Chakotay decompresses the cargo bay , sending all the Borg drones out into space with the exception of Seven . Later , when the Borg attempt to double @-@ cross Voyager , Chakotay activates his localised neural link , confusing Seven and allowing Torres to disable her link to the Collective permanently .
During the " Year of Hell " , Chakotay is captured by the Krenim scientist Annorax ( Kurtwood Smith ) on a Time Ship . The two first attempt to work together as Annorax agrees to restore the now damaged Voyager if Chakotay complies with his demands . After Annorax wipes out a species , though , he helps to disable the ship , allowing Captain Janeway to destroy it by ramming Voyager into it . This results in the timeline being reset , and the events of the episode were undone . In " Unforgettable " , he falls in love with Kellin ( Virginia Madsen ) , a member of a xenophobic race who have developed a technology to prevent others from forming long @-@ term memories of them . As such , he is informed that they were previously in love when she was on Voyager a month earlier , and rekindle their relationship despite Chakotay not remembering the earlier encounter . Another member of her race removes Kellin 's memories of Chakotay and installs a virus to remove all records of their race . Chakotay takes to writing out his memories of Kellin on paper so that he will not forget them .
He was placed in command of Voyager after Seven was captured by the Borg in " Dark Frontier " and destroyed a transwarp conduit . Chakotay is later one of the members of the crew who were captured by Borg children in " Collective " and was saved after Seven 's intervention . Initially , Chakotay and Seven did not get along , but he would come to realise that he was mistaken in that opinion . Towards the end of the seventh season in " Human Error " , Seven simulates a relationship with Chakotay on the holodeck . A Borg implant was preventing her from feeling strong emotions without any physical ill effects , which prevented her from seeking a romantic relationship with the real Chakotay . By the time of the series finale , " Endgame " , The Doctor had managed to remove the implant , allowing Seven to pursue a relationship with Chakotay . The alternative future seen at the start of the episode showed that Seven and Chakotay were eventually married , but she died while Voyager was still travelling home . Chakotay died following Voyager 's return , and Admiral Janeway visits his grave marker in that episode . This future was undone by the future Janeway travelling back in time to Voyager to return it to Earth sooner .
= = = Voyager relaunch novels = = =
In the noncanonical Voyager relaunch novels , written by Christie Golden , Chakotay is promoted after the ship returns to Federation space , and becomes Captain of Voyager . He and Seven of Nine break off their relationship . In Old Wounds , the first of the Spirit Walk two @-@ book series , the crew goes on their maiden cruise under Captain Chakotay and is joined by his sister , Sekaya , who 's become a spiritual leader in their tribe . In the second book , Enemy of my Enemy , Chakotay is replaced by a Founder who was previously pretending to be his first officer . Meanwhile , the real Chakotay and his sister are being held by a deranged Cardassian doctor , forcing Chakotay to undergo a spirit walk to save them both .
Janeway and Chakotay became romantically involved after their return from the Delta Quadrant , and following her death after her assimilation by the Borg in the Star Trek : The Next Generation novel Before Dishonor , Chakotay resigns his commission and Afsarah Eden becomes the new Captain of Voyager . However , in the very next novel by Kirsten Beyer , Unworthy , Eden is promoted to fleet commander and Chakotay is restored as captain of Voyager .
= = Reception = =
Some criticism was directed at Chakotay 's character development during the series . James Lileks for the Star Tribune said that " Chakotay , the rock @-@ solid First Officer , remained rock @-@ solid " , but also suggested that " [ a ] ll of the characters ended the series as they began . "
Critics commented on the relationship between Janeway and Chakotay , with psychologist Richard Borofsky 's views published in The Boston Herald . He suggesting that by several seasons into Voyager , Chakotay had come to terms with his feelings for his Captain , but she was hesitant about entering into a relationship with a member of her crew . For the relationship to work in the future , it was said that Chakotay should not try to lead the relationship and Janeway needed to be more vulnerable . Following the end of Star Trek : Enterprise , the romance between Chakotay and Janeway was described in The Chicago Tribune as the one most wanted to be seen on screen in any of the Star Trek series , but that " it never panned out . Dang ! " Chakotay 's relationship with Seven was also commented on , and both UGO and io9 complained that the relationship appeared at random .
= = = Themes = = =
Chakotay 's inclusion in the main cast of Voyager was seen by critics as one of several who was used to highlight the diversity within the series . This was highlighted during the episode " Faces " in which one scene showed Janeway , Tuvok , Harry Kim , and Chakotay in a single camera pan . Chakotay 's individual position was that he was " continually positioned as an exotic native other in relation to the white female Captain Janeway " , and was used to " help the white protagonist and progress the internal narrative . "
The placement of a character of indigenous peoples descent in science fiction was highlighted in the media . Drew Hayden Taylor said that Chakotay was " [ p ] erhaps the most well @-@ known " . Of Chakotay 's origin , he said , " They never actually say what nation he is , but I do believe it 's some Central American tribe . " Hayden Taylor wrote in a later article in 2012 describing the rise of Native American characters in the Twilight film series that Chakotay was still the sole popular example of a Native American character in science fiction . Chakotay was also described as " the only First Nations role model around in a futuristic setting " in the 2005 book , " Indian " Stereotypes in TV Science Fiction : First Nations ' Voices Speak Out , but was also referred to as the " quintessential Tonto in outer space " . A similar criticism was highlighted of the character in Medicine Bags and Dog Tags : American Indian Veterans from Colonial Times to the Second Iraq War ( 2008 ) , which called Chakotay " a creature of white fantasies " and suggested that he was " far more stereotypical than Tonto " as " at least Tonto was heroic and saved the Lone Ranger once in awhile " .
Although religion was referenced during the Star Trek franchise , such as in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Who Mourns for Adonais ? " , it did not take a more prominent role until later in the series , with Star Trek : Deep Space Nine exploring the Bajorans ' beliefs and Voyager concentrating on those of Chakotay . These included vision quests , and other interpretation of Native American culture which were described by critics as showing a " very Hollywood version of Plains @-@ culture religion " .
The appearance of a medicine wheel in the episode " Cathexis " was described by Sierra S. Adare as showing Chakotay in the " ' good Indian ' in the classic Pocahontas sense " . Chakotay is seen attempting to introduce rituals and meditation techniques to other crew members , something they failed to understand . These were said to be contrary to the tribal history described in " Tattoo " , which was said to say that Chakotay 's tribe descended from a pre @-@ Mayan culture in Central America . Adare attributed this to Euro @-@ American / European writers writing inaccurate information into scripts . However , the appearance of the character was described as " groundbreaking " .
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= Arthur Bell ( footballer ) =
Arthur A. Bell ( November 1882 – 22 April 1923 ) was an English footballer who played as an inside forward . He started his career with Burnley Belvedere before joining Football League side Burnley in 1902 . Over the next seven years , Bell made 101 league appearances and scored 28 goals for the Lancashire club . During his career , he won three caps for the England national amateur football team . An architect by trade , Bell also played as an amateur cricketer for Burnley Cricket Club for 20 years , during which time he won five Lancashire League championships . He was selected to represent the Lancashire Second XI on three occasions .
= = Biography = =
Bell was born in Burnley , Lancashire , in November 1882 , one of three children born to Thomas and Elizabeth Bell . He was educated at the Burnley Grammar School . An amateur throughout his sporting career , he worked professionally as an architect and would often miss matches due to work commitments . In 1911 , he was involved in the building of the new Brunshaw Road stand at the Turf Moor stadium in Burnley . He died on 22 April 1923 , at the age of 40 .
= = Football = =
As a youth , Bell played amateur football with Burnley Belvedere before joining Football League Second Division side Burnley in February 1902 . He made his debut for the club on 10 January 1903 in the 1 – 0 win against Lincoln City at Turf Moor ; the winning goal was scored by Cuthbert Storey , who was also playing in his first senior match after transferring from Burnley Belvedere . Bell was selected once more in the 1902 – 03 campaign , playing at left inside forward in the 1 – 3 defeat to Leicester Fosse on 24 January 1903 . He was unable to break into the team for the first five months of the following season due to the form of fellow inside forward William Jackson , a new signing from Barrow . He made his first appearance of the campaign in the goalless draw away at Grimsby Town on 30 January 1904 . Bell scored his first competitive goal for Burnley in the 2 – 0 win over Gainsborough Trinity three weeks later , and on 12 March he scored a late goal in the 1 – 3 loss away to Manchester United . In total , Bell played eleven league matches during the 1903 – 04 season and scored four goals .
Bell was selected to play in the opening match of the 1904 – 05 season , a 1 – 4 home defeat to West Bromwich Albion . Bell kept his place in the side for the following match against Chesterfield , but was dropped for the trip to Bolton Wanderers in favour of youngster William Hutchinson , a summer signing from non @-@ League club Alston . He was recalled for the visit of Liverpool on 22 October 1904 , deputising for the unavailable Doug MacFarlane , but then spent more than two months out of the team . Bell made two further appearances for Burnley that season , playing in consecutive defeats to Bolton Wanderers and Blackpool in January 1905 . He found himself more involved in the first @-@ team during the 1905 – 06 campaign , making 19 league appearances . On 13 January 1906 , he played in the first FA Cup game of his career as Burnley were eliminated by Southern League side Tottenham Hotspur in the first round . Bell scored his first goal of the season on 10 February 1906 , netting the opening goal in the 2 – 2 draw against Burslem Port Vale . During March 1906 , he scored in the home wins over Leeds City and Chelsea .
After missing the first three matches of the 1906 – 07 season due to cricketing commitments , Bell was chosen to replace McFarlane for the visit of Nottingham Forest on 15 September 1906 . Two weeks later he scored twice in the 4 – 0 home win over Burton United , and went on to score three more goals in his next four appearances , including a late winner away at Leeds City . However , the victory was overshadowed by the news that Leeds forward Soldier Wilson had died after collapsing during the match . Bell went on to score a total of 12 goals in 1906 – 07 , his highest return in a single season . His performances for Burnley led to a call @-@ up from the England amateur team in April 1907 , and he won his first cap in the 8 – 1 defeat of the Netherlands in The Hague . In the match , he played alongside full England internationals Harold Hardman and Vivian Woodward , who , like Bell , was a professional architect .
Although he again missed the opening month of the following season , Bell quickly reclaimed his status as one of Burnley 's first @-@ choice players , starting 26 league matches during the campaign . He scored on his first appearance of the season in the 2 – 2 draw away at Derby County , and scored twice in the 5 – 1 win against Grimsby Town on 2 November 1907 . Bell scored the only FA Cup goal of his career in the home tie against Southampton on 11 January 1908 , but could not prevent the Southern League side securing a 2 – 1 victory . He continued to play for Burnley when work and cricket allowed in the 1908 – 09 campaign , making 15 league appearances . He scored twice during the season ; he scored in the 1 – 4 defeat away at Oldham Athletic on 14 November , and scored the winning goal in the 3 – 2 defeat of Barnsley on 5 December . Bell played in 101st and final league game for Burnley in the 0 – 1 loss at Derby County on 26 December 1908 . He retired from football shortly afterwards , stating that playing football in winter in addition to cricket during the summer , combined with managing an architecture practice , was too demanding .
= = = Career statistics = = =
= = Cricket = =
Aside from football , Bell was also an accomplished amateur cricketer ; he assisted Burnley Cricket Club between 1899 and 1919 , and would often choose to play cricket rather than football when the seasons overlapped . He was a member of the side that won the Lancashire League in 1901 and went on to captain the team that won three consecutive titles in 1906 , 1907 and 1908 . Bell won a fifth Lancashire League title with Burnley in the 1913 season . A left @-@ handed batsman , he also bowled slow left arm . Bell represented the Lancashire Second XI on three occasions in 1905 and 1906 . He was selected for two matches against the Surrey and Yorkshire second teams during the 1905 season and on 9 July 1906 he played in the Minor Counties Championship draw with Staffordshire at Turf Moor , entering play as a substitute after Herbert Rhodes was injured while fielding .
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= Domestic sheep reproduction =
As with other mammals , domestic sheep reproduction occurs sexually . Their reproductive strategy is very similar to other domestic herd animals . A flock of sheep is generally mated by a single ram , which has either been chosen by a farmer or has established dominance through physical contest with other rams ( in feral populations ) . Most sheep have a breeding season ( tupping ) in the autumn , though some are able to breed year @-@ round .
Largely as a result of the influence of humans in sheep breeding , ewes often produce multiple lambs . This increase in the lamb births , both in number and birth weight , may cause problems in delivery and lamb survival , requiring the intervention of shepherds .
= = Sexual behavior = =
Ewes generally reach sexual maturity at six to eight months of age , and rams generally at four to six ( ram lambs have occasionally been known to impregnate their mothers at two months ) . Ewes enter into estrus cycles about every 17 days , which last for approximately 30 hours . In addition to emitting a scent , they indicate readiness through physical displays towards rams . Sheep may display homosexuality , which occurs in about eight percent of rams . Its occurrence does not seem to be related to flock hierarchy ( as some homosexual behavior is in mammals ) , rather the ram 's typical motor pattern for intercourse is directed at rams instead of ewes . The phenomenon of the freemartin , a female bovine that is behaviorally masculine and lacks functioning ovaries , is commonly associated with cattle , but does occur to some extent in sheep . The instance of freemartins in sheep may be increasing in concert with the rise in twinning ( freemartins are the result of male @-@ female twin combinations ) .
= = = Rutting = = =
Without human intervention , rams may fight during the rut to determine which individuals may mate with ewes . Rams , especially unfamiliar ones , will also fight outside the breeding period to establish dominance ; rams can kill one another if allowed to mix freely . During the rut , even normally friendly rams may become aggressive towards humans due to increases in their hormone levels .
Historically , especially aggressive rams were sometimes blindfolded or hobbled . Today , those who keep rams typically prefer softer preventative measures , such as moving within a clear line to an exit , never turning their back on a ram , and possibly dousing with water or a diluted solution of bleach or vinegar to dissuade charges .
= = Pregnancy = =
Without ultrasound or other special tools , determining if a sheep is pregnant is difficult . Ewes only begin to visibly show a pregnancy about six weeks before giving birth , so shepherds often rely on the assumption that a ram will impregnate all the ewes in a flock . However , by fitting a ram with a chest harness called a marking harness that holds a special crayon ( or raddle , sometimes spelled reddle ) , ewes that have been mounted are marked with a color . Dye may also be directly applied to the ram 's brisket . This measure is not used in flocks where wool is important , since the color of a raddle contaminates it .
After mating , sheep have a gestation period of around five months . Within a few days of the impending birth , ewes begin to behave differently . They may lie down and stand erratically , paw the ground , or otherwise act out of sync with normal flock patterns . A ewe 's udder will quickly fill out , and her vulva will swell . Vaginal , uterine or anal prolapse may also occur , in which case either stitching or a physical retainer can be used to hold the orifice in if the problem persists .
= = = Artificial insemination and embryo transfer = = =
In addition to natural insemination by rams , artificial insemination and embryo transfers have been used in sheep breeding programs for many years in Australia and New Zealand . These programs have become more commonplace in the United States during the 2000s as the number of veterinarians qualified to perform these types of procedures with proficiency have grown . However , ovine AI is a relatively complicated procedure compared to other livestock . Unlike cattle or goats , which have straight cervices that can be vaginally inseminated , ewes have a curved cervix which is more difficult to access . Additionally , breeders were until recently unable to control their ewe 's estrus cycles . The ability to control the estrus cycle is much easier today because of products that safely assist in aligning heat cycles . Some examples of products are PG600 , CIDRs , Estrumate and Folltropin V. These products contain progesterone which will bring on the induction of estrus in ewes ( sheep ) during seasonal anestrus . Seasonal anestrus is when ewes do not have regular estrous cycles outside the natural breeding season .
Historically , vaginal insemination of sheep only produced 40 @-@ 60 % success rates , and was thus called a " shot in the dark " ( SID ) . In the 1980s , Australian researchers developed a laparoscopic insemination procedure which , combined with the use of progestogen and pregnant mare 's serum gonadotropin ( PMSG ) , yielded much higher success rates ( 50 @-@ 80 % or more ) , and has become the standard for artificial insemination of sheep in the 21st century .
Semen collection is naturally an integral component of this entire process . Once semen has been collected it can be used immediately for insemination or slowly frozen for use at a later date . Fresh semen is recognized as the method of choice as it lives longer and yields higher conception rates . Frozen semen will work but it must be the highest quality of semen and the ewes must be inseminated twice in the same day . The marketing of ram semen is a major part of this industry . Producers owning prize winning rams have found this to be a good avenue to leverage the accolades of their most famous animals .
During embryo transfer ( ET ) a minor surgical procedure with almost no risk of injury or infection when performed properly , sheep laparoscopy allows the importation of improved genetics , even of breeds which may otherwise be non @-@ existent in certain countries due to the regulation of live animal imports . Embryo transfer procedures are used to allow producers to maximize those females that produce the best lambs / kids either for retention into the flock or for sale to other producers . ET also allows producers to continue to utilize a ewe / doe that may not physically be able to carry or feed a set of lambs . ET can allow a producer to grow his flock quickly with above average individuals of similar bloodlines . The primary industry to utilize this technology in the United States is the club lamb breeders and exhibitors . It is a common practice in the commercial sheep industries of Australia , New Zealand , and South America .
Average success rates in Embryo Transfer in terms of embryos recovered can vary widely . Each breed will respond differently to the ET process . Typically white faced ewes and does are more fertile than black faced ewes . A range of zero to the mid 20 ’ s in terms of viable embryos recovered from a flush procedure can be expected . Over the course of a year the average is 6 @.@ 8 transferrable eggs per donor with a 75 % conception rate for those eggs .
A big part of modern sheep reproduction is overall breeding animal health . In an effort to help improve animal health and ultimately performance many progressive breeders rely on PROGEN . Evidence based research substantiated by reliable field trials have shown improved performance in sheep . The name comes from the progenitor cells of the body . The progenitor cells are differentiated stem cells with specific direction and purpose to become the future building blocks of the body . The goal for PROGEN is to support the body at the most fundamental levels encouraging efficient development of the progenitor cells . This approach is to impact the entire animal starting with immune function , gastrointestinal health , vascular system , and importantly reproduction efficiency .
= = Lambing = =
When birth is imminent , contractions begin to take place , and the fitful behavior of the ewe may increase . A normal labor may take one to several hours , depending on how many lambs are present , the age of the ewe , and her physical and nutritional condition prior to the birth . Though some breeds may regularly produce larger litters of lambs ( records stand around nine lambs at once ) , most produce either single or twin lambs . At some point , usually at the beginning of labor or soon after the births have occurred , ewes and lambs may be confined to small lambing jugs . These pens , which are generally two to eight feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) in length and width , are designed to aid both careful observation of ewes and to cement the bond between them and their lambs .
Ovine obstetrics can be problematic . By selectively breeding ewes that produce multiple offspring with higher birth weights for generations , sheep producers have inadvertently caused some domestic sheep to have difficulty lambing . However , it is a myth that sheep cannot lamb without human assistance ; many ewes give birth directly in pasture without aid. this can be proven by the fact that they give birth in the wild . Balancing ease of lambing with high productivity is one of the dilemmas of sheep breeding . While the majority of births are relatively normal and do not require intervention , many complications may arise . A lamb may present in the normal fashion ( with both legs and head forward ) , but may simply be too large to slide out of the birth canal . This often happens when large rams are crossed with diminutive ewes ( this is related to breed , rams are naturally larger than ewes by comparison ) . Lambs may also present themselves with one shoulder to the side , completely backward , or with only some of their limbs protruding . Lambs may also be spontaneously aborted or stillborn . Reproductive failure is a common consequence of infections such as toxoplasmosis and foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease . Some types of abortion in sheep are preventable by vaccinations against these infections .
In the case of any such problems , those present at lambing ( who may or may not include a veterinarian , most shepherds become accomplished at lambing to some degree ) may assist the ewe in extracting or repositioning lambs . After the birth , ewes ideally break the amniotic sac ( if it is not broken during labor ) , and begin licking clean the lamb . The licking clears the nose and mouth , dries the lamb , and stimulates it . Lambs that are breathing and healthy at this point begin trying to stand , and ideally do so between a half and full hour , with help from the mother . Generally after lambs stand , the umbilical cord is trimmed to about an inch ( 2 @.@ 5 centimeters ) . Once trimmed , a small container ( such as a film canister ) of iodine is held against the lamb 's belly over the remainder of the cord to prevent infection .
= = Postnatal care = =
In normal situations , lambs nurse after standing , receiving vital colostrum milk . Lambs that either fail to nurse or are prevented from doing so by the ewe require aid in order to live . If coaxing the pair to accept nursing does not work , one of several steps may then be taken . Ewes may be held or tied to force them to accept a nursing lamb . If a lamb is not eating , a stomach tube may also be used to force feed the lamb in order to save its life . In the case of a permanently rejected lamb , a shepherd may then attempt to foster an orphaned lamb onto another ewe . Lambs are also sometimes fostered after the death of their mother , either from the birth or other event .
Scent plays a large factor in ewes recognizing their lambs , so disrupting the scent of a newborn lamb with washing or over @-@ handling may cause a ewe to reject it . Conversely , various methods of imparting the scent of a ewe 's own lamb to an orphaned one may be useful in fostering . If an orphaned lamb cannot be fostered , then it usually becomes what is known as a bottle lamb — a lamb raised by people and fed via bottle .
After lambs are stabilized , lamb marking is carried out – this includes ear tagging , docking , castration and usually vaccination . Ear tags with numbers are the primary mode of identification when sheep are not named ; it is also the legal manner of animal identification in the European Union : the number may identify the individual sheep or only its flock . When performed at an early age , ear tagging seems to cause little or no discomfort to lambs . However , using tags improperly or using tags not designed for sheep may cause discomfort , largely due to excess weight of tags for other animals .
Ram lambs not intended for breeding are castrated , though some shepherds choose to avoid the procedure for ethical , economic or practical reasons . Ram lambs that will be slaughtered or separated from ewes before sexual maturity are not usually castrated . In most breeds , lambs ' tails are docked for health reasons . The tail may be removed just below the lamb 's caudal tail flaps ( docking shorter than this may cause health problems such as rectal prolapse ) , but in some breeds the tail is left longer , or is not docked at all . Docking is not necessary in short @-@ tailed breeds , and it is not usually done in breeds in which a long tail is valued , such as Zwartbles . Though docking is often considered cruel and unnatural by animal rights activists , it is considered by sheep producers large and small alike to be a critical step in maintaining the health of sheep . Long , wooly tails make shearing more difficult , interfere with mating , and make sheep extremely susceptible to parasites , especially those that cause flystrike . Both castration and docking can be performed with several instruments . An elastrator places a tight band of rubber around an area , causing it to atrophy and fall off in a number of weeks . This process is bloodless and does not seem to cause extended suffering to lambs , who tend to ignore it after several hours . In addition to the elastrator , a Burdizzo , emasculator , heated chisel or knife are sometimes used . After one to three days in the lambing jugs , ewes and lambs are usually sufficiently stabilized to allow reintroduction to the rest of the flock .
= = Commercial sheep breeding = =
In the large sheep producing nations of South America , Australia and New Zealand sheep are usually bred on large tracts of land with much less intervention from the graziers or breeders . Merinos , and much of the land in these countries does not lend itself to the mob intervention that is found in smaller flock breeding countries . In these countries there is little need , and no option but for ewes to lamb outdoors as there are insufficient structures to handle the large flocks of ewes there . New Zealand ewes produce 36 million lambs each spring time , which is an average of 2 @,@ 250 lambs per farm . Australian graziers , too , do not receive the financial support that governments in other countries provide to sheep breeders . Low @-@ cost sheep breeding is based on large numbers of sheep per labour unit and having ewes that are capable of unsupervised lambing to produce hardy , active lambs .
= = Managerial aspects = =
For breeders intent on strict improvements to their flocks , ewes are classed and inferior sheep are removed prior to mating in order to maintain or improve the quality of the flock . Muffled ( wooly ) faces have long been associated with lower fertility rates . Stud or specially selected rams are chosen with aid of objective measurements , genetic information and evaluation services that are now available in Australia and New Zealand . The choice of mating time is governed by many factors including climate , market requirements and feed availability . Rams are typically mated at about 2 @.@ 5 % depending on the age of the sheep , plus consideration as to the size and type of mating paddocks . The mating period ranges from about 6 to 8 weeks in commercial flocks . Longer mating times result in management problems with lamb marking and shearing etc .
Good nutrition is vital to ewes during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy in order to prevent pregnancy toxaemia , especially in twin bearing ewes . Overfeeding , however , may result in over large single lambs and dystocia . Shearing ewes before lambing reduces the number of ewes that are cast ( i.e. unable to rise unassisted ) , and the number of lambs and ewes that are lost . Lambs , too , are aided in finding the udder and suckling a shorn ewe .
After shearing ewes are typically placed in well sheltered paddocks that have good feed and water . Attention to ewes that are lambing varies according to the breed , size and locations of properties . Unless they are stud ewes it unlikely that they will receive intensive care . On stations with large paddocks there is a policy of non @-@ interference . On other properties the mobs are inspected by stockmen at varying intervals to stand cast ewes and deal with dystocia . Producers also sometimes quietly drift pregnant ewes away from ewes that have already lambed , in order to prevent mis @-@ mothering .
Lambs are usually marked at three to six weeks of age , but a protracted lambing season may necessitate two markings .
= = = Inbreeding depression = = =
Inbreeding tends to occur in flocks of limited size and where only a single or a few rams are used . Associated with inbreeding is a decline in progeny performance usually referred to as inbreeding depression . Inbreeding depression has been found for lamb birthweight , average daily weight gain from birth until two months , and litter size .
= = Other countries = =
In the major sheep countries of Argentina , Uruguay , Brazil , Peru and Chile , breeders are also utilizing fleece testing and performance recording schemes as a means of improving their flocks .
= = New research = =
In 2008 , for the first time in history , researchers at Chiswick CSIRO research station , between Uralla and Armidale , New South Wales have used stem cells to develop surrogate rams and bulls . These males then produce the viable semen of another male .
The approach in these sheep experiments involves irradiating a ram ’ s testes while placing stem cells from a second ram into the testes of the first , ram A. In the following weeks ram A produces semen the usual way , but is using the stem cells of ram B and therefore producing semen carrying the genetics of ram B rather than those of his own . Ram A therefore has effectively become a surrogate ram .
The viable semen is then implanted in the ewe and the many lambs born through this process are proving to be normal and healthy . DNA tests have proved that up to 10 % of the lambs are sired by the surrogate ram and carry the genetics of the donor ram .
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= Mortal Folly / Mortal Recoil =
" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " are the twenty @-@ fourth and twenty @-@ fifth episodes of the second season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . " Mortal Folly " was written and storyboarded by Adam Muto and Rebecca Sugar , whereas " Mortal Recoil " was written and storyboarded by Jesse Moynihan and Cole Sanchez . Both were based on a story by Mark Banker , Kent Osborne , Patrick McHale , and series creator Pendleton Ward . The two episodes originally aired on Cartoon Network on May 2 , 2011 , and guest starred Ron Perlman as the Lich , and Isabella Acres as young Princess Bubblegum . Perlman 's character would become the series ' chief antagonist , and would reappear in several fourth and fifth season episodes .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In " Mortal Folly " , Finn and Jake must go on a quest to find the Lich ( voiced by Perlman ) , while the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) pesters them for their blessing to marry Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) . After seemingly defeating the Lich , however , the Ice King accidentally drops Bubblegum into the Lich 's well of power . In " Mortal Recoil " , Princess Bubblegum possessed by the spirit of the Lich , and Finn and Jake team up with the Ice King to stop him . After Bubblegum is seriously wounded and there is not enough candy bio @-@ mass to save her , she reverts to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old .
" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " marked the first time that one Adventure Time episode carried the plot into another episode . The plot was concluded with " Mortal Recoil " which aired on the same day . The episode introduced the Lich , who had first been proposed in the series ' pitch bible . Both episodes were supposed to air as the second season finale , but due to a studio mix @-@ up , they were aired as the penultimate episode , before " Heat Signature " . Despite this , they are still considered by Ward to function as the season two finale . Both episodes were watched by 1 @.@ 92 million people and received largely positive critical attention ; many critics enjoyed the way the episode began to set up the series ' mythology .
= = Plot = =
= = = " Mortal Folly " = = =
While meditating with Finn and Jake , Princess Bubblegum has a premonition involving the Lich , an evil undead sorcerer who was long ago trapped in a block of amber by the legendary hero Billy . Bubblegum tells Finn and Jake about the dream , and the three of them journey to the tree at the top of Bubblegum 's palace where the block of amber is hidden ; Bubblegum also places magical jewels on Finn and Jake 's heads that will prevent the Lich from exerting mind @-@ control on them . While examining the amber , a snail is placed under the Lich 's spell and helps break him out while Finn and Jake are not paying attention . The Lich then blasts out of the kingdom , leaving a wave of destruction in his path .
Finn and Jake , after acquiring the legendary gauntlet of Billy as well as a special pink sweater made by Bubblegum , give chase , but they are consistently interrupted by the Ice King , who keeps trying to get Finn and Jake 's blessings to marry Bubblegum . Fed up with their dismissive attitude , the Ice King kidnaps Bubblegum and follows Finn and Jake as the two heroes pursue the Lich . The Lich eventually reaches his lair , an abandoned subway station , and creates a pool of green liquid which he plans to use to regain his strength and destroy the world .
Finn , Jake , the Ice King , and Bubblegum follow the Lich into his lair . In the entanglement that follows , Billy 's gauntlet is destroyed by the Lich and Finn breaks his jewel . The Lich attempts to exert mind @-@ control on Finn , but Finn is able to resist . It is then revealed that the sweater Bubblegum gave to Finn has the power to repel the Lich due to it being imbued with " liking someone a lot " . Finn then takes the sweater and pushes it into the Lich 's eye sockets and rips his face apart , seemingly killing him . However , the Ice King accidentally drops Bubblegum into the Lich 's evil vat , to the horror of Finn and Jake .
= = = " Mortal Recoil " = = =
After Princess Bubblegum falls into the Lich 's well of power , she is rushed to the Candy Kingdom hospital and saved . However , the Ice King feels that something is awry and tries to warn Finn , but Finn angrily scolds him and tells him to leave the kingdom . Finn and Jake then focus their energy on taking care of Princess Bubblegum , whose behavior seems off . At first , she claims that she needs some rest , but soon she begins acting strangely , such as convulsing in her bed . Finn leaves to acquire items that Bubblegum requests — which includes weapons @-@ grade plutonium , ammonium , and gasoline among other items — and Jake tries to cheer Bubblegum up with a song .
This , however , back @-@ fires and Bubblegum ignites her bedroom with some sort of dark magic . It is apparent that Bubblegum has been possessed by the spirit of the Lich . Finn returns , and the two discover Bubblegum mixing the ingredients that Finn retrieved in her bathtub and then drinking it . She soon deforms and turns into a grotesque monster ; she hurls Finn and Jake through a wall and the two discover the Ice King . He finally tells them that he saw with his " wizard eyes " the spirit of the Lich descend into Bubblegum after she fell into the well of power . The three make an unlikely alliance , teaming up to beat the Lich @-@ possessed Bubblegum .
While Finn distracts her , the Ice King uses his ice powers to freeze Bubblegum . Their moment of success , however , is cut short when the still @-@ frozen Bubblegum tips over and shatters everywhere . Her body parts are again rushed to the hospital where she is reassembled . However , there are not enough pieces to complete her , and so she ends up reverting to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl . Finn , who is also 13 , is excited , but the Ice King temporarily gives up his pursuit of Bubblegum due to her age . As the episode ends , it is revealed that the Lich has once again possessed the body of the snail , who angrily waves goodbye to the camera .
= = Production = =
Both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " were directed by Larry Leichliter . The first half was written and storyboarded by Rebecca Sugar and Adam Muto , whereas the second half was written and storyboarded by Jesse Moynihan and Cole Sanchez . Both were based on a story by Mark Banker , Kent Osborne , Patrick McHale , and series creator Pendleton Ward . In the original outline for " Mortal Folly " , the Lich had several lines that played him off as a stereotypical villain . Sugar and Muto decided to make him into a more " scary and dangerous " character , and purposely played up the darker elements of the episode . In addition , Princess Bubblegum 's sweater was supposed to be " magic " and " shoot lasers " . However , Sugar felt that it would be more emotionally poignant if the sweater was just a regular sweater imbued with positive emotions . The scene featuring Finn stuffing the sweater into the Lich 's eye sockets and then ripping his skull apart was inspired by an artistic design idea Sugar had had when she was in high school ; she had wanted to draw a comic featuring a small person getting into a fight and being pushed up to the ceiling .
" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " feature the first substantial appearance of the Lich , the series ' primary antagonist . The Lich had appeared in concept drawings in the series ' pitch bible , which Ward himself had created in 2007 . Ward 's original drawing was re @-@ designed by former creative director McHale ; he purposely gave the Lich a desiccated and dried @-@ up look , and was instrumental in crafting the Lich 's rotting appearance . In both this episode and other episodes where the character appears , the Lich was voiced by Ron Perlman . The snail , an easter egg that appears in every episode , appears in the episodes and plays a prominent part . Originally , the snail was inspired by the in @-@ jokes in episodes of The Simpsons , and was Ward 's attempt to " make a game out of every episode of Adventure Time , where you could freeze @-@ frame and find things in the background " , such as the snail . However , in " Mortal Folly " , the snail serves as the catalyst for the Lich 's escape . The snail would also play an important part in other mythology @-@ heavy episodes like " In Your Footsteps " , and " The Lich " . Osborne later noted that the snail 's appearance was pleasing to fans who knew that the snail had been appearing in all the episodes and had actively searched for it before .
In the original storyboard , the Lich 's lair was not specifically designed to be a subway . This was added later by the background designers . The undead skeletons that attack Finn and Jake were originally supposed to be " specific undead from [ Dungeons & Dragons ] " . However , Ward changed his mind and tasked Andy Ristaino , a character designer for the series , with designing the corpses . Ristaino sough to make them look as if they were " east coast commuters [ all ] bundled up for winter . " He strove to make them look " specific " so that they would appear as people you might see on a subway , such as a bike messenger , a couple , man in a " goofy hat " , and a man wearing a suit . Originally , when the Lich set off his bomb , the storyboard featured a simple mushroom cloud . Ian Jones @-@ Quartey , one of the series ' storyboard revisionists , however , added a face to the blast . Ristaino then added skulls to the smoke . The series staff liked this version so much that they later included it on the title card .
Because a large amount of the action in " Mortal Recoil " takes place in Bubblegum 's bedroom , Moynihan was worried that the scenes would not carry interest and " people would get bored " . As such , Moynihan and Sanchez created the scenes " trying to be simultaneously funny and terrifying " . Ward noted that he liked to be " laughing and freaked out " , and that the scenes work in this manner . Former storyboard artist Adam Muto commented that the possession scenes turned out " nice and off @-@ putting " . Jones @-@ Quartey called the shot of a possessed Princess Bubblegum melting " terrifying " . Although the series tries to avoid " cartoon physics " , Sanchez and Moynihan were forced to work around this during the scene when Bubblegum throws Finn and Jake through a wall without harming them . Moynihan later rationalized that the wall was made of candy , and thus was harmless .
The end of " Mortal Recoil " introduced the plot thread of Bubblegum de @-@ aging to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl . This would be expanded upon and eventually resolved in the third season episode " Too Young " . The younger version of Bubblegum was voiced by Isabella Acres , who would reprise her role in " Too Young " . According to Moynihan , there were initially " rumors " to keep Bubblegum young for several episodes , but eventually her 13 @-@ year @-@ old version was relegated to only two appearances before she reverted to normal .
= = Reception = =
" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " first aired on Cartoon Network on May 2 , 2011 . Both episodes were viewed by 1 @.@ 92 million viewers and scored a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 3 / 2 percent . This means it was seen by 1 @.@ 3 percent of all households and 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . The episodes first saw physical release as part of the 2012 Adventure Time : Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow DVD , which included 16 episodes from the series ' first three seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete second season DVD in June 2013 . The season was originally supposed to end with " Mortal Folly " / " Mortal Recoil " , but due to a scheduling conflict , " Heat Signature " was the last episode of the second season aired . Despite this , Ward still considers the two @-@ parter to be the real season finale , and the two entries are the last episodes featured on the second season DVD release .
Tyler Foster of DVD Talk praised both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " , noting that , despite the fact that the episodes represented only " the beginning of the show 's journey into direct serialization " , the story @-@ arc was nonetheless " a tantalizing taste of what 's to come . " Wired magazine noted it as one of the stand @-@ outs from the Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow DVD , calling it a " three @-@ part suite " , which concluded with the third season episode " Too Young " . The review enjoyed the way the episode set the stage for the apparent death , resurrection , and de @-@ aging for Princess Bubblegum , which became a major plot point in the next season . Matt Fowler of IGN praised both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " , specifically giving applause to the introduction of the Lich , noting that he is " a real , grotesque villain inserted into the merely semi @-@ dark world of Adventure Time " . Fowler ended up being very happy with the two episodes , writing that they end the season " strong " .
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= Mathematics and architecture =
Mathematics and architecture are related , since , as with other arts , architects use mathematics for several reasons . Apart from the mathematics needed when engineering buildings , architects use geometry : to define the spatial form of a building ; from the Pythagoreans of the sixth century BC onwards , to create forms considered harmonious , and thus to lay out buildings and their surroundings according to mathematical , aesthetic and sometimes religious principles ; to decorate buildings with mathematical objects such as tessellations ; and to meet environmental goals , such as to minimise wind speeds around the bases of tall buildings .
In Ancient Egypt , Ancient Greece , India , and the Islamic world , buildings including pyramids , temples , mosques , palaces and mausoleums were laid out with specific proportions for religious reasons . In Islamic architecture , geometric shapes and geometric tiling patterns are used to decorate buildings , both inside and outside . Some Hindu temples have a fractal @-@ like structure where parts resemble the whole , conveying a message about the infinite in Hindu cosmology . In the twenty @-@ first century , mathematical ornamentation is again being used to cover public buildings .
In Renaissance architecture , symmetry and proportion were deliberately emphasized by architects such as Leon Battista Alberti , Sebastiano Serlio and Andrea Palladio , influenced by Vitruvius 's De architectura from Ancient Rome and the arithmetic of the Pythagoreans from Ancient Greece . At the end of the nineteenth century , Vladimir Shukhov in Russia and Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona pioneered the use of hyperboloid structures ; in the Sagrada Família , Gaudí also incorporated hyperbolic paraboloids , tessellations , catenary arches , catenoids , helicoids , and ruled surfaces . In the twentieth century , styles such as modern architecture and Deconstructivism explored different geometries to achieve desired effects . Minimal surfaces have been exploited in tent @-@ like roof coverings as at Denver International Airport , while Richard Buckminster Fuller pioneered the use of the strong thin @-@ shell structures known as geodesic domes .
= = Connected fields = =
The architects Michael Ostwald and Kim Williams , considering the relationships between architecture and mathematics , note that the fields as commonly understood might seem to be only weakly connected , since architecture is a profession concerned with the practical matter of making buildings , while mathematics is the pure study of number and other abstract objects . But , they argue , the two are strongly connected , and have been since antiquity . In Ancient Rome , Vitruvius described an architect as a man who knew enough of a range of other disciplines , primarily geometry , to enable him to oversee skilled artisans in all the other necessary areas , such as masons and carpenters . The same applied in the Middle Ages , where graduates learnt arithmetic , geometry and aesthetics alongside the basic syllabus of grammar , logic , and rhetoric ( the trivium ) in elegant halls made by master builders who had guided many craftsmen . A master builder at the top of his profession was given the title of architect or engineer . In the Renaissance , the quadrivium of arithmetic , geometry , music and astronomy became an extra syllabus expected of the Renaissance man such as Leon Battista Alberti . Similarly in England , Sir Christopher Wren , known today as an architect , was firstly a noted astronomer .
Williams and Ostwald , further overviewing the interaction of mathematics and architecture since 1500 according to the approach of the German sociologist Theodor Adorno , identify three tendencies among architects , namely : to be revolutionary , introducing wholly new ideas ; reactionary , failing to introduce change ; or revivalist , actually going backwards . They argue that architects have avoided looking to mathematics for inspiration in revivalist times . This would explain why in revivalist periods , such as the Gothic Revival in 19th century England , architecture had little connection to mathematics . Equally , they note that in reactionary times such as the Italian Mannerism of about 1520 to 1580 , or the 17th century Baroque and Palladian movements , mathematics was barely consulted . In contrast , the revolutionary early 20th century movements such as Futurism and Constructivism actively rejected old ideas , embracing mathematics and leading to Modernist architecture . Towards the end of the 20th century , too , fractal geometry was quickly seized upon by architects , as was aperiodic tiling , to provide interesting and attractive coverings for buildings .
Architects use mathematics for several reasons , leaving aside the necessary use of mathematics in the engineering of buildings . Firstly , they use geometry because it defines the spatial form of a building . Secondly , they use mathematics to design forms that are considered beautiful or harmonious . From the time of the Pythagoreans with their religious philosophy of number , architects in Ancient Greece , Ancient Rome , the Islamic world and the Italian Renaissance have chosen the proportions of the built environment – buildings and their designed surroundings – according to mathematical as well as aesthetic and sometimes religious principles . Thirdly , they may use mathematical objects such as tessellations to decorate buildings . Fourthly , they may use mathematics in the form of computer modelling to meet environmental goals , such as to minimise whirling air currents at the base of tall buildings .
= = Harmonious spatial forms = =
= = = Secular aesthetics = = =
= = = = Ancient Rome = = = =
= = = = = Vitruvius = = = = =
The influential Ancient Roman architect Vitruvius argued that the design of a building such as a temple depends on two qualities , proportion and symmetria . Proportion ensures that each part of a building relates harmoniously to every other part . Symmetria in Vitruvius 's usage means something closer to the English term modularity than mirror symmetry , as again it relates to the assembling of ( modular ) parts into the whole building . In his Basilica at Fano , he uses ratios of small integers , especially the triangular numbers ( 1 , 3 , 6 , 10 , ... ) to proportion the structure into ( Vitruvian ) modules . Thus the Basilica 's width to length is 1 : 2 ; the aisle around it is as high as it is wide , 1 : 1 ; the columns are five feet thick and fifty feet high , 1 : 10 .
Vitruvius named three qualities required of architecture in his De architectura , c . 15 B.C. : firmness , usefulness ( or " Commodity " in Henry Wotton 's 16th century English ) , and delight . These can be used as categories for classifying the ways in which mathematics is used in architecture . Firmness encompasses the use of mathematics to ensure a building stands up , hence the mathematical tools used in design and to support construction , for instance to ensure stability and to model performance . Usefulness derives in part from the effective application of mathematics , reasoning about and analysing the spatial and other relationships in a design . Delight is an attribute of the resulting building , resulting from the embodying of mathematical relationships in the building ; it includes aesthetic , sensual and intellectual qualities .
= = = = = The Pantheon = = = = =
The Pantheon in Rome has survived intact , illustrating classical Roman structure , proportion , and decoration . The main structure is a dome , the apex left open as a circular oculus to let in light ; it is fronted by a short colonnade with a triangular pediment . The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same , 43 @.@ 3 metres ( 142 ft ) , so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube , and the interior could house a sphere of the same diameter . These dimensions make more sense when expressed in ancient Roman units of measurement : The dome spans 150 Roman feet ) ; the oculus is 30 Roman feet in diameter ; the doorway is 40 Roman feet high . The Pantheon remains the world 's largest unreinforced concrete dome .
= = = = Renaissance = = = =
The first Renaissance treatise on architecture was Leon Battista Alberti 's 1450 De re aedificatoria ( On the Art of Building ) ; it became the first printed book on architecture in 1485 . It was partly based on Vitruvius 's De architectura and , via Nicomachus , Pythagorean arithmetic . Alberti starts with a cube , and derives ratios from it . Thus the diagonal of a face gives the ratio 1 : √ 2 , while the diameter of the sphere which circumscribes the cube gives 1 : √ 3 . Alberti also documented Filippo Brunelleschi 's discovery of linear perspective , developed to enable the design of buildings which would look beautifully proportioned when viewed from a convenient distance .
The next major text was Sebastiano Serlio 's Regole generali d 'architettura ( General Rules of Architecture ) ; the first volume appeared in Venice in 1537 ; the 1545 volume ( books 1 and 2 ) covered geometry and perspective . Two of Serlio 's methods for constructing perspectives were wrong , but this did not stop his work being widely used .
In 1570 , Andrea Palladio published the influential I quattro libri dell 'architettura ( The Four Books of Architecture ) in Venice . This widely printed book was largely responsible for spreading the ideas of the Italian Renaissance throughout Europe , assisted by proponents like the English diplomat Henry Wotton with his 1624 The Elements of Architecture . The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3 : 4 and 4 : 5 , and the different rooms within the house were interrelated by these ratios . Earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical facade ; however , Palladio 's designs related to the whole , usually square , villa . Palladio permitted a range of ratios in the Quattro libri , stating :
There are seven types of room that are the most beautiful and well proportioned and turn out better : they can be made circular , though these are rare ; or square ; or their length will equal the diagonal of the square of the breadth ; or a square and a third ; or a square and a half ; or a square and two @-@ thirds ; or two squares .
In 1615 , Vincenzo Scamozzi published the late Renaissance treatise L 'Idea dell 'Architettura Universale ( The Idea of a Universal Architecture ) . He attempted to relate the design of cities and buildings to the ideas of Vitruvius and the Pythagoreans , and to the more recent ideas of Palladio .
= = = = Nineteenth century = = = =
Hyperboloid structures were used starting towards the end of the nineteenth century by Vladimir Shukhov for masts , lighthouses and cooling towers . Their striking shape is both aesthetically interesting and strong , using structural materials economically . Shukhov 's first hyperboloidal tower was exhibited in Nizhny Novgorod in 1896 .
= = = = Twentieth century = = = =
The early twentieth century movement Modern Architecture , pioneered by Russian Constructivism , used rectilinear Euclidean ( also called Cartesian ) geometry . In the De Stijl movement , the horizontal and the vertical were seen as constituting the universal . The architectural form consists of putting these two directional tendencies together , using roof planes , wall planes and balconies , which either slide past or intersect each other , as in the 1924 Rietveld Schröder House by Gerrit Rietveld .
Modernist architects were free to make use of curves as well as planes . Charles Holden 's 1933 Arnos station has a circular ticket hall in brick with a flat concrete roof . In 1938 , the Bauhaus painter Laszlo Moholy @-@ Nagy adopted Raoul Heinrich Francé 's seven biotechnical elements , namely the crystal , the sphere , the cone , the plane , the ( cuboidal ) strip , the ( cylindrical ) rod , and the spiral , as the supposed basic building blocks of architecture inspired by nature .
Le Corbusier proposed an anthropometric scale of proportions in architecture , the Modulor , based on the supposed height of a man . Le Corbusier 's 1955 Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut uses free @-@ form curves not describable in mathematical formulae . The shapes are said to be evocative of natural forms such as the prow of a ship or praying hands . The design is only at the largest scale : there is no hierarchy of detail at smaller scales , and thus no fractal dimension ; the same applies to other famous twentieth @-@ century buildings such as the Sydney Opera House , Denver International Airport , and the Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao .
Contemporary architecture , in the opinion of the 90 leading architects who responded to a 2010 World Architecture Survey , is extremely diverse ; the best was judged to be Frank Gehry 's Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao .
Denver International Airport 's terminal building , completed in 1995 , has a fabric roof supported as a minimal surface ( i.e. , its mean curvature is zero ) by steel cables . It evokes Colorado 's snow @-@ capped mountains and the teepee tents of Native Americans .
The architect Richard Buckminster Fuller is famous for designing strong thin @-@ shell structures known as geodesic domes . The Montréal Biosphère dome is 61 metres ( 200 ft ) high ; its diameter is 76 metres ( 249 ft ) .
Sydney Opera House has a dramatic roof consisting of soaring white vaults , reminiscent of ship 's sails ; to make them possible to construct using standardized components , the vaults are all composed of triangular sections of spherical shells with the same radius . These have the required uniform curvature in every direction .
The late twentieth century movement Deconstructivism creates deliberate disorder with what Nikos Salingaros in A Theory of Architecture calls random forms of high complexity by using non @-@ parallel walls , superimposed grids and complex 2 @-@ D surfaces , as in Frank Gehry 's Disney Concert Hall and Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao . Until the twentieth century , architecture students were obliged to have a grounding in mathematics . Salingaros argues that first " overly simplistic , politically @-@ driven " Modernism and then " anti @-@ scientific " Deconstructivism have effectively separated architecture from mathematics . He believes that this " reversal of mathematical values " is harmful , as the " pervasive aesthetic " of non @-@ mathematical architecture trains people " to reject mathematical information in the built environment " ; he argues that this has negative effects on society .
= = = Religious principles = = =
= = = = Ancient Egypt = = = =
The pyramids of Ancient Egypt are tombs constructed with deliberately chosen proportions , but which these were has been debated . The face angle is about 51 ° 85 ’ , and the ratio of the slant height to half the base length is 1 @.@ 619 , less than 1 % from the golden ratio . If this was the design method , it would imply the use of Kepler 's triangle ( face angle 51 ° 49 ’ ) . However it is more likely that the pyramids ' slope was chosen from the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle ( face angle 53 ° 8 ’ ) , known from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) ; or from the triangle with base to hypotenuse ratio 1 : 4 / π ( face angle 51 ° 50 ’ ) .
The possible use of the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle to lay out right angles , such as for the ground plan of a pyramid , and the knowledge of Pythagoras theorem which that would imply , has been much asserted . It was first conjectured by the historian Moritz Cantor in 1882 . It is known that right angles were laid out accurately in Ancient Egypt ; that their surveyors did use ropes for measurement ; that Plutarch recorded in Isis and Osiris ( around 100 AD ) that the Egyptians admired the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle ; and that the Berlin Papyrus 6619 from the Middle Kingdom ( before 1700 BC ) stated that " the area of a square of 100 is equal to that of two smaller squares . The side of one is ½ + ¼ the side of the other . " The historian of mathematics Roger L. Cooke observes that " It is hard to imagine anyone being interested in such conditions without knowing the Pythagorean theorem . " Against this , Cooke notes that no Egyptian text before 300 BC actually mentions the use of the theorem to find the length of a triangle 's sides , and that there are simpler ways to construct a right angle . Cooke concludes that Cantor 's conjecture remains uncertain : he guesses that the Ancient Egyptians probably did know the Pythagorean theorem , but that " there is no evidence that they used it to construct right angles " .
= = = = Ancient India = = = =
Vaastu Shastra , the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning , employs symmetrical drawings called mandalas . Complex calculations are used to arrive at the dimensions of a building and its components . The designs are intended to integrate architecture with nature , the relative functions of various parts of the structure , and ancient beliefs utilizing geometric patterns ( yantra ) , symmetry and directional alignments . However , early builders may have come upon mathematical proportions by accident . The mathematician Georges Ifrah notes that simple " tricks " with string and stakes can be used to lay out geometric shapes , such as ellipses and right angles .
The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing buildings have universal appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the viewer with a sense of scale at different viewing distances . For example , in Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century , and others such as the Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho , the parts and the whole have the same character , with fractal dimension in the range 1 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 8 . The cluster of smaller towers ( shikhara , lit . ' mountain ' ) about the tallest , central , tower which represents the holy Mount Kailash , abode of Lord Shiva , depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu cosmology . The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of towers grouped among smaller towers , themselves grouped among still smaller towers , that :
The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and consciousness , expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above , and at the same time housing the sacred deep within .
The Meenakshi Amman Temple is a large complex with multiple shrines , with the streets of Madurai laid out concentrically around it according to the shastras . The four gateways are tall towers ( gopurams ) with fractal @-@ like repetitive structure as at Hampi . The enclosures around each shrine are rectangular and surrounded by high stone walls .
= = = = Ancient Greece = = = =
Pythagoras ( c . 569 – c . 475 B.C. ) and his followers , the Pythagoreans , held that " all things are numbers " . They observed the harmonies produced by notes with specific small @-@ integer ratios of frequency , and argued that buildings too should be designed with such ratios . The Greek word symmetria originally denoted the harmony of architectural shapes in precise ratios from a building 's smallest details right up to its entire design .
The Parthenon is 69 @.@ 5 metres ( 228 ft ) long , 30 @.@ 9 metres ( 101 ft ) wide and 13 @.@ 7 metres ( 45 ft ) high to the cornice . This gives a ratio of width to length of 4 : 9 , and the same for height to width . Putting these together gives height : width : length of 16 : 36 : 81 , or to the delight of the Pythagoreans 42 : 62 : 92 . This sets the module as 0 @.@ 858 m . A 4 : 9 rectangle can be constructed as three contiguous rectangles with sides in the ratio 3 : 4 . Each half @-@ rectangle is then a convenient 3 : 4 : 5 right triangle , enabling the angles and sides to be checked with a suitably knotted rope . The inner area ( naos ) similarly has 4 : 9 proportions ( 21 @.@ 44 metres ( 70 @.@ 3 ft ) wide by 48 @.@ 3 m long ) ; the ratio between the diameter of the outer columns , 1 @.@ 905 metres ( 6 @.@ 25 ft ) , and the spacing of their centres , 4 @.@ 293 metres ( 14 @.@ 08 ft ) , is also 4 : 9 .
The Parthenon is considered by authors such as John Julius Norwich " the most perfect Doric temple ever built " . Its elaborate architectural refinements include " a subtle correspondence between the curvature of the stylobate , the taper of the naos walls and the entasis of the columns " . Entasis refers to the subtle diminution in diameter of the columns as they rise . The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand . As in other classical Greek temples , the platform has a slight parabolic upward curvature to shed rainwater and reinforce the building against earthquakes . The columns might therefore be supposed to lean outwards , but they actually lean slightly inwards so that if they carried on , they would meet about a mile above the centre of the building ; since they are all the same height , the curvature of the outer stylobate edge is transmitted to the architrave and roof above : " all follow the rule of being built to delicate curves " .
The golden ratio was known in 300 B.C. , when Euclid described the method of geometric construction . It has been argued that the golden ratio was used in the design of the Parthenon and other ancient Greek buildings , as well as sculptures , paintings , and vases . More recent authors such as Nikos Salingaros , however , doubt all these claims . Experiments by the computer scientist George Markowsky failed to find any preference for the golden rectangle .
= = = = Islamic architecture = = = =
The historian of Islamic art Antonio Fernandez @-@ Puertas suggests that the Alhambra , like the Great Mosque of Cordoba , was designed using the Hispano @-@ Muslim foot or codo of about 0 @.@ 62 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) . In the palace 's Court of the Lions , the proportions follow a series of surds . A rectangle with sides 1 and √ 2 has ( by Pythagoras 's theorem ) a diagonal of √ 3 , which describes the right triangle made by the sides of the court ; the series continues with √ 4 ( giving a 1 : 2 ratio ) , √ 5 and so on . The decorative patterns are similarly proportioned , √ 2 generating squares inside circles and eight @-@ pointed stars , √ 3 generating six @-@ pointed stars . There is no evidence to support earlier claims that the golden ratio was used in the Alhambra . The Court of the Lions is bracketed by the Hall of Two Sisters and the Hall of the Abencerrajes ; a regular hexagon can be drawn from the centres of these two halls and the four inside corners of the Court of the Lions .
The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne , Turkey , was built by Mimar Sinan to provide a space where the mihrab could be see from anywhere inside the building . The very large central space is accordingly arranged as an octagon , formed by 8 enormous pillars , and capped by a circular dome of 31 @.@ 25 metres ( 102 @.@ 5 ft ) diameter and 43 metres ( 141 ft ) high . The octagon is formed into a square with four semidomes , and externally by four exceptionally tall minarets , 83 metres ( 272 ft ) tall . The building 's plan is thus a circle inside an octagon inside a square .
= = = = Mughal architecture = = = =
Mughal architecture , as seen in the abandoned imperial city of Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal complex , has a distinctive mathematical order and a strong aesthetic based on symmetry and harmony .
The Taj Mahal exemplifies Mughal architecture , both representing paradise and displaying the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan 's power through its scale , symmetry and costly decoration . The white marble mausoleum , decorated with pietra dura , the great gate ( Darwaza @-@ i rauza ) , other buildings , the gardens and paths together form a unified hierarchical design . The buildings include a mosque in red sandstone on the west , and an almost identical building , the Jawab or ' answer ' on the east to maintain the bilateral symmetry of the complex . The formal charbagh ( ' fourfold garden ' ) is in four parts , symbolising the four rivers of paradise , and offering views and reflections of the mausoleum . These are divided in turn into 16 parterres .
The Taj Mahal complex was laid out on a grid , subdivided into smaller grids . The historians of architecture Koch and Barraud agree with the traditional accounts that give the width of the complex as 374 Mughal yards or gaz , the main area being three 374 @-@ gaz squares . These were divided in areas like the bazaar and caravanserai into 17 @-@ gaz modules ; the garden and terraces are in modules of 23 gaz , and are 368 gaz wide ( 16 x 23 ) . The mausoleum , mosque and guest house are laid out on a grid of 7 gaz . Koch and Barraud observe that if an octagon , used repeatedly in the complex , is given sides of 7 units , then it has a width of 17 units , which may help to explain the choice of ratios in the complex .
= = = = Christian architecture = = = =
The Christian patriarchal basilica of Haghia Sophia in Byzantium ( now Istanbul ) , first constructed in 537 ( and twice rebuilt ) , was for a thousand years the largest cathedral ever built . It inspired many later buildings including Sultan Ahmed and other mosques in the city . The Byzantine architecture includes a nave crowned by a circular dome and two half @-@ domes , all of the same diameter ( 31 metres ( 102 ft ) ) , with a further five smaller half @-@ domes forming an apse and four rounded corners of a vast rectangular interior . This was interpreted by mediaeval architects as representing the mundane below ( the square base ) and the divine heavens above ( the soaring spherical dome ) . The emperor Justinian used two geometers , Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles as architects ; Isidore compiled the works of Archimedes on solid geometry , and was influenced by him .
The importance of water baptism in Christianity was reflected in the scale of baptistry architecture . The oldest , the Lateran Baptistry in Rome , built in 440 , set a trend for octagonal baptistries ; the baptismal font inside these buildings was often octagonal , though Italy 's largest baptistry , at Pisa , built between 1152 and 1363 , is circular , with an octagonal font . It is 54 @.@ 86 metres ( 180 @.@ 0 ft ) high , with a diameter of 34 @.@ 13 metres ( 112 @.@ 0 ft ) ( a ratio of 8 : 5 ) . Saint Ambrose wrote that fonts and baptistries were octagonal " because on the eighth day , by rising , Christ loosens the bondage of death and receives the dead from their graves . " Saint Augustine similarly described the eighth day as " everlasting ... hallowed by the resurrection of Christ " . The octagonal Baptistry of Saint John , Florence , built between 1059 and 1128 , is one of the oldest buildings in that city , and one of the last in the direct tradition of classical antiquity ; it was extremely influential in the subsequent Florentine Renaissance , as major architects including Francesco Talenti , Alberti and Brunelleschi used it as the model of classical architecture .
The number five is used " exuberantly " in the 1721 Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená hora , near Žďár nad Sázavou in the Czech republic , designed by Jan Blažej Santini Aichel . The nave is circular , surrounded by five pairs of columns and five oval domes alternating with ogival apses . The church further has five gates , five chapels , five altars and five stars ; a legend claims that when Saint John of Nepomuk was martyred , five stars appeared over his head . The fivefold architecture may also symbolise the five wounds of Christ and the five letters of " Tacui " ( Latin : " I kept silence " [ about secrets of the confessional ] ) .
Antoni Gaudí used a wide variety of geometric structures , some being minimal surfaces , in the Sagrada Família , Barcelona , started in 1882 ( and not completed as of 2015 ) . These include hyperbolic paraboloids and hyperboloids of revolution , tessellations , catenary arches , catenoids , helicoids , and ruled surfaces . This varied mix of geometries is creatively combined in different ways around the church . For example , in the Passion Façade of Sagrada Família , Gaudí assembled stone " branches " in the form of hyperbolic paraboloids , which overlap at their tops ( directrices ) without , therefore , meeting at a point . In contrast , in the colonnade there are hyperbolic paraboloidal surfaces that smoothly join other structures to form unbounded surfaces . Further , Gaudí exploits natural patterns , themselves mathematical , with columns derived from the shapes of trees , and lintels made from unmodified basalt naturally cracked ( by cooling from molten rock ) into hexagonal columns .
The 1971 Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption , San Francisco has a saddle roof composed of eight segments of hyperbolic paraboloids , arranged so that the bottom horizontal cross section of the roof is a square and the top cross section is a Christian cross . The building is a square 77 @.@ 7 metres ( 255 ft ) on a side , and 57 @.@ 9 metres ( 190 ft ) high . The 1970 Cathedral of Brasília by Oscar Niemeyer makes a different use of a hyperboloid structure ; it is constructed from 16 identical concrete beams , each weighing 90 tonnes , arranged in a circle to form a hyperboloid of revolution , the white beams creating a shape like hands praying to heaven . Only the dome is visible from outside : most of the building is below ground .
= = Mathematical decoration = =
= = = Islamic architectural decoration = = =
Islamic buildings are often decorated with geometric patterns which typically make use of several mathematical tessellations , formed of ceramic tiles ( girih , zellige ) that may themselves be plain or decorated with stripes . Symmetries such as stars with six , eight , or multiples of eight points are used in Islamic patterns . Some of these are based on the ' Khatem Sulemani ' or Solomon 's seal motif , which is an eight @-@ pointed star made of two squares , one rotated 45 degrees from the other on the same centre . Islamic patterns exploit many of the 17 possible wallpaper groups ; as early as 1944 , Edith Müller showed that the Alhambra made use of 11 wallpaper groups in its decorations , while in 1986 Branko Grünbaum claimed to have found 13 wallpaper groups in the Alhambra , asserting controversially that the remaining 4 groups are not found anywhere in Islamic ornament .
= = = Modern architectural decoration = = =
Towards the end of the 20th century , novel mathematical constructs such as fractal geometry and aperiodic tiling were seized upon by architects to provide interesting and attractive coverings for buildings . In 1913 , the Modernist architect Adolf Loos had declared that " Ornament is a crime " , influencing architectural thinking for the rest of the 20th century . In the 21st century , architects are again starting to explore the use of ornament . 21st century ornamentation is extremely diverse . Henning Larsen 's 2011 Harpa Concert and Conference Centre , Reykjavik has what looks like a crystal wall of rock made of large blocks of glass . Foreign Office Architects ' 2010 Ravensbourne College , London is tessellated decoratively with 28 @,@ 000 anodised aluminium tiles in red , white and brown , interlinking circular windows of differing sizes . The tessellation uses three types of tile , an equilateral triangle and two irregular pentagons . Kazumi Kudo 's Kanazawa Umimirai Library creates a decorative grid made of small circular blocks of glass set into plain concrete walls .
= = Defence = =
The architecture of fortifications evolved from medieval fortresses , which had high masonry walls , to low , symmetrical star forts able to resist artillery bombardment between the mid @-@ fifteenth and nineteenth centuries . The geometry of the star shapes was dictated by the need to avoid dead zones where attacking infantry could shelter from defensive fire ; the sides of the projecting points were angled to permit such fire to sweep the ground , and to provide crossfire ( from both sides ) beyond each projecting point . Well @-@ known architects who designed such defences include Michelangelo , Baldassare Peruzzi , Vincenzo Scamozzi and Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban .
The architectural historian Siegfried Giedion argued that the star @-@ shaped fortification had a formative influence on the patterning of the Renaissance ideal city : " The Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half — from Filarete to Scamozzi — was impressed upon all utopian schemes : this is the star @-@ shaped city . "
= = Environmental goals = =
Architects may also select the form of a building to meet environmental goals . For example , Foster and Partners ' 30 St Mary Axe , London , known as " The Gherkin " for its cucumber @-@ like shape , is a solid of revolution designed using parametric modelling . Its geometry was chosen not purely for aesthetic reasons , but to minimise whirling air currents at its base . Despite the building 's apparently curved surface , all the panels of glass forming its skin are flat , except for the lens at the top . Most of the panels are quadrilaterals , as they can be cut from rectangular glass with less wastage than triangular panels .
The traditional yakhchal ( ice pit ) of Persia functioned as an evaporative cooler . Above ground , the structure had a domed shape , but had a subterranean storage space for ice and sometimes food as well . The subterranean space and the thick heat @-@ resistant construction insulated the storage space year round . The internal space was often further cooled with windcatchers . The ice was available in the summer to make the frozen dessert faloodeh .
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= Tom Hooper =
Thomas George " Tom " Hooper ( born 5 October 1972 ) is a British film and television director of English and Australian background . Hooper began making short films as a teenager , and had his first professional short , Painted Faces , broadcast on Channel 4 in 1992 . At Oxford University Hooper directed plays and television commercials . After graduating , he directed episodes of Quayside , Byker Grove , EastEnders and Cold Feet .
In the 2000s , Hooper directed the major BBC costume dramas Love in a Cold Climate ( 2001 ) and Daniel Deronda ( 2002 ) , and was selected to helm the 2003 revival of ITV 's Prime Suspect series , starring Helen Mirren . Hooper made his feature film debut with Red Dust ( 2004 ) , a British drama starring Hilary Swank and Chiwetel Ejiofor , before directing Helen Mirren again in the Company Pictures / HBO Films historical drama Elizabeth I ( 2005 ) . He continued working for HBO on the television film Longford ( 2006 ) and in John Adams ( 2008 ) , a seven @-@ part serial on the life of the American president . Hooper returned to features with The Damned United ( 2009 ) , a fact @-@ based film about the English football manager Brian Clough ( played by Michael Sheen ) . The following year saw the release of the historical drama The King 's Speech ( 2010 ) , starring Colin Firth and Geoffrey Rush , which was met with critical acclaim . Hooper 's next film was Les Misérables ( 2012 ) , which featured an all @-@ star cast led by Hugh Jackman and Russell Crowe .
Hooper 's work was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for Prime Suspect and John Adams , won one for Elizabeth I , and was nominated for the British Academy ( BAFTA ) TV Craft Award for Best Director for Longford . The King 's Speech won multiple awards , including Best Director wins for Hooper from the Directors Guild of America and the Academy Awards , and a Best Director nomination from BAFTA .
= = Early life = =
Tom Hooper was born in 1972 in London , England , the son of Meredith Jean ( Rooney ) and Richard Hooper . Meredith was an Australian author and academic and Richard was an English media businessman . Hooper was educated at Highgate School and Westminster School . His initial interest in drama was triggered by his English and drama teacher at Highgate , former Royal Shakespeare Company actor Roger Mortimer , who produced an annual school play .
At the age of 12 , Hooper read a book entitled How to Make Film and Television and decided he wanted to become a director . For the next year Hooper researched filmmaking from publications such as On Camera by Harris Watts . Aged 13 , he made his first film , entitled Runaway Dog , using a clockwork 16mm Bolex camera his uncle had given to him . Hooper said : " The clockwork would run out after thirty seconds , so the maximum shot length was thirty seconds . I could only afford a hundred feet of Kodachrome reversal film , which cost about twenty @-@ five [ pounds ] , and you had to send off for two weeks to be processed . I could only make silent movies , because sound was too expensive and complicated . " He slowed down the frame rate of the camera so he could maximise what little film stock he had . Hooper classified the short , about a dog which kept running away from its owner , as a comedy , and filmed it on location in Oxfordshire .
When Hooper was 14 , his film Bomber Jacket came runner @-@ up in a BBC younger filmmakers ' competition . The short starred Hooper 's brother as a boy who discovers a bomber jacket and a photograph hidden in a cupboard and learns his grandfather died in World War II . Another of Hooper 's short films , entitled Countryside , depicts a nuclear holocaust .
Hooper finished school aged 16 , then wrote the script for his first professional short film , entitled Painted Faces . He spent the next two years raising capital for the short by courting advertisement directors , whose financial dominance during the late 1980s was noticed by Hooper . Director Paul Weiland invested in the short , which provided Hooper with the equipment he needed . After two years of financing and production , Painted Faces was completed . Hooper wrote , produced , directed and edited it . It was sold to Channel 4 and broadcast on the channel 's First Frame strand in 1992 , had a screening at the 35th London Film Festival and had a limited theatrical release .
After taking a gap year to finance Painted Faces , Hooper read English at University College , Oxford . He joined the Oxford University Dramatic Society , where he directed Kate Beckinsale in A View From the Bridge and Emily Mortimer in The Trial . Hooper also had his first paid directing work , earning £ 200 for a corporate Christmas video , and he directed his first television advertisements , including one for Sega featuring Right Said Fred . He continues to direct advertisements alongside television and film projects . In 1996 he joined the commercial production company John S. Clarke Productions and in 2001 he signed with Infinity Productions .
= = Career = =
= = = BBC and ITV productions = = =
After graduating from Oxford , Hooper directed further television commercials , intending to break into the film industry the same way Ridley Scott , Tony Scott and Hugh Hudson did . He was introduced by his father to the television producer Matthew Robinson , who mentored Hooper and gave him his first television directing work . For Robinson , Hooper directed episodes of the short @-@ lived Tyne Tees Television soap opera Quayside in 1997 , four episodes of the Children 's BBC television series Byker Grove in the same year , and his first episodes of the BBC One soap opera EastEnders in 1998 .
Hooper directed several EastEnders episodes between 1998 and 2000 , two of which were hour @-@ long specials that represented the soap when it won the British Academy Television Award for Best Soap Opera in 2000 and 2001 ; the first was the episode in which Carol Jackson ( Lindsey Coulson ) learns her daughter Bianca ( Patsy Palmer ) had an affair with her fiancé Dan Sullivan ( Craig Fairbrass ) . The Jackson episode marked the beginning of a week of episodes that lead to Palmer 's departure from the soap , and Robinson had hired Hooper to direct the key episodes of that storyline . Hooper worked 10 @-@ hour days on EastEnders , and learned to direct with speed . He was influenced in his early career by the cinematic style of American TV series such as ER , NYPD Blue and Homicide : Life on the Street and tried to work that style into his EastEnders episodes ; one scene featuring Grant Mitchell ( Ross Kemp ) involved a crane shot , which Hooper believes made him infamous among the EastEnders production crew .
In 1999 , Hooper directed two episodes of Granada Television 's comedy @-@ drama television series Cold Feet , which marked his move to bigger @-@ budget productions . There was initially concern at Granada that Hooper might be an unsuitable director for the series given his background in drama .
In 2000 , Hooper directed his first of two costume dramas for the BBC ; Love in a Cold Climate was based on Nancy Mitford 's novels The Pursuit of Love and Love in a Cold Climate . Hooper , the writer Deborah Moggach , and the producer Kate Harwood researched the period details of the production by interviewing Nancy 's sister Deborah . In 2002 , Hooper directed Daniel Deronda , adapted from George Eliot 's novel . Filming ran for 11 weeks from May to August on locations in England , Scotland and Malta . Hooper said of the production , " The thing I like about this tale is that it 's not at all your conventional costume drama ; it 's far more complex and looks at aspects of love , loss and religion . " The Guardian 's Mark Lawson said of Hooper 's two costume dramas , " he brought verve and intelligence to television 's most conservative form " .
Hooper returned to Granada the next year to direct the revival of Prime Suspect , entitled The Last Witness . The two @-@ part serial was the first Prime Suspect instalment to be made since 1995 , when star Helen Mirren quit . Hooper initially declined to direct the production because he believed the series was tired . Granada 's head of drama Andy Harries introduced Hooper to Mirren , who persuaded him to take the job by promising that he could make the serial his own way . The two @-@ part serial was broadcast on the ITV network in November 2003 . Hooper 's direction received praise from Andrew Billen in the New Statesman : " Tom Hooper proved an outstanding director , imposing a bleak , overlit hyper @-@ realism on the search for a killer in a hospital , isolating Mirren in rows of empty chairs and playing on the eyewitness / optical visual metaphors . " The serial was also broadcast on PBS in the United States . Hooper received nominations for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Serial and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries , Movie or Dramatic Special for his work on Prime Suspect .
= = = Film debut and HBO works = = =
Hooper made his debut as a feature film director with the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission drama Red Dust ( 2004 ) , which stars Hilary Swank , Chiwetel Ejiofor and Jamie Bartlett . The film was not widely seen , which Hooper attributed to media coverage of torture during the Iraq War : " When I started making it you could watch the movie with a wonderful sense of ' we 'd never do it in our own country … they 're the horrible people but it 's not us . ' By the time the film came out ( there were ) these revelations that the Americans were torturing , the British were torturing . The film became a lot more uncomfortable for the very audiences it was designed to target . I have learned that sadly the theatrical audience does not run to see films that are openly issue led . " The premiere of the film in the United Kingdom came on BBC Two in 2005 , making it eligible for the BAFTA Television Awards ; it was nominated in the Best Single Drama category at the 2006 ceremony .
In 2005 , Hooper was asked by Helen Mirren to direct the Company Pictures / HBO Films two @-@ part serial Elizabeth I , in which she was starring . The serial won Hooper his first Emmy Award , for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries , Movie or Dramatic Special . In January 2006 , Hooper commenced filming the Granada / HBO television film Longford . The film dramatises the failed efforts of Lord Longford ( played by Jim Broadbent ) to secure the release from prison of Moors murderer Myra Hindley ( played by Samantha Morton ) . Hooper first met with the writer Peter Morgan about the production in 2005 and the film was broadcast on Channel 4 in October 2006 . Seb Morton @-@ Clark for the Financial Times called Longford one of the most accomplished television dramas of 2006 , and praised the writer and director : " Morgan and director Tom Hooper wove a seamless narrative about obsession – and not just that of the misguided philanthropist for the incarcerated Hindley or even that that existed between the sadistic lovers themselves . More significantly , by using chunks of original television footage , they painted a stark picture of the zealotry of a vengeful nation and its press over the supposed embodiment of evil . " Hooper 's continued successes led him to be ranked at number four in the Directors category of Broadcast magazine 's annual Hot 100 . The following year he was nominated for the British Academy Television Craft Award for Best Director for Longford .
Elizabeth I and Longford led directly to Hooper being selected by Tom Hanks to direct the epic miniseries John Adams for Playtone and HBO . Hooper had been working on a biographical film with Joan Didion about Katharine Graham , publisher of The Washington Post , since 2006 when he was asked by Hanks to helm the programme . The miniseries , starring Paul Giamatti as John Adams , was based on David McCullough 's Adams biography and was Hooper 's first wholly American production . He was surprised to learn that the American Revolutionary War was not a well @-@ documented period in film and television ; Abigail Adams actress Laura Linney told him that , for her generation , the musical 1776 was the most well @-@ known depiction of the era . He worked on the miniseries for a total of 16 months ; principal photography lasted 110 days on locations in the United States , France , England and Hungary and he controlled a $ 100 million budget . The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert complimented Hooper 's style of direction in the first two episodes " Join or Die " and " Independence " :
Director Tom Hooper lets his actors shine , as he did so marvelously in Helen Mirren 's Elizabeth I and the child @-@ killer drama Longford , but he complements them , too , with this kind of immediate point of view . And when he does give us panoramic shots from afar – of the Adams farm in Braintree , for example – they 're askew , to keep us out of the classroom mode . At the end of episode 2 [ ... ] Hooper showcases all his directorial strength with one bold choice . When the long @-@ fretting Congress finally decides to break with Britain , he refrains from using any visual or aural tweaks . Upon the announcement , " The resolution carries , " the scene remains perfectly silent for one long moment . The terror of responsibility hangs heavily in the room , while a victorious soundtrack surely would have chased it away .
John Adams received 23 Emmy Award nominations , including another Outstanding Direction nomination for Hooper , and won 13 , the highest number for any nominee in a single year . He was also nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement . At the beginning of 2009 , he was profiled for The Observer 's film Hotlist .
= = = Independent feature films = = =
The wake of John Adams ' Emmy wins brought offers to Hooper from studios to direct spy and comic book films , which he declined . In November 2007 , he signed on to direct The Damned United , reuniting him with Peter Morgan and Andy Harries . The film was an adaptation of David Peace 's novel The Damned Utd , a fictional version of the 44 turbulent days English football manager Brian Clough spent as manager of Leeds United . It was originally developed by Stephen Frears for Michael Sheen to play Clough . Frears quit the project after he was unable to translate the book to film . Hooper received a copy of the script while shooting John Adams in Hungary and noticed a similarity between the " egotistical , flawed , brilliant " Adams and the " egotistical , flawed , brilliant " Clough . He was not put off by joining the project later , as Morgan 's script was in only its first draft . During pre @-@ production , Hooper engaged in meticulous research , particularly on the locations and the football grounds of the era . He cast Timothy Spall as Clough 's assistant Peter Taylor , Colm Meaney as Don Revie and Jim Broadbent as Derby County chairman Sam Longson . During editing , it was decided to make the tone of the film lighter in order to attract audiences and to appease the real people depicted in the film . The Damned United was released in 2009 .
Work on Hooper 's next film , The King 's Speech , began in the same year . Hooper explained : " It was a stage play , and my mother who 's Australian was invited to a fringe [ theatre ] reading in London because she 's part of the Australian community . The play 's about the relationship between King George the Sixth and his Australian speech therapist . She came back and said ' you 've got to read this play , ' and I read it and it was brilliant ... " . Hooper cast Colin Firth as George VI and Geoffrey Rush as Lionel Logue and spent three weeks with the actors reading the script and rehearsing . Principal photography took place on location around the UK from November 2009 to January 2010 . During editing , Hooper continued to consult with Firth and Rush by sending them cuts of the film and listening to their feedback .
Hooper completed the final cut of the film at the end of August 2010 and presented it a few days later at the Telluride Film Festival . The film won the People 's Choice Award at the Toronto International Film Festival and Hooper won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures . In February 2011 , he was presented with the Academy Award for Best Director , though lost the BAFTA Award for Best Direction to David Fincher . In comparing the two films , Variety 's Adam Dawtrey wrote , " Hooper 's 2009 film The Damned United didn 't register among awards selectors , but King 's Speech is a much more personal project . His Anglo @-@ Australian parentage reflects the culture clash at the heart of the movie , and it pays off with beautifully crafted , crowd @-@ pleasing drama . "
= = = Studio films = = =
Following the success of The King 's Speech during the awards season , Hooper joined the 15 @-@ person board of governors at the British Film Institute , was invited to join the directors branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences , and was ranked at number 19 in The Times ' British Film Power 100 . In March 2009 , Hooper met with Nelson Mandela in preparation for directing a film adaptation of Mandela 's autobiography Long Walk to Freedom . By 2012 , however , he had left the project .
He was offered the chance to direct Iron Man 3 for Marvel Studios but declined and instead signed on to direct Les Misérables for Working Title Films , which he had first heard about while discussing a different project with screenwriter William Nicholson in 2010 . Hooper had not seen the musical , so watched a performance of it in London 's West End . Adapted from the musical , the film starred Hugh Jackman , Russell Crowe , Anne Hathaway , Amanda Seyfried , Helena Bonham Carter , Sacha Baron Cohen , and Eddie Redmayne . As the film required the actors to sing and dance , they were auditioned in front of Hooper , producers and composers . The role of Fantine was hugely contested ; Hooper said , " It was like half a dozen of the biggest female movie stars on the planet wanted to play the role " .
Filming started in February 2012 . Hooper investigated filming the feature in 3D , and performed some camera tests before deciding to film it with traditional 2D methods . He stated " [ ... ] I slightly worry with 3D that some people will physically struggle with it . If you have a certain type of eyesight it can be more demanding than watching a normal movie . " Unlike other musical films , Les Misérables features the actors singing live on camera , rather than miming to backing vocals . Hooper told Los Angeles Times that he thought there was a " slightly strange falseness " when he saw musical films where the actors sang to recordings . The actors wore wireless earpieces on set so they could sing to accompanying piano music . Hooper believed this method allowed the actors to have emotional control over their songs : " When Annie [ Hathaway , who plays Fantine ] is singing ' I Dreamed a Dream ' , if she needs to take a tenth of a second to have a thought before she sings it , or to have an emotion before she sings a line , she can take it . " The actors also performed their songs in recitative style , which Hooper likened to being immersed in a 3D film . Les Miserables was released in North America on 25 December 2012 , and received eight Academy Award nominations including Best Picture .
Hooper 's fifth feature film , The Danish Girl , was released in late 2015 . It loosely tells the story of Lili Elbe , one of the first people to undergo sex reassignment surgery , and wife Gerda Wegener . It stars Eddie Redmayne and Alicia Vikander , both of whom received Academy Award nominations . Critics were generally positive about the film .
= = Directing style = =
Hooper uses camera styles " that encode the DNA of the storytelling in some way " and will reuse and develop filming styles in successive productions . Hooper identifies research as being key to his process of directing period dramas such as John Adams in order to make the scenes authentic . For The Damned United , Hooper and director of photography Ben Smithard researched the look of the late 1960s and early 1970s through football photography books . Hooper has also been influenced by cinematographer Larry Smith , who worked with Stanley Kubrick and advised Hooper of techniques used by Kubrick . Hooper and Smith have worked together on Cold Feet , Love in a Cold Climate , Prime Suspect , Red Dust and Elizabeth I.
Hooper also uses uncommon framing techniques to emphasise story ; in John Adams , he wanted to imply American independence seemed unlikely during the Revolutionary War , so he used " a very rough camera style — almost all hand held , wide lenses close to the actors , lots of movement , many cameras shooting at once so there was often not a settled master " point of view " , and lots of unmatching dutch tilts so the horizon lines of the frame were often being thrown off . " The America @-@ set scenes were contrasted by the scenes set in France , in which more traditional filming techniques were employed to evoke a feel of entrenched values . Similarly , in The Damned United , Hooper began to experiment with using wide @-@ angle lenses and putting actors in the extreme edges of the frame . He was influenced by the unusual framing from social photography of the 1970s , and he and Ben Smithard decided to adopt the framing style while scouting locations . Hooper used the same style in The King 's Speech , particularly in the scene where Bertie and Logue meet in Logue 's consulting room ; Colin Firth is framed to the extreme left of the picture , leaving most of the shot dominated by the rough wall behind Firth .
Another frequently used technique is Hooper 's tendency to use a variety of focal length camera lenses to distort the resulting picture . In The Damned United he used a 10mm lens , notably in the scene where Clough stays inside during the Derby – Leeds match . Hooper operated the camera in this scene himself . In The King 's Speech , Hooper used " typically 14mm , 18mm , 21mm , 25mm and 27mm " lenses and put the camera close to the actors ' faces . Hooper said the use of this method in the first consulting room scene served to " suggest the awkardness and tension of Logue and Bertie 's first meeting " .
= = Filmography = =
= = Filmography by awards = =
= = = Feature films = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Ernest II , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha =
Ernest II ( German : Ernst August Karl Johann Leopold Alexander Eduard ; 21 June 1818 – 22 August 1893 ) was the sovereign duke of the Duchy of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , reigning from 1844 to his death . Ernest was born in Coburg as the eldest child of Ernest III , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld , and his duchess , Princess Louise of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg . Fourteen months later , his younger brother Prince Albert was born , who later became consort of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom . Ernest 's father became Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha in 1826 through an exchange of territories .
In 1842 , Ernest married Princess Alexandrine of Baden in what was to be a childless marriage . Soon after , he succeeded as duke upon the death of his father on 29 January 1844 . As reigning Duke Ernest II , he supported the German Confederation in the Schleswig @-@ Holstein Wars against Denmark , sending thousands of troops and becoming the commander of a German corps ; as such , he was instrumental in the 1849 victory at the battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces . After King Otto of Greece was deposed in 1862 , the British government put Ernest 's name forward as a possible successor . Negotiations fell through however for various reasons , not in the least of which was that he would not give up his beloved duchies in favor of the Greek throne .
A supporter of a unified Germany , Ernest watched the various political movements with great interest . While he initially was a great and outspoken proponent of the liberal movement , he surprised many by switching sides and supporting the more conservative ( and eventually victorious ) Prussians during the Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian wars and subsequent unification of Germany . His support of the conservatives came at a price however , and he was no longer viewed as the possible leader of a political movement . According to historian Charlotte Zeepvat , Ernest became " increasingly lost in a whirl of private amusements which earned only contempt from outside " .
Ernest 's position was often linked to his brother Prince Albert , husband of Queen Victoria . The two boys were raised as though twins , and became closer upon the separation and divorce of their parents , as well as the eventual death of their mother . The princes ' relationship experienced phases of closeness as well as minor arguments as they grew older ; after Albert 's death in 1861 , Ernest became gradually more antagonistic to Victoria and her children , as well as increasingly bitter toward the United Kingdom , publishing anonymous pamphlets against various members of the British royal family . Despite their increasingly differing political views and opinions however , Ernest accepted his second eldest nephew Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh as his heir @-@ presumptive , who upon Ernest 's death on 22 August 1893 at Reinhardsbrunn , succeeded to the ducal throne .
= = Early life = =
Ernest , Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld , was born at Ehrenburg Palace in Coburg on 21 June 1818 . He was the elder son of Ernest III , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld and his first wife Princess Louise of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg . He was soon joined by a brother , Prince Albert , who would later become the husband of Queen Victoria . Though Duke Ernest fathered numerous children in various affairs , the two boys would have no other legitimate siblings . In 1826 , their father succeeded as Ernest I , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha through an exchange of territories after the death of the duke 's uncle , Frederick IV , Duke of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg .
There are various accounts of Ernest 's childhood . When he was fourteen months old , a servant commented that Ernest " runs around like a weasel . He is teething and as cross as a little badger from impatience and liveliness . He is not pretty now , except his beautiful black eyes " . In May 1820 , his mother described Ernest as " very big for his age , as well as intelligent . His big black eyes are full of spirit and vivacity " . Biographer Richard Hough writes that " even from their infancy , it was plainly evident that the elder son took after his father , in character and appearance , while Albert strongly resembled his mother in most respects " . Ernest and his brother often lived with their grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld until her death in 1831 .
He and Albert were brought up and educated together as if they were twins . Though Albert was fourteen months younger , he surpassed Ernest intellectually . According to their tutor , " they went hand @-@ in @-@ hand in all things , whether at work or at play . Engaging in the same pursuits , sharing the same joys and the same sorrows , they were bound to each other by no common feelings of mutual love " . Perhaps the " sorrows " aforementioned related to their parents ' marriage . It was not a happy one and Duke Ernest I was continually unfaithful . In 1824 , Ernest I and Louise divorced ; she subsequently left Coburg and was disallowed from seeing her sons again . She soon remarried to Alexander von Hanstein , Count of Pölzig and Beiersdorf , dying in 1831 at the age of thirty . The year after her death , their father remarried his niece Duchess Marie of Württemberg , who was his sister Antoinette 's daughter . Their stepmother was thus also their first cousin . The duke and his new duchess were not close , and would produce no children ; while the boys formed a happy relationship with their stepmother , Marie had little to no input in her stepsons ' lives . The separation and divorce of their parents , as well as the later death of their mother left the boys scarred and in close companionship with each other .
In 1836 , Ernest and Albert visited their matrimonially eligible cousin Princess Victoria of Kent , spending a few weeks at Windsor . Both boys , and especially Albert were considered by his family to be a potential husband for the young princess , and they were both taught to speak competent English . Their father first thought that Ernest would make a better husband to Victoria than Albert , possibly because his sporting interests would be better received by the British public . Most others favored Albert over Ernest as a possible husband however . Temperamentally , Victoria was much more like Ernest , as both were lively and sociable with a love for dancing , gossip , and late nights ; conversely , this fast pace made Albert physically ill . Victoria believed Ernest had a " most kind , honest , and intelligent expression in his countenance " , while Albert " seemed full of goodness and sweetness , and very clever and intelligent " . No offer of marriage was forthcoming for either brother however , and they returned home .
Ernest entered military training later that year . In April 1837 , Ernest and Albert and their household moved to the University of Bonn . Six weeks into their academic term , Victoria succeeded as Queen of the United Kingdom . As rumors of an impending marriage between her and Albert interfered with their studies , the two brothers left on 28 August 1837 at the close of the term to travel around Europe . They returned to Bonn in early November to continue their studies . In 1839 , the brothers traveled to England again , where Victoria found her cousin Albert agreeable and soon proposed . This connection would have many implications upon Ernest in the future ; for instance , he was selected as godfather for Albert 's second daughter Princess Alice , and would eventually come to give her away at her wedding , only months after Albert 's death .
= = Marriage = =
Various candidates were put forward as a possible wife for Ernest . His own father wanted him to look high @-@ up for a wife , such as a Russian grand duchess . One possibility was Princess Clémentine of Orléans , a daughter of Louis Philippe I , whom he met while visiting the court at the Tuileries . Such a marriage would have required his conversion from Lutheranism to Roman Catholicism however , and consequently nothing came of it . She later married his cousin Prince August of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . Ernest was also considered by Dowager Queen Maria Christina as a possible husband for her young daughter Isabella II of Spain , and by Queen Victoria for her cousin Princess Augusta of Cambridge .
In Karlsruhe on 3 May 1842 , Ernest married 21 @-@ year @-@ old Princess Alexandrine of Baden . She was the eldest daughter of Leopold , Grand Duke of Baden and Princess Sophie of Sweden , daughter of the deposed King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden . Though he gave his consent , his father was disappointed that his second son did not do more to advance the concerns of Coburg . The marriage did not produce any issue , though Ernest apparently fathered at least three illegitimate children in later years .
Ernest had suffered from a venereal disease in his late teens and early twenties , most likely as the consequence of living a wild , promiscuous lifestyle . These qualities he had inherited under the tutelage of his father , who took his sons to " sample the pleasures " of Paris and Berlin , to Albert 's " horror and shame " . Ernest had been so visibly deteriorating in appearance as a result that Sarah Lyttelton , a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting of Queen Victoria , observed at Windsor in 1839 that he was " very thin and hollow @-@ cheeked and pale , and no likeness to his brother , nor much beauty . But he has fine dark eyes and black hair , and light figure , and a great look of spirit and eagerness " . Later that year , Albert counseled his brother against finding a wife until his ' condition ' was fully recovered . He further warned that continued promiscuity could leave Ernest incapable of fathering children . Some historians believe that while he himself was able to father other children , the disease rendered his young wife infertile .
As the years went by with further childlessness , Ernest became more distant to his wife , and was continually unfaithful . Though Alexandrine continued to be devoted , choosing to ignore those relationships she was aware of , her loyalty became increasingly baffling to those outside her immediate family . By 1859 , after seventeen years of childlessness , Ernest took no further interest in his wife .
= = Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha = =
On 29 January 1844 , Ernest 's father died in Gotha , one of the territories their family had recently acquired . Ernest consequently succeeded to the duchies of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha as Ernest II .
= = = Development of a constitution = = =
Extravagant to a great degree , Ernest had many money troubles throughout his reign . In January 1848 , Ernest visited his brother in the midst of political unrest in Germany . Upon his return , he also discovered unrest in Coburg . One of the many concerns related to finances . Although Ernest had a large inheritance , he also had frequent debts . There were increasing calls to nationalize most of his property . Indeed , Albert had to intervene at one point and spare his brother the embarrassment of losing one of his Coburg properties .
During the 1848 turmoil in Germany , Albert had been constructing his own liberal reform plan , under which a single monarch , chancellor , and parliament would unite the German states ; in addition , each state would retain its own current ruling dynasty . As this plan pertained to his brother , Ernest was given a copy in the hope that he would develop his own liberal constitution . Ernest subsequently made a few concessions , but his position remained sound , not counting the increasing problem of his debts . A constitution was drafted and promulgated in 1849 in Gotha , though one had existed in Coburg since 1821 . In 1852 , both constitutions were converged into one , which converted the personal union of the two duchies into a real union ; the duchies were now inseparable , with a common set of institutions . During the political turmoil , timely concessions and Ernest 's popular habit of mingling with " the people in their pleasures " were instrumental in keeping him from losing his throne . Furthermore , various contemporary sources state that Ernest was an able , just and very popular ruler , which may have also helped keep him in power .
= = = Schleswig @-@ Holstein wars = = =
From 1848 to 1864 , Denmark and the German Confederation fought over control of the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . Historically , the duchies had been ruled by Denmark since medieval times , but there remained a large German majority . This majority was sparked to rebellion after Frederick VII of Denmark announced on 27 March 1848 the duchies would become an integral part of Denmark under his new liberal constitution . Prussia soon became involved , supporting the uprising and beginning the First Schleswig War . Ernest sent 8 @,@ 000 men initially , adding to the army sent by the German Confederation . He also desired to be given a military job during the war , but was refused , as it was " extremely difficult to offer me a position in the army of Schleswig @-@ Holstein corresponding to my rank " , according to his memoirs . He agreed to a smaller command , coming to lead a Thuringian contingent ; he commented in a letter to his brother that " I should have declined any other command of the kind , but I could not refuse this one , as , in the present condition of our States , it is important to keep the executive power in our hands " . As commander of a German corps , Ernest was instrumental in winning the 5 April 1849 battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces .
The first war ended in 1851 , but would resume in 1864 . During this interlude , Ernest fervently opposed the marriage of his nephew Albert Edward , Prince of Wales ( ' Bertie ' ) to Princess Alexandra of Denmark , a daughter of the future Christian IX of Denmark ( and therefore an enemy of the German states ) . He believed that such a match flew in the face of German interests . Albert replied angrily " What has that got to do with you ? ... Vicky has racked her brains to help us to find someone , but in vain ... We have no [ other reasonable ] choice " . Albert agreed there were going to be problems with the match , but as he could find no alternative bride , he wrote to Ernest that keeping the affair a private matter ( and outside the realm of government ) was " the only way to prevent a break with Prussia and the only way to keep the game in our own hands , impose the conditions that we think necessary , and as far as we can , take off its political edge " . Albert also warned his son of Ernest 's endeavors to interfere with the match , commenting , " Your uncle ... will try his hand at this work . Your best defence will be not to enter on the subject , should he broach it " .
Soon after writing these letters , Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861 . His death helped Ernest repair his relationship with his sister @-@ in @-@ law , as Victoria had been becoming increasingly angrier over Ernest 's objections to the Danish match . The two brothers had always been close , whatever their disagreements , and Albert 's death left Ernest " wretched " , noted Victoria in a letter to her eldest daughter . The death did not solve their argument however ; seeing that his direct involvement had failed to persuade Victoria , Ernest tried a new tactic . He began to spread gossip about Alexandra and her family , in which her mother Princess Louise " had had illegitimate children and Alexandra had had flirtations with young officers " ; he also wrote to Louise herself , warning that Bertie would be an unfortunate choice for a husband . Additionally , Ernest met with his nephew at Thebes , most likely attempting to discourage him from the match in person . In an 11 April letter , Victoria unhappily noted to her eldest daughter " You did not tell me that Bertie had met Uncle Ernest at Thebes ... I am always alarmed when I think of Uncle Ernest and Bertie being together as I know the former will do all he can to set Bertie against the marriage with Princess Alix " . Despite Ernest 's disprovable , Bertie was duly married to Alexandra on 10 March 1863 .
The Duke had a reputation for being a strong friend of the United States , as did his brother Albert . He was , however , the only European sovereign to appoint a consul , Ernst Raven , to the Confederate States of America , on 30 July 1861 . The Texas government , where Raven resided , made it clear , however , that his request for an exequatur did not imply or extend diplomatic recognition to the Confederate regime .
= = = Nomination for the Greek throne = = =
On 23 October 1862 , Otto of Bavaria , King of Greece was deposed in a bloodless coup . The Greeks were eager to have someone close to Britain and Queen Victoria replace Otto ; some desired to allow Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh ( her second son ) succeed as King of Greece . He was elected with 95 % of the vote in the Greek head of state referendum of 1862 . After his ineligibility was confirmed however , the Greeks began looking for other possible candidates , which included Duke Ernest at the British government 's suggestion . To their and Victoria 's reasoning , if Ernest were to take the Greek throne , Alfred could immediately take up his inheritance and succeed Ernest as duke ( the Prince of Wales having passed his claim to the duchy of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha onto his younger brother ) . Many were in favor of his nomination , including Prime Minister Lord Palmerston and Ernest 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . In a letter written to her uncle Leopold I of Belgium , Victoria stated her support for a new royal branch of the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha ( as Leopold had been chosen as King of the Belgians in 1831 ) as well as her desire for her second son Alfred to succeed his uncle in the duchy . As negotiations continued however , she began to lose enthusiasm for the idea .
There were problems to the nomination ; Ernest had no children , and thus would have had to adopt one of the princes of his house to succeed him as King of Greece . To solve this problem , Ernest suggested to Palmerston that he simply take the title regent of Greece and hold the kingdom in trust for his chosen heir . He also stipulated that if he accepted the throne , it should be subject to certain guarantees by the other powers . The apparent deal @-@ breaker however was the fact that Ernest wanted to acquire the Greek throne and still maintain control of his " safer " duchies . In the end , the British cabinet thought the proposed conditions unacceptable . His proposals turned down , Ernest in turn refused . In 1863 , the Greek throne was accepted by another member of a royal family : the Princess of Wales ' younger brother Prince William of Denmark . Ernest would later comment , " That this cup was spared me , I always regarded as a piece of good fortune " .
= = = Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian Wars = = =
Ernest , like his brother , was in favor of a German unified , federal state . To best realize this goal , Ernest liked to dabble in whatever political system promised the most success . He subsequently watched the growth of liberalism in Germany with much interest and tried to build links with the movement 's leaders . During Albert 's lifetime , Ernest took a close interest in the movement for reform , and was perceived as a progressive within Germany . His favorable view of liberalism caused his duchy to become an asylum for political refugees from other German states . In 1863 , he attended the liberal Frankfurt Conference , which was openly avoided by more conservative Prussia . Though his attendance made him no friends in Prussia , he developed such strong contacts in Austria that many looked to him as a potential leader in the mounting conflict between the northern and southern powers . He grew tired of the advice he received from Albert on the subject however ; as Ernest " was by no means inclined to consent to an energetic rule such as I adopted immediately afterwards for the perfection of the constitutional system " , according to Albert 's letters .
The Austro @-@ Prussian War was triggered by the desire of German conservative leaders to unify , albeit on different terms than their liberal counterparts . Ernest urged Prussian leaders against the impending war , and was an active advocate of the Austrian cause . Though Ernest normally followed more liberal politics than many of his counterparts , he began switching his views to align more closely with Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck by the mid @-@ 1860s . Despite this change in his private political views , he still had strong publicly known Austrian ties , and no one foresaw that Ernest would immediately side with the better @-@ equipped Prussians upon breakout of the war . His reasoning is usually understood as acting in the best interests of his duchies , and by extension , of himself . Regardless , it was seen as a betrayal of former friends ; Queen Victoria commented that Ernest " might have agreed to neutrality - for that might be necessary , but to change colours I cannot think right " .
Ernest was fortunate in his support of victorious Prussia ; many other petty German dukes , princes , and kings who had supported Austria suffered immensely at Hohenzollern hands . Hanover , Hesse @-@ Kassel , and Nassau for instance were all annexed to Prussia at the expense of their respective rulers . Though he had only recently changed his political views , Ernest was allowed to ride at the head of his battalion during the victory parade . His eldest niece Prussian Crown Princess Victoria ( " Vicky " ) was for one pleased with his Prussian support and commented " I am not accustomed to hearing so much praise of Coburg here . [ Ernest ] was not among the crushed and beaten foe , it is sad enough as it is to see so many of one 's friends suffering from the effects of their miscalculations " . Victoria 's husband Crown Prince Frederick was also pleased with Ernest 's decision , writing in his journal 28 September 1871 , that the duke 's " society always affords me peculiar pleasure , especially ... when his heart beats so warmly for Germany " .
Ernest 's support of the Prussians in the Austro @-@ Prussian War and later Franco Prussian War meant he was no longer the potential leader of a political movement ; although it was true that he had been able to retain his duchies , it had come at a price . According to historian Charlotte Zeepvat , Ernest " was increasingly lost in a whirl of private amusements which earned only contempt from outside " . Ernest funneled his political thoughts into the private sphere , preferring to write covertly sponsored articles in the Coburg press that became increasingly embittered against England . In 1886 , Ernest published Co @-@ Regents and Foreign Influence in Germany , a pamphlet that greatly angered his family ; though produced anonymously , no one doubted that it was written by Ernest . It attacked Vicky as a disloyal German that was too dependent on her mother , and declared that she had been too indiscreet in passing along confidential information during both war and peacetime . Queen Victoria was furious , writing to Vicky , " What you told me of Uncle E and that pamphlet is simply monstrous . I assure you that I felt great difficulty in writing to him for his birthday , but I wrote it as short and cool as I could consistently with civility " . " Dear Uncle Ernest does us all a great deal of harm by his odd ways and uncontrollable tongue with his very lively imagination " .
= = = Later years = = =
Later in his reign , Ernest 's actions managed to continually anger his sister @-@ in @-@ law . Though Victoria loved Ernest because he was Albert 's brother , she was displeased that Ernest was writing his memoirs , worrying about their contents mainly in regard to her dead husband . Despite their disputes , Ernest still met with Victoria and her family occasionally . In 1891 , they met in France ; Victoria 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting commented " the old Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha has been here today with his wife . He is the Prince Consort 's only brother and an awful looking man , the Queen dislikes him particularly . He is always writing anonymous pamphlets against the Queen and the Empress Frederick , which naturally creates a great deal of annoyance in the family " .
Throughout his reign , Ernest had been known for his extravagance and womanizing ; as he grew older , Ernest enjoyed gossip and was " now a thoroughly disreputable old roué who enjoyed the outrage provoked by his actions " , leading Vicky to declare that her uncle " was his own enemy " . His behavior and manner of dress increasingly became a joke for younger generations . His great @-@ niece Marie of Edinburgh would later describe Ernest as " an old beau , squeezed into a frock @-@ coat too tight for his bulk and uncomfortably pinched in at the waist ' , sporting a top hat , lemon coloured gloves , and a rosebud in his lapel " . He put on weight and though on paper his wealth was large , he was still constantly in debt .
An excellent musician and amateur composer all his life , Ernest was a great patron of the arts and sciences in Coburg , often giving awards and titles to members of the artistic and scientific world , such as Paul Kalisch , a German opera singer and chemist William Ernest Bush . Ernest composed songs , hymns , and cantatas , as well as musical pieces for opera and the stage , including Die Gräberinsel ( 1842 ) , Tony , oder die Vergeltung ( 1849 ) , Casilda ( 1851 ) , Santa Chiara ( 1854 ) , and Zaïre , which met with success in Germany . He could also draw and play the piano . One of his operas , Diana von Solange ( 1858 ) , prompted Franz Liszt the following year to write an orchestral Festmarsch nach Motiven von E. H. z . S.-C.-G. , S.116 ( E. H. z . S.-C.-G. was short for Ernst Herzog zu Sachsen @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha ) . However , its production at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in 1890 inspired dismal reviews , with one spectator commenting that its " music was simply rubbish " . Ernest was also an avid hunter and sportsman ; one contemporary remarked that he was " one of the foremost and keenest sportsman produced by the present century " . In addition , Ernest was an enthusiastic patron of everything connected with natural history , for instance traveling to Abyssinia with the German zoologist Alfred Brehm in 1862 .
Ernest II died at Reinhardsbrunn on 22 August 1893 after a short illness . A lifelong sportsman , his last words were apparently " Let the drive commence ! " His funeral was held in the Morizkirche in Coburg ; thousands of spectators came to the funeral , including Emperor Wilhelm and the Prince of Wales . He is buried in the ducal mausoleum in the Friedhof am Glockenberg which he himself had built in 1853 @-@ 8 .
Ernest was succeeded by his nephew Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh .
= = Inheritance to Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha = =
For much of Ernest 's reign , the heir presumptive to Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha was his only sibling Prince Albert , consort of Queen Victoria . When it became increasingly more clear that Ernest would be childless , the possibility of a personal union between his duchies and the United Kingdom became real , a reality that was deemed undesirable . Special arrangements were made by a combination of constitutional clauses and renunciations to pass Ernest 's throne to a son of Albert while preventing a personal union . Consequently , Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh , his brother 's second eldest son , was designated the childless Ernest 's heir presumptive on 14 December 1861 , when his older brother the Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII of the United Kingdom ) renounced his succession rights .
Issues arose over authority to control the upbringing of his heir @-@ presumptive . As head of the Coburg family , Ernest would normally have been able to arrange Alfred 's education and general upbringing unchallenged . This however was not the case . Alfred was torn between his British birth and his German inheritance . This was partly because Alfred was second @-@ in @-@ line to the United Kingdom until the birth of his nephew Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , in 1864 . One example of the many problems of his education concerned the language he would speak . Although he grew up learning German , his native language was decided to be English . In addition , a naval career was chosen for Alfred , a common profession for a British prince but almost unheard of for a prince of Germany . Ernest also wanted Alfred to be educated in Coburg , but his brother refused . Albert 's refusal most likely stemmed from the negative British reaction that would have inevitably occurred and the fact that Albert was fearful of Alfred 's moral development . Thus despite Ernest 's protests , he went unheeded in Albert 's lifetime . In 1863 , Ernest told Victoria that it was time for Alfred to leave the navy and enter a German university . By March of the following year , it was decided that Alfred would attend Bonn University but be left to consider his future , as he was having reservations over permanently residing outside England . The matter was eventually resolved ; Alfred came to accept his inheritance , and Victoria understood and accepted that Ernest needed to be involved in the upbringing of his heir @-@ presumptive , with a strong German element added to his education and ( carefully chaperoned ) visits to Coburg .
= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
21 June 1818 – 12 November 1826 : His Serene Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld
12 November 1826 – 29 January 1844 : His Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha
29 January 1844 – 22 August 1893 : His Highness The Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha
= = = Honours = = =
Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha
KJ : Knight of St. Joachim
Grand Master of the Order of the Ernestine House of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha
Master Mason , 1857
= = = = Foreign = = = =
United Kingdom
KG : Knight of the Garter , 1844
German Empire
Recipient of the Iron Cross of 1870 , 1st and 2nd class
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Primary = = =
Baillie @-@ Grohman , William Adolph ( 1896 ) . Sport in the Alps in the Past and Present : An Account of the Chase of the Chamois , Red @-@ deer , Bouquetin , Roe @-@ deer , Capercaillie , and Black @-@ cock , with Personal References and Historical Notes and Some Sporting Reminisces of H.R.H. the Late Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Scribner .
Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , Duke Ernest II of ( 1888 ) . Memoirs of Ernest II : Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Remington & Co . Publishers . , four volumes .
= = = Secondary = = =
Alden , Raymond ; George Berry ; Ernest I. Bogart ; et al . ( 1918 ) . The Encyclopedia Americana : A Library of Universal Knowledge , Volume 10 . New York : The Encyclopedia Americana Corporation .
Allinson , A.R. ( 2006 ) . The War Diary of the Emperor Frederick III - 1870 - 1871 . Home Farm Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 4067 @-@ 9995 @-@ 5 .
Berwanger , Eugene H. ( 1994 ) . The British Foreign Service and the American Civil War . Lexington , KY : University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 0 @-@ 8131 @-@ 1876 @-@ X.
Coit Gilman , Daniel ; Harry Thurston Peck ; Frank Moore Colby ( 1903 ) . The New International Encyclopædia , Volume 6 . New York : Dodd , Mead , and Company .
D 'Auvergne , Edmund Basil ( 1911 ) . The Coburgs : The Story of the Rise of a Great Royal House . New York : James Pott & Company . ISBN 1 @-@ 120 @-@ 85860 @-@ 7 .
Feuchtwanger , E.J. ( 2006 ) . Albert and Victoria : The Rise and Fall of the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Hambledon Continuum . ISBN 1 @-@ 85285 @-@ 461 @-@ 8 .
Gill , Gillian ( 2009 ) . We Two : Victoria and Albert : Rulers , Partners , Rivals . New York : Ballatine Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 52001 @-@ 7 .
Grey , Hon. Charles ( 1868 ) . The Early Years of His Royal Highness The Prince Consort . New York : Harper & Brothers Publishers .
Hibbert , Christopher ( 2007 ) . Edward VII : The Last Victorian King . New York : Palgrave Macmillan .
Hough , Richard ( 1996 ) . Victoria and Albert . New York : St. Martin 's Griffin . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 30385 @-@ 8 .
Kenning , George ( 1878 ) . Kenning 's Masonic Encyclopedia and Handbook of Masonic Archeology , History and Biography . London : Kessinger Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 7661 @-@ 6526 @-@ 4 .
Packard , Jerome M. ( 1998 ) . Victoria 's Daughters . New York : St. Martin 's Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 24496 @-@ 7 .
Pakula , Hannah ( 1997 ) . An Uncommon Woman : The Empress Frederick , Daughter of Queen Victoria , Wife of the Crown Prince of Prussia , Mother of Kaiser Wilhelm . New York : Simon and Schuster Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 84216 @-@ 5 .
Weintraub , Stanley ( 1997 ) . Uncrowned King : The Life of Prince Albert . London : John Murray Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 7195 @-@ 5756 @-@ 9 .
Zeepvat , Charlotte ( July 2000 ) . " The Queen and Uncle E " . Royalty Digest X ( 109 ) : 1 – 7 . Retrieved 16 February 2010 .
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= Kersal Moor =
Kersal Moor is a recreation area in Kersal , Greater Manchester , England which consists of eight hectares of moorland bounded by Moor Lane , Heathlands Road , St. Paul 's Churchyard and Singleton Brook .
Kersal Moor , first called Karsey or Carsall Moor , originally covered a much larger area , running down to the River Irwell . Evidence of activity during the Neolithic period has been discovered and the area was used by the Romans . It was the site of the first Manchester Racecourse and the second golf course to be built outside Scotland . It has been extensively used for other sporting pursuits , military manoeuvres and public gatherings such as the Great Chartist Meeting of 1838 , prompting the political theorist Friedrich Engels to dub it " the Mons Sacer of Manchester " .
With the increasing industrialisation and urbanisation of Manchester and Salford during the 18th and 19th centuries , the moor became one of the remaining areas of natural landscape of interest to amateur naturalists , one of whom collected the only known specimens of the now extinct moth species Euclemensia woodiella . It is now a Site of Biological Importance and in 2007 was designated as a Local Nature Reserve by English Nature .
= = Geography = =
Kersal Moor is one of the many fluvioglacial ridges that formed along the Irwell Valley during the melting of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age . Typically for this type of landform , the subsoil is composed of sand mixed with coarse gravel . The 19th century botanist Richard Buxton described this as " Mr. E.W. Binney 's drift deposit no.2 ... a deposit of sharp forest sand , parted with layers of gravel composed of Azoic , Palaeozoic and Triassic rocks , well rounded , parted with layers of fine sand , and having every appearance of a regular deposit by water . " This deposit is overlaid with a thin topsoil supporting a range of mosses , heathers , grasses , ferns , common broom , gorse and some trees , which are predominantly oak with some rowan , cherry and other broadleaved species . The land to the south is elevated , rising to a high point towards the south west . From this elevated position there are views across Manchester to the Derbyshire hills in the south , to the Pennines in the north east and across the Irwell Valley and Salford in the west . The land falls away to the north , ending with two drumlin @-@ shaped hills on the northern edge , which were probably formed by sediment from the meltwater of the receding glaciers , in a process known as sedimentary fluting . The moor is criss @-@ crossed with footpaths , many of which cut through to the sand and gravel below . Singleton Brook , to the north of the moor , denotes the boundary between Salford and Prestwich .
= = History = =
Flint scrapers , knives and other materials associated with neolithic humans were discovered on the moor in the late 19th and early 20th century by local antiquarians such as Charles Roeder . The Roman road from Manchester ( Mamucium ) to Ribchester ( Bremetennacum ) roughly followed the line of the A56 road ( Bury New Road ) which is just to the east of Kersal Moor . There was a Roman camp at Rainsough just to the west , and some have speculated that there may have been a second camp to the east , in the area known as Castle Hill , making a defensive line across the moor to protect the north of Mamucium .
The 18th century historian John Whitaker said of the moor :
" The moor of Kersal was in the time of the Romans , perhaps in that of the Britons before them , and for many ages after both , a thicket of oaks and a pasture for hogs ; and the little knolls , that so remarkably diversify the plain , and are annually covered with mingled crowds rising in ranks over ranks to the top , were once the occasional seats of the herdsmen that superintended these droves into the woods . "
However , the last of these trees were burnt around 1880 .
= = = Sport on the moor = = =
The first Manchester racecourse was sited on the moor . The earliest record of horse @-@ racing is contained in the following notice in the London Gazette of 2 – 5 May 1687 :
On Carsall Moore near Manchester in Lancashire on the 18th instant , a 20 £ . plate will be run for to carry ten stone and ride three heats , four miles each heat . And the next day another plate of 40 £ . will be run for at the same moore , riding the same heats and carrying the same weight . The horses marks are to be given in four days before to Mr. William Swarbrick at the King 's Arms in Manchester .
The racecourse is shown on the map of 1848 as a roughly oval @-@ shaped course extending around the west , north and east of the moor , crossing Moor Lane and carrying on around the ground that is now the home of Salford City F.C. , roughly following the line of what is now Nevile Road . John Byrom ( 1692 – 1763 ) , the owner of Kersal Cell , was greatly opposed to the racing and wrote a pamphlet against it , but the racing continued for fifteen years until , probably through Dr Byrom 's influence , they were stopped in 1746 , the year of the Jacobite rising . After this there is known to have been at least one race in 1750 ; regular fixtures recommenced in 1759 , and were then held every year until 1846 , when they were transferred to the New Barns racecourse . Racing carried on there until the new Castle Irwell Racecourse was built , just across the river from the moor , in Lower Broughton in 1847 . Today part of the course can still be seen as a wide , well @-@ worn path stretching from east to west along the northern side of the moor .
During the 18th century the moor was also used for nude male races , allowing females to study the form before choosing their mates . Indeed , in 1796 Roger Aytoun , known as " Spanking Roger " ( who was later a hero of the siege of Gibraltar ) acquired Hough Hall in Moston through marriage to the widowed Barbara Minshull , after such a race .
The moor has also been used for a number of other sporting activities . In the 18th and early 19th century archery was still practised as a village sport , and the archers of Broughton , Cheetham and Prestwich were renowned countrywide . The Broughton archers practised their sport on Kersal Moor and in 1793 the Manchester writer , James Ogden , composed a poem in praise of them , which begins :
The Broughton Archers , and the bowmen good
Of Lancashire , keep up the former name
Their sires acquir 'd , for skill in archery ...
and ends with :
... Near Kersal Moor the Broughton archers fix
Their targets pierced with many a well aimed shot .
By 1830 , however , archery had become the sport of gentlemen and an exclusive club called the " Broughton Archers " was formed , the membership of which included some of the most influential men in the town . They originally met at a public house nicknamed " Hard Backed Nan 's " on the site of Bishopscourt where the Bishop of Manchester now resides , but after Bury New Road was built and the site became too public , they moved to the Turf Tavern on Kersal Moor . In 1818 a golf course was founded on the moor for the Manchester Golf Club , a group of Manchester businessmen , some of whom had emigrated from Scotland . This was only the second course to be built outside Scotland . The course at that time consisted of only five holes and had no fairways or greens as the players had to share the ground with other users . The club was very exclusive and by 1825 a club house had been built on Singleton Road . By 1869 the course had increased to nine holes and the club continued playing on the moor until 1862 when a new course was built a few hundred yards away at Kersal Vale .
The archery ground became Kersal Cricket Ground in 1847 and in 1881 the Northern Tennis Tournament was staged there . In 1919 the ground became the home of Manchester 's oldest rugby club , Manchester Football Club . When Manchester F.C. moved in 1968 they were replaced briefly by Langworthy Juniors and then Salford City F.C. , who still lease the ground today .
= = = Public gatherings and military use = = =
As one of the largest open spaces close to Manchester , the moor has a history of use for army manoeuvres and large public gatherings . In his book The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , Friedrich Engels referred to it as the Mons Sacer of Manchester . This was a reference to the hill to which the plebs ( common citizens ) of Rome withdrew en masse in 494 BC as an act of civil protest .
In 1789 and 1790 there had been a spate of highway and house robberies . Gangs of armed men had entered houses in the middle of the night and taken away all they could carry . Armed patrols were placed around the neighbourhood to little effect until , at last , a man named James Macnamara was arrested with three others for burglary at the Dog and Partridge Inn on Stretford Road . Macnamara was tried at Lancaster Assizes and sentenced to be hanged on Kersal Moor as a warning to other criminals . A large number of people came to watch the execution but , as Joseph Aston said in his Metrical Records of Manchester " no one could suppose that the example had any use ... as several persons had their pockets picked within sight of the gallows and the following night a house was broken into and robbed in Manchester " .
The Stockport , Bolton and Rochdale Volunteers were reviewed on Kersal Moor on 25 August 1797 and in June 1812 , 30 @,@ 000 troops from the Wiltshire , Buckinghamshire , Louth and Stirling regiments were camped there ready for action to suppress the Luddites . In 1818 a protest meeting was held on the moor by coal miners to publicise their case for better pay , because of the dangers they faced at work .
A duel was fought on the moor in July 1804 between Mr. Jones and Mr. Shakspere Philips . Mr. Jones fired at Mr. Philips without effect and Mr. Philips then fired his pistol in the air , upon which the seconds interfered , the two man shook hands and honour was satisfied . Two weeks later , two other men who had been quarrelling in the newspapers met on the moor to gain satisfaction . However , the magistrates had been informed and the men were arrested before the duel could take place .
On 12 April 1831 the 60th Rifle Corps had carried out an exercise on the moor under the command of Lieutenant P.S. Fitzgerald , and a detachment of 74 men were returning to their barracks in Salford by way of Lower Broughton and Pendleton . As the men were crossing the Broughton Suspension Bridge , built four years earlier by Fitzgeralds 's father , they felt it begin to vibrate in time with their footsteps , and before they had reached the other side the bridge collapsed . Although no one was killed twenty men were injured , six of them seriously . It was this incident that caused the British Military to issue the order for soldiers to " break step " when crossing a bridge .
The largest of a series of Chartist meetings was held on the moor on 24 September 1838 . The meeting , which was planned as a show of strength and to elect delegates for the Chartist national convention , attracted speakers from all over the country and a massive crowd , which was estimated at 30 @,@ 000 by the Manchester Guardian and 300 @,@ 000 by the Morning Advertiser .
The Chartists were active for the next eight months but the poor attendance at a second meeting , held on the moor at the same time as a racing fixture on 25 May 1839 , signalled the end of the movement . Although the movement was not successful initially , most of the Chartists ' demands were eventually met by Parliament .
In 1848 , the moor was used as an encampment for the East Norfolk Regiment as part of an increased military presence in Lancashire brought about by the unrest caused by Chartist agitation .
= = = Other pursuits = = =
As a relatively rural environment in an increasingly urbanised area , Kersal Moor was also used for more peaceful pursuits . During the 18th and 19th centuries it was much frequented by amateur naturalists and botanists . One of the botanists was Richard Buxton who went on to write A Botanical Guide to Manchester . In 1829 an amateur insect collector named Robert Cribb collected a series of about fifty small yellow and brown moths from a rotting alder on the moor . These turned out to be a previously unknown species of moth , but they were mistakenly attributed to a friend of Cribb 's , the collector R. Wood , who had asked an expert to identify them . The moths were classified as Pancalia woodiella ( today Euclemensia woodiella ) in Wood 's honour .
The only specimen I have seen of this beautiful Moth , which is larger than the others , is a female ; it was taken on Kersall @-@ moor the middle of last June by Mr. R. Wood , of Manchester , to whom I have the pleasure of dedicating it ; — a most zealous and successful naturalist , to whose liberality I am indebted for many valuable insects . - John Curtis writing in British Entomology 1830
Enraged by this , and by accusations of fraudulently passing off foreign moths as British , Cribb gave up collecting and left the rest of the specimens with his landlady as security for a debt . Here the stories from Manchester University and The Australian Museum , Victoria differ as to whether it was Cribb 's pub landlady or the landlady of his lodgings , but either way the result was the same . The debt was not paid on time and when Cribb went back for the moths , which he had already sold to another collector , his landlady had burnt them . Subsequent efforts by other collectors to find more of the moths were unsuccessful , and the three specimens left in existence are thought to be the only representatives of an extinct species .
Towards the end of the 19th century a Mr. Cosmo Melvill contributed an article to the Journal of Botany in which he gave a list of more than 240 plants and flowers , not including mosses , that he had found on the moor .
Shortly after 6.00pm on 10 September 1848 the " celebrated aeronaut " George Gale ascended in a hot air balloon from Pomona Gardens in Hulme . After discharging a number of fireworks from a height of over 1 @,@ 000 feet , Lieutenant Gale drifted in various directions and made abortive attempts to land in a number of locations . Eventually , at about 10.00pm , the balloon descended safely in the farmyard of Mr Josiah Taylor on Kersal Moor .
In 1852 , Queen Victoria commissioned a painting by the artist William Wyld which became A view of Manchester from Kersal Moor ( pictured ) . The painting , which depicts the moor as a beautiful pastoral scene overlooking Castle Irwell racecourse and the industrial landscape of Manchester , is now in the Royal Collection where it is listed as Manchester from Higher Broughton . A steel line engraving of the painting by the engraver Edward Goodall was also commissioned .
= = Literary references = =
The English radical and writer Samuel Bamford mentions Kersal Moor in his book Passages in the Life of a Radical ( 1840 – 1844 ) when he advises one of his friends to make his way from Middleton to Bolton via Kersal Moor to avoid the authorities :
Healey I advised to go to his brother at Bolton , and get some money , and keep out of sight entirely , until something further was known . His best way would be to avoid Manchester , and go over Kersal moor and Agecroft bridge ; and as I had a relation in that quarter who wished to see me , I would keep him company as far as Agecroft .
The races on the moor were mentioned in the 19th @-@ century novel The Manchester Man by Mrs. G Linnaeus Banks ( 1874 ) . The hero of the story , Jabez Clegg , meets a street boy named Kit Townley , of whom Mrs. Banks says :
He knew him to be not over @-@ scrupulous . He had seen him at Knott Mill Fair and Dirt Fair ( so called from its being held in muddy November ) , or at Kersal Moor Races , with more money to spend in pop , nuts , and gingerbread , shows and merry @-@ go @-@ rounds , flying boats and flying boxes , fighting cocks and fighting men , than he could possibly have saved out of the sum his father allowed him for pocket @-@ money , even if he had been of the saving kind ; and , coupling all these things together , Jabez was far from satisfied .
It is also mentioned in a collection of poems by Philip Connell called " Poaching on Parnassus " published in 1865 .
Lines to Mr. Isaac Holden by Philip Connell on his Drawing of the Prestwich Lunatic Asylum :
And Southward at due distance the huge hive ,
Of busy Manchester is all alive ,
Its towering chimnies , domes and steeples rise ,
In strange confusion thro ' the hazy skies ;
There Broughton glimmers in the evening sun ;
Here Cheetham Hill o 'ertops the vapours dun ;
There Kersal Moor the same bleak front doth shew ,
That met the view Eight hundred years ago ,
Where Clunian Monks there with their God did dwell ,
Within the precincts of its holy cell .
In 1876 the Lancashire dialect poet and songwriter Edwin Waugh moved from his Manchester home to Kersal Moor for the " fresher air " . Waugh 's early life was spent in Rochdale and although he worked in Manchester he yearned for the moors he remembered from his youth . He wrote the following poem about Kersal Moor
Kersal Moor
Sweet falls the blackbird 's evening song ,
in Kersal 's poised dell ;
But the skylarks trill makes the dewdrops thrill ,
In the bonny heather ;
Wild and free
Wild and free
Where the moorland breezes blow .
Oft have I roved you craggy steeps ,
Where the tinkling moorland rills ,
Sing all day long their low sweet song ,
To the lonely listening hills ;
And croon at night
In the pale moonlight
While mountain breezes blow .
As his health declined , Waugh moved to the seaside town of New Brighton . On his death in 1890 , his body was brought back to be buried in the graveyard of St. Paul 's Church , on the edge of the moorland he loved so well .
... Oh lay me down in moorland ground ,
And make it my last bed ,
With the heathery wilderness around ,
And the bonny lark o 'erhead :
Let fern and ling around me cling ,
And green moss o 'er me creep ;
And the sweet wild mountain breezes sing ,
Above my slumbers deep . - from The Moorland Breeze , Edwin Waugh ( 1889 )
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= Shamanism in the Qing dynasty =
Shamanism was the dominant religion of the Jurchen people of northeast Asia and of their descendants , the Manchu people . As early as the Jin dynasty ( 1111 – 1234 ) , the Jurchens conducted shamanic ceremonies at shrines called tangse . There were two kinds of shamans : those who entered in a trance and let themselves be possessed by the spirits , and those who conducted regular sacrifices to heaven , to a clan 's ancestors , or to the clan 's protective spirits .
When Nurhaci ( 1559 – 1626 ) , the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens , unified the other Jurchen tribes under his own rule in the early seventeenth century , he imposed the protective spirits of his clan , the Aisin Gioro , upon other clans , and often destroyed their shrines . As early as the 1590s , he placed shamanism at the center of his state 's ritual , sacrificing to heaven before engaging in military campaigns . His son and successor Hong Taiji ( 1592 – 1643 ) , who renamed the Jurchens " Manchu " and officially founded the Qing dynasty ( 1636 – 1912 ) , further put shamanistic practices in the service of the state , notably by forbidding others to erect new tangse for ritual purposes . In the 1620s and 1630s , the Qing ruler conducted shamanic sacrifices at the tangse of Mukden , the Qing capital . In 1644 , as soon as the Qing seized Beijing to begin their conquest of China , they named it their new capital and erected an official shamanic shrine there . In the Beijing tangse and in the women 's quarters of the Forbidden City , Qing emperors and professional shamans ( usually women ) conducted shamanic ceremonies until the abdication of the dynasty in 1912 .
Until at least the eighteenth century , shamanism was at the core of Manchu spiritual life and differentiated Manchus from Han Chinese even as Manchu Bannermen garrisoned in various Chinese cities were adopting many aspects of the Chinese lifestyle . In 1747 the Qianlong Emperor ( r . 1735 – 1796 ) commissioned the publication of a " Shamanic Code " to revive and regulate shamanic practices , which he feared were becoming lost . He had it distributed to Bannermen to guide their practice , but we know very little about the effect of this policy . Mongols and Han Chinese were forbidden to attend shamanic ceremonies . Partly because of their secret aspect , these rituals attracted the curiosity of Beijing dwellers and visitors to the Qing capital . Even after the " Shamanic Code " was translated into Chinese and published in the 1780s , outsiders had little understanding of these practices .
During his fieldwork among the Tungusic populations of " Manchuria " in the 1910s , Russian anthropologist S. M. Shirokogoroff found enough surviving practices to build a theory of shamanism that shaped later theoretical debates about shamanism . Since the late 1980s , however , these theories have been criticized for neglecting the relation between shamanism and the state . Historians are now arguing that shamanistic practices in northeast Asia were intimately tied to the establishment of states , an analysis that fits the Qing case very well .
= = Background = =
Shamanism is the religion most typical of Tungusic peoples of Northeast Asia . The word " shaman " itself ( saman in the Manchu language ) appears in every Tunguso @-@ Manchurian language and seems to be of Tungusic origins . The most common religion among the Manchus was shamanism , which they and their ancestors the Jurchens practiced long before their leaders conquered China as emperors of the Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1911 ) .
= = Historical origins to 1644 = =
= = = Early Jurchen shamanism = = =
The Manchu name for a shamanic shrine or altar to the spirits is tangse . Because its Chinese equivalent tangzi ( 堂子 ) means " hall , " it may seem that tangse was derived from Chinese , but only around 1660 did tangse start to be translated as tangzi . Before that , it was rendered into Chinese as yemiao ( 謁廟 ) , or " visitation temple . " The term tangse may have originated in the portable " god boxes " ( also " tangse " ) in which the Jurchens placed god figurines when they were still mobile hunters . Once Jurchen bands started to settle into palisaded villages ( their typical kind of settlement ) , their tangse became permanent fixtures of the village .
Each clan — mukūn , a village or association of villages who claimed to share common ancestors — had its sacred protective spirits ( enduri ) . The shaman ( often a woman ) was in charge of placating spirits and dead ancestors and of contacting them to seek a good hunt or harvest , quick healing , success in battle , and other such favors . The point of contact between the community and the spirits was the " spirit pole " ( Manchu : šomo ; Chinese : 神柱 ; pinyin : shénzhù ) . Shamans played a crucial role in these early Jurchen communities , as the authority of the clan headman often depended on the assent of the shaman .
There were two kinds of Jurchen shamanistic rituals , corresponding to two kinds of shamans . The most common was " domestic ritual " : ritual @-@ based sacrifices to Heaven and to the clan 's ancestors conducted by hereditary shamans from that clan . " Primitive ritual , " on the other hand , was performed by people who had undergone a " shamanic illness , " which was seen as a sign that they had been chosen by the spirits . Entering into a trance , these " transformational " shamans let themselves be possessed by various animal spirits and sought the help of these spirits for purposes like healing or exorcism . These shamans set up an altar in their own houses and received a different kind of training from hereditary shamans .
Manchu shamans typically wore an apron , a feathered cap denoting their ability to fly to the spirit world , and a belt with dangling bells , and carried a knife , two wooden sticks with bells affixed to the top , and a drum they used during ceremonies . These attributes could still be observed among shamans from Manchuria and Mongolia in the early twentieth century .
= = = Shamanism after the rise of Nurhaci = = =
Jurchen shamanic practices were transformed by the rise of Qing founder Nurhaci ( 1559 – 1626 ) . As he started to unify the Jurchen tribes , Nurhaci destroyed the tangse of the defeated tribes and replaced their protective deities with the magpie , the totemic animal of his own clan , the Aisin Gioro . Tribes that voluntarily joined Nurhaci were allowed to keep their own gods . This absorption of other clans ' shamanic rituals into those of Nurhaci 's clan started a process of " state codification of religion " that continued into the eighteenth century .
In another transformation that " mirrored the process of political centralization " in Nurhaci 's state , the traditional Jurchen belief in multiple heavens was replaced by one Heaven called " Abka ama " or " Abka han . " This new shamanic Heaven became the object of a state cult similar to that of the Jurchen rulers ' cult of Heaven in the Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) and to Chinggis Khan 's worship of Tengri in the thirteenth century . This state sacrifice became an early counterpart to the Chinese worship of Heaven . From as early as the 1590s , Nurhaci appealed to Heaven as , " the arbiter of right and wrong . " He worshipped Heaven at a shamanic shrine in 1593 before leaving for a campaign against the Yehe , a Jurchen tribe that belonged to the rival Hūlun confederacy . Qing annals also report that when Nurhaci announced his Seven Great Grievances against the Ming dynasty in April 1618 , he conducted a shamanic ceremony during which he burned an oath to Heaven written on a piece of yellow paper . This ceremony was deliberately omitted from the later Chinese translation of this event by the Qing court .
Nurhaci 's son Hong Taiji ( r . 1626 – 1643 ) , who renamed the Jurchens " Manchus " in 1635 , forbade commoners and officials from erecting shamanic shrines for ritual purposes , making the tangse " the monopoly of the ruler . " He also banned shamans from treating illness , albeit with little success . The Old Manchu Archives , a chronicle documenting Manchu history from 1607 to 1636 , show that state rituals were held at the tangse of the Qing capital Mukden in the 1620s and 1630s . Just before commanding Banner troops into China in early 1644 , Prince Dorgon ( 1612 – 1650 ) , who was then regent to the newly enthroned Shunzhi Emperor ( r . 1643 – 1661 ) , led the other Manchu princes in worshipping Heaven at the Mukden tangse .
Shamans could also be used for personal purposes , as when Nurhaci 's eldest son Cuyen supposedly tried to bewitch the entire Aisin Gioro lineage with the help of shamans in 1612 .
= = State shamanism after 1644 = =
= = = The Beijing tangse = = =
In 1644 , just a few months after the Qing seized the city of Beijing from the peasant rebels who had pushed the last emperor of the Ming dynasty to suicide , the Manchus constructed a new tangse in the city , modeled on the tangse of the former Qing capital Mukden . This " Manchu shamanist sanctuary , " an octagonal building whose shape was specific to the Aisin Gioro clan , was located outside the Imperial City to the southeast , but still within the Inner City occupied by Bannermen , making it convenient for imperial visits . There , the emperor made offerings to Heaven and various other deities , including the horse spirit and the Manchu progenitor . Chinese and Mongols were strictly forbidden from entering this ritual area .
The Qing state 's main shamanistic ritual was performed at the tangse by the emperor on the first day of the New Year . In the Shunzhi ( 1644 – 1661 ) , Kangxi ( 1662 – 1722 ) , and Yongzheng ( 1723 – 1735 ) eras , this ceremony was the emperor 's first activity on the first day of the New Year , but sometime during the Qianlong era ( 1736 – 1796 ) it fell to the second rank after private sacrifices to the Aisin Gioro ancestors . Even with this somewhat diminished importance , these shamanic rites continued to the end of the dynasty .
The tangse was destroyed in 1900 by foreign powers in the aftermath of the Boxer Uprising as part of reprisals for the two @-@ month siege of the international Legation Quarter . A new shrine was rebuilt inside the palace in December 1901 . Its former site became part of the expanded Italian legation . Historian Mark Elliott notes that in today 's Beijing , the old tangse would have been located on East Chang 'an Avenue , " directly opposite the ' modern ' wing of the Beijing Hotel . "
= = = Kunning Palace = = =
Daily shamanistic rites were also conducted in the women 's quarters , in the Palace of Earthly Tranquility ( Chinese : 坤寧宮 ; pinyin : Kunning gong ) , a building located near the north gate of the Forbidden City , on the central axis of the palace complex . This palace had served as the Empress 's residence under the Ming dynasty , but the Qing converted it for ritual use , installing a " spirit pole " to present sacrifices to heaven , changing the style of the windows , and setting up large cauldrons to cook sacrificial food .
The shamans in the Kunning Palace were all women . In the Shunzhi era ( 1644 – 1661 ) , the sacrifices were performed by the wives of Aisin Gioro men and by the emperor 's consorts . After that , the shamanesses were selected from the wives of " imperial guards " ( Chinese : 侍衛 ; pinyin : shìwèi ) , high officials belonging to Gioro households registered in the " Upper Three Banners , " which belonged directly to the emperor . These shamanesses ( Chinese : 薩滿太太 ; pinyin : sāmǎn tàitài ) , who were assisted by eunuchs , were managed by the " Office of Shamanism " ( Chinese : 神房 ; pinyin : shénfáng ) , a bureau under the authority of the Imperial Household Department . Only members of the imperial clan could attend such ceremonies .
= = = Role in Qing rulership = = =
The Qing emperor used shamanism to promote the dynasty 's legitimacy among the Tungusic peoples — such as the Evenks , Daurs , and Oroqens — who lived near the northeastern borders of the empire . They were taught the Manchu language and Manchu fashion , as well as legends recounting how Qing founder Nurhaci had been assisted by the spirits in his many exploits . Qing emperors adopted different images to address the different subjects of their multi @-@ ethnic empire . As khan of the Manchus and Mongols , he presented himself as an incarnation of the bodhisattva ( " enlightened being " ) Manjusri and as a universal Buddhist ruler protector of Tibetan Buddhism . As emperor of China ( huangdi ) , he sponsored civil examinations based on the Confucian Classics and worshipped at the Altar of Heaven . Shamanism was thus only one aspect of the Qing 's " extraordinarily flexible view of community and rulership " .
= = = Healing rituals = = =
Besides state ritual , the Manchus often resorted to shamans to treat illness . In 1649 Dorgon 's brother Dodo , who had helped the Qing conquer southern China in 1645 , fell ill with smallpox , a highly contagious disease that the Manchus particularly dreaded . He called a shaman named Jingguda to his bedside , but the shaman 's ritual therapies failed and Dodo died in April 1649 at the age of 35 . After variolation began in 1681 , shamanic sacrifices were performed for imperial sons who survived inoculation . The Kangxi Emperor ( r . 1661 – 1722 ) attempted to cure his sixth son Yinzuo ( 胤祚 ) with shamanic rites in June 1685 , but that son died a few days later .
= = The " Shamanic Code " of 1747 = =
In the 1740s , the Qianlong Emperor worried that shamanic traditions were becoming lost , especially among the Manchu Bannermen who lived in garrisons throughout the empire . To fight this trend , in 1741 he commissioned a " Shamanic Code " , based on the rites of the imperial clan , that would explain the use of shamanic instruments and the meaning of Manchu ritual incantations , many of which had been transmitted by officiants who were not fluent in Manchu , to the point of becoming nonsensical . It was completed in 1747 . Its full title in Manchu was ᡥᡝᠰᡝᡳ
ᡨᠣᡴᡨᠣᠪᡠᡥᠠ
ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠᠰᠠᡳ
ᠸᡝᠴᡝᡵᡝ
ᠮᡝᡨᡝᡵᡝ
ᡴᠣᠣᠯᡳ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ Wylie : Ghesei toktopuha Manchusai wetchere metere kauli pitghe , Möllendorff : Hesei toktobuha Manjusai wecere metere kooli bithe , which scholars have translated variously as " Imperially commissioned Manchu rituals for sacrificing to deities and to Heaven , " " Rites for the Manchu worship of Heaven and the spirits , " and " Imperially commissioned code of rituals and sacrifices of the Manchus . " The Code attempted to formalize Manchu shamanistic practices . Historian Pamela Crossley sees it as part of the Qianlong Emperor 's attempts to " standardize the cultural and spiritual life of the Manchus , " taking the practices of the imperial clan as a model .
Though the Shamanic Code was first kept in manuscript form , French Jesuit Joseph @-@ Marie Amiot had a study on it , " Rituels des Tartares Mandchous déterminés et fixés par l 'empereur comme chef de sa religion " , published in Amsterdam in 1773 . In 1777 the Qianlong Emperor ordered the code translated into Chinese for inclusion in the Siku quanshu . The Manchu version was printed in 1778 , whereas the Chinese @-@ language edition , titled Qinding Manzhou jishen jitian dianli ( 欽定滿洲祭神祭天典禮 ) , was completed in 1780 or 1782 .
The compilation of this Code " opened Qing shamanism to bureaucratic review " and modified the practices of ordinary Manchus . The Code was distributed to Bannermen to guide their practices . Commercial editions were even produced for sale to the common public . One of these editions , the Manzhou tiaoshen huanyuan dianli ( 滿洲跳神還願典例 ) , dated 1828 , has survived . Even though this " Shamanic Code " did not fully unify shamanic practice among the Banners , it " helped systematize and reshape what had been a very fluid and diverse belief system . "
= = Diversity of practices = =
There is little evidence concerning the shamanic practices of common Bannermen in the garrisons . We know that after the publication of the " Shamanic Code " some clans ( like the Šušu ) and tribes ( like the Xibe ) also wrote down their rituals and incantations , showing that the court model was not always followed . Shamanic sacrifices among ordinary households were simpler than those of the imperial clan . Noble Manchus in Beijing often erected spirit poles in their private homes , but because Manchu households were forbidden from having private tangse shrines , they made offerings to the spirit at a small altar called a weceku , where they installed portraits of their ancestors as well as a clan genealogy .
The worship of heaven in the Chinese imperial tradition paralleled shamanistic sacrifices , but only the emperor made offerings to the Chinese heaven , whereas ordinary Manchus could also worship shamanistic heaven . Both Chinese and Manchu heaven were an " all @-@ encompassing principle of cosmic order and human destiny " that could be used to give the state legitimacy .
In their shamanic ceremonies , Manchus worshipped a number of gods , including non @-@ Tungusic deities . Guandi and the bodhisattva ( Buddhist " enlightened being " ) Guanyin were two of a " handful of Chinese gods " who were integrated into the rituals of the state tangse and Kunning Palace . One of the four ritual sites in the tangse was a large hall where the Buddha , Guanyin , and Guandi received offerings several times a year , including at the New Year . Ordinary Manchu households rarely sacrificed to Buddhist deities , but almost all of them worshipped Guandi because of his association with war .
= = Shamanism and Manchu identity = =
At least into the eighteenth century , shamanism served to strengthen Manchu ethnic identity by forming " the spiritual core of Manchu life . " The Qing emperors also used shamanism to shape Manchu identity . In an edict dated 17 April 1727 in which he opposed Jesuit attempts to convert Chinese and Manchus to Catholicism , the Yongzheng Emperor ( r . 1722 – 1735 ) singled out Manchu converts for criticism . To the emperor , the " Lord of Heaven " — the Jesuit name for God in Chinese — was none other than the Heaven the Chinese and Manchus already worshipped . To convince Manchu nobles that they should use existing Manchu rituals for worshipping Heaven , he explained that , " In the empire we have a temple for honoring Heaven and sacrificing to Him . We Manchus have Tiao Tchin . The first day of every year we burn incense and paper to honor Heaven . We Manchus have our own particular rites for honoring Heaven . " In this edict , which we know through a French translation by court Jesuit Antoine Gaubil , Tiao Tchin refers to Tiao Shen ( 跳神 , literally " spirit @-@ jumping " ) , the Chinese name of the Manchu shamanic ceremony .
According to historian Pamela Crossley , proficiency with shamanism was among the qualities that the Qianlong Emperor ( r . 1735 – 1796 ) promoted as being part of the " Old Way " ( fe doro ) of the Manchus when he attempted to formalize the Manchu heritage late in his reign . Mark Elliott has countered that he has never seen shamanism listed among " the qualities the court expected of Manchus " in any Qing documents , and that shamanism was therefore " never formally enunciated as part of the Manchu Way " ( Manjusai doro ) . Nicola di Cosmo of the Institute for Advanced Studies comments that once Manchu rituals were codified into formal regulations , they became " mere simulacra of the ancestral cults " and lost their place at the center of the spiritual life of Manchu clans . Nonetheless the persistence of shamanistic practices at the Qing court into the twentieth century suggests that the Manchus were not automatically " sinicized " by the sole fact that they ruled over China .
Elliott argues that " shamanism contributed to Manchu identity ... by constructing a very obvious boundary between Manchu and Han . " Chinese residents and visitors , who were forbidden to observe the rituals performed at the shamanic shrine , saw these rites as " different and mysterious " or " secret and alien . " A visitor to Beijing in the early Qing remarked that the Tangzi was one of the three things one didn 't ask about in the capital . The difference between shamanic rites and Chinese rituals still " aroused significant interest . " Korean visitors from Joseon , for instance , often " asked questions about the secret Manchu rites in the Tangzi . " Writers who wanted to satisfy their readers ' curiosity about these exotic practices could only speculate or rely on the late eighteenth @-@ century Shamanic Code . This is why nineteenth @-@ century Chinese accounts about Manchu rituals are " fragmentary and often error @-@ prone , " while their explanations of ritual language are " positively confusing . "
= = Scholarly interpretations = =
During his fieldwork among the Tungusic peoples of " Manchuria " from 1912 to 1918 , Russian anthropologist S. M. Shirokogoroff ( 1887 – 1939 ) found enough surviving practices to develop an influential theory of shamanism . He noted that the northern Tungus had been heavily influenced by Manchu language and culture : they wore Manchu clothing and hairstyle , read Manchu books , and conducted weddings and funerals according to Manchu customs . As he also discovered , the Manchus venerated many Buddhist deities , so much that he hypothesized that northeast Asian shamanism was an outgrowth of Buddhism . This thesis has not been widely accepted . His definition of shamanism , however , has been widely discussed . Equipped with specific ritual implements , the shaman enters into a trance to gain control of harmful spirits who cause illness or misfortune to a clan or a tribe . His role is recognized by his society , and there is an explicit explanation of how he masters the spirits .
Shirokogoroff claimed that true shamanism only existed among the Tungus and the Manchus , but despite his warnings that Tungus shamanism could only be understood in relation to all other elements of Tungus culture , and that his findings should therefore not serve to develop a general interpretation of shamanism , Shirokogoroff 's ideas have shaped theoretical debates about shamanism . Social anthropologists Raymond Firth ( 1901 – 2002 ) and Ioan Myrddin Lewis ( b . 1930 ) — the latter a student of E. E. Evans @-@ Pritchard — drew from Shirokogoroff 's work to emphasize the social roles of shamans . Lewis 's influential analysis of spirit possession was also directly inspired by Shirokogoroff . Historian of religion Mircea Eliade ( 1907 – 1986 ) borrowed from the Russian ethnologist and many others to build his seminal theory of shamanism , which he presented in Shamanism : Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy ( 1964 , based on a French original dated 1951 ) . Eliade 's notion of " classic shamanism " or " shamanism in the strict and proper sense " was based on Siberian models . But whereas Shirokogoroff emphasized that control over the spirits was the chief function of shamanic rituals , Eliade stated that the ecstatic and visionary spirit @-@ journey induced by trance was the most central aspect of shamanism .
Shirokogoroff 's and Eliade 's views of shamanism were both centered on individuals and on the role of shamans in small groups . Shirokogoroff , for instance , considered eighteenth @-@ century Qing shamanism too formalized to be authentic . Historians of northeast Asia have criticized Eliade 's and Shirokogoroff 's interpretations because they neglect the political roles of shamans and shamanism 's relation with the state . Eliade 's claim that shamanism is by essence archaic , individualistic , and socially transgressive led him and his followers to neglect historical contexts in which shamanism fulfilled political functions or served the needs of the state , as it did under the Qing .
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